Datasets:

howey
/

wiki_en

Dataset card Data Studio Files Files and versions Community

Split (1)

train · 5.99M rows

text listlengths 3 270	source stringclasses 1 value
[ [ "Fast Fourier transform" ], [ "Introduction", "An example FFT algorithm structure, using a decomposition into half-size FFTsA discrete Fourier analysis of a sum of cosine waves at 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50 HzA '''fast Fourier transform''' ('''FFT''') is an algorithm that computes the discrete Fourier transform (DFT) of a sequence, or its inverse (IDFT).", "Fourier analysis converts a signal from its original domain (often time or space) to a representation in the frequency domain and vice versa.", "The DFT is obtained by decomposing a sequence of values into components of different frequencies.", "This operation is useful in many fields, but computing it directly from the definition is often too slow to be practical.", "An FFT rapidly computes such transformations by factorizing the DFT matrix into a product of sparse (mostly zero) factors.", "As a result, it manages to reduce the complexity of computing the DFT from , which arises if one simply applies the definition of DFT, to , where is the data size.", "The difference in speed can be enormous, especially for long data sets where may be in the thousands or millions.", "In the presence of round-off error, many FFT algorithms are much more accurate than evaluating the DFT definition directly or indirectly.", "There are many different FFT algorithms based on a wide range of published theories, from simple complex-number arithmetic to group theory and number theory.Time-based representation (above) and frequency-based representation (below) of the same signal, where the lower representation can be obtained from the upper one by Fourier transformationFast Fourier transforms are widely used for applications in engineering, music, science, and mathematics.", "The basic ideas were popularized in 1965, but some algorithms had been derived as early as 1805.In 1994, Gilbert Strang described the FFT as \"the most important numerical algorithm of our lifetime\", and it was included in Top 10 Algorithms of 20th Century by the IEEE magazine ''Computing in Science & Engineering''.The best-known FFT algorithms depend upon the factorization of , but there are FFTs with complexity for all, even prime, .", "Many FFT algorithms depend only on the fact that is an 'th primitive root of unity, and thus can be applied to analogous transforms over any finite field, such as number-theoretic transforms.", "Since the inverse DFT is the same as the DFT, but with the opposite sign in the exponent and a factor, any FFT algorithm can easily be adapted for it." ], [ "History", "The development of fast algorithms for DFT can be traced to Carl Friedrich Gauss's unpublished 1805 work on the orbits of asteroids Pallas and Juno.", "Gauss wanted to interpolate the orbits from sample observations; his method was very similar to the one that would be published in 1965 by James Cooley and John Tukey, who are generally credited for the invention of the modern generic FFT algorithm.", "While Gauss's work predated even Joseph Fourier's 1822 results, he did not analyze the method's complexity, and eventually used other methods to achieve the same end.Between 1805 and 1965, some versions of FFT were published by other authors.", "Frank Yates in 1932 published his version called ''interaction algorithm'', which provided efficient computation of Hadamard and Walsh transforms.", "Yates' algorithm is still used in the field of statistical design and analysis of experiments.", "In 1942, G. C. Danielson and Cornelius Lanczos published their version to compute DFT for x-ray crystallography, a field where calculation of Fourier transforms presented a formidable bottleneck.", "While many methods in the past had focused on reducing the constant factor for computation by taking advantage of \"symmetries\", Danielson and Lanczos realized that one could use the \"periodicity\" and apply a \"doubling trick\" to \"double with only slightly more than double the labor\", though like Gauss they did not do the analysis to discover that this led to scaling.James Cooley and John Tukey independently rediscovered these earlier algorithms and published a more general FFT in 1965 that is applicable when is composite and not necessarily a power of 2, as well as analyzing the scaling.", "Tukey came up with the idea during a meeting of President Kennedy's Science Advisory Committee where a discussion topic involved detecting nuclear tests by the Soviet Union by setting up sensors to surround the country from outside.", "To analyze the output of these sensors, an FFT algorithm would be needed.", "In discussion with Tukey, Richard Garwin recognized the general applicability of the algorithm not just to national security problems, but also to a wide range of problems including one of immediate interest to him, determining the periodicities of the spin orientations in a 3-D crystal of Helium-3.Garwin gave Tukey's idea to Cooley (both worked at IBM's Watson labs) for implementation.", "Cooley and Tukey published the paper in a relatively short time of six months.", "As Tukey did not work at IBM, the patentability of the idea was doubted and the algorithm went into the public domain, which, through the computing revolution of the next decade, made FFT one of the indispensable algorithms in digital signal processing." ], [ "Definition", "Let be complex numbers.", "The DFT is defined by the formula:where is a primitive 'th root of 1.Evaluating this definition directly requires operations: there are outputs , and each output requires a sum of terms.", "An FFT is any method to compute the same results in operations.", "All known FFT algorithms require operations, although there is no known proof that lower complexity is impossible.To illustrate the savings of an FFT, consider the count of complex multiplications and additions for data points.", "Evaluating the DFT's sums directly involves complex multiplications and complex additions, of which operations can be saved by eliminating trivial operations such as multiplications by 1, leaving about 30 million operations.", "In contrast, the radix-2 Cooley–Tukey algorithm, for a power of 2, can compute the same result with only complex multiplications (again, ignoring simplifications of multiplications by 1 and similar) and complex additions, in total about 30,000 operations — a thousand times less than with direct evaluation.", "In practice, actual performance on modern computers is usually dominated by factors other than the speed of arithmetic operations and the analysis is a complicated subject (for example, see Frigo & Johnson, 2005), but the overall improvement from to remains." ], [ "Algorithms", "===Cooley–Tukey algorithm===By far the most commonly used FFT is the Cooley–Tukey algorithm.", "This is a divide-and-conquer algorithm that recursively breaks down a DFT of any composite size into many smaller DFTs of sizes and , along with multiplications by complex roots of unity traditionally called twiddle factors (after Gentleman and Sande, 1966).This method (and the general idea of an FFT) was popularized by a publication of Cooley and Tukey in 1965, but it was later discovered that those two authors had independently re-invented an algorithm known to Carl Friedrich Gauss around 1805 (and subsequently rediscovered several times in limited forms).The best known use of the Cooley–Tukey algorithm is to divide the transform into two pieces of size at each step, and is therefore limited to power-of-two sizes, but any factorization can be used in general (as was known to both Gauss and Cooley/Tukey).", "These are called the ''radix-2'' and ''mixed-radix'' cases, respectively (and other variants such as the split-radix FFT have their own names as well).", "Although the basic idea is recursive, most traditional implementations rearrange the algorithm to avoid explicit recursion.", "Also, because the Cooley–Tukey algorithm breaks the DFT into smaller DFTs, it can be combined arbitrarily with any other algorithm for the DFT, such as those described below.===Other FFT algorithms===There are FFT algorithms other than Cooley–Tukey.For with coprime and , one can use the prime-factor (Good–Thomas) algorithm (PFA), based on the Chinese remainder theorem, to factorize the DFT similarly to Cooley–Tukey but without the twiddle factors.", "The Rader–Brenner algorithm (1976) is a Cooley–Tukey-like factorization but with purely imaginary twiddle factors, reducing multiplications at the cost of increased additions and reduced numerical stability; it was later superseded by the split-radix variant of Cooley–Tukey (which achieves the same multiplication count but with fewer additions and without sacrificing accuracy).", "Algorithms that recursively factorize the DFT into smaller operations other than DFTs include the Bruun and QFT algorithms.", "(The Rader–Brenner and QFT algorithms were proposed for power-of-two sizes, but it is possible that they could be adapted to general composite .", "Bruun's algorithm applies to arbitrary even composite sizes.)", "Bruun's algorithm, in particular, is based on interpreting the FFT as a recursive factorization of the polynomial , here into real-coefficient polynomials of the form and .Another polynomial viewpoint is exploited by the Winograd FFT algorithm, which factorizes into cyclotomic polynomials—these often have coefficients of 1, 0, or −1, and therefore require few (if any) multiplications, so Winograd can be used to obtain minimal-multiplication FFTs and is often used to find efficient algorithms for small factors.", "Indeed, Winograd showed that the DFT can be computed with only irrational multiplications, leading to a proven achievable lower bound on the number of multiplications for power-of-two sizes; this comes at the cost of many more additions, a tradeoff no longer favorable on modern processors with hardware multipliers.", "In particular, Winograd also makes use of the PFA as well as an algorithm by Rader for FFTs of ''prime'' sizes.Rader's algorithm, exploiting the existence of a generator for the multiplicative group modulo prime , expresses a DFT of prime size as a cyclic convolution of (composite) size , which can then be computed by a pair of ordinary FFTs via the convolution theorem (although Winograd uses other convolution methods).", "Another prime-size FFT is due to L. I. Bluestein, and is sometimes called the chirp-z algorithm; it also re-expresses a DFT as a convolution, but this time of the ''same'' size (which can be zero-padded to a power of two and evaluated by radix-2 Cooley–Tukey FFTs, for example), via the identity: Hexagonal fast Fourier transform (HFFT) aims at computing an efficient FFT for the hexagonally-sampled data by using a new addressing scheme for hexagonal grids, called Array Set Addressing (ASA)." ], [ "FFT algorithms specialized for real or symmetric data", "In many applications, the input data for the DFT are purely real, in which case the outputs satisfy the symmetry:and efficient FFT algorithms have been designed for this situation (see e.g.", "Sorensen, 1987).", "One approach consists of taking an ordinary algorithm (e.g.", "Cooley–Tukey) and removing the redundant parts of the computation, saving roughly a factor of two in time and memory.", "Alternatively, it is possible to express an ''even''-length real-input DFT as a complex DFT of half the length (whose real and imaginary parts are the even/odd elements of the original real data), followed by post-processing operations.It was once believed that real-input DFTs could be more efficiently computed by means of the discrete Hartley transform (DHT), but it was subsequently argued that a specialized real-input DFT algorithm (FFT) can typically be found that requires fewer operations than the corresponding DHT algorithm (FHT) for the same number of inputs.", "Bruun's algorithm (above) is another method that was initially proposed to take advantage of real inputs, but it has not proved popular.There are further FFT specializations for the cases of real data that have even/odd symmetry, in which case one can gain another factor of roughly two in time and memory and the DFT becomes the discrete cosine/sine transform(s) (DCT/DST).", "Instead of directly modifying an FFT algorithm for these cases, DCTs/DSTs can also be computed via FFTs of real data combined with pre- and post-processing." ], [ "Computational issues", "===Bounds on complexity and operation counts===A fundamental question of longstanding theoretical interest is to prove lower bounds on the complexity and exact operation counts of fast Fourier transforms, and many open problems remain.", "It is not rigorously proved whether DFTs truly require (i.e., order '''' or greater) operations, even for the simple case of power of two sizes, although no algorithms with lower complexity are known.", "In particular, the count of arithmetic operations is usually the focus of such questions, although actual performance on modern-day computers is determined by many other factors such as cache or CPU pipeline optimization.Following work by Shmuel Winograd (1978), a tight lower bound is known for the number of real multiplications required by an FFT.", "It can be shown that only irrational real multiplications are required to compute a DFT of power-of-two length .", "Moreover, explicit algorithms that achieve this count are known (Heideman & Burrus, 1986; Duhamel, 1990).", "However, these algorithms require too many additions to be practical, at least on modern computers with hardware multipliers (Duhamel, 1990; Frigo & Johnson, 2005).A tight lower bound is not known on the number of required additions, although lower bounds have been proved under some restrictive assumptions on the algorithms.", "In 1973, Morgenstern proved an lower bound on the addition count for algorithms where the multiplicative constants have bounded magnitudes (which is true for most but not all FFT algorithms).", "Pan (1986) proved an lower bound assuming a bound on a measure of the FFT algorithm's \"asynchronicity\", but the generality of this assumption is unclear.", "For the case of power-of-two , Papadimitriou (1979) argued that the number of complex-number additions achieved by Cooley–Tukey algorithms is ''optimal'' under certain assumptions on the graph of the algorithm (his assumptions imply, among other things, that no additive identities in the roots of unity are exploited).", "(This argument would imply that at least real additions are required, although this is not a tight bound because extra additions are required as part of complex-number multiplications.)", "Thus far, no published FFT algorithm has achieved fewer than complex-number additions (or their equivalent) for power-of-two .A third problem is to minimize the ''total'' number of real multiplications and additions, sometimes called the \"arithmetic complexity\" (although in this context it is the exact count and not the asymptotic complexity that is being considered).", "Again, no tight lower bound has been proven.", "Since 1968, however, the lowest published count for power-of-two was long achieved by the split-radix FFT algorithm, which requires real multiplications and additions for .", "This was recently reduced to (Johnson and Frigo, 2007; Lundy and Van Buskirk, 2007).", "A slightly larger count (but still better than split radix for ) was shown to be provably optimal for under additional restrictions on the possible algorithms (split-radix-like flowgraphs with unit-modulus multiplicative factors), by reduction to a satisfiability modulo theories problem solvable by brute force (Haynal & Haynal, 2011).Most of the attempts to lower or prove the complexity of FFT algorithms have focused on the ordinary complex-data case, because it is the simplest.", "However, complex-data FFTs are so closely related to algorithms for related problems such as real-data FFTs, discrete cosine transforms, discrete Hartley transforms, and so on, that any improvement in one of these would immediately lead to improvements in the others (Duhamel & Vetterli, 1990).===Approximations===All of the FFT algorithms discussed above compute the DFT exactly (i.e.", "neglecting floating-point errors).", "A few \"FFT\" algorithms have been proposed, however, that compute the DFT ''approximately'', with an error that can be made arbitrarily small at the expense of increased computations.", "Such algorithms trade the approximation error for increased speed or other properties.", "For example, an approximate FFT algorithm by Edelman et al.", "(1999) achieves lower communication requirements for parallel computing with the help of a fast multipole method.", "A wavelet-based approximate FFT by Guo and Burrus (1996) takes sparse inputs/outputs (time/frequency localization) into account more efficiently than is possible with an exact FFT.", "Another algorithm for approximate computation of a subset of the DFT outputs is due to Shentov et al.", "(1995).", "The Edelman algorithm works equally well for sparse and non-sparse data, since it is based on the compressibility (rank deficiency) of the Fourier matrix itself rather than the compressibility (sparsity) of the data.", "Conversely, if the data are sparse—that is, if only out of Fourier coefficients are nonzero—then the complexity can be reduced to , and this has been demonstrated to lead to practical speedups compared to an ordinary FFT for in a large- example () using a probabilistic approximate algorithm (which estimates the largest coefficients to several decimal places).===Accuracy===FFT algorithms have errors when finite-precision floating-point arithmetic is used, but these errors are typically quite small; most FFT algorithms, e.g.", "Cooley–Tukey, have excellent numerical properties as a consequence of the pairwise summation structure of the algorithms.", "The upper bound on the relative error for the Cooley–Tukey algorithm is , compared to for the naïve DFT formula, where is the machine floating-point relative precision.", "In fact, the root mean square (rms) errors are much better than these upper bounds, being only for Cooley–Tukey and for the naïve DFT (Schatzman, 1996).", "These results, however, are very sensitive to the accuracy of the twiddle factors used in the FFT (i.e.", "the trigonometric function values), and it is not unusual for incautious FFT implementations to have much worse accuracy, e.g.", "if they use inaccurate trigonometric recurrence formulas.", "Some FFTs other than Cooley–Tukey, such as the Rader–Brenner algorithm, are intrinsically less stable.In fixed-point arithmetic, the finite-precision errors accumulated by FFT algorithms are worse, with rms errors growing as for the Cooley–Tukey algorithm (Welch, 1969).", "Achieving this accuracy requires careful attention to scaling to minimize loss of precision, and fixed-point FFT algorithms involve rescaling at each intermediate stage of decompositions like Cooley–Tukey.To verify the correctness of an FFT implementation, rigorous guarantees can be obtained in time by a simple procedure checking the linearity, impulse-response, and time-shift properties of the transform on random inputs (Ergün, 1995)." ], [ "Multidimensional FFTs", "As defined in the multidimensional DFT article, the multidimensional DFT:transforms an array with a -dimensional vector of indices by a set of nested summations (over for each ), where the division is performed element-wise.", "Equivalently, it is the composition of a sequence of ''d'' sets of one-dimensional DFTs, performed along one dimension at a time (in any order).This compositional viewpoint immediately provides the simplest and most common multidimensional DFT algorithm, known as the '''row-column''' algorithm (after the two-dimensional case, below).", "That is, one simply performs a sequence of one-dimensional FFTs (by any of the above algorithms): first you transform along the dimension, then along the dimension, and so on (actually, any ordering works).", "This method is easily shown to have the usual complexity, where is the total number of data points transformed.", "In particular, there are transforms of size , etc., so the complexity of the sequence of FFTs is::In two dimensions, the ''x'''''k''' can be viewed as an matrix, and this algorithm corresponds to first performing the FFT of all the rows (resp.", "columns), grouping the resulting transformed rows (resp.", "columns) together as another matrix, and then performing the FFT on each of the columns (resp.", "rows) of this second matrix, and similarly grouping the results into the final result matrix.In more than two dimensions, it is often advantageous for cache locality to group the dimensions recursively.", "For example, a three-dimensional FFT might first perform two-dimensional FFTs of each planar \"slice\" for each fixed ''n''1, and then perform the one-dimensional FFTs along the ''n''1 direction.", "More generally, an asymptotically optimal cache-oblivious algorithm consists of recursively dividing the dimensions into two groups and that are transformed recursively (rounding if is not even) (see Frigo and Johnson, 2005).", "Still, this remains a straightforward variation of the row-column algorithm that ultimately requires only a one-dimensional FFT algorithm as the base case, and still has complexity.", "Yet another variation is to perform matrix transpositions in between transforming subsequent dimensions, so that the transforms operate on contiguous data; this is especially important for out-of-core and distributed memory situations where accessing non-contiguous data is extremely time-consuming.There are other multidimensional FFT algorithms that are distinct from the row-column algorithm, although all of them have complexity.", "Perhaps the simplest non-row-column FFT is the vector-radix FFT algorithm, which is a generalization of the ordinary Cooley–Tukey algorithm where one divides the transform dimensions by a vector of radices at each step.", "(This may also have cache benefits.)", "The simplest case of vector-radix is where all of the radices are equal (e.g.", "vector-radix-2 divides ''all'' of the dimensions by two), but this is not necessary.", "Vector radix with only a single non-unit radix at a time, i.e.", ", is essentially a row-column algorithm.", "Other, more complicated, methods include polynomial transform algorithms due to Nussbaumer (1977), which view the transform in terms of convolutions and polynomial products.", "See Duhamel and Vetterli (1990) for more information and references." ], [ "Other generalizations", "An generalization to spherical harmonics on the sphere with nodes was described by Mohlenkamp, along with an algorithm conjectured (but not proven) to have complexity; Mohlenkamp also provides an implementation in the libftsh library.", "A spherical-harmonic algorithm with complexity is described by Rokhlin and Tygert.The fast folding algorithm is analogous to the FFT, except that it operates on a series of binned waveforms rather than a series of real or complex scalar values.", "Rotation (which in the FFT is multiplication by a complex phasor) is a circular shift of the component waveform.Various groups have also published \"FFT\" algorithms for non-equispaced data, as reviewed in Potts ''et al.''", "(2001).", "Such algorithms do not strictly compute the DFT (which is only defined for equispaced data), but rather some approximation thereof (a non-uniform discrete Fourier transform, or NDFT, which itself is often computed only approximately).", "More generally there are various other methods of spectral estimation." ], [ "Applications", "The FFT is used in digital recording, sampling, additive synthesis and pitch correction software.The FFT's importance derives from the fact that it has made working in the frequency domain equally computationally feasible as working in the temporal or spatial domain.", "Some of the important applications of the FFT include:* fast large-integer multiplication algorithms and polynomial multiplication,* efficient matrix–vector multiplication for Toeplitz, circulant and other structured matrices,* filtering algorithms (see overlap–add and overlap–save methods),* fast algorithms for discrete cosine or sine transforms (e.g.", "fast DCT used for JPEG and MPEG/MP3 encoding and decoding),* fast Chebyshev approximation,* solving difference equations,* computation of isotopic distributions.", "* modulation and demodulation of complex data symbols using orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) for 5G, LTE, Wi-Fi, DSL, and other modern communication systems.An original application of the FFT in finance particularly in the Valuation of options was developed by Marcello Minenna." ], [ "Research areas", "; Big FFTs: With the explosion of big data in fields such as astronomy, the need for 512K FFTs has arisen for certain interferometry calculations.", "The data collected by projects such as WMAP and LIGO require FFTs of tens of billions of points.", "As this size does not fit into main memory, so called out-of-core FFTs are an active area of research.", "; Approximate FFTs: For applications such as MRI, it is necessary to compute DFTs for nonuniformly spaced grid points and/or frequencies.", "Multipole based approaches can compute approximate quantities with factor of runtime increase.", "; Group FFTs: The FFT may also be explained and interpreted using group representation theory allowing for further generalization.", "A function on any compact group, including non-cyclic, has an expansion in terms of a basis of irreducible matrix elements.", "It remains active area of research to find efficient algorithm for performing this change of basis.", "Applications including efficient spherical harmonic expansion, analyzing certain Markov processes, robotics etc.", "; Quantum FFTs: Shor's fast algorithm for integer factorization on a quantum computer has a subroutine to compute DFT of a binary vector.", "This is implemented as sequence of 1- or 2-bit quantum gates now known as quantum FFT, which is effectively the Cooley–Tukey FFT realized as a particular factorization of the Fourier matrix.", "Extension to these ideas is currently being explored." ], [ "Language reference" ], [ "See also", "FFT-related algorithms:* Bit-reversal permutation* Goertzel algorithm – computes individual terms of discrete Fourier transformFFT implementations:* ALGLIB – a dual/GPL-licensed C++ and C# library (also supporting other languages), with real/complex FFT implementation* FFTPACK – another Fortran FFT library (public domain)* Architecture-specific: Arm Performance Libraries Intel Integrated Performance Primitives** Intel Math Kernel Library* Many more implementations are available, for CPUs and GPUs, such as PocketFFT for C++Other links:* Odlyzko–Schönhage algorithm applies the FFT to finite Dirichlet series* Schönhage–Strassen algorithm – asymptotically fast multiplication algorithm for large integers* Butterfly diagram – a diagram used to describe FFTs* Spectral music (involves application of DFT analysis to musical composition)* Spectrum analyzer – any of several devices that perform spectrum analysis, often via a DFT* Time series* Fast Walsh–Hadamard transform* Generalized distributive law* Least-squares spectral analysis* Multidimensional transform* Multidimensional discrete convolution* Fast Fourier Transform Telescope" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * (NB.", "Contains extensive bibliography.", ")* Elena Prestini: \"The Evolution of Applied Harmonic Analysis\", Springer, ISBN 978-0-8176-4125-2 (2004), Sec.3.10 'Gauss and the asteroids: history of the FFT'." ], [ "External links", "* Fast Fourier Transform for Polynomial Multiplication fast Fourier algorithm* '' Fast Fourier Transforms'', Connexions online book edited by Charles Sidney Burrus, with chapters by Charles Sidney Burrus, Ivan Selesnick, Markus Pueschel, Matteo Frigo, and Steven G. Johnson (2008)* Fast Fourier transform — FFT FFT programming in C++ the Cooley–Tukey algorithm* Online documentation, links, book, and code* Sri Welaratna, \" Thirty years of FFT analyzers \", ''Sound and Vibration'' (January 1997, 30th anniversary issue) a historical review of hardware FFT devices* ALGLIB FFT Code a dual/GPL-licensed multilanguage (VBA, C++, Pascal, etc.)", "numerical analysis and data processing library* SFFT: Sparse Fast Fourier Transform MIT's sparse (sub-linear time) FFT algorithm, sFFT, and implementation* VB6 FFT a VB6 optimized library implementation with source code* Interactive FFT Tutorial a visual interactive intro to Fourier transforms and FFT methods" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Fort William, Scotland" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Fort William''' is a town in Lochaber in the Scottish Highlands, located on the eastern shore of Loch Linnhe.", "At the 2011 census, Fort William had a population of 10,459, making it the second largest settlement in both the Highland council area, and the whole of the Scottish Highlands; only the city of Inverness has a larger population.Fort William is a major tourist centre on the Road to the Isles, with Glen Coe just to the south, to the east, and Glenfinnan to the west.", "It is a centre for hillwalking and climbing due to its proximity to Ben Nevis and many other Munros.", "It is also known for its nearby downhill mountain bike track.", "It is the start/end of both the West Highland Way (Milngavie – Fort William) and the Great Glen Way (a walk/cycle way Fort William–Inverness).Around 726 people (7.33% of the population) can speak Gaelic." ], [ "Origins", "The earliest recorded settlement on the site is a Cromwellian wooden fort built in 1654 as a base for the New Model Army to \"pacify\" Clan Cameron after the Wars of the Three Kingdoms.", "The post-1688 revolution fort was named Fort William after William of Orange, who ordered that it be built to control some of the Scottish clans.", "The settlement that grew around it was called Maryburgh, after his wife Mary II of England.", "This settlement was later renamed Gordonsburgh, and then Duncansburgh before being renamed Fort William, this time after Prince William, Duke of Cumberland.", "There have been various suggestions over the years to rename the town (for example, to Invernevis).The origin of the Gaelic name for Fort William, '''', is not recorded but could be a loanword from the English ''garrison'', having entered common usage some time after the royal garrison was established, during the reign of William of Orange or perhaps after the earlier Cromwellian fort." ], [ "History", "Historically, the Fort William area of Lochaber was old Clan Chattan and then Clan Cameron country, and there were a number of mainly Cameron settlements in the area (such as Blarmacfoldach).", "Before the building of the fort, Inverlochy was the main local settlement and was also the site of two battles—the first Battle of Inverlochy in 1431 and the second Battle of Inverlochy in 1645.Fort William from Loch Linnhe.", "\"Nevis Bridge, Fort William, Scotland\", ca.", "1890–1900.The town grew in size as a settlement when the fort was constructed to control the population after Oliver Cromwell's invasion during the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, and then to suppress the Jacobite risings after the 1688 overthrow of the House of Stuart.During the 1745 Jacobite Rising, known as the Forty-Five, Fort William was besieged for two weeks by the Jacobite forces, from 20 March to 3 April 1746.However, although the Jacobites had captured both of the other forts in the chain of three Great Glen fortifications (Fort Augustus and the original Fort George), they failed to take Fort William.In 1934, the Laggan Dam on the River Spean was completed as part of the Lochaber hydroelectric scheme by Balfour Beatty for the British Aluminium Company.", "The supervising engineers were the firm of C. S. Meik and William Halcrow, now known as the Halcrow Group.", "The dam was built to power the aluminum smelter.During the Second World War, Fort William was the home of , which was a training base for Royal Navy Coastal Forces.Ben Nevis viewed from Neptune's Staircase===Liberty House Group===In November 2016, Sanjeev Gupta's Liberty House Group purchased the Lochaber aluminum plant from the Rio Tinto Group.On 3 April 2021, it came to light during Gupta's financial troubles involving Greensill Capital that the Jahama Highland Estates (formerly the \"Alcan Estate\") had been purchased in 2016 as part of the Rio Tinto Mines deal for the Lochaber aluminium plant, because the furnace requires so much power that the smelter is located near a hydroelectric plant, which drains the basin of the Estate.", "The Estate includes the north face of Ben Nevis.", "According to reports, the Scottish National Party mandated that the Estate never be split from the hydro plant and aluminium smelter, but Gupta ignored them and placed ownership of the Estate in a company that is domiciled on the Isle of Man.", "The 2016 deal was worth £330 million and was guaranteed by the UK Chancellor of the Exchequer.", "Conservative finance spokesperson Murdo Fraser was critical of the alleged breach of the SNP agreement and urged the SNP to \"take whatever steps are necessary to protect public funds\".===Proposed development===A \"Waterfront\" development was proposed by the council, but failed due to lack of public support.", "The development would have included a hotel, shops, and housing.", "The proposed development was slated to take 7 years by the local council, but opponents of the project said that it was unlikely to be completed before 2020.It was announced in April 2010 that the project had been abandoned." ], [ "Geography", "Fort William viewed from CorpachFort William Parade and Duncansburgh MacIntosh Parish ChurchOriginally based on the still-extant village of Inverlochy, the town lies at the southern end of the Great Glen.", "Fort William lies near the head of Loch Linnhe, one of Scotland's longest sea lochs, beside the mouth of the rivers Nevis and Lochy.", "They join in the intertidal zone and briefly become one river before discharging to the sea.", "The town and its suburbs are surrounded by mountains.", "It is also on the shore of Loch Eil.", "It is close to Ben Nevis, the highest mountain in the British Isles, Glen Nevis, and the town of Achnaphubuil, which is on the opposite shore of the loch.", "The original railway station, which was opened on 7 August 1894, was at the south end of the town.", "The consequence of this decision was that the town was separated from the lochside by railway tracks until the 1970s, when the present by-pass was built, and the station was re-located to the north end.Countryside just outside of Fort WilliamThe town is centred on the High Street, which was pedestrianised in the 1990s.", "Off this, there are several squares: Monzie Square (named after the Cameron Campbells of Monzie, Perthshire, former landowners in the town); Station Square, where the long-since demolished railway station used to be; Gordon Square (named after the Gordons, who in the late 18th century owned land where the town now stands, when the town was named Gordonsburgh); and Cameron Square—formerly known as Town Hall Square.", "There is also Fraser Square, which is not so square-like, since it now opens out into Middle Street, but which still houses the Imperial Hotel.The main residential areas of the town are unseen from the High Street and from the A82 main road.", "Upper Achintore and the Plantation spread steeply uphill from above the high street.Inverlochy, aluminium plant, Corpach and Loch EilInverlochy, Claggan, An-Aird, Lochyside, Caol, Banavie and Corpach outwith (i.e.", "outside) the town are the other main residential areas.", "These areas are built on much flatter land than the town.Fort William is the northern end of the West Highland Way, a long-distance route which runs through the Scottish Highlands to Milngavie, on the outskirts of Glasgow, and the start/end point of the Great Glen Way, which runs between Fort William and Inverness.Glenfinnan, away, is home of the Glenfinnan Monument (Jacobite era) and the famous Glenfinnan Viaduct (as seen on a Bank Of Scotland £10 note).", "The viaduct has become known to millions in recent years as the \"Harry Potter Bridge\" after it featured in the films of the books by J.K. Rowling, specifically ''Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets''.", "Glenfinnan has also been used in ''Charlotte Gray'' and ''Highlander''.Just outside the town is a large aluminium plant once operated by Alcan and powered by the Lochaber hydroelectric scheme, in its day the biggest tunnelling project in the world.", "This was formerly served by the Lochaber Narrow Gauge Railway better known locally as the Puggy Line.===Climate===Fort William has an oceanic climate (''Cfb'') with moderate, but generally cool, temperatures and abundant precipitation.", "Fort William is one of the wettest locations in the British Isles, with December being the wettest month." ], [ "Transport", "sleeper train from London Euston.The West Highland Line passes through Fort William.", "Owing to the difficult terrain in the area, the line from Glasgow to the south, enters from the north-east.", "Trains from Glasgow to Mallaig, the terminus of the line, have to reverse at Fort William railway station.An overnight train, the Caledonian sleeper, has its terminus at Fort William; this service is known colloquially as \"The Deerstalker\".", "The stands for local buses and express coaches are on MacFarlane Way adjacent to the railway station.The Caledonian Canal connects the Scottish east coast at Inverness with the west coast at Corpach near Fort William.The Corran Ferry crosses Loch Linnhe, connecting the A82 to A861.Fort William is located on the A82.The closest motorway access is the junction after Erskine bridge (just off the A82) of the M898 near Erskine Renfrewshire, 98 miles to the south west, joining onto the M8 motorway and the south." ], [ "Sport", "===Mountain biking===Just outside the town, parallel to the Nevis Range Gondola, there is a large downhill mountain bike track which attracts thousands of visitors every year, including international competitors and fans.Each year since 2002, Fort William has hosted a round of UCI Mountain Bike World Cup and, in 2007, it hosted the UCI Mountain Bike & Trials World Championships ('The Worlds').", "Also a trials competition is held at the various courses at the bottom.Fort William has hosted the World Endurance Mountain Bike Organisation (WEMBO) solo 24 hour championship in 2014 and again in 2018.The event consists of riders racing for a full 24 hours and is won by the rider who has completed the greater number of laps.===Motorcycle trials===Fort William is the home of the Scottish Six Day Motorcycle Trial (SSDT); it is held annually in the first full week of May.", "It attracts many competitors from all across the globe and, in 2011, the event celebrated its centenary year.===Others===Fort William has two major shinty teams: Fort William Shinty Club and Kilmallie Shinty Club.", "It also has a football team, Fort William F.C., that competes in the Scottish North Caledonian League and plays home games at Claggan Park.", "There is also a cricket club at Fort William that participates in the North of Scotland Cricket Association league (NoSCA).In addition, the town is home to Lochaber Rugby Club and to the Lochaber Yacht Club, a Community Amateur Sports Club that was founded in 1954.The town also has one golf club, called Fort William Golf Club, which has eighteen holes and is open all-year-round; it also hosts weekly competitions." ], [ "As a film location", "Movies filmed in or near Fort William include ''Being Human'', ''Braveheart'', ''Highlander'', ''Restless Natives'', ''Harry Potter'' and ''Rob Roy''.", "The TV series ''Rockface'' was filmed mainly around Fort William and some scenes of ''Monarch of the Glen'' were filmed around Lochaber, although mostly near Newtonmore.", "''Local Hero'' shot the internal Houston scenes in Fort William." ], [ "Festivals", "In a celebration of mountains and the culture that surrounds them, and in recognition of the importance of climbing and walking tourism to the town, the Fort William Mountain Festival is held there each year.", "For a number of years, this volunteer-led festival has concentrated mostly around film but, starting in the Year of Highland Culture – Highland 2007, its scope was widened, and it dropped the word 'film' from its title." ], [ "Education", "Lochaber High School is the local high school and serves a large catchment area which includes the surrounding villages.West Highland College is part of the University of the Highlands & Islands.", "It hosts the School of Adventure Studies (SOAS) offering both FE courses & HE honours degrees." ], [ "Notable people", "Hugh Cochrane – recipient of the Victoria CrossCharles Kennedy – former leader of the Liberal Democrat party and former Liberal Democrat Member of Parliament (MP) for Ross, Skye and Lochaber.", "Although born in Inverness, he was brought up and educated in Fort William.", "Danny Alexander – the former Chief Secretary to the Treasury and Liberal Democrat MP for Inverness, Nairn, Badenoch and Strathspey.", "Brought up in Invergarry, a small village near Fort William.", "Justin Ryan – interior decorator and television presenter, although born in Glasgow, was brought up in Fort William.", "Allan MacDonald – Roman Catholic priest, folklore collector, pastor in South Uist & Eriskay and major figure in modern Scottish Gaelic literature, was born and brought up in Fort William.", "John Wood - recipient of the Victoria CrossBarry Hutchison – authorJohn McGinlay – former Scotland international footballerDuncan Shearer – former Scotland international footballer" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "" ], [ "See also", "Belford Hospital" ], [ "External links", " Map of Ft William and area, dated 1710*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Glossary of French words and expressions in English" ], [ "Introduction", " Many words in the English vocabulary are of French origin, most coming from the Anglo-Norman spoken by the upper classes in England for several hundred years after the Norman Conquest, before the language settled into what became Modern English.", "English words of French origin, such as ''art'', ''competition'', ''force'', ''machine'', and ''table'' are pronounced according to English rules of phonology, rather than French, and are commonly used by English speakers without any consciousness of their French origin.This article, on the other hand, covers French words and phrases that have entered the English lexicon without ever losing their character as Gallicisms: they remain unmistakably \"French\" to an English speaker.", "They are most common in written English, where they retain French diacritics and are usually printed in italics.", "In spoken English, at least some attempt is generally made to pronounce them as they would sound in French; an entirely English pronunciation is regarded as a solecism.Some of them were never \"good French\", in the sense of being grammatical, idiomatic French usage.", "Some others were once normal French but have become very old-fashioned, or have acquired different meanings and connotations in the original language, to the extent that they would not be understood (either at all, or in the intended sense) by a native French speaker.", "A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z __NOTOC__Not used as such in French — Found only in English — French phrases in international air-sea rescue — See also — References" ], [ "Used in English and French", "=== A ===Apéritifs with amuse-gueulesArête; à la: short for (ellipsis of) ''à la manière de''; in the manner of/in the style of; à la carte: lit.", "\"on the card, i.e.", "menu\"; In restaurants it refers to ordering individual dishes \"à la carte\" rather than a fixed-price meal \"menu\".", "In America \"à la Carte Menu\" can be found, an oxymoron and a pleonasm.", "; à propos: regarding/concerning (the correct French syntax is ''à propos de'') ; affaire de cœur: lit.", "a love affair ; aide-de-camp: lit.", "\"camp helper\"; A military officer who serves as an adjutant to a higher-ranking officer, prince or other high political dignitary.", "; aide-mémoire: lit.", "\"memory aid\"; an object or memorandum to assist in remembrance, or a diplomatic paper proposing the major points of discussion; amour propre: \"Self-love\", Self-respect.", "; amuse-bouche or amuse-gueule: lit.", "\"mouth-amuser\"; a single, bite-sized hors d'œuvre.", "In France, the exact expression used is ''amuse-gueule'', ''gueule'' being slang for mouth (''gueule'' is the mouth of a carnivorous animal; when used to describe the mouth of a human, it is vulgarakin to \"gob\" although the expression in itself is not vulgar).", "The expression refers to a small mouthful of food, served at the discretion of the chef before a meal as an hors d'oeuvre or between main courses.", "; ancien régime: a sociopolitical or other system that no longer exists, an allusion to pre-revolutionary France (used with capital letters in French with this meaning: Ancien Régime); aperçu: preview; a first impression; initial insight.", "; apéritif or aperitif: lit.", "\"drink opening the appetite\", a before-meal drink.", "In colloquial French, ''un apéritif'' is usually shortened to ''un apéro''.", "; appellation contrôlée: supervised use of a name.", "For the conventional use of the term, see Appellation d'origine contrôlée; appetence: 1.A natural craving or desire 2.An attraction or affinity; From French word \"Appétence\", derived from \"Appétit\" (Appetite).", "In French, belongs to high-level language.", "; après moi, le déluge: lit.", "\"After me, the deluge\", a remark attributed to Louis XV of France in reference to the impending end of a functioning French monarchy and predicting the French Revolution.", "It is derived from Madame de Pompadour's ''après nous, le déluge'', \"after us, the deluge\".", "The Royal Air Force No.", "617 Squadron, famously known as the \"Dambusters\", uses this as its motto.", "; arête: a narrow ridge.", "In French, also fishbone; edge of a polyhedron or graph; bridge of the nose.", "; armoire: a type of cabinet; wardrobe.", "; arrière-pensée: ulterior motive; concealed thought, plan, or motive.", "; art nouveau: a style of decoration and architecture of the late 19th and early 20th centuries.", "It takes a capital in French (''Art nouveau'').", "; attaché: a person attached to an embassy; in French it is also the past participle of the verb ''attacher'' (= to fasten, to tighten, to be linked); attaque au fer: an attack on the opponent's blade in fencing, e.g.", "beat, expulsion, pressure.", "; au contraire: on the contrary.", "; au courant: up-to-date; abreast of current affairs.", "; au fait: being conversant in or with, or instructed in or with.", "; au gratin: \"with gratings\", anything that is grated onto a food dish.", "In English, specifically 'with cheese'.", "; au jus: lit.", "\"with juice\", referring to a food course served with sauce.", "Often redundantly formulated, as in 'Open-faced steak sandwich, served with au jus.'", "No longer used in French, except for the colloquial, ''être au jus'' (to be informed).", "; au naturel: 1.a.", "Nude.", "b.", "In a natural state: an ''au naturel'' hairstyle.", "2.Cooked simply.", "Also used in French heraldry to mean \"proper\" i.e.", "in natural colours.", "; au pair: a young foreigner who does domestic chores in exchange for room and board.", "In France, those chores are mainly child care/education.", "; au revoir !", ": \"See you later!\"", "In French, a contraction of ''Au plaisir de vous revoir'' ('to the pleasure of seeing you again').", "'''au sec''':lit.", "\"almost dry\", reducing liquid to the point of almost dry but food is still moist.", "; avant-garde (pl.", "''avant-gardes''): applied to cutting-edge or radically innovative movements in art, music and literature; figuratively 'on the edge', literally, a military term, meaning 'vanguard' (which is a corruption of ''avant-garde'') or \"advance guard\", in other words, \"first to attack\" (antonym of ''arrière-garde'').", "; avant la lettre: used to describe something or someone seen as a forerunner of something (such as an artistic or political movement) before that something was recognized and named, e.g., \"a post-modernist avant la lettre\", \"a feminist avant la lettre\".", "The expression literally means \"before the letter\", i.e., \"before it had a name\".", "A French modern alternative form of this expression is ''avant l'heure''.", "; avoirdupois: used in Middle English, ''avoir de pois'' = commodities sold by weight, alteration of Old French ''aveir de peis'' = \"goods of weight\".", "In Modern French, only used to refer to English weight measures, as in ''une livre avoirdupois'' (1 lb.", "avdp) as opposed to ''une livre troy'' (1 lb.", "troy).=== B ===Bric-à-bracBrioche; baguette: a long, narrow loaf of bread with a crisp crust, often called \"French bread\" or \"French stick\" in the United Kingdom.", "In French, a ''baguette'' is any long and narrow stick-like object, for example a \"chopstick\".", "Also, a rectangular diamond, cut to twenty-five facets.", "Also the French for \"magic wand\".", "; banquette: a long upholstered bench or a sofa.", "; beaucoup de: Used interchangeably with the English equivalent of \"lots of/many/a great number of\".", "Appropriate when the speaker wants to convey a greater positive connotation and/or greater emphasis.", "Often used as an informal expression, mostly in small regional dialect-pockets in the Canadian Prairies and the American South, especially in Alberta and Louisiana respectively.", "; Beau geste: lit.", "\"beautiful gesture\", a gracious gesture, noble in form but often futile or meaningless in substance.", "This French expression has been pressing at the door of standard English with only partial success, since the appearance of P. C. Wren's ''Beau Geste'' (1924), the first of his Foreign Legion novels.", "; Beau idéal: lit.", "\"the ideal beautiful,\" used to suggest the perfect or most supreme version of something to exist.", "The expression was coined during the late 18th century during the aesthetic period known as classicism.", "Invoking the balance and refinement of Greek and Roman art and architecture, the term was used for art and architecture that conformed to purity, wholesomeness, equilibrium, and simple elegance.", "; Beaux-Arts: monumental architectural style of the early 20th century made famous by the Académie des Beaux-Arts.", "; bel esprit (pl.", "beaux esprits): lit.", "\"fine mind\"; a cultivated, highly intelligent person.", "; Belle Époque: a period in European social history that began during the late 19th century and lasted until World War I.; belles-lettres: lit.", "\"fine letters\"; literature regarded for its aesthetic value rather than its didactic or informative content; also, light, stylish writings, usually on literary or intellectual subjects; bien entendu: well understood, well known, obvious – \"of course\"; bien pensant: lit.", "\"well thinking\"; right thinking, orthodox.", "Formerly implied willful blindness to dangers or suffering faced by others but, nowadays corresponds to \"politically correct\".", "The noun form ''bien-pensance'' is rarely seen in English.", "; billet-doux: lit.", "\"sweet note\", love letter; blasé: unimpressed with something because of overfamiliarity, jaded.", "; bon appétit: lit.", "\"good appetite\"; \"enjoy your meal\".", "; bon mot (pl.", "''bons mots'') : well-chosen word(s), particularly a witty remark (\"each bon mot which falls from his lips is analysed and filed away for posterity\", ''The European Magazine'', August 29 – September 4, 1996); bon vivant: one who enjoys the good life, an epicurean.", "; bon voyage: lit.", "\"good journey\"; have a good trip!", "; boudoir: a woman's private dressing or sitting room in a house; bourgeois: member of the bourgeoisie, originally councilmen, burghers or even aristocrats living in towns in the Middle Ages.", "Now the term is derogatory, and it applies to a person whose beliefs, attitudes, and practices are conventionally middle-class.", "; bric-à-brac: small ornamental objects, less valuable than antiques; a collection of old furniture, china, plates and curiosities.", "Cf.", "''de bric et de broc'', corresponding to English \"by hook or by crook\", and ''brack'', refuse.", "; bricolage: to improvise or assemble something useful from what happens to be at hand; to expedite or economize a project with readily available components, versus a kit or outside sources; to reuse spare parts for other than their original purpose; to create something new by arranging old material; to create a new, valuable purpose for an object that has completed its original purpose and would otherwise be discarded.", "Connotes an intrepid do-it-yourself spirit or clever repurposing.", "Differs from tinkering which merely modifies an existing arrangement.", "The term is used metaphorically to describe inventive philosophy, theories, and practices in business and academic fields, where new concepts are found in interactions of old ideas.", "; brioche: a sweet yeast bun, kind of a crossover between a popover and a light muffin; French also use the term as slang for 'potbelly', because of the overhang effect.", "; bureau (pl.", "''bureaux''): government office; an agency for information exchange.", "Also means \"desk\" in French, and in the U.K.=== C ===Café au laitChaise longueChauffeurChignonContre-jourCrêperie; ça ne fait rien: \"that doesn't matter\"; rendered as ''san fairy Ann'' in British World War I slang.", "; cache: a collection of items of the same type stored in a hidden or inaccessible place (such as in an oubliette).", "Often used for weapons.", "; cachet: lit.", "\"stamp\"; a distinctive quality; quality, prestige.", "; café: a coffee shop (also used in French for \"coffee\").", "; café au lait: coffee with milk; or a light-brown color.", "In medicine, it is also used to describe a birthmark that is of a light-brown color (café au lait spot).", "; calque: a copied term/thing.", "; canard: ( means \"duck\" in French)# an unfounded rumor or anecdote.", "# a leading airfoil attached to an aircraft forward of the main wing.", "# a slang word for \"newspaper\".# a piece of sugar slightly soused with coffee or cognac (or another strong alcohol).", "; canapé: A small, prepared and usually decorative food, held in the fingers and often eaten in one bite.", "In French, it can also refer to a \"sofa\".", "; carte blanche: lit.", "\"white card\" (i.e.", "blank check); unlimited authority.", "; carte de visite: lit.", "\"visiting card\"; a calling card.", "; cause célèbre: controversial celebrity issue.", "'''c'est la guerre:''' \"That's war!", "\", or...'''c'est la vie:''' \"That's life!\"", "or \"Such is life!", "\": Though either foreign expression can be used to say that life is harsh but that one must accept it, the former may imply a more deliberate cause thereof, while the latter, more accidental.", "; chaise longue: a long chair for reclining; sometimes misstated as \"chaise lounge\"; Champs-Élysées: lit.", "\"Elysian Fields\"; ''Avenue des Champs-Élysées'', one of the broadest boulevards in Paris.", "Often referred to as simply ''les Champs''.", "; chanteuse: '(female) singer', a female singer, especially at a nightclub, bar, cabaret, or diner.", "; chargé d'affaires: a diplomat left in charge of day-to-day business at a diplomatic mission.", "Within the United States Department of State, a \"chargé\" is any officer left in charge of the mission in the absence of the titular chief of mission.", "; charrette: a collaborative session in which a group of designers draft a solution to a design problem.", "; chauffeur: driver.", "; chef d'œuvre: a masterpiece.", "; cherchez la femme: \"look for / seek the woman\", in the sense that, when a man behaves out of character or in an otherwise apparently inexplicable manner, the reason may be found in his trying to cover up an illicit affair with a woman, or to impress or gain favour with a woman.", "This expression was first used in a novel by Alexandre Dumas (père), in the third chapter of ''Les Mohicans de Paris'' (1854), in the form of ''cherchons la femme'' (\"let's look for the woman\").", "The expression is found in John Latey's 1878 English translation: \"Ah!", "Monsieur Jackal, you were right when you said, 'Seek the woman.'\"", "The phrase was adopted into everyday English use and crossed the Atlantic by 1909.; chez: at the house of: often used in the names of restaurants and the like; ''Chez Marie'' = \"Marie's\".", "; chic: stylish.", "; chignon: a hairstyle worn in a roll at the nape of the neck.", "; cinéma pur: an avant-garde film movement which was born in Paris in the 1920s and 1930s.", "; cinéma vérité: realism in documentary filmmaking.", "\"Vérité\" means \"truth\".", "; cliché: originally referred to a printer's block used to reproduce type, compare the original meaning of stereotype.", "A phrase that has become trite through overuse; a stereotype.", "; clique:a small exclusive group of friends; always used in a pejorative way in French and, usually, in English.", "Often pronounced the same as \"click\" in British English.", "; cloisonné: an ancient technique for decorating metalwork objects.", "; commandant: commanding officer of a base, depot or training area.", "In France, used for an airline pilot ''(le commandant de bord)'', in the Army as appellative for a ''chef de bataillon'' or a ''chef d'escadron'' (roughly equivalent to a major) or in the Navy for any officer from ''capitaine de corvette'' to ''capitaine de vaisseau'' (equivalent to the Army's majors, lieutenant-colonels and colonels) or for any officer heading a ship.", "; comme ci, comme ça: lit.", "\"like this, like that\"; neither good nor bad, so-so.", "; communiqué: lit.", "\"communicated\"; an official communication.", "; concierge: a receptionist at a hotel or residence.", "; concordat: an agreement; a treaty; when used with a capital C in French, it refers to the treaty between the French State and Judaeo-Christian religions during the French Empire (Napoleon): priests, ministers and rabbis became civil servants.", "This treaty was abolished in 1905 (law Church-State separation) but is still in use in Alsace-Lorraine (those territories were under German administration during 1871–1918).", "; confrère (also confrere): a colleague, an associate; contre-coup: against the blow.", "This word describes the repercussion of a physical or mental shock, or an indirect consequence of an event.", "; contre-jour: against daylight.", "This word (mostly used in art namely photography, cinema or painting) describes the light that illumines an object from the other side of your own point of view.", "; contretemps: an awkward clash; a delay.", "; coquette: a flirtatious girl; a tease.", "; cordon bleu: (lit.", "\"blue ribbon\").", "A \"cordon bleu\" may refer to several things, both in French and in English : # A person who excels in cooking.", "# An award given to such a person.", "# An international group of hospitality management and cooking schools teaching French cuisine, founded in France.", "# An escalope of veal, chicken or pork stuffed with ham and cheese, then breaded and fried.", "; cordon sanitaire: a policy of containment directed against a hostile entity or ideology; a chain of buffer states; lit.", "\"quarantine line\".", "; corniche: a road that clings like a ledge to the side of a cliff or mountain.", "; cornichon: a small pickled cucumber; French for \"little horn\".", "; cortège: a funeral procession; in French has a broader meaning and refers to all kinds of processions.", "; coup de foudre: lit.", "\"thunderbolt\" (\"strike of thunder\"); a sudden unforeseen event, usually used to describe love at first sight.", "; coup d'état: political coup, government overthrow; coup de grâce: the final blow that results in victory (lit.", "\"blow of mercy\"), historically used in the context of the battlefield to refer to the killing of badly wounded enemy soldiers, now more often used in a figurative context (e.g., business).", "; coup de main: (lit.", "\"a blow with the hand\"), means \"help from someone\".", "Example: \"Besoin d'un coup de main?\"", "means \"Need help?", "\"; coup de maître: stroke of the master, master stroke.", "This word describes a planned action skilfully done.", "See also tour de force below; coup de théâtre: a dramatic turn of events.", "; coup d'œil: lit.", "\"a blow (or touch) of the eye\"; a glance.", "; couture: litt.", "sewing.", "Fashion (usually refers to high fashion).", "''haute couture'' in French.", "; couturier: a fashion designer (usually refers to high fashion, rather than everyday clothes design.", "In French, it means 'tailor'; a ''couturière'' is a seamstress.", "; crèche: a nativity display; more commonly (in the United Kingdom), a place where children are left by their parents for short periods in the supervision of childminders; both meanings still exist in French.", "; crème brûlée: lit.", "\"burnt cream\"; a dessert consisting primarily of custard and toasted sugar, that is, caramel.", "; crème de la crème: best of the best, \"cream of the cream\", used to describe highly skilled people or objects.", "A synonymous expression in French is ''fin du fin''.", "; crème fraîche: lit.", "\"fresh cream\", a heavy cream slightly soured with bacterial culture, but not as sour or as thick as sour cream and does not curdle.", "; crêpe: a thin sweet or savoury pancake eaten as a light meal or dessert.Cul-de-sac; crêperie: a takeaway restaurant or stall, serving crêpes as a form of fast food or street food, or may be a more formal sit-down restaurant or café.", "; critique: a critical analysis or evaluation of a work, or the art of criticizing.", "From Latin ''criticus'', from Ancient Greek κριτικός (''kritikos'').", "; croissant: a crescent-shaped bread made of flaky pastry; in French also the word for crescent.", "; cul-de-sac: originally \"bottom of sack\" and used in English in anatomy since 1738.Used for dead end (street) since 1800 in English, since 14th century in French.", "The often heard erroneous folk etymology \"arse buttocks of the sack\" is based on the current meaning of ''cul'' in French, but ''cul-de-sac'' is used to refer to dead ends in modern French and is not vulgar, though the terms ''impasse'' and ''voie sans issue'' are more common in modern French.=== D ===Dressage; de rigueur: required or expected, especially in fashion or etiquette.", "; de trop: unnecessary, unwanted, or more than is suitable.", "; déclassé: inferior.", "; décolleté: a woman's garment with a low-cut neckline that exposes cleavage, or a situation in which a woman's chest or cleavage is exposed; décolletage is dealt with below.", "; décor: the layout and furnishing of a room.", "; découpage: decoration with cut paper.", "; demi-glace: a reduced wine-based sauce for meats and poultry.", "; demi-sec: semi-dry, usually said of wine.", "; déjà vu: lit.", "\"already seen\": an impression or illusion of having seen or experienced something before.", "; dénouement: lit.", "\"untying\": the resolution of a narrative.", "; dépanneur: (Quebec English) a convenience store.", "; dérailleur: a bicycle gear-shift mechanism.", "; dernier cri: lit.", "\"latest scream\": the latest fashion.", "; derrière: lit.", "\"behind\": rear, buttocks.", "; déshabillé: partially clad or scantily dressed; also a special type of garment.", "; détente: easing of diplomatic tension.", "; digestif: a digestive aid, esp., an after-dinner drink, as brandy.", "; directeur sportif: lit.", "\"sports director\".", "A person responsible for the operation of a cycling team during a road bicycle race.", "In French, it means any kind of sports director.", "; divertissement: an amusing diversion; entertainment.", "; dossier: a file containing detailed information about a person.", "In modern French it can be any type of file, including a computer directory.", "In slang, ''J'ai des dossiers sur toi'' (\"I have files about you\") means having materials for blackmail.", "; doyen: the senior member of a group; the feminine is doyenne.", "Also dean (of faculty, or medicine).", "; dressage: a form of competitive horse training, in French has the broader meaning of taming any kind of animal.", "; droit du seigneur: lit.", "\"right of the lord\": the purported right of a lord in feudal times to take the virginity of one of his vassals' brides on her wedding night (in precedence to her new husband).", "The French term for this hypothetical custom is ''droit de cuissage'' (from ''cuisse'': thigh).", "; du jour: lit.", "\"of the day\": said of something fashionable or hip for a day and quickly forgotten; today's choice on the menu, as soup ''du jour''.=== E ===eau de Cologneeau de vieEntréeEn plein airen pointe; eau de Cologne: a type of perfume, originating in Cologne.", "Its Italian creator used a French name to commercialize it, Cologne at that time being under the control of France.", "; eau de toilette: lit.", "\"grooming water\".", "It usually refers to an aromatic product that is less expensive than a perfume because it has less of the aromatic compounds and is more for an everyday use.", "Cannot be shortened to ''eau'', which means something else altogether in French (water).", "; eau de vie: lit.", "\"water of life\" (cf.", "Aquavit and whisky), a type of fruit brandy.", "; écarté: a card game; also a ballet position.", "; échappé: dance movement foot position.", "; éclair: a cream and chocolate icing pastry.", "; éclat: great brilliance, as of performance or achievement.", "Conspicuous success.", "Great acclamation or applause.", "; écorché: flayed; biological graphic or model with skin removed.", "; élan: a distinctive flair or style.", "; élan vital: lit.", "\"vital ardor\"; the vital force hypothesized by Henri Bergson as a source of efficient causation and evolution in nature; also called \"life-force\"; éminence grise: lit.", "\"grey eminence\": a publicity-shy person with little formal power but great influence over those in authority.", "; en banc: court hearing of the entire group of judges instead of a subset panel.", "; en bloc: as a group.", "; en garde: \"be on your guard\".", "\"On guard\" is of course perfectly good English: the French spelling is used for the fencing term.", "; en passant: in passing; term used in chess and in neurobiology (\"synapse en passant.", "\"); en plein air: lit.", "\"in the open air\"; particularly used to describe the act of painting outdoors.", "; en pointe: (in ballet) on tiptoe.", "Though used in French in this same context, it is not an expression as such.", "A ''pointe'' is the ballet figure where one stands on tiptoes.", "The expression \"en pointe\", though, means \"in an acute angle\", and, figuratively, it qualifies the most progressive or modern things (ideas, industry).", "; en route:on the way.", "Often written and pronounced \"On route\" in British English.", "; enfant terrible: lit.", "\"terrible child\"; a disruptively unconventional person.", "; ennui: A gripping listlessness or melancholia caused by boredom; depression; entente: diplomatic agreement or cooperation.", "L'Entente cordiale (the Cordial Entente) refers to the good diplomatic relationship between France and United Kingdom before the first World War.", "; entre nous: lit.", "\"between us\"; confidentially.", "; entrée: lit.", "\"entrance\"; the first course of a meal (UK English); used to denote the main dish or course of a meal (US English).", "; entremets: desserts/sweet dishes.", "More literally, a side dish that can be served between the courses of a meal.", "; entrepreneur: a person who undertakes and operates a new enterprise or venture and assumes some accountability for the inherent risks.", "; embonpoint: a plump, hourglass figure.", "; épater la bourgeoisie or épater le bourgeois: lit.", "\"to shock the middle classes\", a rallying cry for the French Decadent poets of the late 19th century including Charles Baudelaire and Arthur Rimbaud.", "; escargot: snail; in English, used only as a culinary term.", "; esprit de corps: lit.", "\"spirit of the body group\": a feeling of solidarity among members of a group; morale.", "Often used in connection with a military force.", "; esprit de l'escalier: lit.", "\"wit of the stairs\"; a concise, clever statement you think of too late, that is, on the stairs leaving the scene.", "The expression was created by French philosopher Denis Diderot.", "; l'État, c'est moi!", ": lit.", "\"I am the state!\"", "— attributed to the archetypal absolute monarch, Louis XIV of France.", "; étude: a musical composition designed to provide practice in a particular technical skill in the performance of an instrument.", "French for \"study.", "\"; étui: small ornamental case for needles or cosmetics.", "; excusez-moi: \"Excuse me\".", "; extraordinaire: extraordinary, usually as a following adjective, as \"musician extraordinaire.", "\"=== F ===; façade: the front of an edifice (from the Italian ''facciata'', or face); a fake persona, as in \"putting on a façade\" (the ''ç'' is pronounced like an ''s''); fait accompli: lit.", "\"accomplished fact\"; something that has already happened and is thus unlikely to be reversed; a done deal.", "In French, the term is primarily used in the expression '''', meaning to present somebody with a fait accompli.", "Also see point of no return.", "; faute de mieux: for want of better.", "; faites comme chez vous:Make yourself at home.", ";faux:false, ersatz, fake.", "; faux pas:lit.", "\"false step\": violation of accepted, although unwritten, social rules.", ";femme fatale:lit.", "\"deadly woman\": an attractive woman who seduces and takes advantage of men for her personal goals, after which she discards or abandons them.", "It extends to describe an attractive woman with whom a relationship is likely to result, or has already resulted, in pain and sorrow.;feuilleton:lit.", "\"little leaf of paper\": a periodical, or part of a periodical, consisting chiefly of non-political news and gossip, literature and art criticism, a chronicle of the latest fashions, and epigrams, charades and other literary trifles.", "; fiancé(e):betrothed; lit.", "a man/woman engaged to be married.", ";film noir:Lit.", "\"black film\": a stylized genre of movies from the 1940s and 1950s with a focus on crime and amorality.", "; fils:lit.", "\"son\": used after a man's surname to distinguish a son from a father, as Alexandre Dumas, fils.", "; fin de siècle:The end of the century, a term which typically encompasses both the meaning of the similar English idiom turn of the century and also makes reference to the closing of one era and onset of another.", ";flambé:a cooking procedure in which alcohol (ethanol) is added to a hot pan to create a burst of flames, meaning \"flamed\" in French.", "Also used colloquially in reference to something on fire or burned.", "; flambeau:a lit torch.", ";flâneur:a gentleman stroller of city streets; an aimless idler.Fleur-de-lis; fleur-de-lis: a stylized-flower heraldic device; the golden ''fleur-de-lis'' on an azure background were the arms of the French Kingdom (often spelled with the old French style as \"fleur-de-lys\").Fleur de sel; fleur de sel: lit.", "\"flower of salt\", hand-harvested sea salt collected by workers who scrape only the top layer of salt before it sinks to the bottom of large salt pans.", "Is one of the more expensive salts; traditional French fleur de sel is collected off the coast of Brittany most notably in the town of Guérande (''Fleur de Sel de Guérande'' being the most revered), but also in Noirmoutier, Île de Ré and Camargue.Foie gras; foie gras: fatty liver; usually the liver of overfed goose, hence: ''pâté de foie gras'', pâté made from goose liver.", "; folie à deux: a simultaneous occurrence of delusions in two closely related people, often said of an unsuitable romance.", "In clinical psychology, the term is used to describe people who share schizophrenic delusions.", "The derived forms ''folie à trois'', ''folie à quatre'', ''folie en famille'' or even ''folie à plusieurs'' do not exist in French where \"collective hysterics\" is used.", "; force majeure: an overpowering and unforeseeable event, especially when talking about weather (often appears in insurance contracts).", "; forte: Lit.", "\"strong point\" (of a sword).", "Strength, expertise, one's strong point.", "; froideur: coldness (for behavior and manners only).=== G ===GendarmesGrand Prix.Grenadier; gaffe: blunder; garage: covered parking; garçon: lit.", "\"boy\" or \"male servant\"; sometimes used by English speakers to summon the attention of a male waiter (has a playful connotation in English but is condescending and possibly offensive in French).", "; gauche: lit.", "\"left\".", "Clumsy, tactless.", "; gaucherie: boorishness, clumsiness.", "; gendarme: a member of the gendarmerie; colloquially, a policeman; gendarmerie: a military body charged with police duties; genre: a type or class, such as \"the thriller genre\".", "; gîte : furnished vacation cottage typically in rural France.", "; glissade: slide down a slope.", "; Grand Prix:lit.", "\"Great Prize\"; a type of motor racing.", "English plural is ''Grands Prix.", "''; Grand Guignol: a horror show, named after a French theater famous for its frightening plays and bloody special effects.", "(''Guignol'' can be used in French to describe a ridiculous person, in the same way that ''clown'' might be used in English.", "); grenadier: a specialized soldier, first established for the throwing of grenades and later as elite troops.=== H ===Haute couture; habitué: one who regularly frequents a place.", "; haute couture: lit.", "\"high sewing\": Paris-based custom-fitted clothing; trend-setting fashion; haute école: lit.", "\"high school\": advanced components of Classical dressage (horseback riding); when capitalized (Haute Ecole), refers to France's most prestigious higher education institutions (e.g., Polytechnique, ENA, Les Mines); hauteur: lit.", "\"height\": arrogance.", "; haut monde: lit.", "the \"high world\": fashionable society.", "; Honi soit qui mal y pense: \"Shamed be he who thinks ill of it\"; or sometimes translated as \"Evil be to him who evil thinks\"; the motto of the English Order of the Garter (modern French writes ''honni'' instead of Old French ''honi'' and would phrase \"qui en pense du mal\" instead of \"qui mal y pense\").", "The sentence ''Honni soit qui mal y pense'' (often with double n) can still be used in French as a frozen expression to mean \"Let nobody think ill of this\" by allusion to the Garter's motto.", "A more colloquial quasi-synonymous expression in French would be ''en tout bien tout honneur''.", "; hors de combat: lit.", "\"out of the fight\": prevented from fighting or participating in some event, usually by injury.", "; hors concours: lit.", "\"out of competition\": not to be judged with others because of the superiority of the work to the others.", "; hors d'œuvre: lit.", "\"outside the main work\": appetizer.=== I ===Ingénue; idée fixe: lit.", "\"fixed idea\": obsession; in music, a leitmotiv.", "; impasse: a situation offering no escape, as a difficulty without solution, an argument where no agreement is possible, etc.", "; a deadlock.", "; ingénu(e): an innocent young man/woman, used particularly in reference to a theatrical stock character who is entirely virginal and wholesome.", "''L'Ingénu'' is a famous novella written by Voltaire.=== J ===; j'accuse: \"I accuse\"; used generally in reference to a political or social indictment (alluding to J'Accuse…!, Émile Zola's exposé of the Dreyfus affair, a political scandal that divided France from the 1890s to the early 1900s (decade) and involved the false conviction for treason in 1894 of Alfred Dreyfus, a young French artillery officer of Jewish background).", "; j'adoube: In chess, an expression, said discreetly, that signals the intention to straighten the pieces without committing to move or capturing the first one touched as per the game's rules; lit.", "\"I adjust\", from ''adouber'', to dub (the action of knighting someone).", "; je ne regrette rien: \"I regret nothing\" (from the title of a popular song sung by Édith Piaf: ''Non, je ne regrette rien'').", "Also the phrase the UK's then Chancellor of the Exchequer Norman Lamont chose to use to describe his feelings over the events of September 16, 1992 ('Black Wednesday').", "; je ne sais quoi: lit.", "\"I-don't-know-what\": an indescribable or indefinable 'something' that distinguishes the object in question from others that are superficially similar.", "; jeu d'esprit: lit.", "\"play of spirit\": a witty, often light-hearted, comment or composition; jeunesse dorée: lit.", "\"gilded youth\"; name given to a body of young dandies, also called the Muscadins, who, after the fall of Robespierre, fought against the Jacobins.", "Today used for youthful offspring, particularly if bullying and vandalistic, of the affluent.", "; joie de vivre: \"joy of life/living\".=== L ===; l'appel du vide: lit.", "\"call of the void\"; used to refer to intellectual suicidal thoughts, or the urge to engage in self-destructive (suicidal) behaviors during everyday life.", "Examples include thinking about swerving in to the opposite lane while driving, or feeling the urge to jump off a cliff edge while standing on it.", "These thoughts are not accompanied by emotional distress.", "; laissez-faire:lit.", "\"let do\"; often used within the context of economic policy or political philosophy, meaning leaving alone, or non-interference.", "The phrase is the shortcut of ''Laissez faire, laissez passer'', a doctrine first supported by the Physiocrats in the 18th century.", "The motto was invented by Vincent de Gournay, and it became popular among supporters of free trade and economic liberalism.", "It is also used to describe a parental style in developmental psychology, where the parent(s) does not apply rules or guiding.", "As per the parental style, it is now one of the major management styles.", "Used more generally in modern English to describe a particularly casual or \"hands-off\" attitude or approach to something, ; laissez-passer: a travel document, a passport; laissez les bons temps rouler: Cajun expression for \"let the good times roll\": not used in proper French, and not generally understood by Francophones outside Louisiana, who would say ''profitez des bons moments'' (enjoy the good moments).", "; lamé: a type of fabric woven or knit with metallic yarns.", "; lanterne rouge: the last-place finisher in a cycling stage race; most commonly used in connection with the Tour de France.", "; lèse majesté: an offense against a sovereign power; or, an attack against someone's dignity or against a custom or institution held sacred (from the Latin ''crimen laesae maiestatis'': the crime of injured majesty).", "; liaison: a close relationship or connection; an affair.", "The French meaning is broader; ''liaison'' also means \"bond\"' such as in ''une liaison chimique'' (a chemical bond); lingerie: a type of female underwear.", "; littérateur: an intellectual (can be pejorative in French, meaning someone who writes a lot but does not have a particular skill).", "; louche: of questionable taste, but also someone or something that arouses somebody's suspicions.", "; Louis Quatorze: \"Louis XIV\" (of France), the Sun King, usually a reference to décor or furniture design.", "; Louis Quinze: \"Louis XV\" (of France), associated with the rococo style of furniture, architecture and interior decoration.=== M ===MacraméMange toutMardi gras; macramé: coarse lace work made with knotted cords.", "; madame : a woman brothel-keeper.", "In French, a title of respect for an older or married woman (literally \"my lady\"); sometimes spelled \"madam\" in English (but never in French).", "; mademoiselle: lit.", "\"my noble young lady\": young unmarried lady, miss.", "; malaise:a general sense of depression or unease.", "Can also be used to denote complacency, or lethargy towards something.", "; mange tout: a phrase describing snow peas and snap peas (lit.", "\"eat-all\", because these peas can be cooked and eaten with their pod).", "; manqué: unfulfilled; failed.", "; Mardi gras: Fat Tuesday or Shrove Tuesday, the last day of eating meat before Lent.", "; marque: a model or brand.", "; matériel: supplies and equipment, particularly in a military context (French meaning is broader and corresponds more to \"hardware\"); mauvais quart d'heure: lit.", "\"bad quarter hour\": a short unpleasant or uncomfortable moment.", "; mdr: Alt., MDR.", "Abbreviation in SMS, akin to LOL; for ''mort de rire'' (''mort'', adj.", "or verb, past tense), or ''mourir de rire'' (''mourir'', verb, infinitive).", "Lit., as adjective or past tense, dead or died of laughing, so \"died laughing\" or \"dying of laughter\"; compare ''mort de faim'' for starve.", "; mélange: a mixture.", "; mêlée: a confused fight; a struggling crowd.", "In French also: a rugby scrum.", "; ménage à trois: lit.", "\"household for three\": a sexual arrangement between three people.", "; métier: a field of work or other activity; usually one in which one has special ability or training.", "; milieu: social environment; setting (has also the meaning of \"middle\", and organized crime community in French).", "; milieu intérieur: the extra-cellular fluid environment, and its physiological capacity to ensure protective stability for the tissues and organs of multicellular living organisms.", "; mirepoix: a cooking mixture of two parts onions and one part each of celery and carrots.", "; mise en place: an assembly of ingredients, usually set up in small bowls, used to facilitate cooking.", "This means all the raw ingredients are prepared and ready to go before cooking.", "Translated, \"put in place.", "\"; mise en scène: the process of setting a stage with regard to placement of actors, scenery, properties, etc.", "; the stage setting or scenery of a play; surroundings, environment.", "; mise en table: table setting.", "; montage: editing.", "; le mot juste: lit.", "\"the just word\"; the right word at the right time.", "French uses it often in the expression ''chercher le mot juste'' (to search for the right word).", "; motif: a recurrent thematic element.", "; moue: a type of facial expression; pursing together of the lips to indicate dissatisfaction, a pout.", "See snout reflex.", "; mousse: a whipped dessert or a hairstyling foam; in French, however, it refers to any type of foam or moss.=== N ===; naïveté: Lack of sophistication, experience, judgement, or worldliness; artlessness; gullibility; credulity.", "; né, née: lit.", "\"born\": a man's/woman's birth name (maiden name for a woman), e.g., \"Martha Washington, ''née'' Dandridge.", "\"; n'est-ce pas?", ": \"isn't it true?", "\": asked rhetorically after a statement, as in \"Right?\".", "; noblesse oblige: \"nobility obliges\": those granted a higher station in life have a duty to extend (possibly token) favours/courtesies to those in lower stations.", "; nom de guerre: pseudonym to disguise the identity of a leader of a militant group, literally \"war name\", used in France for \"pseudonym\".", "; nom de plume: a \"back-translation\" from the English \"pen name\": author's pseudonym.", ": Although now used in French as well, the term was coined in English by analogy with ''nom de guerre''.", "; nonpareil: Unequalled, unrivalled; unparalleled; unique: the modern French equivalent of this expression is ''sans pareil'' (literally \"without equal\").", "; nouveau (pl.", "nouveaux; fem.", "nouvelle; fem.", "pl.", "nouvelles): new.", "; nouveau riche: lit.", "\"newly rich\": used to refer particularly to those living a garish lifestyle with their newfound wealth; see also arriviste and parvenu.", "; nouvelle vague: lit.", "\"new wave.", "\": Used for stating a new way or a new trend of something.", "Originally marked a new style of French filmmaking in the late 1950s and early 1960s, reacting against films seen as too literary.=== O ===; objet d'art: a work of art, commonly a painting or sculpture; also a utilitarian object displayed for its aesthetic qualities; œuvre: \"work\", in the sense of an artist's work; by extension, an artist's entire body of work.", "; opéra bouffe: comedy, satire, parody or farce.", "; outré: exceeding the lines of propriety; eccentric in behavior or appearance in an inappropriate way=== P ===Pain au chocolatParkourPince-nez; pain au chocolat: lit.", "\"bread with chocolate.\"", "Despite the name, it is not made of bread but puff pastry with chocolate inside.", "The term ''chocolatine'' is used in some Francophone areas (especially the South-West) and sometimes in English.", "; pain aux raisins: raisin bread.", "; panache: verve; flamboyance.", "; papier-mâché: lit.", "\"chewed paper\"; a craft medium using paper and paste.", "; par avion: by aircraft.", "In English, specifically by air mail, from the phrase found on air mail envelopes.", "; par excellence: better than all the others, quintessential.", "; parc fermé: lit.", "\"closed park\".", "A secure area at a Grand Prix circuit where the cars may be stored overnight.", "; parkour: urban street sport involving climbing and leaping, using buildings, walls, curbs to ricochet off much as if one were on a skateboard, often in follow-the-leader style.", "Originally a phonetic form of the French word ''parcours'', which means \"a run, a route\" Also known as, or the predecessor to, \"free running\", developed by Sébastien Foucan.", "; '''parole''': 1) (in linguistics) speech, more specifically the individual, personal phenomenon of language; see langue and parole.", "2) (in criminal justice) conditional early release from prison; see parole.", "; parvenu: a social upstart.", "; pas de deux: lit.", "\"step for two\"; in ballet, a dance or figure for two performers, a duet; also a close relationship between two people.", "; pas de trois: lit.", "\"step for three\"; in ballet, a dance or figure for three performers.", "; passe-partout: a document or key that allows the holder to travel without hindrance from the authorities or enter any location.", "; pastiche: a derivative work; an imitation.", "; patois: a dialect; jargon.", "; père : lit.", "\"father\", used after a man's surname to distinguish a father from a son, as in Alexandre Dumas, père.", "; peloton: in road cycling, the main group of riders in a race.", "; petit pois: small peas, often sold in the frozen food aisle.", "; petite bourgeoisie: often anglicised as \"petty bourgeoisie\", used to designate the middle class.", "; la petite mort: lit.", "\"the little death\"; an expression for the weakening or loss of consciousness following an intense orgasm.", "; Pied-Noir (plural Pieds-Noirs): lit.", "\"black foot\", a European Algerian in the pre-independence state.", "; pied-à-terre (also pied à terre) : lit.", "\"foot-on-the-ground\"; a place to stay, generally small and applied to a secondary residence in a city.", "; pince-nez: lit.", "\"nose-pincher\", a type of spectacles without temple arms.", "; piste: lit.", "\"trail\" or \"track\"; often used referring to skiing at a ski area (on piste) versus skiing in the back country (off piste).", "; plage : beach, especially a fashionable seaside resort.", "; plat du jour: lit.", "\"dish of the day\"; a dish served in a restaurant on a particular day but separate from the regular menu.", "; plongeur (fem.", "plongeuse): a male (or female) dishwasher in a professional kitchen.", "; plus ça change, plus c'est la même chose (or ''plus ça change, plus c'est pareil'') (often abbreviated to just ''plus ça change''): the more things change, the more they stay the same.", "An aphorism coined by Jean-Baptiste Alphonse Karr.", "; point d'appui:a location where troops assemble prior to a battle.", "While this figurative meaning also exists in French, the first and literal meaning of ''point d'appui'' is a fixed point from which a person or thing executes a movement (such as a footing in climbing or a pivot).", ";porte-cochère:an architectural term referring to a kind of porch or portico-like structure.;poseur:lit.", "\"poser\": a person who pretends to be something he is not; an affected or insincere person; a wannabe.", ";pot-au-feu:stew, soup.", "; pour encourager les autres:lit.", "\"to encourage others\"; said of an excessive punishment meted out as an example, to deter others.", "The original is from Voltaire's ''Candide'' and referred to the execution of Admiral John Byng.;pourboire:lit.", "\"for drink\"; gratuity, tip; ''donner un pourboire'': to tip.;prairie:lit.", "\"meadow\"; expansive natural meadows of long grass.;prêt-à-porter:lit.", "\"ready to wear\"; clothing off the shelf, in contrast to ''haute couture''.;prie-dieu:lit.", "\"pray to God\"; a type of prayer desk.", ";prix fixe:lit.", "\"fixed price\"; a menu on which multi-course meals with only a few choices are charged at a fixed price.", ";protégé (fem.", "protégée):lit.", "\"protected\"; a man/woman who receives support from an influential mentor.", ";provocateur:an agitator, a polemicist.;purée:lit.", "a smooth, creamy substance made of liquidized or crushed fruit or vegetables.=== Q ===; Quai d'Orsay: address of the French foreign ministry in Paris, used to refer to the ministry itself.", "; Quatorze juillet: \"14th of July\", usually called Bastille Day in English.", "The beginning of the French Revolution in 1789; used to refer to the Revolution itself and its ideals.", "It is the French National Day.", "; quelle bonne idée!", ": ''What a good idea!", "''; quel dommage!", ": ''What a sad thing!''", "(can be used sarcastically).", "; quelle horreur!", ": ''What a horrible thing!''", "(can be used sarcastically).", "; quelle surprise!", ": ''What a surprising thing!", "(mostly used sarcastically)''=== R ===Roux; raconteur: a storyteller.", "; raison d'être: \"reason for being\": justification or purpose of existence.", "; rapprochement: the establishment of cordial relations, often used in diplomacy.", "; reconnaissance: scouting, the military exploration outside an area that friendly forces occupy; Renaissance: a historical period or cultural movement of rebirth; refoulement: the expulsion of persons who have the right to be recognised as refugees.", "; reportage: reporting; journalism.", "; répondez s'il-vous-plaît.", "(RSVP): ''Please reply''.", "Though francophones may use more usually \"prière de répondre\" or \"je vous prie de bien vouloir répondre\", it is common enough.", "; restaurateur: a restaurant owner.", "; Rive Gauche: the left (southern) bank (of the River Seine in Paris).", "A particular mindset attributed to inhabitants of that area, which includes the Sorbonne; roi fainéant: lit.", "\"do-nothing king\": an expression first used about the kings of France from 670 to 752 (Thierry III to Childeric III), who were puppets of their ministers.", "The term was later used about other royalty who had been made powerless, also in other countries, but lost its meaning when parliamentarism made all royals powerless.", "; roman à clef: lit.", "\"novel with a key\": an account of actual persons, places or events in fictional guise.", "; roué: an openly debauched, lecherous older man.", "; roux: a cooked mixture of flour and melted butter (or other fat) used as a base in soups and gravies.=== S ===; sacre bleu: lit.", "\"sacred blue\": a dated French minced oath originating from the blasphemous \"sacre dieu!\"", "(\"Holy god!\").", "Meant as a cry of surprise or happiness.", ": French orthography is ''sacrebleu'' in one word.", "; sang-froid: lit.", "\"cold blood\": coolness and composure under strain; stiff upper lip.", "Also pejorative in the phrase ''meurtre de sang-froid'' (\"cold-blooded murder\").", "; sans: without.", "; sans-culottes: lit.", "\"without knee-breeches\", a name the insurgent crowd in the streets of Paris gave to itself during the French Revolution, because they usually wore pantaloons (full-length pants or trousers) instead of the chic knee-length culotte of the nobles.", "In modern use: holding strong republican views.", "; sauté : lit.", "\"jumped\", from the past participle of the verb sauter (to jump), which can be used as an adjective or a noun; quickly fried in a small amount of oil, stir-fried.", "ex: sauté of veau.", "; savant: lit.", "\"knowing\": a wise or learned person; in English, one exceptionally gifted in a narrow skill.", "; savoir-faire: lit.", "\"know how to do\"; to respond appropriately to any situation.", "; savoir-vivre: fact of following conventional norms within a society; etiquette (etiquette also comes from a French word, ''étiquette'').", "; sobriquet: an assumed name, a nickname (often used in a pejorative way in French).", "; soi-disant: lit.", "\"oneself saying\"; so-called; self-described.", "; soigné: fashionable; polished.", "; soirée: an evening party.", "; sommelier: a wine steward.", "; soupçon: a very small amount.", "(In French, it can also mean \"suspicion\".", "); soupe du jour: lit.", "\"soup of the day\", the particular kind of soup offered that day.", "; succès d'estime: lit.", "\"success of esteem; critical success\"; sometimes used pejoratively in English.=== T ===Tableau vivant; tableau: chalkboard.", "The meaning is broader in French: all types of board (chalkboard, whiteboard, notice board ...).", "Refers also to a painting (see tableau vivant, below) or a table (chart).", "; tableau vivant: lit.", "\"living picture\"; the term describes a striking group of suitably costumed actors or artist's models, carefully posed and often theatrically lit.", "; tenné: orange-brown, \"rust\" colour, not commonly used outside heraldic emblazoning.", "; tête-à-tête: lit.", "\"head to head\"; an intimate get-together or private conversation between two people.", "; toilette: the process of dressing or grooming.", "Also refers in French, when plural (''les toilettes''), to the toilet room.", "; torsades de pointes: lit.", "\"twisting around a point\", used to describe a particular type of heart rhythm.", "; touché: lit.", "\"touched\" or \"hit!", "\": acknowledgment of an effective counterpoint or verbal riposte; comes from terminology in the sport of fencing.", "In French has a broader meaning (touched) as \"emotionally touched\".", "; tour de force (also tour-de-force): lit.", "\"feat of strength\": a masterly or brilliant stroke, creation, effect, or accomplishment.", "; tout court: lit.", "\"all short\": typically used in philosophy to mean \"nothing else\", in contrast to a more detailed or extravagant alternative.", "For instance, \"Kant does not believe that morality derives from practical reason as applied to moral ends, but from practical reason tout court\".", "; tout de suite: right now, immediately.", "Often mangled as \"toot sweet\".", "; tranche: lit.", "\"slice\": one of several different classes of securities involved a single financial transaction.", ";triage:during a medical emergency or disaster, the process of determining the priority of medical treatment or transportation based on the severity of the patient's condition.", "In recent years, in British English usage, the term has also been used in the sense of ''to screen'' or ''address'' something at the point of contact, before it requires escalation.Trou de loup; tricoteuse: a woman who knits and gossips; from the women who knitted and sewed while watching executions of prisoners of the French Revolution.", "; trompe-l'œil: lit.", "\"trick the eye\"; photographic realism in fine-art painting or decorative painting in a home.", "; trou de loup: lit.", "\"wolf hole\"; a kind of booby trap.", "; trousseau: # The wardrobe of a bride, including the wedding dress or similar clothing, or the bride's belongings # A dowry# A hope chest, glory box or its contents=== V ===; va-et-vient: lit.", "\"goes and comes\"; the continual coming and going of people to and from a place.", "; venu(e):an invited man/woman for a show, or \"one who has come\"; the term is unused in modern French, though it can still be heard in a few expressions like ''bienvenu/e'' (literally \"well come\": welcome) or ''le premier venu'' (anyone; literally, \"the first who came\").", "Almost exclusively used in modern English as a noun meaning the location where a meeting or event is taking place.", "; vin de pays: lit.", "\"country wine\"; wine of a lower designated quality than ''appellation contrôlée''.Salad with vinaigrette dressing; vinaigrette: diminutive of ''vinaigre'' (vinegar): salad dressing of oil and vinegar.", "; vis-à-vis (also vis-a-vis): lit.", "\"face to face with\": in comparison with or in relation to; opposed to.", "From ''vis'', an obsolete word for \"face\", replaced by ''visage'' in contemporary French.", "In French, this is also a real estate vocabulary word, meaning that your windows and your neighbours' are within sighting distance (more precisely, that you can see inside of their home).", "; vive ...!", ": \"Long live ...!", "\"; lit.", "\"Live\"; as in ''\"Vive la France !", "\"'', ''Vive la République !", "'', ''Vive la Résistance !", "'', ''Vive le Canada !", "'', or ''Vive le Québec libre !''", "(long live free Quebec, a sovereigntist slogan famously used by French President Charles de Gaulle in 1967 in Montreal).", "Unlike ''viva'' (Italian and Spanish) or ''vivat'' (Latin), it cannot be used alone; it needs a complement.", ";vive la différence!", ": lit.", "\"long live the difference\"; originally referring to the difference between the sexes; the phrase may be also used to celebrate the difference between any two groups of people (or simply the general diversity of individuals).", "; voilà !", ": lit.", "\"see there\"; in French it can mean simply \"there it is\"; in English it is generally restricted to a triumphant revelation.", "; volte-face: frenchified form of Italian ''volta faccia'', lit.", "\"turn face\", an about-face, a maneuver in marching; figuratively, a complete reversal of opinion or position.", "; voulez-vous coucher avec moi (ce soir)?", ": \"Do you want to sleep with me (tonight)?\"", "or more appropriately, \"Will you spend the night with me?\"", "In French, ''coucher'' is vulgar in this sense.", "In English it appears in Tennessee Williams's play ''A Streetcar Named Desire'', as well as in the lyrics of a popular song by Labelle, \"Lady Marmalade.", "\"; voyeur: lit.", "\"someone who sees\"; a Peeping Tom.=== Z ===; zut alors!", ": \"Darn it!\"", "or the British expression \"Blimey!\"", "This is a general exclamation (vulgar equivalent is ''merde alors !''", "\"Damn it!\").", "Just plain ''zut'' is also in use, often repeated for effect: ''zut, zut et zut !''", "There is an album by Frank Zappa, punningly titled ''Zoot Allures''.", "The phrase is also used on the ''Saturday Night Live'' Weekend Update sketch by recurring character Jean K. Jean, played by Kenan Thompson as well as by John Goodman's Dan Conner in an episode of ''Roseanne'' when Roseanne dresses up in a sexy outfit and has a ''boudoir'' photo taken of her as a birthday gift for her husband." ], [ "Not used as such in French", "Through the evolution of the language, many words and phrases are no longer used in modern French.", "Also there are expressions that, even though grammatically correct, do not have the same meaning in French as the English words derived from them.", "Some older word usages still appear in Quebec French.", "; à la mode:fashionable; in the US it also describes a dessert with ice cream (as in \"apple pie à la mode\") or, in some US regions, with cheese.", "In French, it mainly means \"fashionable\", \"trendy\", but is occasionally a culinary term usually meaning something cooked with carrots and onions (as in ''bœuf à la mode'').", "It can also mean \"in the style or manner of\" (as in ''tripes à la mode de Caen''), and in this acceptation is similar to the shorter expression \"à la\".", "The British English meaning and usage is the same as in French.", "; accoutrement: personal military or fighting armaments worn about one's self; has come to mean the accompanying items available to pursue a mission, or just accessories in general.", "In French, means a funny or ridiculous clothing; often a weird disguise or a getup, though it can be said also for people with bad taste in clothing.", "; appliqué: an inlaid or attached decorative feature.", "Lit.", "\"applied\", though this meaning does not exist as such in French.", "However \"appliqué inversé\" exists and has the same meaning as a reverse appliqué.", "Also an \"applique murale\" is a decorative light fixture attached on a wall.", "; après-ski: lit.", "\"after skiing\", socializing after a ski session; in French, this word refers to boots used to walk in snow (e.g.", "MoonBoots).", "Commonly used for the same thing as in English in Quebec.", "; arrêt à bon temps: A counterattack that attempts to take advantage of an uncertain attack in fencing.", "Though grammatically correct, this expression is not used in French.", "The term ''arrêt'' exists in fencing, with the meaning of a \"simple counteroffensive action\"; the general meaning is \"a stop\".", "A related French expression: ''s'arrêter à temps'' (to stop in time).", "; artiste: a skilled performer, a person with artistic pretensions.", "In French: an artist.", "Can be used ironically for a person demonstrating little professional skill or passion in both languages.", "; au naturel: nude; in French, literally, in a natural manner or way (''au'' is the contraction of ''à le'', masculine form of ''à la'').", "It means \"in an unaltered way\" and can be used either for people or things.", "For people, it rather refers to a person who does not use make-up or artificial manners (''un entretien au naturel'' = a backstage interview).", "For things, it means that they have not been altered.", "Often used in cooking, like ''thon au naturel'': canned tuna without any spices or oil.", "Also in heraldry, meaning \"in natural colours\", especially flesh colour, which is not one of the \"standard\" colours of heraldry.", "; auteur: A film director, specifically one who controls most aspects of a film, or other controller of an artistic situation.", "The English connotation derives from French film theory.", "It was popularized in the journal ''Cahiers du cinéma'': auteur theory maintains that directors like Hitchcock exert a level of creative control equivalent to the author of a literary work.", "In French, the word means \"author\", but some expressions like ''cinéma d'auteur'' are also in use.", "; bête noire: a scary or unpopular person, idea, or thing, or the archetypal scary monster in a story; literally \"black beast.\"", "In French, ''être la bête noire de quelqu'un'' (\"to be somebody's black beast\") means that you're particularly hated by this person or this person has a strong aversion against you, regardless of whether you're scary or not.", "The dictionary of the Académie française admits its use only for people, though other dictionaries admit it for things or ideas too.", "It also means that one is repeatedly defeated by a person, who is thus considered their archenemy (for instance, \"Nadal is the bête noire of Roger Federer\").", "; boutique: a clothing store, usually selling designer/one off pieces rather than mass-produced clothes.", "Can also describe a quirky and/or upmarket hotel.", "In French, it can describe any shop, clothing or otherwise.", "The expression ''hôtel-boutique'' can be used to refer to upmarket hotels, but the word is recent and not as widespread as the equivalent expression boutique hotel.", "; boutonnière: In English, a boutonnière is a flower placed in the buttonhole of a suit jacket.", "In French, a boutonnière is the buttonhole itself.", "Yet the French expression \"Une fleur à la boutonnière\" has an equivalent meaning.", "; c'est magnifique, mais ce n'est pas la guerre: \"it is magnificent, but it is not war\" — quotation from Marshal Pierre Bosquet commenting on the charge of the Light Brigade.", "Unknown quotation in French.", "; cause célèbre: An issue arousing widespread controversy or heated public debate, lit.", "'famous cause'.", "It is correct grammatically, but the expression is not used in French.", "; chacun à son goût: the correct expressions in French are ''chacun ses goûts / à chacun ses goûts / à chacun son goût'': \"to each his/her own taste(s)\".", "; chanson: a classical \"art song\", equiv.", "to the German ''Lied'' or the Italian ''aria''; or, in Russian, a cabaret-style sung narrative, usually rendered by a guttural male voice with guitar accompaniment.", "In French, it can be used to refer to any song, but it also refers to the same music genre as in English (someone practicing this genre being generally called a ''chansonnier'' in Quebec, especially if they sing at a restaurant or cabaret).", "; château: a manor house or a country house of nobility or gentry, with or without fortifications, originally—and still most frequently—in French-speaking regions.", "The word château is also used for castles in French, so where clarification is needed, the term château fort (\"strong castle\") is used to describe a castle.", "; chef: in English, a person who cooks professionally for other people.", "In French the word means \"head\" or \"chief\"; a professional cook is a ''cuisinier'' (lit.", "\"cook\"), ''chef-cuisinier'' referring to a head cook.", "Also, '''sous-chef''', the second-in-command, directly under the head chef.", "Traditionally, ''chef'' used to means the head, for example a \"couvre-chef\" is a headgear, but by extension it's often used in job titles, military ranks, for a person in charge or who leads a group of people: \"chef d'État\" (lit.", "\"Head of State\" and \"Chief of State\"), \"chef d'entreprise\" (\"Business executive\"), \"chef d'orchestre\" (Conductor of an Orchestra), \"sergeant-chef\" (Staff Sergeant), \"chef de gare\" (stationmaster), \"chef de famille\" (head of household), etc.", "More casually in a work context, a ''chef'' is a boss.", "; cinq à sept: extraconjugal affair between five and seven pm.", "In French, though it can also mean this, it primarily means any relaxing time with friends between the end of work and the beginning of the marital obligations.", "In Quebec French, it is also used as a synonym for \"Happy Hour\" by bars and restaurants that serve discounted drinks after working hours.", "; claque: a group of admirers; in French, \"la claque\" is a group of people paid to applaud or disturb a piece at the theatre, though the common meaning of \"claque\" is \"a slap\"; ''clique'' is used in this sense (but in a pejorative way).", "; connoisseur: an expert in wines, fine arts, or other matters of culture; a person of refined taste.", "It is spelled ''conn'''a'''isseur'' in modern French (lit.", "\"someone who knows\").", "; corsage: A bouquet of flowers worn on a woman's dress or worn around her wrist.", "In French, it refers to a woman's chest (from shoulder to waist) and, by extension, the part of a woman's garment that covers this area.", "; coup de main (pl.", "coups de main): a surprise attack.", "In French, ''donner un coup de main'' means \"to give a hand\" (to give assistance).", "Even if the English meaning exists as well (as in ''faire le coup de main''), it is old-fashioned.", "; coup d'état (pl.", "coups d'état):a sudden change in government by force; literally \"hit (blow) of state.\"", "French uses the capital É, because the use of a capital letter alters the meaning of the word ('''É'''tat: a State, as in a country; '''é'''tat: a state of being).", "It also cannot be shortened as ''coup'' as is often the case in English- because this literally means a \"hit\" in French, but can be used figuratively to mean many more things.", "; début:first public performance of an entertainment personality or group.", "In French, it means \"beginning.\"", "The English meaning of the word exists only when in the plural form: ''faire ses débuts sur scène'' (to make one's débuts on the stage).", "The English meaning and usage also extends to sports to denote a player who is making their first appearance for a team or at an event.", "; décolletage: a low-cut neckline, cleavage.", "In French it means: 1.action of lowering a female garment's neckline; 2.Agric.", ": cutting leaves from some cultivated roots such as beets, carrots, etc.", "; 3.Tech.", "Operation consisting of making screws, bolts, etc.", "one after another out of a single bar of metal on a parallel lathe.", "A low-cut neckline, or its shape, would in French be called ''un décollet'''é''''' (noun and adjective): ''un décolleté profond'', a deep décolletage; ''une robe très décolletée'', a dress with very low neckline.", "; démarche: a decisive step.", "In French, it means a preparing step (often used in the plural form), a specific set of steps to get a specific result (can be used in the singular form, sometimes the expression \"marche à suivre\" (lit.", "\"step to follow\") will be preferred), or a distinctive way of walking.", "; dépanneur: a neighbourhood general/convenience store, term used in eastern Canada (often shortened to ''dép'' or ''dep'').", "This term is commonly used in Canadian French; however, in France, it means a repairman or tow truck operator.", "In France, a convenience store would be a ''supérette'' or ''épicerie de quartier''.", "; émigré: one who has emigrated for political reasons.", "French also use the word ''exilé'' (exiled) or ''réfugié'' (refugee) or even \"exilé politique\" or \"réfugié politique\".", "; encore: A request to repeat a performance, as in ''Encore!", "'', lit.", "'again'; also used to describe additional songs played at the end of a gig.", "Francophones would say « Une autre !", "» ('Another one!')", "or «Bis !» to request « un rappel » or « un bis ».", "; en masse: in a mass or group, all together.", "In French, ''masse'' refers only to a physical mass, whether for people or objects.", "It cannot be used for something immaterial, like, for example, the voice: \"they all together said 'get out'\" would be translated as ''ils ont dit 'dehors' en chœur'' (like a chorus).", "Also, ''en masse'' refers to numerous people or objects (a crowd or a mountain of things).", "In colloquial Québécois French, it means \"a bunch\" (as in ''il y avait du monde en masse'', \"there was a bunch of people\").", "; en suite:as a set (not to be confused with ''ensuite'', meaning \"then\").", "Can refer, in particular, to hotel rooms with attached private bathroom, especially in Britain where hotels without private facilities are more common than in North America.", "In French, ''suite'', when in the context of a hotel, already means several rooms following each other.", "''J'ai loué une suite au Ritz'' would be translated as \"I rented a suite at the Ritz.\"", "''En suite'' is not grammatically incorrect in French, but it is not an expression in itself and it is not used.", "Also used in British English to denote a bathroom that is accessible directly from the master bedroom of a house (usually with a connecting door), rather than by a separate entrance.", "; entrée: lit.", "\"entrance\"; in French, the first dish that starts a meal, i.e.", "the entrance to the meal.", "It can refer to a set of bites or small snacks, or a small dish served before a main course.", "The main dish or \"plat de résistance\" comes after the entrée.", "In American English, the meaning has migrated to \"main dish\".", "In other varieties of English it maintains its French meaning.", "; épée: a fencing weapon descended from the duelling sword.", "In French, apart from fencing (the sport) the term is more generic: it means sword.", "; escritoire: a writing table.", "It is spelt ''écritoire'' in modern French.", "; exposé: a published exposure of a fraud or scandal (past participle of \"to expose\"); in French refers to a talk or a report on any kind of subject.", "; femme: a stereotypically effeminate gay man or lesbian (slang, pronounced as written).", "In French, ''femme'' (pronounced 'fam') means \"woman.", "\"; fin de siècle: comparable to (but not exactly the same as) turn-of-the-century but with a connotation of decadence, usually applied to the period from 1890 through 1910.In French, it means \"end of the century\", but it isn't a recognized expression as such.", "The French expression \"ambiance de fin de règne\" (lit.", "\"end-of-reign atmosphere\") also has a light connotation of boredom and decadence.", "; forte: a strength, a strong point, typically of a person, from the French ''fort(e)'' (strong) and/or Italian ''forte'' (strong, esp.", "\"loud\" in music) and/or Latin ''forte'' (neuter form of ''fortis'', strong).", "French uses ''fort(e)'' for both people and objects.", ": According to Merriam Webster Dictionary, \"In ''forte'' we have a word derived from French that in its \"strong point\" sense has no entirely satisfactory pronunciation.", "Usage writers have denigrated \\'for-\"tA\\ and \\'for-tE\\ because they reflect the influence of the Italian-derived ''forte''.", "Their recommended pronunciation \\'fort\\, however, does not exactly reflect French either: the French would write the word ''le fort'' and would rhyme it with English ''for'' French doesn't pronounce the final \"t\".", "All are standard, however.", "In British English \\'fo-\"tA\\ and \\'fot\\ predominate; \\'for-\"tA\\ and \\for-'tA\\ are probably the most frequent pronunciations in American English.", "\": The New Oxford Dictionary of English derives it from fencing.", "In French, ''le fort d'une épée'' is the third of a blade nearer the hilt, the strongest part of the sword used for parrying.", "; hors d'oeuvre: term used for the snacks served with drinks before a meal.", "Literally \"outside of the work\".", "The French use ''apéritif'' to refer to the time before a meal and the drinks consumed during that time, yet \"hors d'œuvre\" is a synonym of \"entrée\" in French and means the first dish that starts a meal.", "At home in family circles it means more specifically seasoned salads taken as a starter.", "In Québécois French, ''apéritif'' refers to the drink only, and ''hors-d'œuvre'' (usually plural) refers to a set of bites, while an ''entrée'' is a small dish (an ''entrée'' can be made as ''hors-d'œuvres'', but not all of them are).", "; la sauce est tout: \"The sauce is everything!\"", "or \"The secret's in the sauce!\"", "Tagline used in a 1950s American television commercial campaign for an American line of canned food products.", "Grammatically correct but not used in French, where one might say ''Tout est dans la sauce'' or ''C'est la sauce qui fait (passer) le poisson''.", "; Lavatoire or Lavatory: A once commonly used British term for a toilet or water closet.", "Before the age of the internet, it was commonly believed, and widely taught in schools in Britain, that the word Toilet was a rather vulgar, impure, corruption of the French word \"Toilettes\" and that Lavatory was the correct expression to use because it was much closer in meaning to the French the word it was derived from, \"Lavatoire\", which was supposed to mean \"to wash, or to clean, yourself\".", "Actually, though the word Lavatoire does exist in French, it never meant a toilet or a bathroom.", "The Lavatoire was the holy stone upon which the bodies of ecclesiastics, priest and members of the clergy, were once washed after their deaths, in order to prepare them for the afterlife, for their journey to heaven.", "; marquee:the sign above a theater that tells you what is playing.", "From ''marquise'', which means not only a marchioness but also an awning.", "Theater buildings are generally old and nowadays there is never such a sign above them; there is only the advertisement for the play (''l'affiche'').", "In English, means a temporary structure (often made of canvas or similar material) which is erected to host an event outdoors, especially in the UK, where such events can often be affected by weather conditions (pronounced ''mar-key'').", "; : \"yearning for the mud\"; attraction to what is unworthy, crude or degrading.", "Though grammatically correct, it is not used in French.", "; objet trouvé: an ordinary object, such as a piece of driftwood, a shell, or a manufactured article, that is treated as an ''objet d'art'' because it is aesthetically pleasing.", "In French, ''les objets trouvés'', short for ''le bureau des objets trouvés'', means the lost-and-found, the lost property.", "; outré: out of the ordinary, unusual.", "In French, it means outraged (for a person) or exaggerated, extravagant, overdone (for a thing, esp.", "a praise, an actor's style of acting, etc.", "); in that second meaning, belongs to \"literary\" style.", "; passé: out of fashion.", "The correct expression in French is ''passé de mode.''", "Passé means past, passed, or (for a colour) faded.", "; peignoir: a woman's dressing gown.", "It means bathrobe.", "In French, both ''peignoir'' and ''robe de chambre'' are used interchangeably for a dressing gown regardless of sex, though the latter is generally considered formal and the former is generally seen as colloquial.", "A bathrobe (for either sex, in absorbent material) is ''un peignoir de bain''.", "; pièce d'occasion: \"occasional piece\"; item written or composed for a special occasion.", "In French, it means \"second-hand hardware.\"", "Can be shortened as ''pièce d'occas'' or even ''occas'' (pronounced /okaz/).", "; portemanteau (pl.", "portemanteaux):in English a portmanteau is a large piece of luggage for clothes that opens (like a book or a diptych) into two parts.", "From this literal sense, Lewis Carroll, in his novel ''Through the Looking Glass'' playfully coined a further figurative sense for portmanteau meaning a word that fuses two or more words or parts of words to give a combined meaning.", "In French, lit.", "a 'coat-carrier', originally a person who carried the royal coat or dress train, now a large suitcase; more often, a clothes hanger.", "The equivalent of the English/ Lewis-Carroll ''portemanteau'' is ''un mot-valise'' (lit.", "a suitcase word).", "\"Brexit\" and \"emoticon\" are modern examples of portmanteau words.", "; potpourri: medley, mixture; French write it ''pot-pourri'', literally 'rotten pot': primarily a pot in which different kinds of flowers or spices are put to dry for years for the scent.", "; précis: a concise summary.", "In French, when talking about a school course, it means an abridged book about the matter.", "Literally, ''précis'' means precise, accurate.", "; première: refers to the first performance of a play, a film, etc.", "\"La première\" is used in same way in French, but it more generally means \"the first\".", "; raisonneur: a type of author intrusion in which a writer inserts a character to argue the author's viewpoint; alter ego, sometimes called 'author avatar'.", "In French, a ''raisonneur'' is a character in a play who stands for morality and reason, i.e., not necessarily the author's point of view.", "The first meaning of this word though is a man (fem.", "''raisonneuse'') who overdoes reasonings, who tires by objecting with numerous arguments to every order.", "; recherché: lit.", "searched; obscure; pretentious.", "In French, means 'sophisticated' or 'delicate', or simply 'studied', without the negative connotations of the English.", "; rendezvous: lit.", "\"present yourself\" or \"proceed to\"; a meeting, appointment, or date in French.", "In English, it generally endorses a mysterious overtone and refers to a one-on-one meeting with someone for another purpose than a date.", "Always hyphenated in French: ''rendez-vous''.", "Its only accepted abbreviation in French is RDV.", "; reprise:repetition of previous music in a suite, programme, etc.", "and also applied to an actor who resumes a role that they have played previously.", "In French, it may mean an alternate version of a piece of music, or a cover version, or the rebroadcast of a show, piece or movie that was originally broadcast a while ago (although the term ''rediffusion'' is generally preferred, especially when talking about something on television).", "To express the repetition of a previous musical theme, French would exclusively use the Italian term coda.", "; résumé: in North American English, a document listing one's qualifications for employment.", "In French, it means summary; French speakers would use instead ''curriculum vitæ'', or its abbreviation, C.V. (like most other English speakers).", "; risqué '''(also risque)''': sexually suggestive; in French, the meaning of ''risqué'' is \"risky\", with no sexual connotation.", "Francophones use instead ''osé'' (lit.", "\"daring\") or sometimes ''dévergondé'' (very formal language).", "''Osé'', unlike ''dévergondé'', cannot be used for people themselves, only for things (such as pictures) or attitudes.", "; ''rouge'' (lit.", "\"red\") : 1) a rouge is red makeup, also called blusher.", "''Rouge à lèvres'' is French for \"lipstick\", even if the lipstick is not red at all.", "The French equivalent to the English meaning is \"fard à joues\"; 2) in Canadian football, a rouge is awarded when the ball is kicked into the end zone by any legal means, other than a successful field goal, and the receiving team does not return or kick the ball out of its end zone.", "; séance : a gathering, usually using a 'medium', attempting to communicate with the dead.", "In French, the word means 'sitting' and usually refers to any kind of meeting or session.", "; table d'hôte (pl.", "tables d'hôte): in English, when used it usually refers to type of meal: a full-course meal offered at a fixed price.", "However, in French, it refers to a type of lodging: the closest English equivalent would be \"a bed & breakfast\" or \"B&B.\"", "The origin of the meaning (for French speakers) is that at a table d'hôte (literally \"table of the house\" or \"table of the host\"), unlike at a full-service purpose-built hotel, all patrons eat together at the host's table, whatever the family have prepared for themselves (typically traditional regional dishes).", "Indeed, in France today a lodging labeled \"table d'hôte\" might perhaps not even offer food; the appellation meaning what an English-speaker would think of as a \"bed & breakfast -style\" family-home lodging (as opposed to a purpose-built hotel).", "In Quebec, ''table d'hôte'' generally has the same meaning as in English, the expression ''couette et café'' (lit.", "\"duvet and coffee\") is generally used to talk about B&B style accommodations, where the English expression is not used.", "; tableau vivant (pl.", "tableaux vivants, often shortened as ''tableau''): in drama, a scene where actors remain motionless as if in a picture.", "''Tableau'' means painting, ''tableau vivant'', living painting.", "In French, it is an expression used in body painting.", "; touché: acknowledgment of an effective counterpoint.", "In French, used for \"emotionally touched\".", "; vignette: a brief description; a short scene.", "In French, it is a small picture or a thumbnail.", "By extension a vignette is the name of a compulsory road tax in the form of a small sticker affixed to a vehicle windscreen, which is now also used in several European countries.== Found only in English ==A Canadian aide-de-camp; aide-de-camp: \"camp assistant\"; in the army, a military assistant to a senior military officer (heads of State are considered military officers because of their status as head of the army).", "In Canada, it may also refer to the honorary position a person holds as a personal assistant to a high civil servant.", "It exists in French too but is written ''aide de camp'' (without any hyphens).", "; apprise: \"to inform\"; used to substitute the verb ''to inform'' when the information is crucial.", "Its French meaning is the feminine past participle of ''to learn'' apprendre.", "In English, when followed by an object it is used with the preposition ''of''.", "Example without object: ''Please, apprise me''.", "Example with object: ''he apprised of it''.", "; cinquefoil: five-petal, five-leaf flower of the genus Potentilla, family Rosaceae; also a circular 5-lobed ornamental design.", "Spelled ''quintefeuille'' in French.", "; cri de cœur: \"cry from the heart\": an impassioned outcry, as of entreaty or protest.", "In French, the exact expression is ''cri '''du''' cœur''.", "; demi-monde: a class of women of ill repute; a fringe group or subculture.", "Fell out of use in the French language in the 19th century.", "Frenchmen still use ''une demi-mondaine'' to qualify a woman that lives (exclusively or partially) off the commerce of her charms but in a high-life style.", "; double entendre: a figure of speech wherein a word or phrases can be taken to have two distinct coherent meanings, most often in a fashion that is suggestive and/or ironic.", "\"Entendre\" is an infinitive verb (\"to hear\"), not a noun; a correct rendering would be \"à double entente\", an adjectival phrase meaning \"of a double understanding or double interpretation\" (literally, \"with a double hearing\").", "The modern French phrase is \"à double sens\".", "; in lieu (of): \"in place (of)\"; partially translated from the existing French phrase ''au lieu (de)''.", "; léger de main (legerdemain): \"light of hand\": sleight of hand, usually in the context of deception or the art of stage magic tricks.", "Meaningless in French; the equivalent is ''un tour de passe-passe''.", "; maître d':translates literally as ''master o'''.", "The French term for head waiter (the manager of the service side of a restaurant) is ''maître d'hôtel'' (literally \"master of the house\" or \"master of the establishment\"); French never uses \"d stand-alone.", "Most often used in American English and its usage in the UK is rare.", "; negligée:A robe or a dressing gown, usually of sheer or soft fabric for women, or a nightdress.", "As with lingerie, the usage of the word suggests the garment is alluring or fancy.", "French uses ''négligé'' (masculine form) or ''nuisette''.", "In French, the word ''négligée'' qualifies a woman who neglects her appearance.", "; succès de scandale: \"Success through scandal\"; Francophones might use ''succès par médisance''.", "; voir dire: a trial within a trial, or (in America) jury selection (Law French).", "Literally \"to speak the truth.\"", "(Anglo-Norman ''voir'' ''truth'' is etymologically unrelated to the modern French ''voir'' ''to see''.)", "In modern American court procedure, the examination of prospective jurors for their qualification to serve, including inherent biases, views and predelictions; during this examination, each prospective juror must \"speak the truth\" so that counsel and the court may decide whether they should remain on the jury or be excused.", "In England and Wales, the expression is used to refer to a \"trial within a trial\", during which a judge hears evidence in the absence of the jury, typically to decide whether a certain piece of evidence should be allowed to be presented to the jury or not.", "For example, a judge might hold a \"voir dire\" to determine whether a confession has been extracted from a defendant by an unfair inducement in order to decide whether the jury should hear evidence of the confession or not.== French phrases in international air-sea rescue ==International authorities have adopted a number of words and phrases from French for use by speakers of all languages in voice communications during air-sea rescues.", "Note that the \"phonetic\" versions of spelling are presented as shown and not the IPA.", "; SECURITAY: (''sécurité'', \"safety\") the following is a safety message or warning, the lowest level of danger.", "; PAN PAN: (''panne'', \"breakdown\") the following is a message concerning a danger to a person or ship, the next level of danger.", "; MAYDAY: (''venez m'aider'', come to help me\"; ''aidez-moi'' means \"help me\") the following is a message of extreme urgency, the highest level of danger.", "''(MAYDAY is used on voice channels for the same uses as SOS on Morse channels.", ")''; SEELONCE: (''silence'', \"silence\") keep this channel clear for air-sea rescue communications.", "; SEELONCE FEE NEE: (''silence fini'', \"silence is over\") this channel is now available again.", "; PRU DONCE: (''prudence'', \"prudence\") silence partially lifted, channel may be used again for urgent non-distress communication.", "; MAY DEE CAL: (''médical'', \"medical\") medical assistance needed.It is a serious breach in most countries, and in international zones, to use any of these phrases without justification.", "''See Mayday (distress signal) for a more detailed explanation.''" ], [ "See also", " * Glossary of ballet, which is predominantly French* Glossary of fencing, which are often in French* Franglais* French language* Law French* English words of French origin* Pseudo-Gallicisms* German expressions in English* Greek phrases* Latin phrases* Latin words with English derivatives* French loanwords in Persian" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Francoise Blanchard, Jeremy Leven.", "''Say Chic: A Collection of French Words We Can't Live Without''.", "Simon and Schuster.", "2007.144 pages* Winokur, J., ''Je Ne Sais What?", ": A Guide to'' de rigueur ''Frenglish for Readers, Writers, and Speakers''" ], [ "External links", "* ''Communications Instructions, Distress and Rescue Procedures'' (pdf), Combined Communications-Electronics Board* ''Online Etymology Dictionary'' , Harper, D.* * Mathematical Words: Origins and Sources (John Aldrich, University of Southampton) See Section on Contribution of French." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Financial rand" ], [ "Introduction", "Four exchange control stamps in a South African passport from the mid-1980s allowing the passport holder to take a particular amount of currency out of the country.", "Exchange controls such as these were imposed by the South African government to restrict the outflow of capital from the country.The South African '''financial rand''' was the most visible part of a system of capital controls.", "Although the financial rand was abolished in March 1995, some capital controls remain in place.", "These capital controls are locally referred to as \"exchange controls\", although the system has since 1995 moved towards surveillance — recording and reporting to the authorities of foreign currency transactions — rather than control.Capital controls have been in place in South Africa in various guises on an uninterrupted basis since the outbreak of World War II, when Great Britain and its dominions implemented the Sterling area.Following the 1960 Sharpeville massacre, South Africa experienced significant outflows of foreign exchange on the capital account of the balance of payments and instituted an additional level of capital controls, known as the Blocked Rand system.", "This had the principal effect of blocking outflows of capital to the other countries in the Sterling Area, notably Britain.To some extent the Blocked Rand system mirrored Germany's Reichsbank system introduced under Hjalmar Schacht in 1937, called \"aski\" accounts — short for ''Ausländer Sonderkonten für Inlandszahlungen'' (\"foreigners' special accounts for inland payments\").", "In other words, creating a closed loop system that did not create a claim on the foreign exchange reserves of the Third Reich, or in this case South Africa.The report of the De Kock Commission on Exchange Controls tabled in November 1978, proposed a gradual easing of exchange controls.", "This saw the replacement of the Blocked Rand by the Financial Rand in early 1979.In line with this policy, the Financial Rand itself was abolished in 1983 and non-residents could repatriate the majority of their South African investments via the Commercial Rand.This easing was, however, short-lived and the Financial Rand system was re-introduced on 1 September 1985.The outflows during 1984–1985 were largely the result of economic sanctions in response to apartheid.", "At the same time, the government enacted the exchange controls.", "Investments in South Africa by foreigners could only be sold for financial rand.The financial rand system provided for two exchange rates for the rand — one for current account transactions and one for capital account transactions for non-residents.", "Investments made in South Africa by non-residents could only be sold for financial rand, and limitations were placed on the convertibility of financial rand into foreign currencies.", "Financial rand had the ISO 4217 currency code ZAL.", "Financial rand had a previous life, from January 1979 to February 1983.The 1985 crisis coincided with a default (then called a \"standstill\") on foreign debt by the apartheid government." ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "List of FIPS country codes" ], [ "Introduction", "This is a list of FIPS 10-4 country codes for ''Countries, Dependencies, Areas of Special Sovereignty, and Their Principal Administrative Divisions''.The two-letter country codes were used by the US government for geographical data processing in many publications, such as the CIA World Factbook.", "The standard is also known as DAFIF 0413 ed 7 Amdt.", "No.", "3 (Nov 2003) and as DIA 65-18 (Defense Intelligence Agency, 1994, \"Geopolitical Data Elements and Related Features\").The FIPS standard includes both the codes for independent countries (similar but often incompatible with the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 standard) and the codes for top-level subdivision of the countries (similar to but usually incompatible with the ISO 3166-2 standard).", "The ISO 3166 codes are used by the United Nations and for Internet top-level country code domains.Non-sovereign entities are in italics.On September 2, 2008, FIPS 10-4 was one of ten standards withdrawn by NIST as a Federal Information Processing Standard.", "It was replaced in the U.S. Government by the Geopolitical Entities, Names, and Codes (GENC), which is based on ISO 3166.==A== CodeShort-form name '''' '''' '''' '''' '''' ''''==B== CodeShort-form name '''' '''' ''Bassas da India'' '''' ==C== CodeShort-form name '''' '''' '''' '''' '''' ==D== CodeShort-form name '''' ''''==E== CodeShort-form name ''Europa Island'' ==F== CodeShort-form name '''' '''' '''' '''' '''' ''''==G== CodeShort-form name '''' '''' '''' ''Glorioso Islands'' '''' '''' ''''==H== CodeShort-form name '''' '''' '''' ==I== CodeShort-form name '''' '''' '''' ==J== CodeShort-form name '''' '''' '''' ''Juan de Nova Island''==K== CodeShort-form name '''' '''' ==L== CodeShort-form name '''' ==M== CodeShort-form name '''' '''' '''' '''' '''' ==N== CodeShort-form name '''' '''' '''' '''' ==O== CodeShort-form name ==P== CodeShort-form name '''' ''Paracel Islands'' ''Spratly Islands'' ''Etorofu, Habomai, Kunashiri, and Shikotan Islands'' ==Q== CodeShort-form name ==R== CodeShort-form name '''' '''' '''' ==S== CodeShort-form name '''' '''' '''' '''' ==T== CodeShort-form name '''' ''Tromelin Island'' '''' '''' ==U== CodeShort-form name ==V== CodeShort-form name '''' '''' ==W== CodeShort-form name '''' ==Y== CodeShort-form name ==Z== CodeShort-form name" ], [ "Resources", "* The complete standard can be found at: https://web.archive.org/web/20090201000438/http://www.itl.nist.gov/fipspubs/fip10-4.htmUpdates to previous version of the standard (before FIPS-10 was withdrawn in September 2008) are at:* https://web.archive.org/web/20070106052615/http://earth-info.nga.mil/gns/html/fips_files.htm.Updates to the standard since September 2008 are at:* https://web.archive.org/web/20110903191340/http://earth-info.nga.mil/gns/html/gazetteers2.html.", "* FIPS PUB 10-4: Federal Information Processing Standard 10-4: '' Countries, Dependencies, Areas of Special Sovereignty, and Their Principal Administrative Divisions'', April 1995* DAFIF 0413, Edition 7, Amendment No.", "3, November 2003* DIA 65-18: Defense Intelligence Agency, ''Geopolitical Data Elements and Related Features'', 1994" ], [ "See also", "* List of FIPS region codes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* UK MOD Ontology Demonstrator – integrates NATO STANAG 1059 codes with ISO3166 and FIPS10-4 codes" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Fair Isle" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Fair Isle''' (; ; ), sometimes '''Fairisle''', is the southernmost Shetland island, situated roughly 38km (24 mi) from the Shetland Mainland and about 43km (27 mi) from North Ronaldsay (the most northerly island of Orkney).", "The entire archipelago lies off the northernmost coast of Scotland, in the North Sea.", "As the most remote inhabited island in the United Kingdom (and among the most northerly settlements in Great Britain), Fair Isle is known for its wild bird observatory, interesting historic shipwrecks, Scottish and Shetland-style traditional music, and its traditional style of knitting.", "The island has been owned by the National Trust for Scotland since 1954." ], [ "History", "Fair Isle (Feedero) depicted close to Shetland (Hetlandia) on the 1539 ''Carta Marina''Fair Isle has been occupied since Neolithic times, which is remarkable given the lack of raw materials on the island, although it is surrounded by rich fishing waters.", "There are two known Iron Age sites: a promontory fort at Landberg and the foundations of a house underlying an early Christian settlement at Kirkigeo.Most of the place names date from after the 9th-century Norse settlement of the Northern Isles.", "By that time the croft lands had clearly been in use for centuries.Between the 9th and 15th centuries, Fair Isle was a Norwegian possession.", "In 1469, Shetland, along with Orkney, was part of the dowry of the King of Denmark's daughter, Margaret, on her marriage to James III of Scotland.On 20 August 1588 the flagship of the Spanish Armada, ''El Gran Grifón'', was shipwrecked in the cove of Stroms Hellier, forcing its 300 sailors to spend six weeks living with the islanders.", "The wreck was discovered in 1970.The large Canadian sailing ship ''Black Watch'' was wrecked on Fair Isle in 1877.Croft housesFair Isle was bought by the National Trust for Scotland in 1954 from George Waterston, the founder of the bird observatory.", "In that decade, electricity was not yet available to residents and only some homes had running water; the population was declining at a level that created concern.The population decreased steadily from about 400 in 1900.There were around 55 permanent residents on the island in 2015, the majority of whom were crofters.", "In April 2021, the population was 48 and the island became the first place in the UK all of whose adult inhabitants had been vaccinated against COVID-19.The island has 14 scheduled monuments, ranging from the earliest signs of human activity to the remains of a Second World War radar station.", "The two automated lighthouses are protected as listed buildings.The island houses a series of high-technology relay stations carrying vital TV, radio, telephone and military communication links between Shetland, Orkney and the Scottish mainland.", "In this respect it continues its historic role as a signal station, linking the mainland and the more remote island groups.", "In 1976, when television relay equipment was updated to permit colour broadcasts to Shetland, the new equipment was housed in former Second World War radar station buildings on Fair Isle.", "Many television signals are relayed from Orkney to Shetland (rather than from the Scottish mainland) via Orkney's Keelylang Hill transmitter station.=== Wartime military role ===During the Second World War, the Royal Air Force (RAF) built a radar station on top of Ward Hill during the Battle of the Atlantic.", "The ruined buildings and Nissen huts are still present.", "A cable-operated narrow gauge railway lies disused, though it was once used to send supplies up to the summit of Ward Hill.On 17 January 1941, a German Heinkel He 111 bomber, modified as a meteorological aircraft, crashed on the island; wreckage remains on the crash-site to the present day.", "The aircraft had been flying on a routine weather reconnaissance flight from its base at Oldenburg in Germany.", "It was intercepted by RAF Hawker Hurricane fighters from 3 Squadron, based at RAF Sumburgh; both of the aircraft's engines were damaged and several of the five crew were wounded.", "The pilot managed to make a crash-landing on Fair Isle to avoid ditching his crippled aircraft in the sea.", "Two crew died and three survived.", "The dead crew were buried in the island's churchyard; the survivors were detained by the islanders and remained for several days until weather conditions allowed them to be taken off the island by means of the Lerwick Lifeboat.", "Before the Lerwick boat reached the island, two separate boats from Orkney ran aground whilst making their way to collect the prisoners of war.The South Light was a target.", "During raids, the wife of an assistant keeper was killed in 1941 and their daughter was injured; in 1942, the wife of another keeper and their daughter also died in a raid.On 22 July 1941, Spitfire X5401 piloted by Flying Officer M. D. S. Hood crash-landed on Fair Isle returning from a reconnaissance mission over Ålesund, Norway.", "The pilot recalled the crash site to be adjacent to the track which crossed the airstrip.", "The cause of the crash proved to be a leak of coolant, which resulted in the engine overheating.", "The aircraft was recovered and flew again, and the pilot survived the war." ], [ "Geography", "West cliffs, looking southwest towards Malcolm's HeadFair Isle is administratively part of the parish of Dunrossness, Shetland, and is roughly equidistant from Sumburgh Head, some to the northeast on the Mainland of Shetland and North Ronaldsay, Orkney, some to the southwest.", "Fair Isle is long and wide.", "It has an area of , making it the tenth-largest of the Shetland Islands.", "It gives its name to one of the British Sea Areas.", "Most of the islanders live in the crofts on the southern half of the island, the northern half consisting of rocky moorland.", "The western coast consists of cliffs of up to in height, Ward Hill at being the highest point of the island and its only Marilyn.", "On the eastern coast the almost detached headland of Sheep Rock rises to .===Climate===Fair Isle experiences an oceanic climate (Köppen ''Cfb''), bordering on a subpolar oceanic climate (''Cfc''), with cool summers and mild winters.", "This is especially pronounced because of its location far from any sizeable landmass; Fair Isle has the smallest overall temperature range (least continental) of any weather station in the British Isles: a maximum of and a minimum of since 1951.This 60+ year temperature span is actually smaller than many places in inland southern England will record within a given three-month period.", "To further illustrate how extreme the maritime moderation at Fair Isle is, a rural location near the coastline in Northern Stockholm County on a similar latitude in Sweden broke Fair Isle's then all-time records in both directions within a 48-hour period between 26 and 28 April 2014.On 19 July 2022, a maximum temperature of was registered in Fair Isle.The lowest temperature recorded in recent years was in February 2010.Rainfall, at under , is lower than one might expect for somewhere often in the main path of Atlantic depressions.", "This is explained by a lack of heavy convective rainfall during spring and summer months due to the absence of warm surface conditions.Fair Isle's ocean moderation is so strong that areas on the same latitudes in the Scandinavian inland less than to the east have average summer highs higher than Fair Isle's all-time record temperature, for example the Norwegian capital of Oslo and the Swedish capital of Stockholm.", "The all-time low is uniquely mild for European locations on the 59th parallel north.", "The winter daily means are comparable to many areas as far south in the British Isles as south-central England, because of the extreme maritime moderation.", "It is in hardiness zone 9b or 10a (compared to 8b for the Faroes, 7b or 8a for Stockholm, and 1b for parts of Canada, all on or near the 60th parallel north.", "Central Florida (at 27-8 degrees north) has this hardiness zone." ], [ "Economy", "Over the centuries the island has changed hands many times.", "Trading links with Northern Europe are reflected in Fair Isle Haa, a traditional Hanseatic trading booth located not far from the South Harbour, traditionally used by residents of the southern part of the island.", "Rent was usually paid to absentee landlords (who rarely visited) in butter, cloth and fish oil.Fishing has always been an important industry for the island.", "In 1702, the Dutch, who were interested in Shetland's herring fisheries, fought a naval battle against French warships just off the island.Fair Isle is noted for its woollen jumpers, with knitting forming an important source of income for the women of the islands.", "The principal activity for the male islanders is crofting.In January 2004, Fair Isle was granted Fairtrade Island status." ], [ "Bird life", "Many rare species of bird have been found on the island, with at least 27 species found on the island that were the first British records, and is probably the best place in western Europe to see skulking Siberian passerines such as Pechora pipit, lanceolated warbler and Pallas's grasshopper warbler.", "For example, in 2015, rare birds discovered on the island included pallid harrier, arctic warbler, Moltoni's warbler, booted warbler, paddyfield warbler, siberian thrush, and thrush nightingale.The island is also home to an endemic subspecies of Eurasian wren, the Fair Isle wren ''Troglodytes troglodytes fridariensis''.=== Bird observatory ===In 1948, George Waterston founded a permanent bird observatory on the island.", "Because of its importance as a bird migration watchpoint, it provided most of the accommodation on the island.", "The first director of the observatory was Kenneth Williamson.", "It was unusual amongst bird observatories in providing catered, rather than hostel-style, accommodation.In 2010, a new observatory was built: a wooden lodge of two storeys, which cost £4 million and accommodated around 30 guests.", "The 2010 observatory building was destroyed by fire on 10 March 2019; the observatory's records had been digitised and were not affected.", "The cost of rebuilding was estimated at £7.4m." ], [ "Infrastructure", "Sunset over the South LighthouseOther than the restaurant of the bird observatory, and its small evening-only bar, there are no pubs or restaurants on the island.", "There is one shop, one school and a community hall used for meetings and social events.", "There is no police station on the island; the main station is Lerwick and a section station is located in the village of Brae.Passenger service to the island is provided by SIC Ferries on the vessel ''Good Shepherd IV'' or by a nine-seat passenger aeroplane from Tingwall Airport near Lerwick, operated by regional carrier Directflight.===Electricity supply===Fair Isle is not connected to the National Grid; electricity is provided by the Fair Isle Electricity Company.", "From the 1980s, power was generated by two diesel generators and two wind turbines.", "Diesel generators were automatically switched off if wind turbines provided sufficient power.", "Excess capacity was distributed through a separate network for home heating, with remote frequency-sensitive programmable relays controlling water heaters and storage heaters in the buildings of the community.", "Following the installation of three wind turbines, combined with solar panels and batteries, in a £3.5 million scheme completed in October 2018, the island has had a 24-hour electricity supply.===Communication===Fair Isle is home to two GSM 900 MHz base stations operated by Vodafone and O2.On 16 April 2019, an EE 4G antenna was turned on by Openreach.===Emergency services===Fair Isle has a fire station equipped with a single fire appliance, and staffed by a retained fire crew of local volunteers.", "It was originally part of the Highlands and Islands Fire and Rescue Service, which was absorbed into the national Scottish Fire and Rescue Service on 1 April 2013.A locally organised volunteer fire brigade was formed in 1996 by island residents.", "This was later absorbed into the statutory fire service, with professional training provided, and the local service designated a retained fire crew.", "The first purpose-built fire engine was stationed to the island in 2002.In October 2011, a contract for the construction of a £140,000 purpose-built fire station was awarded to Shetland company Ness Engineering, who completed the construction and equipping of the fire station, including its connection to the island power and water supplies, and the installation of a rainwater harvesting system within the building.", "The new fire station was officially opened on 14 March 2013.There is a small Coastguard cliff-rescue team on the island.", "Like the fire service, the Coastguard is a retained (volunteer) emergency service.", "The Fair Isle Coastguard cliff rescue team were the first British Coastguard unit to be equipped with a quad ATV.", "The quad is painted in HM Coastguard livery, with reflective Battenburg markings and has an optional equipment trailer.There are no emergency medical services on Fair Isle.", "Routine medical care is provided by a community nurse.", "In the event of accident and emergency the community nurse provides first aid until casualties can be removed to Shetland Mainland, usually by helicopter air ambulance.", "In severe weather conditions or life-threatening emergencies, the Coastguard helicopter can undertake the patient evacuation." ], [ "Transport", "===Air===A Britten-Norman Islander of Directflight at Fair Isle Airport preparing for a flight to Tingwall Airport in April 2011Fair Isle Airport serves the island with flights to Tingwall Airport near Lerwick, and weekly to Sumburgh Airport, both on Shetland Mainland.", "Flights to Kirkwall on Orkney were scheduled to begin in September 2017, provided by Loganair.", "Private aircraft use the facility and scheduled flights arrive twice daily, three days a week.", "There is a small terminal building providing limited services.", "Fire cover is provided by the island fire service.There are two helipads on the island; one at the South Fair Isle lighthouse and used by Northern Lighthouse Board and HM Coastguard helicopters, and the other at the North Fair Isle lighthouse.===Sea===There are two main harbours, north harbour and south harbour; both formed naturally, being sheltered by the headland of Bu Ness.", "They are separated by a narrow isthmus of gravel.", "The north harbour is the main route for goods, provisions, and Royal Mail postal services arriving at and departing from the island.", "The ferry ''Good Shepherd IV'' plies between Fair Isle north harbour and Grutness on Shetland Mainland.", "In summer only, the ferry also runs from Lerwick once every two weeks.===Road===A road connects the populated areas of the island, along its full length." ], [ "Education", "Fair Isle has one primary school, with two classrooms.", "There is a full-time head teacher, and a part-time assistant teacher.", "The number of pupils varies over time, but has generally been between five and ten, with three pupils as of 2021.Islanders of secondary school age are generally educated off-island, on Shetland Mainland, where they board in halls of residence, returning to Fair Isle during holiday periods." ], [ "Religion", "Christianity is the only formally organised religion on Fair Isle.", "There are two churches, one Methodist, and one Church of Scotland (Presbyterian).", "The Methodist Church has a resident non-stipendiary minister, who reports to a full-time minister on Shetland Mainland.", "The Methodist Church was constructed in 1886.The Church of Scotland church was built in 1892.The Church of Scotland parish which contains Fair Isle is Dunrossness, which is linked with Sandwick, Cunningsburgh and Quarff parish.", "The congregation's minister is Reverend Charles H. Greig." ], [ "Conservation designations", "Most of the island is designated by NatureScot as both a Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) and a Special Area of Conservation (SCA).", "The island and its surrounding seas are also designated by NatureScot as a Special Protection Area (SPA) due to the important bird species present.In 2016 the seas around Fair Isle were designated as a Marine Protected Area (MPA).", "As of 2019 it is the only MPA in Scotland to be designated specifically as a \"Demonstration and Research\" MPA.", "The aims of this MPA designation are defined as being:" ], [ "Notable people", "* Ewen Thomson (born 1971 in Fair Isle), a Scottish luthier, specialising in violins, violas and cellos* Inge Thomson (born 1974 in Fair Isle), a singer and multi instrumentalist* Chris Stout (born 1976), a Scottish fiddle/violin player from Shetland; grew up in Fair Isle" ], [ "Gallery", "File:Good Shepherd IV at Fair Isle.jpg\|Good Shepherd IV at Fair IsleFile:North Haven, Fair Isle 1974 - geograph.org.uk - 871058.jpg\|North Haven, Fair Isle, 1974File:Da Sherriff - geograph.org.uk - 344962.jpg\|Da SherriffFile:100kW Aerogenerator, Fair Isle - geograph.org.uk - 9129.jpg\|100 kW Aerogenerator, Fair IsleFile:Fair isle station.jpg\|Fair isle fire stationFile:Fair Isle Kirk interior - geograph.org.uk - 893323.jpg\|Fair Isle Kirk interiorFile:Burkle, Fair Isle - geograph.org.uk - 3151098.jpg\|Burkle, Fair Isle - Croft houses" ], [ "See also", "* List of lighthouses in Scotland* List of Northern Lighthouse Board lighthouses* Foula* List of Shetland islands" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Fair Isle community website* Fair Isle Blog* Fair Isle bird observatory* Latest bird sightings* Fair Isle Electricity Company Ltd* Details of its airport* Photographic tour of the island* NPR Story on Fair Isle* Northern Lighthouse Board" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Four Feather Falls" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Four Feather Falls''''' is a British television programme, the third puppet TV show produced by Gerry Anderson for Granada Television.", "It was based on an idea by Barry Gray, who also wrote the show's music.", "The series was the first to use an early version of Anderson's Supermarionation puppetry.", "Thirty-nine 13-minute episodes were produced, broadcast by Granada from February until November 1960.The setting is the late 19th-century fictional Kansas town of Four Feather Falls, where the hero of the series, Tex Tucker, is a sheriff.", "The four feathers of the title refers to four magical feathers given to Tex by the Indian chief Kalamakooya as a reward for saving his grandson.", "One of the feathers allowed Tex's guns to swivel and fire without being touched whenever he was in danger, two conferred the power of speech on Tex's horse and dog, and the fourth feather could summon Kalamakooya.Tex's speaking voice was provided by Nicholas Parsons, and his singing voice by Michael Holliday.", "The series was sporadically repeated on British television until 1968, and was released on DVD in 2005." ], [ "Plot", "The series is set in the fictitious late 19th-century Western town of Four Feather Falls, Kansas, and features the adventures of its sheriff, Tex Tucker.In the first episode, Grandpa Twink relates the story of how it all began to his grandson, Little Jake.", "Tex is riding up from the valley and comes across a lost and hungry Indian boy, Makooya, and saves him.", "Tex is given four magic feathers by the boy's grandfather, Chief Kalamakooya, as a reward for saving his grandson.", "Two of the feathers allow his guns to swivel and fire automatically (often while Tex's hands are raised), and the other two allow his horse, Rocky, and his dog, Dusty, to speak.", "As Tex, his horse, and dog are very thirsty, Kalamakooya also makes a waterfall where there had been no water before, and so when the town was built it was named after Tex's feathers and the waterfall.The characters of the town are Grandpa Twink, who does little but rest in a chair; his grandson Little Jake, the only child in town; Ma Jones, who runs the town store; Doc Haggerty; Slim Jim, the bartender of the Denison saloon; Marvin Jackson, the bank manager; and Dan Morse, the telegraphist.", "Other characters appeared from time to time for only one episode, often just visiting town.The villains included Pedro, who was introduced in the first show and Fernando, who first appeared in the second episode as a sidekick and someone Pedro could blame when things went wrong, as they always did.", "Big Ben was another villain who appeared from time to time, as did Red Scalp, a renegade Indian.", "Other villains only appeared in single episodes." ], [ "Cast", "* Nicholas Parsons – Sheriff Tex Tucker (speaking voice) / Telegraph Operator Dan Morse / Various* Michael Holliday – Sheriff Tex Tucker (singing voice) / Various* Kenneth Connor – Dusty the Dog / Rocky the Horse / Pedro the Bandit / Big Chief Kalamakooya / Bank Manager Marvin Jackson / Doc Haggerty / Saloon Owner Slim Jim Denison / Various* David Graham – Grandpa Ebenezer Twink / Fernando the Bandit / Big Ben the Horse Rustler Bandit / Red Scalp the Renegade Indian / Various* Denise Bryer – Martha 'Ma' Jones / Little Jake / Makooya the Little Indian Boy / VariousDenise Bryer had worked with Anderson on ''The Adventures of Twizzle'', and he wanted her to play some of the voices in ''Four Feather Falls''.", "Anderson visited Bryer at her home with some scripts and asked her husband, Nicholas Parsons, to help by reading some of the other parts, including the sheriff Tex Tucker.", "Anderson liked Parsons' interpretation and offered him the job of providing Tex's speaking voice." ], [ "Episodes" ], [ "Production", "American Western television shows such as ''Wagon Train'' and ''Gunsmoke'' were popular with British audiences, therefore Gerry Anderson and his business partner Arthur Provis decided to make a cowboy series, based on an idea offered to them by Barry Gray.", "Anderson considered the puppets with static heads, made by Christine Glanville for his earlier productions, to be unacceptable because the viewer could not tell which character was talking unless its puppet moved up or down.", "Anderson's aim was to make the puppets look as realistic as possible, the beginning of the Supermarionation puppetry process, although that term was not coined until his next series, ''Supercar''.The puppets' papier-mâché heads were replaced by interchangeable hollow fibre glass heads with internal rods that could move the eyes from side to side.", "The heads also contained sound-activated solenoids, which allowed the puppets' lips to move automatically in synchronisation with the dialogue.", "The electronics of the day required more space than would be available in a human-scale head, therefore all the puppets in ''Four Feather Falls'' had oversized heads.Except for the pilot episode, which was made in AP Films' studios at Islet Park, the series was produced in a converted warehouse in the Slough Trading Estate.", "The cast assembled to record each script without seeing the puppets, much like recording a radio series; synchronisation of each character's speech with the movement of its puppet's mouth was performed later.", "The show was filmed in black and white.", "Its tight budget precluded the use of sophisticated special effects, and less-costly alternatives were used.", "For example, to achieve the effect of muzzle flashes, small specks of black paint were carefully applied to the 35 mm negatives so they would appear as white flashes on the finished prints.", "The wires used to control the puppets were eight feet long and made of tungsten, an improvement on the curtain wire used in Anderson's two earlier puppet series (''The Adventures of Twizzle'' and ''Torchy the Battery Boy''), and were only 1/200 of an inch thick.", "Being shiny, the wires had to be blackened.", "The puppets were made one-third life size with the puppeteers on a bridge eight feet above the set.", "The horses moved by being pulled along on a trolley, which meant the viewer never saw their feet when they were moving.The series was filmed between April 1959 and April 1960.Continuity for the series was provided by Sylvia Thamm, who later married Gerry Anderson." ], [ "Music", "The show's music and song lyrics were composed by Barry Gray.", "Michael Holliday provided Tex's singing voice, and Tommy Reilly performed the harmonica pieces.", "The best known song to come out of the series was \"Four Feather Falls\", sung in some episodes by Michael Holliday in the style of Bing Crosby and sometimes incorrectly described as the theme song to the series.", "The closing theme song was \"Two Gun Tex of Texas.\"", "Holliday was paid £2000 for his singing work on the pilot episode, equivalent to about £38,000 as of 2010, a significant part of the show's £6000 budget.", "In all, Holliday recorded six songs for the series: \"Four Feather Falls\", \"The Phantom Rider\", \"The Rick-Rick-A-Rackety Train\", \"Happy Hearts and Friendly Faces\", \"My Home Town\", and \"Two Gun Tex of Texas\"." ], [ "Syndication", "The series was repeated in some British TV regions on a sporadic basis up until 1968.In December 2004, it was announced that the rights had been acquired by Network, and it was released on three Region 2 DVDs in May 2005.It is the only Supermarionation series not yet released to DVD in North America as of January 2006.Sylvia Anderson wrote two British children's annuals based on the show, published by Collins in 1960 and 1961.The first book featured a short text story based on the pilot episode of the TV series." ], [ "Other media", "The show was adapted into comics form and published as an ongoing strip in Polystyle Publications' ''TV Comic''.", "The ''Four Feathers Falls'' strip was drawn by Neville Main, and appeared from issue #439 (14 May 1960) until issue #564 (6 October 1962)." ], [ "References", "'''Notes''''''Citations''''''Bibliography'''*" ], [ "External links", " ''Four Feather Falls'' at Nostalgia Central* ''Four Feather Falls'' at ClassicKidsTV.co.uk" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Fly-by-wire" ], [ "Introduction", "The Airbus A320 family was the first airliner to feature a full glass cockpit and digital fly-by-wire flight control system.", "The only analogue instruments were the radio magnetic indicator, brake pressure indicator, standby altimeter and artificial horizon, the latter two being replaced by a digital integrated standby instrument system in later production models.", "'''Fly-by-wire''' ('''FBW''') is a system that replaces the conventional manual flight controls of an aircraft with an electronic interface.", "The movements of flight controls are converted to electronic signals transmitted by wires, and flight control computers determine how to move the actuators at each control surface to provide the ordered response.", "Implementations either use mechanical flight control backup systems (like the Boeing 777) or else are fully electronic.Improved fully fly-by-wire systems interpret the pilot's control inputs as a desired outcome and calculate the control surface positions required to achieve that outcome; this results in various combinations of rudder, elevator, aileron, flaps and engine controls in different situations using a closed feedback loop.", "The pilot may not be fully aware of all the control outputs acting to affect the outcome, only that the aircraft is reacting as expected.", "The fly-by-wire computers act to stabilize the aircraft and adjust the flying characteristics without the pilot's involvement, and to prevent the pilot from operating outside of the aircraft's safe performance envelope." ], [ "Rationale", "Mechanical and hydro-mechanical flight control systems are relatively heavy and require careful routing of flight control cables through the aircraft by systems of pulleys, cranks, tension cables and hydraulic pipes.", "Both systems often require redundant backup to deal with failures, which increases weight.", "Both have limited ability to compensate for changing aerodynamic conditions.", "Dangerous characteristics such as stalling, spinning and pilot-induced oscillation (PIO), which depend mainly on the stability and structure of the aircraft concerned rather than the control system itself, are dependent on the pilot's actions.The term \"fly-by-wire\" implies a purely electrically signaled control system.", "It is used in the general sense of computer-configured controls, where a computer system is interposed between the operator and the final control actuators or surfaces.", "This modifies the manual inputs of the pilot in accordance with control parameters.Side-sticks or conventional flight control yokes can be used to fly FBW aircraft.===Weight saving===A FBW aircraft can be lighter than a similar design with conventional controls.", "This is partly due to the lower overall weight of the system components and partly because the natural stability of the aircraft can be relaxed (slightly for a transport aircraft; more for a maneuverable fighter), which means that the stability surfaces that are part of the aircraft structure can therefore be made smaller.", "These include the vertical and horizontal stabilizers (fin and tailplane) that are (normally) at the rear of the fuselage.", "If these structures can be reduced in size, airframe weight is reduced.", "The advantages of FBW controls were first exploited by the military and then in the commercial airline market.", "The Airbus series of airliners used full-authority FBW controls beginning with their A320 series, see A320 flight control (though some limited FBW functions existed on A310).", "Boeing followed with their 777 and later designs." ], [ "Basic operation", "===Closed-loop feedback control===Simple feedback loopA pilot commands the flight control computer to make the aircraft perform a certain action, such as pitch the aircraft up, or roll to one side, by moving the control column or sidestick.", "The flight control computer then calculates what control surface movements will cause the plane to perform that action and issues those commands to the electronic controllers for each surface.", "The controllers at each surface receive these commands and then move actuators attached to the control surface until it has moved to where the flight control computer commanded it to.", "The controllers measure the position of the flight control surface with sensors such as LVDTs.===Automatic stability systems===Fly-by-wire control systems allow aircraft computers to perform tasks without pilot input.", "Automatic stability systems operate in this way.", "Gyroscopes and sensors such as accelerometers are mounted in an aircraft to sense rotation on the pitch, roll and yaw axes.", "Any movement (from straight and level flight for example) results in signals to the computer, which can automatically move control actuators to stabilize the aircraft." ], [ "Safety and redundancy", "While traditional mechanical or hydraulic control systems usually fail gradually, the loss of all flight control computers immediately renders the aircraft uncontrollable.", "For this reason, most fly-by-wire systems incorporate either redundant computers (triplex, quadruplex etc.", "), some kind of mechanical or hydraulic backup or a combination of both.", "A \"mixed\" control system with mechanical backup feedbacks any rudder elevation directly to the pilot and therefore makes closed loop (feedback) systems senseless.Aircraft systems may be quadruplexed (four independent channels) to prevent loss of signals in the case of failure of one or even two channels.", "High performance aircraft that have fly-by-wire controls (also called CCVs or Control-Configured Vehicles) may be deliberately designed to have low or even negative stability in some flight regimes rapid-reacting CCV controls can electronically stabilize the lack of natural stability.Pre-flight safety checks of a fly-by-wire system are often performed using built-in test equipment (BITE).", "A number of control movement steps can be automatically performed, reducing workload of the pilot or groundcrew and speeding up flight-checks.Some aircraft, the Panavia Tornado for example, retain a very basic hydro-mechanical backup system for limited flight control capability on losing electrical power; in the case of the Tornado this allows rudimentary control of the stabilators only for pitch and roll axis movements." ], [ "History", "Avro Canada CF-105 Arrow, first non-experimental aircraft flown with a fly-by-wire control systemF-8C Crusader digital fly-by-wire testbedServo-electrically operated control surfaces were first tested in the 1930s on the Soviet Tupolev ANT-20.Long runs of mechanical and hydraulic connections were replaced with wires and electric servos.In 1934, filed a patent about the automatic-electronic system, which flared the aircraft, when it was close to the ground.In 1941, an engineer from Siemens, Karl Otto Altvater developed and tested the first fly-by-wire system for the Heinkel He 111, in which the aircraft was fully controlled by electronic impulses.The first non-experimental aircraft that was designed and flown (in 1958) with a fly-by-wire flight control system was the Avro Canada CF-105 Arrow, a feat not repeated with a production aircraft (though the Arrow was cancelled with five built) until Concorde in 1969, which became the first fly-by-wire airliner.", "This system also included solid-state components and system redundancy, was designed to be integrated with a computerised navigation and automatic search and track radar, was flyable from ground control with data uplink and downlink, and provided artificial feel (feedback) to the pilot.The first electronic fly-by-wire testbed operated by the U.S. Air Force was a Boeing B-47E Stratojet (Ser.", "No.", "53-2280)The first pure electronic fly-by-wire aircraft with no mechanical or hydraulic backup was the Apollo Lunar Landing Training Vehicle (LLTV), first flown in 1968.This was preceded in 1964 by the Lunar Landing Research Vehicle (LLRV) which pioneered fly-by-wire flight with no mechanical backup.", "Control was through a digital computer with three analog redundant channels.", "In the USSR, the Sukhoi T-4 also flew.", "At about the same time in the United Kingdom a trainer variant of the British Hawker Hunter fighter was modified at the British Royal Aircraft Establishment with fly-by-wire flight controls for the right-seat pilot.In the UK the two seater Avro 707C was flown with a Fairey system with mechanical backup in the early to mid-60s.", "The program was curtailed when the air-frame ran out of flight time.In 1972, the first digital fly-by-wire fixed-wing aircraft without a mechanical backup to take to the air was an F-8 Crusader, which had been modified electronically by NASA of the United States as a test aircraft; the F-8 used the Apollo guidance, navigation and control hardware.The Airbus A320 began service in 1988 as the first airliner with digital fly-by-wire controls.Boeing chose fly-by-wire flight controls for the 777 in 1994, departing from traditional cable and pulley systems.", "In addition to overseeing the aircraft's flight control, the FBW offered \"envelope protection\", which guaranteed that the system would step in to avoid accidental mishandling, stalls, or excessive structural stress on the aircraft.", "777 used ARINC 629 buses to connect primary flight computers (PFCs) with actuator-control electronics units (ACEs).", "Every PFC housed three 32-bit microprocessors, including a Motorola 68040, an Intel 80486, and an AMD 29050, all programmed in Ada programming language." ], [ "Analog systems", "All \"fly-by-wire\" flight control systems eliminate the complexity, the fragility and the weight of the mechanical circuit of the hydromechanical or electromechanical flight control systems – each being replaced with electronic circuits.", "The control mechanisms in the cockpit now operate signal transducers, which in turn generate the appropriate electronic commands.", "These are next processed by an electronic controller—either an analog one, or (more modernly) a digital one.", "Aircraft and spacecraft autopilots are now part of the electronic controller.The hydraulic circuits are similar except that mechanical servo valves are replaced with electrically controlled servo valves, operated by the electronic controller.", "This is the simplest and earliest configuration of an analog fly-by-wire flight control system.", "In this configuration, the flight control systems must simulate \"feel\".", "The electronic controller controls electrical feel devices that provide the appropriate \"feel\" forces on the manual controls.", "This was used in Concorde, the first production fly-by-wire airliner." ], [ "Digital systems", "The NASA F-8 Crusader with its fly-by-wire system in green and Apollo guidance computerA digital fly-by-wire flight control system can be extended from its analog counterpart.", "Digital signal processing can receive and interpret input from multiple sensors simultaneously (such as the altimeters and the pitot tubes) and adjust the controls in real time.", "The computers sense position and force inputs from pilot controls and aircraft sensors.", "They then solve differential equations related to the aircraft's equations of motion to determine the appropriate command signals for the flight controls to execute the intentions of the pilot.The programming of the digital computers enable flight envelope protection.", "These protections are tailored to an aircraft's handling characteristics to stay within aerodynamic and structural limitations of the aircraft.", "For example, the computer in flight envelope protection mode can try to prevent the aircraft from being handled dangerously by preventing pilots from exceeding preset limits on the aircraft's flight-control envelope, such as those that prevent stalls and spins, and which limit airspeeds and g forces on the airplane.", "Software can also be included that stabilize the flight-control inputs to avoid pilot-induced oscillations.Since the flight-control computers continuously feedback the environment, pilot's workloads can be reduced.", "This also enables military aircraft with relaxed stability.", "The primary benefit for such aircraft is more maneuverability during combat and training flights, and the so-called \"carefree handling\" because stalling, spinning and other undesirable performances are prevented automatically by the computers.", "Digital flight control systems (DFCS) enable inherently unstable combat aircraft, such as the Lockheed F-117 Nighthawk and the Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit flying wing to fly in usable and safe manners.===Legislation===The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) of the United States has adopted the RTCA/DO-178C, titled \"Software Considerations in Airborne Systems and Equipment Certification\", as the certification standard for aviation software.", "Any safety-critical component in a digital fly-by-wire system including applications of the laws of aeronautics and computer operating systems will need to be certified to DO-178C Level A or B, depending on the class of aircraft, which is applicable for preventing potential catastrophic failures.Nevertheless, the top concern for computerized, digital, fly-by-wire systems is reliability, even more so than for analog electronic control systems.", "This is because the digital computers that are running software are often the only control path between the pilot and aircraft's flight control surfaces.", "If the computer software crashes for any reason, the pilot may be unable to control an aircraft.", "Hence virtually all fly-by-wire flight control systems are either triply or quadruply redundant in their computers and electronics.", "These have three or four flight-control computers operating in parallel and three or four separate data buses connecting them with each control surface.===Redundancy===The multiple redundant flight control computers continuously monitor each other's output.", "If one computer begins to give aberrant results for any reason, potentially including software or hardware failures or flawed input data, then the combined system is designed to exclude the results from that computer in deciding the appropriate actions for the flight controls.", "Depending on specific system details there may be the potential to reboot an aberrant flight control computer, or to reincorporate its inputs if they return to agreement.", "Complex logic exists to deal with multiple failures, which may prompt the system to revert to simpler back-up modes.In addition, most of the early digital fly-by-wire aircraft also had an analog electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic back-up flight control system.", "The Space Shuttle had, in addition to its redundant set of four digital computers running its primary flight-control software, a fifth back-up computer running a separately developed, reduced-function, software flight-control system – one that could be commanded to take over in the event that a fault ever affected all of the computers in the other four.", "This back-up system served to reduce the risk of total flight-control-system failure ever happening because of a general-purpose flight software fault that had escaped notice in the other four computers.===Efficiency of flight===For airliners, flight-control redundancy improves their safety, but fly-by-wire control systems, which are physically lighter and have lower maintenance demands than conventional controls also improve economy, both in terms of cost of ownership and for in-flight economy.", "In certain designs with limited relaxed stability in the pitch axis, for example the Boeing 777, the flight control system may allow the aircraft to fly at a more aerodynamically efficient angle of attack than a conventionally stable design.", "Modern airliners also commonly feature computerized Full-Authority Digital Engine Control systems (FADECs) that control their jet engines, air inlets, fuel storage and distribution system, in a similar fashion to the way that FBW controls the flight control surfaces.", "This allows the engine output to be continually varied for the most efficient usage possible.The second generation Embraer E-Jet family gained a 1.5% efficiency improvement over the first generation from the fly-by-wire system, which enabled a reduction from 280 ft.² to 250 ft.² for the horizontal stabilizer on the E190/195 variants.===Airbus/Boeing===Airbus and Boeing differ in their approaches to implementing fly-by-wire systems in commercial aircraft.", "Since the Airbus A320, Airbus flight-envelope control systems always retain ultimate flight control when flying under normal law and will not permit the pilots to violate aircraft performance limits unless they choose to fly under alternate law.", "This strategy has been continued on subsequent Airbus airliners.", "However, in the event of multiple failures of redundant computers, the A320 does have a mechanical back-up system for its pitch trim and its rudder, the Airbus A340 has a purely electrical (not electronic) back-up rudder control system and beginning with the A380, all flight-control systems have back-up systems that are purely electrical through the use of a \"three-axis Backup Control Module\" (BCM).Boeing airliners, such as the Boeing 777, allow the pilots to completely override the computerised flight-control system, permitting the aircraft to be flown outside of its usual flight-control envelope.===Applications===Airbus trialed fly-by-wire on an A300 registration F-BUAD as shown in 1986, then produced the A320.", "Concorde was the first production fly-by-wire aircraft with analogue control.", "The McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 was the first production aircraft to use digital fly-by-wire controls.", "The Space Shuttle orbiter had an all-digital fly-by-wire control system.", "This system was first exercised (as the only flight control system) during the glider unpowered-flight \"Approach and Landing Tests\" that began on the Space Shuttle ''Enterprise'' during 1977.", "Launched into production during 1984, the Airbus Industries Airbus A320 became the first airliner to fly with an all-digital fly-by-wire control system.", "With its launch in 1993 the Boeing C-17 Globemaster III became the first fly-by-wire military transport aircraft.", "In 2005, the Dassault Falcon 7X became the first business jet with fly-by-wire controls.", "A fully digital fly-by-wire ''without a closed feedback loop'' was integrated 2002 in the first generation Embraer E-Jet family.", "By closing the loop (feedback), the second generation Embraer E-Jet family gained a 1.5% efficiency improvement in 2016." ], [ "Engine digital control", "The advent of FADEC (Full Authority Digital Engine Control) engines permits operation of the flight control systems and autothrottles for the engines to be fully integrated.", "On modern military aircraft other systems such as autostabilization, navigation, radar and weapons system are all integrated with the flight control systems.", "FADEC allows maximum performance to be extracted from the aircraft without fear of engine misoperation, aircraft damage or high pilot workloads.In the civil field, the integration increases flight safety and economy.", "Airbus fly-by-wire aircraft are protected from dangerous situations such as low-speed stall or overstressing by flight envelope protection.", "As a result, in such conditions, the flight control systems commands the engines to increase thrust without pilot intervention.", "In economy cruise modes, the flight control systems adjust the throttles and fuel tank selections precisely.", "FADEC reduces rudder drag needed to compensate for sideways flight from unbalanced engine thrust.", "On the A330/A340 family, fuel is transferred between the main (wing and center fuselage) tanks and a fuel tank in the horizontal stabilizer, to optimize the aircraft's center of gravity during cruise flight.", "The fuel management controls keep the aircraft's center of gravity accurately trimmed with fuel weight, rather than drag-inducing aerodynamic trims in the elevators." ], [ "Further developments", "===Fly-by-optics===Kawasaki P-1Fly-by-optics is sometimes used instead of fly-by-wire because it offers a higher data transfer rate, immunity to electromagnetic interference and lighter weight.", "In most cases, the cables are just changed from electrical to optical fiber cables.", "Sometimes it is referred to as \"fly-by-light\" due to its use of fiber optics.", "The data generated by the software and interpreted by the controller remain the same.", "Fly-by-light has the effect of decreasing electro-magnetic disturbances to sensors in comparison to more common fly-by-wire control systems.", "The Kawasaki P-1 is the first production aircraft in the world to be equipped with such a flight control system.===Power-by-wire===Having eliminated the mechanical transmission circuits in fly-by-wire flight control systems, the next step is to eliminate the bulky and heavy hydraulic circuits.", "The hydraulic circuit is replaced by an electrical power circuit.", "The power circuits power electrical or self-contained electrohydraulic actuators that are controlled by the digital flight control computers.", "All benefits of digital fly-by-wire are retained since the power-by-wire components are strictly complementary to the fly-by-wire components.The biggest benefits are weight savings, the possibility of redundant power circuits and tighter integration between the aircraft flight control systems and its avionics systems.", "The absence of hydraulics greatly reduces maintenance costs.", "This system is used in the Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II and in Airbus A380 backup flight controls.", "The Boeing 787 and Airbus A350 also incorporate electrically powered backup flight controls which remain operational even in the event of a total loss of hydraulic power.===Fly-by-wireless===Wiring adds a considerable amount of weight to an aircraft; therefore, researchers are exploring implementing fly-by-wireless solutions.", "Fly-by-wireless systems are very similar to fly-by-wire systems, however, instead of using a wired protocol for the physical layer a wireless protocol is employed.In addition to reducing weight, implementing a wireless solution has the potential to reduce costs throughout an aircraft's life cycle.", "For example, many key failure points associated with wire and connectors will be eliminated thus hours spent troubleshooting wires and connectors will be reduced.", "Furthermore, engineering costs could potentially decrease because less time would be spent on designing wiring installations, late changes in an aircraft's design would be easier to manage, etc.===Intelligent flight control system===A newer flight control system, called intelligent flight control system (IFCS), is an extension of modern digital fly-by-wire flight control systems.", "The aim is to intelligently compensate for aircraft damage and failure during flight, such as automatically using engine thrust and other avionics to compensate for severe failures such as loss of hydraulics, loss of rudder, loss of ailerons, loss of an engine, etc.", "Several demonstrations were made on a flight simulator where a Cessna-trained small-aircraft pilot successfully landed a heavily damaged full-size concept jet, without prior experience with large-body jet aircraft.", "This development is being spearheaded by NASA Dryden Flight Research Center.", "It is reported that enhancements are mostly software upgrades to existing fully computerized digital fly-by-wire flight control systems.", "The Dassault Falcon 7X and Embraer Legacy 500 business jets have flight computers that can partially compensate for engine-out scenarios by adjusting thrust levels and control inputs, but still require pilots to respond appropriately." ], [ "See also", "Index of aviation articlesAircraft flight control systemAir France Flight 296QDrive by wireDual control (aviation)Flight control modesMIL-STD-1553, a standard data bus for fly-by-wireRelaxed stability" ], [ "Note" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " \"Fly-by-wire\" a 1972 ''Flight'' article archive version" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Falklands War" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Falklands War''' () was a ten-week undeclared war between Argentina and the United Kingdom in 1982 over two British dependent territories in the South Atlantic: the Falkland Islands and its territorial dependency, South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands.", "The conflict began on 2 April 1982, when Argentina invaded and occupied the Falkland Islands, followed by the invasion of South Georgia the next day.", "On 5 April, the British government dispatched a naval task force to engage the Argentine Navy and Air Force before making an amphibious assault on the islands.", "The conflict lasted 74 days and ended with an Argentine surrender on 14 June, returning the islands to British control.", "In total, 649 Argentine military personnel, 255 British military personnel, and three Falkland Islanders were killed during the hostilities.The conflict was a major episode in the protracted dispute over the territories' sovereignty.", "Argentina asserted (and maintains) that the islands are Argentine territory, and the Argentine government thus characterised its military action as the reclamation of its own territory.", "The British government regarded the action as an invasion of a territory that had been a Crown colony since 1841.Falkland Islanders, who have inhabited the islands since the early 19th century, are predominantly descendants of British settlers, and strongly favour British sovereignty.", "Neither state officially declared war, although both governments declared the islands a war zone.", "The conflict had a strong effect in both countries and has been the subject of various books, articles, films, and songs.", "Patriotic sentiment ran high in Argentina, but the unfavourable outcome prompted large protests against the ruling military government, hastening its downfall and the democratisation of the country.", "In the United Kingdom, the Conservative government, bolstered by the successful outcome, was re-elected with an increased majority the following year.", "The cultural and political effect of the conflict has been less in the UK than in Argentina, where it has remained a common topic for discussion.Diplomatic relations between the United Kingdom and Argentina were restored in 1989 following a meeting in Madrid, at which the two governments issued a joint statement.", "No change in either country's position regarding the sovereignty of the Falkland Islands was made explicit.", "In 1994, Argentina adopted a new constitution, which declared the Falkland Islands as part of one of its provinces by law.", "However, the islands continue to operate as a self-governing British Overseas Territory." ], [ "Prelude", "===Failed diplomacy===In 1965, the United Nations called upon Argentina and the United Kingdom to reach a settlement of the sovereignty dispute.", "The UK Foreign and Commonwealth Office (FCO) regarded the islands as a nuisance and barrier to UK trade in South America.", "Therefore, while confident of British sovereignty, the FCO was prepared to cede the islands to Argentina.", "When news of a proposed transfer broke in 1968, elements sympathetic with the plight of the islanders were able to organise an effective parliamentary lobby to frustrate the FCO plans.", "Negotiations continued, but in general failed to make meaningful progress; the islanders steadfastly refused to consider Argentine sovereignty on one side, whilst Argentina would not compromise over sovereignty on the other.", "The FCO then sought to make the islands dependent on Argentina, hoping this would make the islanders more amenable to Argentine sovereignty.", "A Communications Agreement signed in 1971 created an airlink and later YPF, the Argentine oil company, was given a monopoly in the islands.In 1977, the British prime minister, James Callaghan, in response to heightened tensions in the region and the Argentine occupation of Southern Thule, secretly sent a force of two frigates and a nuclear-powered submarine, , to the South Atlantic, codenamed Operation Journeyman.", "It is unclear whether the Argentines were aware of their presence, but British sources state that they were advised of it through informal channels.", "Nevertheless, talks with Argentina on Falklands sovereignty and economic cooperation opened in December of that year, though they proved inconclusive.In 1980, a new UK Minister of State for Foreign Affairs, Nicholas Ridley, went to the Falklands trying to sell the islanders the benefits of a leaseback scheme, which met with strong opposition from the islanders.", "On his return to London in December 1980, he reported to parliament but was viciously attacked at what was seen as a sellout.", "(It was unlikely that leaseback could have succeeded since the British had sought a long-term lease of 99 years, whereas Argentina was pressing for a much shorter period of only ten years.)", "At a private committee meeting that evening, it was reported that Ridley said: \"If we don't do something, they will invade.", "And there is nothing we could do.", "\"===The Argentine junta===In the period leading up to the war—and, in particular, following the transfer of power between the military dictators General Jorge Rafael Videla and General Roberto Eduardo Viola late in March 1981—Argentina had been in the midst of devastating economic stagnation and large-scale civil unrest against the National Reorganization Process, the military ''junta'' that had been governing the country since 1976.In December 1981, there was a further change in the Argentine military regime, bringing to office a new ''junta'' headed by General Leopoldo Galtieri (acting president), Air Brigadier Basilio Lami Dozo and Admiral Jorge Anaya.", "Anaya was the main architect and supporter of a military solution for the long-standing claim over the islands, expecting that the United Kingdom would never respond militarily.By opting for military action, the Galtieri government hoped to mobilise the long-standing patriotic feelings of Argentines towards the islands, diverting public attention from the chronic economic problems and the ongoing human rights violations of its Dirty War, bolstering the junta's dwindling legitimacy.", "The newspaper ''La Prensa'' speculated on a step-by-step plan beginning with cutting off supplies to the islands, ending in direct actions late in 1982, if the UN talks were fruitless.The ongoing tension between the two countries over the islands increased on 19 March, when a group of Argentine scrap metal merchants (which had been infiltrated by Argentine Marines) raised the Argentine flag at South Georgia Island, an act that would later be seen as the first offensive action in the war.", "The Royal Navy ice patrol vessel was dispatched from Stanley to South Georgia on the 25th in response.", "The Argentine military junta, suspecting that the UK would reinforce its South Atlantic Forces, ordered the invasion of the Falkland Islands to be brought forward to 2 April.The UK was initially taken by surprise by the Argentine attack on the South Atlantic islands, despite repeated warnings by Royal Navy captain Nicholas Barker (Commanding Officer of the ''Endurance'') and others.", "Barker believed that Defence Secretary John Nott's 1981 Defence White Paper (in which Nott described plans to withdraw the ''Endurance'', the UK's only naval presence in the South Atlantic) had sent a signal to the Argentines that the UK was unwilling, and would soon be unable, to defend its territories and subjects in the Falklands." ], [ "Argentine invasion", "Argentine soldiers and Falklanders in 1982On 2 April 1982, Argentine forces mounted amphibious landings, known as Operation Rosario, on the Falkland Islands.", "The invasion was met with a fierce but brief defence organised by the Falkland Islands' Governor Sir Rex Hunt, giving command to Major Mike Norman of the Royal Marines.", "The garrison consisted of 68 marines and eleven naval hydrographers, assisted by 23 volunteers of the Falkland Islands Defence Force (FIDF), who had few weapons and were used as lookouts.", "The invasion started with the landing of Lieutenant Commander Guillermo Sanchez-Sabarots' Amphibious Commandos Group, who attacked the empty Moody Brook barracks and then moved on Government House in Stanley.", "When the 2nd Marine Infantry Battalion with Assault Amphibious Vehicles arrived, the governor ordered a ceasefire and surrendered.", "The governor, his family and the British military personnel were flown to Argentina that afternoon and later repatriated to the United Kingdom.=== Initial British response ===The cover of ''Newsweek'' magazine, 19 April 1982, depicting , flagship of the British Task Force.", "The headline evokes the 1980 ''Star Wars'' sequel.The British had already taken action prior to the 2 April invasion.", "In response to events on South Georgia, on 29 March, Ministers decided to send the Royal Fleet Auxiliary (RFA) ''Fort Austin'' south from the Mediterranean to support HMS ''Endurance'', and the nuclear-powered fleet submarine from Gibraltar, with ordered south from Scotland the following day.", "Lord Carrington had wished to send a third submarine, but the decision was deferred due to concerns about the impact on operational commitments.", "Coincidentally, on 26 March, the submarine left Gibraltar and it was assumed in the press she was heading south.", "There has since been speculation that the effect of those reports was to panic the Argentine junta into invading the Falklands before submarines could be deployed; however, post-war research has established that the final decision to proceed was made at a junta meeting in Buenos Aires on 23 March.The following day, during a crisis meeting headed by Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, the First Sea Lord and Chief of the Naval Staff, Admiral Sir Henry Leach, advised that \"Britain could and should send a task force if the islands are invaded\".", "On 1 April, Leach sent orders to a Royal Navy force carrying out exercises in the Mediterranean to prepare to sail south.", "Following the invasion on 2 April, after an emergency meeting of the cabinet, approval was given to form a task force to retake the islands.", "This was backed in an emergency sitting of the House of Commons the next day.pennant numbers painted over, off Gibraltar, March 1982Word of the invasion first reached the UK from Argentine sources.", "A Ministry of Defence operative in London had a short telex conversation with Governor Hunt's telex operator, who confirmed that Argentines were on the island and in control.", "Later that day, BBC journalist Laurie Margolis spoke with an islander at Goose Green via amateur radio, who confirmed the presence of a large Argentine fleet and that Argentine forces had taken control of the island.", "British military operations in the Falklands War were given the codename ''Operation Corporate'', and the commander of the task force was Admiral Sir John Fieldhouse.", "Operations lasted from 1 April 1982 to 20 June 1982.On 6 April, the British Government set up a War Cabinet to provide day-to-day political oversight of the campaign.", "This was the critical instrument of crisis management for the British with its remit being to \"keep under review political and military developments relating to the South Atlantic, and to report as necessary to the Defence and Overseas Policy Committee\".", "The War Cabinet met at least daily until it was dissolved on 12 August.", "Although Margaret Thatcher is described as dominating the War Cabinet, Lawrence Freedman notes in the ''Official History of the Falklands Campaign'' that she did not ignore opposition or fail to consult others.", "However, once a decision was reached, she \"did not look back\".===United Nations Security Council Resolution 502===On 31 March 1982, the Argentine ambassador to the UN, Eduardo Roca, began attempting to garner support against a British military build-up designed to thwart earlier UN resolutions calling for both countries to resolve the Falklands dispute through discussion.", "On 2 April, the night of the invasion, a banquet was held at Roca's official residence for the US ambassador to the UN, Jeane Kirkpatrick, and several high-ranking officials of the United States Department of State and the United States Department of Defense.", "This led British diplomats to view Kirkpatrick, who had earlier called for closer relationships with South American dictatorships, with considerable suspicion.On 1 April, London told the UK ambassador to the UN, Sir Anthony Parsons, that an invasion was imminent and he should call an urgent meeting of the Security Council to get a favourable resolution against Argentina.", "Parsons had to get nine affirmative votes from the 15 Council members (not a simple majority) and to avoid a blocking vote from any of the other four permanent members.", "The meeting took place at 11:00am on 3 April, New York time (4:00pm in London).", "United Nations Security Council Resolution 502 was adopted by 10 to 1 (with Panama voting against) and 4 abstentions.", "Significantly, the Soviet Union and China both abstained.", "The resolution stated that the UN Security Council was:This was a significant win for the UK, giving it the upper hand diplomatically.", "The draft resolution Parsons submitted had avoided any reference to the sovereignty dispute (which might have worked against the UK): instead it focused on Argentina's breach of Chapter VII of the UN Charter which forbids the threat or use of force to settle disputes.", "The resolution called for the removal only of Argentine forces: this freed Britain to retake the islands militarily, if Argentina did not leave, by exercising its right to self-defence allowed under the UN Charter.===Argentine occupation===Vandalism of a Falkland Islander's home by Argentine soldiers, the message reads ''Ingleses putos'', an insult that translates as, \"English bitches\"The Argentine Army unit earmarked for the occupation was the 25th Infantry Regiment, a unit of about 681 men specially trained from all the regions of Argentina; it was flown into Port Stanley Airport as soon as the runway had been cleared.", "Once it became clear that the British were sending an amphibious task force, there was a general recall of reservists and two brigades of eight infantry regiments and their supporting units were dispatched to the islands.", "The total Argentine garrison numbered some 13,000 troops by the beginning of May.", "The conscripts born in 1963 had only recently been called-up, so they were supplemented by the recall of the previous year's intake.", "Brigadier General Mario Benjamín Menéndez was appointed Military Governor of the Malvinas.Argentine military police arrived with detailed files on many islanders, allowing intelligence officer Major Patricio Dowling to arrest and interrogate islanders who he suspected might lead opposition to the occupation.", "Initially, Islanders suspected of holding anti-Argentine views were expelled, including the Luxton family (who had lived in the islands since the 1840s) and David Colville, editor of the ''Falklands Times''.", "This proved to be counter-productive, as those expelled gave interviews to the press.", "Subsequently, fourteen other community leaders, including the senior medical officer, were interned at Fox Bay on West Falkland.", "Concerned by Dowling's actions, senior Argentine officers had him removed from the islands.", "For almost a month, the civilian population of Goose Green was detained in the village hall in \"unpleasant conditions\".", "Less well known are similar detentions in other outlying settlements, including one islander who died after being denied access to his medication.", "As the war's end approached, some troops began to place booby traps in civilian homes, defiled homes with excrement, destroyed civilian property and committed arson against civilian properties.Argentine officers and NCOs have been accused of handing out rough Field punishment to their conscript soldiers.", "Ration packs from the Moody Brook depot were found to have foodstuff missing according to Private Alan Craig from the 7th Regiment, and troops garrisoning Port Howard were starved, and according to Max Hastings and Simon Jenkins in their book The Battle for the Falklands (Norton, 1984), \"Attempts to go absent without leave were punished by beatings or forcing the offender to sit for hours with his naked feet in the freezing water on the mountainside.\"", "Private Rito Portillo from the 1st Marine Anti-Aircraft Battalion and Private Remigio Fernández from the 5th Regiment were reported to have been executed or died because of mistreatment by their own officers.", "Soldiers were made to sign non-disclosure documents on their return from the Islands.===Shuttle diplomacy===Margaret Thatcher meets Alexander Haig in LondonOn 8 April, Alexander Haig, the United States Secretary of State, arrived in London on a shuttle diplomacy mission from President Ronald Reagan to broker a peace deal based on an interim authority taking control of the islands pending negotiations.", "After hearing from Thatcher that the task force would not be withdrawn unless the Argentines evacuated their troops, Haig headed for Buenos Aires.", "There he met the junta and Nicanor Costa Méndez, the foreign minister.", "Haig was treated coolly and told that Argentine sovereignty must be a pre-condition of any talks.", "Returning to London on 11 April, he found the British cabinet in no mood for compromise.", "Haig flew back to Washington before returning to Buenos Aires for a final protracted round of talks.", "These made little progress, but just as Haig and his mission were leaving, they were told that Galtieri would meet them at the airport VIP lounge to make an important concession; however, this was cancelled at the last minute.", "On 30 April, the Reagan administration announced that they would be publicly supporting the United Kingdom." ], [ "British task force", "Distances from British airbases to the Falklands, one of two available aircraft carriers for the task forceRoyal Navy FAA Sea Harrier FRS1The nuclear-powered submarine set sail from Faslane, Scotland on 4 April.", "The two aircraft carriers and and their escort vessels left Portsmouth, England only a day later.", "On its return to Southampton from a world cruise on 7 April, the ocean liner was requisitioned and set sail two days later with the 3 Commando Brigade aboard.", "The ocean liner ''Queen Elizabeth 2'' was also requisitioned, and left Southampton on 12 May, with the 5th Infantry Brigade on board.", "The whole task force eventually comprised 127 ships: 43 Royal Navy vessels, 22 Royal Fleet Auxiliary ships, and 62 merchant ships.The retaking of the Falkland Islands was considered extremely difficult.", "The chances of a British counter-invasion succeeding were assessed by the US Navy, according to historian Arthur L. Herman, as \"a military impossibility\".", "Firstly, the British were significantly constrained by the disparity in deployable air cover.", "The British had 42 aircraft (28 Sea Harriers and 14 Harrier GR.3s) available for air combat operations, against approximately 122 serviceable jet fighters, of which about 50 were used as air superiority fighters and the remainder as strike aircraft, in Argentina's air forces during the war.", "Crucially, the British lacked airborne early warning and control (AEW) aircraft.", "Planning also considered the Argentine surface fleet and the threat posed by Exocet-equipped vessels or the two Type 209 submarines.By mid-April, the Royal Air Force had set up an airbase on RAF Ascension Island, co-located with Wideawake Airfield, on the mid-Atlantic British overseas territory of Ascension Island.", "They included a sizeable force of Avro Vulcan B Mk 2 bombers, Handley Page Victor K Mk 2 refuelling aircraft, and McDonnell Douglas Phantom FGR Mk 2 fighters to protect them.", "Meanwhile, the main British naval task force arrived at Ascension to prepare for active service.", "A small force had already been sent south to recapture South Georgia.Encounters began in April; the British Task Force was shadowed by Boeing 707 aircraft of the Argentine Air Force during their travel to the south.", "Several of these flights were intercepted by Sea Harriers outside the British-imposed Total Exclusion Zone; the unarmed 707s were not attacked because diplomatic moves were still in progress and the UK had not yet decided to commit itself to armed force.", "On 23 April, a Brazilian commercial Douglas DC-10 from VARIG Airlines en route to South Africa was intercepted by British Harriers who visually identified the civilian plane.=== Recapture of South Georgia and the attack on ''Santa Fe'' ===The South Georgia force, Operation Paraquet, under the command of Major Guy Sheridan RM, consisted of Marines from 42 Commando, a troop of the Special Air Service (SAS) and Special Boat Service (SBS) troops who were intended to land as reconnaissance forces for an invasion by the Royal Marines, a total of 240 men.", "All were embarked on .", "First to arrive was the HMS ''Conqueror'' on 19 April, and the island was over-flown by a Handley Page Victor aircraft with radar-mapping equipment on 20 April, to establish that no Argentine ships were in the vicinity.The first landings of SAS and SBS troops took place on 21 April, but a mission to establish an observation post on the Fortuna Glacier had to be withdrawn after two helicopters crashed in fog and high winds.", "On 23 April, a submarine alert was sounded and operations were halted, with ''Tidespring'' being withdrawn to deeper water to avoid interception.", "On 24 April, British forces regrouped and headed in to attack.On 25 April, after resupplying the Argentine garrison in South Georgia, the submarine was spotted on the surface by a Westland Wessex HAS Mk 3 helicopter from , which attacked the Argentine submarine with depth charges.", "launched a Westland Wasp HAS.Mk.1 helicopter, and launched a Westland Lynx HAS Mk 2.The Lynx launched a torpedo, and strafed the submarine with its pintle-mounted general purpose machine gun; the Wessex also fired on ''Santa Fe'' with its GPMG.", "The Wasp from as well as two other Wasps launched from fired AS-12 ASM antiship missiles at the submarine, scoring hits.", "''Santa Fe'' was damaged badly enough to prevent her from diving.", "The crew abandoned the submarine at the jetty at King Edward Point on South Georgia.With ''Tidespring'' now far out to sea and the Argentine forces augmented by the submarine's crew, Major Sheridan decided to gather the 76 men he had and make a direct assault that day.", "After a short forced march by the British troops and a naval bombardment demonstration by two Royal Navy vessels (''Antrim'' and ''Plymouth''), the Argentine forces, a total of 190 men, surrendered without resistance.", "The message sent from the naval force at South Georgia to London was, \"Be pleased to inform Her Majesty that the White Ensign flies alongside the Union Jack in South Georgia.", "God Save the Queen.\"", "The Prime Minister, Margaret Thatcher, broke the news to the media, telling them to \"Just rejoice at that news, and congratulate our forces and the Marines!", "\"=== Black Buck raids ===RAF Avro Vulcan B.Mk.2 strategic bomberOn 1 May British operations on the Falklands opened with the \"Black Buck 1\" attack (of a series of five) on the airfield at Stanley.", "A Vulcan bomber from Ascension flew an round trip, dropping conventional bombs across the runway at Stanley.", "The mission required repeated aerial refuelling using several Victor K2 tanker aircraft operating in concert, including tanker-to-tanker refuelling.", "The overall effect of the raids on the war is difficult to determine.", "The runway was cratered by only one of the twenty one bombs, but as a result, the Argentines realised that their mainland was vulnerable and fighter aircraft were redeployed from the theatre to bases further north.Historian Lawrence Freedman, who was given access to official sources, comments that the significance of the Vulcan raids remains a subject of controversy.", "Although they took pressure off the small Sea Harrier force, the raids were costly and used a great deal of resources.", "The single hit in the centre of the runway was probably the best that could have been expected, but it did reduce the capability of the runway to operate fast jets and caused the Argentine air force to deploy Mirage IIIs to defend the capital.", "Argentine sources confirm that the Vulcan raids influenced Argentina to shift some of its Mirage IIIs from southern Argentina to the Buenos Aires Defence Zone.", "This dissuasive effect was watered down when British officials made clear that there would not be strikes on air bases in Argentina.", "The raids were later dismissed as propaganda by Falklands veteran Commander Nigel Ward.Of the five Black Buck raids, three were against Stanley Airfield, with the other two being anti-radar missions using Shrike anti-radiation missiles.=== Escalation of the air war ===Super Étendard of the Argentine Naval AviationThe Falklands had only three airfields.", "The longest and only paved runway was at the capital, Stanley, and even that was too short to support fast jets.", "Therefore, the Argentines were forced to launch their major strikes from the mainland, severely hampering their efforts at forward staging, combat air patrols, and close air support over the islands.", "The effective loiter time of incoming Argentine aircraft was low, limiting the ability of fighters to protect attack aircraft, which were often compelled to attack the first target of opportunity, rather than selecting the most lucrative target.The first major Argentine strike force comprised 36 aircraft (A-4 Skyhawks, IAI Daggers, English Electric Canberras, and Mirage III escorts), and was sent on 1 May, in the belief that the British invasion was imminent or landings had already taken place.", "Only a section of Grupo 6 (flying IAI Dagger aircraft) found ships, which were firing at Argentine defences near the islands.", "The Daggers managed to attack the ships and return safely.", "This greatly boosted the morale of the Argentine pilots, who now knew they could survive an attack against modern warships, protected by radar ground clutter from the islands and by using a late pop up profile.", "Meanwhile, other Argentine aircraft were intercepted by BAE Sea Harriers operating from .", "A Dagger and a Canberra were shot down.Combat broke out between Sea Harrier FRS Mk 1 fighters of No.", "801 Naval Air Squadron and Mirage III fighters of Grupo 8.Both sides refused to fight at the other's best altitude, until two Mirages finally descended to engage.", "One was shot down by an AIM-9L Sidewinder air-to-air missile (AAM), while the other escaped but was damaged and without enough fuel to return to its mainland airbase.", "The plane made for Stanley, where it fell victim to friendly fire from the Argentine defenders.As a result of this experience, Argentine Air Force staff decided to employ A-4 Skyhawks and Daggers only as strike units, the Canberras only during the night, and Mirage IIIs (without air refuelling capability or any capable AAM) as decoys to lure away the British Sea Harriers.", "The decoying would be later extended with the formation of the Escuadrón Fénix, a squadron of civilian jets flying 24 hours a day, simulating strike aircraft preparing to attack the fleet.", "On one of these flights on 7 June, an Air Force Learjet 35A was shot down by HMS Exeter, killing the squadron commander, Vice Commodore Rodolfo de la Colina, the highest-ranking Argentine officer to die in the war.Stanley was used as an Argentine strongpoint throughout the conflict.", "Despite the Black Buck and Harrier raids on Stanley airfield (no fast jets were stationed there for air defence) and overnight shelling by detached ships, it was never out of action entirely.", "Stanley was defended by a mixture of surface-to-air missile (SAM) systems (Franco-German Roland and British Tigercat) and light anti-aircraft guns, including Swiss-built Oerlikon 35 mm twin cannons and 30 mm Hispano-Suiza cannon and German Rheinmetall 20 mm twin anti-aircraft cannons.", "More of the anti-aircraft guns were deployed to the airstrip at Goose Green.", "Lockheed Hercules transport night flights brought supplies, weapons, vehicles, and fuel, and airlifted out the wounded up until the end of the conflict.The only Argentine Hercules shot down by the British was lost on 1 June when TC-63 was intercepted by a Sea Harrier in daylight as it was searching for the British fleet north-east of the islands, after the Argentine Navy retired its last SP-2H Neptune due to unreliability.Various options to attack the home base of the five Argentine Étendards at Río Grande were examined and discounted (Operation Mikado); subsequently five Royal Navy submarines were lined up, submerged, on the edge of Argentina's territorial limit to provide early warning of bombing raids on the British task force.", "Operation Folklore was a plan to deploy two Canberra PR.9 aircraft of No.", "39 Squadron RAF, disguised in Chilean Air Force markings, to the Chilean air base at Punta Arenas, with the intention of undertaking high-level photo-reconnaissance flights over the Falklands; however the Canberras had reached Belize when the operation was abandoned after part of the plan had been reported in the British press.", "Operation Acme was the deployment of a single Nimrod R.1 surveillance aircraft of No.", "51 Squadron RAF to the Chilean base at Isla San Félix to gather signals intelligence from Argentinian forces in the Falklands; three sorties were conducted, the last on 17 May narrowly avoided being shot down by the Chileans, leading to the cancellation of the operation.", "More successful was Operation Fingent, the placement of a Marconi S259 radar on high ground in Tierra del Fuego from where it could monitor movements at southern Argentinian air bases; the RAF crew wore civilian clothes in the guise of a sales team.", "Information was passed to Northwood and the Task Force by means of Operation Shutter, a US supplied SATCOM system installed at the Chilean Air Force headquarters in Santiago and operated by two soldiers of the Royal Corps of Signals.=== Sinking of ARA ''General Belgrano'' ===''Alferez Sobral''On 30 April, the British government had brought into force a Total Exclusion Zone (TEZ) to replace the previous Maritime Exclusion Zone; aircraft as well as ships of any nation were liable to be attacked inside it, if they were aiding the Argentine occupation.", "Admiral Sandy Woodward's carrier battle group of twelve warships and three supply ships entered the TEZ on 1 May, shortly before the first Black Buck raid, intending to degrade Argentine air and sea forces before the arrival of the amphibious group two weeks later.", "In anticipation, Admiral Anaya had deployed all his available warships into three task groups.", "The first was centred around the aircraft carrier with two old but missile-armed destroyers, and a second comprised three modern frigates.", "Both these groups were intended to approach the TEZ from the north.", "A third group approaching from the south was led by the Second World War-vintage Argentine light cruiser ; although old, her large guns and heavy armour made her a serious threat, and she was escorted by two modern Type 42 guided-missile destroyers, armed with Exocet missiles.On 1 May, the British nuclear-powered submarine (one of three patrolling the TEZ) located the ''Belgrano'' group and followed it until the following day, when it was about 12 hours away from the Task Force and just outside the Total Exclusion Zone.", "Admiral Woodward was aware of the Argentine carrier group approaching from the other direction and ordered the cruiser to be attacked to avoid being caught in a pincer movement; he was unaware that the ''Veinticinco de Mayo'' had failed to gain enough headwind to launch her aircraft.", "The order to sink the cruiser was confirmed by the War Cabinet in London and the ''General Belgrano'' was hit by two torpedoes at 4 pm local time on 2 May, sinking an hour later.", "321 members of ''General Belgrano''s crew, along with two civilians on board the ship, died in the incident.", "More than 700 men were eventually rescued from the open ocean despite cold seas and stormy weather, enduring up to 30 hours in overcrowded life rafts.", "The loss of ''General Belgrano'' drew heavy criticism from Latin American countries and from opponents of the war in Britain; support for the British cause wavered amongst some European allies, but critically, the United States remained supportive.Regardless of controversies over the sinking — including disagreement about the exact nature of the exclusion zone and whether ''General Belgrano'' had been returning to port at the time of the sinking — it had a crucial strategic effect: the elimination of the Argentine naval threat.", "After her loss, the entire Argentine fleet, with the exception of the diesel-powered submarine , returned to port and did not leave again during the fighting.", "This had the secondary effect of allowing the British to redeploy their nuclear submarines to the coast of Argentina, where they were able to provide early warning of outgoing air attacks leaving mainland bases.", "However, settling the controversy in 2003, the ship's captain, Hector Bonzo, stated to a documentary crew that ''General Belgrano'' had actually been manoeuvering, not sailing away from the exclusion zone, and that he had orders to sink any British ship he could find.In a separate incident later that night, British forces engaged an Argentine patrol gunboat, the , that was searching for the crew of an Argentine Air Force Canberra light bomber shot down on 1 May.", "Two Royal Navy Lynx helicopters, from and , fired four Sea Skua missiles at her.", "Badly damaged and with eight crew dead, ''Alferez Sobral'' managed to return to Puerto Deseado two days later.", "The Canberra's crew were never found.=== Sinking of HMS ''Sheffield'' ===HMS ''Sheffield''On 4 May, two days after the sinking of ''General Belgrano'', the British lost the Type 42 destroyer to fire following an Exocet missile strike from the Argentine 2nd Naval Air Fighter/Attack Squadron.", "''Sheffield'' had been ordered forward with two other Type 42s to provide a long-range radar and medium-high altitude missile picket far from the British carriers.", "She was struck amidships, with devastating effect, ultimately killing 20 crew members and severely injuring 24 others.", "The ship was abandoned several hours later, gutted and deformed by fires.", "For four days she was kept afloat for inspections and the hope that she might attract Argentine submarines which could be hunted by helicopter.", "The decision was then taken to tow her to Ascension, but while under tow by , she finally sank east of the Falklands on 10 May.The incident is described in detail by Admiral Woodward in his book ''One Hundred Days'', in Chapter One.", "Woodward was a former commanding officer of ''Sheffield''.", "The destruction of ''Sheffield'', the first Royal Navy ship sunk in action since the Second World War, had a profound impact on the War Cabinet and the British public as a whole, bringing home the fact that the conflict was now an actual shooting war.=== Diplomatic activity ===The tempo of operations increased throughout the first half of May as the United Nations' attempts to mediate a peace were rejected by the Argentines.", "The final British negotiating position was presented to Argentina by UN Secretary-General Javier Pérez de Cuéllar on 18 May 1982.In it, the British abandoned their previous \"red-line\" that British administration of the islands should be restored on the withdrawal of Argentine forces, as supported by United Nations Security Council Resolution 502.Instead, it proposed a UN administrator should supervise the mutual withdrawal of both Argentine and British forces, then govern the islands in consultation with the representative institutions of the islands, including Argentines, although no Argentines lived there.", "Reference to \"self-determination\" of the islanders was dropped and the British proposed that future negotiations over the sovereignty of the islands should be conducted by the UN.", "However, the proposals were rejected by the Argentines on the same day.=== Special forces operations ===Given the threat to the British fleet posed by the Étendard-Exocet combination, plans were made to use C-130s to fly in SAS troops to attack the home base of the five Étendards at Río Grande, Tierra del Fuego.", "The operation was codenamed \"Mikado\".", "The operation was later scrapped, after acknowledging that its chances of success were limited, and replaced with a plan to use the submarine to drop SAS operatives several miles offshore at night for them to make their way to the coast aboard rubber inflatables and proceed to destroy Argentina's remaining Exocet stockpile.An SAS reconnaissance team was dispatched to carry out preparations for a seaborne infiltration.", "A Westland Sea King helicopter carrying the assigned team took off from HMS ''Invincible'' on the night of 17 May, but bad weather forced it to land from its target and the mission was aborted.", "The pilot flew to Chile, landed south of Punta Arenas, and dropped off the SAS team.", "The helicopter's crew of three then destroyed the aircraft, surrendered to Chilean police on 25 May, and were repatriated to the UK after interrogation.", "The discovery of the burnt-out helicopter attracted considerable international attention.", "Meanwhile, the SAS team crossed the border and penetrated into Argentina, but cancelled their mission after the Argentines suspected an SAS operation and deployed some troops to search for them.", "The SAS men were able to return to Chile and took a civilian flight back to the UK.On 14 May the SAS carried out a raid on Pebble Island on the Falklands, where the Argentine Navy had taken over a grass airstrip map for FMA IA 58 Pucará light ground-attack aircraft and Beechcraft T-34 Mentors, which resulted in the destruction of several aircraft.On 15 May, SBS teams were inserted by HMS ''Brilliant'' at Grantham Sound to reconnoitre and observe the landing beaches at San Carlos Bay.", "On the evening of 20 May, the day before the main landings, an SBS troop and artillery observers were landed by Wessex helicopters for an assault on an Argentine observation post at Fanning Head which overlooked the entrance of the bay; meanwhile, the SAS conducted a diversionary raid at Darwin." ], [ "Air attacks", " smoking after being hit, 23 May in 1981In the landing zone, the limitations of the British ships' anti-aircraft defences were demonstrated in the sinking of on 21 May which was hit by nine bombs, and on 24 May when attempts to defuze unexploded bombs failed.", "Out at sea with the carrier battle group, was struck by an air-launched Exocet on 25 May, which caused the loss of three out of four Chinook and five Wessex helicopters as well as their maintenance equipment and facilities, together with runway-building equipment and tents.", "This was a severe blow from a logistical perspective.", "Twelve of her crew members were killed.Also lost on 25 May was , a sister to , whilst in company with after being ordered to act as a decoy to draw away Argentine aircraft from other ships at San Carlos Bay.", "and were moderately damaged.", "Argentine A4 SkyHawk Attack on HMS ''Brilliant'' and HMS ''Glasgow'', 12 May 1982Many British ships escaped being sunk because of limitations imposed by circumstances on Argentine pilots.", "To avoid the highest concentration of British air defences, Argentine pilots released bombs at very low altitude, and hence those bomb fuzes did not have sufficient time to arm before impact.", "The low release of the retarded bombs (some of which the British had sold to the Argentines years earlier) meant that many never exploded, as there was insufficient time in the air for them to arm themselves.", "The pilots would have been aware of this—but due to the high concentration required to avoid surface-to-air missiles, anti-Aircraft Artillery (AAA), and British Sea Harriers, many failed to climb to the necessary release point.", "The Argentine forces solved the problem by fitting improvised retarding devices, allowing the pilots to effectively employ low-level bombing attacks on 8 June.", "''Atlantic Conveyor'' approaching the Falklands, on or about 19 May 1982Thirteen bombs hit British ships without detonating.", "Lord Craig, the retired Marshal of the Royal Air Force, is said to have remarked: \"Six better fuzes and we would have lost\" although ''Ardent'' and ''Antelope'' were both lost despite the failure of bombs to explode, and ''Argonaut'' was put out of action.", "The fuzes were functioning correctly, and the bombs were simply released from too low an altitude.", "The Argentines lost 22 aircraft in the attacks.In his autobiographical account of the Falklands War, Admiral Woodward blamed the BBC World Service for disclosing information that led the Argentines to change the retarding devices on the bombs.", "The World Service reported the lack of detonations after receiving a briefing on the matter from a Ministry of Defence official.", "He describes the BBC as being more concerned with being \"fearless seekers after truth\" than with the lives of British servicemen.", "Colonel 'H'.", "Jones levelled similar accusations against the BBC after they disclosed the impending British attack on Goose Green by 2 Para.", "and during the warOn 30 May, two Super Étendards, one carrying Argentina's last remaining Exocet, escorted by four A-4C Skyhawks each with two 500 lb bombs, took off to attack ''Invincible''.", "Argentine intelligence had sought to determine the position of the carriers from analysis of aircraft flight routes from the task force to the islands.", "However, the British had a standing order that all aircraft conduct a low level transit when leaving or returning to the carriers to disguise their position.", "This tactic compromised the Argentine attack, which focused on a group of escorts south of the carrier group.", "Two of the attacking Skyhawks were shot down by Sea Dart missiles fired by HMS ''Exeter'', with HMS ''Avenger'' claiming to have shot down the Exocet missile with her 4.5\" gun (although this claim is disputed).", "No damage was caused to any British vessels.", "During the war, Argentina claimed to have damaged ''Invincible'' and continues to do so, although no evidence of any such damage has been produced or uncovered." ], [ "Land battles", "=== San Carlos – \"Bomb Alley\"===British sailors in anti-flash gear at action stations on near San Carlos, June 1982During the night of 21 May, the British Amphibious Task Group under the command of Commodore Michael Clapp (Commodore, Amphibious Warfare – COMAW) mounted Operation Sutton, the amphibious landing on beaches around San Carlos Water, on the northwestern coast of East Falkland facing onto Falkland Sound.", "The bay, known as ''Bomb Alley'' by British forces, was the scene of repeated air attacks by low-flying Argentine jets.The men of 3 Commando Brigade were put ashore as follows: 2nd Battalion, Parachute Regiment (2 Para) from the RORO ferry ''Norland'' and 40 Commando Royal Marines from the amphibious ship were landed at San Carlos (Blue Beach), 3rd Battalion, Parachute Regiment (3 Para) from the amphibious ship was landed at Port San Carlos (Green Beach) and 45 Commando from RFA ''Stromness'' was landed at Ajax Bay (Red Beach).", "Notably, the waves of eight LCUs and eight LCVPs were led by Major Ewen Southby-Tailyour, who had commanded the Falklands detachment NP8901 from March 1978 to 1979.42 Commando on the ocean liner was a tactical reserve.", "Units from the Royal Artillery, Royal Engineers, etc.", "and armoured reconnaissance vehicles were also put ashore with the landing craft, the Round Table-class LSL and mexeflote barges.", "Rapier missile launchers were carried as underslung loads of Sea Kings for rapid deployment.By dawn the next day, they had established a secure beachhead from which to conduct offensive operations.", "Brigadier Julian Thompson established his brigade headquarters in dugouts near San Carlos Settlement.=== Goose Green ===Infantry deployment in East Falklands after landing in San CarlosFrom early on 27 May until 28 May, 2 Para approached and attacked Darwin and Goose Green, which was held by the Argentine 12th Infantry Regiment.", "2 Para’s 500 men had naval gunfire support from HMS ''Arrow'' and artillery support from 8 Commando Battery and the Royal Artillery.", "After a tough struggle that lasted all night and into the next day, the British won the battle; in all, 18 British and 47 Argentine soldiers were killed.", "A total of 961 Argentine troops (including 202 Argentine Air Force personnel of the ''Condor'' airfield) were taken prisoner.The BBC announced the taking of Goose Green on the BBC World Service before it had actually happened.", "During this attack Lieutenant Colonel H. Jones, the commanding officer of 2 Para, was killed at the head of his battalion while charging into the well-prepared Argentine positions.", "He was posthumously awarded the Victoria Cross.With the sizeable Argentine force at Goose Green out of the way, British forces were now able to break out of the San Carlos beachhead.", "On 27 May, men of 45 Cdo and 3 Para started a loaded march across East Falkland towards the coastal settlement of Teal Inlet.=== Special forces on Mount Kent ===Meanwhile, 42 Commando prepared to move by helicopter to Mount Kent.", "Unbeknownst to senior British officers, the Argentine generals were determined to tie down the British troops in the Mount Kent area, and on 27 and 28 May they sent transport aircraft loaded with Blowpipe surface-to-air missiles and commandos (602nd Commando Company and 601st National Gendarmerie Special Forces Squadron) to Stanley.", "This operation was known as ''Autoimpuesta'' (\"Self-imposed\").For the next week, the SAS and the Mountain and Arctic Warfare Cadre (M&AWC) of 3 Commando Brigade waged intense patrol battles with patrols of the volunteers' 602nd Commando Company under Major Aldo Rico, normally second in Command of the 22nd Mountain Infantry Regiment.", "Throughout 30 May, Royal Air Force Harriers were active over Mount Kent.", "One of them, Harrier ''XZ963'', flown by Squadron Leader Jerry Pook—in responding to a call for help from D Squadron, attacked Mount Kent's eastern lower slopes, which led to its loss through small-arms fire.", "Pook was subsequently awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross.On 31 May, the M&AWC defeated Argentine Special Forces at the skirmish at Top Malo House.", "A 13-strong Argentine Army Commando detachment (Captain José Vercesi's 1st Assault Section, 602nd Commando Company) found itself trapped in a small shepherd's house at Top Malo.", "The Argentine commandos fired from windows and doorways and then took refuge in a stream bed from the burning house.", "Completely surrounded, they fought 19 M&AWC marines under Captain Rod Boswell for 45 minutes until, with their ammunition almost exhausted, they elected to surrender.Three Cadre members were badly wounded.", "On the Argentine side, there were two dead, including Lieutenant Ernesto Espinoza and Sergeant Mateo Sbert (who were posthumously decorated for their bravery).", "Only five Argentines were left unscathed.", "As the British secured Top Malo House, Lieutenant Fraser Haddow's M&AWC patrol came down from Malo Hill, brandishing a large Union Flag.", "One wounded Argentine soldier, Lieutenant Horacio Losito, commented that their escape route would have taken them through Haddow's position.601st Commando tried to move forward to rescue 602nd Commando Company on Estancia Mountain.", "Spotted by 42 Commando, they were engaged with L16 81mm mortars and forced to withdraw to Two Sisters mountain.", "The leader of 602nd Commando Company on Estancia Mountain realised his position had become untenable and after conferring with fellow officers ordered a withdrawal.The Argentine operation also saw the extensive use of helicopter support to position and extract patrols; the 601st Combat Aviation Battalion also suffered casualties.", "At about 11:00 am on 30 May, an Aérospatiale SA 330 Puma helicopter was brought down by a shoulder-launched FIM-92 Stinger surface-to-air missile (SAM) fired by the SAS in the vicinity of Mount Kent.", "Six Argentine National Gendarmerie Special Forces were killed and eight more wounded in the crash.As Brigadier Thompson commented: === Bluff Cove and Fitzroy ===By 1 June, with the arrival of a further British troops of the 5th Infantry Brigade, the new British divisional commander, Major General Jeremy Moore RM, had sufficient force to start planning an offensive against Stanley.", "During this build-up, the Argentine air assaults on the British naval forces continued, killing 56.Of the dead, 32 were from the Welsh Guards on RFA ''Sir Galahad'' and RFA ''Sir Tristram'' on 8 June.", "According to Surgeon-Commander Rick Jolly of the Falklands Field Hospital, more than 150 men suffered burns and injuries of some kind in the attack, including Simon Weston.The Guards were sent to support an advance along the southern approach to Stanley.", "On 2 June, a small advance party of 2 Para moved to Swan Inlet house in a number of Army Westland Scout helicopters.", "Telephoning ahead to Fitzroy, they discovered that the area was clear of Argentines and (exceeding their authority) commandeered the one remaining RAF Chinook helicopter to frantically ferry another contingent of 2 Para ahead to Fitzroy (a settlement on Port Pleasant) and Bluff Cove (a settlement on Port Fitzroy).The road to StanleyThis uncoordinated advance caused great difficulties in planning for the commanders of the combined operation, as they now found themselves with of indefensible positions, strung along their southern flank.", "Support could not be sent by air as the single remaining Chinook was already heavily oversubscribed.", "The soldiers could march, but their equipment and heavy supplies would need to be ferried by sea.Plans were drawn up for half the Welsh Guards to march light on the night of 2 June, whilst the Scots Guards and the second half of the Welsh Guards were to be ferried from San Carlos Water in the Landing Ship Logistics (LSL) ''Sir Tristram'' and the landing platform dock (LPD) ''Intrepid'' on the night of 5 June.", "''Intrepid'' was planned to stay one day and unload itself and as much of ''Sir Tristram'' as possible, leaving the next evening for the relative safety of San Carlos.", "Escorts would be provided for this day, after which ''Sir Tristram'' would be left to unload using a Mexeflote (a powered raft) for as long as it took to finish.Political pressure from above to not risk the LPD forced Commodore Michael Clapp to alter this plan.", "Two lower-value LSLs would be sent, but with no suitable beaches to land on, ''Intrepid''s landing craft would need to accompany them to unload.", "A complicated operation across several nights with ''Intrepid'' and her sister ship sailing half-way to dispatch their craft was devised.The attempted overland march by half the Welsh Guards failed, possibly as they refused to march light and attempted to carry their equipment.", "They returned to San Carlos and landed directly at Bluff Cove when ''Fearless'' dispatched her landing craft.", "''Sir Tristram'' sailed on the night of 6 June and was joined by ''Sir Galahad'' at dawn on 7 June.", "Anchored apart in Port Pleasant, the landing ships were near Fitzroy, the designated landing point.", "The landing craft should have been able to unload the ships to that point relatively quickly, but confusion over the ordered disembarkation point (the first half of the Guards going direct to Bluff Cove) resulted in the senior Welsh Guards infantry officer aboard insisting that his troops should be ferried the far longer distance directly to Port Fitzroy/Bluff Cove.", "The alternative was for the infantrymen to march via the recently repaired Bluff Cove bridge (destroyed by retreating Argentine combat engineers) to their destination, a journey of around .On ''Sir Galahad''s stern ramp there was an argument about what to do.", "The officers on board were told that they could not sail to Bluff Cove that day.", "They were told that they had to get their men off ship and onto the beach as soon as possible as the ships were vulnerable to enemy aircraft.", "It would take 20 minutes to transport the men to shore using the LCU and Mexeflote.", "They would then have the choice of walking the seven miles to Bluff Cove or wait until dark to sail there.", "The officers on board said that they would remain on board until dark and then sail.", "They refused to take their men off the ship.", "They possibly doubted that the bridge had been repaired due to the presence on board ''Sir Galahad'' of the Royal Engineer Troop whose job it was to repair the bridge.", "The Welsh Guards were keen to rejoin the rest of their Battalion, who were potentially facing the enemy without their support.", "They had also not seen any enemy aircraft since landing at San Carlos and may have been overconfident in the air defences.", "Ewen Southby-Tailyour gave a direct order for the men to leave the ship and go to the beach; the order was ignored.", "The officers ignored my order.", "In doing so they explained to me quite clearly that no orders would be accepted from an officer of equivalent rank.", "\"''The longer journey time of the landing craft taking the troops directly to Bluff Cove and the squabbling over how the landing was to be performed caused an enormous delay in unloading.", "This had disastrous consequences, since the ships were visible to Argentine troops on Mount Harriet, some distant.", "Without escorts, having not yet established their air defence, and still almost fully laden, the two LSLs in Port Pleasant were sitting targets for eight Argentine A-4 Skyhawks.", "A coordinated sortie by six Daggers attacked HMS ''Plymouth'', which had the effect of drawing off the patrolling Sea Harriers.", "At 17.00, the Skyhawks attacked from seaward, hitting ''Sir Galahad'' with three bombs; although none exploded, they caused fierce fires which quickly grew out of control.", "Two bombs hit ''Sir Tristram'', also starting fires and causing the ship to be abandoned, but the damage was not as serious.", "Three Sea King and a Wessex helicopter ferried the wounded to an advanced dressing station which was set up on the shore.British casualties were 48 killed and 115 wounded.", "Three Argentine pilots were also killed.", "The air strike delayed the scheduled British ground attack on Stanley by two days.", "The British casualties amounted to two infantry companies, but it was decided not to release detailed casualty figures because intelligence indicated that Argentine commanders believed that a much more severe reverse had been inflicted.", "However, the disaster at Port Pleasant (although often known as Bluff Cove) would provide the world with some of the most sobering images of the war as ITV News video showed helicopters hovering in thick smoke to winch survivors from the burning landing ships.=== Fall of Stanley ===HMS ''Cardiff'' anchored outside Port Stanley at the end of hostilities in 1982Argentine prisoners of war in Port StanleyOn the night of 11 June, after several days of painstaking reconnaissance and logistic build-up, British forces launched a brigade-sized night attack against the heavily defended ring of high ground surrounding Stanley.", "Units of 3 Commando Brigade, supported by naval gunfire from several Royal Navy ships, simultaneously attacked in the Battle of Mount Harriet, Battle of Two Sisters, and Battle of Mount Longdon.", "Mount Harriet was taken at a cost of 2 British and 18 Argentine soldiers.", "At Two Sisters, the British faced both enemy resistance and friendly fire but managed to capture their objectives.", "The toughest battle was at Mount Longdon.", "British forces were bogged down by rifle, mortar, machine gun, artillery and sniper fire, and ambushes.", "Despite this, the British continued their advance.During this battle, 14 were killed when , straying too close to shore while returning from the gun line, was struck by an improvised trailer-based Exocet MM38 launcher taken from the destroyer by Argentine Navy technicians.", "On the same day, Sergeant Ian McKay of 4 Platoon, B Company, 3 Para died in a grenade attack on an Argentine bunker; he received a posthumous Victoria Cross for his actions.", "After a night of fierce fighting, all objectives were secured.", "Both sides suffered heavy losses.A pile of discarded Argentine weapons in Port StanleyThe second phase of attacks began on the night of 13 June, and the momentum of the initial assault was maintained.", "2 Para, with light armour support from the Blues and Royals, captured Wireless Ridge, with the loss of 3 British and 25 Argentine lives, and the 2nd Battalion, Scots Guards captured Mount Tumbledown at the Battle of Mount Tumbledown, which cost 10 British and 30 Argentine lives.", "A simultaneous special forces raid by the SAS and SBS in fast boats to attack the oil tanks in Stanley Harbour was beaten off by anti-aircraft guns.With the last natural defence line at Mount Tumbledown breached, the Argentine town defences of Stanley began to falter.", "In the morning gloom, one company commander got lost and his junior officers became despondent.", "Private Santiago Carrizo of the 3rd Regiment described how a platoon commander ordered them to take up positions in the houses and \"if a Kelper resists, shoot him\", but the entire company did nothing of the kind.", "A daylight attack on Mount William by the Gurkhas, delayed from the previous night by the fighting at Tumbledown, ended in anticlimax when the Argentine positions were found to be deserted.A ceasefire was declared on 14 June and Thatcher announced the commencement of surrender negotiations.", "The commander of the Argentine garrison in Stanley, Brigade General Mario Menéndez, surrendered to Major General Jeremy Moore the same day.=== Recapture of South Sandwich Islands ===The Argentine Thule Garrison at the Corbeta Uruguay baseOn 20 June, the British retook the South Sandwich Islands, which involved accepting the surrender of the Southern Thule Garrison at the Corbeta Uruguay base and declared hostilities over.", "Argentina had established Corbeta Uruguay in 1976, but prior to 1982 the United Kingdom had contested the existence of the Argentine base only through diplomatic channels." ], [ "Foreign involvement", "===Commonwealth===The UK received political support from member countries of the Commonwealth of Nations.", "Australia, Canada, and New Zealand withdrew their diplomats from Buenos Aires.====New Zealand====The New Zealand government expelled the Argentine ambassador following the invasion.", "The Prime Minister, Robert Muldoon, was in London when the war broke out and in an opinion piece published in ''The Times'' he said: \"The military rulers of Argentina must not be appeased … New Zealand will back Britain all the way.\"", "Broadcasting on the BBC World Service, he told the Falkland Islanders: \"This is Rob Muldoon.", "We are thinking of you and we are giving our full and total support to the British Government in its endeavours to rectify this situation and get rid of the people who have invaded your country.\"", "On 20 May 1982, he announced that New Zealand would make , a , available for use where the British thought fit to release a Royal Navy vessel for the Falklands.", "In the House of Commons afterwards, Margaret Thatcher said: \"…the New Zealand Government and people have been absolutely magnificent in their support for this country and the Falkland Islanders, for the rule of liberty and of law\".====Australia====Encouraged by the generous response of New Zealand, the Australian prime minister, Malcolm Fraser, was rushed into offering to cancel the intended purchase of HMS ''Invincible'', which was quickly accepted by the British.", "However, this left the Royal Australian Navy without a replacement for their only aircraft carrier, , which was in the process of decommissioning.===France===The French president, François Mitterrand, declared an embargo on French arms sales and assistance to Argentina.", "In addition, France allowed UK aircraft and warships use of its port and airfield facilities at Dakar in Senegal and France provided dissimilar aircraft training so that Harrier pilots could train against the French aircraft used by Argentina.", "French intelligence also cooperated with Britain to prevent Argentina from obtaining more Exocet missiles on the international market.", "In a 2002 interview, and in reference to this support, John Nott, the then British Defence Secretary, had described France as Britain's 'greatest ally'.", "In 2012, it came to light that while this support was taking place, a French technical team, employed by Dassault and already in Argentina, remained there throughout the war despite the presidential decree.", "The team had provided material support to the Argentines, identifying and fixing faults in Exocet missile launchers.", "John Nott said he had known the French team was there but said its work was thought not to be of any importance.", "An adviser to the then French government denied any knowledge at the time that the technical team was there.", "The French DGSE did know the team was there as they had an informant in the team but decried any assistance the team gave: \"It's bordering on an act of treason, or disobedience to an embargo\".", "John Nott, when asked if he felt let down by the French said \"If you're asking me: 'Are the French duplicitous people?'", "the answer is: 'Of course they are, and they always have been\".", "Four Exocet missiles that had been ordered by Peru were prevented by the French government from being delivered by air and, after pressure from Britain who suspected that they would be passed on to Argentina, delayed their release to a Peruvian ship until the conflict was over.===United States===Declassified cables show the United States both felt that Thatcher had not considered diplomatic options and feared that a protracted conflict could draw the Soviet Union on Argentina's side.", "The US initially tried to mediate an end to the conflict through shuttle diplomacy, but when Argentina refused the American peace overtures, US Secretary of State Alexander Haig announced that the United States would prohibit arms sales to Argentina and provide material support for British operations.", "Both houses of the US Congress passed resolutions supporting the American action siding with the United Kingdom.The US provided the United Kingdom with 200 Sidewinder missiles for use by the Harrier jets, eight Stinger surface-to-air missile systems, Harpoon anti-ship missiles and mortar bombs.", "On Ascension Island, the underground fuel tanks were empty when the British Task Force arrived in mid-April 1982 and the leading assault ship, , did not have enough fuel to dock when it arrived off the island.", "The United States diverted a supertanker to replenish both the fuel tanks of ships at anchor there and the storage tanks on the island with approximately of fuel.", "The Pentagon further committed to providing additional support in the event that the war dragged on into the Southern Hemisphere's winter.", "In that scenario, the US committed tanker aircraft to support Royal Air Force missions in Europe, releasing RAF aircraft to support operations over the Falklands.The United States allowed the United Kingdom to use American communication satellites to allow secure communications between submarines in the Southern Ocean and Naval HQ in Britain.", "The US also passed on satellite imagery (which it publicly denied) and weather forecast data to the British Fleet.US President Ronald Reagan approved the Royal Navy's request to borrow a Sea Harrier-capable (the US Navy had earmarked for this) in the event a British aircraft carrier was lost.", "The US Navy developed a plan to help the British man the ship with American military contractors, who would likely be retired sailors with knowledge of the ship's systems.===Other OAS members=======Cuba====Argentina itself was politically backed by a number of countries in Latin America (though, notably, not Chile).", "Several members of the Non-Aligned Movement also backed Argentina's position; notably, Cuba and Nicaragua led a diplomatic effort to rally non-aligned countries from Africa and Asia to Argentina's position.", "This initiative came as a surprise to Western observers, as Cuba had no diplomatic relations with Argentina's right-leaning military junta.", "British diplomats complained that Cuba had \"cynically exploited\" the crisis to pursue its normalization of relations with Latin American countries; Argentina eventually resumed relations with Cuba in 1983; Brazil did so in 1986.====Peru====Peru attempted to purchase 12 Exocet missiles from France, to be delivered to Argentina in a failed secret operation.", "Peru also openly sent \"Mirages, pilots and missiles\" to Argentina during the war.", "Peru had earlier transferred ten Hercules transport planes to Argentina soon after the British Task Force had set sail in April 1982.Nick van der Bijl records that, after the Argentine defeat at Goose Green, Venezuela and Guatemala offered to send paratroopers to the Falklands.====Chile====At the outbreak of the war, Chile was in negotiations with Argentina for control over the Beagle Channel and feared Argentina would use similar tactics to secure the channel.", "During this conflict, Argentina had already rejected two attempts at international mediation and tried to exert military pressure on Chile with an operation to occupy the disputed territory.", "Considering the situation, Chile refused to support the Argentine position during the war and gave support to the UK in the form of intelligence about the Argentine military and early warning intelligence on Argentine air movements.", "Throughout the war, Argentina was afraid of a Chilean military intervention in Patagonia and kept some of its best mountain regiments away from the Falklands near the Chilean border as a precaution.", "The Chilean government also allowed the United Kingdom to requisition the refuelling vessel , which Chile had recently purchased and which had arrived at Arica in Chile on 4 April.", "The ship left port soon afterwards, bound for Ascension Island through the Panama Canal and stopping at Curaçao en route.====Brazil====At the end of May, Brazilian authorities allowed FAA Boeing 707s to refuel at Recife International Airport carrying arms shipments from Libya.", "When the British Embassy in Brasilia became aware of this, the British Secret Intelligence Service devised a plan to sabotage the next flight on the ground, but diplomatic pressure on the Brazilian government to observe their legal duties as a neutral country resulted in no further flights being accepted.", "On 3 June, an RAF Vulcan on returning from a Black Buck raid on the Falklands, was forced to make an emergency landing at Rio de Janeiro International Airport after damage to its refuelling probe prevented it returning to Ascension Island.", "The Vulcan and her crew were interned and released seven days later, although an unused Shrike missile that the aircraft had been carrying was retained.===Soviet Union===The Soviet Union described the Falklands as \"a disputed territory\", recognising Argentina's ambitions over the islands, and called for restraint on all sides.", "Soviet media frequently criticised the UK and US during the war.", "Significantly, however, the Soviet Union refrained from vetoing and thus made possible UN Security Council Resolution 502 demanding the immediate withdrawal of all Argentine troops from the Falklands.", "However, the Soviet Union mounted some clandestine logistics operations to assist the Argentines.", "Days after the invasion by the Argentine forces, the Soviets launched additional intelligence satellites into low Earth orbit covering the southern Atlantic Ocean.", "Conflicting reports exist on whether Soviet ocean surveillance data might have played a role in the sinking of and .=== Spain ===Spain's position was one of ambiguity, underpinning the basic dilemma of the Spanish foreign policy regarding the articulation of relationships with Latin America and European communities.", "On 2 April 1982, the Council of Ministers issued an official note defending principles of decolonisation and against the use of force.", "Spain abstained in the vote of UN Security Council Resolution 502, a position that Spanish UN representative Jaime de Piniés justified by pointing out that the resolution did not mention the underlying problem of decolonisation.", "The Spanish stance throughout the conflict contrasted with those of the countries in its immediate vicinity (EEC members and Portugal).Spanish authorities also foiled a covert attack by the Argentine Naval Intelligence Service on a British warship at Gibraltar, code named Operation Algeciras.", "Three frogmen, recruited from a former anti-government insurgent group, were to plant mines on a ship's hull.", "The divers travelled to Spain through France, where French security services noted their military diving equipment and alerted their Spanish counterparts.", "They were covertly monitored as they moved from the Argentine embassy in Madrid to Algeciras, where they were arrested on 17 May by the ''Guardia Civil'' and deported.=== Portugal ===Portugal supported its long-standing ally Britain and the facilities of the Azores were offered to the Royal Navy.=== EEC ===The European Economic Community provided economic support by imposing economic sanctions on Argentina.", "In a meeting on Good Friday, 9 April, at the Egmont Palace, the EEC Political Committee proposed a total import ban from Argentina.", "Belgium, Denmark, Greece, Luxembourg and Ireland agreed immediately; France, Germany and the Netherlands were persuaded before the meeting ended.", "Italy, which had close cultural ties with Argentina, consented on the next day.===Other countries=======Ireland====Ireland's position altered during the war.", "As a rotating member of the United Nations Security Council, it supported Resolution 502.However, on 4 May, the Fianna Fáil government led by Charles Haughey decided to oppose EEC sanctions and called for a ceasefire.", "Haughey justified this as complying with Irish neutrality.", "Historians have suggested it was an opportunistic appeal to anti-British sentiment and reaction to Haughey's being sidelined during the 1981 republican hunger strike.", "The strain on British–Irish relations eased when Haughey's government fell in November 1982.====Israel====According to the book ''Operation Israel'', advisers from Israel Aerospace Industries were already in Argentina and continued their work during the conflict.", "The book also claims that Israel sold weapons and drop tanks to Argentina in a secret operation via Peru.====Sierra Leone====The Government of Sierra Leone allowed British task force ships to refuel at Freetown.====The Gambia====VC10 transport aircraft landed at Banjul in The Gambia while flying between the UK and Ascension Island.====Libya====Through Libya, under Muammar Gaddafi, Argentina received 20 launchers and 60 SA-7 missiles (which Argentina later described as \"not effective\"), as well as machine guns, mortars and mines.", "To retrieve the weapons, four trips were made using two Argentine Air Force Boeing 707s which refuelled in Recife with the consent of the Brazilian government.====South Africa====The UK had terminated the Simonstown Agreement in 1975, thereby effectively denying the Royal Navy access to ports in South Africa and forcing it to use Ascension Island as a staging post." ], [ "Casualties", "The Argentine Military Cemetery on East FalklandThe British Military Cemetery at San Carlos on East FalklandIn total, 907 people were killed during the 74 days of the conflict.", "Additionally, there were Argentine and 777 British injured or wounded.=== Argentina ===A total of 649 Argentine servicemen were killed:* Ejército Argentino (''Army'') – 194 (16 officers, 35 non-commissioned officers (NCOs) and 143 conscript privates)* Armada de la República Argentina (''Navy'') – 341 (including 321 in and 4 naval aviators)** IMARA (''Marines'') – 34* Fuerza Aérea Argentina (''Air Force'') – 55 (including 31 pilots and 14 ground crew)* Gendarmería Nacional Argentina (''Border Guard'') – 7* Prefectura Naval Argentina (''Coast Guard'') – 2=== United Kingdom ===A total of 255 British servicemen were killed:* Royal Navy – 86 + 2 Hong Kong laundrymen (see below)* Royal Marines – 27 (2 officers, 14 NCOs and 11 marines)* Royal Fleet Auxiliary – 4 + 6 Hong Kong sailors* Merchant Navy – 6* British Army – 123 (7 officers, 40 NCOs and 76 privates)* Royal Air Force – 1 (1 officer)Of the 86 Royal Navy personnel, 22 were lost in , 19 + 1 lost in , 19 + 1 lost in and 13 lost in .", "Fourteen naval cooks were among the dead, the largest number from any one branch in the Royal Navy.Thirty-three of the British Army's dead came from the Welsh Guards (32 of whom died on the RFA ''Sir Galahad'' in the Bluff Cove Air Attacks), 21 from the 3rd Battalion, the Parachute Regiment, 18 from the 2nd Battalion, the Parachute Regiment, 19 from the Special Air Service, 3 each from Royal Signals and Royal Army Medical Corps and 8 from each of the Scots Guards and Royal Engineers.", "The 1st battalion/7th Duke of Edinburgh's Own Gurkha Rifles lost one man.=== Civilians ===Three civilians on the Falkland Islands were accidentally killed by British shelling during the night of 11/12 June.", "The military command identified those killed as Susan Whitley, 30, a British citizen, and Falkland Islands natives Doreen Bonner, 36 and Mary Goodwin, 82.It was also reported that HMS Brilliant, on an anti-submarine patrol, detected and torpedoed three whales by accident.=== Red Cross Box ===''Hecla'' at HM Naval Base Gibraltar, during conversion to a hospital ship for service during the Falklands WarBefore British offensive operations began, the British and Argentine governments agreed to establish an area on the high seas where both sides could station hospital ships without fear of attack by the other side.", "This area, a circle 20 nautical miles in diameter, was referred to as the Red Cross Box () and located about north of Falkland Sound.", "Ultimately, the British stationed four ships (, and and the primary hospital ship SS ''Uganda'') within the box, while the Argentines stationed three (, and ).The hospital ships were non-warships converted to serve as hospital ships.", "The three British naval vessels were survey vessels and ''Uganda'' was a passenger liner.", "''Almirante Irizar'' was an icebreaker, ''Bahia Paraiso'' was an Antarctic supply transport and ''Puerto Deseado'' was a survey ship.", "British and Argentine vessels operating within the Box were in radio contact and there was some transfer of patients between hospital ships.", "For example, the ''Uganda'' transferred patients to an Argentine hospital ship on four occasions.", "''Hydra'' worked with ''Hecla'' and ''Herald'' to take casualties from ''Uganda'' to Montevideo, Uruguay, where a fleet of Uruguayan ambulances met them.", "RAF VC10 aircraft then flew the casualties to the UK for transfer to the Princess Alexandra Hospital at RAF Wroughton, near Swindon.Throughout the conflict, officials of the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) conducted inspections to verify that all concerned were abiding by the rules of the Geneva Conventions.", "Argentine naval officers also inspected the British casualty ferries in the estuary of the River Plate." ], [ "Aftermath", "Plaza San Martín, Buenos Aires; a member of the historic ''Patricios'' regiment stands guardThis brief war brought many consequences for all the parties involved, besides the considerable casualty rate and large materiel loss, especially of shipping and aircraft, relative to the deployed military strengths of the opposing sides.In the United Kingdom, Margaret Thatcher's popularity increased.", "The success of the Falklands campaign was widely regarded as a factor in the turnaround in fortunes for the Conservative government, who had been trailing behind the SDP–Liberal Alliance in the opinion polls for months before the conflict began.", "Following the success in the Falklands, the Conservatives returned to the top of the opinion polls by a wide margin and went on to win the following year's general election by a landslide.", "Subsequently, Defence Secretary Nott's proposed cuts to the Royal Navy were abandoned.The islanders had full British citizenship restored in 1983; their quality of life improved through investments made by the UK after the war and by economic liberalisation that had been stalled for fear of angering Argentina.", "In 1985, a new constitution was enacted, promoting self-government which has continued to devolve power to the islanders.In Argentina, defeat in the Falklands War meant that a possible war with Chile was avoided.", "Further, Argentina returned to a democratic government in the 1983 general election, the first free general election since 1973.It also had a major social impact, destroying the military's image as the \"moral reserve of the nation\" that they had maintained through most of the 20th century.A detailed study of British veterans of the war commissioned by the UK Ministry of Defence found that between 1982 and 2012, only 95 had died from \"intentional self-harm and events of undetermined intent (suicides and open verdict deaths)\", a proportion lower than would be expected within the general population over the same period.", "However, a study of British combat veterans conducted five years after the conflict found that half of the sample group had suffered some symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), while 22% were assessed to have the complete syndrome.===\"Fortress Falklands\"===Two RAF Tornado F3 fighters flying over the Falkland Islands in 2007In the immediate aftermath of the conflict, the British government embarked on a long-term policy of providing the islands with a viable military garrison, known informally as \"Fortress Falklands\".", "Initially, an aircraft carrier was kept in the area until the runway at Stanley Airport could be improved to take conventional RAF fighters.", "A permanent military complex with a runway designed to take long-haul airliners was constructed in the south of East Falkland, RAF Mount Pleasant, which opened in 1985; an associated deep-water port at Mare Harbour was also constructed.", "A small military outpost was established at King Edward Point on South Georgia, but it was closed in 2001.=== Military analysis ===Militarily, the Falklands conflict remains one of the largest air-naval combat operations between modern forces since the end of the Second World War.", "As such, it has been the subject of intense study by military analysts and historians.", "Significant takeaways include the vulnerability of surface ships to anti-ship missiles and submarines, the challenges of co-ordinating logistical support for long-distance projections of power, and reconfirmation of the importance of tactical air power, including helicopters.In 1986, the BBC broadcast the ''Horizon'' programme ''In the Wake of HMS Sheffield'', which discussed lessons learned from the conflict, and measures taken to implement them, such as incorporating greater stealth capabilities and providing better close-in weapon systems for the fleet.", "The principal British military responses to the Falklands War were the measures adopted in the December 1982 Defence White Paper.=== Memorials ===The 1982 Liberation Memorial in StanleyThere are several memorials on the Falkland Islands themselves, the most notable of which is the 1982 Liberation Memorial, unveiled in 1984 on the second anniversary of the end of the war.", "It lists the names of the 255 British military personnel who died during the war and is located in front of the Secretariat Building in Stanley, overlooking Stanley Harbour.", "The Memorial was funded entirely by the Islanders and is inscribed with the words \"In Memory of Those Who Liberated Us\".During the war, British dead were put into plastic body bags and buried in mass graves.", "After the war, the bodies were recovered; 14 were reburied at Blue Beach Military Cemetery and 64 were returned to the United Kingdom.", "Many of the Argentine dead are buried in the Argentine Military Cemetery two kilometers northeast of the small settlement of Darwin, approximately 82 kilometers west of Stanley.", "The Argentine government declined an offer by the UK to have the bodies repatriated to Argentina.In addition to memorials on the islands, there is a memorial in the crypt of St Paul's Cathedral, London to the British war dead.", "At the National Memorial Arboretum in Staffordshire, a Falklands War memorial was unveiled in May 2012 in a service attended by 600 veterans and their families; the names of the fallen were also inscribed on the Armed Forces Memorial at the arboretum, which commemorates all British servicemen killed in action since the end of the Second World War.", "A memorial to the seamen of the Merchant Navy who died in the war stands at the Tower Hill Memorial in Trinity Square Gardens, London.", "A memorial to the Royal Marines, known as \"The Yomper\" was unveiled by Margaret Thatcher in 1992 outside the former Eastney Barracks near Portsmouth.", "The Falkland Islands Memorial Chapel at Pangbourne College was opened in March 2000 as a commemoration of the lives and sacrifice of all those who served and died in the South Atlantic in 1982.In Argentina, there is a memorial at Plaza San Martín in Buenos Aires, another one in Rosario, and a third one in Ushuaia.=== Minefields ===Port William, East Falkland.In 2011 there were 113 uncleared minefields plus unexploded ordnance (UXOs) covering an area of on the Falkland Islands.", "Of this area, on the Murrell Peninsula were classified as being \"suspected minefields\"—the area had been heavily pastured for 25 years without incident.", "It was estimated that these minefields had anti-personnel mines and anti-tank mines.The UK reported six military personnel injured by mines or UXO in 1982, then two more in 1983.Most military accidents took place in the immediate aftermath of the conflict, while clearing minefields or trying to establish the extent of minefield perimeters, particularly where no detailed records existed.", "No civilian mine casualties have ever occurred on the islands, and no human casualties from mines or UXO have been reported since 1984.On 9 May 2008, the Falkland Islands Government asserted that the minefields, which represent 0.1% of the available farmland on the islands \"present no long term social or economic difficulties for the Falklands\", and that the impact of clearing the mines would cause more problems than containing them.", "However, the British Government, in accordance with its commitments under the Mine Ban Treaty had a commitment to clear the mines by the end of 2019.In May 2012, it was announced that of Stanley Common (which lies between the Stanley – Mount Pleasant road and the shoreline) was made safe and had been opened to the public, opening up a stretch of coastline and a further two kilometres of shoreline along Mullet Creek.In November 2020, after a final clearance campaign by contractors from Zimbabwe, it was declared that the Falkland Islands were now free of all landmines.", "A celebration of the event took place on the weekend of 14 November where the final landmine was detonated." ], [ "Press and publicity", "=== Argentina ===''Gente''s \"Estamos ganando\" headline (\"We're winning\")Selected war correspondents were regularly flown to Port Stanley in military aircraft to report on the war.", "Back in Buenos Aires, newspapers and magazines reported on \"the heroic actions of the largely conscript army and its successes\".Officers from the intelligence services were attached to the newspapers and 'leaked' information corroborating the official communiqués from the government.", "The glossy magazines ''Gente'' and ''Siete Días'' swelled to 60 pages with colour photographs of British warships in flames—many of them faked—and bogus eyewitness reports of the Argentine commandos' guerrilla war on South Georgia (6 May) and an already dead Pucará pilot's attack on HMS ''Hermes'' (Lt. Daniel Antonio Jukic had been killed at Goose Green during a British air strike on 1 May).", "Most of the faked photos actually came from the tabloid press.", "One of the best remembered headlines was \"Estamos ganando\" (\"We're winning\") from the magazine ''Gente'', that would later use variations of it.The Argentine troops on the Falkland Islands could read ''Gaceta Argentina''—a newspaper intended to boost morale among the servicemen.", "Some of its untruths could easily be unveiled by the soldiers who recovered corpses.", "''Gaceta Argentina'' summed up the British losses up to 25 May as: 5 warship sunk (correct number 3), 3 transport ships including SS ''Canberra'' (1; ''Atlantic Conveyor''), 14 Sea Harriers (2 shot down & 3 accidents) and many ships damaged, including HMS ''Hermes''.", "''Gaceta Argentina'' even wrote: 'All of these details refer only to proven claims and not to estimated or unproven claims ...'.", "\"The ''Malvinas cause'' united the Argentines in a patriotic atmosphere that protected the junta from critics, and even opponents of the military government supported Galtieri; Ernesto Sabato said:In the Argentine press, false reports that HMS ''Hermes'' was sunk and HMS ''Invincible'' had been damaged were circulated after the weekly magazines ''Gente'' and ''La Semana'' had received information of naval action from an air force officer in the president's office.", "On 30 April 1982 the Argentine magazine ''Tal Cual'' showed Prime Minister Thatcher with an eyepatch and the text: ''Pirate, witch and assassin.", "Guilty!''", "Three British reporters sent to Argentina to cover the war from the Argentine perspective were jailed until the end of the war.", "The ''Madres de Plaza de Mayo'' were even exposed to death threats from ordinary people.=== United Kingdom ===\"Gotcha\" headlineSeventeen newspaper reporters, two photographers, two radio reporters and three television reporters with five technicians sailed with the Task Force to the war.", "The Newspaper Publishers' Association selected them from among 160 applicants, excluding foreign media.", "The hasty selection resulted in the inclusion of two journalists among the war reporters who were interested only in Queen Elizabeth II's son Prince Andrew, who was serving in the conflict.", "The prince flew a helicopter on multiple missions, including Exocet missile decoy and casualty evacuation.Merchant vessels had the civilian Inmarsat uplink, which enabled written telex and voice report transmissions via satellite.", "had a facsimile machine that was used to upload 202 pictures from the South Atlantic over the course of the war.", "The Royal Navy leased bandwidth on the U.S. Defense Satellite Communications System for worldwide communications.", "Television demands a thousand times the data rate of telephone, but the Ministry of Defence was unsuccessful in convincing the U.S. to allocate more bandwidth.TV producers suspected that the enquiry was half-hearted, since the Vietnam War television pictures of casualties and traumatised soldiers were recognised as having negative propaganda value.", "However, the technology only allowed uploading a single frame per 20 minutes—and only if the military satellites were allocated 100% to television transmissions.", "Videotapes were shipped to Ascension Island, where a broadband satellite uplink was available, resulting in TV coverage being delayed by three weeks.The press was very dependent on the Royal Navy and was censored on site.", "Many reporters in the UK knew more about the war than those with the Task Force.", "Ministry of Defence press briefings in London were characterised by the restrained dictation-speed delivery of its spokesman, Ian McDonald.The Royal Navy expected Fleet Street to conduct a Second World War-style positive news campaign but the majority of the British media, especially the BBC, reported the war in a neutral fashion.", "These reporters referred to \"the British troops\" and \"the Argentinian troops\" instead of \"our lads\" and the \"Argies\".", "The two main tabloid papers presented opposing viewpoints: The ''Daily Mirror'' was decidedly anti-war, whilst ''The Sun'' became well known for headlines such as \"Stick It Up Your Junta!", "\", which, along with the reporting in other tabloids, led to accusations of xenophobia and jingoism.", "''The Sun'' was criticised for its \"Gotcha\" headline following the sinking of the .The British Ministry of Defence operated a psychological warfare operation under the codename \"Moonshine\", which took the form of a spurious radio station purporting to be from a neutral South American country, but was actually in London, broadcasting to the Falklands and Argentina via a transmitter on Ascension which had been requisitioned from the BBC.", "Under the name of (\"Radio South Atlantic\"), the station was operated by a small team of civilians and Spanish-speaking military officers.", "The first three-hour broadcast was on 19 May and a total of 47 had been made by 15 June when the operation was cancelled.", "There is some evidence that the Argentines attempted to jam the broadcasts and that some civilian radio receivers were confiscated from soldiers, but the results overall were difficult to assess." ], [ "Cultural impact", "There were wide-ranging influences on popular culture in both the UK and Argentina, from the immediate postwar period to the present.", "The Argentine writer Jorge Luis Borges described the war as \"a fight between two bald men over a comb.\"", "The words ''yomp'' and ''Exocet'' entered the British vernacular as a result of the war.", "The Falklands War also provided material for theatre, film and TV drama and influenced the output of musicians.", "In Argentina, the military government banned the broadcasting of music in the English language, giving way to the rise of local rock musicians, like the famous \"Trova Rosarina\" movement as well as solo musicians such as Charly García, Luis Alberto Spinetta, Fito Paez and Gustavo Santaolalla." ], [ "See also", "* London Victory Parade of 1982, victory parade held in London in October 1982 to celebrate the victory.", "* Beagle conflict, a border dispute between Chile and Argentina that involved island territory.", "* Hope Bay incident, which involved British and Argentine naval parties* Operation Algeciras, a failed Argentine plan to send Montoneros to sabotage British military facilities in Gibraltar* Operation Soberanía, plans for Argentina's invasion of Chile in 1978 and later.", "* Reassertion of British sovereignty over the Falkland Islands (1833)* Argentina–United Kingdom relations* British naval forces in the Falklands War" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * (English translation)* * * * * * * * * * Prince, Stephen.", "\"British command and control in the Falklands Campaign.\"", "''Defense & Security Analysis'' 18.4 (2002): 333-349.", "* * * * * * * * === Historiography ===* * * Little, Walter.", "\"The Falklands Affair: A Review of the Literature,\" ''Political Studies,'' (June 1984) 32#2 pp 296–310" ], [ "Further reading", "Privratsky, Kenneth L.: ''Logistics in the Falklands War - A Case Study in Expeditionary Warfare'', 2017, Pen & Sword, Great Britain, * Shields, John: ''Air Power in the Falklands Conflict - An Operational Level Insight into Air Warfare in the South Atlantic'', 2021, Pen & Sword, Great Britain," ], [ "External links", "* Argentine website with opinion pieces and photos of the war* Interview with the then British UN ambassador about initial post invasion peace efforts * * * * * * Victoria Cross and other decorations* Decorations specifically for the defence of South Georgia* * ex-7th Argentine Infantry Regiment veterans * * * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Fahrenheit" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Fahrenheit scale''' () is a temperature scale based on one proposed in 1724 by the European physicist Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit (1686–1736).", "It uses the '''degree Fahrenheit''' (symbol: '''°F''') as the unit.", "Several accounts of how he originally defined his scale exist, but the original paper suggests the lower defining point, 0 °F, was established as the freezing temperature of a solution of brine made from a mixture of water, ice, and ammonium chloride (a salt).", "The other limit established was his best estimate of the average human body temperature, originally set at 90 °F, then 96 °F (about 2.6 °F less than the modern value due to a later redefinition of the scale).For much of the 20th century, the Fahrenheit scale was defined by two fixed points with a 180 °F separation: the temperature at which pure water freezes was defined as 32 °F and the boiling point of water was defined to be 212 °F, both at sea level and under standard atmospheric pressure.", "It is now formally defined using the Kelvin scale.It continues to be officially used in the United States (including its unincorporated territories), its freely associated states in the Western Pacific (Palau, the Federated States of Micronesia and the Marshall Islands), the Cayman Islands, and the former American colony of Liberia.", "Fahrenheit is commonly still used alongside the Celsius scale in other countries that use the U.S. metrological service, such as Antigua and Barbuda, Saint Kitts and Nevis, the Bahamas, and Belize.", "A handful of British Overseas Territories, including the Virgin Islands, Montserrat, Anguilla, and Bermuda, also still use both scales.", "All other countries now use Celsius (\"centigrade\" until 1948), which was invented 18 years after the Fahrenheit scale.Though the United Kingdom changed from Fahrenheit to Celsius in metrology, Fahrenheit is sometimes still used in newspaper headlines to sensationalise heatwaves." ], [ "Definition and conversion", "Historically, on the Fahrenheit scale the freezing point of water was 32 °F, and the boiling point was 212 °F (at standard atmospheric pressure).", "This put the boiling and freezing points of water 180 degrees apart.", "Therefore, a degree on the Fahrenheit scale was of the interval between the freezing point and the boiling point.", "On the Celsius scale, the freezing and boiling points of water were originally defined to be 100 degrees apart.", "A temperature interval of 1 °F was equal to an interval of degrees Celsius.", "With the Fahrenheit and Celsius scales now both defined by the kelvin, this relationship was preserved, a temperature interval of 1 °F being equal to an interval of K and of °C.", "The Fahrenheit and Celsius scales intersect numerically at −40 in the respective unit (i.e, −40 °F ≘ −40 °C).Absolute zero is 0 K, −273.15 °C, or −459.67 °F.", "The Rankine temperature scale uses degree intervals of the same size as those of the Fahrenheit scale, except that absolute zero is 0 °R the same way that the Kelvin temperature scale matches the Celsius scale, except that absolute zero is 0 K.The combination of degree symbol (°) followed by an uppercase letter F is the conventional symbol for the Fahrenheit temperature scale.", "A number followed by this symbol (and separated from it with a space) denotes a specific temperature point (e.g., \"Gallium melts at 85.5763 °F\").", "A difference between temperatures or an uncertainty in temperature is also conventionally written the same way as well, e.g., \"The output of the heat exchanger experiences an increase of 72 °F\" or \"Our standard uncertainty is ±5 °F\".", "However, some authors instead use the notation \"An increase of \" (reversing the symbol order) to indicate temperature differences.", "Similar conventions exist for the Celsius scale, see .=== Conversion (specific temperature point) ===For an exact conversion between degrees Fahrenheit and Celsius, and kelvins of ''a specific temperature point'', the following formulas can be applied.", "Here, is the value in degrees Fahrenheit, the value in degrees Celsius, and the value in kelvins:* °F to °C: = * °C to °F: = × 1.8 + 32* °F to K: = * K to °F: = × 1.8 − 459.67There is also an exact conversion between Celsius and Fahrenheit scales making use of the correspondence −40 °F ≘ −40 °C.", "Again, is the numeric value in degrees Fahrenheit, and the numeric value in degrees Celsius:* °F to °C: = − 40* °C to °F: = ( + 40) × 1.8 − 40For easy conversions, you can use Fahrenheit to Celsius converter for quick and accurate results.=== Conversion (temperature difference or interval) ===When converting a ''temperature interval'' between the Fahrenheit and Celsius scales, only the ratio is used, without any constant (in this case, the interval has the same numeric value in kelvins as in degrees Celsius):* °F to °C or K: = = * °C or K to °F: = × 1.8 = × 1.8" ], [ "History", "Fahrenheit proposed his temperature scale in 1724, basing it on two reference points of temperature.", "In his initial scale (which is not the final Fahrenheit scale), the zero point was determined by placing the thermometer in \"a mixture of ice, water, and ''salis Armoniaci'' transl.", "ammonium chloride or even sea salt\".", "This combination forms a eutectic system, which stabilizes its temperature automatically: 0 °F was defined to be that stable temperature.", "A second point, 96 degrees, was approximately the human body's temperature.", "A third point, 32 degrees, was marked as being the temperature of ice and water \"without the aforementioned salts\".According to a German story, Fahrenheit actually chose the lowest air temperature measured in his hometown Danzig (Gdańsk, Poland) in winter 1708–09 as 0 °F, and only later had the need to be able to make this value reproducible using brine.According to a letter Fahrenheit wrote to his friend Herman Boerhaave, his scale was built on the work of Ole Rømer, whom he had met earlier.", "In Rømer scale, brine freezes at zero, water freezes and melts at 7.5 degrees, body temperature is 22.5, and water boils at 60 degrees.", "Fahrenheit multiplied each value by 4 in order to eliminate fractions and make the scale more fine-grained.", "He then re-calibrated his scale using the melting point of ice and normal human body temperature (which were at 30 and 90 degrees); he adjusted the scale so that the melting point of ice would be 32 degrees, and body temperature 96 degrees, so that 64 intervals would separate the two, allowing him to mark degree lines on his instruments by simply bisecting the interval 6 times (since 64 = 26).Fahrenheit soon after observed that water boils at about 212 degrees using this scale.", "The use of the freezing and boiling points of water as thermometer fixed reference points became popular following the work of Anders Celsius, and these fixed points were adopted by a committee of the Royal Society led by Henry Cavendish in 1776–77.Under this system, the Fahrenheit scale is redefined slightly so that the freezing point of water was exactly 32 °F, and the boiling point was exactly 212 °F, or 180 degrees higher.", "It is for this reason that normal human body temperature is approximately 98.6 °F (oral temperature) on the revised scale (whereas it was 90° on Fahrenheit's multiplication of Rømer, and 96° on his original scale).In the present-day Fahrenheit scale, 0 °F no longer corresponds to the eutectic temperature of ammonium chloride brine as described above.", "Instead, that eutectic is at approximately 4 °F on the final Fahrenheit scale.The Rankine temperature scale was based upon the Fahrenheit temperature scale, with its zero representing absolute zero instead." ], [ "Usage", "===General===Countries by usage:The Fahrenheit scale was the primary temperature standard for climatic, industrial and medical purposes in Anglophone countries until the 1960s.", "In the late 1960s and 1970s, the Celsius scale replaced Fahrenheit in almost all of those countries—with the notable exception of the United States and in certain cases, the United Kingdom—typically during their general metrication process.Fahrenheit is used in the United States, its territories and associated states (all served by the U.S. National Weather Service), as well as the (British) Cayman Islands and Liberia for everyday applications.", "For example, U.S. weather forecasts, food cooking, and freezing temperatures are typically given in degrees Fahrenheit.", "Scientists, including meteorologists, use degrees Celsius or kelvin in all countries.upright===United States===Early in the 20th century, Halsey and Dale suggested that reasons for resistance to use the centigrade (now Celsius) system in the U.S. included the larger size of each degree Celsius and the lower zero point in the Fahrenheit system; put another way, the Fahrenheit scale is more intuitive than Celsius for describing outdoor temperatures in temperate latitudes, with 100 °F being a hot summer day and 0 °F a cold winter day.===Canada===Canada has passed legislation favoring the International System of Units, while also maintaining legal definitions for traditional Canadian imperial units.", "Canadian weather reports are conveyed using degrees Celsius with occasional reference to Fahrenheit especially for cross-border broadcasts.", "Fahrenheit is still used on virtually all Canadian ovens.", "Thermometers, both digital and analog, sold in Canada usually employ both the Celsius and Fahrenheit scales.===European Union===European laundry symbol for \"Wash at 40 °C\"In the European Union, it is mandatory to use kelvins or degrees Celsius when quoting temperature for \"economic, public health, public safety and administrative\" purposes, though degrees Fahrenheit may be used alongside degrees Celsius as a supplementary unit.", "For example, the laundry symbols used in the United Kingdom follow the recommendations of ISO 3758:2005 showing the temperature of the washing machine water in degrees Celsius only.", "The equivalent label in North America uses one to six dots to denote temperature with an optional temperature in degrees Celsius.===United Kingdom===Although Fahrenheit was the most popular scale in the United Kingdom, for many years Celsius has been the primary scale used, and it has been taught in schools since the 1970s.", "Within unregulated sectors, such as journalism, the use of Fahrenheit in the United Kingdom follows no fixed pattern, with degrees Fahrenheit sometimes appearing alongside degrees Celsius.", "''The Daily Telegraph'' does not mention Fahrenheit on its daily weather page, while ''The Times'' also has an all-metric daily weather page but has a Celsius-to-Fahrenheit conversion table.", "When publishing news stories, some UK tabloids have adopted a tendency of using degrees Celsius in headlines and discussion relating to low temperatures and Fahrenheit for mid to high temperatures.", "In February 2006, the writer of an article in ''The Times'' suggested that the rationale was one of emphasis: \"−6 °C\" sounds colder than \"21 °F\", and \"94 °F\" sounds more impressive than \"34 °C\"." ], [ "Unicode representation of symbol", "Unicode provides the Fahrenheit symbol at code point .", "However, this is a compatibility character encoded for roundtrip compatibility with legacy encodings.", "The Unicode standard explicitly discourages the use of this character: \"The sequence + is preferred over , and those two sequences should be treated as identical for searching.\"" ], [ "See also", "* Outline of metrology and measurement* Comparison of temperature scales* Degree of frost" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit (Polish-born Dutch physicist) – Encyclopædia Britannica* \"At Auction \| One of Only Three Original Fahrenheit Thermometers\" ''Enfilade'' page for 2012 ''Christie's'' sale of a Fahrenheit mercury thermometer** ''Christie's'' press release*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Florence" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Florence''' ( ; ) is the capital city of the Italian region of Tuscany.", "It is also the most populated city in Tuscany, with 360,930 inhabitants in 2023, and 984,991 in its metropolitan area.Florence was a centre of medieval European trade and finance and one of the wealthiest cities of that era.", "It is considered by many academics to have been the birthplace of the Renaissance, becoming a major artistic, cultural, commercial, political, economic and financial center.", "During this time, Florence rose to a position of enormous influence in Italy, Europe, and beyond.", "Its turbulent political history includes periods of rule by the powerful Medici family and numerous religious and republican revolutions.", "From 1865 to 1871 the city served as the capital of the Kingdom of Italy.", "The Florentine dialect forms the base of standard Italian and it became the language of culture throughout Italy due to the prestige of the masterpieces by Dante Alighieri, Petrarch, Giovanni Boccaccio, Niccolò Machiavelli and Francesco Guicciardini.The city attracts millions of tourists each year, and UNESCO declared the Historic Centre of Florence a World Heritage Site in 1982.The city is noted for its culture, Renaissance art and architecture and monuments.", "The city also contains numerous museums and art galleries, such as the Uffizi Gallery and the Palazzo Pitti, and still exerts an influence in the fields of art, culture and politics.", "Due to Florence's artistic and architectural heritage, ''Forbes'' ranked it as one of the most beautiful cities in the world in 2010.Florence plays an important role in Italian fashion, and is ranked in the top 15 fashion capitals of the world by Global Language Monitor; furthermore, it is a major national economic centre, as well as a tourist and industrial hub." ], [ "Etymology", " comes from , locative form of , in turn a name conveying good luck, from ." ], [ "History", "View of Florence by Hartmann Schedel, published in 1493Florence originated as a Roman city, and later, after a long period as a flourishing trading and banking medieval commune, it was the birthplace of the Italian Renaissance.", "It was politically, economically, and culturally one of the most important cities in Europe and the world from the 14th to 16th centuries.The language spoken in the city during the 14th century came to be accepted as the model for what would become the Italian language.", "Thanks especially to the works of the Tuscans Dante, Petrarch and Boccaccio, the Florentine dialect, above all the local dialects, was adopted as the basis for a national literary language.Starting from the late Middle Ages, Florentine money—in the form of the gold florin—financed the development of industry all over Europe, from Britain to Bruges, to Lyon and Hungary.", "Florentine bankers financed the English kings during the Hundred Years' War.", "They similarly financed the papacy, including the construction of their provisional capital of Avignon and, after their return to Rome, the reconstruction and Renaissance embellishment of Rome.Florence was home to the Medici, one of European history's most important noble families.", "Lorenzo de' Medici was considered a political and cultural mastermind of Italy in the late 15th century.", "Two members of the family were popes in the early 16th century: Leo X and Clement VII.", "Catherine de Medici married King Henry II of France and, after his death in 1559, reigned as regent in France.", "Marie de' Medici married Henry IV of France and gave birth to the future King Louis XIII.", "The Medici reigned as Grand Dukes of Tuscany, starting with Cosimo I de' Medici in 1569 and ending with the death of Gian Gastone de' Medici in 1737.The Kingdom of Italy, which was established in 1861, moved its capital from Turin to Florence in 1865, although the capital was moved to Rome in 1871.===Roman origins===Florence was established by the Romans in 59 BC as a colony for veteran soldiers and was built in the style of an army camp.", "Situated along the ''Via Cassia'', the main route between Rome and the north, and within the fertile valley of the Arno, the settlement quickly became an important commercial centre and in AD 285 became the capital of the Tuscia region.===Early Middle Ages===Goth King Totila razes the walls of Florence during the Gothic War: illumination from the Chigi manuscript of Villani's ''Cronica''.In centuries to come, the city experienced turbulent alternate periods of Ostrogoth and Byzantine rule, during which the city was fought over, helping to cause the population to fall to as low as 1,000 people.", "Peace returned under Lombard rule in the 6th century and Florence was in turn conquered by Charlemagne in 774 becoming part of the March of Tuscany centred on Lucca.", "The population began to grow again and commerce prospered.===Second millennium===The Basilica di San Miniato al MonteMargrave Hugo chose Florence as his residency instead of Lucca around 1000 AD.", "The Golden Age of Florentine art began around this time.", "In 1100, Florence was a \"commune\", meaning a city-state.", "The city's primary resource was the Arno river, providing power and access for the industry (mainly textile industry), and access to the Mediterranean sea for international trade, helping the growth of an industrious merchant community.", "The Florentine merchant banking skills became recognised in Europe after they brought decisive financial innovation (e.g.", "bills of exchange, double-entry bookkeeping system) to medieval fairs.", "This period also saw the eclipse of Florence's formerly powerful rival Pisa.", "The growing power of the merchant elite culminated in an anti-aristocratic uprising, led by Giano della Bella, resulting in the Ordinances of Justice which entrenched the power of the elite guilds until the end of the Republic.===Middle Ages and Renaissance=======Rise of the Medici====Leonardo da Vinci statue outside the Uffizi GalleryAt the height of demographic expansion around 1325, the urban population may have been as great as 120,000, and the rural population around the city was probably close to 300,000.The Black Death of 1348 reduced it by over half, about 25,000 are said to have been supported by the city's wool industry: in 1345 Florence was the scene of an attempted strike by wool combers (''ciompi''), who in 1378 rose up in a brief revolt against oligarchic rule in the Revolt of the Ciompi.", "After their suppression, Florence came under the sway (1382–1434) of the Albizzi family, who became bitter rivals of the Medici.In the 15th century, Florence was among the largest cities in Europe, with a population of 60,000, and was considered rich and economically successful.", "Cosimo de' Medici was the first Medici family member to essentially control the city from behind the scenes.", "Although the city was technically a democracy of sorts, his power came from a vast patronage network along with his alliance to the new immigrants, the ''gente nuova'' (new people).", "The fact that the Medici were bankers to the pope also contributed to their ascendancy.", "Cosimo was succeeded by his son Piero, who was, soon after, succeeded by Cosimo's grandson, Lorenzo in 1469.Lorenzo was a great patron of the arts, commissioning works by Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci and Botticelli.", "Lorenzo was an accomplished poet and musician and brought composers and singers to Florence, including Alexander Agricola, Johannes Ghiselin, and Heinrich Isaac.", "By contemporary Florentines (and since), he was known as \"Lorenzo the Magnificent\" (Lorenzo il Magnifico).Following Lorenzo de' Medici's death in 1492, he was succeeded by his son Piero II.", "When the French king Charles VIII invaded northern Italy, Piero II chose to resist his army.", "But when he realised the size of the French army at the gates of Pisa, he had to accept the humiliating conditions of the French king.", "These made the Florentines rebel, and they expelled Piero II.", "With his exile in 1494, the first period of Medici rule ended with the restoration of a republican government.====Savonarola, Machiavelli, and the Medici popes====Girolamo Savonarola being hanged and burned in 1498.The brooding Palazzo Vecchio is at centre right.During this period, the Dominican friar Girolamo Savonarola had become prior of the San Marco monastery in 1490.He was famed for his penitential sermons, lambasting what he viewed as widespread immorality and attachment to material riches.", "He praised the exile of the Medici as the work of God, punishing them for their decadence.", "He seized the opportunity to carry through political reforms leading to a more democratic rule.", "But when Savonarola publicly accused Pope Alexander VI of corruption, he was banned from speaking in public.", "When he broke this ban, he was excommunicated.", "The Florentines, tired of his teachings, turned against him and arrested him.", "He was convicted as a heretic, hanged and burned on the Piazza della Signoria on 23 May 1498.His ashes were dispersed in the Arno river.Another Florentine of this period was Niccolò Machiavelli, whose prescriptions for Florence's regeneration under strong leadership have often been seen as a legitimization of political expediency and even malpractice.", "Machiavelli was a political thinker, renowned for his political handbook ''The Prince'', which is about ruling and exercising power.", "Commissioned by the Medici, Machiavelli also wrote the ''Florentine Histories'', the history of the city.In 1512, the Medici retook control of Florence with the help of Spanish and Papal troops.", "They were led by two cousins, Giovanni and Giulio de' Medici, both of whom would later become Popes of the Catholic Church, (Leo X and Clement VII, respectively).", "Both were generous patrons of the arts, commissioning works like Michelangelo's Laurentian Library and Medici Chapel in Florence, to name just two.", "Their reigns coincided with political upheaval in Italy, and thus in 1527, Florentines drove out the Medici for a second time and re-established a theocratic republic on 16 May 1527, (Jesus Christ was named King of Florence).", "The Medici returned to power in Florence in 1530, with the armies of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V and the blessings of Pope Clement VII (Giulio de' Medici).Florence officially became a monarchy in 1531, when Emperor Charles and Pope Clement named Alessandro de Medici as ''Duke of the Florentine Republic''.", "The Medici's monarchy would last over two centuries.", "Alessandro's successor, Cosimo I de Medici, was named Grand Duke of Tuscany in 1569; in all Tuscany, only the Republic of Lucca (later a Duchy) and the Principality of Piombino were independent from Florence.=== 18th and 19th centuries ===Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor and his family.", "Leopold was, from 1765 to 1790, the Grand Duke of Tuscany.The extinction of the Medici dynasty and the accession in 1737 of Francis Stephen, duke of Lorraine and husband of Maria Theresa of Austria, led to Tuscany's temporary inclusion in the territories of the Austrian crown.", "It became a secundogeniture of the Habsburg-Lorraine dynasty, who were deposed for the House of Bourbon-Parma in 1801.From 1801 to 1807 Florence was the capital of the Napoleonic client state Kingdom of Etruria.", "The Bourbon-Parma were deposed in December 1807 when Tuscany was annexed by France.", "Florence was the prefecture of the French département of Arno from 1808 to the fall of Napoleon in 1814.The Habsburg-Lorraine dynasty was restored on the throne of Tuscany at the Congress of Vienna but finally deposed in 1859.Tuscany became a region of the Kingdom of Italy in 1861.Florence replaced Turin as Italy's capital in 1865 and, in an effort to modernise the city, the old market in the Piazza del Mercato Vecchio and many medieval houses were pulled down and replaced by a more formal street plan with newer houses.", "The Piazza (first renamed Piazza Vittorio Emanuele II, then Piazza della Repubblica, the present name) was significantly widened and a large triumphal arch was constructed at the west end.", "This development was unpopular and was prevented from continuing by the efforts of several British and American people living in the city.", "A museum recording the destruction stands nearby today.The country's second capital city was superseded by Rome six years later, after the withdrawal of the French troops allowed the capture of Rome.===20th century===''Porte Sante'' cemetery, burial place of notable figures of Florentine historyDuring World War II the city experienced a year-long German occupation (1943–1944) being part of the Italian Social Republic.", "Hitler declared it an open city on 3 July 1944 as troops of the British 8th Army closed in.", "In early August, the retreating Germans decided to demolish all the bridges along the Arno linking the district of Oltrarno to the rest of the city, making it difficult for troops of the 8th Army to cross.", "At the last moment, Charles Steinhauslin, at the time consul of 26 countries in Florence, convinced the German general in Italy that the Ponte Vecchio was not to be destroyed due to its historical value.", "Instead, an equally historic area of streets directly to the south of the bridge, including part of the Corridoio Vasariano, was destroyed using mines.", "Since then the bridges have been restored to their original forms using as many of the remaining materials as possible, but the buildings surrounding the Ponte Vecchio have been rebuilt in a style combining the old with modern design.", "Shortly before leaving Florence, as they knew that they would soon have to retreat, the Germans executed many freedom fighters and political opponents publicly, in streets and squares including the Piazza Santo Spirito.1/5 Mahratta Light Infantry, Florence, 28 August 1944Florence was liberated by New Zealand, South African and British troops on 4 August 1944 alongside partisans from the Tuscan Committee of National Liberation (CTLN).", "The Allied soldiers who died driving the Germans from Tuscany are buried in cemeteries outside the city (Americans about south of the city, British and Commonwealth soldiers a few kilometres east of the centre on the right bank of the Arno).At the end of World War II in May 1945, the US Army's Information and Educational Branch was ordered to establish an overseas university campus for demobilised American service men and women in Florence.", "The first American university for service personnel was established in June 1945 at the School of Aeronautics.", "Some 7,500 soldier-students were to pass through the university during its four one-month sessions (see G. I. American Universities).In November 1966, the Arno flooded parts of the centre, damaging many art treasures.", "Around the city there are tiny placards on the walls noting where the flood waters reached at their highest point." ], [ "Geography", "Florence with snow cover in December 2009Florence lies in a basin formed by the hills of Careggi, Fiesole, Settignano, Arcetri, Poggio Imperiale and Bellosguardo (Florence).", "The Arno river, three other minor rivers (Mugnone, Ema and Greve) and some streams flow through it.===Climate===Florence has a humid subtropical climate (''Cfa''), tending to Mediterranean (''Csa'').", "It has hot summers with moderate or light rainfall and cool, damp winters.", "As Florence lacks a prevailing wind, summer temperatures are higher than along the coast.", "Rainfall in summer is convectional, while relief rainfall dominates in the winter.", "Snow is rare.", "The highest officially recorded temperature was on 26 July 1983 and the lowest was on 12 January 1985.Climate data for FlorenceMonthJanFebMarAprMayJunJulAugSepOctNovDecYearMean daily daylight hours9.010.012.013.015.015.015.014.012.011.010.09.012.1Average Ultraviolet index1245788753214.4Source: Weather Atlas" ], [ "Demographics", "In 1200 the city was home to 50,000 people.", "By 1300 the population of the city proper was 120,000, with an additional 300,000 living in the Contado.", "Between 1500 and 1650 the population was around 70,000., the population of the city proper is 370,702, while Eurostat estimates that 696,767 people live in the urban area of Florence.", "The Metropolitan Area of Florence, Prato and Pistoia, constituted in 2000 over an area of roughly , is home to 1.5 million people.", "Within Florence proper, 46.8% of the population was male in 2007 and 53.2% were female.", "Minors (children aged 18 and less) totalled 14.10% of the population compared to pensioners, who numbered 25.95 percent.", "This compares with the Italian average of 18.06 percent (minors) and 19.94 percent (pensioners).", "The average age of Florence resident is 49 compared to the Italian average of 42.In the five years between 2002 and 2007, the population of Florence grew by 3.22 percent, while Italy as a whole grew by 3.56 percent.", "The birth rate of Florence is 7.66 births per 1,000 inhabitants compared to the Italian average of 9.45 births., 87.46% of the population was Italian.", "An estimated 6,000 Chinese live in the city.", "The largest immigrant group came from other European countries (mostly Romanians and Albanians): 3.52%, East Asia (mostly Chinese and Filipino): 2.17%, the Americas: 1.41%, and North Africa (mostly Moroccan): 0.9%.Much like the rest of Italy most of the people in Florence are Roman Catholic, with more than 90% of the population belonging to the Archdiocese of Florence.As of 2016, an estimated 30,000 people, or 8% of the population, identified as Muslim." ], [ "Economy", "Tourism is, by far, the most important of all industries and most of the Florentine economy relies on the money generated by international arrivals and students studying in the city.", "The value tourism to the city totalled some €2.5 billion in 2015 and the number of visitors had increased by 5.5% from the previous year.In 2013, Florence was listed as the second best world city by ''Condé Nast Traveler''.Manufacturing and commerce remain highly important.", "Florence is Italy's 17th richest city in terms of average workers' earnings, with the figure being €23,265 (the overall city's income is €6,531,204,473), coming after Mantua, yet surpassing Bolzano.===Industry, commerce and services===Florence is a major production and commercial centre in Italy, where the Florentine industrial complexes in the suburbs produce all sorts of goods, from furniture, rubber goods, chemicals, and food.", "Traditional and local products, such as antiques, handicrafts, glassware, leatherwork, art reproductions, jewellery, souvenirs, elaborate metal and iron-work, shoes, accessories and high fashion clothes also occupy a fair sector of Florence's economy.", "The city's income relies partially on services and commercial and cultural interests, such as annual fairs, theatrical and lyrical productions, art exhibitions, festivals and fashion shows, such as the Calcio Fiorentino.", "Heavy industry and machinery also take their part in providing an income.", "In Nuovo Pignone, numerous factories are still present, and small-to medium industrial businesses are dominant.", "The Florence-Prato-Pistoia industrial districts and areas were known as the 'Third Italy' in the 1990s, due to the exports of high-quality goods and automobile (especially the Vespa) and the prosperity and productivity of the Florentine entrepreneurs.", "Some of these industries even rivalled the traditional industrial districts in Emilia-Romagna and Veneto due to high profits and productivity.In the fourth quarter of 2015, manufacturing increased by 2.4% and exports increased by 7.2%.", "Leading sectors included mechanical engineering, fashion, pharmaceutics, food and wine.", "During 2015, permanent employment contracts increased by 48.8 percent, boosted by nationwide tax break.===Tourism===Fontana del Porcellino.Tourism is the most significant industry in central Florence.", "From April to October, tourists outnumber local population.", "Tickets to the Uffizi and Accademia museums are regularly sold out and large groups regularly fill the basilicas of Santa Croce and Santa Maria Novella, both of which charge for entry.", "Tickets for The Uffizi and Accademia can be purchased online prior to visiting.", "In 2010, readers of ''Travel + Leisure'' magazine ranked the city as their third favourite tourist destination.", "In 2015, Condé Nast Travel readers voted Florence as the best city in Europe.Studies by Euromonitor International have concluded that cultural and history-oriented tourism is generating significantly increased spending throughout Europe.Florence is believed to have the greatest concentration of art (in proportion to its size) in the world.", "Thus, cultural tourism is particularly strong, with world-renowned museums such as the Uffizi selling over 1.93 million tickets in 2014.The city's convention centre facilities were restructured during the 1990s and host exhibitions, conferences, meetings, social forums, concerts and other events all year.Tourists and restaurant in the Piazza del DuomoIn 2016, Florence had 20,588 hotel rooms in 570 facilities.", "International visitors use 75% of the rooms; some 18% of those were from the U.S.", "In 2014, the city had 8.5 million overnight stays.", "A Euromonitor report indicates that in 2015 the city ranked as the world's 36th most visited in the world, with over 4.95 million arrivals for the year.Tourism brings revenue to Florence, but also creates certain problems.", "The Ponte Vecchio, The San Lorenzo Market and Santa Maria Novella are plagued by pickpockets.", "The province of Florence receives roughly 13 million visitors per year and in peak seasons, popular locations may become overcrowded as a result.", "In 2015, Mayor Dario Nardella expressed concern over visitors who arrive on buses, stay only a few hours, spend little money but contribute significantly to overcrowding.", "\"No museum visit, just a photo from the square, the bus back and then on to Venice ... We don't want tourists like that\", he said.Some tourists are less than respectful of the city's cultural heritage, according to Nardella.", "In June 2017, he instituted a programme of spraying church steps with water to prevent tourists from using such areas as picnic spots.", "While he values the benefits of tourism, he claims that there has been \"an increase among those who sit down on church steps, eat their food and leave rubbish strewn on them\", he explained.", "To boost the sale of traditional foods, the mayor had introduced legislation (enacted in 2016) that requires restaurants to use typical Tuscan products and rejected McDonald's application to open a location in the Piazza del Duomo.In October 2021, Florence was shortlisted for the European Commission's 2022 European Capital of Smart Tourism award along with Bordeaux, Copenhagen, Dublin, Ljubljana, Palma de Mallorca and Valencia.===Food and wine production===Fiaschi'' of basic ChiantiFood and wine have long been an important staple of the economy.", "The Chianti region is just south of the city, and its Sangiovese grapes figure prominently not only in its Chianti Classico wines but also in many of the more recently developed Supertuscan blends.", "Within to the west is the Carmignano area, also home to flavourful sangiovese-based reds.", "The celebrated Chianti Rufina district, geographically and historically separated from the main Chianti region, is also few kilometres east of Florence.", "More recently, the Bolgheri region (about southwest of Florence) has become celebrated for its \"Super Tuscan\" reds such as Sassicaia and Ornellaia." ], [ "Government", "File:Quartieri storici Firenze.png\|The traditional boroughs of the whole ''comune'' of FlorenceFile:Florence's districts.svg\|The 5 administrative boroughs of the whole ''comune'' of FlorenceSeats in the Florence City Council (2019–2024)The legislative body of the municipality is the City Council (''Consiglio Comunale''), which is composed of 36 councillors elected every five years with a proportional system, at the same time as the mayoral elections.", "The executive body is the City Committee (''Giunta Comunale''), composed of 7 assessors, nominated and presided over by a directly elected Mayor.", "The current mayor of Florence is Dario Nardella.The municipality of Florence is subdivided into five administrative Boroughs (''Quartieri'').", "Each borough is governed by a Council (''Consiglio'') and a President, elected at the same time as the city mayor.", "The urban organisation is governed by the Italian Constitution (art.", "114).", "The boroughs have the power to advise the Mayor with nonbinding opinions on a large spectrum of topics (environment, construction, public health, local markets) and exercise the functions delegated to them by the City Council; in addition they are supplied with an autonomous funding in order to finance local activities.", "The boroughs are:* Q1 – Centro storico (Historic Centre); population: 67,170;* Q2 – Campo di Marte; population: 88,588;* Q3 – Gavinana-Galluzzo; population: 40,907;* Q4 – Isolotto-Legnaia; population: 66,636;* Q5 – Rifredi; population: 103,761.All of the five boroughs are governed by the Democratic Party.The former Italian Prime Minister (2014–2016), Matteo Renzi, served as mayor from 2009 to 2014." ], [ "Culture", "===Art===Botticelli's ''Birth of Venus'', UffiziFlorence was the birthplace of High Renaissance art, which lasted from about 1500 to 1527.Renaissance art put a larger emphasis on naturalism and human emotion.", "Medieval art was often formulaic and symbolic; the surviving works are mostly religious, their subjects were chosen by clerics.", "By contrast, Renaissance art became more rational, mathematical, individualistic, and was produced by known artists such as Donatello, Michelangelo, and Raphael, who started to sign their works.", "Religion was important, but with this new age came the humanization of religious figures in art, such as in Masaccio's ''Expulsion from the Garden of Eden'' and Raphael's ''Madonna della Seggiola''; people of this age began to understand themselves as human beings, which reflected in art.", "The Renaissance marked the rebirth of classical values in art and society as people studied the ancient masters of the Greco-Roman world; art became focused on realism as opposed to idealism.Sculptures in the Loggia dei LanziMichelangelo's ''David''Cimabue and Giotto, the fathers of Italian painting, lived in Florence, as did Arnolfo di Cambio and Andrea Pisano, renewers of architecture and sculpture; Filippo Brunelleschi, Donatello and Masaccio, forefathers of the Renaissance, Lorenzo Ghiberti and the Della Robbia family, Filippo Lippi and Fra Angelico; Sandro Botticelli, Paolo Uccello and the universal genius of Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo.Their works, together with those of many other generations of artists, are gathered in the city's many museums: the Uffizi Gallery, the Galleria Palatina with the paintings of the \"Golden Ages\", the Bargello with the sculptures of the Renaissance, the museum of San Marco with Fra Angelico's works, the Galleria dell'Accademia, the Medici Chapels, the museum of Orsanmichele, the Casa Buonarroti with sculptures by Michelangelo, the Museo Bardini, the Museo Horne, the Museo Stibbert, the Palazzo Corsini, the Galleria d'Arte Moderna, the Museo dell'Opera del Duomo, the Tesoro dei Granduchi and the Museo dell'Opificio delle Pietre Dure.", "Several monuments are located in Florence: the Baptistery with its mosaics; the cathedral with its sculptures, the medieval churches with bands of frescoes; public as well as private palaces – the Palazzo Vecchio, the Palazzo Pitti, the Palazzo Medici Riccardi, the Palazzo Davanzati and the Casa Martelli; monasteries, cloisters, refectories; the Certosa.", "The Museo Archeologico Nazionale documents Etruscan civilization.", "The city is so rich in art that some visitors experience Stendhal syndrome as they encounter its art for the first time.Uffizi Gallery is the 10th most visited art museum in the world.Florentine architects such as Filippo Brunelleschi (1377–1466) and Leon Battista Alberti (1404–1472) were among the fathers of Renaissance architecture.", "The cathedral, topped by Brunelleschi's dome, dominates the Florentine skyline.", "The Florentines decided to start building it late in the 13th century, without a design for the dome.", "The project proposed by Brunelleschi in the 14th century was the largest ever built at the time, and the first major dome built in Europe since the two great domes of Roman times – the Pantheon in Rome, and Hagia Sophia in Constantinople.", "The dome of Santa Maria del Fiore remains the largest brick construction of its kind in the world.", "In front of it is the medieval Baptistery.", "The two buildings incorporate in their decoration the transition from the Middle Ages to the Renaissance.", "In recent years, most of the important works of art from the two buildings – and from the nearby Giotto's Campanile, have been removed and replaced by copies.", "The originals are now housed in the Museo dell'Opera del Duomo, just to the east of the cathedral.Florence has a large number of art-filled churches, such as San Miniato al Monte, San Lorenzo, Santa Maria Novella, Santa Trinita, Santa Maria del Carmine, Santa Croce, Santo Spirito, Santissima Annunziata, Ognissanti and numerous others.", "Palazzo Vecchio\tArtists associated with Florence range from Arnolfo di Cambio and Cimabue to Giotto, Nanni di Banco, and Paolo Uccello; through Lorenzo Ghiberti, and Donatello and Masaccio and the della Robbia family; through Fra Angelico and Sandro Botticelli and Piero della Francesca, and on to Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo.", "Others include Benvenuto Cellini, Andrea del Sarto, Benozzo Gozzoli, Domenico Ghirlandaio, Filippo Lippi, Bernardo Buontalenti, Orcagna, Antonio and Piero del Pollaiuolo, Filippino Lippi, Andrea del Verrocchio, Bronzino, Desiderio da Settignano, Michelozzo, Cosimo Rosselli, the Sangallos, and Pontormo.", "Artists from other regions who worked in Florence include Raphael, Andrea Pisano, Giambologna, Il Sodoma and Peter Paul Rubens.", "Brunelleschi's dome\tPicture galleries in Florence include the Uffizi and the Palazzo Pitti.", "Two superb collections of sculpture are in the Bargello and the Museo dell'Opera del Duomo.", "They are filled with the creations of Donatello, Verrocchio, Desiderio da Settignano, Michelangelo and others.", "The Galleria dell'Accademia has Michelangelo's ''David'', which was created between 1501 and 1504 and is perhaps the best-known work of art anywhere, plus the unfinished statues of slaves Michelangelo created for the tomb of Pope Julius II.", "Other sights include the medieval city hall, the Palazzo della Signoria (also known as the Palazzo Vecchio), the National Archeological Museum, the Museo Galileo, the Palazzo Davanzati, the Museo Stibbert, the Museo Nazionale di San Marco, the Medici Chapels, the Museo dell'Opera di Santa Croce, the Museum of the Cloister of Santa Maria Novella, the Zoological Museum (\"La Specola\"), the Museo Bardini, and the Museo Horne.", "There is also a collection of works by the modern sculptor, Marino Marini, in a museum named after him.", "The Palazzo Strozzi is the site of special exhibitions.===Language===Florentine (''fiorentino''), spoken by inhabitants of Florence and its environs, is a Tuscan dialect and the immediate parent language to modern Italian.Although its vocabulary and pronunciation are largely identical to standard Italian, differences do exist.", "The ''Vocabolario del fiorentino contemporaneo'' (Dictionary of Modern Florentine) reveals lexical distinctions from all walks of life.", "Florentines have a highly recognisable accent in phonetic terms due to the so-called gorgia toscana: \"hard ''c''\" between two vowels is pronounced as a fricative similar to an English ''h'', so that ''dico'' 'I say' is phonetically , ''i cani'' 'the dogs' is .", "Similarly, ''t'' between vowels is pronounced as in English ''thin'', and ''p'' in the same position is the bilabial fricative .", "Other traits include using a form of the subjunctive mood last commonly used in medieval times, a frequent usage in everyday speech of the modern subjunctive, and a shortened pronunciation of the definite article, instead of \"il\", causing doubling of the consonant that follows, so that ''il cane'' 'the dog', for example, is pronounced .Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio pioneered the use of the vernacular instead of the Latin used for most literary works at the time.===Literature===The introduction of the ''Decameron'' (1350–1353) by Giovanni BoccaccioDespite Latin being the main language of the courts and the Church in the Middle Ages, writers such as Dante Alighieri and many others used their own language, the Florentine vernacular descended from Latin, in composing their greatest works.", "The oldest literary pieces written in Florentine go as far back as the 13th century.", "Florence's literature fully blossomed in the 14th century, when not only Dante with his ''Divine Comedy'' (1306–1321) and Petrarch, but also poets such as Guido Cavalcanti and Lapo Gianni composed their most important works.", "Dante's masterpiece is the ''Divine Comedy'', which mainly deals with the poet himself taking an allegoric and moral tour of Hell, Purgatory and finally Heaven, during which he meets numerous mythological or real characters of his age or before.", "He is first guided by the Roman poet Virgil, whose non-Christian beliefs damned him to Hell.", "Later on he is joined by Beatrice, who guides him through Heaven.In the 14th century, Petrarch and Giovanni Boccaccio led the literary scene in Florence after Dante's death in 1321.Petrarch was an all-rounder writer, author and poet, but was particularly known for his ''Canzoniere'', or the Book of Songs, where he conveyed his unremitting love for Laura.", "His style of writing has since become known as ''Petrarchism''.", "Boccaccio was better known for his ''Decameron'', a slightly grim story of Florence during the 1350s bubonic plague, known as the Black Death, when some people fled the ravaged city to an isolated country mansion, and spent their time there recounting stories and novellas taken from the medieval and contemporary tradition.", "All of this is written in a series of 100 distinct novellas.In the 16th century, during the Renaissance, Florence was the home town of political writer and philosopher Niccolò Machiavelli, whose ideas on how rulers should govern the land, detailed in ''The Prince'', spread across European courts and enjoyed enduring popularity for centuries.", "These principles became known as ''Machiavellianism''.===Music===The Teatro della PergolaFlorence became a musical centre during the Middle Ages and music and the performing arts remain an important part of its culture.", "The growth of Northern Italian Cities in the 1500s likely contributed to its increased prominence.", "During the Renaissance, there were four kinds of musical patronage in the city with respect to both sacred and secular music: state, corporate, church, and private.", "It was here that the Florentine Camerata convened in the mid-16th century and experimented with setting tales of Greek mythology to music and staging the result—in other words, the first operas, setting the wheels in motion not just for the further development of the operatic form, but for later developments of separate \"classical\" forms such as the symphony and concerto.", "After the year 1600, Italian trends prevailed across Europe, by 1750 it was the primary musical language.", "The genre of the Madrigal, born in Italy, gained popularity in Britain and elsewhere.", "Several Italian cities were \"larger on the musical map than their real-size for power suggested.", "Florence, was once such city which experienced a fantastic period in the early seventeenth Century of musico-theatrical innovation, including the beginning and flourishing of opera.Opera was invented in Florence in the late 16th century when Jacopo Peri's ''Dafne'' an opera in the style of monody, was premiered.", "Opera spread from Florence throughout Italy and eventually Europe.", "Vocal Music in the choir setting was also taking new identity at this time.", "At the beginning of the 17th century, two practices for writing music were devised, one the first practice or ''Stile Antico/Prima Prattica'' the other the ''Stile Moderno/Seconda Prattica''.", "The Stile Antico was more prevalent in Northern Europe and Stile Moderno was practiced more by the Italian Composers of the time.", "The piano was invented in Florence in 1709 by Bartolomeo Cristofori.", "Composers and musicians who have lived in Florence include Piero Strozzi (1550 – after 1608), Giulio Caccini (1551–1618) and Mike Francis (1961–2009).", "Giulio Caccini's book ''Le Nuove Musiche'' was significant in performance practice technique instruction at the time.", "The book specified a new term, in use by the 1630s, called monody which indicated the combination of voice and basso continuo and connoted a practice of stating text in a free, lyrical, yet speech-like manner.", "This would occur while an instrument, usually a keyboard type such as harpsichord, played and held chords while the singer sang/spoke the monodic line.===Cinema===Florence has been a setting for numerous works of fiction and movies, including the novels and associated films, such as ''Light in the Piazza'', ''The Girl Who Couldn't Say No'', ''Calmi Cuori Appassionati'', ''Hannibal'', ''A Room with a View'', ''Tea with Mussolini'', ''Virgin Territory'' and ''Inferno''.", "The city is home to renowned Italian actors and actresses, such as Roberto Benigni, Leonardo Pieraccioni and Vittoria Puccini.=== Video games ===Florence has appeared as a location in video games such as ''Assassin's Creed II''.", "The Republic of Florence also appears as a playable nation in Paradox Interactive's grand strategy game ''Europa Universalis IV''.=== Other media ===16th century Florence is the setting of the Japanese manga and anime series ''Arte''.===Cuisine===Florentine steak in FlorenceFlorentine food grows out of a tradition of peasant fare rather than rarefied high cuisine.", "The majority of dishes are based on meat.", "The whole animal was traditionally eaten; tripe (''trippa'') and stomach (''lampredotto'') were once regularly on the menu at restaurants and still are sold at the food carts stationed throughout the city.", "Antipasti include ''crostini toscani'', sliced bread rounds topped with a chicken liver-based pâté, and sliced meats (mainly prosciutto and salame, often served with melon when in season).", "The typically saltless Tuscan bread, obtained with natural levain frequently features in Florentine courses, especially in its soups, ''ribollita'' and ''pappa al pomodoro'', or in the salad of bread and fresh vegetables called ''panzanella'' that is served in summer.", "The ''bistecca alla fiorentina'' is a large (the customary size should weigh around ) – the \"date\" steak – T-bone steak of Chianina beef cooked over hot charcoal and served very rare with its more recently derived version, the ''tagliata'', sliced rare beef served on a bed of arugula, often with slices of Parmesan cheese on top.", "Most of these courses are generally served with local olive oil, also a prime product enjoying a worldwide reputation.", "Among the desserts, ''schiacciata alla fiorentina'', a white flatbread cake, is one of the most popular; it is a very soft cake, prepared with extremely simple ingredients, typical of Florentine cuisine, and is especially eaten at Carnival.===Research activity===UNICEF Innocenti Research CentreResearch institutes and university departments are located within the Florence area and within two campuses at Polo di Novoli and Polo Scientifico di Sesto Fiorentino as well as in the Research Area of Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche.===Science and discovery===A display of proboscideans in the Museo di Storia Naturale di Firenze, or the Natural History Museum of FlorenceFlorence has been an important scientific centre for centuries, notably during the Renaissance with scientists such as Leonardo da Vinci.Florentines were one of the driving forces behind the Age of Discovery.", "Florentine bankers financed Henry the Navigator and the Portuguese explorers who pioneered the route around Africa to India and the Far East.", "It was a map drawn by the Florentine Paolo dal Pozzo Toscanelli, a student of Brunelleschi, that Christopher Columbus used to sell his \"enterprise\" to the Spanish monarchs, and which he used on his first voyage.", "Mercator's \"Projection\" is a refined version of Toscanelli's, taking the Americas into account.Galileo and other scientists pioneered the study of optics, ballistics, astronomy, anatomy, and other scientific disciplines.", "Pico della Mirandola, Leonardo Bruni, Machiavelli, and many others laid the groundwork for modern scientific understanding.===Fashion===Luxury boutiques along Florence's prestigious Via de' TornabuoniBy the year 1300 Florence had become a centre of textile production in Europe.", "Many of the rich families in Renaissance Florence were major purchasers of locally produced fine clothing, and the specialists of fashion in the economy and culture of Florence during that period is often underestimated.", "Florence is regarded by some as the birthplace and earliest centre of the modern (post World War Two) fashion industry in Italy.", "The Florentine \"soirées\" of the early 1950s organised by Giovanni Battista Giorgini were events where several Italian designers participated in group shows and first garnered international attention.", "Florence has served as the home of the Italian fashion company Salvatore Ferragamo since 1928.Gucci, Roberto Cavalli, and Emilio Pucci are also headquartered in Florence.", "Other major players in the fashion industry such as Prada and Chanel have large offices and stores in Florence or its outskirts.", "Florence's main upscale shopping street is Via de' Tornabuoni, where major luxury fashion houses and jewellery labels, such as Armani and Bulgari, have boutiques.", "Via del Parione and Via Roma are other streets that are also well known for their high-end fashion stores.===Historical evocations=======''Scoppio del Carro''====The ''Scoppio del Carro'' (\"Explosion of the Cart\") is a celebration of the First Crusade.", "During the day of Easter, a cart, which the Florentines call the ''Brindellone'' and which is led by four white oxen, is taken to the Piazza del Duomo between the Baptistery of St. John the Baptist (''Battistero di San Giovanni'') and the Florence Cathedral (''Santa Maria del Fiore'').", "The cart is connected by a rope to the interior of the church.", "Near the cart there is a model of a dove, which, according to legend, is a symbol of good luck for the city: at the end of the Easter mass, the dove emerges from the nave of the Duomo and ignites the fireworks on the cart.====''Calcio Storico''====Calcio Storico''Calcio Storico Fiorentino'' (\"Historic Florentine Football\"), sometimes called ''Calcio in costume'', is a traditional sport, regarded as a forerunner of soccer, though the actual gameplay most closely resembles rugby.", "The event originates from the Middle Ages, when the most important Florentine nobles amused themselves playing while wearing bright costumes.", "The most important match was played on 17 February 1530, during the siege of Florence.", "That day Papal troops besieged the city while the Florentines, with contempt of the enemies, decided to play the game notwithstanding the situation.", "The game is played in the Piazza di Santa Croce.", "A temporary arena is constructed, with bleachers and a sand-covered playing field.", "A series of matches are held between four teams representing each (quarter) of Florence during late June and early July.", "There are four teams: Azzurri (light blue), Bianchi (white), Rossi (red) and Verdi (green).", "The Azzurri are from the quarter of Santa Croce, Bianchi from the quarter of Santo Spirito, Verdi are from San Giovanni and Rossi from Santa Maria Novella." ], [ "Main sights", "Florence is known as the \"cradle of the Renaissance\" (''la culla del Rinascimento'') for its monuments, churches, and buildings.", "The best-known site of Florence is the domed cathedral of the city, Santa Maria del Fiore, known as ''The Duomo'', whose dome was built by Filippo Brunelleschi.", "The nearby Campanile (partly designed by Giotto) and the Baptistery buildings are also highlights.", "The dome, 600 years after its completion, is still the largest dome built in brick and mortar in the world.", "In 1982, the '''historic centre of Florence''' (Italian: ''centro storico di Firenze'') was declared a World Heritage Site by the UNESCO.", "The centre of the city is contained in medieval walls that were built in the 14th century to defend the city.", "At the heart of the city, in Piazza della Signoria, is Bartolomeo Ammannati's Fountain of Neptune (1563–1565), which is a masterpiece of marble sculpture at the terminus of a still functioning Roman aqueduct.The layout and structure of Florence in many ways harkens back to the Roman era, where it was designed as a garrison settlement.", "Nevertheless, the majority of the city was built during the Renaissance.", "Despite the strong presence of Renaissance architecture within the city, traces of medieval, Baroque, Neoclassical and modern architecture can be found.", "The as well as the Duomo, or the city's Cathedral, are the two buildings which dominate Florence's skyline.The river Arno, which cuts through the old part of the city, is as much a character in Florentine history as many of the people who lived there.", "Historically, the locals have had a love-hate relationship with the Arno – which alternated between nourishing the city with commerce, and destroying it by flood.One of the bridges in particular stands out – the Ponte Vecchio ('Old Bridge'), whose most striking feature is the multitude of shops built upon its edges, held up by stilts.", "The bridge also carries Vasari's elevated corridor linking the Uffizi to the Medici residence (Palazzo Pitti).", "Although the original bridge was constructed by the Etruscans, the current bridge was rebuilt in the 14th century.", "It is the only bridge in the city to have survived World War II intact.", "It is the first example in the western world of a bridge built using segmental arches, that is, arches less than a semicircle, to reduce both span-to-rise ratio and the numbers of pillars to allow lesser encumbrance in the riverbed (being in this much more successful than the Roman Alconétar Bridge).The church of San Lorenzo contains the Medici Chapels, a complex of burial chapels of the Medici family—the most powerful family in Florence from the 15th to the 18th centuries.The Uffizi Gallery, one of the finest art museums in the world, was founded on a large bequest from the last member of the Medici family.", "It is located at the corner of Piazza della Signoria, a site important for being the centre of Florence's civil life and government for centuries.", "The Palazzo della Signoria facing it is still home of the municipal government.", "Many significant episodes in the history of art and political changes were staged here, such as:* In 1301, Dante Alighieri was sent into exile from here (commemorated by a plaque on one of the walls of the Uffizi).", "* On 26 April 1478, Jacopo de' Pazzi and his retainers tried to raise the city against the Medici after the plot known as ''La congiura dei Pazzi'' (''The Pazzi conspiracy''), murdering Giuliano di Piero de' Medici and wounding his brother Lorenzo.", "All the members of the plot who could be apprehended were seized by the Florentines and hanged from the windows of the palace.", "* In 1497, it was the location of the Bonfire of the Vanities instigated by the Dominican friar and preacher Girolamo Savonarola* On 23 May 1498, the same Savonarola and two followers were hanged and burnt at the stake.", "(A round plate in the ground marks the spot where he was hanged)* In 1504, Michelangelo's David (now replaced by a replica, since the original was moved in 1873 to the Galleria dell'Accademia) was installed in front of the Palazzo della Signoria (also known as ).The Loggia dei Lanzi in Piazza della Signoria is the location of a number of statues by other sculptors such as Donatello, Giambologna, Bartolomeo Ammannati and Benvenuto Cellini, although some have been replaced with copies to preserve the originals.File:Florence Cathedral.jpg\|Cattedrale di Santa Maria del FioreFile:Palazzo Vecchio by nigth.jpg\|File:1835 S.D.U.K.", "City Map or Plan of Florence or Firenze, Italy - Geographicus - Florence-SDUK-1835.jpg\|1835 City Map of Florence, still largely in the confines of its medieval city centreFile:Ponte Vecchio Firenze.jpg\|Ponte Vecchio, which spans the Arno riverFile:Cityscape of Florence in the Night.jpg\|Florence at night from Piazzale MichelangeloFile:Palazzo Pitti Florence.jpg\|alt=Palazzo Pitti\|Palazzo PittiFile:Vechio Ponte Santa Trinita with the Oltrarno district.jpg\|Ponte Santa Trinita with the Oltrarno districtFile:Florence vue depuis Fiesole.JPG\|The city of Florence as seen from the hill of FiesoleFile:Florence Duomo from Michelangelo hill.jpg\|Florence Duomo as seen from Michelangelo hill===Monuments, museums and religious buildings===Baptistry, cathedral and campanilePiazzale degli UffiziFlorence contains several palaces and buildings from various eras.", "The is the town hall of Florence and also an art museum.", "This large Romanesque crenellated fortress-palace overlooks the Piazza della Signoria with its copy of Michelangelo's David statue as well as the gallery of statues in the adjacent Loggia dei Lanzi.", "Originally called the ''Palazzo della Signoria'', after the Signoria of Florence, the ruling body of the Republic of Florence, it was also given several other names: ''Palazzo del Popolo'', ''Palazzo dei Priori'', and ''Palazzo Ducale'', in accordance with the varying use of the palace during its long history.", "The building acquired its current name when the Medici duke's residence was moved across the Arno to the Palazzo Pitti.", "It is linked to the Uffizi and the Palazzo Pitti through the Corridoio Vasariano.Palazzo Medici Riccardi, designed by Michelozzo di Bartolomeo for Cosimo il Vecchio, of the Medici family, is another major edifice, and was built between 1445 and 1460.It was well known for its stone masonry that includes rustication and ashlar.", "Today it is the head office of the Metropolitan City of Florence and hosts museums and the Riccardiana Library.", "The Palazzo Strozzi, an example of civil architecture with its rusticated stone, was inspired by the Palazzo Medici, but with more harmonious proportions.", "Today the palace is used for international expositions like the annual antique show (founded as the Biennale dell'Antiquariato in 1959), fashion shows and other cultural and artistic events.", "Here also is the seat of the Istituto Nazionale del Rinascimento and the noted Gabinetto Vieusseux, with the library and reading room.There are several other notable places, including the Palazzo Rucellai, designed by Leon Battista Alberti between 1446 and 1451 and executed, at least in part, by Bernardo Rossellino; the Palazzo Davanzati, which houses the museum of the Old Florentine House; the Palazzo delle Assicurazioni Generali, designed in the Neo-Renaissance style in 1871; the Palazzo Spini Feroni, in Piazza Santa Trinita, a historic 13th-century private palace, owned since the 1920s by shoe-designer Salvatore Ferragamo; as well as various others, including the Palazzo Borghese, the Palazzo di Bianca Cappello, the Palazzo Antinori, and the Royal building of Santa Maria Novella.Palazzo Pitti on Boboli Gardens' sideFlorence contains numerous museums and art galleries where some of the world's most important works of art are held.", "The city is one of the best preserved Renaissance centres of art and architecture in the world and has a high concentration of art, architecture and culture.", "In the ranking list of the 15 most visited Italian art museums, ⅔ are represented by Florentine museums.", "The Uffizi is one of these, having a very large collection of international and Florentine art.", "The gallery is articulated in many halls, catalogued by schools and chronological order.", "Engendered by the Medici family's artistic collections through the centuries, it houses works of art by various painters and artists.", "The Vasari Corridor is another gallery, built connecting the with the Pitti Palace passing by the Uffizi and over the Ponte Vecchio.", "The Galleria dell'Accademia houses a Michelangelo collection, including the David.", "It has a collection of Russian icons and works by various artists and painters.", "Other museums and galleries include the Bargello, which concentrates on sculpture works by artists including Donatello, Giambologna and Michelangelo; the Palazzo Pitti, containing part of the Medici family's former private collection.", "In addition to the Medici collection, the palace's galleries contain many Renaissance works, including several by Raphael and Titian, large collections of costumes, ceremonial carriages, silver, porcelain and a gallery of modern art dating from the 18th century.", "Adjoining the palace are the Boboli Gardens, elaborately landscaped and with numerous sculptures.The façade of the CathedralThere are several different churches and religious buildings in Florence.", "The cathedral is Santa Maria del Fiore.", "The San Giovanni Baptistery located in front of the cathedral, is decorated by numerous artists, notably by Lorenzo Ghiberti with the ''Gates of Paradise''.", "Other churches in Florence include the Basilica of Santa Maria Novella, located in Santa Maria Novella square (near the Firenze Santa Maria Novella railway station) which contains works by Masaccio, Paolo Uccello, Filippino Lippi and Domenico Ghirlandaio; the Basilica of Santa Croce, the principal Franciscan church in the city, which is situated on the Piazza di Santa Croce, about southeast of the Duomo, and is the burial place of some of the most illustrious Italians, such as Michelangelo, Galileo, Machiavelli, Foscolo, Rossini, thus it is known also as the Temple of the Italian Glories (Tempio dell'Itale Glorie); the Basilica of San Lorenzo, which is one of the largest churches in the city, situated at the centre of Florence's main market district, and the burial place of all the principal members of the Medici family from Cosimo il Vecchio to Cosimo III; Santo Spirito, in the Oltrarno quarter, facing the square with the same name; Orsanmichele, whose building was constructed on the site of the kitchen garden of the monastery of San Michele, now demolished; Santissima Annunziata, a Roman Catholic basilica and the mother church of the Servite order; Ognissanti, which was founded by the lay order of the Umiliati, and is among the first examples of Baroque architecture built in the city; the Santa Maria del Carmine, in the Oltrarno district of Florence, which is the location of the Brancacci Chapel, housing outstanding Renaissance frescoes by Masaccio and Masolino da Panicale, later finished by Filippino Lippi; the Medici Chapel with statues by Michelangelo, in the San Lorenzo; as well as several others, including Santa Trinita, San Marco, Santa Felicita, Badia Fiorentina, San Gaetano, San Miniato al Monte, Florence Charterhouse, and Santa Maria del Carmine.", "The city additionally contains the Orthodox Russian church of Nativity, and the Great Synagogue of Florence, built in the 19th century.Florence contains various theatres and cinemas.", "The Odeon Cinema of the Palazzo dello Strozzino is one of the oldest cinemas in the city.", "Established from 1920 to 1922 in a wing of the Palazzo dello Strozzino, it used to be called the ''Cinema Teatro Savoia'' (Savoy Cinema-Theatre), yet was later called ''Odeon''.", "The Teatro della Pergola, located in the centre of the city on the eponymous street, is an opera house built in the 17th century.", "Another theatre is the Teatro Comunale (or ''Teatro del Maggio Musicale Fiorentino''), originally built as the open-air amphitheatre, the ''Politeama Fiorentino Vittorio Emanuele'', which was inaugurated on 17 May 1862 with a production of Donizetti's ''Lucia di Lammermoor'' and which seated 6,000 people.", "There are several other theatres, such as the Saloncino Castinelli, the Teatro Puccini, the Teatro Verdi, the Teatro Goldoni and the Teatro Niccolini.=== Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore ===Florence Cathedral, formally the Cattedrale di Santa Maria del Fiore, is the cathedral of Florence, Italy.", "It was begun in 1296 in the Gothic style to a design of Arnolfo di Cambio and was structurally completed by 1436, with the dome designed by Filippo Brunelleschi.=== Squares, streets and parks ===Piazza della RepubblicaPanorama composite, overview of Firenze, taken from the Giardino Bardini viewpointAside from such monuments, Florence contains numerous major squares (''piazze'') and streets.", "The Piazza della Repubblica is a square in the city centre, location of the cultural cafés and bourgeois palaces.", "Among the square's cafés (like Caffè Gilli, Paszkowski or the Hard Rock Cafè), the Giubbe Rosse café has long been a meeting place for artists and writers, notably those of Futurism.", "The Piazza Santa Croce is another; dominated by the Basilica of Santa Croce, it is a rectangular square in the centre of the city where the Calcio Fiorentino is played every year.", "Furthermore, there is the Piazza Santa Trinita, a square near the Arno that mark the end of the Via de' Tornabuoni street.Replica of David and other statues, Piazza della SignoriaOther squares include the Piazza San Marco, the Piazza Santa Maria Novella, the Piazza Beccaria and the Piazza della Libertà.", "The centre additionally contains several streets.", "Such include the Via Camillo Cavour, one of the main roads of the northern area of the historic centre; the Via Ghibellina, one of central Florence's longest streets; the Via dei Calzaiuoli, one of the most central streets of the historic centre which links ''Piazza del Duomo'' to Piazza della Signoria, winding parallel to via Roma and ''Piazza della Repubblica''; the Via de' Tornabuoni, a luxurious street in the city centre that goes from Antinori square to ponte Santa Trinita, across Piazza Santa Trinita, characterised by the presence of fashion boutiques; the Viali di Circonvallazione, 6-lane boulevards surrounding the northern part of the historic centre; as well as others, such as Via Roma, Via degli Speziali, Via de' Cerretani, and the Viale dei Colli.Florence also contains various parks and gardens.", "Such include the Boboli Gardens, the Parco delle Cascine, the Giardino Bardini and the Giardino dei Semplici, amongst others." ], [ "Sport", "Stadio Artemio FranchiIn association football, Florence is represented by ACF Fiorentina, which plays in Serie A, the top league of Italian league system.", "ACF Fiorentina has won two Italian Championships, in 1956 and 1969, and 6 Italian cups, since their formation in 1926.They play their games at the Stadio Artemio Franchi, which holds 47,282.The women's team, ACF Fiorentina Femminile, have won the women's association football Italian Championship of the 2016–17 season.The city is home of the Centro Tecnico Federale di Coverciano, in Coverciano, Florence, the main training ground of the Italian national team, and the technical department of the Italian Football Federation.Florence was one of the host cities for cycling's 2013 UCI Road World Championships.", "The city has also hosted stages of the Giro d'Italia, most recently in 2017.Since 2017 Florence is also represented in Eccellenza, the top tier of rugby union league system in Italy, by I Medicei, which is a club established in 2015 by the merging of the senior squads of I Cavalieri (of Prato) and Firenze Rugby 1931.I Medicei won the Serie A Championship in 2016–17 and were promoted to Eccellenza for the 2017–18 season.Rari Nantes Florentia is a successful water polo club based in Florence; both its male and female squads have won several Italian championships and the female squad has also European titles in their palmarès." ], [ "Transportation", "=== Cars ===The centre of Florence is closed to through-traffic, although buses, taxis and residents with appropriate permits are allowed in.", "This area is commonly referred to as the ZTL (''Zona Traffico Limitato''), which is divided into several subsections.", "Residents of one section, therefore, will only be able to drive in their district and perhaps some surrounding ones.", "Cars without permits are allowed to enter after 7.30 pm, or before 7.30 am.", "The rules shift during the tourist-filled summers, putting more restrictions on where one can get in and out.=== Buses ==='''ATAF&Li-nea''' was the bus company who run the principal public transit network in the city; it was one the companies of the consortium ONE Scarl to accomplish the contract stipulated with the Regione Toscana for the public transport in the 2018–2019 period.", "Individual tickets, or a pass called ''Carta Agile'' with multiple rides, are purchased in advance and must be validated once on board.", "These tickets may be used on ATAF&Li-nea buses, Tramvia and second-class local trains only within city railway stations.", "The bus fleet consisted of 446 urban, 5 suburban, 20 intercity and 15 tourism buses.Intercity bus transit is run by the SITA, COPIT, and CAP Autolinee companies.", "The transit companies also accommodate travellers from the Amerigo Vespucci Airport, which is west of the city centre, and which has scheduled services run by major European carriers.Since 1 November 2021, the public local transport is operated by Autolinee Toscane.=== Trams ===Tramway Sirio in FlorenceRoute map of the tramwayIn an effort to reduce air pollution and car traffic in the city, a multi-line tram network called ''Tramvia'' is under construction.", "The first line began operation on 14 February 2010 and connects Florence's primary intercity railway station (Santa Maria Novella) with the southwestern suburb of Scandicci.", "This line is long and has 14 stops.", "The construction of a second line began on 5 November 2011, construction was stopped due to contractors' difficulties and restarted in 2014 with the new line opening on 11 February 2019.This second line connects Florence's airport with the city centre.", "A third line (from Santa Maria Novella to the Careggi area, where the most important hospitals of Florence are located) is also under construction.===Florence public transport statistics===The average amount of time people spend commuting with public transit in Florence, for example to and from work, on a weekday is 59 min.", "13% of public transit riders ride for more than 2 hours every day.", "The average amount of time people wait at a stop or station for public transit is 14 min, while 22% of riders wait for over 20 minutes on average every day.", "The average distance people usually ride in a single trip with public transit is , while 3% travel for over in a single direction.===Airport===Florence AirportThe Florence Airport, Peretola, is one of two main airports in the Tuscany region though it is not widely used by popular airlines.", "The other airport in the Tuscany region is the Galileo Galilei International Airport in Pisa.===Mobike (bike-sharing)===Mobikes at Parco delle Cascine, FlorenceMobike, a Chinese dockless bike sharing company, has been operating in Florence since July 2017.As of 2019, the company operates 4,000 bikes in Florence.", "The users scan the QR code on the bike using the Mobike app, and end the ride by parking curbside.", "The bikes have a fixed rate of €1 every 20 minutes.", "Since Mobike is a dock-less bike-sharing system, it does not provide stations, therefore the bikes can be left almost anywhere.===Railway station===Firenze Santa Maria Novella railway station is the main national and international railway station in Florence and is used by 59 million people every year.", "The building, designed by Giovanni Michelucci, was built in the ''Italian Rationalism'' style and it is one of the major rationalist buildings in Italy.", "It is located in ''Piazza della Stazione'', near the Fortezza da Basso, a masterpiece of the military Renaissance architecture, and the Viali di Circonvallazione, and in front of the Basilica of Santa Maria Novella's apse from which it takes its name.", "As well as numerous high speed trains to major Italian cities Florence is served by international overnight sleeper services to Munich and Vienna operated by Austrian railways ÖBB.Train tickets must be validated before boarding.", "The main bus station is next to Santa Maria Novella railway station.", "Trenitalia runs trains between the railway stations within the city, and to other destinations around Italy and Europe.", "The central railway station, Santa Maria Novella, is about northwest of the Piazza del Duomo.", "There are two other important stations: Campo di Marte and Rifredi.", "Most bundled routes are Firenze–Pisa, Firenze–Viareggio and Firenze–Arezzo (along the main line to Rome).", "Other local railways connect Florence with Borgo San Lorenzo in the Mugello area (Faentina railway) and Siena.A new high-speed rail station is under construction and is contracted to be operational by 2015.It is planned to be connected to Vespucci airport, Santa Maria Novella railway station, and to the city centre by the second line of Tramvia.", "The architectural firms Foster + Partners and Lancietti Passaleva Giordo and Associates designed this new rail station." ], [ "Education", "Rectorate's auditorium of University of FlorenceThe University of Florence was first founded in 1321, and was recognized by Pope Clement VI in 1349.In 2019, over 50,000 students were enrolled at the university.", "The European University Institute has been based in the suburb of Fiesole since 1976.Several American universities host a campus in Florence.", "Including New York University, Marist College, Pepperdine, Stanford, Florida State, Kent State, and James Madison.", "The Harvard University Center for Italian Renaissance Studies is based in Villa I Tatti.", "The center for arts and humanities advanced research has been located on the border of Florence, Fiesole and Settignano since 1961.Over 8,000 American students are enrolled for study in Florence, although mostly while studying in US based degree programs.The private school, Centro Machiavelli which teaches Italian language and culture to foreigners, is located in Piazza Santo Spirito in Florence." ], [ "Notable residents", "Dante AlighieriLorenzo de' MediciAmerigo VespucciNiccolò Machiavelli* Antonia of Florence, saint* Agnes of Montepulciano, saint* Harold Acton, author and aesthete* John Argyropoulos, scholar* Leone Battista Alberti, polymath* Dante Alighieri (1265-1321), poet* Giovanni Boccaccio, poet* Cesare Bomboni, architect* Sandro Botticelli (1445-1510), painter* Egisto Bracci (1830–1909), architect* Aureliano Brandolini, agronomist and development cooperation scholar* Robert Browning and Elizabeth Barrett Browning, 19th-century English poets* Filippo Brunelleschi (1377–1446), architect* Michelangelo Buonarroti, sculptor, painter, author of the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel and ''David''* Francesco Casagrande, cyclist* Roberto Cavalli, fashion designer* Carlo Collodi, writer* Enrico Coveri, fashion designer* Donatello, sculptor* Oriana Fallaci, journalist and author* Salvatore Ferragamo, fashion designer and shoemaker* Mike Francis (born Francesco Puccioni), singer and composer* Silpa Bhirasri (born Corrado Feroci), sculptor, credited as the principal figure of modern art in Thailand* Frescobaldi family, notable bankers and wine producers* Galileo Galilei, Italian physicist, astronomer, and philosopher* Giotto (1267–1337), early 14th-century painter, sculptor and architect* Lorenzo Ghiberti (1378–1455), sculptor* Guccio Gucci (1881–1953), founder of the Gucci label* Pauline von Hügel (1858–1901), baroness, writer, philanthropist* Bruno Innocenti (1906–1986), sculptor* Robert Lowell, poet* Niccolò Machiavelli (1469-1527), poet, philosopher and political thinker, author of ''The Prince'' and ''The Discourses''* Masaccio, painter* Rose McGowan, Florence-born actress* Medici family* Girolamo Mei, historian and humanist* Antonio Meucci (1808-1889), inventor of the telephone* Pirrho Musefili, Florentine cryptographer and cryptanalyst* Florence Nightingale, pioneer of modern nursing, and statistician* Virginia Oldoini (1837–1899), Countess of Castiglione, early photographic artist, secret agent and courtesan* Valerio Profondavalle, Flemish painter* Giulio Racah (1909–1965), Italian-Israeli mathematician and physicist; Acting President of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem* Raphael, painter* Anna Sarfatti (born 1950), children's author* Girolamo Savonarola, reformist* Adriana Seroni, politician* Giovanni Spadolini (1925–1994), politician* Antonio Squarcialupi (1416–1480), organist and composer* Andrei Tarkovsky, film director.", "Lived in the city during his exile* Evangelista Torricelli, Italian physicist* Anna Tonelli (–1846), Florence born portrait painter in the late 17th century and early 18th century* Maria Giustina Turcotti (c. 1700 – after 1763), opera singer * Giorgio Vasari, painter, architect, and historian* Amerigo Vespucci (1451-1512), explorer and cartographer, namesake of the Americas* Coriolano Vighi, (1846-1905), landscape painter* Leonardo da Vinci, polymath* Lisa del Giocondo, model of the ''Mona Lisa''* Giorgio Antonucci, physician, psychoanalyst and an international reference on the questioning of the basis of psychiatry" ], [ "International relations", "===Twin towns – sister cities===Florence is twinned with:Bethlehem, PalestineBudapest, HungaryDresden, GermanyEdinburgh, Scotland, United KingdomFez, MoroccoIsfahan, IranKassel, GermanyKyiv, UkraineKuwait City, KuwaitKyoto, JapanNanjing, ChinaNazareth, IsraelPhiladelphia, United StatesPuebla, MexicoReims, FranceRiga, LatviaSalvador, BrazilSydney, AustraliaTirana, AlbaniaTurku, FinlandValladolid, Spain===Other partnerships===Florence has friendly relations with:Arequipa, PeruCannes, FranceGifu, JapanJeonju, South KoreaKraków, PolandMalmö Municipality, SwedenNingbo, ChinaPorto-Vecchio, FranceProvidence, Rhode Island, United StatesTallinn, Estonia" ], [ "See also", " Chancellor of Florence* Cronaca fiorentina* European University Institute* List of historic states of Italy* List of squares in Florence* :Category:Buildings and structures in Florence" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* Niccolò Machiavelli.", "''Florentine Histories''* * * * Chaney, Edward (2003), ''A Traveller's Companion to Florence''.", "* * * * * * * Ferdinand Schevill, ''History of Florence: From the Founding of the City Through the Renaissance'' (Frederick Ungar, 1936) is the standard overall history of Florence.", "*" ], [ "External links" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Quotient group" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''quotient group''' or '''factor group''' is a mathematical group obtained by aggregating similar elements of a larger group using an equivalence relation that preserves some of the group structure (the rest of the structure is \"factored\" out).", "For example, the cyclic group of addition modulo ''n'' can be obtained from the group of integers under addition by identifying elements that differ by a multiple of and defining a group structure that operates on each such class (known as a congruence class) as a single entity.", "It is part of the mathematical field known as group theory.For a congruence relation on a group, the equivalence class of the identity element is always a normal subgroup of the original group, and the other equivalence classes are precisely the cosets of that normal subgroup.", "The resulting quotient is written , where is the original group and is the normal subgroup.", "(This is pronounced , where is short for modulo.", ")Much of the importance of quotient groups is derived from their relation to homomorphisms.", "The first isomorphism theorem states that the image of any group ''G'' under a homomorphism is always isomorphic to a quotient of .", "Specifically, the image of under a homomorphism is isomorphic to where denotes the kernel of .The dual notion of a quotient group is a subgroup, these being the two primary ways of forming a smaller group from a larger one.", "Any normal subgroup has a corresponding quotient group, formed from the larger group by eliminating the distinction between elements of the subgroup.", "In category theory, quotient groups are examples of quotient objects, which are dual to subobjects." ], [ "Definition and illustration", "Given a group and a subgroup , and a fixed element , one can consider the corresponding left coset: .", "Cosets are a natural class of subsets of a group; for example consider the abelian group ''G'' of integers, with operation defined by the usual addition, and the subgroup of even integers.", "Then there are exactly two cosets: , which are the even integers, and , which are the odd integers (here we are using additive notation for the binary operation instead of multiplicative notation).For a general subgroup , it is desirable to define a compatible group operation on the set of all possible cosets, .", "This is possible exactly when is a normal subgroup, see below.", "A subgroup of a group is normal if and only if the coset equality holds for all .", "A normal subgroup of is denoted .=== Definition ===Let be a normal subgroup of a group .", "Define the set to be the set of all left cosets of in .", "That is, .", "Since the identity element , .", "Define a binary operation on the set of cosets, , as follows.", "For each and in , the product of and , , is .", "This works only because does not depend on the choice of the representatives, and , of each left coset, and .", "To prove this, suppose and for some .", "Then: .This depends on the fact that is a normal subgroup.", "It still remains to be shown that this condition is not only sufficient but necessary to define the operation on .To show that it is necessary, consider that for a subgroup of , we have been given that the operation is well defined.", "That is, for all and for .Let and .", "Since , we have .Now, and .Hence is a normal subgroup of .It can also be checked that this operation on is always associative, has identity element , and the inverse of element can always be represented by .", "Therefore, the set together with the operation defined by forms a group, the quotient group of by .Due to the normality of , the left cosets and right cosets of in are the same, and so, could have been defined to be the set of right cosets of in .=== Example: Addition modulo 6 ===For example, consider the group with addition modulo 6: .", "Consider the subgroup , which is normal because is abelian.", "Then the set of (left) cosets is of size three:: .The binary operation defined above makes this set into a group, known as the quotient group, which in this case is isomorphic to the cyclic group of order 3." ], [ "Motivation for the name \"quotient\"", "The reason is called a quotient group comes from division of integers.", "When dividing 12 by 3 one obtains the answer 4 because one can regroup 12 objects into 4 subcollections of 3 objects.", "The quotient group is the same idea, although we end up with a group for a final answer instead of a number because groups have more structure than an arbitrary collection of objects.To elaborate, when looking at with a normal subgroup of , the group structure is used to form a natural \"regrouping\".", "These are the cosets of in .", "Because we started with a group and normal subgroup, the final quotient contains more information than just the number of cosets (which is what regular division yields), but instead has a group structure itself." ], [ "Examples", "=== Even and odd integers ===Consider the group of integers (under addition) and the subgroup consisting of all even integers.", "This is a normal subgroup, because is abelian.", "There are only two cosets: the set of even integers and the set of odd integers, and therefore the quotient group is the cyclic group with two elements.", "This quotient group is isomorphic with the set with addition modulo 2; informally, it is sometimes said that ''equals'' the set with addition modulo 2.", "'''Example further explained...''': Let be the remainders of when dividing by .", "Then, when is even and when is odd.", ": By definition of , the kernel of , , is the set of all even integers.", ": Let .", "Then, is a subgroup, because the identity in , which is , is in , the sum of two even integers is even and hence if and are in , is in (closure) and if is even, is also even and so contains its inverses.", ": Define as for and is the quotient group of left cosets; .", ": Note that we have defined , is if is odd and if is even.", ": Thus, is an isomorphism from to .=== Remainders of integer division ===A slight generalization of the last example.", "Once again consider the group of integers under addition.", "Let be any positive integer.", "We will consider the subgroup of consisting of all multiples of .", "Once again is normal in because is abelian.", "The cosets are the collection .", "An integer belongs to the coset , where is the remainder when dividing by .", "The quotient can be thought of as the group of \"remainders\" modulo .", "This is a cyclic group of order .=== Complex integer roots of 1 ===The cosets of the fourth roots of unity ''N'' in the twelfth roots of unity ''G''.The twelfth roots of unity, which are points on the complex unit circle, form a multiplicative abelian group , shown on the picture on the right as colored balls with the number at each point giving its complex argument.", "Consider its subgroup made of the fourth roots of unity, shown as red balls.", "This normal subgroup splits the group into three cosets, shown in red, green and blue.", "One can check that the cosets form a group of three elements (the product of a red element with a blue element is blue, the inverse of a blue element is green, etc.).", "Thus, the quotient group is the group of three colors, which turns out to be the cyclic group with three elements.=== Real numbers modulo the integers ===Consider the group of real numbers under addition, and the subgroup of integers.", "Each coset of in is a set of the form , where is a real number.", "Since and are identical sets when the non-integer parts of and are equal, one may impose the restriction without change of meaning.", "Adding such cosets is done by adding the corresponding real numbers, and subtracting 1 if the result is greater than or equal to 1.The quotient group is isomorphic to the circle group, the group of complex numbers of absolute value 1 under multiplication, or correspondingly, the group of rotations in 2D about the origin, that is, the special orthogonal group .", "An isomorphism is given by (see Euler's identity).=== Matrices of real numbers ===If is the group of invertible real matrices, and is the subgroup of real matrices with determinant 1, then is normal in (since it is the kernel of the determinant homomorphism).", "The cosets of are the sets of matrices with a given determinant, and hence is isomorphic to the multiplicative group of non-zero real numbers.", "The group is known as the special linear group .=== Integer modular arithmetic ===Consider the abelian group (that is, the set with addition modulo 4), and its subgroup .", "The quotient group is .", "This is a group with identity element , and group operations such as .", "Both the subgroup and the quotient group are isomorphic with .=== Integer multiplication ===Consider the multiplicative group .", "The set of th residues is a multiplicative subgroup isomorphic to .", "Then is normal in and the factor group has the cosets .", "The Paillier cryptosystem is based on the conjecture that it is difficult to determine the coset of a random element of without knowing the factorization of ." ], [ "Properties", "The quotient group is isomorphic to the trivial group (the group with one element), and is isomorphic to .The order of , by definition the number of elements, is equal to , the index of in .", "If is finite, the index is also equal to the order of divided by the order of .", "The set may be finite, although both and are infinite (for example, ).There is a \"natural\" surjective group homomorphism , sending each element of to the coset of to which belongs, that is: .", "The mapping is sometimes called the ''canonical projection of onto ''.", "Its kernel is .There is a bijective correspondence between the subgroups of that contain and the subgroups of ; if is a subgroup of containing , then the corresponding subgroup of is .", "This correspondence holds for normal subgroups of and as well, and is formalized in the lattice theorem.Several important properties of quotient groups are recorded in the fundamental theorem on homomorphisms and the isomorphism theorems.If is abelian, nilpotent, solvable, cyclic or finitely generated, then so is .If is a subgroup in a finite group , and the order of is one half of the order of , then is guaranteed to be a normal subgroup, so exists and is isomorphic to .", "This result can also be stated as \"any subgroup of index 2 is normal\", and in this form it applies also to infinite groups.", "Furthermore, if is the smallest prime number dividing the order of a finite group, , then if has order , must be a normal subgroup of .Given and a normal subgroup , then is a group extension of by .", "One could ask whether this extension is trivial or split; in other words, one could ask whether is a direct product or semidirect product of and .", "This is a special case of the extension problem.", "An example where the extension is not split is as follows: Let , and , which is isomorphic to .", "Then is also isomorphic to .", "But has only the trivial automorphism, so the only semi-direct product of and is the direct product.", "Since is different from , we conclude that is not a semi-direct product of and ." ], [ "Quotients of Lie groups", "If is a Lie group and is a normal and closed (in the topological rather than the algebraic sense of the word) Lie subgroup of , the quotient is also a Lie group.", "In this case, the original group '''' has the structure of a fiber bundle (specifically, a principal -bundle), with base space and fiber .", "The dimension of equals .Note that the condition that is closed is necessary.", "Indeed, if is not closed then the quotient space is not a T1-space (since there is a coset in the quotient which cannot be separated from the identity by an open set), and thus not a Hausdorff space.For a non-normal Lie subgroup , the space of left cosets is not a group, but simply a differentiable manifold on which acts.", "The result is known as a homogeneous space." ], [ "See also", "* Group extension* Quotient category* Short exact sequence" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Fundamental theorem on homomorphisms" ], [ "Introduction", "In abstract algebra, the '''fundamental theorem on homomorphisms''', also known as the '''fundamental homomorphism theorem''', or the '''first isomorphism theorem''', relates the structure of two objects between which a homomorphism is given, and of the kernel and image of the homomorphism.The homomorphism theorem is used to prove the isomorphism theorems." ], [ "Group theoretic version", "Diagram of the fundamental theorem on homomorphisms where ''f'' is a homomorphism, ''N'' is a normal subgroup of ''G'' and ''e'' is the identity element of ''G''.Given two groups ''G'' and ''H'' and a group homomorphism , let ''N'' be a normal subgroup in ''G'' and φ the natural surjective homomorphism (where ''G''/''N'' is the quotient group of ''G'' by ''N'').", "If ''N'' is a subset of ker(''f'') then there exists a unique homomorphism such that .In other words, the natural projection φ is universal among homomorphisms on ''G'' that map ''N'' to the identity element.The situation is described by the following commutative diagram::File:Fundamental Homomorphism Theorem v2.svg''h'' is injective if and only if .", "Therefore, by setting we immediately get the first isomorphism theorem.We can write the statement of the fundamental theorem on homomorphisms of groups as \"every homomorphic image of a group is isomorphic to a quotient group\"." ], [ "Proof", "The proof follows from two basic facts about homomorphisms, namely their preservation of the group operation, and their mapping of the identity element to the identity element.", "We need to show that if is a homomorphism of groups, then: 1.is a subgroup of .2.is isomorphic to .=== Proof of 1 ===The operation that is preserved by is the group operation.", "If , then there exist elements such that and .", "For these and , we have (since preserves the group operation), and thus, the closure property is satisfied in .", "The identity element is also in because maps the identity element of to it.", "Since every element in has an inverse such that (because preserves the inverse property as well), we have an inverse for each element in , therefore, is a subgroup of .", "=== Proof of 2 ===Construct a map by .", "This map is well-defined, as if , then and so which gives .", "This map is an isomorphism.", "is surjective onto by definition.", "To show injectiveness, if , then , which implies so .", "Finally, hence preserves the group operation.", "Hence is an isomorphism between and , which completes the proof." ], [ "Applications", "The group theoretic version of fundamental homomorphism theorem can be used to show that two selected groups are isomorphic.", "Two examples are shown below.=== The integers modulo n ===For each , consider the groups and and a group homomorphism defined by (see modular arithmetic).", "Next, consider the kernel of , , which is a normal subgroup in .", "There exists a natural surjective homomorphism defined by .", "The theorem asserts that there exists an isomorphism between and , or in other words .", "The commutative diagram is illustrated below.", ":150px=== N/C Theorem ===Let be a group with subgroup .", "Let , and be the centralizer, the normalizer and the automorphism group of in , respectively.", "Then, N/C theorem states that is isomorphic to a subgroup of .==== Proof ====We are able to find a group homomorphism defined by , for all .", "Clearly, the kernel of is .", "Hence, we have a natural surjective homomorphism defined by .", "The fundamental homomorphism theorem then asserts that there exists an isomorphism between and , which is a subgroup of ." ], [ "Other versions", "Similar theorems are valid for monoids, vector spaces, modules, and rings." ], [ "See also", "* Quotient category" ], [ "References", "...", "." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Fermion" ], [ "Introduction", "Fermions form one of the two fundamental classes of subatomic particle, the other being bosons.", "All subatomic particles must be one or the other.", "A composite particle (hadron) may fall into either class depending on its compositionIn particle physics, a '''fermion''' is a particle that follows Fermi–Dirac statistics.", "Generally, it has a half-odd-integer spin: spin , spin , etc.", "These particles obey the Pauli exclusion principle.", "Fermions include all quarks and leptons and all composite particles made of an odd number of these, such as all baryons and many atoms and nuclei.", "Fermions differ from bosons, which obey Bose–Einstein statistics.Some fermions are elementary particles (such as electrons), and some are composite particles (such as protons).", "For example, according to the spin-statistics theorem in relativistic quantum field theory, particles with integer spin are bosons.", "In contrast, particles with half-integer spin are fermions.In addition to the spin characteristic, fermions have another specific property: they possess conserved baryon or lepton quantum numbers.", "Therefore, what is usually referred to as the spin-statistics relation is, in fact, a spin statistics-quantum number relation.As a consequence of the Pauli exclusion principle, only one fermion can occupy a particular quantum state at a given time.", "Suppose multiple fermions have the same spatial probability distribution.", "Then, at least one property of each fermion, such as its spin, must be different.", "Fermions are usually associated with matter, whereas bosons are generally force carrier particles.", "However, in the current state of particle physics, the distinction between the two concepts is unclear.", "Weakly interacting fermions can also display bosonic behavior under extreme conditions.", "For example, at low temperatures, fermions show superfluidity for uncharged particles and superconductivity for charged particles.Composite fermions, such as protons and neutrons, are the key building blocks of everyday matter.English theoretical physicist Paul Dirac coined the name fermion from the surname of Italian physicist Enrico Fermi." ], [ "Elementary fermions{{anchor\|elementary_fermion_anchor}}", "The Standard Model recognizes two types of elementary fermions: quarks and leptons.", "In all, the model distinguishes 24 different fermions.", "There are six quarks (up, down, strange, charm, bottom and top), and six leptons (electron, electron neutrino, muon, muon neutrino, tauon and tauon neutrino), along with the corresponding antiparticle of each of these.Mathematically, there are many varieties of fermions, with the three most common types being:* Weyl fermions (massless),* Dirac fermions (massive), and* Majorana fermions (each its own antiparticle).Most Standard Model fermions are believed to be Dirac fermions, although it is unknown at this time whether the neutrinos are Dirac or Majorana fermions (or both).", "Dirac fermions can be treated as a combination of two Weyl fermions.", "In July 2015, Weyl fermions have been experimentally realized in Weyl semimetals." ], [ "Composite fermions", "Composite particles (such as hadrons, nuclei, and atoms) can be bosons or fermions depending on their constituents.", "More precisely, because of the relation between spin and statistics, a particle containing an odd number of fermions is itself a fermion.", "It will have half-integer spin.Examples include the following:A baryon, such as the proton or neutron, contains three fermionic quarks.", "The nucleus of a carbon-13 atom contains six protons and seven neutrons.", "The atom helium-3 (3He) consists of two protons, one neutron, and two electrons.", "The deuterium atom consists of one proton, one neutron, and one electron.The number of bosons within a composite particle made up of simple particles bound with a potential has no effect on whether it is a boson or a fermion.Fermionic or bosonic behavior of a composite particle (or system) is only seen at large (compared to size of the system) distances.", "At proximity, where spatial structure begins to be important, a composite particle (or system) behaves according to its constituent makeup.Fermions can exhibit bosonic behavior when they become loosely bound in pairs.", "This is the origin of superconductivity and the superfluidity of helium-3: in superconducting materials, electrons interact through the exchange of phonons, forming Cooper pairs, while in helium-3, Cooper pairs are formed via spin fluctuations.The quasiparticles of the fractional quantum Hall effect are also known as composite fermions; they consist of electrons with an even number of quantized vortices attached to them." ], [ "See also", " Anyon, 2D quasiparticles* Chirality (physics), left-handed and right-handed* Fermionic condensate* Weyl semimetal* Fermionic field* Identical particles* Kogut–Susskind fermion, a type of lattice fermion* Majorana fermion, each its own antiparticle* Parastatistics* Skyrmion, a hypothetical particle" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "External links" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Fred Savage" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Frederick Aaron Savage''' (born July 9, 1976) is an American actor and director.", "He is best known for his role as Kevin Arnold in the American television series ''The Wonder Years'' (1988–1993).", "He has earned several awards and nominations, such as People's Choice Awards and Young Artist Awards.", "He is also known for playing the Grandson in ''The Princess Bride'', and voiced the title protagonist in ''Oswald''.", "Savage has worked as a director, and in 2005 later starred in the television sitcom ''Crumbs''.", "Savage returned to acting in the television series ''The Grinder'', as well as the Netflix series ''Friends from College''." ], [ "Early life and education", "Savage was born in Chicago, to Joanne and Lewis Savage, who was an industrial real estate broker and consultant.", "Savage grew up in Glencoe, Illinois, before moving to California.", "His younger brother is actor Ben Savage and his younger sister is actress/musician Kala Savage.", "His grandparents were Jewish immigrants from Poland, Ukraine, Germany and Latvia.", "He was raised as a Reform Jew.Savage was educated at Brentwood School, a private co-educational day school in Brentwood, in the Westside area of Los Angeles County in California.", "He graduated from Stanford University in 1999, with a bachelor's degree in English and as a member of Sigma Alpha Epsilon fraternity." ], [ "Career", "===Acting===Savage in 1989Savage's first screen performance was in the television show ''Morningstar/Eveningstar'', at the age of nine.", "He then appeared onscreen in ''The Boy Who Could Fly'', ''Dinosaurs!", "'', and several television shows, including ''The Twilight Zone'' and ''Crime Story'' before gaining national attention as the grandson in the 1987 film ''The Princess Bride'' opposite Peter Falk.In 1988, Savage appeared as Kevin Arnold on ''The Wonder Years'', the role for which he is best known, and for which he received two Golden Globe nominations and two Emmy nominations for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series.", "At the age of thirteen, he was the youngest actor ever to receive these honors.", "He remained on the show until it ended in 1993.During this period, he appeared in several films, most notably ''Vice Versa'' (1988), and also starred in ''Little Monsters''.", "After ''The Wonder Years'' ended, Savage returned to high school at age 17, and later attended Stanford.", "His first television role after high school was the NBC sitcom ''Working'', which Savage starred in for its two-season run.", "Savage also had a series of guest and supporting roles in the late 1990s and the 2000s such as on the show ''Boy Meets World'', (which starred his younger brother Ben Savage), ''Law & Order: Special Victims Unit'', ''The Legend of Prince Valiant'', and the film ''Austin Powers in Goldmember'' as The Mole.Savage has lent his voice to several animated projects, including ''Family Guy'', ''Kim Possible'', ''Justice League Unlimited'', ''Oswald'', and ''Holidaze: The Christmas That Almost Didn't Happen''.", "His two lead roles since ''The Wonder Years'' were on the short-lived sitcoms ''Working'' and ''Crumbs''.", "He ranked at #27 on VH1's ''100 Greatest Kid Stars''.In July 2008, Savage guest-starred in the web series ''The Rascal'' on Crackle.In 2015, Savage returned to acting with the Fox series ''The Grinder''.", "Producer Nick Stoller approached Savage about playing the role of Stewart on ''The Grinder''.", "Savage was uninterested at first, but agreed to meet with the producers of the series because his children attended school with Stoller's children.", "Savage eventually agreed to take on the role.", "''The Grinder'' was canceled by Fox on May 16, 2016.In 2017, he joined the cast of the Netflix series ''Friends from College'' as Max Adler, a gay literary agent.===Directing and producing===In 1999, Savage began his directing career in which he helmed episodes of over a dozen television series.", "Savage's first directing credit was on the short-lived NBC sitcom ''Working'' which also starred Savage.", "Following ''Working'', Savage began observing production on the Disney Channel show ''Even Stevens'' to further learn the craft of directing.", "Savage also learned by shadowing Amy Sherman-Palladino, Todd Holland, and James Burrows.His credits include ''Boy Meets World'', ''Drake & Josh'' and ''Ned's Declassified School Survival Guide'' for Nickelodeon, as well as ''That's So Raven'', ''Hannah Montana'', and ''Wizards of Waverly Place'' for Disney Channel.", "Additionally, Savage has directed for prime-time network sitcoms including ''Modern Family'' and ''2 Broke Girls''.Besides directing several episodes, Savage co-produced the Disney Channel Original Series ''Phil of the Future''.", "In 2007, he was nominated for a Directors Guild award for the ''Phil'' episode \"Not-So-Great-Great Grandpa\".Savage has served as a producer for several episodes of ''It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia'', ''Friends with Benefits'', ''Party Down'', ''Phil of the Future'', ''The Crazy Ones'', and ''Happy Endings''.In 2007, he made his feature film directing debut with the film ''Daddy Day Camp'' for which he was nominated worst director for the Golden Raspberry Awards.=== Misconduct allegations ===In 1993, Savage, then 16, and his ''Wonder Years'' co-star Jason Hervey were accused of sexual harassment in a lawsuit filed by the show's former costume designer.", "Monique Long alleged the young actors \"verbally and physically harassed her daily,\" with her complaints over their behavior ignored by the show's staff.", "The lawsuit was settled out of court.", "Actress Alley Mills, who played Arnold family matriarch Norma on the show, called those allegations against Savage \"completely ridiculous\" in a 2018 interview with ''Yahoo!", "Entertainment'', claiming the lawsuit prompted ''The Wonder Years''' cancellation after six seasons.", "\"I just thought this was a joke.", "You know, they bought her off, which really made me mad,\" she said of network executives' decision to settle with Long.", "\"They wanted to avoid a scandal or something, but it made them look guilty.", "You know, you don't pay someone off when there was no crime, you just fire the girl.\"", "A state welfare worker, who was required to be with Fred Savage at all times under California Labor Law, dismissed the allegations, saying \"It's absurd.", "If Fred said anything, 20 people would have heard it — he was miked most of the time.", "\"In March 2018, a costume designer on ''The Grinder'' accused Savage of assault and intimidation and filed a complaint in Los Angeles Superior Court alleging crimes including assault, battery, and gender discrimination.", "Savage denied the allegations.", "Fox later stated that an investigation cleared the actor of any wrongdoing.On May 6, 2022, Savage was fired as executive producer and director of ''The Wonder Years'' reboot after an investigation into alleged inappropriate conduct.", "While Savage stated that some of the claims were untrue, he also stated that he was going to work on changing any perceived negative behavior." ], [ "Personal life", "Savage married his childhood friend Jennifer Lynn Stone on August 7, 2004.They have three children." ], [ "Filmography", "=== Film ===+ List of Fred Savage film credits Year Title Functioned as Notes Actor Director Role 1986 ''The Boy Who Could Fly'' Louis Michaelson Young Artist Award for Best Supporting Young Actor – Motion Picture 1987 ''Dinosaurs!''", "Phillip ''The Princess Bride'' The Grandson Young Artist Award for Best Young Actor – Motion Picture 1988 ''Vice Versa'' Charlie Seymour / Marshall Seymour Saturn Award for Best Young Performer 1989 ''Little Monsters'' Brian Stevenson ''The Wizard'' Corey Woods Nominated–Young Artist Award for Best Young Actor – Motion Picture 1997 ''A Guy Walks Into a Bar'' Josh Cohen Short film 1998 ''Jungle Book: Mowgli's Story'' Himself (Narrator) 2002 ''The Rules of Attraction'' \"A Junkie Named Marc\" ''Austin Powers in Goldmember'' Number Three / Mole 2004 ''The Last Run'' Steven Goodson ''Welcome to Mooseport'' Bullard 2007 ''Daddy Day Camp'' Feature film directorial debutNominated – Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Director 2018 ''Super Troopers 2'' Himself Cameo in post-film scene ''Once Upon a Deadpool'' The Grandson / Himself PG-13 cut of ''Deadpool 2'' === Television ===+ List of Fred Savage television credits Year Title Functioned as Notes Actor Director Producer Role 1986 ''The Twilight Zone'' Jeff Mattingly Episode: \"What Are Friends For?/Aqua Vita\" 1986–1987 ''Morningstar/Eveningstar'' Alan Bishop 7 episodes 1987 ''Convicted: A Mother's Story'' Matthew Nickerson Television film ''Hello Kitty's Furry Tale Theater'' Mowser Episode: \"Phantom of the Theater\" 1988 ''ABC Weekend Special'': ''Runaway Ralph'' Garfield Television film ''Run Till You Fall'' David Reuben Television film 1988–1993 ''The Wonder Years'' Kevin Arnold Lead role; 115 episodesPeople's Choice Award for Favorite TV Performer(1989–90)Viewers for Quality Television Award Award for Best Actor in a Quality Comedy Series(1989–90)Young Artist Award for Best Young Actor in a Television Series(1988–89)Nominated– Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Television Series Musical or Comedy(1989–90)Nominated– Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series(1989–90) 1990 ''When You Remember Me'' Mike Mills Television film ''Saturday Night Live'' Himself Host; episode: \"Fred Savage/Technotronic\" 1991 ''Christmas on Division Street'' Trevor Atwood Television film 1992 ''Seinfeld'' Himself Episode: \"The Trip\" 1996 ''No One Would Tell'' Bobby Tennison Television film ''How Do You Spell God?''", "Himself (Narrator) Television film 1997 ''The Outer Limits'' Danny Martin Episode: \"Last Supper\" 1997–1999 ''Working'' Matt Peyser Lead role; 39 episodes 1998 ''Boy Meets World'' Stuart Episode: \"Everybody Loves Stuart\" 1999–2000 ''Boy Meets World'' 2 episodes 2001 ''All About Us'' 2 episodes 2001–2002 ''Even Stevens'' 2 episodes 2001–2003 ''Oswald'' Oswald Voice, 25 episodes ''Nick Jr.'' Himself (Host) Host from September 3, 2001 – August 29, 2003 2003 ''Law & Order: Special Victims Unit'' Michael Gardner Episode: \"Futility\" 2003–2005 ''That's So Raven'' 2 episodes 2004 ''Justice League Unlimited'' Hank Hall / Hawk Voice, episode: \"Hawk and Dove\" ''Drake & Josh'' 1 episode 2004–2005 ''Unfabulous'' 5 episodes 2004–2006 ''Phil of the Future'' 9 episodesNominated–Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directorial Achievement in a Children's Program(Episode: \"Not So Great Great Great Grandpa\") 2004–2007 ''Kim Possible'' Wego Voice, 2 episodes ''Ned's Declassified School Survival Guide'' 6 episodes 2005 ''Kitchen Confidential'' 1 episode ''Zoey 101'' 2 episodes ''What I Like About You'' 1 episode 2006 ''Crumbs'' Mitch Crumb Lead role; 13 episodes ''Holidaze: The Christmas That Almost Didn't Happen'' Rusty Voice, TV special 2007 ''Cavemen'' 1 episode ''Hannah Montana'' 1 episode 2007–2008 ''Doozers'' 4 episodes ''Wizards of Waverly Place'' 3 episodesNominated– Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directorial Achievement in a Children's Program(Episode \"The Crazy 10 Minute Sale\") 2007–2009 ''It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia'' 19 episodes 2008 ''Ugly Betty'' 1 episode ''Worst Week'' 1 episode 2009 ''Family Guy'' Himself Voice, episode: \"Fox-y Lady\" ''Zeke and Luther'' Pilot episodeNominated– Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directorial Achievement in a Children's Program(Episode \"Pilot\") ''Ruby & the Rockits'' 1 episode 2009–2010 ''Greek'' 2 episodes ''Party Down'' 9 episodes; executive producer 2010 ''Sons of Tucson'' 1 episode ''Big Time Rush'' 2 episodes ''Blue Mountain State'' 2 episodes 2010–2013 ''Generator Rex'' Noah Nixon Voice, 22 episodes 2010–2020 ''Modern Family'' 14 episodes 2011 ''Gigantic'' 2 episodes ''Breaking In'' 1 episode ''Perfect Couples'' 2 episodes ''Franklin & Bash'' 1 episode ''Friends with Benefits'' 1 episode ''Mr.", "Sunshine'' Himself Episode: \"Celebrity Tennis\" ''Happy Endings'' Himself 3 episodes 2011–2012 ''How to Be a Gentleman'' 2 episodes 2011–2016 ''2 Broke Girls'' 20 episodes 2012 ''Whitney'' 1 episode ''Best Friends Forever'' 6 episodes; executive producer 2013 ''The Michael J.", "Fox Show'' 1 episode ''The Crazy Ones'' 2 episodes 2014 ''Super Fun Night'' 1 episode ''Growing Up Fisher'' 1 episode ''Friends with Better Lives'' 4 episodes ''Playing House'' 2 episodes ''Bad Teacher'' 1 episode ''Garfunkel and Oates'' 8 episodes; executive producer 2014 ''Marry Me'' 1 episode 2014–2016 ''BoJack Horseman'' Goober / Richie Osborne Voice, 2 episodes 2014–2019 ''The Goldbergs'' 2 episodes 2015 ''Sin City Saints'' 2 episodes 2015–2016 ''The Grinder'' Stewart Sanderson Lead role; 22 episodesNominated–Critics' Choice Award for Best Actor in a Comedy Series ''Casual'' 3 episodes 2017 ''Fresh Off the Boat'' 1 episode 2017–2019 ''Friends from College'' Max Adler Main cast; 2 seasons 2018 ''Child Support'' Himself Host.", "In 2018, he began to host ''Child Support'' (originally called ''Five to Survive'') with Ricky Gervais.", "''Robot Chicken'' Oswald, Steve, Westworld Investor Voice, episode: \"Scoot to the Gute\" ''Modern Family'' Caleb Episode: \"Dear Beloved Family\" ''LA to Vegas'' Episode: \"Parking Lot B\" ''Bob's Burgers'' Parker Voice, episode: \"Boywatch\" 2018–2019 ''The Cool Kids'' 4 episodes 2018–2021 ''The Conners'' Dr. Harding 7 episodes 2019 ''What Just Happened??!", "with Fred Savage'' Himself Host 2019–2020 ''Single Parents'' 4 episodes 2020 ''Black-ish'' 3 episodes ''Indebted'' 1 episode ''Home Movie: The Princess Bride'' The Grandson Episode: \"Chapter One: As You Wish\" ''Dash & Lily'' 4 episodes 2021–2022 ''The Wonder Years'' 4 episodes 2022 ''The Afterparty'' Vaughn Episode: \"Danner\"" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * World Poker Tour Profile* eFilmCritic Interviews Fred Savage *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Futurians" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Futurians''' were a group of science fiction (SF) fans, many of whom became editors and writers as well.", "The Futurians were based in New York City and were a major force in the development of science fiction writing and science fiction fandom in the years 1937–1945." ], [ "Origins of the group", "As described in Isaac Asimov's 1979 autobiography ''In Memory Yet Green'', the Futurians spun off from the Greater New York Science Fiction Club (headed by Sam Moskowitz, later an influential SF editor and historian) over ideological differences, with the Futurians wishing to take a more overtly Marxist political stance.", "Other sources indicate that Donald A. Wollheim was pushing for a more left-wing direction with a goal of leading fandom toward a political ideal, all of which Moskowitz resisted.", "As a result, Wollheim broke off from the Greater New York group and founded the Futurians in September, 1938.The fans following Moskowitz reorganized into the Queens Science Fiction Club.Donald A. Wollheim, Frederik Pohl and John Michel in 1938 Frederik Pohl, in his autobiography ''The Way the Future Was'', said that the origin of the Futurians lay with the Science Fiction League founded by Hugo Gernsback in 1934, the local New York City chapter of which was called the \"Brooklyn Science Fiction League\" or BSFL, headed by G. G. Clark.Wollheim, John Michel, and Robert A. W. Lowndes were also members of the BSFL.", "Along with Pohl, the four started calling themselves the \"Quadrumvirate\".", "Pohl, commenting about that time, said \"we four marched from Brooklyn to the sea, leaving a wide scar of burned out clubs behind us.", "We changed clubs the way Detroit changes tailfins, every year had a new one, and last year's was junk\".There were several club names during that period, before finally settling on the Futurians.", "In 1935 there was the \"East New York Science Fiction League\" (ENYSFL), later the \"Independent League for Science Fiction\" (ILSF).", "In 1936 came the International Cosmos Science Club (ICSC), which also involved Will Sykora.", "Pohl then says that \"on reflection 'Cosmos' seemed to take in a bit more territory than was justified, so we changed it to the International Scientific Association (it wasn't International either, but then it also wasn't scientific)\".", "The ISA then was renamed New York Branch-International Scientific Association (NYB-ISA).In 1937, after a falling-out with Will Sykora and others, the \"Quadrumvirate\" went on to found the Futurians.", "Sykora then founded the Queens Science Fiction League with Sam Moskowitz and James V. Taurasi.", "Later, the QSFL changed into New Fandom.", "Pohl said the New Fandom and the Futurians were \"Addicted to Feuds\", that \"No CIA nor KGB ever wrestled so valiantly for the soul of an emerging nation as New Fandom and the Futurians did for science fiction\".Most of the group's members also had professional ambitions within science fiction and related fields, and collectively were very effective at achieving this goal, as the roster of members suggests.", "At one point in the earliest 1940s, approximately half of all the pulp SF and fantasy magazines in the U.S. were being edited by Futurians: Frederik Pohl at the Popular Publications offshoot Fictioneers, Inc. (''Astonishing Stories'' and ''Super-Science Stories''); Robert Lowndes at Columbia Publications, most notably with ''Science Fiction'' and ''Future Fiction'' (though through the decade to come, Lowndes's responsibilities would expand to other types of fiction magazine in the chain), and Donald Wollheim at the very marginal Albing Publications with the short-lived, micro-budgeted ''Cosmic Stories'' and ''Stirring Science Stories'' (Wollheim soon moved on to Avon Books; Doë \"Leslie Perri\" Baumgardt also worked on a romance fiction title for Albing).", "Most of these projects had small editorial budgets, and relied in part, or occasionally entirely, on contributions from fellow Futurians for their contents." ], [ "Political tendencies", "At the time the Futurians were formed, Donald Wollheim was strongly attracted by communism and believed that followers of science fiction \"should actively work for the realization of the scientific world-state as the only genuine justification for their activities and existence\".", "It was to this end that Wollheim formed the Futurians, and many of its members were in some degree interested in the political applications of science fiction.", "Members of the Futurians, including Wollheim, Michel, Lowndes, and Cohen briefly became interested in Technocracy, a utopian movement led by Howard Scott, and attended a study course, although they later dismissed Scott as a \"crackpot\".Hence the group included supporters of Trotskyism, like Judith Merril and others who would have been deemed far left for the era (Frederik Pohl became a member of the Communist Party in 1936, but quit in 1939).Pohl, in his autobiography, ''The Way the Future Was'', said Wollheim voted for Republican Presidential Candidate Alfred Landon in 1936." ], [ "Members included", "* Isaac Asimov* Elise Balter (also known as Elsie Wollheim)* James Blish* Hannes Bok* Daniel Burford* Chester Cohen* Rosalind Cohen (later Mrs. Dirk Wylie)* Harry Dockweiler (also known as Dirk Wylie)* Jack Gillespie* Virginia Kidd* Damon Knight* Cyril Kornbluth* Mary Byers (also known as Mary Kornbluth)* Walter Kubilius* David Kyle* Herman Leventman* Robert A. W. Lowndes* Judith Merril* John Michel* Frederik Pohl* Leslie Perri, a pseudonym of Doris \"Doë\" Baumgardt* Jack Rubinson* Larry Shaw* Richard Wilson* Donald A. Wollheim" ], [ "See also", "* 1st World Science Fiction Convention" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* ''In Memory Yet Green'' by Isaac Asimov (1979)* ''The Futurians'' by Damon Knight (1977)* ''The Way The Future Was'' by Frederik Pohl (1978)* ''All Our Yesterdays'' by Harry Warner, Jr. (1969)" ], [ "External links", "* Frederik Pohl profile with several paragraphs on the Futurians* Frederik Pohl blogging on the Futurians* Fancyclopedia II: F (see the entries under FUTURIANS, and FUTURIAN HOUSES)* List of articles about the Futurians and old Fandom by David Kyle* \"Moskowitz, the Futurians and the Great Exclusion Act of 1939\" by David Kyle* \"Caravan to the Stars\" by David Kyle" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "First Fandom" ], [ "Introduction", "'''First Fandom''' is an informal association of early, active and well-known science fiction fans.In 1958 a number of fans at Midwestcon realized amid table-talk that they all had been active in fandom for more than 20 years.", "This inspired the creation of an organization for longstanding fans under the initial chairmanship of Robert A. Madle, who \"in 1958 suggested the idea of forming an organization called First Fandom\".", "Originally only those fans who were known to have been active in fandom before the cutoff date, January 1, 1938, were eligible.", "Such fannish activity (or \"fanac\") including writing to letter columns in science fiction magazines, having been published in fanzines, or having participated in science fiction oriented clubs, or just generally doing fannish things.The term itself is an oblique reference to Olaf Stapledon's classic science fiction epic ''Last and First Men''.", "In this book the stages of mankind are enumerated.", "Thus early 1950s historian of fandom Jack Speer began to label successive generations of fans as First Fandom, Second Fandom, Third Fandom, and so forth... all the way to Seventh Fandom and beyond.Currently the organization allows several classes of membership.", "For example, a ''Dinosaur'' is a member who was active before the first Worldcon (World Science Fiction Convention) held on July 4, 1939, while ''Associate Membership'' requires provable activity in fandom for more than three decades.First Fandom annually presents its First Fandom Hall of Fame award and Sam Moskowitz Archive Award for excellence in science fiction collecting.", "at the beginning of the Hugo Awards Ceremony at the World Science Fiction Convention.There is an analogous informal society in Finnish fandom called the ''Dinosaur Club''; the cutoff being the first major Finnish con Kingcon." ], [ "Awards", "First Fandom recognizes people for their work within the science-fiction community.=== First Fandom Hall of Fame Award ===This award \"is presented annually for contributions to the field of science fiction dating back more than 30 years.", "Contributions can be as a fan, writer, editor, artist, agent, or any combination of the five.\"", "It is usually presented at the Hugo Awards.", "''See full article.", "''=== Posthumous Hall of Fame Award ===This award \"is presented for contributions to the field of science fiction dating back more than 30 years.", "The Posthumous Hall of Fame award was established as a separate and equal award with unique criteria in 1994 at Rivercon XIX\" and is also usually presented at the Hugos.", ";1966:David H. Keller;1971:John W. Campbell, Jr.;1994:Gerry de la Ree;1995:Cyril Kornbluth:Mort Weisinger;1996:Henry Kuttner;1997:Mark Reinsberg;1998:Oswald V. Train:Tom L. Sherred;1999:Lynn Hickman;2000:Theodore R. Cogswell:Mark Schulzinger;2001:Gordon R. Dickson;2002:Martha Beck;2003:Philip Francis Nowlan;2004:Edgar Rice Burroughs;2007:Don H. Dailey;2008:Isaac Asimov;2009:Walter J. Daugherty;2010:Ray Cummings;2011:Oliver Saari;2012:James \"Rusty\" Hevelin;2013:Ted Dikty:Raymond A. Palmer;2014:John 'Ted' Carnell:Walter H. Gillings;2016:Olon F. Wiggin:Lew Martin:Roy V. Hunt;2017:Jim Harmon;2018:June Moffatt:Len Moffatt;2019:Bob Shaw:James White:Walt Willis;2020:Chad Oliver;2021:Richard & Pat Lupoff;2022:August Derleth=== Sam Moskowitz Award Winners ===This award is \"for excellence in science fiction collecting.", "Most years, the award is presented at the World Science Fiction Convention.", "\";1998:Christine Moskowitz;1999:Forrest J Ackerman;2000:Ray Beam;2001:Robert Weinberg;2002:Robert A. Madle;2003:Rusty Hevelin;2008:Bob Peterson:Frank Robinson;2009:Joe Wrzos;2012:Donn Albright;2013:Howard Frank;2014:Mike Ashley;2015:David Aronovitz;2016:Stephen D. Korshak:Ned Brooks;2017:Jon D. Swartz;2018:Hal W. Hall;2019:Dr. Bradford Lyau;2020:John Carter Tibbetts;2021:Kevin L. Cook;2022:Doug Ellis:Deb Fulton" ], [ "References", "1.Bob Madle's American Letter, Nebula Science Fiction 1959." ], [ "External links", "* First Fandom website" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Fianna Fáil" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Fianna Fáil''' (, ; meaning \"Soldiers of Destiny\" or \"Warriors of Fál\"), officially '''Fianna Fáil – The Republican Party''' (), is a conservative and Christian democratic political party registered in both the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland.The party was founded as a republican party on 16 May 1926 by Éamon de Valera and his supporters after they split from Sinn Féin.", "De Valera and his followers were determined to take seats in the Oireachtas while Sinn Féin's policy was to refuse to recognise it.", "Since 1927, Fianna Fáil has been one of Ireland's two major parties, along with Fine Gael since 1933; both are seen as centre-right parties, to the right of the Labour Party and Sinn Féin.", "The party dominated Irish political life for most of the 20th century, and, since its foundation, either it or Fine Gael has led every government.", "Between 1932 and 2011, it was the largest party in Dáil Éireann, but latterly with a decline in its vote share; from 1989 onwards, its periods of government were in coalition with parties of either the left or the right.Fianna Fáil's vote collapsed in the 2011 general election; it emerged in third place, in what was widely seen as a political realignment in the wake of the post-2008 Irish economic downturn.", "By 2016, it had recovered enough to become the largest opposition party, and it entered a confidence and supply arrangement with a Fine Gael–led minority government.", "In 2020, after a number of months of political stalemate following the general election, Fianna Fáil agreed with Fine Gael and the Green Party to enter into an unprecedented coalition, with the leaders of Fianna Fáil and Fine Gael rotating between the roles of Taoiseach and Tánaiste.Fianna Fáil is a member of the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe and of Liberal International.", "From February 2019 to September 2022, Fianna Fáil was in partnership with the Social Democratic and Labour Party in Northern Ireland." ], [ "History", "de Valera, Lemass, Aiken and Boland Logo of Fianna Fáil in the 1970s and 1980sFianna Fáil was founded by Éamon de Valera, a former leader of Sinn Féin.", "The previous year, de Valera proposed a motion calling for elected members to be allowed to take their seats in Dáil Éireann if and when the controversial Oath of Allegiance was removed.", "It failed to pass at the Sinn Féin Ard Fheis, leading de Valera and a number of other members, including most of Sinn Féin's parliamentary talent, to split from Sinn Féin.", "His new party adopted its name on 2 April of the same year.", "While it was also opposed to the Treaty settlement, it rejected abstentionism, instead aiming to republicanise the Irish Free State from within.", "Fianna Fáil's platform of economic autarky had appeal among the farmers, working-class people and the poor, while alienating more affluent classes.", "It largely pre-empted voters of the aforementioned groups from the Labour Party (with its almost identical economic and social policy) following its entry into the Dáil in 1927.Fianna Fáil would go on to style themselves for several decades as \"the real Labour Party.", "\"Cumann na nGaedheal sought to exploit the notion that Fianna Fáil was a party in thrall to communists.", "During the 1932 general election campaign, Cumann na Gaedheal declared in a newspaper advert that \"the gunmen and Communists are voting for Fianna Fáil today – vote for the Government party.\"", "However, Fianna Fáil won the election, forming its first government on 9 March 1932.It was in power for 61 of the 79 years between then and the election of 2011.Its longest continuous period in office was its first, 15 years and 11 months (March 1932 – February 1948).", "Its longest single period out of office in the 20th century was four years and four months (March 1973 – July 1977).", "All of the party's leaders have served as Taoiseach.The party's most dominant era was the 41-year period between 1932 and 1973, when party leaders Éamon de Valera, Seán Lemass and Jack Lynch served as Taoiseach in an almost unbroken chain save for two three-year stints by John A. Costello.", "De Valera's reign is acknowledged for having successfully guided Ireland through World War II unscathed but is criticised for leaving Ireland in economic and cultural stagnation.", "His successors such as Lemass however were able to turn around Ireland's economic fortunes as well as primed the country for entry into the European Economic Community, later the European Union.Charles Haughey led the party from 1979 to 1992 and is posthumously regarded as a controversial figure.Fianna Fáil's fortunes began to falter in the 1970s and 1980s.", "In 1970 the Arms Crisis threatened to split the entire party in two when Fianna Fáil cabinet ministers Charles Haughey and Neil Blaney were dismissed by Jack Lynch after being accused of seeking to provide arms to the newly emergent Provisional Irish Republican Army.", "Factional infighting over Northern Ireland, economics and the \"moral issues\" such as the legalization of divorce, abortion, and contraception plagued the party in this era and grew particularly intense when Charles Haughey later became party leader.", "Under Haughey, Fianna Fáil lost both the 1981 general election and November 1982 general election to Garret FitzGerald's Fine Gael during a particularly chaotic time in Ireland's political and economic history.", "Numerous failed internal attempts to oust Haughey as leader of the party culminated in the most significant split in the party's history when a large portion of the membership walked out to create the Progressive Democrats in 1985, under the leadership of Haughey archrival Desmond O'Malley.", "Haughey was forced to resign as Taoiseach and party leader in 1992 following revelations about his role in a phone tapping scandal.Although the two parties had seemed poised to be bitter enemies owing to the personal conflicts between the memberships, from 1989 onwards Fianna Fáil and the Progressive Democrats served repeatedly in coalition governments together, helping to stabilise Fianna Fáil.", "In 1994 Fianna Fáil came under the new leadership of Haughey protégé Bertie Ahern, who also became Taoiseach in 1997.Under Ahern, Fianna Fáil was able to claim credit for helping to broker the Good Friday Agreement in 1998 which began the peace process in Northern Ireland, as well the economic upswing caused by the Celtic Tiger which saw Ireland's economy boom during the 2000s.", "However, this momentum came to a sharp and sudden halt following two events.", "Firstly, Ahern was forced to resign as Taoiseach and left the party in 2008 following revelations made in the Mahon Tribunal that Ahern had accepted money from property developers.", "Secondly, the party, which was still in government under a new leader and Taoiseach Brian Cowen, was held responsible for the effects of the post-2008 Irish economic downturn.", "The party's popularity crashed: an opinion poll on 27 February 2009 indicated that only 10% of voters were satisfied with the Government's performance.In the 2011 general election, it suffered the worst defeat of a sitting government in the history of the Irish state.", "This loss was described as \"historic\" in its proportions and \"unthinkable\".", "The party sank from being the largest in the Dáil to the third-largest, losing 58 of its 78 seats.", "This broke 79 consecutive years of Fianna Fáil being the largest single party in the Dáil.", "That election took place with Micheál Martin as leader, as Cowen had resigned as party leader in January 2011, although retained his role as Taoiseach until the election.", "Cowen's premiership was sharply criticised in the media, with ''The Sunday Times'' describing Cowen's tenure as Taoiseach as \"a dismal failure\" and in 2011 the ''Irish Independent'' calling Cowen the \"worst Taoiseach in the history of the State.", "\"===Recent history===Martin continued to lead Fianna Fáil past 2011; In the 2016 general election Martin's Fianna Fáil made a moderate recovery while Fine Gael retained control of the government as a minority government, made possible by a confidence and supply agreement with Fianna Fáíl.", "In 2018 the party was divided internally over how the party would handle that year's referendum on the Eighth Amendment, the provision in the Irish constitution which forbade abortion, with a significant portion of both the parliamentary party and the ordinary membership in favour of a No vote.", "Leader Micheál Martin signalled his own desire for a Yes vote, but was unable to bring the party under one stance, and ultimately more than half of Fianna Fáil's TDs campaigned for a No vote.", "On polling day the Yes side won, 66% to 33%.After the 2020 general election, for the first time in history, Fianna Fáil entered into a coalition government with its traditional rival Fine Gael, as well as the Green Party, ending its longest period out of government since its formation.", "Under the agreement, Fianna Fáil leader Micheál Martin served as Taoiseach for the first half of the parliamentary term.", "That same year a number of Fianna Fáil members were involved in the \"Golfgate\" scandal, an event that ultimately led to the resignation of Fianna Fáil deputy leader Dara Calleary.", "In July 2021 Fianna Fáil suffered what a number of sources suggested might have been the single worst result in its history when the party polled extremely poorly in the 2021 Dublin Bay South by-election.", "The result prompted Jim O'Callaghan and Cathal Crowe to question whether Martin should lead the party into its next general election.", "In February 2023, former leader Bertie Ahern rejoined the party, having left in 2012." ], [ "Organisation and structure", "Fianna Fáil uses a structure called a cumann system.", "The basic unit was the ''cumann'' (branch); these were grouped into ''comhairlí ceantair'' (district branches) and a ''comhairle dáil ceantair'' (constituency branch) in every constituency.", "The party claimed that in 2005 they had 50,000 registered names, but only an estimated 10,000–15,000 members were considered active.However, from the early 1990s onward the ''cumann'' structure was weakened.", "Every ''cumann'' was entitled to three votes to selection conventions irrespective of its size; hence, a large number of ''cumainn'' had become in effect \"paper ''cumainn''\", the only use of which was to ensure an aspiring or sitting candidate got enough votes.", "Although this phenomenon was nothing new (the most famous example being Neil Blaney's \"Donegal Mafia\").Since the 2007 election, the party's structure has significantly weakened.", "This was in part exacerbated by significant infighting between candidates in the run-up to the 2011 general election.", "''The Irish Times'' estimated that half of its 3,000 ''cumainn'' were effectively moribund.", "This fraction rose in Dublin with the exception of Dublin West, the former seat of both Brian Lenihan Snr and Brian Lenihan Jnr." ], [ "Ideology and platform", "Cited as being on the centre centre-right of the political spectrum, Fianna Fáil has been variously described as conservative, Christian-democratic, conservative-liberal, and national-conservative.Fianna Fáil poster from the 1948 general electionIn the modern era, Fianna Fáil is seen as a typical catch-all party and has defined itself as such.", "In the 1980s Brian Lenihan Snr declared \"there are no isms or ideologies in my party\", while in the early 2000s Fianna Fáil leader Bertie Ahern affirmed the party's catch-all stance by defining Fianna Fáil as a party that \"looks out for the small ranking guy, the middle-ranking guy and assists the big guy\".", "This contrasts with the more working-class orientation Fianna Fáil had in the early 20th century; In 1926 Seán Lemass described the party as \"a progressive republican party based on the actual conditions of the moment\" while upon winning the 1932 Irish general election, newly elected Fianna Fáil TD Seán Moylan proclaimed that Fianna Fáil's win meant a victory of \"the owners of the donkey and cart over the pony and trap class\".", "The Fianna Fáil party of the 1930s has been described as an economically social democratic one that sought to create an economically independent state (autarky) via protectionist policies, based on its culturally nationalist thinking.During the leadership of Seán Lemass in the 1960s, Fianna Fáil began to utilise some corporatist policies (embracing the concept of 'social partnership'), taking some influence from the Roman Catholic Church.", "It was also during Lemass' time that the party shifted heavily away from autarkic thinking and towards a firm belief in free trade and foreign direct investment in Ireland.In 1967 Jack Lynch described the party as \"left of centre\" while suggesting it was to the left of Fine Gael and Labour.", "However, during the 1969 Irish general election the party ran red scare tactics against Labour after it began using the slogan \"the seventies will be socialist!\".", "As Fine Gael became more and more socially liberal in the 1970s under Garret FitzGerald, the party reacted by embracing social conservatism and populism.", "In the same time period, the emergence of the Troubles and the Arms Crisis of 1971 tested the party's nationalism, but despite these events, Fianna Fáil maintained their moderate culturally nationalist stance.In the 1990s, Fianna Fáil was described as a conservative party but also as a nationalist party.", "It has presented itself as a \"broad church\" and attracted support from across disparate social classes.", "Between 1989 and 2011, it led coalition governments with parties of both the left and the right.", "Fianna Fáil's platform contains a number of enduring commitments: to Irish unity; to the promotion and protection of the Irish language; and to maintaining Ireland's tradition of military neutrality.", "While the party is distinctly more populist, nationalist, and generally more economically interventionist than Fine Gael, the party shares its rival's support of the European Union.", "Although part of the liberal ALDE group in the European Parliament, the party has not supported the group's positions on civil liberties and its liberal nature is disputed, though the party did legalize same-sex civil partnerships in 2010.The party's name and logo incorporates the words 'The Republican Party'.", "According to Fianna Fáil, \"Republican here stands both for the unity of the island and a commitment to the historic principles of European republican philosophy, namely liberty, equality and fraternity\".", "The party's main goal at its beginning was to reunite the North and the South.R.", "Ken Carty wrote of Fianna Fáil and Fine Gael that they were \"heterogeneous in their bases of support, relatively undifferentiated in terms of policy or programme, and remarkably stable in their support levels\".", "Evidence from expert surveys, opinion polls and candidate surveys all fail to identify strong distinctions between the two parties." ], [ "Leadership and president", "The following are the terms of office as party leader and as Taoiseach: Leader Portrait Period Constituency Years as Taoiseach 1926–1959 Clare 1932–1933–1937–1938–1943–1944–1948; 1951–1954; 1957–1959(6th, 7th, and 8th Executive Council of the Irish Free State,1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 6th and 8th Government of Ireland) Seán Lemass 1959–1966 Dublin South-Central 1959–1961–1965–1966(9th, 10th and 11th Government of Ireland) Jack Lynch 1966–1979 Cork Borough Cork City North-West Cork City 1966–1969–1973; 1977–1979(12th, 13th and 15th Government of Ireland) Charles Haughey 1979–1992 Dublin North-East Dublin Artane Dublin North-Central 1979–1981; Feb 1982 – Nov 1982; 1987–1989–1992(16th, 18th, 20th and 21st Government of Ireland) Albert Reynolds 1992–1994 Longford–Roscommon 1992–1992–1994(22nd and 23rd Government of Ireland) Bertie Ahern 1994–2008 Dublin Central 1997–2002–2007–2008(25th, 26th and 27th Government of Ireland) Brian Cowen 2008–2011 Laois–Offaly 2008–2011(28th Government of Ireland) Micheál Martin Cork South-Central 2020–2022 (32nd Government of Ireland)===Deputy leader=== Name Period ConstituencyLeader Joseph Brennan 1973–1977 Donegal–LeitrimJack Lynch George Colley 1977–1982 Dublin CentralJack LynchCharles Haughey Ray MacSharry 1982–1983 Sligo–LeitrimCharles Haughey Brian Lenihan Snr 1983–1990 Dublin West John Wilson 1990–1992 Cavan–Monaghan Bertie Ahern 1992–1994 Dublin CentralAlbert Reynolds Mary O'Rourke 1995–2002 Longford–WestmeathBertie Ahern Brian Cowen 2002–2008 Laois–Offaly Mary Coughlan 2008–2011 Donegal South-WestBrian Cowen Mary Hanafin 2011 Dún LaoghaireMicheál Martin Brian Lenihan Jnr 2011 Dublin West Éamon Ó Cuív 2011–2012 Galway West''Position abolished'' Dara Calleary 2018–2020 MayoMicheál Martin===Seanad leader=== Name Period Panel Eoin Ryan Snr 1977–1982 Industrial and Commercial Panel Mick Lanigan 1982–1990 Industrial and Commercial Panel (1982–89)Nominated member of Seanad Éireann (1989–90) Seán Fallon 1990–1992 Industrial and Commercial Panel G. V. Wright 1992–1997Nominated member of Seanad Éireann Donie Cassidy 1997–2002 Labour Panel Mary O'Rourke 2002–2007 Nominated member of Seanad Éireann Donie Cassidy 2007–2011 Labour Panel Darragh O'Brien 2011–2016 Labour Panel Catherine Ardagh 2016–2020 Industrial and Commercial Panel Lisa Chambers 2020–present Cultural and Educational Panel" ], [ "Electoral results", "===Dáil Éireann=== Election Leader 1st prefvotes % Seats ± Government Jun 1927 Éamon de Valera 299,486 26.2 (#2) 44 Sep 1927 411,777 35.2 (#2) 13 1932 566,498 44.5 (#1) 15 1933 689,054 49.7 (#1) 5 1937 599,040 45.2 (#1) 8 1938 667,996 51.9 (#1) 8 1943 557,525 41.9 (#1) 10 1944 595,259 48.9 (#1) 9 1948 553,914 41.9 (#1) 8 1951 616,212 46.3 (#1) 1 1954 578,960 43.4 (#1) 4 1957 592,994 48.3 (#1) 13 1961 Seán Lemass 512,073 43.8 (#1) 8 1965 597,414 47.7 (#1) 2 1969 Jack Lynch 602,234 45.7 (#1) 3 1973 624,528 46.2 (#1) 6 1977 811,615 50.6 (#1) 15 1981 Charles Haughey 777,616 45.3 (#1) 6 Feb 1982 786,951 47.3 (#1) 3 Nov 1982 763,313 45.2 (#1) 6 1987 784,547 44.1 (#1) 6 1989 731,472 44.1 (#1) 4 1992 Albert Reynolds 674,650 39.1 (#1) 9 1997 Bertie Ahern 703,682 39.3 (#1) 9 2002 770,748 41.5 (#1) 4 2007 858,565 41.6 (#1) 4 2011 Micheál Martin 387,358 17.5 (#3) 57 2016 519,356 24.3 (#2) 23 2020 484,315 22.2 (#1) 6 === Presidential elections === Election Candidate 1st pref.votes % +/– Position 1938 Supported Douglas Hyde as an independent 1945 '''Seán T. O'Kelly''' '''537,965''' '''49.5%''' — 1 1952 Supported Seán T. O'Kelly as an independent 1959 '''Éamon de Valera''' '''538,003''' '''56.3%''' — 1 1966 '''558,861''' '''50.5%''' 5.8 1 1973 '''Erskine H. Childers''' '''635,867''' '''52%''' 1.5 1 1974 '''Cearbhall Ó Dálaigh''' Unopposed N/A N/A 1 1976 '''Patrick Hillery''' Unopposed N/A N/A 1 1983 Supported Patrick Hillery as an independent 1990 Brian Lenihan 694,484 44.1% — 2 1997 '''Mary McAleese''' '''574,424''' '''45.2%''' 1.1 1 2004 Supported Mary McAleese as an independent 2018 Supported Michael D. Higgins as an independent===European Parliament=== Election 1st prefVotes % Seats +/– EP group 1979 464,451 34.7 (#1) EPD 1984 438,946 39.2 (#1) 3 EDA 1989 514,537 31.5 (#1) 2 EDA 1994 398,066 35.0 (#1) 1 EDA(after 1995: UFE) 1999 537,757 38.6 (#1) 1 UEN 2004 524,504 29.5 (#2) 2 UEN 2009 440,562 24.1 (#2) 1 ALDE 2014 369,545 22.3 (#1) 2 ALDE 2019 277,705\t 16.6 (#2) 1 Renew" ], [ "Front bench" ], [ "Ógra Fianna Fáil", "Ógra Fianna Fáil serves as the party's official youth wing." ], [ "Fianna Fáil and Northern Ireland politics", "On 17 September 2007, Fianna Fáil announced that the party would for the first time organise in Northern Ireland.", "The then Foreign Minister Dermot Ahern was asked to chair a committee on the matter: \"In the period ahead Dermot Ahern will lead efforts to develop that strategy for carrying through this policy, examining timescales and structures.", "We will act gradually and strategically.", "We are under no illusions.", "It will not be easy.", "It will challenge us all.", "But I am confident we will succeed\".The party embarked on its first ever recruitment drive north of the border in September 2007 in northern universities, and established two 'Political Societies', the William Drennan Cumann in Queens University, Belfast, and the Watty Graham Cumann in UU Magee, Derry, which subsequently became official units of Fianna Fáil's youth wing, attaining full membership and voting rights, and attained official voting delegates at the 2012 Ard Fheis.", "On 23 February 2008, it was announced that a former Ulster Unionist Party (UUP) councillor, Colonel Harvey Bicker, had joined Fianna Fáil.Bertie Ahern announced on 7 December 2007 that Fianna Fáil had been registered in Northern Ireland by the UK Electoral Commission.The party's Ard Fheis in 2009 unanimously passed a motion to organise in Northern Ireland by establishing forums, rather than cumainn, in each of its six counties.", "In December 2009, Fianna Fáil secured its first Northern Ireland Assembly MLA when Gerry McHugh, an independent MLA, announced he had joined the party.", "Mr. McHugh confirmed that although he had joined the party, he would continue to sit as an independent MLA.", "In June 2010, Fianna Fáil opened its first official office in Northern Ireland, in Crossmaglen, County Armagh.", "The then Taoiseach Brian Cowen officially opened the office, accompanied by Ministers Éamon Ó Cuív and Dermot Ahern and Deputies Rory O’Hanlon and Margaret Conlon.", "Discussing the party's slow development towards all-Ireland politics, Mr. Cowen observed: \"We have a very open and pragmatic approach.", "We are a constitutional republican party and we make no secret of the aspirations on which this party was founded.", "It has always been very clear in our mind what it is we are seeking to achieve, that is to reconcile this country and not being prisoners of our past history.", "To be part of a generation that will build a new Ireland, an Ireland of which we can all be proud\".Fianna Fáil has not contested any elections in Northern Ireland since its registration and recognition there in 2007.At the party's 2014 Ard Fheis, a motion was passed without debate to stand candidates for election north of the border for the first time in 2019.Since 24 January 2019, the party have been in partnership with the Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP) formerly the main Irish nationalist party in Northern Ireland, but now smaller than Sinn Féin.", "There had long been speculation about the eventual partnership for several years prior.", "This was initially met with a negative reaction from Seamus Mallon, former Deputy Leader of the SDLP, who stated he would be opposed to any such merger.", "Former leader of the SDLP Margaret Ritchie originally stated publicly that she opposed any merger, announcing to the Labour Party Conference that such a merger would not happen on her \"watch\".", "On 10 January 2019, Richie stated that she now supported a new partnership with Fianna Fáil.Both Fianna Fáil and the SDLP currently have shared policies on key areas including addressing the current political situation in Northern Ireland, improving public services in both jurisdictions of Ireland, such as healthcare, housing, education, and governmental reform, and bringing about the further unity and cooperation of the people on the island and arrangements for a future poll on Irish reunification.In September 2022, SDLP party leader Colum Eastwood announced the end of its partnership with Fianna Fáil, saying that the SDLP needed to move forward by \"standing on its own two feet\"." ], [ "Representation in European institutions", "Fianna Fáil joined the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe (ALDE) party on 16 April 2009, and the party's Members of the European Parliament (MEPs) sat in the ALDE Group during the 7th European Parliament term from June 2009 to 1 July 2014.The party is a full member of the Liberal International.", "Prior to this, the party was part of the Eurosceptic Union for Europe of the Nations parliamentary group between 1999 and 2009.Party headquarters, over the objections of some MEPs, had made several attempts to sever the party's links to the European right, including an aborted 2004 agreement to join the European Liberal Democrat and Reform (ELDR) Party, with whom it already sat in the Council of Europe under the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe (ALDE) banner.", "On 27 February 2009, Taoiseach Brian Cowen announced that Fianna Fáil proposed to join the ELDR Party and intended to sit with them in the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe (ALDE) Group in the European Parliament after the 2009 European elections.In October 2009, it was reported that Fianna Fáil had irritated its new Liberal colleagues by failing to vote for the motion on press freedom in Italy (resulting in its defeat by a majority of one in the Parliament) and by trying to scupper their party colleagues' initiative for gay rights.", "In January 2010, a report by academic experts writing for the votewatch.eu site found that FF \"do not seem to toe the political line\" of the ALDE Group \"when it comes to budget and civil liberties\" issues.In the 2014 European elections, Fianna Fáil received 22.3% of first-preference votes but only returned a single MEP, a reduction in representation of two MEPs from the previous term.", "This was due to a combination of the party's vote further dropping in Dublin and a two candidate strategy in the Midlands North West constituency, which backfired, resulting in sitting MEP Pat \"the Cope\" Gallagher losing his seat.", "On 23 June 2014, returning MEP Brian Crowley announced that he intended to sit with the European Conservatives and Reformists (ECR) rather than the ALDE group during the upcoming 8th term of the European parliament.", "The following day on 24 June 2014 Crowley had the Fianna Fáil party whip withdrawn.", "He has since been re-added to Fianna Fáil's website.In the European Committee of the Regions, Fianna Fáil sits in the Renew Europe CoR group, with two full and two alternate members for the 2020–2025 mandate.", "Kate Feeney is third vice-president of the Group." ], [ "See also", "Fianna Fáil politiciansList of political parties in Northern IrelandList of political parties in the Republic of Ireland" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "Joe Ambrose (2006) ''Dan Breen and the IRA'', Douglas Village, Cork : Mercier Press, 223 p., Bruce Arnold (2001) ''Jack Lynch: Hero in Crisis'', Dublin : Merlin, 250p.", "Tim Pat Coogan (1993) ''De Valera : long fellow, long shadow'', London : Hutchinson, 772 p., Joe Joyce and Peter Murtagh (1983) ''The Boss: Charles J. Haughey in government'', Swords, Dublin : Poolbeg Press, 400 p., Stephen Kelly (2013),''Fianna Fáil, Partition and Northern Ireland'', Kildare : Irish Academic Press * Stephen Kelly (2016), ''A failed political entity': Charles J. Haughey and the Northern Ireland question, 1945–1992'', Kildare: Merrion Press F.S.L.", "Lyons (1985) ''Ireland Since the Famine'', 2nd rev.", "ed., London : FontanaPress, 800 p., Dorothy McCardle (1968) ''The Irish Republic.", "A documented chronicle of the Anglo-Irish conflict and the partitioning of Ireland, with a detailed account of the period 1916–1923, etc.", "'', 989 p., Donnacha Ó Beacháin (2010) ''Destiny of the Soldiers: Fianna Fáil, Irish Republicanism and the IRA, 1926–1973'', Gill and Macmillan, 540 p., T. Ryle Dwyer (2001) ''Nice fellow : a biography of Jack Lynch'', Cork : Mercier Press, 416 p., T. Ryle Dwyer (1999) ''Short fellow : a biography of Charles J. Haughey'', Dublin : Marino, 477 p., T. Ryle Dwyer, (1997) ''Fallen Idol : Haughey's controversial career'', Cork : Mercier Press, 191 p., * Raymond Smith (1986) ''Haughey and O'Malley : The quest for power'', Dublin : Aherlow, 295 p., Tim Ryan (1994) ''Albert Reynolds : the Longford leader : the unauthorised biography'', Dublin : Blackwater Press, 226 p., Dick Walsh (1986) ''The Party: Inside Fianna Fáil'', Dublin : Gill & Macmillan, 161 p.," ], [ "External links", "** 'Report of the Tribunal of Inquiry into the Beef Processing Industry'* Report of the McCracken Tribunal* Final report of the Mahon Tribunal" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Fujiwara clan" ], [ "Introduction", " The was a powerful family of imperial regents in Japan, descending from the Nakatomi clan and, as legend held, through them their ancestral god Ame-no-Koyane.", "The Fujiwara prospered since the ancient times and dominated the imperial court until the Meiji Restoration in 1868.They held the title of Ason.", "The abbreviated form is .The 8th century clan history ''Tōshi Kaden'' (藤氏家伝) states the following at the biography of the clan's patriarch, Fujiwara no Kamatari (614–669): \"Kamatari, the Inner Palace Minister who was also called ‘Chūrō'',''’ was a man of the Takechi district of Yamato Province.", "His forebears descended from Ame no Koyane no Mikoto; for generations they had administered the rites for Heaven and Earth, harmonizing the space between men and the gods.", "Therefore, it was ordered their clan was to be called Ōnakatomi\"The clan originated when the founder, Nakatomi no Kamatari (614–669) of the Nakatomi clan, was rewarded by Emperor Tenji with the honorific \"Fujiwara\", which evolved as a surname for Kamatari and his descendants.", "In time, Fujiwara became known as a clan name.The Fujiwara dominated the Japanese politics of the Heian period (794–1185) through the monopoly of regent positions, ''Sesshō'' and ''Kampaku''.", "The family's primary strategy for central influence was through the marrying of Fujiwara daughters to the Emperors.", "Through this, the Fujiwara would gain influence over the next emperor who would, according to family tradition of that time, be raised in the household of his mother's side and owe loyalty to his grandfather.", "As abdicated emperors took over power by exercising ''insei'' (, cloistered rule) at the end of the 11th century, then followed by the rise of the warrior class, the Fujiwara gradually lost its control over mainstream politics.The Northern Fujiwara (Ōshū Fujiwara) ruled the Tōhoku region (northeast Honshū) of Japan during the 12th century.Beyond the 12th century, they continued to monopolize the titles of ''Sesshō'' and ''Kampaku'' for much of the time until the system was abolished in the Meiji era.", "Though their influence declined, the clan remained close advisors to the succeeding Emperors." ], [ "Asuka/Nara period", "The Fujiwara clan's political influence was initiated during the Asuka period.", "Nakatomi no Kamatari, a member of the lower-nobility Nakatomi family led a coup against the Soga in 645 and initiated a series of sweeping government reforms that would be known as the Taika Reform.", "In 668 Emperor Tenji (reigned 668–671), bestowed the ''kabane'' on Kamatari.", "The surname passed to the descendants of Fujiwara no Fuhito (659–720), the second son and heir of Kamatari, who was prominent at the court of several emperors and empresses during the early Nara period.", "He made his daughter Miyako a concubine of Emperor Monmu.", "Her son, Prince Obito became Emperor Shōmu.", "Fuhito succeeded in making another of his daughters, Kōmyōshi, the empress consort of Emperor Shōmu.", "She was the first empress consort of Japan who was not a daughter of the imperial family itself.", "Fuhito had four sons; and each of them became the progenitor of a cadet branch of the clan: * the Hokke or Northern branch founded by Fujiwara no Fusasaki* the Kyōke branch founded by Fujiwara no Maro* the Nanke or Southern branch founded by Fujiwara no Muchimaro* the Shikike branch founded by Fujiwara no UmakaiAmong them, the Hokke came to be considered as the leaders of the entire clan.", "All four brothers died in 737 during a major smallpox epidemic in Japan." ], [ "Heian period", "During the Heian period of Japanese history, the Hokke managed to establish a hereditary claim to the position of regent, either for an underage emperor (''sesshō'') or for an adult one (''kampaku'').", "Some prominent Fujiwaras occupied these positions more than once, and for more than one emperor.", "Lesser members of the Fujiwara were court nobles, provincial governors and vice governors, members of the provincial aristocracy, and samurai.", "The Fujiwara was one of the four great families that dominated Japanese politics during the Heian Period (794–1185), and the most important of them at that time.", "The others were the Tachibana, the Taira and the Minamoto.", "The Fujiwara exercised tremendous power, especially during the period of regency governments in the 10th and 11th centuries, having many emperors as practically puppet monarchs.The Fujiwara dominated the government of Japan 794–1160.There is no clear starting point of their dominance.", "However, their domination of civil administration was lost by the establishment of the first shogunate (i.e., Kamakura shogunate) under Minamoto no Yoritomo in 1192.Fujiwara princes initially served as highest ministers of the imperial Court (''kampaku'') and regents (''sesshō'') for underage monarchs.", "The Fujiwara were the proverbial \"power behind the throne\" for centuries.", "Apparently they never aspired to supplant the imperial dynasty.", "Instead, the clan's influence stemmed from its matrimonial alliances with the imperial family.", "Because consorts of crown princes, younger sons, and emperors were generally Fujiwara women, the male heads of the Fujiwara house were often the father-in-law, brother-in-law, uncle, or maternal grandfather of the emperor.", "The family reached the peak of its power under Fujiwara no Michinaga (966–1027).", "He was the grandfather of three emperors, the father of six empresses or imperial consorts, and the grandfather of seven additional imperial consorts; it is no exaggeration to say that it was Michinaga who ruled Japan during this period, not the titular Emperors.", "As a result of these unusually strong familial links, Michinaga never took the title of Kampaku—he held more than the power that the position would bring, and had no need of the title.The Fujiwara clan is featured prominently in ''The Pillow Book'', by Sei Shōnagon, and the character of Genji is partially based on Michinaga in the eponymous ''Tale of Genji''.=== Fujiwara regime in the Heian period ===The Fujiwara Regency was the main feature of government during most of the Heian era.", "Kyoto (Heian-kyō) was geopolitically a better seat of government; with good river access to the sea, it could be reached by land routes from the eastern provinces.Just before the move to the Heian-kyō, the Emperor had abolished universal conscription in the eighth century and soon local, private militaries came into being.", "The Fujiwara and the clans of Taira and Minamoto created later during the ninth century were among the most prominent families supported by the new military class.In the ninth and tenth centuries, much authority was lost to the great families, who disregarded the Chinese-style land and tax systems imposed by the government in Kyoto.", "Stability came to Heian Japan, but, even though succession was ensured for the Imperial family through heredity, power again concentrated in the hands of one noble family, the Fujiwara.Family administrations now became public institutions.", "As the most powerful family, the Fujiwara governed Japan and determined the general affairs of state, such as succession to the throne.", "Family and state affairs were thoroughly intermixed, a pattern followed among other families, monasteries, and even the imperial family.As the Soga had taken control of the throne in the sixth century, the Fujiwara by the ninth century had intermarried with the imperial family, and one of their members was the first head of the Emperor's Private Office.", "While the earliest parts of the Heian period was marked by unusually strong emperors governing themselves (in particular from Emperor Kanmu to Emperor Saga (781–823)), the Fujiwara started to rebuild their influence first under Fujiwara no Fuyutsugu in the first half of the ninth century.", "Fuyutsugu's son Fujiwara no Yoshifusa was the first person not from the imperial family to become regent for a minor emperor when he gained that position when his grandson was enthroned as Emperor Seiwa in 858.His adopted son, Fujiwara no Mototsune, had himself further appointed ''kampaku'' (regent for an adult emperor, a newly invented position).", "After Mototsune's death Emperor Uda (who was not the son of a Fujiwara daughter) managed to regain control of much of government.", "However, after abdicating in favour of his son, Emperor Daigo (897–930), while apparently intending to control government from retirement, Mototsune's son Fujiwara no Tokihira managed to maneuver himself back to very prominent position until his early death in 909.The remaining period of Daigo's reign was again relatively free from Fujiwara dominance, but from the beginning of the reign of his son Emperor Suzaku, the Fujiwara again re-established their dominance of the court with the leadership of Fujiwara no Tadahira.Nevertheless, the Fujiwara were not demoted by Emperor Daigo but in many ways became stronger during his reign.", "Central control of Japan had continued to decline, and the Fujiwara, along with other great families and religious foundations, acquired ever larger ''shōen'' and greater wealth during the early tenth century.", "By the early Heian period, the ''shōen'' had obtained legal status, and the large religious establishments sought clear titles in perpetuity, waiver of taxes, and immunity from government inspection of the ''shōen'' they held.", "Those people who worked the land found it advantageous to transfer title to shōen holders in return for a share of the harvest.", "People and lands were increasingly beyond central control and taxation, a de facto return to conditions before the Taika Reform.Fujiwara no Michinaga (966–1028)Within decades of Emperor Daigo's death, the Fujiwara had absolute control over the court.", "By the year 1000, Fujiwara no Michinaga was able to enthrone and dethrone emperors at will.", "Little authority was left for traditional officialdom, and government affairs were handled through the Fujiwara family's private administration.", "The Fujiwara had become what historian George B. Sansom has called \"hereditary dictators\".The Fujiwara presided over a period of cultural and artistic flowering at the imperial court and among the aristocracy.", "There was great interest in graceful poetry and vernacular literature.", "Japanese writing had long depended on Chinese ideograms (''kanji''), but these were now supplemented by ''kana'', two types of phonetic Japanese script: ''katakana'', a mnemonic device using parts of Chinese ideograms; and ''hiragana'', a cursive form of ''kanji'' writing and an art form in itself.", "''Hiragana'' gave written expression to the spoken word and, with it, to the rise in Japan's famous vernacular literature, much of it written by court women who had not been trained in Chinese as had their male counterparts.", "Three late tenth century and early eleventh century women presented their views of life and romance at the Heian court in ''Kagerō Nikki'' (\"The Gossamer Years\") by \"the mother of Michitsuna\", ''Makura no Sōshi'' (''The Pillow Book'') by Sei Shōnagon, and ''Genji Monogatari'' (''Tale of Genji'') by Murasaki Shikibu (herself a Fujiwara).", "Indigenous art also flourished under the Fujiwara after centuries of imitating Chinese forms.", "Vividly colored ''yamato-e'' (Japanese style) paintings of court life and stories about temples and shrines became common in the mid and late Heian periods, setting patterns for Japanese art to this day.Decline in food production, growth of the population, and competition for resources among the great families all led to the gradual decline of Fujiwara power and gave rise to military disturbances in the mid-tenth and eleventh centuries.", "Members of the Fujiwara, Taira, and Minamoto families—all of whom had descended from the imperial family—attacked one another, claimed control over vast tracts of conquered land, set up rival regimes, and generally broke the peace of Japan.The Fujiwara controlled the throne until the reign of Emperor Go-Sanjō (1068–73), the first emperor not born of a Fujiwara mother since the ninth century.", "Emperor Go-Sanjō, determined to restore imperial control through strong personal rule, implemented reforms to curb Fujiwara influence.", "He also established an office to compile and validate estate records with the aim of reasserting central control.", "Many ''shōen'' were not properly certified, and large landholders, like the Fujiwara, felt threatened with the loss of their lands.", "Emperor Go-Sanjō also established the ''In no chō'', or Office of the Cloistered Emperor, which was held by a succession of emperors who abdicated to devote themselves to behind-the-scenes governance, or ''insei'' (Cloistered rule).The ''In no chō'' filled the void left by the decline of Fujiwara power.", "Rather than being banished, the Fujiwara were mostly retained in their old positions of civil dictator and minister of the center while being bypassed in decision making.", "In time, many of the Fujiwara were replaced, mostly by members of the rising Minamoto family.", "While the Fujiwara fell into disputes among themselves and formed northern and southern factions, the insei system allowed the paternal line of the imperial family to gain influence over the throne.", "The period from 1086 to 1156 was the age of supremacy of the ''In no chō'' and of the rise of the military class throughout the country.", "Military might rather than civil authority dominated the government.A struggle for succession in the mid-twelfth century gave the Fujiwara an opportunity to regain their former power.", "Fujiwara no Yorinaga sided with the retired emperor in a violent battle in 1158 against the heir apparent, who was supported by the Taira and Minamoto.", "In the end, the Fujiwara were destroyed, the old system of government supplanted, and the ''insei'' system left powerless as bushi took control of court affairs, marking a turning point in Japanese history.", "Within a year, the Taira and Minamoto clashed, and a twenty-year period of Taira ascendancy began.", "The Taira were seduced by court life and ignored problems in the provinces.", "Finally, Minamoto no Yoritomo (1147–99) rose from his headquarters at Kamakura (in the Kantō region, southwest of modern Tokyo) to defeat the Taira, and with them the child emperor Emperor Antoku they controlled, in the Genpei War (1180–85).After this downfall, the younger branches of the Fujiwara clan turned their focus from politics to the arts, producing literary scholars including Fujiwara no Shunzei and Fujiwara no Teika.=== Decline ===Only forty years after Michinaga's death, his Fujiwara heirs were not able to prevent the accession of Emperor Go-Sanjō (reigned 1068–73), the first emperor since Emperor Uda whose mother was not a Fujiwara.", "The system of government by retired emperor (''daijō tennō'') (cloistered rule) beginning from 1087 further weakened the Fujiwara's control over the Imperial Court.The Fujiwara-dominated Heian period approached its end along disturbances of 12th century.", "The dynastic struggle known as the Hōgen Disturbance (''Hōgen no Ran'') led to the Taira emerging as the most powerful clan in 1156.During the Heiji Disturbance (''Heiji no Ran'') in 1160 the Taira defeated the coalition of Fujiwara and Minamoto forces.", "This defeat marked the end of the Fujiwara's dominance." ], [ "Split and enduring influence", "During the 13th century, the Fujiwara Hokke was split into five regent houses: Konoe, Takatsukasa, Kujō, Nijō and Ichijō.They had a \"monopoly\" to the offices of ''sesshō'' and ''kampaku'', and served in turn.", "The political power had shifted away from the court nobility in Kyoto to the new warrior class in the countryside.", "However, Fujiwara remained close advisers, regents and ministers to the emperors for centuries; the family retained political reputation and influence even until the 20th century (such as Fumimaro Konoe and Morihiro Hosokawa, who became the Prime Ministers).", "As such, they had a certain political power and much influence, as often the rival warriors and later bakufu sought their alliance.", "Oda Nobunaga and his sister Oichi claimed to have descent from the Taira and Fujiwara clans; regent Toyotomi Hideyoshi and shogun Tokugawa Ieyasu were related by marriage to various families from Fujiwara clan.", "Empress Shōken, wife of Emperor Meiji, was a descendant of the Fujiwara clan.Until the marriage of the Crown Prince Hirohito (Emperor Shōwa) to Princess Nagako of Kuni (posthumously Empress Kōjun) in January 1924, the principal consorts of emperors and crown princes had often been recruited from one of the Sekke Fujiwara.", "Imperial princesses were often married to Fujiwara lords – throughout a millennium at least.", "As recently as Emperor Shōwa's third daughter, the former Princess Kazuko and Prince Mikasa's elder daughter, the former Princess Yasuko, married into Takatsukasa and Konoe families, respectively.", "Likewise a daughter of the last ''shōgun'' married a second cousin of Emperor Shōwa." ], [ "Family tree" ], [ "See also", "* Cloistered rule* History of Japan* Lists of incumbents* Minamoto * ''Sesshō''* ''Shōgun''* Tachibana * Taira * Tōshi Kaden, an early bibliographic clan record" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Bauer, Mikael.", "''The History of the Fujiwara House''.", "Kent, UK: Renaissance Books, 2020.;Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric and Käthe Roth.", "(2005).", "''Japan Encyclopedia.''", "Cambridge: Harvard University Press.", "; Plutschow, Herbert E. (1995).", "''Japan's Name Culture: The Significance of Names in a Religious, Political and Social Context.''", "London: Routledge.", ";" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Federalism" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Federalism''' is a mode of government that combines a general government (the central or \"federal\" government) with regional governments (provincial, state, cantonal, territorial, or other sub-unit governments) in a single political system, dividing the powers between the two.", "Johannes Althusius is considered the father of modern federalism along with Montesquieu.", "He notably exposed the bases of this political philosophy in ''Politica Methodice Digesta, Atque Exemplis Sacris et Profanis Illustrata (1603)''.", "Montesquieu sees in the Spirit of Laws, examples of federalist republics in corporate societies, the ''polis'' bringing together villages, and the cities themselves forming confederations.", "Federalism in the modern era was first adopted in the unions of states during the Old Swiss Confederacy.Federalism differs from confederalism, in which the general level of government is subordinate to the regional level, and from devolution within a unitary state, in which the regional level of government is subordinate to the general level.", "It represents the central form in the pathway of regional integration or separation, bounded on the less integrated side by confederalism and on the more integrated side by devolution within a unitary state.Examples of a federation or federal province or state include Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Brazil, Canada, Germany, India, Iraq, Malaysia, Mexico, Micronesia, Nepal, Nigeria, Pakistan, Russia, Switzerland, the United Arab Emirates, and the United States.", "Some characterize the European Union as the pioneering example of federalism in a multi-state setting, in a concept termed the \"federal union of states\".This author identifies two distinct federal forms, where before only one was known, based upon whether sovereignty (conceived in its core meaning of ultimate authority) resides in the whole (in one people) or in the parts (in many peoples).", "This is determined by the absence or presence of a unilateral right of secession for the parts.", "The structures are termed, respectively, the federal state (or federation) and the federal union of states (or federal union)." ], [ "Overview", "The pathway of regional integration or separation===Etymology===The terms \"federalism\" and \"confederalism\" share a root in the Latin word ''foedus'', meaning \"treaty, pact or covenant\".", "Their common early meaning until the late eighteenth century was a simple league or inter-governmental relationship among sovereign states based on a treaty.", "They were therefore initially synonyms.", "It was in this sense that James Madison in ''Federalist No.39'' had referred to the new US Constitution as \"neither a national nor a federal Constitution, but a composition of both\" (i.e.", "as constituting neither a single large unitary state nor a league/confederation among several small states, but a hybrid of the two).", "In the course of the nineteenth century United States, the meaning of federalism would come to shift, strengthening to refer uniquely to the novel compound political form established at the Philadelphia Convention, while the meaning of confederalism would remain at a league of states.===History===In the narrow sense, federalism refers to the mode in which the body politic of a state is organized internally, and this is the meaning most often used in modern times.", "Political scientists, however, use it in a much broader sense, referring instead to a \"multi-layer or pluralistic concept of social and political life.", "\"The first forms of federalism took place in ancient times, in the form of alliances between states.", "Some examples from the seventh to second century B.C.", "were the Archaic League, the Aetolic League, the Peloponnesian League, and the Delian League.", "An early ancestor of federalism was the Achaean League in Hellenistic Greece.", "Unlike the Greek city states of Classical Greece, each of which insisted on keeping its complete independence, changing conditions in the Hellenistic period drove many city states to band together even at the cost of losing part of their sovereignty.", "Subsequent unions of states included the first and second Swiss Confederations (1291–1798 and 1815–48), the United Provinces of the Netherlands (1579–1795), the German Bund (1815–66), the first American union known as the Confederation of the United States of America (1781–89), and second American union formed as the United States of America (1789–1865).===Political theory===Modern federalism is a political system based upon democratic rules and institutions in which the power to govern is shared between national and provincial/state governments.", "The term ''federalist'' describes several political beliefs around the world depending on context.", "Since the term ''federalization'' also describes distinctive political processes, its use as well depends on the context.In political theory, two main types of federalization are recognized:* integrative, or aggregative federalization, designating various processes like: integration of non-federated political subjects by creating a new federation, accession of non-federated subjects into an existing federation, or transformation of a confederation into a federation* devolutive, or dis-aggregative federalization: transformation of a unitary state into a federation===Reasons for adoption===According to Daniel Ziblatt, there are four competing theoretical explanations in the academic literature for the adoption of federal systems:# Ideational theories, which hold that a greater ideological commitment to decentralist ideas in society makes federalism more likely to be adopted.# Cultural-historical theories, which hold that federal institutions are more likely to be adopted in societies with culturally or ethnically fragmented populations.# \"Social contract\" theories, which hold that federalism emerges as a bargain between a center and a periphery where the center is not powerful enough to dominate the periphery and the periphery is not powerful enough to secede from the center.# \"Infrastructural power\" theories, which hold that federalism is likely to emerge when the subunits of a potential federation already have highly developed infrastructures (e.g.", "they are already constitutional, parliamentary, and administratively modernized states).Immanuel Kant noted that \"the problem of setting up a state can be solved even by a nation of devils\" so long as they possess an appropriate constitution which pits opposing factions against each other with a system of checks and balances.", "In particular individual states required a federation as a safeguard against the possibility of war.Proponents for federal systems have historically argued that the power-sharing inherent in federal systems reduces both domestic security threats and foreign threats.", "Federalism allows states to be large and diverse, mitigating the risk of a tyrannical government through centralization of powers." ], [ "Examples", "Many countries have implemented federal systems of government with varying degree of central and regional sovereignty.", "The federal government of these countries can be divided into minimalistic federations, consisting of only two sub-federal units or multi-regional, those that consist of three to dozens of regional governments.", "They can also be grouped based on their body polity type, such as emirate, provincial, republican or state federal systems.", "Another way to study federated countries is by categorizing them into those whose entire territory is federated as opposed to only part of its territory comprising the federal portion of the country.", "Some federal systems are national systems while others, like the European Union are supra national.In general, two extremes of federalism can be distinguished: at one extreme, the strong federal state is almost completely unitary, with few powers reserved for local governments; while at the other extreme, the national government may be a federal state in name only, being a confederation in actuality.", "Federalism may encompass as few as two or three internal divisions, as is the case in Belgium or Bosnia and Herzegovina.The governments of Argentina, Australia, Brazil, India, and Mexico, among others, are also organized along federalist principles.In Canada, federalism typically implies opposition to sovereigntist movements (most commonly Quebec separatism).", "In 1999, the Government of Canada established the Forum of Federations as an international network for exchange of best practices among federal and federalizing countries.", "Headquartered in Ottawa, the Forum of Federations partner governments include Australia, Brazil, Ethiopia, Germany, India, Mexico, Nigeria, Pakistan and Switzerland." ], [ "Europe vs. the United States", "In Europe, \"federalist\" is sometimes used to describe those who favor a common federal government, with distributed power at regional, national and supranational levels.", "The Union of European Federalists advocates for this development within the European Union, ultimately leading to the United States of Europe.", "Although there are medieval and early modern examples of European states which used confederal and federal systems, contemporary European federalism originated in post-war Europe; one of the more important initiatives was Winston Churchill's speech in Zürich in 1946.In the United States, federalism originally referred to belief in a stronger central government.", "When the U.S. Constitution was being drafted, the Federalist Party supported a stronger central government, while \"Anti-Federalists\" wanted a weaker central government.", "This is very different from the modern usage of \"federalism\" in Europe and the United States.", "The distinction stems from the fact that \"federalism\" is situated in the middle of the political spectrum between a confederacy and a unitary state.", "The U.S. Constitution was written as a replacement for the Articles of Confederation, under which the United States was a loose confederation with a weak central government.In contrast, Europe has a greater history of unitary states than North America, thus European \"federalism\" argues for a weaker central government, relative to a unitary state.", "The modern American usage of the word is much closer to the European sense.", "As the power of the U.S. federal government has increased, some people have perceived a much more unitary state than they believe the Founding Fathers intended.", "Most people politically advocating \"federalism\" in the United States argue in favor of limiting the powers of the federal government, especially the judiciary (see Federalist Society, New Federalism).The contemporary concept of federalism came about with the creation of an entirely new system of government that provided for democratic representation at two governing levels simultaneously, which was implemented in the US Constitution.", "In the United States implementation of federalism, a bicameral general government, consisting of a chamber of popular representation proportional to population (the House of Representatives), and a chamber of equal State-based representation consisting of two delegates per State (the Senate), was overlaid upon the pre-existing regional governments of the thirteen independent States.", "With each level of government allocated a defined sphere of powers, under a written constitution and the rule of law (that is, subject to the independent third-party arbitration of a supreme court in competence disputes), the two levels were thus brought into a coordinate relationship for the first time.In 1946, Kenneth Wheare observed that the two levels of government in the US were \"co-equally supreme\".", "In this, he echoed the perspective of American founding father James Madison who saw the several States as forming \"distinct and independent portions of the supremacy\" in relation to the general government." ], [ "Constitutional structure", "===Division of powers===In a federation, the division of power between federal and regional governments is usually outlined in the constitution.", "Almost every country allows some degree of regional self-government, but in federations the right to self-government of the component states is constitutionally entrenched.", "Component states often also possess their own constitutions which they may amend as they see fit, although in the event of conflict the federal constitution usually takes precedence.In almost all federations the central government enjoys the powers of foreign policy and national defense as exclusive federal powers.", "Were this not the case a federation would not be a single sovereign state, per the UN definition.", "Notably, the states of Germany retain the right to act on their own behalf at an international level, a condition originally granted in exchange for the Kingdom of Bavaria's agreement to join the German Empire in 1871.The constitutions of Germany and the United States provide that all powers not specifically granted to the federal government are retained by the states.", "The Constitution of some countries, like Canada and India, state that powers not explicitly granted to the provincial/state governments are retained by the federal government.", "Much like the US system, the Australian Constitution allocates to the Federal government (the Commonwealth of Australia) the power to make laws about certain specified matters which were considered too difficult for the States to manage, so that the States retain all other areas of responsibility.", "Under the division of powers of the European Union in the Lisbon Treaty, powers which are not either exclusively of Union competence or shared between the Union and the Member States as concurrent powers are retained by the constituent States.Satiric depiction of late 19th-century political tensions in SpainWhere every component state of a federation possesses the same powers, we are said to find 'symmetric federalism'.", "Asymmetric federalism exists where states are granted different powers, or some possess greater autonomy than others do.", "This is often done in recognition of the existence of a distinct culture in a particular region or regions.", "In Spain, the Basques and Catalans, as well as the Galicians, spearheaded a historic movement to have their national specificity recognized, crystallizing in the \"historical communities\" such as Navarre, Galicia, Catalonia, and the Basque Country.", "They have more powers than the later expanded arrangement for other Spanish regions, or the Spain of the autonomous communities (called also the \"coffee for everyone\" arrangement), partly to deal with their separate identity and to appease peripheral nationalist leanings, partly out of respect to specific rights they had held earlier in history.", "However, strictly speaking Spain is not a federation, but a system of asymmetric devolved government within a unitary state.It is common that during the historical evolution of a federation there is a gradual movement of power from the component states to the centre, as the federal government acquires additional powers, sometimes to deal with unforeseen circumstances.", "The acquisition of new powers by a federal government may occur through formal constitutional amendment or simply through a broadening of the interpretation of a government's existing constitutional powers given by the courts.Usually, a federation is formed at two levels: the central government and the regions (states, provinces, territories), and little to nothing is said about second or third level administrative political entities.", "Brazil is an exception, because the 1988 Constitution included the municipalities as autonomous political entities making the federation tripartite, encompassing the Union, the States, and the municipalities.", "Each state is divided into municipalities (''municípios'') with their own legislative council (''câmara de vereadores'') and a mayor (''prefeito''), which are partly autonomous from both Federal and State Government.", "Each municipality has a \"little constitution\", called \"organic law\" (''lei orgânica'').", "Mexico is an intermediate case, in that municipalities are granted full-autonomy by the federal constitution and their existence as autonomous entities (''municipio libre'', \"free municipality\") is established by the federal government and cannot be revoked by the states' constitutions.", "Moreover, the federal constitution determines which powers and competencies belong exclusively to the municipalities and not to the constituent states.", "However, municipalities do not have an elected legislative assembly.Federations often employ the paradox of being a union of states, while still being states (or having aspects of statehood) in themselves.", "For example, James Madison (author of the United States Constitution) wrote in Federalist Paper No.", "39 that the US Constitution \"is in strictness neither a national nor a federal constitution; but a composition of both.", "In its foundation, it is federal, not national; in the sources from which the ordinary powers of the Government are drawn, it is partly federal, and partly national...\" This stems from the fact that states in the US maintain all sovereignty that they do not yield to the federation by their own consent.", "This was reaffirmed by the Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which reserves all powers and rights that are not delegated to the Federal Government as left to the States and to the people.===Bicameralism===The structures of most federal governments incorporate mechanisms to protect the rights of component states.", "One method, known as 'intrastate federalism', is to directly represent the governments of component states in federal political institutions.", "Where a federation has a bicameral legislature the upper house is often used to represent the component states while the lower house represents the people of the nation as a whole.", "A federal upper house may be based on a special scheme of apportionment, as is the case in the senates of the United States and Australia, where each state is represented by an equal number of senators irrespective of the size of its population.Alternatively, or in addition to this practice, the members of an upper house may be indirectly elected by the government or legislature of the component states, as occurred in the United States prior to 1913, or be actual members or delegates of the state governments, as, for example, is the case in the German Bundesrat and in the Council of the European Union.", "The lower house of a federal legislature is usually directly elected, with apportionment in proportion to population, although states may sometimes still be guaranteed a certain minimum number of seats.===Intergovernmental relations===In Canada, the provincial governments represent regional interests and negotiate directly with the central government.", "A First Ministers conference of the prime minister and the provincial premiers is the ''de facto'' highest political forum in the land, although it is not mentioned in the constitution.===Constitutional change===Federations often have special procedures for amendment of the federal constitution.", "As well as reflecting the federal structure of the state this may guarantee that the self-governing status of the component states cannot be abolished without their consent.", "An amendment to the constitution of the United States must be ratified by three-quarters of either the state legislatures, or of constitutional conventions specially elected in each of the states, before it can come into effect.", "In referendums to amend the constitutions of Australia and Switzerland it is required that a proposal be endorsed not just by an overall majority of the electorate in the nation as a whole, but also by separate majorities in each of a majority of the states or cantons.", "In Australia, this latter requirement is known as a ''double majority''.Some federal constitutions also provide that certain constitutional amendments cannot occur without the unanimous consent of all states or of a particular state.", "The US constitution provides that no state may be deprived of equal representation in the senate without its consent.", "In Australia, if a proposed amendment will specifically impact one or more states, then it must be endorsed in the referendum held in each of those states.", "Any amendment to the Canadian constitution that would modify the role of the monarchy would require unanimous consent of the provinces.", "The German Basic Law provides that no amendment is admissible at all that would abolish the federal system.===Other technical terms===* Fiscal federalism – the relative financial positions and the financial relations between the levels of government in a federal system.", "* Formal federalism (or 'constitutional federalism') – the delineation of powers is specified in a written constitution, which may or may not correspond to the actual operation of the system in practice.", "* Executive federalism refers in the English-speaking tradition to the intergovernmental relationships between the executive branches of the levels of government in a federal system and in the continental European tradition to the way constituent units 'execute' or administer laws made centrally.", "* Gleichschaltung – the conversion from a federal governance to either a completely unitary or more unitary one, the term was borrowed from the German for conversion from alternating to direct current.", "During the Nazi era the traditional German states were mostly left intact in the formal sense, but their constitutional rights and sovereignty were eroded and ultimately ended and replaced with the Gau system.", "''Gleichschaltung'' also has a broader sense referring to political consolidation in general.", "* defederalize – to remove from federal government, such as taking a responsibility from a national level government and giving it to states or provinces" ], [ "In relation to conflict", "It has been argued that federalism and other forms of territorial autonomy are a useful way to structure political systems in order to prevent violence among different groups within countries because it allows certain groups to legislate at the subnational level.", "Some scholars have suggested, however, that federalism can divide countries and result in state collapse because it creates proto-states.", "Still others have shown that federalism is only divisive when it lacks mechanisms that encourage political parties to compete across regional boundaries.Federalism is sometimes viewed in the context of international negotiation as \"the best system for integrating diverse nations, ethnic groups, or combatant parties, all of whom may have cause to fear control by an overly powerful center.\"", "However, those skeptical of federal prescriptions sometimes believe that increased regional autonomy can lead to secession or dissolution of the nation.", "In Syria, for example, federalization proposals have failed in part because \"Syrians fear that these borders could turn out to be the same as the ones that the fighting parties have currently carved out.\"" ], [ "See also" ], [ "Notes and references" ], [ "Sources", "* * * * " ], [ "External links", " P.-J.", "Proudhon (1863), The Principle of Federation." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Firmin Abauzit" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Firmin Abauzit''' (11 November 167920 March 1767) was a French scholar who worked on physics, theology and philosophy, and served as librarian in Geneva (Republic of Geneva) during his final 40 years.", "Abauzit is also notable for proofreading or correcting the writings of Isaac Newton and other scholars." ], [ "Biography", "Firmin Abauzit was born of Huguenot parents on 11 November 1679 at Uzès, in Languedoc.", "His paternal family traces its origin to an Arab physician who settled in Toulouse during the 9th century.", "Accordingly, the name “Abauzit” is liked derived from the Arabic “Abu Zaid” (father of Zaid).His father died when he was only two years of age; and when, on the revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685, the authorities took steps to have him educated in the Roman Catholic faith, his mother contrived his escape.For two years his brother and he lived as fugitives in the mountains of the Cévennes, but they at last reached Geneva, where their mother afterwards joined them on escaping from the imprisonment in which she was held from the time of their flight.", "Abauzit at an early age acquired great proficiency in languages, physics, and theology.In 1698, he traveled to Germany, then to Holland, where he became acquainted with Pierre Bayle, Pierre Jurieu and Jacques Basnage.", "Proceeding to England, he was introduced to Sir Isaac Newton, who found in him one of the earliest defenders of his discoveries against Castel.", "Newton corrected in the second edition of his ''Principia'' an error pointed out by Abauzit, and, when sending him the ''Commercium Epistolicum,'' said, \"You are well worthy to judge between Leibnitz and me.", "\"The reputation of Abauzit induced William III to request him to settle in England, but he did not accept the king's offer, preferring to return to Geneva.There from 1715 he rendered valuable assistance to a society that had been formed for translating the New Testament into French.", "He declined the offer of the chair of philosophy at the University of Geneva in 1723.He assisted in the French language New Testament in 1726.In 1727, he was granted citizenship in Geneva, and he accepted the office of honorary librarian to Geneva, the city of his adoption.", "It was while he was in Geneva in his later years that he authored many of his works.", "He died in Geneva at the age of 87, on 20 March 1767." ], [ "Legacy", "Abauzit was a man of great learning and of wonderful versatility.", "Whatever chanced to be discussed, it used to be said of Abauzit that he seemed to have made it a subject of particular study.", "Rousseau, who was jealously sparing of his praises, addressed to him, in his ''Julie, ou la nouvelle Héloïse'', a fine panegyric; and when a stranger flatteringly told Voltaire he had come to see a great man, the philosopher asked him if he had seen Abauzit.", "Among his acquaintances, Abauzit claimed Rousseau, Voltaire, Newton, and Bayle.Little remains of the labours of this intellectual giant, his heirs having, it is said, destroyed the papers that came into their possession, because their own religious opinions were different.", "A few theological, archaeological, and astronomical articles from his pen appeared in the ''Journal helvétique'' and elsewhere, and he contributed several papers to Rousseau's ''Dictionnaire de musique'' (1767).", "He wrote a work throwing doubt on the canonical authority of the Apocalypse, which called forth a reply from Dr Leonard Twells, and was published in Denis Diderot's ''Encyclopédie''.", "He also edited and made valuable additions to Jacob Spon's ''Histoire de la république de Genève''.", "A collection of his writings was published at Geneva in 1770 (''Œuvres de feu M. Abauzit''), and another at London in 1773 (''Œuvres diverses de M. Abauzit'').===Works===+ Works of Abauzit year Title Notes Articles Multiple articles for ''Journal helvétique'' 1726 French language New Testament Collaboration ''apocalypse'' Article for Denis Diderot's ''Encyclopédie'' 1767 Articles Multiple articles for ''Dictionnaire de musique'' Edited and contributions ''Histoire de la république de Genève'' by Jacob Spon 1770 ''Œuvres de feu M. Abauzit'' Posthumously published collection 1773 ''Œuvres diverses de M. Abauzit'' Posthumously published collection" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "References", "* * * ;Attribution** * " ], [ "External links", " ''Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge'', Abauzit, Firmin." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "French Foreign Legion" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''French Foreign Legion''' () is a corps of the French Army that consists of several specialties: infantry, cavalry, engineers, airborne troops.", "It was created in 1831 to allow foreign nationals into the French Army.", "It formed part of the Armée d’Afrique, the French Army's units associated with France's colonial project in Northern Africa, until the end of the Algerian war in 1962.Legionnaires are highly trained soldiers and the Legion is unique in that it is open to foreign recruits willing to serve in the French Armed Forces.", "The Legion is known today as a unit whose training focuses on traditional military skills and on its strong esprit de corps, as its men come from different countries with different cultures.", "Consequently, training is often described as not only physically challenging, but also very stressful psychologically.", "Legionnaires may apply for French citizenship after three years' service, or immediately after being wounded during a battle for France under a provision known as \"\" (\"French by spilled blood\")." ], [ "History", "The Foreign Legion was created by Louis Philippe, the King of the French, on 10 March 1831 to allow the incorporation of foreign nationals into the French Army from the foreign regiments of the Kingdom of France.", "Recruits included soldiers from the recently disbanded Swiss and German foreign regiments of the Bourbon monarchy.", "The Royal Ordinance for the establishment of the new regiment specified that the foreigners recruited could only serve outside France.", "The French expeditionary force that had occupied Algiers in 1830 was in need of reinforcements and the Legion was accordingly transferred by sea in detachments from Toulon to Algeria.Since 1831, the Legion has consisted of hundreds of thousands in active service at its peak, and suffered the aggregated loss of nearly 40,000 men in France, Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia, Madagascar, West Africa, Mexico, Italy, Crimea, Spain, Indo-China, Norway, Syria, Chad, Zaïre, Lebanon, Central Africa, Gabon, Kuwait, Rwanda, Djibouti, former Yugoslavia, Somalia, the Republic of Congo, Ivory Coast, Afghanistan, Mali, as well as others.", "The Legion was primarily used to help protect and expand the French colonial empire during the 19th century.", "The Foreign Legion was initially stationed only in Algeria, where it took part in the pacification and development of the colony.", "Subsequently, the Foreign Legion was deployed in a number of conflicts, including the First Carlist War in 1835, the Crimean War in 1854, the Second Italian War of Independence in 1859, the French intervention in Mexico in 1863, the Franco-Prussian War in 1870, the Tonkin Campaign and Sino-French War in 1883, supporting growth of the French colonial empire in Sub-Saharan Africa, the Second Franco-Dahomean War in 1892, the Second Madagascar expedition in 1895 and the Mandingo Wars in 1894.In World War I, the Foreign Legion fought in many critical battles on the Western Front.", "It played a smaller role in World War II than in World War I, though having a part in the Norwegian, Syrian and North African campaigns.", "During the First Indochina War (1946–1954), the Foreign Legion saw its numbers swell.", "The Legion lost a large number of men in the catastrophic Battle of Dien Bien Phu against forces of the Viet Minh.Subsequent military campaigns included those during the Suez Crisis, the Battle of Algiers and various offensives in Algeria launched by General Maurice Challe including Operation Oranie and Operation Jumelles.", "During the Algerian War of Independence (1954–1962), the Foreign Legion came close to being disbanded after some officers, men, and the highly decorated 1st Foreign Parachute Regiment (1er REP) took part in the Generals' putsch.", "In the 1960s and 1970s, Legion regiments had additional roles in sending units as a rapid deployment force to preserve French interests – in its former African colonies and in other nations as well; it also returned to its roots of being a unit always ready to be sent to conflict zones around the world.Some notable operations include the Chadian–Libyan conflict in 1969–1972 (the first time that the Legion was sent in operations after the Algerian War), 1978–1979, and 1983–1987; Kolwezi in what is now the Democratic Republic of the Congo in May 1978.In 1981, the 1st Foreign Regiment and Foreign Legion regiments took part in the Multinational Force in Lebanon.", "In 1990, Foreign Legion regiments were sent to the Persian Gulf and participated in Opération Daguet, part of Division Daguet.", "Following the Gulf War in the 1990s, the Foreign Legion helped with the evacuation of French citizens and foreigners in Rwanda, Gabon and Zaire.", "The Foreign Legion was also deployed in Cambodia, Somalia, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina.", "In the mid- to late 1990s, the Foreign Legion was deployed in the Central African Republic, Congo-Brazzaville and in Kosovo.", "The French Foreign Legion also took part in operations in Rwanda in 1990–1994; and the Ivory Coast in 2002 to the present.", "In the 2000s, the Foreign Legion was deployed in Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan, Opération Licorne in Ivory Coast, the EUFOR Tchad/RCA in Chad, and Operation Serval in the Northern Mali conflict.", "As discussed below, other countries have tried to emulate the French Foreign Legion model.", "The Foreign Legion was primarily used, as part of the ''Armée d'Afrique'', to protect and expand the French colonial empire during the 19th century, but it also fought in almost all French wars including the Franco-Prussian War, World War I and World War II.", "The Foreign Legion has remained an important part of the French Army and sea transport protected by the French Navy, surviving three Republics, the Second French Empire, two World Wars, the rise and fall of mass conscript armies, the dismantling of the French colonial empire, and the loss of the Foreign Legion's base, Algeria.===Conquest of Algeria 1830–1847===Created to fight \"outside mainland France\", the Foreign Legion was stationed in Algeria, where it took part in the pacification and development of the colony, notably by drying the marshes in the region of Algiers.", "The Foreign Legion was initially divided into six \"national battalions\" (Swiss, Poles, Germans, Italians, Spanish, and Dutch-Belgian).", "Smaller national groups, such as the ten Englishmen recorded in December 1832, appear to have been placed randomly.In late 1831, the first legionnaires landed in Algeria, the country that would be the Foreign Legion's homeland for 130 years and shape its character.", "The early years in Algeria were hard on the legion because it was often sent to the worst postings and received the worst assignments, and its members were generally uninterested in the new colony of the French.", "The Legion served alongside the Battalions of Light Infantry of Africa, formed in 1832, which was a penal military unit made up of men with prison records who still had to do their military service or soldiers with serious disciplinary problems.The Foreign Legion's first service in Algeria came to an end after only four years, as it was needed elsewhere.===Carlist War 1835–1839===To support Isabella's claim to the Spanish throne against her uncle, the French government decided to send the Foreign Legion to Spain.", "On 28 June 1835, the unit was handed over to the Spanish government.", "The Foreign Legion landed via sea at Tarragona on 17 August with around 1,400 who were quickly dubbed ''Los Argelinos'' (the Algerians) by locals because of their previous posting.The Foreign Legion's commander immediately dissolved the national battalions to improve the ''esprit de corps''.", "Later, he also created three squadrons of lancers and an artillery battery from the existing force to increase independence and flexibility.", "The Foreign Legion was dissolved on 8 December 1838, when it had dropped to only 500 men.", "The survivors returned to France, many reenlisting in the new Foreign Legion along with many of their former Carlist enemies.===Crimean War===On 9 June 1854, the French ship ''Jean Bart'' embarked four battalions of the Foreign Legion for the Crimean Peninsula.", "A further battalion was stationed at Gallipoli as brigade depot.", "Eight companies drawn from both regiments of the Foreign Legion took part in the Battle of Alma (20 September 1854).", "Reinforcements by sea brought the Legion contingent up to brigade strength.", "As the \"Foreign Brigade\", it served in the Siege of Sevastopol, during the winter of 1854–1855.The lack of equipment was particularly challenging and cholera hit the Allied expeditionary force.", "Nevertheless, the \"leather bellies\" (the nickname given to the legionnaires by the Russians because of the large cartridge pouches that they wore attached to their waist-belts), performed well.", "On 21 June 1855, the Third Battalion, left Corsica for Crimea.On 8 September the final assault was launched on Sevastopol.", "Two days later, the Second Foreign Regiment with flags and band playing ahead, marched through the streets of Sevastopol.", "Although initial reservations had been expressed about whether the Legion should be used outside Africa, the Crimean experience established its suitability for service in European warfare, as well as making a cohesive single entity of what had previously been two separate foreign regiments.", "Legion casualties in the Crimea were 1,703 killed and wounded out of total French losses by battle and disease of 95,615.===Italian Campaign 1859===Like the rest of the \"Army of Africa\", the Foreign Legion provided detachments in the campaign of Italy.", "Two foreign regiments, grouped with the 2nd Regiment of Zouaves, were part of the Second Brigade of the Second Division of Mac Mahon's Corps.", "The Foreign Legion acquitted itself particularly well against the Austrians at the battle of Magenta (4 June 1859) and at the Battle of Solferino (24 June).", "Legion losses were significant and the 2nd Foreign Regiment lost Colonel Chabrière, its commanding officer.", "In gratitude, the city of Milan awarded, in 1909, the \"commemorative medal of deliverance\", which still adorns the regimental flags of the Second Regiment.===Mexican Expedition 1863–1867===Uniform of a legionnaire during the 1863 Mexican campaignThe 38,000 strong French expeditionary force dispatched to Mexico via sea between 1862 and 1863 included two battalions of the Foreign Legion, increased to six battalions by 1866.Small cavalry and artillery units were raised from legionnaires serving in Mexico.", "The original intention was that Foreign Legion units should remain in Mexico for up to six years to provide a core for the Imperial Mexican Army.", "However the Legion was withdrawn with the other French forces during February–March 1867.It was in Mexico on 30 April 1863 that the Legion earned its legendary status.", "A company led by Captain Jean Danjou, numbering 62 Legionnaires and 3 Legion officers, was escorting a convoy to the besieged city of Puebla when it was attacked and besieged by three thousand Mexican loyalists, organised in two battalions of infantry and cavalry, numbering 2,200 and 800 respectively.", "The Legion detachment under Danjou, Sous-Lieutenant , and Sous-Lieutenant made a stand in the ''Hacienda de la Trinidad'' – a farm near the village of Camarone.", "When only six survivors remained, out of ammunition, a bayonet assault was launched in which three of the six were killed.", "The remaining three wounded men were brought before the Mexican commander Colonel Milán, who allowed them to return to the French lines as an honor guard for the body of Danjou.", "The captain had a wooden hand, which was later returned to the Legion and is now kept in a case in the Legion Museum at Aubagne and paraded annually on Camerone Day.", "It is the Foreign Legion's most precious relic.Jean Danjou's prosthetic wooden hand.During the Mexican Campaign, 6,654 French died.", "Of these, 1,918 were from a single regiment of the Legion.===Franco-Prussian War 1870===According to French law, the Foreign Legion was not to be used within Metropolitan France except in the case of a national invasion, and was consequently not a part of Napoleon III's Imperial Army that capitulated at Sedan.", "With the defeat of the Imperial Army, the Second French Empire fell and the Third Republic was created.The new Third Republic was desperately short of trained soldiers following Sedan, so the Foreign Legion was ordered to provide a contingent.", "On 11 October 1870 two provisional battalions disembarked via sea at Toulon, the first time the Foreign Legion had been deployed in France itself.", "It attempted to lift the Siege of Paris by breaking through the German lines.", "It succeeded in retaking Orléans, but failed to break the siege.", "In January 1871, France capitulated but civil war soon broke out, which led to revolution and the short-lived Paris Commune.", "The Foreign Legion participated in the suppression of the Commune, which was crushed with great bloodshed.===Tonkin Campaign and Sino-French War 1883–1888===Tuyên QuangThe Foreign Legion's First Battalion (Lieutenant-Colonel Donnier) sailed to Tonkin in late 1883, during the period of undeclared hostilities that preceded the Sino-French War (August 1884 to April 1885), and formed part of the attack column that stormed the western gate of Sơn Tây on 16 December.", "The Second and Third Infantry Battalions (''chef de bataillon'' Diguet and Lieutenant-Colonel Schoeffer) were also deployed to Tonkin shortly afterwards, and were present in all the major campaigns of the Sino-French War.", "Two Foreign Legion companies led the defence at the celebrated Siege of Tuyên Quang (24 November 1884 to 3 March 1885).", "In January 1885 the Foreign Legion's 4th Battalion (''chef de bataillon'' Vitalis) was deployed to the French bridgehead at Keelung (Jilong) in Formosa (Taiwan), where it took part in the later battles of the Keelung Campaign.", "The battalion played an important role in Colonel Jacques Duchesne's offensive in March 1885 that captured the key Chinese positions of La Table and Fort Bamboo and disengaged Keelung.In December 1883, during a review of the Second Legion Battalion on the eve of its departure for Tonkin to take part in the Bắc Ninh Campaign, General François de Négrier pronounced a famous ''mot'': ''Vous, légionnaires, vous êtes soldats pour mourir, et je vous envoie où l'on meurt!''", "('You, Legionnaires, you are soldiers in order to die, and I'm sending you to where one dies!", "')===Colonization of Africa===Monument commemorating the soldiers of the Foreign Legion killed on duty during the South-Oranese campaign (1897–1902).As part of the Army of Africa, the Foreign Legion contributed to the growth of the French colonial empire in Sub-Saharan Africa.", "Simultaneously, the Legion took part to the pacification of Algeria, suppressing various tribal rebellions and razzias.====Second Franco-Dahomean War 1892–1894====In 1892, King Behanzin was threatening the French protectorate of Porto-Novo in modern-day Benin and France decided to intervene.", "A battalion, led by commandant Faurax Montier, was formed from two companies of the First Foreign Regiment and two others from the second regiment.", "From Cotonou, the legionnaires marched to seize Abomey, the capital of the Kingdom of Dahomey.", "Two and a half months were needed to reach the city, at the cost of repeated battles against the Dahomean warriors, especially the Amazons of the King.", "King Behanzin surrendered and was captured by the legionnaires in January 1894.====Second Madagascar Expedition 1894–1895====In 1895, a battalion, formed by the First and Second Foreign Regiments, was sent to the Kingdom of Madagascar, as part of an expeditionary force whose mission was to conquer the island.", "The foreign battalion formed the backbone of the column launched on Antananarivo, the capital of Madagascar.", "After a few skirmishes, the Queen Ranavalona III promptly surrendered.", "The Foreign Legion lost 226 men, of whom only a tenth died in actual fighting.", "Others, like much of the expeditionary force, died from tropical diseases.", "Despite the success of the expedition, the quelling of sporadic rebellions would take another eight years until 1905, when the island was completely pacified by the French under Joseph Gallieni.", "During that time, insurrections against the Malagasy Christians of the island, missionaries and foreigners were particularly terrible.", "Queen Ranavalona III was deposed in January 1897 and was exiled to Algiers in Algeria, where she died in 1917.====Mandingo War 1898====From 1882 until his capture, Samori Ture, ruler of the Wassoulou Empire, fought the French colonial army, defeating them on several occasions, including a notable victory at Woyowayanko (2 April 1882), in the face of French heavy artillery.", "Nonetheless, Samori was forced to sign several treaties ceding territory to the French between 1886 and 1889.Samori began a steady retreat, but the fall of other resistance armies, particularly Babemba Traoré at Sikasso, permitted the colonial army to launch a concentrated assault against his forces.", "A battalion of two companies from the 2nd Foreign Regiment was created in early 1894 to pacify the Niger.", "The Legionnaires' victory at the fortress of Ouilla and police patrols in the region accelerated the submission of the tribes.", "On 29 September 1898, Samori Ture was captured by the French Commandant Gouraud and exiled to Gabon, marking the end of the Wassoulou Empire.===Marching Regiments of the Foreign Legion===Review of the Marching Regiment of the Foreign Legion, RMLE at the end of November 1918====World War I 1914–1918====Americans in the Foreign Legion, 1916.American poet Alan Seeger (1888–1916), in his Marching Regiment uniform.The annexation of Alsace and Lorraine by Germany in 1871 led to numerous volunteers from the two regions enlisting in the Foreign Legion, which gave them the option of French citizenship at the end of their service.With the declaration of war on 29 July 1914, a call was made for foreigners residing in France to support their adopted country.", "While many would have preferred direct enlistment in the regular French Army, the only option immediately available was that of the Foreign Legion.", "On one day only (3 August 1914) a reported 8,000 volunteers applied to enlist in the Paris recruiting office of the Legion.In World War I, the Foreign Legion fought in many critical battles on the Western Front, including Artois, Champagne, Somme, Aisne, and Verdun (in 1917), and also suffered heavy casualties during 1918.The Foreign Legion was also in the Dardanelles and Macedonian front, and was highly decorated for its efforts.", "Many young foreigners volunteered for the Foreign Legion when the war broke out in 1914.There were marked differences between the idealistic volunteers of 1914 and the hardened men of the old Legion, making assimilation difficult.", "Nevertheless, the old and the new men of the Foreign Legion fought and died in vicious battles on the Western front, including Belloy-en-Santerre during the Battle of the Somme, where the poet Alan Seeger, after being mortally wounded by machine-gun fire, cheered on the rest of his advancing battalion.====Interwar period 1918–1939====Paul-Frédéric Rollet (1875–1941)''The Father of the Legion''While suffering heavy casualties on the Western Front the Legion had emerged from World War I with an enhanced reputation and as one of the most highly decorated units in the French Army.", "In 1919, the government of Spain raised the Spanish Foreign Legion and modeled it after the French Foreign Legion.", "General Jean Mordacq intended to rebuild the Foreign Legion as a larger military formation, doing away with the legion's traditional role as a solely infantry formation.", "General Mordacq envisioned a Foreign Legion consisting not of regiments, but of divisions with cavalry, engineer, and artillery regiments in addition to the legion's infantry mainstay.", "In 1920, decrees ordained the establishment of regiments of cavalry and artillery.", "Immediately following the armistice the Foreign Legion experienced an increase of enlistments.", "The Foreign Legion began the process of reorganizing and redeploying to Algeria.Legionnaires in Morocco, c. 1920The Legion played a major part in the Rif War of 1920–25.In 1932, the Foreign Legion consisted of 30,000 men, serving in six multi-battalion regiments including the 1st Foreign Infantry Regiment 1er REI – Algeria, Syria and Lebanon; 2nd Foreign Infantry Regiment 2ème REI, 3rd Foreign Infantry Regiment 3ème REI, and 4th Foreign Infantry Regiment 4ème REI – Morocco, Lebanon; 5th Foreign Infantry 5ème REI – Indochina; and 1st Foreign Cavalry Regiment 1er REC – Lebanon, Tunisia and Morocco.In 1931, Général Paul-Frédéric Rollet assumed the role of 1st Inspector of the Foreign Legion, a post created at his initiative.", "While serving as colonel of the 1st Foreign Infantry Regiment (1925–1931), Rollet was responsible for planning the centennial celebrations of the Legion's foundation; scheduling this event for Camarón Day 30 April 1931.He was subsequently credited with creating much of the modern mystique of the Legion by restoring or creating many of its traditions.====World War II 1939–1945====Free French Legionnaires assaulting an Axis strong point at the battle of Bir Hakeim, 1942.The Foreign Legion played a smaller role in World War II in mainland Europe than in World War I, though it saw involvement in many exterior theatres of operations, notably sea-transport protection through to the Norwegian, Syria-Lebanon, and North African campaigns.", "The 13th Demi-Brigade, formed for service in Norway, found itself in the UK at the time of the French Armistice (June 1940), was deployed to the British 8th Army in North Africa and distinguished itself in the Battle of Bir Hakeim (1942).", "Reflecting the divisions of the time, part of the Foreign Legion joined the Free French movement while another part served the Vichy government.", "Germany incorporated German legionnaires into the Wehrmacht's 90th Light Infantry Division in North Africa.The Syria–Lebanon Campaign of June 1941 saw legionnaire fighting legionnaire as the 13e D.B.L.E clashed with the 6th Foreign Infantry Regiment 6e REI at Damascus.", "Nevertheless, many legionnaires of the 6th Foreign Infantry Regiment 6e (dissolved on 31 December 1941) integrated into the Marching Regiment of the Foreign Legion R.M.L.E in 1942.Later, a thousand of the rank-and-file of the Vichy Legion unit joined the 13e D.B.L.E.", "of the Free French forces which were also part (as of September 1944) of Jean de Lattre de Tassigny's successful amalgam of the French Liberation Army (), the (400,000 men) amalgam consisted of the Armistice Army, the Free French Forces and the French Forces of the Interior which formed Army B and later became part of the French 1st Army with forces also issued from the French Resistance.==== Alsace-Lorraine ====Following World War II, many French-speaking former German soldiers joined the Foreign Legion to pursue a military career, an option no longer possible in Germany, including French German soldiers of Malgré-nous.", "It would have been considered problematic if the men from Alsace-Lorraine had not spoken French.", "These French-speaking former German soldiers made up as much as 60 percent of the Legion during the war in Indochina.", "Contrary to popular belief however, French policy was to exclude former members of the Waffen-SS, and candidates for induction were refused if they exhibited the tell-tale blood type tattoo, or even a scar that might be masking it.The high percentage of Germans was contrary to normal policy concerning a single dominant nationality, and in more recent times Germans have made up a much smaller percentage of the Foreign Legion's composition.===First Indochina War 1946–1954===Parachute company of the 3rd Foreign Infantry Regiment.During the First Indochina War (1946–54) the Foreign Legion saw its numbers swell due to the incorporation of World War II veterans.", "Although the Foreign Legion distinguished itself in a territory where it had served since the 1880s, it also suffered a heavy toll during this war.", "Constantly being deployed in operations, units of the Legion suffered particularly heavy losses in the climactic Battle of Dien Bien Phu, before the fortified valley finally fell on 7 May 1954.No fewer than 72,833 served in Indochina during the eight-year war.", "The Legion suffered the loss of 10,283 of its own men in combat: 309 officers, 1082 sous-officiers and 9092 legionnaires.While only one of several Legion units involved in Indochina, the 1st Foreign Parachute Battalion (1er BEP) particularly distinguished itself, while being annihilated twice.", "It was renamed the 1st Foreign Parachute Regiment (1er REP) after its third reformation.The 1er BEP sailed to Indochina on 12 November and was then engaged in combat operations in Tonkin.", "On 17 November 1950 the battalion parachuted into That Khé and suffered heavy losses at Coc Xa.", "Reconstituted on 1 March 1951, the battalion participated in combat operations at Cho Ben, on the Black River and in Annam.", "On 21 November 1953 the reconstituted 1er BEP was parachuted into Dien Bien Phu.", "In this battle, the unit lost 575 killed and missing.", "Reconstituted for the third time on 19 May 1954, the battalion left Indochina on 8 February 1955.The 1er BEP received five citations and the fourragère of the colors of the Médaille militaire for its service in Indochina.", "The 1er BEP became the 1st Foreign Parachute Regiment (1er REP) in Algeria on 1 September 1955.Dien Bien Phu fell on 7 May 1954 at 17:30.The couple of hectares that were the battlefield today are corn fields surrounding a stele which commemorates the sacrifices of those who died there.", "While the garrison of Dien Bien Phu included French regular, North African, and locally recruited (Indochinese) units, the battle has become associated particularly with the paratroops of the Foreign Legion.During the Indochina War, the Legion operated several armoured trains which were an enduring ''Rolling Symbol'' during the chartered course duration of French Indochina.", "The Legion also operated various Passage Companies relative to the continental conflicts at hand.===Algerian War 1954–1962======= Foreign Legion paratroops ====Legion Lieutenant Colonel Pierre Paul Jeanpierre (1912–1958).The legion was heavily engaged in fighting against the National Liberation Front and the Armée de Libération Nationale (ALN).", "The main activity during the period 1954–1962 was as part of the operations of the 10th Parachute Division and 25th Parachute Division.", "The 1st Foreign Parachute Regiment, 1er REP, was under the command of the 10th Parachute Division (France), 10ème DP, and the 2nd Foreign Parachute Regiment, 2ème REP, was under the command of the 25th Parachute Division (France), 25ème DP.", "While both the 1st Foreign Parachute Regiment (1er REP), and the 2nd Foreign Parachute Regiment (2ème REP), were part of the operations of French parachute divisions (10ème DP and 25ème DP established in 1956), the Legion's 1st Foreign Parachute Regiment (1er REP), and the Legion's 2nd Foreign Parachute Regiment (2ème REP), are older than the French divisions.", "The 1er REP was the former thrice-reconstituted 1st Foreign Parachute Battalion (1er BEP) and the 2ème REP was the former 2nd Foreign Parachute Battalion (2ème BEP).", "Both battalions were renamed and their Legionnaires transferred from Indochina on 1 August 1954 to Algeria by 1 November 1954.Both traced their origins to the Parachute Company of the 3rd Foreign Infantry Regiment commanded by Legion Lieutenant Jacques Morin attached to the III/1er R.C.P.With the start of the War in Algeria on 1 November 1954, the two foreign participating parachute battalions back from Indochina, the 1st Foreign Parachute Battalion (1er BEP, III Formation) and the 2nd Foreign Parachute Battalion (2ème BEP), were not part of any French parachute divisions yet and were not designated as regiments until September and 1 December 1955 respectively.Good Conduct Certificate, Lt Col Paul Paschal (1919–1994), 1er REP, 15 August 1960Main operations during the Algerian War included the Battle of Algiers and the Bataille of the Frontiers, fought by 60,000 soldiers including French and Legion paratroopers.", "For paratroopers of the Legion, the 1st Foreign Parachute Regiment (1er REP) and 2nd Foreign Parachute Regiment (2ème REP), were the only known foreign active parachute regiments, exclusively commanded by Pierre Paul Jeanpierre for the 1er REP and the paratrooper commanders of the 2ème REP.", "The remainder of French paratrooper units of the French Armed Forces were commanded by Jacques Massu, Buchond, Marcel Bigeard, Paul Aussaresses.", "Other Legion offensives in the mountains in 1959 included operations Jumelles, Cigales, and Ariège in the Aures and the last in Kabylie.The image of the Legion as a professional and non-political force was tarnished when the elite 1st Foreign Parachute Regiment 1er REP, which was also part of the 10th Parachute Division played a leading role in the generals' putsch of 1961 and was subsequently disbanded.==== Generals' putsch and reduction of Foreign Legion ====Marche ou Crève and More Majorum for Legion Officers, Sous-Officiers and Legionnaires of the CEPs, BEPs and REPs of the Legion.Saharan Mounted Companies of the Foreign Legion'' (CSPLE).", "Often blue or red and worn by all the soldiers of the Army of Africa; the Legion however, officially adopted the ''Ceinture Bleue'' (blue sash) in 1882.Coming out of a difficult Indochinese conflict, the Foreign Legion reinforced cohesion by extending the duration of basic training.", "Efforts exerted were successful during this transit; however, entering into December 1960 and the generals' putsch, a crisis hit the legion putting its faith at the corps of the Army.For having rallied to the generals' putsch of April 1961, the 1st Foreign Parachute Regiment of the 10th Parachute Division was dissolved on 30 April 1961 at Zeralda.In 1961, at the issue of the putsch, the 1st Mounted Saharan Squadron of the Foreign Legion () received the missions to assure surveillance and policing.The independence of Algeria from the French in 1962 was traumatising since it ended with the enforced abandonment of the barracks command center at Sidi Bel Abbès established in 1842.Upon being notified that the elite regiment was to be disbanded and that they were to be reassigned, legionnaires of the 1er REP burned the Chinese pavilion acquired following the Siege of Tuyên Quang in 1884.The relics from the Legion's history museum, including the wooden hand of Captain Jean Danjou, subsequently accompanied the Legion to France.", "Also removed from Sidi Bel Abbès were the symbolic Legion remains of General Paul-Frédéric Rollet ( The Father of the Legion ), Legion officer Prince Count Aage of Rosenborg, and Legionnaire Heinz Zimmermann (last fatal casualty in Algeria).Legion Officer Lieutenant-colonel Prince Count Aage of Rosenborg (1887–1940).The Legion acquired its parade song \"''Non, je ne regrette rien''\" (\"No, I regret nothing\"), a 1960 Édith Piaf song sung by Sous-Officiers and legionnaires as they left their barracks for re-deployment following the Algiers putsch of 1961.The song has remained a part of Legion heritage since.The 1st Foreign Parachute Regiment 1er REP was disbanded on 30 April 1961.However, the 2nd Foreign Parachute Regiment 2ème REP prevailed in existence, while most of the personnel of the Saharan Companies were integrated into the 1st Foreign Infantry Regiment, 2nd Foreign Infantry Regiment and 4th Foreign Infantry Regiment respectively.===Post-colonial Africa===The 13th Demi-Brigade of the Foreign Legion parading through Roman ruins in Lambaesis, Algeria (c. 1958).By the mid-1960s the Legion had lost its traditional and spiritual home in French Algeria and elite units had been dissolved.", "President de Gaulle considered disbanding it altogether but, being reminded of the Marching Regiments, and that the 13th Demi-Brigade was one of the first units to declare for him in 1940 and taking also into consideration the effective service of various Saharan units and performances of other Legions units, he chose instead to downsize the Legion from 40,000 to 8,000 men and relocate it to metropolitan France.", "Legion units continued to be assigned to overseas service, although not in North Africa (see below).=== 1962–present ===In the early 1960s, and besides ongoing global rapid deployments, the Legion also stationed forces on various continents while operating different function units.The main Disciplinary Company of the Foreign Legion (CDLE), based on rules and regulations set by général Rollet in 1931, received serious offenders sent from Legion regiments garrisoned or operating in Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia, the Levant and Tonkin (special section of the 5th Foreign Infantry Regiment and later in 1963, part of a Saharan disciplinary section unit of the 5e REI and 2nd Foreign Infantry Regiment).", "It was dissolved on July 1, 1964.From 1965 to 1967, the Legion operated several companies, including the 5th Heavy Weight Transport Company (CTGP), mainly in charge of evacuating the Sahara.", "The area of responsibility of some of these units extended from the confines of the in-between of the Sahara to the Mediterranean.", "Ongoing interventions and rapid deployments two years later and the following years included in part:* 1969–1971 : interventions in Chad* 1978–present : Peacekeeping operations around the Mediterranean, including the United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon during the Global War on Terror* 1978–1978 : Battle of Kolwezi (Zaïre)* 1981–1984 : Peacekeeping operations in Lebanon at the corps of the United Nations Multinational Force during the Lebanese Civil War along with the 31ème Brigade which included the 1st Foreign Regiment 1er RE.", "Operation Épaulard I was spearheaded by Lieutenant-colonel Bernard Janvier.", "The Multinational Force also included the British Armed Forces 1st The Queen's Dragoon Guards, U.S. American contingents of United States Marine Corps and the United States Navy, the French Navy and 28 exclusive French Armed Forces regiments including French paratroopers regiments, companies, units of the 11th Parachute Brigade along with the 2nd Foreign Parachute Regiment 2e REP.", "The multinational force also included the Irish Armed Forces and units of the French National Gendarmerie, Italian paratroopers from the Folgore Brigade, and infantry units from the Bersaglieri regiments and Marines of the San Marco Battalion.====Gulf War 1990–1991====6th Light Armoured Division operating the left flank of the 34 nations coalition during the Gulf War.In September 1990, the 1st Foreign Regiment, the 1st Foreign Cavalry Regiment, the 2nd Foreign Parachute Regiment, the 2nd Foreign Infantry Regiment, and the 6th Foreign Engineer Regiment were sent to the Persian Gulf as a part of Opération Daguet along with the 1st Spahi Regiment, the 11th Marine Artillery Regiment, the 3rd Marine Infantry Regiment, the 21st Marine Infantry Regiment, the French Army Light Aviation, the Régiment d'infanterie-chars de marine, and components of the 35th Parachute Artillery Regiment, the 1st Parachute Hussard Regiment, and the 17th Parachute Engineer Regiment.", "Division Daguet was commanded by Général de brigade Bernard Janvier.Legionnaires at the Bastille Day military parade on the Champs-Élysées in Paris.The Legion force, made up of 27 different nationalities, was attached to the French 6th Light Armoured Division whose mission was to protect the Coalition's left flank.After the four-week air campaign, coalition forces launched the ground offensive.", "They quickly penetrated deep into Iraq, with the Legion taking the As-Salman Airport, meeting little resistance.", "The war ended after a hundred hours of fighting on the ground, which resulted in very light casualties for the Legion.", "During war, French Foreign Legion engineers operated in support of the U.S. Army's 82nd Airborne Division, and provided the EOD services to the division.", "After the ceasefire, they conducted a joint mine clearing operation with a Royal Australian Navy clearance divers.==== Post 1991 ====* 1991: Evacuation of French citizens and foreigners in Rwanda, Gabon and Zaire.", "* 1992: Cambodia and Somalia* 1993: Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina* 1995: Rwanda* 1996: Central African Republic* 1997: Congo-Brazzaville* Since 1999: KFOR in Kosovo and North Macedonia===2001–present===* 2001–2014: Operation Enduring Freedom phase of the War in Afghanistan* 2002–2003: Opération Licorne in Ivory Coast* 2008: EUFOR Tchad/RCA in Chad* 2013–2014: Operation Serval in the Northern Mali conflict 2015–present: Opération Sentinelle in Metropolitan France." ], [ "Organization", "Regarding the operational aspect, the units of the Legion belong to different brigades or territorial commands of the French Army.", "On the other hand, with regard to the administrative management (including recruitment, traditions and training), these units depend on the Foreign Legion Command (COMLE), which itself is subordinate to the Army.The regiments are now mainly stationed in Metropolitan France, with some units in the overseas departments and territories (mainly in French Guiana).", " Mainland France1er Régiment Étranger (1er RE), based in Aubagne, France (HQ, selection and administration, other specific missions)Pionniers Sections of Tradition* 1er Régiment Étranger de Cavalerie (1er REC), based in , France 1er Régiment Étranger de Génie (1er REG), based in Laudun, FrancePionniers Groups* 2e Régiment Étranger d’Infanterie (2ème REI), based in Nîmes, France 2e Régiment Étranger de Génie (2ème REG), based in St Christol, FrancePionniers Groups* 2e Régiment Étranger de Parachutistes (2ème REP), based in Calvi, Corsica 4e Régiment Étranger (4èmeRE), based in Castelnaudary, FrancePionniers Groups* Groupement de Recrutement de la Légion Etrangère (G.R.L.E), based at Fort de Nogent, France** 13e Demi-Brigade de Légion Étrangère (13ème DBLE), based in La Cavalerie, France* French Overseas Territories and Overseas Collectives, France 3e Régiment Étranger d’Infanterie (3ème REI), based in French GuianaPionniers Groups* Détachement de Légion Étrangère de Mayotte (DLEM)===Current deployments===These are the following deployments:Note: English names for countries or territories are in parentheses.", "* ''Opérations extérieures'' (other than at home bases or on standard duties) Guyane (French Guiana) Mission de presence sur l'Oyapok – '''Protection''' – 3ème REI Protection CSG; 2ème REP / CEA; 2ème REI / 4ème compagnie Afghanistan '''Intervention''' 1er REC / 3° escadron (1 peloton); 2ème REI / 4° compagnie OMLT; 2ème REG / 1ère compagnie Mayotte '''Prevention''' DLEM Mission de souveraineté Gabon '''Prevention''' 2ème REP / 3ème compagnie – 4ème compagnie+UnitsAcronym French name English meaning CEA Compagnie d'éclairage et d'appuis Reconnaissance and Support Company CSS Compagnie de Soutien et de Service Support and Service Company CAC Compagnie anti-char Anti-Tank Company UCL Unité de commandement et de logistique Unit of Command and Logistics EMT État-major tactique Tactical Command Post NEDEX Neutralisation des explosifs Explosive Ordnance Disposal OMLT Operational Mentoring and Liaison Team ''(The official name for this branch is in English)''=== DINOPS, PCG and Commandos ===* 2ème REP Commando Parachute Group (GCP); Pathfinders qualified in Direct Actions, Special Reconnaissance and IMEX.", "* 1er Régiment Étranger de Génie 1er REG; Parachute Underwater Demolition P.C.G Teams (Combat Engineer Divers, ), DINOPS Teams of Nautical Subaquatic Intervention Operational Detachment ().", "* 2e Régiment Étranger de Génie 2ème REG; Parachute Underwater Demolition P.C.G Teams (Combat Engineer Divers, ), DINOPS Teams of Nautical Subaquatic Intervention Operational Detachment () and Mountain Commando Group (GCM) in some cases as double specialties." ], [ "Composition", "The legionnaires are an integral part of the French Army.", "Today, they constitute some 7–8% of its strength (or 11% of the Ground Operational Forces, FOT, French Army operational units).The Foreign Legion is the only unit of the French Army open to people of any nationality.", "Most legionnaires still come from European countries but a growing percentage comes from Latin America and Asia.", "Most of the Foreign Legion's commissioned officers are French with approximately 10% being Legionnaires who have risen through the ranks.As of 2021, members come from 140 countries.", "Legionnaires were, in the past, forced to enlist under a pseudonym (\"declared identity\").", "This policy existed in order to allow recruits who wanted to restart their lives to enlist.", "The Legion held the belief that it was fairer to make all new recruits use declared identities.", "French citizens can enlist under a declared, fictitious, foreign citizenship (generally, a francophone one, often that of Belgium, Canada, or Switzerland).", "As of 20 September 2010, new recruits may enlist under their real identities or under declared identities.", "Recruits who do enlist with declared identities may, after one year's service, regularise their situations under their true identities.", "After serving in the Foreign Legion for three years, a legionnaire may apply for French citizenship.", "He must be serving under his real name, must have no problems with the authorities, and must have served with \"honour and fidelity\".While the Foreign Legion historically did not accept women in its ranks, there was one official female member, Susan Travers, an Englishwoman who joined Free French Forces during World War II and became a member of the Foreign Legion after the war, serving in Vietnam during the First Indochina War.", "Women were barred from service until 2000.===Membership by country===As of 2008, legionnaires came from 140 countries.", "The majority of enlisted men originate from outside France, while the majority of the officer corps consists of Frenchmen.", "Many recruits originate from Eastern Europe and Latin America.", "Neil Tweedie of ''The Daily Telegraph'' said that Germany traditionally provided many recruits, \"somewhat ironically given the Legion's bloody role in two world wars.", "\"==== Alsace-Lorraine ====Original nationalities of the Foreign Legion reflect the events in history at the time they join.", "Many former Wehrmacht personnel joined in the wake of World War II as many soldiers returning to civilian life found it hard to find reliable employment.", "Jean-Denis Lepage reports that \"The Foreign Legion discreetly recruited from German P.O.W.", "camps\", but adds that the number of these recruits has been subsequently exaggerated.", "Bernard B.", "Fall, who was a supporter of the French government, writing in the context of the First Indochina War, questioned the notion that the Foreign Legion was mainly German at that time, calling it:a canard...with the sub-variant that all those Germans were at least SS generals and other much wanted war criminals.", "As a rule, and in order to prevent any particular nation from making the Foreign Legion into a Praetorian Guard, any particular national component is kept at about 25 percent of the total.", "Even supposing (and this was the case, of course) that the French recruiters, in the eagerness for candidates would sign up Germans enlisting as Swiss, Austrian, Scandinavian and other nationalities of related ethnic background, it is unlikely that the number of Germans in the Foreign Legion ever exceeded 35 percent.", "Thus, without making an allowance for losses, rotation, discharges, etc., the maximum number of Germans fighting in Indochina at any one time reached perhaps 7,000 out of 278,000.As to the ex-Nazis, the early arrivals contained a number of them, none of whom were known to be war criminals.", "French intelligence saw to that.Since, in view of the rugged Indochinese climate, older men without previous tropical experience constituted more a liability than an asset, the average age of the Foreign Legion enlistees was about 23.At the time of the battle of Dien Bien Phu, any legionnaire of that age group was at the worst, in his \"Hitler Youth\" shorts when the Third Reich collapsed.The Foreign Legion accepts people enlisting under a nationality that is not their own.", "A proportion of the Swiss and Belgians are actually likely to be Frenchmen who wish to avoid detection.", "In addition many Alsatians are said to have joined the Foreign Legion when Alsace was part of the German Empire, and may have been recorded as German while considering themselves French.Regarding recruitment conditions within the Foreign Legion, see the official page (in English) dedicated to the subject: With regard to age limits, recruits can be accepted from ages ranging from 17½ (with parental consent) to 39½ years old.===Countries that allow post-Foreign Legion contract===In the European Union framework, post Legion enlistment is less clear.", "Denmark, Norway, Germany and Portugal allow post-Legion enlistment while The Netherlands has constitutional articles that forbid it.", "Rijkswet op het Nederlanderschap, Artikel 15, lid 1e, (In Dutch:) (that is: one can lose his Dutch nationality by accepting a foreign nationality or can lose his Dutch nationality by serving in the army of a foreign state that is engaged in a conflict against the Dutch Kingdom or one of its allies).", "The European Union twin threads seem to be recognized dual nationality status or restricting constitutional article.The United States allows post-Legion enlistment in its National Guard of career soldiers (up to the rank of captain) who are Green Card holders.Israel allows post-Legion enlistment.One of the biggest national groups in the Legion are Poles.", "Polish law allows service in a foreign army, but only after written permission from the Polish Ministry of National Defence." ], [ "Recruitment process", "'''Arrival''' 1 to 3 days in a Foreign Legion Information Center.", "Reception, information, and terms of contract.", "Afterwards transferred to Paris, Foreign Legion Recruitment Center.", "'''Pre-selection''' 1 to 4 days in a Foreign Legion Recruitment Center (Paris).", "Confirmation of motivation, initial medical check-up, finalising enlistment papers and signing of 5-year service contract.", "'''Selection''' 7 to 30 days in the Recruitment and Selection Center in Aubagne.", "Psychological and personality tests, logic tests (no education requirements), medical exam, physical condition tests, motivation and security interviews.", "Confirmation or denial of selection.", "'''Passed Selection''' Signing and handing-over of the five-year service contract.", "Incorporation into the Foreign Legion as a trainee.===Basic training===Legionnaires training in French GuianaWhile all rank and file members of the Legion are required to serve under \"Foreign Status\" (''à titre étranger''), even if they are French nationals, non-commissioned and commissioned officers can serve under either French or Foreign Status.", "Foreign Status NCOs and officers are exclusively promoted from the ranks and represent 10% of the officers corps of the Legion.", "French Status officers are either members of other units of the French Army attached to the Legion or promoted Legionnaires who have chosen to become French nationals.Basic training for the Foreign Legion is conducted in the 4th Foreign Regiment.", "This is an operational combat regiment which provides a training course of 15–17 weeks, before recruits are assigned to their operational units:* Initial training of 4–6 weeks at \"The Farm\" (''La Ferme'') – introduction to military lifestyle; outdoor and field activities.", "* ''Képi Blanc'' March (''Marche Képi Blanc'') – a 50-kilometer two-day march (25 km per day) in full kit, followed by the ''Képi Blanc'' ceremony on the 3rd day.", "* Technical and practical training (alternating with barracks and field training) – three weeks.", "* Mountain training (at Formiguères in the French Pyrenees) – one week.", "* Technical and practical training (alternating barracks and field training) – three weeks.", "* Examinations and obtention of the elementary technical certificate (CTE) – one week.", "* Raid March (''Marche Raid'') – a 120-kilometer final march, which must be completed in three days.", "* Light vehicle drivers education (drivers license) – one week.", "* Return to Aubagne before reporting to the assigned operational regiment – one week.Education in the French language (reading, writing and pronunciation) is taught on a daily basis throughout all of basic training." ], [ "Traditions", "As the Foreign Legion is composed of soldiers of different nationalities and backgrounds, it is necessary to develop an intense ''esprit de corps'', which is achieved through the development of camaraderie, specific traditions, the loyalty of its legionnaires, the quality of their training, and the pride of being a soldier in an elite unit.===Code of honour===The \"Legionnaire's Code of Honour\" is the Legion's creed, recited in French only.", "The Code of Honour was adopted in the 1980s.", "''Code d'honneur du légionnaire'' Legionnaire's Code of HonourArt.", "1 ''Légionnaire, tu es un volontaire, servant la France avec honneur et fidélité.''", "Legionnaire, you are a volunteer serving France with honour and loyalty.Art.", "2 ''Chaque légionnaire est ton frère d'armes, quelle que soit sa nationalité, sa race ou sa religion.", "Tu lui manifestes toujours la solidarité étroite qui doit unir les membres d'une même famille.''", "Each legionnaire is your brother in arms whatever his nationality, his race or his religion might be.", "You show him the same close solidarity that links the members of the same family.Art.", "3 ''Respectueux des traditions, attaché à tes chefs, la discipline et la camaraderie sont ta force, le courage et la loyauté tes vertus.''", "Respect for traditions, devotion to your leaders, discipline and comradeship are your strengths, courage and loyalty your virtues.Art.", "4 ''Fier de ton état de légionnaire, tu le montres dans ta tenue toujours élégante, ton comportement toujours digne mais modeste, ton casernement toujours net.''", "Proud of your status as legionnaire, you display this in your always impeccable uniform, your always dignified but modest behaviour, and your clean living quarters.Art.", "5 ''Soldat d'élite, tu t’entraînes avec rigueur, tu entretiens ton arme comme ton bien le plus précieux, tu as le souci constant de ta forme physique.''", "An elite soldier, you train rigorously, you maintain your weapon as your most precious possession, and you take constant care of your physical form.Art.", "6 ''La mission est sacrée, tu l'exécutes jusqu’au bout et, s'il le faut, en opérations, au péril de ta vie.''", "The mission is sacred, you carry it out until the end and, if necessary in the field, at the risk of your life.Art.", "7 ''Au combat, tu agis sans passion et sans haine, tu respectes les ennemis vaincus, tu n’abandonnes jamais ni tes morts, ni tes blessés, ni tes armes.''", "In combat, you act without passion and without hate, you respect defeated enemies, and you never abandon neither your dead, nor your wounded, nor your arms.Commemoration of the Battle of Camarón by the 1st Foreign Cavalry Regiment at the Roman Theatre of Orange.Regimental flags of the 1st Foreign Regiment and 2nd Regiments in Paris, 2003.=== Mottos =======''Honneur et Fidélité''====In contrast to all other French Army units, the motto embroidered on the Foreign Legion's regimental flags is not ''Honneur et Patrie'' (Honour and Fatherland) but ''Honneur et Fidélité'' (Honour and Fidelity).====''Legio Patria Nostra''====''Legio Patria Nostra'' (in French ''La Légion est notre Patrie'', in English ''The Legion is our Fatherland'') is the Latin motto of the Foreign Legion.", "The adoption of the Foreign Legion as a new \"Fatherland\" does not imply the repudiation by the legionnaire of his original nationality.", "The Foreign Legion is required to obtain the agreement of any legionnaire before he is placed in any situation where he might have to serve against his country of birth.====Regimental mottos====1er R.E: ''Honneur et Fidélité'' G.R.L.E: ''Honneur et Fidélité''1er REC: ''Honneur et Fidélité'' and ''Nec Pluribus Impar'' (''No other equal'')2e REP: ''Honneur et Fidélité'' and ''More Majorum'' (''in the manner, ways and traditions of our veterans foreign regiments) ''2e REI: ''Honneur et Fidélité'' and ''Être prêt'' (''Be ready'')2e REG: ''Honneur et Fidélité'' and ''Rien n'empêche'' (''Nothing prevents'')3e REI: ''Honneur et Fidélité'' and ''Legio Patria Nostra''4e R.E: ''Honneur et Fidélité'' and ''Creuset de la Légion et Régiment des fortes têtes'' (''The crucible of the Legion and the strong right minded regiment'')1e REG: ''Honneur et Fidélité'' and ''Ad Unum'' (''All to one end'' – for the regiment ''until the last one'')13e DBLE: ''Honneur et Fidélité'' and ''More Majorum'' (\"in the manner, ways and traditions of our veterans foreign regiments\")DLEM: ''Honneur et Fidélité'' and ''Pericula Ludus'' (''Dangers game'' – for the regiment ''To Danger is my pleasure'' of the 2nd Foreign Cavalry Regiment)===Insignia==='''Regiment''''''Colors''''''Insignia''''''Beret Insignia''''''Tenure''''''Notable Commandants'''''Le Commandementde la Légion étrangère'' (C.O.M.L.E)60x60px1931–presentgénéral Paul-Frédéric Rolletgénéral Raoul Magrin-Vernereygénéral Jean-Claude Coullon1st Foreign Regiment (1er R.E.", ")90px 84x84px60px 1841–presentFrançois Achille BazaineColonel Raphaël VienotPierre Joseph JeanningrosCaptain Jean DanjouPeter I of SerbiaHerbert Kitchener, 1st Earl KitchenerPaul-Frédéric Rollet Commandant Pierre SegrétainLieutenant Colonel Pierre Paul Jeanpierre4th Foreign Regiment (4ème R.E.", ")90px82x82px60x60px1920–19401941–19431948–19631976 –present Foreign Legion Recruiting Group (G.R.L.E)90px60px60x60px2007–presentLegion Pionniers(Pionniers de La Légion Etrangère) 1st Foreign Regiment Pionniers Sections of Tradition1st Foreign Engineer RegimentPionniers Groups 2nd Foreign Engineer Regiment Pionniers Groups3rd Foreign Infantry RegimentPionniers Groups4th Foreign RegimentPionniers GroupsForeign Legion Detachment in Mayotte Pionniers Groups90px90px1e RE1e REG2e REG3e RE4e RED.L.E.M1831–present Communal Depot of the Foreign Regiments (D.C.R.E)90px60px1933–19551955–present Colonel Louis-Antoine Gaultier1st Foreign Infantry Regiment (1er R.E.I)90px1950–19551st Foreign Cavalry Regiment (1er R.E.C)90px69x69px'' Nec Pluribus Impar''74x74px 1921–present Foreign Air Supply Company (C.E.R.A)* 1951 Parachute Company of the 3rd Foreign Infantry Regiment (Para Co. du 3ème R.E.I)1948–19491st Foreign Parachute Battalion 1er BEP (1948–1955) Lieutenant Jacques Morin (Company Commander)Lieutenant Paul Arnaud de Foïard (Section-Platoon, Commander)1st Foreign Parachute Battalion (1er B.E.P) 1948–1955 Commandant Pierre Segrétain(1er BEP, I formation)Lieutenant Colonel Pierre Jeanpierre(1er BEP, I, II and III formations) Captain 1st Foreign Parachute Regiment (1er R.E.P)1955–1961 Lieutenant Colonel Pierre Jeanpierre Commandant Hélie de Saint Marc Captain Guy Rubin de Cervens1st Foreign Parachute Heavy Mortar Company (1ère C.E.P.M.L)1953–1954 Lieutenant Jacques Molinier Lieutenant Paul Turcy Lieutenant Erwan Bergot Lieutenant Jean Singland1st Foreign Engineer Regiment (1er R.E.G)''Ad Unum''60px 1999–present 2nd Foreign Engineer Regiment (2ème R.E.G)90px''Rien n'empêche ''60x60px1999–present2nd Foreign Cavalry Regiment (2ème R.E.C)60px 1939–19401945–19622nd Foreign Infantry Regiment (2ème R.E.I)90px''Être Prêt''68x68px 3 April 1841 – 1 April 19431 August 1945 – 1 January 19681 September 1972 – presentPatrice de MacMahon, Duke of MagentaFrançois Certain CanrobertJean-Luc CarbucciaColonel de ChabrièresPierre Joseph JeanningrosCaptain Jean Danjou Commandant Pierre Segrétain Lieutenant Colonel Pierre Paul Jeanpierre2nd Foreign Parachute Battalion (2ème B.E.P)1948–1955 Commandant Barthélémy Rémy Raffali Captain Georges Hamacek 2nd Foreign Parachute Regiment (2ème R.E.P)90px1955–present Lieutenant Colonel Paul Arnaud de Foïard2nd Marching Regiment of the 1st Foreign Regiment- 2èmeRM.1er RE (1914–1915)3rd Marching Regiment of the 1st Foreign Regiment- 3èmeRM.1erRE (1914–1915)4th Marching Regiment of the 1st Foreign Regiment- 4èmeRM.1erRE (1914–1915)2nd Marching Regiment of the 2nd Foreign Regiment- 2èmeRM.2èmeRE (1914–1915)Marching Regiment of the Foreign Legion (R.M.L.E)* 60px60px 1915–19201942–19453rd Foreign Infantry Regiment-present Colonel Paul-Frédéric RolletLieutenant-Colonel Peppino GaribaldiColonel Alphonse Van Hecke Eugene Bullard American poet Alan Seeger Swiss poet, French naturalized Blaise Cendrars Lieutenant Colonel Prince Count Aage of Rosenborg Italian writer, Curzio MalaparteLazare Ponticelli3rd Foreign Infantry Regiment (3ème R.E.I)11 November 1915 – presentMarching Regiments of Foreign Volunteers (RMVE)21st Marching Regiment of Foreign Volunteers- 21e R.M.V.E (1939–1940)22nd Marching Regiment of Foreign Volunteers- 22e R.M.V.E (1939–1940)23rd Marching Regiment of Foreign Volunteers- 23e R.M.V.E (1940)1939–19403rd Foreign Parachute Battalion (3ème B.E.P) 1948–1955 Captain Darmuzai 3rd Foreign Parachute Regiment (3ème R.E.P)1955–1955 Captain Darmuzai 5th Foreign Infantry Regiment (5ème R.E.I)90px60px60px 1930–2000 6th Foreign Infantry Regiment (6ème R.E.I)90px60px''Ad Unum'' 1939–1940; 1949–1955 Commandant Pierre Segrétain Lieutenant Colonel Pierre Jeanpierre6th Foreign Engineer Regiment (6ème R.E.G)90px1984–19991999–1e REG11th Foreign Infantry Regiment (11ème R.E.I)1939–194012th Foreign Infantry Regiment (12ème R.E.I)1939–194013th Demi-Brigade of the Foreign Legion (13ème D.B.L.E)90px76x76px'' More Majorum''68x68px 1940–presentForeign Legion Detachment in Mayotte (D.L.E.M)60px''Pericula Ludus''60px60px1973–present" ], [ "Ranks", "All volunteers in the Foreign Legion begin their careers as basic legionnaires with one in four eventually becoming a ''sous-officier'' (non-commissioned officer).", "On joining, a new recruit receives a monthly salary of €1,380 in addition to food and lodgings.", "He is also given his own new rifle, which according to the lore of the ''Legion'' must never be left on a battlefield.", "Promotion is concurrent with the ranks in the French Army.chevrons of seniority, bugling during the Bastille Day Military Parade.Foreign Legion rankEquivalent rankNATO CodePeriod of serviceInsignia''Engagé Volontaire''Recruit –15 weeks basic training.", "None''Legionnaire 2e Classe''Private / 2nd Class LegionnaireOR-1Promoted after completion of training and ''Marche képi blanc'' (White Kepi march).", "None''Legionnaire 1e Classe''Private / 1st Class LegionnaireOR-2Promoted after ten months of service.80px''Caporal''CorporalOR-3Promotion possible after one year of service and completion of the ''Fonctionnaire Caporal'' (or Caporal \"Fut Fut\") course.", "Recruits selected for this course need to show good leadership skills during basic training.80px''Caporal-Chef''Senior CorporalOR-4Promotion after six years of service.80pxTable note: Command insignia in the Foreign Legion use gold lace or braid indicating infantry troops in the French Army.", "The ''Légion étrangère'' service color is green (for the now-defunct colonial ''Armée d'Afrique'') instead of red (regular infantry).===Non-commissioned and warrant officers===A dress uniform insignia for a ''Sous-officier''A ''dress uniform'''s insignia is composed of three components; rank emblem, regimental patch, and seniority chevrons.", "In the one pictured, the three upward pointing gold chevrons indicate a ''Sergent-chef''.", "The diamond-shaped regimental patch (''Écusson'') is formed of three green diamond shapes surrounding a grenade emblem, with the three diamonds indicating a Colonial unit, in comparison to one diamond for a unit of Regulars, or two diamonds for a Reserves unit.", "The Légion grenade emblem has seven flames rather than the usual five, and the two downward pointing seniority chevrons indicate at least 10 years of service.", "Some ''Caporal''s-''Chef'' may have as many as six seniority chevrons for 30 or more years of service.", "This style of insignia is worn only on the left sleeve of the dress uniform, while a similar-sized insignia without the regimental diamond and seniority chevrons is worn on the right sleeve.", "An exception exists for the right sleeve insignia for the Pioneer units, which incorporates a gold or green Pioneer emblem, depending on rank, but not the seniority chevrons, which are worn on the left sleeve insignia below the regimental diamond as previously described.", "''Sous-officiers'' (NCOs) including warrant officers account for 25% of the current Foreign Legion's total manpower.Foreign Legion rankEquivalent rankNATO CodePeriod of serviceInsignia''Sergent''SergeantOR-5Promotion after three years of service as ''Caporal''.80px''Sergent-Chef''Senior SergeantOR-6Promotion after three years as ''Sergent'' and from seven to fourteen years of service.80px''Adjudant''Warrant OfficerOR-8Promotion after three years as ''Sergent-Chef''.80px''Adjudant-Chef''Chief Warrant OfficerOR-9Promotion after four years as ''Adjudant'' and at least fourteen years of service.80px''Major''Major OR-9Promotion after either passing an examination or without an examination after a minimum of fourteen years service.80px===Commissioned officers===Most officers are regulars of the French Army though roughly 10% are former non-commissioned officers promoted from the ranks.Foreign Legion rankEquivalent rankNATO CodeCommand responsibilityInsignia''Aspirant''Officer DesignateOF-DOfficer Designate.", "Technically it is not a commissioned rank but it is still treated in all respects as one.", "Aspirants are either officers in training or volunteers serving as temporary officers.", "S/He may afterwards apply to obtain permanent commissioned status as a Sous-lieutenant.50px''Sous-Lieutenant''Second lieutenantOF-1Junior section leader80px''Lieutenant''First lieutenantOF-1Platoon commander80px''Capitaine''CaptainOF-2Company commander80px''Commandant''MajorOF-3Battalion commander80px''Lieutenant-Colonel''Lieutenant colonelOF-4Junior commander of a ''régiment'' or ''demi-brigade''80px''Colonel''ColonelOF-5 ''Régiment'' or ''demi-brigade'' commander80px''Général de brigade''Brigadier generalOF-6Commander of a brigade composed of ''régiment''s or ''demi-brigade''s.80px''Général de division''Divisional generalOF-7 Entire division or Army Corps of the French Foreign Legion(''Commandement de la Légion étrangère'')80px===Seniority chevrons===The Foreign Legion uses gold coloured chevrons (''chevrons d'ancienneté'') pointed downward to indicate seniority.", "Worn by ordinary legionnaires and non-commissioned officers beneath the rank insignia and regimental emblem only on the left sleeve of the dress uniform, each chevron denotes five years of service in the Legion.", "Seniority chevrons are not worn by commissioned officers.===Honorary ranks===Honorary ranks have been awarded by the French Army to individuals credited with exceptional acts of courage since 1796.In the Foreign Legion, General Paul-Frédéric Rollet introduced the practice of awarding honorary Legion ranks to distinguished individuals, both civilian and military, in the early 20th century.Recipients of these honorary appointments had participated with units of the Legion on active service in an exemplary manner, or had rendered exceptional service to the Legion in non-combat situations.", "More than 1,200 individuals have been granted honorary ranks in the Legion ''pour services éminent''.", "The majority of these awards have been made to military personnel in wartime, earning titles such as ''Legionnaire d'Honneur'' or ''Sergent-Chef de Légion d'honneur'', while other recipients have included nurses, journalists, painters, and ministers who have rendered meritorious service to the Foreign Legion." ], [ "Pioneers", "Pioneers of the 1st Foreign Regiment.The ''Pionniers'' (pioneers) are the combat engineers and a traditional unit of the Foreign Legion.", "The sapper traditionally sport large beards, wear leather aprons and gloves and hold axes.", "The sappers were very common in European armies during the Napoleonic Era but progressively disappeared during the 19th century.", "The French Army, including the Legion disbanded its regimental sapper platoons in 1870.However, in 1931 one of a number of traditions restored to mark the hundredth anniversary of the Legion's founding was the reestablishment of its bearded ''Pionniers''.In the French Army, since the 18th century, every infantry regiment included a small detachment of pioneers.", "In addition to undertaking road building and entrenchment work, such units were tasked with using their axes and shovels to clear obstacles under enemy fire opening the way for the rest of the infantry.", "The danger of such missions was recognised by allowing certain privileges, such as being authorised to wear beards.The current pioneer platoon of the Foreign Legion is provided by the Legion depot and headquarters regiment for public ceremonies.", "The unit has reintroduced the symbols of the Napoleonic sappers: the beard, the axe, the leather apron, the crossed-axes insignia and the leather gloves.", "When parades of the Foreign Legion are opened by this unit, it is to commemorate the traditional role of the sappers \"opening the way\" for the troops." ], [ "Marching Cadences and Songs", "Because of its slower pace, the Foreign Legion is always the last unit marching in any parade.Also notable is the marching pace of the Foreign Legion.", "In comparison to the 116-step-per-minute pace of other French units, the Foreign Legion has an 88-step-per-minute marching speed.", "It is also referred to by Legionnaires as the \"crawl\".", "This can be seen at ceremonial parades and public displays attended by the Foreign Legion, particularly while parading in Paris on 14 July (Bastille Day Military Parade).", "Because of the impressively slow pace, the Foreign Legion is always the last unit marching in any parade.", "The Foreign Legion is normally accompanied by its own band, which traditionally plays the march of any one of the Foreign Legion's regiments, except that of the unit actually on parade.", "The regimental song of each unit and \"Le Boudin\" is sung by legionnaires standing at attention.", "Also, because the Foreign Legion must always stay together, it does not break formation into two when approaching the presidential grandstand, as other French military units do, in order to preserve the unity of the legion.Contrary to popular belief, the adoption of the Foreign Legion's slow marching speed was not due to a need to preserve energy and fluids during long marches under the hot Algerian sun.", "Its exact origins are unclear, but the official explanation is that although the pace regulation does not seem to have been instituted before 1945, it hails back to the slow marching pace of the Ancien Régime, and its reintroduction was a \"return to traditional roots\".", "This was in fact, the march step of the Foreign Legion's ancestor units – the ''Régiments Étrangers'' or Foreign Regiments of the ''Ancien Régime'' French Army, the ''Grande Armée''s foreign units, and the pre-1831 foreign regiments.===Marching songs=======\"''Le Boudin''\"====The Foreign Legion has its own military band.", "\"''Le Boudin''\" is the marching song of the Foreign Legion.====Other songs==== \"''Non, Je Ne Regrette Rien''\", 1st Foreign Parachute Regiment* \"''Sous Le Ciel de Paris''\", ''The Choir of the French Foreign Legion''* \"''Anne Marie du 3e''\" REI (in German) * \"''Adieu, adieu''\"* \"''Aux légionnaires''\"* \"''Anne Marie du 2e REI''\"* \"''''\"* \"''Chant de l'Oignon''\"* \"''Chant du quatrième escadron''\"* \"''Chez nous au 3e''\"* \"''C'est le 4''\"* \"''Connaissez-vous ces hommes''\"* \"''Contre les Viêts''\" (song of the 13th Demi-Brigade of the Foreign Legion after having been the marching song adopted by the 1st Foreign Parachute Regiment) * \"''Cravate verte et Képi blanc''\"* \"''Dans la brume, la rocaille''\"* \"''Défilé du 3e REI''\"* \"''C'était un Edelweiss''\"* \"''Écho''\"* \"''En Afrique''\"* \"''En Algérie''\" (1er RE)* \"''Es steht eine Mühle''\" (in German)* \"''Eugénie''\"* \"''Les Képis Blancs''\" (1e RE)* \"''Honneur, Fidélité''\"* \"''Ich hatt' einen Kameraden''\" (in German)* \"''Il est un moulin''\"* \"''J'avais un camarade''\"* \"''Kameraden (in German)''\"* \"''La colonne''\" (1er REC)* \"''La Légion marche''\" (2e REP)* \"''La lune est claire''\"* \"''Le Caïd''\"* \"''''\"* \"''Il y a des cailloux sur toutes les routes''\"* \"''Le fanion de la Légion''\"* \"''Le Soleil brille''\"* \"''Le front haut et l'âme fière''\" (5e RE)* \"''Légionnaire de l'Afrique''\"* \"''''\"* \"''Monica''\"* \"''Sous le Soleil brûlant d'Afrique''\" (13e DBLE)* \"''Nous sommes tous des volontaires''\" (1er RE)* \"''Nous sommes de la Légion''\"* \"''La petite piste''\"* \"''Pour faire un vrai légionnaire''\"* \"''Premier chant du 1er REC''\"* \"''Quand on an une fille dans l'cuir''\"* \"''Rien n'empêche''\" (2er REG)* \"''Sapeur, mineurs et bâtisseurs''\" (6e REG)* \"''Soldats de la Légion étrangère''\"* \"''Souvenirs qui passe''\"* \"''Suzanna''\"* \"''The Windmill''\"* \"''Venu volontaire''\"* \"''Véronica''\"" ], [ "Uniform", "From its foundation until World War I the Foreign Legion normally wore the uniform of the French line infantry for parade with a few special distinctions.", "Essentially this consisted of a dark blue coat (later tunic) worn with red trousers.", "The field uniform was often modified under the influence of the extremes of climate and terrain in which the Foreign Legion served.", "Shakos were soon replaced by the light cloth kepi, which was far more suitable for North African conditions.", "The practice of wearing heavy ''capotes'' (greatcoats) on the march and ''vestes'' (short hip-length jackets) as working dress in barracks was followed by the Foreign Legion from its establishment.One short lived aberration was the wearing of green uniforms in 1856 by Foreign Legion units recruited in Switzerland for service in the Crimean War.", "In the Crimea itself (1854–59) a hooded coat and red or blue waist sashes were adopted for winter dress, while during the Mexican Intervention (1863–65) straw hats or sombreros were sometimes substituted for the kepi.", "When the latter was worn it was usually covered with a white \"havelock\" (linen cover) – the predecessor of the white kepi that was to become a symbol of the Foreign Legion.", "Foreign Legion units serving in France during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71 were distinguishable only by minor details of insignia from the bulk of the French infantry.", "However subsequent colonial campaigns saw an increasing use of special garments for hot weather wear such as collarless ''keo'' blouses in Tonkin 1884–85, khaki drill jackets in Dahomey (1892) and drab covered topees worn with all-white fatigue dress in Madagascar (1895).282x282pxIn the early 20th century the legionnaire wore a red kepi with blue band and piping, dark blue tunic with red collar, red cuff patches, and red trousers.", "Distinctive features were the green epaulettes (replacing the red of the line) worn with red woollen fringes; plus the embroidered Legion badge of a red flaming grenade, worn on the kepi front instead of a regimental number.", "In the field a light khaki cover was worn over the kepi, sometimes with a protective neck curtain attached.", "The standard medium-blue double breasted greatcoat (''capote'') of the French infantry was worn, usually buttoned back to free the legs for marching.", "From the 1830s the legionnaires had worn a broad blue woollen sash around the waist, like other European units of the French Army of Africa (such as the Zouaves or the Chasseurs d'Afrique), while indigenous units of the Army of Africa (spahis and tirailleurs) wore red sashes.", "White linen trousers tucked into short leather leggings were substituted for red serge in hot weather.", "This was the origin of the \"Beau Geste\" image.In barracks a white bleached kepi cover was often worn together with a short dark blue jacket (\"veste\") or white blouse plus white trousers.", "The original kepi cover was khaki and due to constant washing turned white quickly.", "The white or khaki kepi cover was not unique to the Foreign Legion at this stage but was commonly seen amongst other French units in North Africa.", "It later became particularly identified with the Foreign Legion as the unit most likely to serve at remote frontier posts (other than locally recruited tirailleurs who wore fezzes or turbans).", "The variances of climate in North Africa led the French Army to the sensible expedient of letting local commanders decide on the appropriate \"tenue de jour\" (uniform of the day) according to circumstances.", "Thus a legionnaire might parade or walk out in blue tunic and white trousers in hot weather, blue tunic and red trousers in normal temperatures or wear the blue greatcoat with red trousers under colder conditions.", "The sash could be worn with greatcoat, blouse or veste but not with the tunic.", "Epaulettes were a detachable dress item worn only with tunic or greatcoat for parade or off duty wear.A drawing showing French Foreign Legion troops in action against tribesmen in Morocco in 1908.Officers wore the same dark blue (almost black) tunics as those of their colleagues in the French line regiments, except that black replaced red as a facing colour on collar and cuffs.", "Gold fringed epaulettes were worn for full dress and rank was shown by the number of gold rings on both kepi and cuffs.", "Trousers were red with black stripes or white according to occasion or conditions.", "All-white or light khaki uniforms (from as early as the 1890s) were often worn in the field or for ordinary duties in barracks.", "Non-commissioned officers were distinguished by red or gold diagonal stripes on the lower sleeves of tunics, vestes and greatcoats.", "Small detachable stripes were buttoned on to the front of the white shirt-like blouse.Prior to 1914 units in Indo-China wore white or khaki Colonial Infantry uniforms with Foreign Legion insignia, to overcome supply difficulties.", "This dress included a white sun helmet of a model that was also issued to Foreign Legion units serving in the outposts of Southern Algeria, though never popular with its wearers.", "During the initial months of World War I, Foreign Legion units serving in France wore the standard blue greatcoat and red trousers of the French line infantry, distinguished only by collar patches of the same blue as the capote, instead of red.", "After a short period in sky-blue the Foreign Legion adopted khaki, in common with other units of the ''Armée d'Afrique'', with steel helmets, from early 1916.A mustard shade of khaki drill had been worn on active service in Morocco from 1909, replacing the classic blue and white.", "The latter continued to be worn in the relatively peaceful conditions of Algeria throughout World War I, although increasingly replaced by khaki drill.", "The pre-1914 blue and red uniforms could still be occasionally seen as garrison dress in Algeria until stocks were used up about 1919.During the early 1920s plain khaki drill uniforms of a standard pattern became universal issue for the Foreign Legion with only the red and blue kepi (with or without a cover) and green collar braiding to distinguish the Legionnaire from other French soldiers serving in North African and Indo-China.", "The neck curtain ceased to be worn from about 1915, although it survived in the newly raised Foreign Legion Cavalry Regiment into the 1920s.", "The white blouse (''bourgeron'') and trousers dating from 1882 were retained for fatigue wear until the 1930s.At the time of the Foreign Legion's centennial in 1931, a number of traditional features were reintroduced at the initiative of the then commander Colonel Rollet.", "These included the blue sash and green/red epaulettes.", "In 1939 the white covered kepi won recognition as the official headdress of the Foreign Legion to be worn on most occasions, rather than simply as a means of reflecting heat and protecting the blue and red material underneath.", "The Third Foreign Infantry Regiment adopted white tunics and trousers for walking-out dress during the 1930sand all Foreign Legion officers were required to obtain full dress uniforms in the pre-war colours of black and red from 1932 to 1939.During World War II the Foreign Legion wore a wide range of uniform styles depending on supply sources.", "These ranged from the heavy capotes and Adrian helmets of 1940 through to British battledress and American field uniforms from 1943 to 1945.The white kepi was stubbornly retained whenever possible.White kepi (''Képi blanc'') of the Foreign LegionFrom 1940 until 1963 the Foreign Legion maintained four Saharan Companies (''Compagnies Sahariennes'') as part of the French forces used to patrol and police the desert regions to the south of Morocco and Algeria.", "Special uniforms were developed for these units, modeled on those of the French officered Camel Corps (''Méharistes'') having prime responsibility for the Sahara.", "In full dress these included black or white zouave style trousers, worn with white tunics and long flowing cloaks.", "The Legion companies maintained their separate identity by retaining their distinctive kepis, sashes and fringed epaulettes.The white kepis, together with the sash and epaulettes survive in the Foreign Legion's modern parade dress.", "Since the 1990s the modern kepi has been made wholly of white material rather than simply worn with a white cover.", "Officers and senior noncommissioned officers still wear their kepis in the pre-1939 colours of dark blue and red.", "A green tie and (for officers) a green waistcoat recall the traditional branch colour of the Foreign Legion.", "From 1959 a green beret (previously worn only by the legion's paratroopers) became the universal ordinary duty headdress, with the kepi reserved for parade and off duty wear.", "Other items of currently worn dress are the standard issue of the French Army." ], [ "Equipment", "The Legion is basically equipped with the same equipment as similar units elsewhere in the French Army.", "These include:* The FAMAS assault rifle, a French-made automatic bullpup-style rifle, chambered in the 5.56×45mm NATO round.", "The FAMAS is being replaced by the Heckler & Koch HK416.The 13e DBLE, was the first French Army regiment to use the new rifle.", "* The SPECTRA is a ballistic helmet, designed by the French military, fitted with real-time positioning and information system, and with light amplifiers for night vision.", "* The FÉLIN suit, an infantry combat system that combines ample pouches, reinforced body protections and a portable electronic platform." ], [ "Command", "=== French Foreign Legion command (1931–1984) ======= Inspector Tenure ====;''Inspection de la Légion étrangère (I.L.E)'''''Name''''''Portrait''''''Rank''''''Tenure''''''Note'''Paul-Frédéric Rollet100px Général 1931–1935Raoul Magrin-Vernerey Général 1948–1950==== Autonomous Group Tenure ====; ''Groupement autonome de la Légion étrangère (G.A.L.E)'''''Name''''''Portrait''''''Rank''''''Tenure''''''Note'''Jean Olié100pxGénéral1950Paul Gardy–Général1951==== Command Tenure ====; ''Commandement de la Légion étrangère (C.O.L.E)'''''Name''''''Portrait''''''Rank''''''Tenure''''''Note'''René Lennuyeux–Général1955colonel then Général ==== Technical Inspection Tenure ====;''Inspection technique de la Légion étrangère (I.T.L.E)'''''Name''''''Portrait''''''Rank''''''Tenure''''''Note'''René Lennuyeux–Général1957Paul Gardy–Général1958René Morel (Légion étrangère)–Général1960Jacques Lefort–Général1962==== Groupment Tenure ====; ''Groupement de la Légion étrangère (G.L.E)'''''Name''''''Portrait''''''Rank''''''Tenure''''''Note'''Marcel Letestu–Général1972Gustave Fourreau–Général1973Bernard Goupil–Général1976Paul Lardry–Général1980Jean-Claude Coullon –Général1982 === Commandement de la Légion Étrangère (1984–present) ======= Command Tenure ====; ''Commandement de la Légion étrangère (C.O.M.L.E)'''''#''''''Name''''''Portrait''''''Rank''''''Tenure''''''Note'''1Jean-Claude Coullon–Général19842Jean Louis Roué –Général1985 3Raymond Le Corre –Général19884Bernard Colcomb –Général19925Christian Piquemal–Général19946Bernard Grail –Général19997Jean-Louis Franceschi –Général20028Bruno Dary 100pxGénéral20049Louis Pichot de Champfleury –Général200610Alain Bouquin–Général200911Christophe de Saint-Chamas–Général201112Jean Maurin–Général201413Denis Mistral\|Général201814Alain Lardet\|Général202015Cyrille Youchtchenko\|Général2023" ], [ "Legacy", "Beyond its reputation as an elite unit often engaged in serious fighting, the recruitment practices of the Foreign Legion have also led to a somewhat romanticised view of it being a place for disgraced or \"wronged\" men looking to leave behind their old lives and start new ones.", "This view of the legion is common in literature, and has been used for dramatic effect in many films, not the least of which are the several versions of ''Beau Geste''.", "Three songs by Edith Piaf, most notably \"Non, je ne regrette rien\" (No, I regret nothing), became associated with the legion, during the 1960s when members of the Legion were accused of being implicated in a failed coup d'état during the Algerian War.", "Today it is still a popular Legion \"chant\" sung when on parade, adapting it to their unique marching cadence of 88 steps to the minute.", "Various fictional portrayals and references to the legion have been made over the years, such as in film, television, music, video games and art.", "The comic strip ''Crock'', which depicted life in the legion, ran from 1975 to 2012.===Emulation by other countries=======Chinese Ever Victorious Army====The Ever Victorious Army was the name given to a Chinese imperial army in the late 19th century.", "Commanded by Frederick Townsend Ward, the new force originally comprised about 200 mostly European mercenaries, recruited in the Shanghai area from sailors, deserters and adventurers.", "Many were dismissed in the summer of 1861, but the remainder became the officers of the Chinese soldiers recruited mainly in and around Sungkiang (Songjiang).", "The Chinese troops were increased to 3,000 by May 1862, all equipped with Western firearms and equipment by the British authorities in Shanghai.", "Throughout its four-year existence the Ever Victorious Army was mainly to operate within a thirty-mile radius of Shanghai.", "It was disbanded in May 1864 with 104 foreign officers and 2,288 Chinese soldiers being paid off.", "The bulk of the artillery and some infantry transferred to the Chinese Imperial forces.", "It was the first Chinese army trained in European techniques, tactics, and strategy.====Israeli Mahal====In Israel, Mahal (, an acronym for ''Mitnadvei Ḥutz LaAretz'', which means ''Volunteers from outside the Land of Israel'') is a term designating non-Israelis serving in the Israeli military.", "The term originates with the approximately 4,000 both Jewish and non-Jewish volunteers who went to Israel to fight in the 1948 Arab–Israeli War including Aliyah Bet.", "The original Mahalniks were mostly World War II veterans who had previously served in the American and British armed forces.Today, there is a program, Garin Tzabar, within the Israeli Ministry of Defense that administers the enlistment of non-Israeli citizens in the country's armed forces.", "Programs enable foreigners to join the Israel Defense Forces if they are of Jewish descent (which is defined as at least one grandparent).====Netherlands KNIL Army====Though not named \"Foreign Legion\", the Dutch Koninklijk Nederlandsch-Indische Leger (KNIL), or Royal Dutch (East) Indies Army (in reference to the Dutch East Indies, now Indonesia), was created in 1830, a year before the French Foreign Legion, and is therefore not an emulation but an entirely original idea and had a similar recruitment policy.", "It stopped being an army of foreigners around 1900 when recruitment was restricted to Dutch citizens and to the indigenous peoples of the Dutch East Indies.", "The KNIL was finally disbanded on 26 July 1950, seven months after the Netherlands formally recognised Indonesia as a sovereign state, and almost five years after Indonesia declared its independence.====Rhodesian Light Infantry and 7 Independent Company====During the Rhodesian Bush War of the 1960s and 1970s, the Rhodesian Security Forces enlisted volunteers from overseas on the same pay and conditions of service as locally based regulars.", "The vast majority of the Rhodesian Army's foreigners joined the Rhodesian Light Infantry (RLI), a heliborne commando regiment with a glamorous international reputation; this unit became colloquially known as the \"Rhodesian foreign legion\" as a result, even though foreigners never made up more than about a third of its men.", "According to Chris Cocks, an RLI veteran, \"the RLI was a mirror of the French Foreign Legion, in that recruiters paid little heed as to a man's past and asked no questions.", "... And like the Foreign Legion, once in the ranks, a man's past was irrelevant.\"", "Just as French Foreign Legionnaires must speak French, the Rhodesian Army required its foreigners to be English-speakers.", "Many of them were professional soldiers, attracted by the regiment's reputation—mostly former British soldiers, or Vietnam veterans from the United States, Australian and New Zealand forces—and these became a key part of the unit.", "Others, with no military experience, were often motivated to join the Rhodesian Army by their opposition to communism, or a desire for adventure or to escape the past.After the Rhodesians' overseas recruiting campaign for English-speakers, started in 1974, proved successful, they began recruiting French-speakers as well, in 1977.These francophone recruits were placed in their own unit, 7 Independent Company, Rhodesia Regiment, which was commanded by French-speaking officers and operated entirely in French.", "The experiment was not generally considered a success by the Rhodesian commanders, however, and the company was disbanded in early 1978.====Russian \"Foreign Legion\"====In 2010 the service conditions of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation changed to allow foreigners.", "The actual term Russian \"Foreign Legion\" is a colloquial expression without any official recognition.", "Under the plan, foreigners without dual citizenship are able to sign up for five-year contracts and will be eligible for Russian citizenship after serving three years.", "Experts say the change opens the way for Commonwealth of Independent States citizens to get fast-track Russian citizenship, and counter the effects of Russia's demographic crisis on its army recruitment.", "'''Donetsk & Luhansk Peoples Republic \"Novo-Russia Foreign Legion\"'''After the 2014 Russian Annexation of Crimea and the succeeding war in the Donbass, the separatist states of Donetsk and Luhansk peoples republics had a manpower shortage in their army which resulted in a campaign to recruit foreigners who were ideologically aligned to Russia to come fight for them.", "this resulted in the formation of the Novo-Russia Foreign legion which was made as \"the new French foreign legion\" and resulted in \"Hundreds flocking\" to the Donbass to fight, prominent separatist figure and American, Russell Bentley or \"Tex\", stated that \"We have Spaniards, we have guys from Colombia, India, Italy, France.", "I'm not the only American here either.", "There are also many Serbian fighters\".", "Ukraine reported that in 2015 around 30,000 foreign fighters were fighting for the separatist with the main nationalities being Russian and Serbian, with westerners making up a minority of fighters.", "many of whom have faced prosecution upon returning to their home countries such as in February 2015 eight Spanish's nationals were arrested upon returning to Spain from the Donbass.", "after the 2022 Russian Invasion of Ukraine it is unclear if this unit still exists.====Spanish \"Foreign Legion\"====The Spanish ''Tercio de Extranjeros'' was created in 1920, in direct emulation of the French Foreign Legion.", "It subsequently had a significant role in Spain's colonial wars in Morocco and in the Spanish Civil War on the Nationalist side.", "The Spanish Foreign Legion recruited foreigners until 1986 but unlike its French model, the number of non-Spanish recruits never exceeded 25%, most of these from Latin America.", "It is now called the ''Spanish Legion'' and has been involved in several modern conflicts and operations, including Afghanistan and the UN Mission in Lebanon UNIFIL .====Ukrainian International Legion & Georgian Legion====The Georgian Legion was formed fighting on the side of Ukraine in the war in Donbas and the Russo-Ukrainian War.", "The unit was organized in 2014, and in 2016 it was transferred under the control of the Ukrainian Army, under the 25th Mechanized Infantry Battalion \"Kyiv Rus\".", "Although formed by mostly ethnic Georgian volunteers, and commanded by veteran Georgian officer Mamuka Mamulashvili, the legion was noted as being particularly good at recruiting Americans; before the formation of the International Legion of Ukraine in 2022, most foreign fighters served the Georgian Legion.In response to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, the government of Ukraine quickly established a component of its Territorial Defense Forces consisting of volunteers from foreign countries.", "Within the International Legion, some single nationality battalions were established to avoid language barriers in order to facilitate their rapid response to the invasion." ], [ "Notable members", "''The following is a list of notable people who are or were members of the Foreign Legion:''Jean Danjou – Commander at the Battle of Camarón.", "Mamady Doumbouya – Guinean military officer who led the 2021 Guinean coup d'état and is currently Guinea's head of state acting as the Chairman of the National Committee of Reconciliation and Development.", "Roger FaulquesAnte Gotovina Aarne JuutilainenJean-Marie Le PenPatrice MacMahonPeter OrtizGeorge Edward MasseeAlan SeegerSusan TraversAly KhanErnst JüngerHenri, Count of Paris (1908–1999)Prince Aage, Count of RosenborgLouis, Prince Napoléon" ], [ "See also", "* Airborne units of France* Brigade of Gurkhas* List of battles involving the Foreign Legion** List of Foreign Legionnaires* Foreign Legion Museum* Wild Geese – Irish soldiers who fought for France* List of militaries that recruit foreigners* Spanish Legion* International Legion* International Brigades* Memorial to the American Volunteers, Paris* Lafayette Escadrille, a World War I volunteer air squadron* ''Beau Geste'', a novel (with many film adaptations)* James Waddell, a New Zealander, highly decorated officer* Count Aage of Rosenborg, a Danish Prince who served in the Foreign Legion and died with the rank of lieutenant-colonel" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * Simon Murray, ''Legionnaire: An Englishman in the French Foreign Legion'', Sidgwick & Jackson, 1978.", "* Roger Rousseau, ''The French Foreign Legion in Kolwezi'', 2006.", "* * Chris Dickon, '' A Rendezvous with Death: Alan Seeger in Poetry, at War'', 2019 * Edward Morlae, '' A Soldier of the Legion'', 1916* John Bowe, '' Soldiers of the Legion'', 1918* Paul Ayres Rockwell, '' American Fighters in the Foreign Legion'', 1930* Jatczak Z., Schramm K., \"I regret nothing\", Warsaw 2021, ISBN 978-83-66687-15-8* Erwan Bergot, ''The French Foreign Legion'', Allan Wingate, 1975." ], [ "External links", "* Official Website * Official Website * French Foreign Legion Blog * Le Musée de la Légion étrangère (Foreign Legion museum)* Website about the French Daguet Division (First Gulf War 1990–1991) * Recrute Website – Recrute Website* Foreign Legion Information – unofficial website about the French Foreign Legion ;Books* In the Foreign Legion (1910) – by Erwin Rosen (born 1876)* Books on Legion from 1905 to Present" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Feedback" ], [ "Introduction", "A feedback loop where all outputs of a process are available as causal inputs to that process'''Feedback''' occurs when outputs of a system are routed back as inputs as part of a chain of cause-and-effect that forms a circuit or loop.", "The system can then be said to ''feed back'' into itself.", "The notion of cause-and-effect has to be handled carefully when applied to feedback systems:" ], [ "History", "Self-regulating mechanisms have existed since antiquity, and the idea of feedback had started to enter economic theory in Britain by the 18th century, but it was not at that time recognized as a universal abstraction and so did not have a name.The first ever known artificial feedback device was a float valve, for maintaining water at a constant level, invented in 270 BC in Alexandria, Egypt.", "This device illustrated the principle of feedback: a low water level opens the valve, the rising water then provides feedback into the system, closing the valve when the required level is reached.", "This then reoccurs in a circular fashion as the water level fluctuates.Centrifugal governors were used to regulate the distance and pressure between millstones in windmills since the 17th century.", "In 1788, James Watt designed his first centrifugal governor following a suggestion from his business partner Matthew Boulton, for use in the steam engines of their production.", "Early steam engines employed a purely reciprocating motion, and were used for pumping water – an application that could tolerate variations in the working speed, but the use of steam engines for other applications called for more precise control of the speed.In 1868, James Clerk Maxwell wrote a famous paper, \"On governors\", that is widely considered a classic in feedback control theory.", "This was a landmark paper on control theory and the mathematics of feedback.The verb phrase ''to feed back'', in the sense of returning to an earlier position in a mechanical process, was in use in the US by the 1860s, and in 1909, Nobel laureate Karl Ferdinand Braun used the term \"feed-back\" as a noun to refer to (undesired) coupling between components of an electronic circuit.By the end of 1912, researchers using early electronic amplifiers (audions) had discovered that deliberately coupling part of the output signal back to the input circuit would boost the amplification (through regeneration), but would also cause the audion to howl or sing.", "This action of feeding back of the signal from output to input gave rise to the use of the term \"feedback\" as a distinct word by 1920.The development of cybernetics from the 1940s onwards was centred around the study of circular causal feedback mechanisms.Over the years there has been some dispute as to the best definition of feedback.", "According to cybernetician Ashby (1956), mathematicians and theorists interested in the principles of feedback mechanisms prefer the definition of \"circularity of action\", which keeps the theory simple and consistent.", "For those with more practical aims, feedback should be a deliberate effect via some more tangible connection.Focusing on uses in management theory, Ramaprasad (1983) defines feedback generally as \"...information about the gap between the actual level and the reference level of a system parameter\" that is used to \"alter the gap in some way\".", "He emphasizes that the information by itself is not feedback unless translated into action." ], [ "Types", "===Positive and negative feedback===Maintaining a desired system performance despite disturbance using negative feedback to reduce system errorAn example of a negative feedback loop with goalsA positive feedback loop examplePositive feedback: If the signal feedback from output is in phase with the input signal, the feedback is called positive feedback.Negative feedback: If the signal feedback is out of phase by 180° with respect to the input signal, the feedback is called negative feedback.As an example of negative feedback, the diagram might represent a cruise control system in a car that matches a target speed such as the speed limit.", "The controlled system is the car; its input includes the combined torque from the engine and from the changing slope of the road (the disturbance).", "The car's speed (status) is measured by a speedometer.", "The error signal is the difference of the speed as measured by the speedometer from the target speed (set point).", "The controller interprets the speed to adjust the accelerator, commanding the fuel flow to the engine (the effector).", "The resulting change in engine torque, the feedback, combines with the torque exerted by the change of road grade to reduce the error in speed, minimising the changing slope.The terms \"positive\" and \"negative\" were first applied to feedback prior to WWII.", "The idea of positive feedback already existed in the 1920s when the regenerative circuit was made.", "Friis and Jensen (1924) described this circuit in a set of electronic amplifiers as a case where ''the \"feed-back\" action is positive'' in contrast to negative feed-back action, which they mentioned only in passing.", "Harold Stephen Black's classic 1934 paper first details the use of negative feedback in electronic amplifiers.", "According to Black:According to Mindell (2002) confusion in the terms arose shortly after this:Even before these terms were being used, James Clerk Maxwell had described their concept through several kinds of \"component motions\" associated with the centrifugal governors used in steam engines.", "He distinguished those that lead to a continued ''increase'' in a disturbance or the amplitude of a wave or oscillation, from those that lead to a ''decrease'' of the same quality.====Terminology====The terms positive and negative feedback are defined in different ways within different disciplines.# the change of the ''gap'' between reference and actual values of a parameter or trait, based on whether the gap is ''widening'' (positive) or ''narrowing'' (negative).# the valence of the ''action'' or ''effect'' that alters the gap, based on whether it makes the recipient or observer ''happy'' (positive) or ''unhappy'' (negative).The two definitions may be confusing, like when an incentive (reward) is used to boost poor performance (narrow a gap).", "Referring to definition 1, some authors use alternative terms, replacing ''positive'' and ''negative'' with ''self-reinforcing'' and ''self-correcting'', ''reinforcing'' and ''balancing'', ''discrepancy-enhancing'' and ''discrepancy-reducing'' or ''regenerative'' and ''degenerative'' respectively.", "And for definition 2, some authors promote describing the action or effect as ''positive'' and ''negative'' ''reinforcement'' or ''punishment'' rather than feedback.Yet even within a single discipline an example of feedback can be called either positive or negative, depending on how values are measured or referenced.This confusion may arise because feedback can be used to provide ''information'' or ''motivate'', and often has both a ''qualitative'' and a ''quantitative'' component.", "As Connellan and Zemke (1993) put it:====Limitations of negative and positive feedback====While simple systems can sometimes be described as one or the other type, many systems with feedback loops cannot be shoehorned into either type, and this is especially true when multiple loops are present.===Other types of feedback===In general, feedback systems can have many signals fed back and the feedback loop frequently contain mixtures of positive and negative feedback where positive and negative feedback can dominate at different frequencies or different points in the state space of a system.The term bipolar feedback has been coined to refer to biological systems where positive and negative feedback systems can interact, the output of one affecting the input of another, and vice versa.Some systems with feedback can have very complex behaviors such as chaotic behaviors in non-linear systems, while others have much more predictable behaviors, such as those that are used to make and design digital systems.Feedback is used extensively in digital systems.", "For example, binary counters and similar devices employ feedback where the current state and inputs are used to calculate a new state which is then fed back and clocked back into the device to update it." ], [ "Applications", "===Mathematics and dynamical systems===Feedback can give rise to incredibly complex behaviors.", "The alt=By using feedback properties, the behavior of a system can be altered to meet the needs of an application; systems can be made stable, responsive or held constant.", "It is shown that dynamical systems with a feedback experience an adaptation to the edge of chaos.=== Physics ===Physical systems present feedback through the mutual interactions of its parts.", "Feedback is also relevant for the regulation of experimental conditions, noise reduction, and signal control.", "The thermodynamics of feedback-controlled systems has intrigued physicist since the Maxwell's demon, with recent advances on the consequences for entropy reduction and performance increase.", "===Biology===In biological systems such as organisms, ecosystems, or the biosphere, most parameters must stay under control within a narrow range around a certain optimal level under certain environmental conditions.", "The deviation of the optimal value of the controlled parameter can result from the changes in internal and external environments.", "A change of some of the environmental conditions may also require change of that range to change for the system to function.", "The value of the parameter to maintain is recorded by a reception system and conveyed to a regulation module via an information channel.", "An example of this is insulin oscillations.Biological systems contain many types of regulatory circuits, both positive and negative.", "As in other contexts, ''positive'' and ''negative'' do not imply that the feedback causes ''good'' or ''bad'' effects.", "A negative feedback loop is one that tends to slow down a process, whereas the positive feedback loop tends to accelerate it.", "The mirror neurons are part of a social feedback system, when an observed action is \"mirrored\" by the brain—like a self-performed action.Normal tissue integrity is preserved by feedback interactions between diverse cell types mediated by adhesion molecules and secreted molecules that act as mediators; failure of key feedback mechanisms in cancer disrupts tissue function.In an injured or infected tissue, inflammatory mediators elicit feedback responses in cells, which alter gene expression, and change the groups of molecules expressed and secreted, including molecules that induce diverse cells to cooperate and restore tissue structure and function.", "This type of feedback is important because it enables coordination of immune responses and recovery from infections and injuries.", "During cancer, key elements of this feedback fail.", "This disrupts tissue function and immunity.Mechanisms of feedback were first elucidated in bacteria, where a nutrient elicits changes in some of their metabolic functions.Feedback is also central to the operations of genes and gene regulatory networks.", "Repressor (see Lac repressor) and activator proteins are used to create genetic operons, which were identified by François Jacob and Jacques Monod in 1961 as ''feedback loops''.", "These feedback loops may be positive (as in the case of the coupling between a sugar molecule and the proteins that import sugar into a bacterial cell), or negative (as is often the case in metabolic consumption).On a larger scale, feedback can have a stabilizing effect on animal populations even when profoundly affected by external changes, although time lags in feedback response can give rise to predator-prey cycles.In zymology, feedback serves as regulation of activity of an enzyme by its direct or downstream in the metabolic pathway (see Allosteric regulation).The hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis is largely controlled by positive and negative feedback, much of which is still unknown.In psychology, the body receives a stimulus from the environment or internally that causes the release of hormones.", "Release of hormones then may cause more of those hormones to be released, causing a positive feedback loop.", "This cycle is also found in certain behaviour.", "For example, \"shame loops\" occur in people who blush easily.", "When they realize that they are blushing, they become even more embarrassed, which leads to further blushing, and so on.===Climate science=== Some effects of global warming can either enhance (positive feedbacks) or inhibit (negative feedbacks) warming.", "Observations and modeling studies indicate that there is a net positive feedback to Earth's current global warming.The climate system is characterized by strong positive and negative feedback loops between processes that affect the state of the atmosphere, ocean, and land.", "A simple example is the ice–albedo positive feedback loop whereby melting snow exposes more dark ground (of lower albedo), which in turn absorbs heat and causes more snow to melt.===Control theory===Feedback is extensively used in control theory, using a variety of methods including state space (controls), full state feedback, and so forth.", "In the context of control theory, \"feedback\" is traditionally assumed to specify \"negative feedback\".The most common general-purpose controller using a control-loop feedback mechanism is a proportional-integral-derivative (PID) controller.", "Heuristically, the terms of a PID controller can be interpreted as corresponding to time: the proportional term depends on the ''present'' error, the integral term on the accumulation of ''past'' errors, and the derivative term is a prediction of ''future'' error, based on current rate of change.===Education===For feedback in the educational context, see corrective feedback.===Mechanical engineering===In ancient times, the float valve was used to regulate the flow of water in Greek and Roman water clocks; similar float valves are used to regulate fuel in a carburettor and also used to regulate tank water level in the flush toilet.The Dutch inventor Cornelius Drebbel (1572-1633) built thermostats (c1620) to control the temperature of chicken incubators and chemical furnaces.", "In 1745, the windmill was improved by blacksmith Edmund Lee, who added a fantail to keep the face of the windmill pointing into the wind.", "In 1787, Tom Mead regulated the rotation speed of a windmill by using a centrifugal pendulum to adjust the distance between the bedstone and the runner stone (i.e., to adjust the load).The use of the centrifugal governor by James Watt in 1788 to regulate the speed of his steam engine was one factor leading to the Industrial Revolution.", "Steam engines also use float valves and pressure release valves as mechanical regulation devices.", "A mathematical analysis of Watt's governor was done by James Clerk Maxwell in 1868.The ''Great Eastern'' was one of the largest steamships of its time and employed a steam powered rudder with feedback mechanism designed in 1866 by John McFarlane Gray.", "Joseph Farcot coined the word ''servo'' in 1873 to describe steam-powered steering systems.", "Hydraulic servos were later used to position guns.", "Elmer Ambrose Sperry of the Sperry Corporation designed the first autopilot in 1912.Nicolas Minorsky published a theoretical analysis of automatic ship steering in 1922 and described the PID controller.Internal combustion engines of the late 20th century employed mechanical feedback mechanisms such as the vacuum timing advance but mechanical feedback was replaced by electronic engine management systems once small, robust and powerful single-chip microcontrollers became affordable.===Electronic engineering===rightThe use of feedback is widespread in the design of electronic components such as amplifiers, oscillators, and stateful logic circuit elements such as flip-flops and counters.", "Electronic feedback systems are also very commonly used to control mechanical, thermal and other physical processes.If the signal is inverted on its way round the control loop, the system is said to have ''negative feedback''; otherwise, the feedback is said to be ''positive''.", "Negative feedback is often deliberately introduced to increase the stability and accuracy of a system by correcting or reducing the influence of unwanted changes.", "This scheme can fail if the input changes faster than the system can respond to it.", "When this happens, the lag in arrival of the correcting signal can result in over-correction, causing the output to oscillate or \"hunt\".", "While often an unwanted consequence of system behaviour, this effect is used deliberately in electronic oscillators.Harry Nyquist at Bell Labs derived the Nyquist stability criterion for determining the stability of feedback systems.", "An easier method, but less general, is to use Bode plots developed by Hendrik Bode to determine the gain margin and phase margin.", "Design to ensure stability often involves frequency compensation to control the location of the poles of the amplifier.Electronic feedback loops are used to control the output of electronic devices, such as amplifiers.", "A feedback loop is created when all or some portion of the output is fed back to the input.", "A device is said to be operating ''open loop'' if no output feedback is being employed and ''closed loop'' if feedback is being used.When two or more amplifiers are cross-coupled using positive feedback, complex behaviors can be created.", "These ''multivibrators'' are widely used and include:* astable circuits, which act as oscillators* monostable circuits, which can be pushed into a state, and will return to the stable state after some time* bistable circuits, which have two stable states that the circuit can be switched between====Negative feedback====Negative feedback occurs when the fed-back output signal has a relative phase of 180° with respect to the input signal (upside down).", "This situation is sometimes referred to as being ''out of phase'', but that term also is used to indicate other phase separations, as in \"90° out of phase\".", "Negative feedback can be used to correct output errors or to desensitize a system to unwanted fluctuations.", "In feedback amplifiers, this correction is generally for waveform distortion reduction or to establish a specified gain level.", "A general expression for the gain of a negative feedback amplifier is the asymptotic gain model.====Positive feedback====Positive feedback occurs when the fed-back signal is in phase with the input signal.", "Under certain gain conditions, positive feedback reinforces the input signal to the point where the output of the device oscillates between its maximum and minimum possible states.", "Positive feedback may also introduce hysteresis into a circuit.", "This can cause the circuit to ignore small signals and respond only to large ones.", "It is sometimes used to eliminate noise from a digital signal.", "Under some circumstances, positive feedback may cause a device to latch, i.e., to reach a condition in which the output is locked to its maximum or minimum state.", "This fact is very widely used in digital electronics to make bistable circuits for volatile storage of information.The loud squeals that sometimes occurs in audio systems, PA systems, and rock music are known as audio feedback.", "If a microphone is in front of a loudspeaker that it is connected to, sound that the microphone picks up comes out of the speaker, and is picked up by the microphone and re-amplified.", "If the loop gain is sufficient, howling or squealing at the maximum power of the amplifier is possible.====Oscillator====op-amp relaxation oscillatorAn electronic oscillator is an electronic circuit that produces a periodic, oscillating electronic signal, often a sine wave or a square wave.", "Oscillators convert direct current (DC) from a power supply to an alternating current signal.", "They are widely used in many electronic devices.", "Common examples of signals generated by oscillators include signals broadcast by radio and television transmitters, clock signals that regulate computers and quartz clocks, and the sounds produced by electronic beepers and video games.Oscillators are often characterized by the frequency of their output signal:* A low-frequency oscillator (LFO) is an electronic oscillator that generates a frequency below ≈20 Hz.", "This term is typically used in the field of audio synthesizers, to distinguish it from an audio frequency oscillator.", "* An audio oscillator produces frequencies in the audio range, about 16 Hz to 20 kHz.", "* An RF oscillator produces signals in the radio frequency (RF) range of about 100 kHz to 100 GHz.Oscillators designed to produce a high-power AC output from a DC supply are usually called inverters.There are two main types of electronic oscillator: the linear or harmonic oscillator and the nonlinear or relaxation oscillator.====Latches and flip-flops====A 4-bit ring counter using D-type flip flopsA latch or a flip-flop is a circuit that has two stable states and can be used to store state information.", "They typically constructed using feedback that crosses over between two arms of the circuit, to provide the circuit with a state.", "The circuit can be made to change state by signals applied to one or more control inputs and will have one or two outputs.", "It is the basic storage element in sequential logic.", "Latches and flip-flops are fundamental building blocks of digital electronics systems used in computers, communications, and many other types of systems.Latches and flip-flops are used as data storage elements.", "Such data storage can be used for storage of ''state'', and such a circuit is described as sequential logic.", "When used in a finite-state machine, the output and next state depend not only on its current input, but also on its current state (and hence, previous inputs).", "It can also be used for counting of pulses, and for synchronizing variably-timed input signals to some reference timing signal.Flip-flops can be either simple (transparent or opaque) or clocked (synchronous or edge-triggered).", "Although the term flip-flop has historically referred generically to both simple and clocked circuits, in modern usage it is common to reserve the term ''flip-flop'' exclusively for discussing clocked circuits; the simple ones are commonly called ''latches''.Using this terminology, a latch is level-sensitive, whereas a flip-flop is edge-sensitive.", "That is, when a latch is enabled it becomes transparent, while a flip flop's output only changes on a single type (positive going or negative going) of clock edge.===Software===Feedback loops provide generic mechanisms for controlling the running, maintenance, and evolution of software and computing systems.", "Feedback-loops are important models in the engineering of adaptive software, as they define the behaviour of the interactions among the control elements over the adaptation process, to guarantee system properties at run-time.", "Feedback loops and foundations of control theory have been successfully applied to computing systems.", "In particular, they have been applied to the development of products such as IBM Db2 and IBM Tivoli.", "From a software perspective, the autonomic (MAPE, monitor analyze plan execute) loop proposed by researchers of IBM is another valuable contribution to the application of feedback loops to the control of dynamic properties and the design and evolution of autonomic software systems.==== Software Development ========User interface design====Feedback is also a useful design principle for designing user interfaces.===Video feedback===Video feedback is the video equivalent of acoustic feedback.", "It involves a loop between a video camera input and a video output, e.g., a television screen or monitor.", "Aiming the camera at the display produces a complex video image based on the feedback.===Human resource management===" ], [ "See also" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Katie Salen and Eric Zimmerman.", "''Rules of Play''.", "MIT Press.", "2004.. Chapter 18: Games as Cybernetic Systems.", "Korotayev A., Malkov A., Khaltourina D. ''Introduction to Social Macrodynamics: Secular Cycles and Millennial Trends.''", "Moscow: URSS, 2006.", " Dijk, E., Cremer, D.D., Mulder, L.B., and Stouten, J.", "\"How Do We React to Feedback in Social Dilemmas?\"", "In Biel, Eek, Garling & Gustafsson, (eds.", "), ''New Issues and Paradigms in Research on Social Dilemmas'', New York: Springer, 2008." ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Furigana" ], [ "Introduction", " is a Japanese reading aid consisting of smaller kana (syllabic characters) printed either above or next to kanji (logographic characters) or other characters to indicate their pronunciation.", "It is one type of ruby text.", "Furigana is also known as and in Japanese.", "In modern Japanese, it is usually used to gloss rare kanji, to clarify rare, nonstandard or ambiguous kanji readings, or in children's or learners' materials.", "Before the post-World War II script reforms, it was more widespread.Furigana is most often written in hiragana, though in certain cases it may be written in katakana, Roman alphabet letters or in other, simpler kanji.", "In vertical text, ''tategaki'', the furigana is placed to the right of the line of text; in horizontal text, ''yokogaki'', it is placed above the line of text, as illustrated below.", "or These examples spell the word ''kanji'', which is made up of two kanji characters: (''kan'', written in hiragana as ) and (''ji'', written in hiragana as )." ], [ "Appearance", "Furigana may be added by character, in which case the furigana character(s) that correspond to a kanji are centered over that kanji; or by word or phrase, in which case the entire furigana text is centered over several kanji characters, even if the kanji do not represent equal shares of the kana needed to write them.", "The latter method is more common, especially since some words in Japanese have unique pronunciations (''jukujikun'') that are not related to readings of any of the characters the word is written with.Furigana fonts are generally sized so that two kana characters fit naturally over one kanji; when more kana are required, this is resolved either by adjusting the furigana by using a condensed font (narrowing the kana), or by adjusting the kanji by intercharacter spacing (adding spaces around the kanji).", "In case an isolated kanji character has a long reading—for example (where reads , ''tazusa'')—the furigana may instead spill over into the space next to the neighboring kana characters, without condensing or changing spacing.", "Three-kana readings are not uncommon, particularly due to ''yōon'' with a long vowel, such as ; five kana are required for and six for , the longest of any character in the Joyo kanji.", "Very long readings also occur for certain kanji or symbols which have a ''gairaigo'' (loan word) reading; the word \"centimeter\" is generally written as \"cm\" (with two half-width characters, so occupying one space) and has the seven-kana reading (''senchimētoru'') (it can also be written as the kanji , though this is very rare); another common example is \"%\" (the percent sign), which has the five kana reading (''pāsento'').", "These cause severe spacing problems due to length and these words being used as units (hence closely associated with the preceding figure).When it is necessary to distinguish between native Japanese ''kun'yomi'' pronunciations and Chinese-derived ''on'yomi'' pronunciations, for example in kanji dictionaries, the kun'yomi pronunciations are written in hiragana, and the on'yomi pronunciations are written in katakana.", "However, this distinction is really only important in dictionaries and other reference works.", "In ordinary prose, the script chosen will usually be hiragana.", "The one general exception to this is ''modern'' Chinese place names, personal names, and (occasionally) food names—these will often be written with kanji, and katakana used for the furigana; in more casual writing these are simply written in katakana, as borrowed words.", "Occasionally this style is also used for loanwords from other languages (especially English).", "For example, the kanji (literally \"one horn beast\") might be glossed with katakana , ''yunikōn'', to show the pronunciation of the loanword \"unicorn\", which is unrelated to the normal reading of the kanji.", "Generally, though, such loanwords are just written in straight katakana.The distinction between regular kana and the smaller character forms (yōon and sokuon), which are used in regular orthography to mark such things as gemination and palatalization, is often not made in furigana: for example, the usual hiragana spelling of the word (''kyakka'') is , but in furigana it might be written .", "This was especially common in old-fashioned movable type printing when smaller fonts were not available.", "Nowadays, with computer-based printing systems, this occurs less frequently." ], [ "Alignment rules in word processing or typesetting", "Various word processing or typesetting software programs, such as Microsoft Word, Adobe InDesign, Adobe InCopy, etc.", "have features for adding ruby text, especially Japanese furigana.", "Among formatting features are different rules for aligning the kana over or to the right of the base text, usually either when the base text string is longer than the furigana string or vice versa.", "Extra spaces may be needed depending on the size of the shorter string (either the ruby string or the base string) relatively to the longer one.", "* Centered, left/top or right/bottom: No spaces are added in between the characters.", "The shorter string is aligned to the center (中付きルビ ''nakatsuki rubi''), the left/top (肩付きルビ ''katatsuki rubi'') or the right/bottom of the longer string.", "* 1-2-1 (JIS): Spaces are added at the start of and the end of the shorter string, and in between its component characters, so that the spaces in between are twice as wide or tall as the spaces at the start and at the end.", "Space width or height is calculated based on the width or height of the square bounding box of a glyph (Japanese typefaces are generally monospaced).", "The strings are still, in essence, aligned to the center of each other, rather than to the left/top or right/bottom.", "* 0-1-0: Equal spaces are added, similarly to the 1-2-1 rule, in between the component characters of the shorter string, but not its start or end." ], [ "Usage", "Furigana indicates the pronunciation above the kanji for the names of three stations on the Seibu Railway, 東伏見 (Higashi-Fushimi Station), 武蔵関 ( Musashi-Seki Station) and 西武柳沢 (Seibu-Yagisawa Station).", "The sign also includes romaji below the kanji for each station.Furigana are most commonly used in works for children, who may not have sufficiently advanced reading skills to recognize the kanji, but can understand the word when written phonetically in hiragana.", "Because children learn hiragana before katakana, in books for very young children, there are hiragana－furigana next to the katakana characters.", "It is common to use furigana on all kanji characters in works for young children.", "This is called in Japanese.Numeric characters used for counting (e.g.", "''ni-hon'' \"two long things\"; ''futatsume'' \"second\"; ''dai-ni kan'' \"book 2\"; ''ni-pēji'' \"page 2\"; etc.)", "are usually not tagged with furigana.", "Exceptions include a few cases such as 一人/１人 ''hitori'' \"one person\" and 二人/２人 ''futari'' \"two people\", which may be tagged with separate kana for each character (/), or non-separated kana for the whole word (/), depending on the style of the publisher in question; or characters for numerals greater than 1,000 (千), such as 万 (10,000), 億 (100,000,000), etc.", "Numeric words in established compounds (e.g.", "''ippo'' \"step\"; ''hitome'' \"sight; attention\"), however, are generally tagged with furigana.Many children's manga, shōnen and shōjo manga use furigana (again however, rarely on numerals).", "Shōnen and shōjo manga tend to have furigana for all non-numeric characters, while some manga (such as early volumes of ''Doraemon'' and other manga published by Shogakukan), may also ignore furigana on elementary-grade kanji or easy words.", "Seinen and josei manga ignores furigana most of the time, even on the names of the characters if they're common names, although some publishers may still routinely use furigana for the first mentions of important characters' names in a volume or chapter.", "There are also books with a phonetic guide (mainly in hiragana but sometimes in rōmaji) for Japanese learners, which may be bilingual or Japanese only.", "These are popular with foreigners wishing to master Japanese faster and enjoy reading Japanese short stories, novels or articles.Due to the small type used for furigana, for maximum readability, some manga publishers may use regular kana instead of small kana.", "For example, はっしん ''hasshin'' may be spelled はつしん ''hatsushin'' instead.Some websites and tools exist which provide a phonetic guide for Japanese web pages (in hiragana, rōmaji or kiriru-moji); these are popular with both Japanese children and foreign Japanese learners.In works aimed at adult Japanese speakers, furigana may be used on a word written in uncommon kanji; in the mass media, they are generally used on words containing non-Jōyō kanji.Furigana commonly appear alongside kanji names and their romanizations on signs for railway stations, even if the pronunciation of the kanji is commonly known.", "Furigana also appear often on maps to show the pronunciation of unusual place names.Before the war, youths might arguably have been almost illiterate if not for furigana.===Names===Japanese names are usually written in kanji.", "Because there are many possible readings for kanji names, including special name-only readings called nanori, furigana are often used to give the readings of names.", "On Japanese official forms, where the name is to be written, there is always an adjacent column for the name to be written in furigana.Furigana may also be used for foreign names written in kanji.", "Chinese and Korean names are the most common examples: Chinese names are usually pronounced with Japanese readings and the pronunciation written in hiragana, while Korean names are usually pronounced with Korean readings and the pronunciation written in katakana.===Language learning===Kanji and kanji compounds are often presented with furigana in Japanese-language textbooks for non-native speakers.Furigana are also often used in foreign-language textbooks for Japanese learners to indicate pronunciation.", "The words are written in the original foreign script, such as hangul for Korean, and furigana is used to indicate the pronunciation.", "According to Ministry of Education guidelines, and the opinions of educators, the use of Japanese furigana should be avoided in English teaching due to the differences in pronunciation between English and Japanese.", "For instance, the word \"birthdate\" might be glossed in furigana as (''bāsudeito''), which corresponds to an imperfect pronunciation.===Other effects===Furigana unrelated to the kanji they are assigned to are often used to convey certain effects, rather than to denote a phonetic guide, especially in manga, anime, video games, and tabletop games.This usage is known as ''gikun'' (see also Kanji#Special readings).", "The specific effects vary.It may be used to visually reinforce complex ideas without having to use long expressions.", "For example, the word ''akumu'' \"nightmare\" may be annotated with ''shinjitsu'' \"truth\" (i.e. )", "rather than its true reading, to convey the meaning of \"nightmarish truth\".Some authors may even use furigana that means the opposite of what the base text does to reinforce the complicated relationship between characters.", "For example, ''shin'yū'' \"close friend\" may be annotated with ''raibaru'' \"rival\", to mean \"a rival who is also friend\".Another use is to indicate the meanings of ambiguous or foreign words.", "For example, the word (''koko'', \"here\") may be annotated with a more specific description like ''byōin'' \"hospital\" (i.e. )", "to mean \"here (at this hospital)\".", "Or in a work of science fiction, an astronaut may use the word ''furusato'' \"my hometown\", when referring to planet Earth; to clarify that for the reader, may be written over the word ''chikyū'' \"Earth\".", "A similar technique is used in Japanese subtitles on foreign films to associate the written Japanese with the sounds actually being spoken by the actors, or in a translation of a work of fiction to preserve the original sound of a proper name in furigana while indicating its meaning with kanji.", "For example, \"Firebolt\" in the Harry Potter series is written , composed of the kanji ''honō no ikazuchi'' \"flame thunderbolt\" and the furigana ''faiaboruto''.Some manga combine the rendition of a foreign word (especially an obscure one) in furigana as the intended reading of a term, with more familiar kanji as the meaning.", "For example, ''eki'' \"station\" may be annotated with ''sutēshon'' (the rendition of the English \"station\") to convey a foreign, exotic feel;This is sometimes done conversely, for example, by annotating an exotic term like ''bēze'' \"kiss\" with a more common synonym like ''kissu''.Some writers use furigana to represent slang pronunciations, particularly those that would be difficult to understand without the kanji to provide their meaning.", "Others use it simply to shrink kana spellings that are too long, thanks to the small type of furigana.", "For example, ''intāpōru'' \"Interpol\" may be shortened to .In karaoke it is common for furigana to be placed on the song lyrics.", "The song lyrics are often written in kanji pronounced quite differently from the furigana.", "The furigana version is used for pronunciation." ], [ "Other Japanese reading aids", "===Okurigana===Okurigana are kana that appear inline at normal size following kanji stems, typically to complete and to inflect adjectives and verbs.", "In this use they may also help to disambiguate kanji with multiple readings; for example, (, ''agaru'') vs. (, ''noboru'').", "Unlike furigana, the use of okurigana is a mandatory part of the written language.===Kunten===In the written style known as ''kanbun'', which is the Japanese approximation of Classical Chinese, small marks called ''kunten'' are sometimes added as reading aids.", "Unlike furigana, which indicate pronunciation, ''kunten'' indicate Japanese grammatical structures absent from the ''kanbun'', and also show how words should be reordered to fit Japanese sentence structure.===Furikanji===Furigana are sometimes also used to indicate meaning, rather than pronunciation.", "Over the foreign text, smaller-sized Japanese words, in kana or kanji, corresponding to the ''meaning'' of the foreign words, effectively translate it in place.", "While rare now, some late 19th–early 20th century authors used kanji as furigana for loanwords written in katakana.", "This usage is called in Japanese, since ''furigana'' implies the use of ''kana''.", "For example, ''ririkku'' \"lyric\" may be tagged with ''kashi'' \"lyrics\" for clarification rather than for phonetic guidance." ], [ "See also", "OkuriganaRuby characterZhuyin" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Sources ===* ''Mangajin's Basic Japanese Through Comics Part I'' New York: Weatherhill, 1998: 48–49* J Paul Warnick, Review of ''Nihon o Hanasoo'' in ''The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese'', Vol.", "32, No.", "2 (Oct., 1998), pp.", "80–83." ], [ "External links", "* Furigana Generator: Tool that automatically adds hiragana above kanji characters in a given Japanese text." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Francis II and I''' (; 12 February 1768 – 2 March 1835) was the last Holy Roman Emperor as '''Francis II''' from 1792 to 1806, and the first Emperor of Austria as '''Francis I''' from 1804 to 1835.He was also King of Hungary, Croatia and Bohemia, and served as the first president of the German Confederation following its establishment in 1815.The eldest son of future Emperor Leopold II and Maria Luisa of Spain, Francis was born in Florence, where his father ruled as Grand Duke of Tuscany.", "Leopold became Holy Roman Emperor in 1790 but died two years later, and Francis succeeded him.", "His empire immediately became embroiled in the French Revolutionary Wars, the first of which ended in Austrian defeat and the loss of the left bank of the Rhine to France.", "After another French victory in the War of the Second Coalition, Napoleon crowned himself Emperor of the French.", "In response, Francis assumed the title of Emperor of Austria.", "He continued his leading role as Napoleon's adversary in the Napoleonic Wars, and suffered successive defeats that greatly weakened Austria as a European power.", "In 1806, after Napoleon created the Confederation of the Rhine, Francis abdicated as Holy Roman Emperor, which in effect marked the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire.", "Following the defeat of the Fifth Coalition, Francis ceded more territory to France and was forced to wed his daughter Marie Louise to Napoleon.In 1813, Francis turned against Napoleon and finally defeated him in the War of the Sixth Coalition, forcing the French emperor to abdicate.", "Austria took part as a leading member of the Holy Alliance at the Congress of Vienna, which was largely dominated by Francis' chancellor Klemens von Metternich, culminating in a new European order and the restoration of most of Francis' ancient dominions.", "Due to the establishment of the Concert of Europe, which resisted popular nationalist and liberal tendencies, Francis was viewed as a reactionary later in his reign.", "Francis died in 1835 at the age of 67 and was succeeded by his son, Ferdinand I." ], [ "Early life", "1770 painting by Anton Raphael Mengs depicting Archduke Francis at the age of 2Francis was a son of Emperor Leopold II (1747–1792) and his wife Maria Luisa of Spain (1745–1792), daughter of Charles III of Spain.", "Francis was born in Florence, the capital of Tuscany, where his father reigned as Grand Duke from 1765 to 1790.Though he had a happy childhood surrounded by his many siblings, his family knew Francis was likely to be a future Emperor (his uncle Joseph had no surviving issue from either of his two marriages), and so in 1784 the young Archduke was sent to the Imperial Court in Vienna to educate and prepare him for his future role.Emperor Joseph II himself took charge of Francis' development.", "His disciplinarian regime was a stark contrast to the indulgent Florentine Court of Leopold.", "The Emperor wrote that Francis was \"stunted in growth\", \"backward in bodily dexterity and deportment\", and \"neither more nor less than a spoiled mother's child.\"", "Joseph concluded that \"the manner in which he was treated for upwards of sixteen years could not but have confirmed him in the delusion that the preservation of his own person was the only thing of importance.", "\"Joseph's martinet method of improving the young Francis was \"fear and unpleasantness.\"", "The young Archduke was isolated, the reasoning being that this would make him more self-sufficient as it was felt by Joseph that Francis \"failed to lead himself, to do his own thinking.\"", "Nonetheless, Francis greatly admired his uncle, if rather in fear of him.", "To complete his training, Francis was sent to join an army regiment in Hungary and he settled easily into the routine of military life.", "He was present at the siege of Belgrade which occurred during the Austro-Turkish War.After the death of Joseph II in 1790, Francis' father became Emperor.", "He had an early taste of power while acting as Leopold's deputy in Vienna while the incoming Emperor traversed the Empire attempting to win back those alienated by his brother's policies.", "The strain took a toll on Leopold and by the winter of 1791, he became ill.", "He gradually worsened throughout early 1792; on the afternoon of 1 March Leopold died, at the relatively young age of 44.Francis, just past his 24th birthday, was now Emperor, much sooner than he had expected." ], [ "Emperor", "Painting of Francis II at the age of 25, wearing the Order of the Golden Fleece, with the Imperial Crown of the Holy Roman Empire and Hungary's Crown of Saint Stephen in the background (1792)As the head of the Holy Roman Empire and the ruler of the vast multi-ethnic Habsburg hereditary lands, Francis felt threatened by the French revolutionaries and later Napoleon's expansionism as well as their social and political reforms which were being exported throughout Europe in the wake of the conquering French armies.", "Francis had a fraught relationship with France.", "His aunt Marie Antoinette, the wife of Louis XVI and Queen consort of France, was guillotined by the revolutionaries in 1793, at the beginning of his reign, although, on the whole, he was indifferent to her fate.Francis I as Austrian Emperor wearing the Order of the Golden Fleece, undatedLater, he led the Holy Roman Empire into the French Revolutionary Wars.", "He briefly commanded the Allied forces during the Flanders Campaign of 1794 before handing over command to his brother Archduke Charles.", "He was later defeated by Napoleon.", "By the Treaty of Campo Formio, he ceded the left bank of the Rhine to France in exchange for Venice and Dalmatia.", "He again fought against France during the War of the Second Coalition.On 11 August 1804, in response to Napoleon crowning himself as emperor of the French earlier that year, he announced that he would henceforth assume the title of hereditary emperor of Austria as Francis I, a move that technically was illegal in terms of imperial law.", "Yet Napoleon had agreed beforehand and therefore it happened.During the War of the Third Coalition, the Austrian forces met a crushing defeat at Austerlitz, and Francis had to agree to the Treaty of Pressburg, which greatly weakened Austria and brought about the final collapse of the Holy Roman Empire.", "In July 1806, under massive pressure from France, Bavaria and fifteen other German states ratified the statutes founding the Confederation of the Rhine, with Napoleon designated Protector, and they announced to the Imperial Diet their intention to leave the Empire with immediate effect.", "Then, on 22 July, Napoleon issued an ultimatum to Francis demanding that he abdicate as Holy Roman Emperor by 10 August.", "Five days later, Francis bowed to the inevitable and, without mentioning the ultimatum, affirmed that since the Peace of Pressburg he had tried his best to fulfil his duties as emperor but that circumstances had convinced him that he could no longer rule according to his oath of office, the formation of the Confederation of the Rhine making that impossible.", "He added that \"we hereby decree that we regard the bond which until now tied us to the states of the Empire as dissolved\" in effect dissolving the empire.", "At the same time he declared the complete and formal withdrawal of his hereditary lands from imperial jurisdiction.", "After that date, he reigned as Francis I, Emperor of Austria.Portrait of Francis I, by 260x260pxIn 1809, Francis attacked France again, hoping to take advantage of the Peninsular War embroiling Napoleon in Spain.", "He was again defeated, and this time forced to ally himself with Napoleon, ceding territory to the Empire, joining the Continental System, and wedding his daughter Marie-Louise to the Emperor.", "The Napoleonic wars drastically weakened Austria, making it entirely landlocked and threatened its preeminence among the states of Germany, a position that it would eventually cede to the Kingdom of Prussia.In 1813, for the fifth and final time, Austria turned against France and joined Great Britain, Russia, Prussia and Sweden in their war against Napoleon.", "Austria played a major role in the final defeat of France—in recognition of this, Francis, represented by Clemens von Metternich, presided over the Congress of Vienna, helping to form the Concert of Europe and the Holy Alliance, ushering in an era of conservatism in Europe.", "The German Confederation, a loose association of Central European states was created by the Congress of Vienna in 1815 to organize the surviving states of the Holy Roman Empire.", "The Congress was a personal triumph for Francis, who hosted the assorted dignitaries in comfort, though Francis undermined his allies Tsar Alexander and Frederick William III of Prussia by negotiating a secret treaty with the restored French king Louis XVIII." ], [ "Domestic policy", "1 Thaler silver coin with portrait of Emperor Franz I, 1820\|leftThe violent events of the French Revolution impressed themselves deeply into the mind of Francis (as well as all other European monarchs), and he came to distrust radicalism in any form.", "In 1794, a \"Jacobin\" conspiracy was discovered in the Austrian and Hungarian armies.", "The leaders were put on trial, but the verdicts only skirted the perimeter of the conspiracy.", "Francis' brother Alexander Leopold (at that time Palatine of Hungary) wrote to the Emperor admitting \"Although we have caught a lot of the culprits, we have not really got to the bottom of this business yet.\"", "Nonetheless, two officers heavily implicated in the conspiracy were hanged and gibbeted, while numerous others were sentenced to imprisonment (many of whom died from the conditions)Philipp Jakob Treu in Basel, Switzerland on 13 January 1814.This was the date in the War of the Sixth Coalition when the allied monarchs of Austria, Prussia, and Russia crossed the Rhine at Basel into France.Francis was from his experiences suspicious and set up an extensive network of police spies and censors to monitor dissent (in this he was following his father's lead, as the Grand Duchy of Tuscany had the most effective secret police in Europe).", "Even his family did not escape attention.", "His brothers, the Archdukes Charles and Johann had their meetings and activities spied upon.", "Censorship was also prevalent.", "The author Franz Grillparzer, a Habsburg patriot, had one play suppressed solely as a \"precautionary\" measure.", "When Grillparzer met the censor responsible, he asked him what was objectionable about the work.", "The censor replied, \"Oh, nothing at all.", "But I thought to myself, 'One can never tell'.", "\"In military affairs Francis had allowed his brother, the Archduke Charles, extensive control over the army during the Napoleonic wars.", "Yet, distrustful of allowing any individual too much power, he otherwise maintained the separation of command functions between the Hofkriegsrat and his field commanders.", "In the later years of his reign he limited military spending, requiring it not exceed forty million florins per year; because of inflation this resulted in inadequate funding, with the army's share of the budget shrinking from half in 1817 to only twenty-three percent in 1830.Francis as Emperor of Austria wearing the Austrian imperial robes, by Friedrich von Amerling, Francis presented himself as an open and approachable monarch (he regularly set aside two mornings each week to meet with his imperial subjects, regardless of status, by appointment in his office, even speaking to them in their own language), but his will was sovereign.", "In 1804, he had no compunction about announcing that through his authority as Holy Roman Emperor, he declared he was now Emperor of Austria (at the time a geographical term that had little resonance).", "Two years later, Francis personally wound up the moribund Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation.", "Both actions were of dubious constitutional legality.To increase patriotic sentiment during the war with France, the anthem \"Gott erhalte Franz den Kaiser\" was composed in 1797 to be sung as the Kaiserhymne to music by Joseph Haydn.", "The lyrics were adapted for later Emperors and the music lives on as the German national anthem \"Deutschlandlied\"." ], [ "Later years", "Portrait of an aging Francis II, by Friedrich von Amerling, On 2 March 1835, 43 years and a day after his father's death, Francis died in Vienna of a sudden fever aged 67, in the presence of many of his family and with all the religious comforts.", "His funeral was magnificent, with his Viennese subjects respectfully filing past his coffin in the court chapel of the Hofburg palace for three days.", "Francis was interred in the traditional resting place of Habsburg monarchs, the Imperial Crypt in Vienna's Neue Markt Square.", "He is buried in tomb number 57, surrounded by tombs of his four wives.Imperial CryptFrancis passed on a main point in the political testament he left for his son and heir Ferdinand: to \"preserve unity in the family and regard it as one of the highest goods.\"", "In many portraits (particularly those painted by Peter Fendi) he was portrayed as the patriarch of a loving family, surrounded by his children and grandchildren." ], [ "Marriages", "Francis II married four times:# On 6 January 1788, to Elisabeth of Württemberg (21 April 1767 – 18 February 1790).# On 15 September 1790, to his double first cousin Maria Teresa of the Two Sicilies (6 June 1772 – 13 April 1807), daughter of King Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies (both were grandchildren of Empress Maria Theresa and shared all of their other grandparents in common), with whom he had twelve children, of whom only seven reached adulthood.# On 6 January 1808, he married again to another first cousin, Maria Ludovika of Austria-Este (14 December 1787 – 7 April 1816) with no issue.", "She was the daughter of Archduke Ferdinand of Austria-Este and Maria Beatrice d'Este, Princess of Modena.# On 29 October 1816, to Karoline Charlotte Auguste of Bavaria (8 February 1792 – 9 February 1873) with no issue.", "She was daughter of Maximilian I Joseph of Bavaria and had been previously married to William I of Württemberg." ], [ "Children", "From his first wife Elisabeth of Württemberg, one daughter, who died in infancy, and his second wife Maria Teresa of the Two Sicilies, eight daughters and four sons, of whom five died in infancy or childhood:+ Children of Francis IINamePictureBirthDeathNotesBy Elisabeth of Württemberg18 February 179024 June 1791 (aged 1) Died in infancy and buried in the Imperial Crypt, Vienna, Austria.By Maria Teresa of the Two Sicilies'''Archduchess Maria Ludovika'''100px12 December 179117 December 1847 (aged 56) Married first Napoleon Bonaparte, had issue, married second Adam, count of Neipperg, had issue, married third to Charles, Count of Bombelles, no issue.", "'''Emperor Ferdinand I'''100px19 April 179329 June 1875 (aged 82)Married Maria Anna of Savoy, Princess of Sardinia, no issue.8 June 179416 March 1795 (aged 9 months)Died in childhood, no issue.22 December 179530 June 1797 (aged 1)Died in childhood, no issue.", "'''Archduchess Caroline Josepha Leopoldine'''100px22 January 179711 December 1826 (aged 29)Renamed Maria Leopoldina upon her marriage; married Pedro I of Brazil (a.k.a.", "Pedro IV of Portugal); issue included Maria II of Portugal and Pedro II of Brazil.", "'''Archduchess Maria Klementina'''100px1 March 17983 September 1881 (aged 83)Married her maternal uncle Leopold, Prince of Salerno, had issue.", "'''Archduke Joseph Franz Leopold'''100px9 April 179930 June 1807 (aged 8)Died some weeks after his mother in childhood, no issue.", "'''Archduchess Maria Karolina'''100px8 April 180122 May 1832 (aged 31)Married Crown Prince (later King) Frederick Augustus II of Saxony, no issue.", "'''Archduke Franz Karl'''100px17 December 18028 March 1878 (aged 75)Married Princess Sophie of Bavaria; issue included Franz Joseph I of Austria and Maximilian I of Mexico.", "'''Archduchess Marie Anne'''100px8 June 180428 December 1858 (aged 54)Born intellectually disabled (like her eldest brother, Emperor Ferdinand I) and to have suffered from a severe facial deformity.", "Died unmarried.30 August 180519 February 1809 (aged 3)Died in childhood, no issue.6 April 18079 April 1807 (aged 3 days)Died in childhood, no issue." ], [ "Titles, honours and heraldry", "Monument in the inner courtyard of the Hofburg in Vienna=== Titles ===From 1806 he used the titles: \"We, Francis the First, by the Grace of God Emperor of Austria; King of Jerusalem, Hungary, Bohemia, Dalmatia, Croatia, Slavonia, Galicia and Lodomeria; Archduke of Austria; Duke of Lorraine, Salzburg, Würzburg, Franconia, Styria, Carinthia and Carniola; Grand Duke of Cracow; Grand Prince of Transylvania; Margrave of Moravia; Duke of Sandomir, Masovia, Lublin, Upper and Lower Silesia, Auschwitz and Zator, Teschen and Friule; Prince of Berchtesgaden and Mergentheim; Princely Count of Habsburg, Gorizia and Gradisca and of the Tirol; and Margrave of Upper and Lower Lusatia and in Istria\".=== Orders and decorations ======Heraldry===Heraldry of Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor200px200px210pxCoat of arms as Holy Roman Emperor(1792–1804)Coat of arms as Holy Roman Emperor and Emperor of Austria(1804–1806)Coat of arms as Emperor of Austria(1815–1835)" ], [ "Ancestors" ], [ "See also", "* Family tree of the German monarchs" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Works cited ===* * * " ], [ "Further reading", " * " ], [ "External links", " Spencer Napoleonica Collection at Newberry Library===Regnal titles===" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Frederick Abel" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Sir Frederick Augustus Abel, 1st Baronet''' (17 July 18276 September 1902) was an English chemist who was recognised as the leading British authority on explosives.", "He is best known for the invention of cordite as a replacement for gunpowder in firearms." ], [ "Education", "Born in London as son of Johann Leopold Abel, Abel studied chemistry at the Royal Polytechnic Institution and in 1845 became one of the original 26 students of A. W. von Hofmann at the Royal College of Chemistry (now a constituent of Imperial College London).", "In 1852 he was appointed lecturer in chemistry at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, succeeding Michael Faraday, who had held that post since 1829." ], [ "Early career", "From 1854 until 1888 Abel served as ordnance chemist at the Chemical Establishment of the Royal Arsenal at Woolwich, establishing himself as the leading British authority on explosives.", "Three years later was appointed chemist to the War Department and chemical referee to the government.", "During his tenure of this office, which lasted until 1888, he carried out a large amount of work in connection with the chemistry of explosives." ], [ "Notable work", "One of the most important of his investigations had to do with the manufacture of guncotton, and he developed a process, consisting essentially of reducing the nitrated cotton to fine pulp, which enabled it to be safely manufactured and at the same time yielded the product in a form that increased its usefulness.", "This work to an important extent prepared the way for the \"smokeless powders\" which came into general use towards the end of the 19th century; cordite, the type adopted by the British government in 1891, was invented jointly by him and Sir James Dewar.", "He and Dewar were unsuccessfully sued by Alfred Nobel over infringement of Nobel's patent for a similar explosive called ballistite, the case finally being resolved in the House of Lords in 1895.He also extensively researched the behaviour of black powder when ignited, with the Scottish physicist Sir Andrew Noble.", "At the request of the British government, he devised the Abel test, a means of determining the flash point of petroleum products.", "His first instrument, the open-test apparatus, was specified in an Act of Parliament in 1868 for officially specifying petroleum products.", "It was superseded in August 1879 by the much more reliable Abel close-test instrument.", "Under his leadership, first, guncotton was developed at Waltham Abbey Royal Gunpowder Mills, patented in 1865, then, the propellant cordite, patented in 1889.In electricity, Abel studied the construction of electrical fuses and other applications of electricity to warlike purposes." ], [ "Leadership and honours", "He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1860 and received their Royal Medal in 1887.He was president of the Chemical Society (1875–77), of the Institution of Electrical Engineers (then the Society of Telegraph Engineers) (1877), of the Institute of Chemistry (1881–82) and of the Society of Chemical Industry (1882–83).", "He was also president of the Iron and Steel Institute in 1891 and was awarded the Bessemer Gold Medal in 1897 for his work on problems of steel manufacture.", "He was awarded the Telford Medal by the Institution of Civil Engineers in 1879.He was made a Commander of the Order of the Bath (CB) in 1877.and knighted on 20 April 1883 He took an important part in the work of the Inventions Exhibition (London) in 1885, and in 1887 became organizing secretary and first director of the Imperial Institute, a position he held till his death in 1902.He was Rede Lecturer and received an honorary doctorate from Cambridge University in 1888.He was upgraded Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath (KCB) on 3 February 1891, created a baronet, of Cadogan Place in the Parish of Chelsea in the County of London, on 25 May 1893 and made a Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order (GCVO) on 8 March 1901.Abel died at his residence in Whitehall Court, London, on 6 September 1902, aged 75, and was buried in Nunhead Cemetery, London.", "The baronetcy became extinct on his death." ], [ "Family", "Abel married twice; first to Sarah Blanch, daughter of James Blanch, of Bristol; secondly after his first wife's death to Giulietta de La Feuillade.", "He left no children." ], [ "Books", "''Mining accidents and their prevention'', 1889* ''Handbook of Chemistry'' (with C. L. Bloxam)''The Modern History of Gunpowder'' (1866)''Gun-cotton'' (1866)''On Explosive Agents'' (1872)''Researches in Explosives'' (1875)* ''Electricity applied to Explosive Purposes'' (1898)He also wrote several articles in the ninth edition of the ''Encyclopædia Britannica''." ], [ "See also", "Internal ballistics" ], [ "References", "===Attribution===" ], [ "Further reading", "" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Fluorescence" ], [ "Introduction", "visible light when exposed to ultraviolet.Fluorescent marine organismsFluorescent clothes used in black light theater production, Prague '''Fluorescence''' is the emission of light by a substance that has absorbed light or other electromagnetic radiation.", "It is a form of luminescence.", "In most cases, the emitted light has a longer wavelength, and therefore a lower photon energy, than the absorbed radiation.", "A perceptible example of fluorescence occurs when the absorbed radiation is in the ultraviolet region of the electromagnetic spectrum (invisible to the human eye), while the emitted light is in the visible region; this gives the fluorescent substance a distinct color that can only be seen when the substance has been exposed to UV light.", "Fluorescent materials cease to glow nearly immediately when the radiation source stops, unlike phosphorescent materials, which continue to emit light for some time after.Fluorescence has many practical applications, including mineralogy, gemology, medicine, chemical sensors (fluorescence spectroscopy), fluorescent labelling, dyes, biological detectors, cosmic-ray detection, vacuum fluorescent displays, and cathode-ray tubes.", "Its most common everyday application is in (gas-discharge) fluorescent lamps and LED lamps, in which fluorescent coatings convert UV or blue light into longer-wavelengths resulting in white light which can even appear indistinguishable from that of the traditional but energy- inefficient incandescent lamp.Fluorescence also occurs frequently in nature in some minerals and in many biological forms across all kingdoms of life.", "The latter may be referred to as ''biofluorescence'', indicating that the fluorophore is part of or is extracted from a living organism (rather than an inorganic dye or stain).", "But since fluorescence is due to a specific chemical, which can also be synthesized artificially in most cases, it is sufficient to describe the substance itself as ''fluorescent''." ], [ "History", "A cup made from the wood of the narra tree (''Pterocarpus indicus'') beside a flask containing its fluorescent solution ''Lignum nephriticum''.Matlaline, the fluorescent substance in the wood of the tree ''Eysenhardtia polystachya''An early observation of fluorescence was described in 1560 by Bernardino de Sahagún and in 1565 by Nicolás Monardes in the infusion known as ''lignum nephriticum'' (Latin for \"kidney wood\").", "It was derived from the wood of two tree species, ''Pterocarpus indicus'' and ''Eysenhardtia polystachya''.The chemical compound responsible for this fluorescence is matlaline, which is the oxidation product of one of the flavonoids found in this wood.In 1819, E.D.", "Clarkeand in 1822 René Just Haüydescribed fluorescence in fluorites, Sir David Brewster described the phenomenon for chlorophyll in 1833and Sir John Herschel did the same for quinine in 1845.In his 1852 paper on the \"Refrangibility\" (wavelength change) of light, George Gabriel Stokes described the ability of fluorspar and uranium glass to change invisible light beyond the violet end of the visible spectrum into blue light.", "He named this phenomenon ''fluorescence'': \"I am almost inclined to coin a word, and call the appearance ''fluorescence'', from fluor-spar i.e., fluorite, as the analogous term ''opalescence'' is derived from the name of a mineral.", "\"The name was derived from the mineral fluorite (calcium difluoride), some examples of which contain traces of divalent europium, which serves as the fluorescent activator to emit blue light.", "In a key experiment he used a prism to isolate ultraviolet radiation from sunlight and observed blue light emitted by an ethanol solution of quinine exposed by it." ], [ "Physical principles", "===Mechanism===A ruby ball lens atop a green laser-pointer.", "The green beam converges into a cone within the crystal and is focused to a point on top.", "The green light is absorbed and spontaneously remitted as red light.", "Not all of the light is absorbed, and a small portion of the 520 nm laser-light transmits through the top, unaltered by the ruby's red color.Fluorescence occurs when an excited molecule, atom, or nanostructure, relaxes to a lower energy state (usually the ground state) through emission of a photon without a change in electron spin.", "When the initial and final states have different multiplicity (spin), the phenomenon is termed phosphorescence.The ground state of most molecules is a singlet state, denoted as S0.A notable exception is molecular oxygen, which has a triplet ground state.", "Absorption of a photon of energy results in an excited state of the same multiplicity (spin) of the ground state, usually a singlet (Sn with n > 0).", "In solution, states with n > 1 relax rapidly to the lowest vibrational level of the first excited state (S1) by transferring energy to the solvent molecules through non-radiative processes, including internal conversion followed by vibrational relaxation, in which the energy is dissipated as heat.", "Therefore, most commonly, fluorescence occurs from the first singlet excited state, S1.Fluorescence is the emission of a photon accompanying the relaxation of the excited state to the ground state.", "Fluorescence photons are lower in energy () compared to the energy of the photons used to generate the excited state ()* Excitation: * Fluorescence (emission): In each case the photon energy is proportional to its frequency according to , where is Planck's constant.The excited state S1 can relax by other mechanisms that do not involve the emission of light.", "These processes, called non-radiative processes, compete with fluorescence emission and decrease its efficiency.", "Examples include internal conversion, intersystem crossing to the triplet state, and energy transfer to another molecule.", "An example of energy transfer is Förster resonance energy transfer.", "Relaxation from an excited state can also occur through collisional quenching, a process where a molecule (the quencher) collides with the fluorescent molecule during its excited state lifetime.", "Molecular oxygen (O2) is an extremely efficient quencher of fluorescence just because of its unusual triplet ground state.===Quantum yield===The fluorescence quantum yield gives the efficiency of the fluorescence process.", "It is defined as the ratio of the number of photons emitted to the number of photons absorbed.", ": The maximum possible fluorescence quantum yield is 1.0 (100%); each photon absorbed results in a photon emitted.", "Compounds with quantum yields of 0.10 are still considered quite fluorescent.", "Another way to define the quantum yield of fluorescence is by the rate of excited state decay:: where is the rate constant of spontaneous emission of radiation and:is the sum of all rates of excited state decay.", "Other rates of excited state decay are caused by mechanisms other than photon emission and are, therefore, often called \"non-radiative rates\", which can include:* dynamic collisional quenching* near-field dipole-dipole interaction (or resonance energy transfer)* internal conversion* intersystem crossingThus, if the rate of any pathway changes, both the excited state lifetime and the fluorescence quantum yield will be affected.Fluorescence quantum yields are measured by comparison to a standard.", "The quinine salt ''quinine sulfate'' in a sulfuric acid solution was regarded as the most common fluorescence standard,however, a recent study revealed that the fluorescence quantum yield of this solution is strongly affected by the temperature, and should no longer be used as the standard solution.", "The quinine in 0.1 M perchloric acid (Φ=0.60) shows no temperature dependence up to 45 °C, therefore it can be considered as a reliable standard solution.===Lifetime===Jablonski diagram.", "After an electron absorbs a high-energy photon the system is excited electronically and vibrationally.", "The system relaxes vibrationally, and eventually fluoresces at a longer wavelength.The fluorescence lifetime refers to the average time the molecule stays in its excited state before emitting a photon.", "Fluorescence typically follows first-order kinetics::where is the concentration of excited state molecules at time , is the initial concentration and is the decay rate or the inverse of the fluorescence lifetime.", "This is an instance of exponential decay.", "Various radiative and non-radiative processes can de-populate the excited state.", "In such case the total decay rate is the sum over all rates::where is the total decay rate, the radiative decay rate and the non-radiative decay rate.", "It is similar to a first-order chemical reaction in which the first-order rate constant is the sum of all of the rates (a parallel kinetic model).", "If the rate of spontaneous emission, or any of the other rates are fast, the lifetime is short.", "For commonly used fluorescent compounds, typical excited state decay times for photon emissions with energies from the UV to near infrared are within the range of 0.5 to 20 nanoseconds.", "The fluorescence lifetime is an important parameter for practical applications of fluorescence such as fluorescence resonance energy transfer and fluorescence-lifetime imaging microscopy.===Jablonski diagram===The Jablonski diagram describes most of the relaxation mechanisms for excited state molecules.", "The diagram alongside shows how fluorescence occurs due to the relaxation of certain excited electrons of a molecule.===Fluorescence anisotropy===Fluorophores are more likely to be excited by photons if the transition moment of the fluorophore is parallel to the electric vector of the photon.", "The polarization of the emitted light will also depend on the transition moment.", "The transition moment is dependent on the physical orientation of the fluorophore molecule.", "For fluorophores in solution, the intensity and polarization of the emitted light is dependent on rotational diffusion.", "Therefore, anisotropy measurements can be used to investigate how freely a fluorescent molecule moves in a particular environment.Fluorescence anisotropy can be defined quantitatively as:where is the emitted intensity parallel to the polarization of the excitation light and is the emitted intensity perpendicular to the polarization of the excitation light.Anisotropy is independent of the intensity of the absorbed or emitted light, it is the property of the light, so photobleaching of the dye will not affect the anisotropy value as long as the signal is detectable.===Fluorescence===Fluorescent security strip in a US twenty dollar bill under UV lightStrongly fluorescent pigments often have an unusual appearance which is often described colloquially as a \"neon color\" (originally \"day-glo\" in the late 1960s, early 1970s).", "This phenomenon was termed \"Farbenglut\" by Hermann von Helmholtz and \"fluorence\" by Ralph M. Evans.", "It is generally thought to be related to the high brightness of the color relative to what it would be as a component of white.", "Fluorescence shifts energy in the incident illumination from shorter wavelengths to longer (such as blue to yellow) and thus can make the fluorescent color appear brighter (more saturated) than it could possibly be by reflection alone." ], [ "Rules", "There are several general rules that deal with fluorescence.", "Each of the following rules have exceptions but they are useful guidelines for understanding fluorescence (these rules do not necessarily apply to two-photon absorption).===Kasha's rule===Kasha's rule states that the luminesce (fluorescence or phosphorescence) of a molecule will be emitted only from the lowest excited state of its given multiplicity.", "Vavilov's rule (a logical extension of Kasha's rule thusly called Kasha–Vavilov rule) dictates that the quantum yield of luminescence is independent of the wavelength of exciting radiation and is proportional to the absorbance of the excited wavelength.", "Kasha's rule does not always apply and is violated by simple molecules, such an example is azulene.", "A somewhat more reliable statement, although still with exceptions, would be that the fluorescence spectrum shows very little dependence on the wavelength of exciting radiation.===Mirror image rule===The fluorescent dye, rhodamine 6G, is commonly used in applications such as highlighter pens, dye lasers, and automotive leak detection.", "The absorption profile is a mirror of the emission profile.For many fluorophores the absorption spectrum is a mirror image of the emission spectrum.This is known as the mirror image rule and is related to the Franck–Condon principle which states that electronic transitions are vertical, that is energy changes without distance changing as can be represented with a vertical line in Jablonski diagram.", "This means the nucleus does not move and the vibration levels of the excited state resemble the vibration levels of the ground state.===Stokes shift===In general, emitted fluorescence light has a longer wavelength and lower energy than the absorbed light.", "This phenomenon, known as Stokes shift, is due to energy loss between the time a photon is absorbed and when a new one is emitted.", "The causes and magnitude of Stokes shift can be complex and are dependent on the fluorophore and its environment.", "However, there are some common causes.", "It is frequently due to non-radiative decay to the lowest vibrational energy level of the excited state.", "Another factor is that the emission of fluorescence frequently leaves a fluorophore in a higher vibrational level of the ground state." ], [ "In nature", "Fluorescent coralThere are many natural compounds that exhibit fluorescence, and they have a number of applications.", "Some deep-sea animals, such as the greeneye, have fluorescent structures.=== Compared to bioluminescence and biophosphorescence=======Fluorescence====Fluorescence is the phenomenon of absorption of electromagnetic radiation, typically from ultraviolet or visible light, by a molecule and the subsequent emission of a photon of a lower energy (smaller frequency, longer wavelength).", "This causes the light that is emitted to be a different color than the light that is absorbed.", "Stimulating light excites an electron to an excited state.", "When the molecule returns to the ground state, it releases a photon, which is the fluorescent emission.", "The excited state lifetime is short, so emission of light is typically only observable when the absorbing light is on.", "Fluorescence can be of any wavelength but is often more significant when emitted photons are in the visible spectrum.", "When it occurs in a living organism, it is sometimes called biofluorescence.", "Fluorescence should not be confused with bioluminescence and biophosphorescence.", "Pumpkin toadlets that live in the Brazilian Atlantic forest are fluorescent.====Bioluminescence====Bioluminescence differs from fluorescence in that it is the natural production of light by chemical reactions within an organism, whereas fluorescence is the absorption and reemission of light from the environment.", "Fireflies and anglerfish are two examples of bioluminescent organisms.", "To add to the potential confusion, some organisms are both bioluminescent and fluorescent, like the sea pansy Renilla reniformis, where bioluminescence serves as the light source for fluorescence.====Phosphorescence====Phosphorescence is similar to fluorescence in its requirement of light wavelengths as a provider of excitation energy.", "The difference here lies in the relative stability of the energized electron.", "Unlike with fluorescence, in phosphorescence the electron retains stability, emitting light that continues to \"glow-in-the-dark\" even after the stimulating light source has been removed.", "For example, glow-in-the-dark stickers are phosphorescent, but there are no truly ''biophosphorescent'' animals known.===Mechanisms=======Epidermal chromatophores====Pigment cells that exhibit fluorescence are called fluorescent chromatophores, and function somatically similar to regular chromatophores.", "These cells are dendritic, and contain pigments called fluorosomes.", "These pigments contain fluorescent proteins which are activated by K+ (potassium) ions, and it is their movement, aggregation, and dispersion within the fluorescent chromatophore that cause directed fluorescence patterning.", "Fluorescent cells are innervated the same as other chromatophores, like melanophores, pigment cells that contain melanin.", "Short term fluorescent patterning and signaling is controlled by the nervous system.", "Fluorescent chromatophores can be found in the skin (e.g.", "in fish) just below the epidermis, amongst other chromatophores.Epidermal fluorescent cells in fish also respond to hormonal stimuli by the α–MSH and MCH hormones much the same as melanophores.", "This suggests that fluorescent cells may have color changes throughout the day that coincide with their circadian rhythm.", "Fish may also be sensitive to cortisol induced stress responses to environmental stimuli, such as interaction with a predator or engaging in a mating ritual.===Phylogenetics=======Evolutionary origins====The incidence of fluorescence across the tree of life is widespread, and has been studied most extensively in cnidarians and fish.", "The phenomenon appears to have evolved multiple times in multiple taxa such as in the anguilliformes (eels), gobioidei (gobies and cardinalfishes), and tetradontiformes (triggerfishes), along with the other taxa discussed later in the article.", "Fluorescence is highly genotypically and phenotypically variable even within ecosystems, in regards to the wavelengths emitted, the patterns displayed, and the intensity of the fluorescence.", "Generally, the species relying upon camouflage exhibit the greatest diversity in fluorescence, likely because camouflage may be one of the uses of fluorescence.Fluorescence has multiple origins in the tree of life.", "This diagram displays the origins within actinopterygians (ray finned fish).It is suspected by some scientists that GFPs and GFP-like proteins began as electron donors activated by light.", "These electrons were then used for reactions requiring light energy.", "Functions of fluorescent proteins, such as protection from the sun, conversion of light into different wavelengths, or for signaling are thought to have evolved secondarily.====Adaptive functions====Currently, relatively little is known about the functional significance of fluorescence and fluorescent proteins.", "However, it is suspected that fluorescence may serve important functions in signaling and communication, mating, lures, camouflage, UV protection and antioxidation, photoacclimation, dinoflagellate regulation, and in coral health.===Aquatic===Water absorbs light of long wavelengths, so less light from these wavelengths reflects back to reach the eye.", "Therefore, warm colors from the visual light spectrum appear less vibrant at increasing depths.", "Water scatters light of shorter wavelengths above violet, meaning cooler colors dominate the visual field in the photic zone.", "Light intensity decreases 10 fold with every 75 m of depth, so at depths of 75 m, light is 10% as intense as it is on the surface, and is only 1% as intense at 150 m as it is on the surface.", "Because the water filters out the wavelengths and intensity of water reaching certain depths, different proteins, because of the wavelengths and intensities of light they are capable of absorbing, are better suited to different depths.", "Theoretically, some fish eyes can detect light as deep as 1000 m. At these depths of the aphotic zone, the only sources of light are organisms themselves, giving off light through chemical reactions in a process called bioluminescence.Fluorescence is simply defined as the absorption of electromagnetic radiation at one wavelength and its reemission at another, lower energy wavelength.", "Thus any type of fluorescence depends on the presence of external sources of light.", "Biologically functional fluorescence is found in the photic zone, where there is not only enough light to cause fluorescence, but enough light for other organisms to detect it.The visual field in the photic zone is naturally blue, so colors of fluorescence can be detected as bright reds, oranges, yellows, and greens.", "Green is the most commonly found color in the marine spectrum, yellow the second most, orange the third, and red is the rarest.", "Fluorescence can occur in organisms in the aphotic zone as a byproduct of that same organism's bioluminescence.", "Some fluorescence in the aphotic zone is merely a byproduct of the organism's tissue biochemistry and does not have a functional purpose.", "However, some cases of functional and adaptive significance of fluorescence in the aphotic zone of the deep ocean is an active area of research.====Photic zone=========Fish=====Fluorescent marine fishBony fishes living in shallow water generally have good color vision due to their living in a colorful environment.", "Thus, in shallow-water fishes, red, orange, and green fluorescence most likely serves as a means of communication with conspecifics, especially given the great phenotypic variance of the phenomenon.Many fish that exhibit fluorescence, such as sharks, lizardfish, scorpionfish, wrasses, and flatfishes, also possess yellow intraocular filters.", "Yellow intraocular filters in the lenses and cornea of certain fishes function as long-pass filters.", "These filters enable the species to visualize and potentially exploit fluorescence, in order to enhance visual contrast and patterns that are unseen to other fishes and predators that lack this visual specialization.", "Fish that possess the necessary yellow intraocular filters for visualizing fluorescence potentially exploit a light signal from members of it.", "Fluorescent patterning was especially prominent in cryptically patterned fishes possessing complex camouflage.", "Many of these lineages also possess yellow long-pass intraocular filters that could enable visualization of such patterns.Another adaptive use of fluorescence is to generate orange and red light from the ambient blue light of the photic zone to aid vision.", "Red light can only be seen across short distances due to attenuation of red light wavelengths by water.", "Many fish species that fluoresce are small, group-living, or benthic/aphotic, and have conspicuous patterning.", "This patterning is caused by fluorescent tissue and is visible to other members of the species, however the patterning is invisible at other visual spectra.", "These intraspecific fluorescent patterns also coincide with intra-species signaling.", "The patterns present in ocular rings to indicate directionality of an individual's gaze, and along fins to indicate directionality of an individual's movement.", "Current research suspects that this red fluorescence is used for private communication between members of the same species.", "Due to the prominence of blue light at ocean depths, red light and light of longer wavelengths are muddled, and many predatory reef fish have little to no sensitivity for light at these wavelengths.", "Fish such as the fairy wrasse that have developed visual sensitivity to longer wavelengths are able to display red fluorescent signals that give a high contrast to the blue environment and are conspicuous to conspecifics in short ranges, yet are relatively invisible to other common fish that have reduced sensitivities to long wavelengths.", "Thus, fluorescence can be used as adaptive signaling and intra-species communication in reef fish.Additionally, it is suggested that fluorescent tissues that surround an organism's eyes are used to convert blue light from the photic zone or green bioluminescence in the aphotic zone into red light to aid vision.=====Sharks=====A new fluorophore was described in two species of sharks, wherein it was due to an undescribed group of brominated tryptophane-kynurenine small molecule metabolites.=====Coral=====Fluorescence serves a wide variety of functions in coral.", "Fluorescent proteins in corals may contribute to photosynthesis by converting otherwise unusable wavelengths of light into ones for which the coral's symbiotic algae are able to conduct photosynthesis.", "Also, the proteins may fluctuate in number as more or less light becomes available as a means of photoacclimation.", "Similarly, these fluorescent proteins may possess antioxidant capacities to eliminate oxygen radicals produced by photosynthesis.", "Finally, through modulating photosynthesis, the fluorescent proteins may also serve as a means of regulating the activity of the coral's photosynthetic algal symbionts.=====Cephalopods=====''Alloteuthis subulata'' and ''Loligo vulgaris'', two types of nearly transparent squid, have fluorescent spots above their eyes.", "These spots reflect incident light, which may serve as a means of camouflage, but also for signaling to other squids for schooling purposes.=====Jellyfish=====''Aequoria victoria'', biofluorescent jellyfish known for GFPAnother, well-studied example of fluorescence in the ocean is the hydrozoan ''Aequorea victoria''.", "This jellyfish lives in the photic zone off the west coast of North America and was identified as a carrier of green fluorescent protein (GFP) by Osamu Shimomura.", "The gene for these green fluorescent proteins has been isolated and is scientifically significant because it is widely used in genetic studies to indicate the expression of other genes.=====Mantis shrimp=====Several species of mantis shrimp, which are stomatopod crustaceans, including ''Lysiosquillina glabriuscula'', have yellow fluorescent markings along their antennal scales and carapace (shell) that males present during threat displays to predators and other males.", "The display involves raising the head and thorax, spreading the striking appendages and other maxillipeds, and extending the prominent, oval antennal scales laterally, which makes the animal appear larger and accentuates its yellow fluorescent markings.", "Furthermore, as depth increases, mantis shrimp fluorescence accounts for a greater part of the visible light available.", "During mating rituals, mantis shrimp actively fluoresce, and the wavelength of this fluorescence matches the wavelengths detected by their eye pigments.====Aphotic zone=========Siphonophores=====''Siphonophorae'' is an order of marine animals from the phylum Hydrozoa that consist of a specialized medusoid and polyp zooid.", "Some siphonophores, including the genus Erenna that live in the aphotic zone between depths of 1600 m and 2300 m, exhibit yellow to red fluorescence in the photophores of their tentacle-like tentilla.", "This fluorescence occurs as a by-product of bioluminescence from these same photophores.", "The siphonophores exhibit the fluorescence in a flicking pattern that is used as a lure to attract prey.=====Dragonfish=====The predatory deep-sea dragonfish ''Malacosteus niger'', the closely related genus ''Aristostomias'' and the species ''Pachystomias microdon'' use fluorescent red accessory pigments to convert the blue light emitted from their own bioluminescence to red light from suborbital photophores.", "This red luminescence is invisible to other animals, which allows these dragonfish extra light at dark ocean depths without attracting or signaling predators.===Terrestrial=======Amphibians====Fluorescent polka-dot tree frog under UV-lightFluorescence is widespread among amphibians and has been documented in several families of frogs, salamanders and caecilians, but the extent of it varies greatly.The polka-dot tree frog (''Hypsiboas punctatus''), widely found in South America, was unintentionally discovered to be the first fluorescent amphibian in 2017.The fluorescence was traced to a new compound found in the lymph and skin glands.", "The main fluorescent compound is Hyloin-L1 and it gives a blue-green glow when exposed to violet or ultraviolet light.", "The scientists behind the discovery suggested that the fluorescence can be used for communication.", "They speculated that fluorescence possibly is relatively widespread among frogs.", "Only a few months later, fluorescence was discovered in the closely related ''Hypsiboas atlanticus''.", "Because it is linked to secretions from skin glands, they can also leave fluorescent markings on surfaces where they have been.In 2019, two other frogs, the tiny pumpkin toadlet (''Brachycephalus ephippium'') and red pumpkin toadlet (''B.", "pitanga'') of southeastern Brazil, were found to have naturally fluorescent skeletons, which are visible through their skin when exposed to ultraviolet light.", "It was initially speculated that the fluorescence supplemented their already aposematic colours (they are toxic) or that it was related to mate choice (species recognition or determining fitness of a potential partner), but later studies indicate that the former explanation is unlikely, as predation attempts on the toadlets appear to be unaffected by the presence/absence of fluorescence.In 2020 it was confirmed that green or yellow fluorescence is widespread not only in adult frogs that are exposed to blue or ultraviolet light, but also among tadpoles, salamanders and caecilians.", "The extent varies greatly depending on species; in some it is highly distinct and in others it is barely noticeable.", "It can be based on their skin pigmentation, their mucous or their bones.====Butterflies====Swallowtail (''Papilio'') butterflies have complex systems for emitting fluorescent light.", "Their wings contain pigment-infused crystals that provide directed fluorescent light.", "These crystals function to produce fluorescent light best when they absorb radiance from sky-blue light (wavelength about 420 nm).", "The wavelengths of light that the butterflies see the best correspond to the absorbance of the crystals in the butterfly's wings.", "This likely functions to enhance the capacity for signaling.====Parrots====Parrots have fluorescent plumage that may be used in mate signaling.", "A study using mate-choice experiments on budgerigars (''Melopsittacus undulates'') found compelling support for fluorescent sexual signaling, with both males and females significantly preferring birds with the fluorescent experimental stimulus.", "This study suggests that the fluorescent plumage of parrots is not simply a by-product of pigmentation, but instead an adapted sexual signal.", "Considering the intricacies of the pathways that produce fluorescent pigments, there may be significant costs involved.", "Therefore, individuals exhibiting strong fluorescence may be honest indicators of high individual quality, since they can deal with the associated costs.====Arachnids====Fluorescing scorpionSpiders fluoresce under UV light and possess a huge diversity of fluorophores.", "Andrews, Reed, & Masta noted that spiders are the only known group in which fluorescence is \"taxonomically widespread, variably expressed, evolutionarily labile, and probably under selection and potentially of ecological importance for intraspecific and interspecific signaling\".", "They showed that fluorescence evolved multiple times across spider taxa, with novel fluorophores evolving during spider diversification.In some spiders, ultraviolet cues are important for predator-prey interactions, intraspecific communication, and camouflage-matching with fluorescent flowers.", "Differing ecological contexts could favor inhibition or enhancement of fluorescence expression, depending upon whether fluorescence helps spiders be cryptic or makes them more conspicuous to predators.", "Therefore, natural selection could be acting on expression of fluorescence across spider species.Scorpions are also fluorescent, in their case due to the presence of beta carboline in their cuticles.====Platypus====In 2020 fluorescence was reported for several platypus specimens.====Plants====Many plants are fluorescent due to the presence of chlorophyll, which is probably the most widely distributed fluorescent molecule, producing red emission under a range of excitation wavelengths.", "This attribute of chlorophyll is commonly used by ecologists to measure photosynthetic efficiency.The ''Mirabilis jalapa'' flower contains violet, fluorescent betacyanins and yellow, fluorescent betaxanthins.", "Under white light, parts of the flower containing only betaxanthins appear yellow, but in areas where both betaxanthins and betacyanins are present, the visible fluorescence of the flower is faded due to internal light-filtering mechanisms.", "Fluorescence was previously suggested to play a role in pollinator attraction, however, it was later found that the visual signal by fluorescence is negligible compared to the visual signal of light reflected by the flower.===Abiotic=======Gemology, mineralogy and geology====Fluorescence of aragoniteUV light (top) and normal light (bottom)Gemstones and minerals may have a distinctive fluorescence or may fluoresce differently under short-wave ultraviolet, long-wave ultraviolet, visible light, or X-rays.Many types of calcite and amber will fluoresce under shortwave UV, longwave UV and visible light.", "Rubies, emeralds, and diamonds exhibit red fluorescence under long-wave UV, blue and sometimes green light; diamonds also emit light under X-ray radiation.Fluorescence in minerals is caused by a wide range of activators.", "In some cases, the concentration of the activator must be restricted to below a certain level, to prevent quenching of the fluorescent emission.", "Furthermore, the mineral must be free of impurities such as iron or copper, to prevent quenching of possible fluorescence.", "Divalent manganese, in concentrations of up to several percent, is responsible for the red or orange fluorescence of calcite, the green fluorescence of willemite, the yellow fluorescence of esperite, and the orange fluorescence of wollastonite and clinohedrite.", "Hexavalent uranium, in the form of the uranyl cation (), fluoresces at all concentrations in a yellow green, and is the cause of fluorescence of minerals such as autunite or andersonite, and, at low concentration, is the cause of the fluorescence of such materials as some samples of hyalite opal.", "Trivalent chromium at low concentration is the source of the red fluorescence of ruby.", "Divalent europium is the source of the blue fluorescence, when seen in the mineral fluorite.", "Trivalent lanthanides such as terbium and dysprosium are the principal activators of the creamy yellow fluorescence exhibited by the yttrofluorite variety of the mineral fluorite, and contribute to the orange fluorescence of zircon.", "Powellite (calcium molybdate) and scheelite (calcium tungstate) fluoresce intrinsically in yellow and blue, respectively.", "When present together in solid solution, energy is transferred from the higher-energy tungsten to the lower-energy molybdenum, such that fairly low levels of molybdenum are sufficient to cause a yellow emission for scheelite, instead of blue.", "Low-iron sphalerite (zinc sulfide), fluoresces and phosphoresces in a range of colors, influenced by the presence of various trace impurities.Crude oil (petroleum) fluoresces in a range of colors, from dull-brown for heavy oils and tars through to bright-yellowish and bluish-white for very light oils and condensates.", "This phenomenon is used in oil exploration drilling to identify very small amounts of oil in drill cuttings and core samples.Humic acids and fulvic acids produced by the degradation of organic matter in soils (humus) may also fluoresce because of the presence of aromatic cycles in their complex molecular structures.", "Humic substances dissolved in groundwater can be detected and characterized by spectrofluorimetry.====Organic liquids====Organic molecules found naturally in beer, such as tryptophan, tyrosine, and phenylalanine, fluoresce in green, ranging from 500 nm (light blue) to 600 nm (amber yellow) when illuminated with 450 nm (deep blue) laser light.Organic (carbon based) solutions such anthracene or stilbene, dissolved in benzene or toluene, fluoresce with ultraviolet or gamma ray irradiation.", "The decay times of this fluorescence are on the order of nanoseconds, since the duration of the light depends on the lifetime of the excited states of the fluorescent material, in this case anthracene or stilbene.Scintillation is defined a flash of light produced in a transparent material by the passage of a particle (an electron, an alpha particle, an ion, or a high-energy photon).", "Stilbene and derivatives are used in scintillation counters to detect such particles.", "Stilbene is also one of the gain mediums used in dye lasers.====Atmosphere====Fluorescence is observed in the atmosphere when the air is under energetic electron bombardment.", "In cases such as the natural aurora, high-altitude nuclear explosions, and rocket-borne electron gun experiments, the molecules and ions formed have a fluorescent response to light.====Common materials that fluoresce====* Vitamin B2 fluoresces yellow.", "* Tonic water fluoresces blue due to the presence of quinine.", "* Highlighter ink is often fluorescent due to the presence of pyranine.", "* Banknotes, postage stamps and credit cards often have fluorescent security features." ], [ "In novel technology", "In August 2020 researchers reported the creation of the brightest fluorescent solid optical materials so far by enabling the transfer of properties of highly fluorescent dyes via spatial and electronic isolation of the dyes by mixing cationic dyes with anion-binding cyanostar macrocycles.", "According to a co-author these materials may have applications in areas such as solar energy harvesting, bioimaging, and lasers." ], [ "Applications", "===Lighting===Fluorescent paint and plastic lit by UV-A lamps (blacklight).", "Paintings by Beo Beyond.The common fluorescent lamp relies on fluorescence.", "Inside the glass tube is a partial vacuum and a small amount of mercury.", "An electric discharge in the tube causes the mercury atoms to emit mostly ultraviolet light.", "The tube is lined with a coating of a fluorescent material, called the ''phosphor'', which absorbs ultraviolet light and re-emits visible light.", "Fluorescent lighting is more energy-efficient than incandescent lighting elements.", "However, the uneven spectrum of traditional fluorescent lamps may cause certain colors to appear different from when illuminated by incandescent light or daylight.", "The mercury vapor emission spectrum is dominated by a short-wave UV line at 254 nm (which provides most of the energy to the phosphors), accompanied by visible light emission at 436 nm (blue), 546 nm (green) and 579 nm (yellow-orange).", "These three lines can be observed superimposed on the white continuum using a hand spectroscope, for light emitted by the usual white fluorescent tubes.", "These same visible lines, accompanied by the emission lines of trivalent europium and trivalent terbium, and further accompanied by the emission continuum of divalent europium in the blue region, comprise the more discontinuous light emission of the modern trichromatic phosphor systems used in many compact fluorescent lamp and traditional lamps where better color rendition is a goal.Fluorescent lights were first available to the public at the 1939 New York World's Fair.", "Improvements since then have largely been better phosphors, longer life, and more consistent internal discharge, and easier-to-use shapes (such as compact fluorescent lamps).", "Some high-intensity discharge (HID) lamps couple their even-greater electrical efficiency with phosphor enhancement for better color rendition.White light-emitting diodes (LEDs) became available in the mid-1990s as LED lamps, in which blue light emitted from the semiconductor strikes phosphors deposited on the tiny chip.", "The combination of the blue light that continues through the phosphor and the green to red fluorescence from the phosphors produces a net emission of white light.Glow sticks sometimes utilize fluorescent materials to absorb light from the chemiluminescent reaction and emit light of a different color.===Analytical chemistry===Many analytical procedures involve the use of a fluorometer, usually with a single exciting wavelength and single detection wavelength.", "Because of the sensitivity that the method affords, fluorescent molecule concentrations as low as 1 part per trillion can be measured.Fluorescence in several wavelengths can be detected by an array detector, to detect compounds from HPLC flow.", "Also, TLC plates can be visualized if the compounds or a coloring reagent is fluorescent.", "Fluorescence is most effective when there is a larger ratio of atoms at lower energy levels in a Boltzmann distribution.", "There is, then, a higher probability of excitement and release of photons by lower-energy atoms, making analysis more efficient.===Spectroscopy===Usually the setup of a fluorescence assay involves a light source, which may emit many different wavelengths of light.", "In general, a single wavelength is required for proper analysis, so, in order to selectively filter the light, it is passed through an excitation monochromator, and then that chosen wavelength is passed through the sample cell.", "After absorption and re-emission of the energy, many wavelengths may emerge due to Stokes shift and various electron transitions.", "To separate and analyze them, the fluorescent radiation is passed through an emission monochromator, and observed selectively by a detector.===Lasers===The internal cavity of a dye laser tuned to 589 nm.", "The green beam from a frequency-doubled Nd:YAG laser causes the dye solution to fluoresce in yellow, creating a beam between the array of mirrors.", "Lasers most often use the fluorescence of certain materials as their active media, such as the red glow produced by a ruby (chromium sapphire), the infrared of titanium sapphire, or the unlimited range of colors produced by organic dyes.", "These materials normally fluoresce through a process called spontaneous emission, in which the light is emitted in all directions and often at many discrete spectral lines all at once.", "In many lasers, the fluorescent medium is \"pumped\" by exposing it to an intense light source, creating a population inversion, meaning that more of its atoms become in an excited state (high energy) rather than at ground state (low energy).", "When this occurs, the spontaneous fluorescence can then induce the other atoms to emit their photons in the same direction and at the same wavelength, creating stimulated emission.", "When a portion of the spontaneous fluorescence is trapped between two mirrors, nearly all of the medium's fluorescence can be stimulated to emit along the same line, producing a laser beam.===Biochemistry and medicine===Endothelial cells under the microscope with three separate channels marking specific cellular componentsFluorescence in the life sciences is used generally as a non-destructive way of tracking or analysis of biological molecules by means of the fluorescent emission at a specific frequency where there is no background from the excitation light, as relatively few cellular components are naturally fluorescent (called intrinsic or autofluorescence).In fact, a protein or other component can be \"labelled\" with an extrinsic fluorophore, a fluorescent dye that can be a small molecule, protein, or quantum dot, finding a large use in many biological applications.The quantification of a dye is done with a spectrofluorometer and finds additional applications in:====Microscopy====* When scanning the fluorescence intensity across a plane one has fluorescence microscopy of tissues, cells, or subcellular structures, which is accomplished by labeling an antibody with a fluorophore and allowing the antibody to find its target antigen within the sample.", "Labelling multiple antibodies with different fluorophores allows visualization of multiple targets within a single image (multiple channels).", "DNA microarrays are a variant of this.", "* Immunology: An antibody is first prepared by having a fluorescent chemical group attached, and the sites (e.g., on a microscopic specimen) where the antibody has bound can be seen, and even quantified, by the fluorescence.", "* FLIM (Fluorescence Lifetime Imaging Microscopy) can be used to detect certain bio-molecular interactions that manifest themselves by influencing fluorescence lifetimes.", "* Cell and molecular biology: detection of colocalization using fluorescence-labelled antibodies for selective detection of the antigens of interest using specialized software such as ImageJ.====Other techniques====* FRET (Förster resonance energy transfer, also known as fluorescence resonance energy transfer) is used to study protein interactions, detect specific nucleic acid sequences and used as biosensors, while fluorescence lifetime (FLIM) can give an additional layer of information.", "* Biotechnology: biosensors using fluorescence are being studied as possible Fluorescent glucose biosensors.", "* Automated sequencing of DNA by the chain termination method; each of four different chain terminating bases has its own specific fluorescent tag.", "As the labelled DNA molecules are separated, the fluorescent label is excited by a UV source, and the identity of the base terminating the molecule is identified by the wavelength of the emitted light.", "* FACS (fluorescence-activated cell sorting).", "One of several important cell sorting techniques used in the separation of different cell lines (especially those isolated from animal tissues).", "* DNA detection: the compound ethidium bromide, in aqueous solution, has very little fluorescence, as it is quenched by water.", "Ethidium bromide's fluorescence is greatly enhanced after it binds to DNA, so this compound is very useful in visualising the location of DNA fragments in agarose gel electrophoresis.", "Intercalated ethidium is in a hydrophobic environment when it is between the base pairs of the DNA, protected from quenching by water which is excluded from the local environment of the intercalated ethidium.", "Ethidium bromide may be carcinogenic – an arguably safer alternative is the dye SYBR Green.", "* FIGS (Fluorescence image-guided surgery) is a medical imaging technique that uses fluorescence to detect properly labeled structures during surgery.", "* Intravascular fluorescence is a catheter-based medical imaging technique that uses fluorescence to detect high-risk features of atherosclerosis and unhealed vascular stent devices.", "Plaque autofluorescence has been used in a first-in-man study in coronary arteries in combination with optical coherence tomography.", "Molecular agents has been also used to detect specific features, such as stent fibrin accumulation and enzymatic activity related to artery inflammation.", "* SAFI (species altered fluorescence imaging) an imaging technique in electrokinetics and microfluidics.", "It uses non-electromigrating dyes whose fluorescence is easily quenched by migrating chemical species of interest.", "The dye(s) are usually seeded everywhere in the flow and differential quenching of their fluorescence by analytes is directly observed.", "* Fluorescence-based assays for screening toxic chemicals.", "The optical assays consist of a mixture of environmental-sensitive fluorescent dyes and human skin cells that generate fluorescence spectra patterns.", "This approach can reduce the need for laboratory animals in biomedical research and pharmaceutical industry.", "Bone-margin detection: Alizarin-stained specimens and certain fossils can be lit by fluorescent lights to view anatomical structures, including bone margins.===Forensics===Fingerprints can be visualized with fluorescent compounds such as ninhydrin or DFO (1,8-Diazafluoren-9-one).", "Blood and other substances are sometimes detected by fluorescent reagents, like fluorescein.", "Fibers, and other materials that may be encountered in forensics or with a relationship to various collectibles, are sometimes fluorescent.===Non-destructive testing===Fluorescent penetrant inspection is used to find cracks and other defects on the surface of a part.", "Dye tracing, using fluorescent dyes, is used to find leaks in liquid and gas plumbing systems.===Signage===Fluorescent colors are frequently used in signage, particularly road signs.", "Fluorescent colors are generally recognizable at longer ranges than their non-fluorescent counterparts, with fluorescent orange being particularly noticeable.", "This property has led to its frequent use in safety signs and labels.===Optical brighteners===Fluorescent compounds are often used to enhance the appearance of fabric and paper, causing a \"whitening\" effect.", "A white surface treated with an optical brightener can emit more visible light than that which shines on it, making it appear brighter.", "The blue light emitted by the brightener compensates for the diminishing blue of the treated material and changes the hue away from yellow or brown and toward white.", "Optical brighteners are used in laundry detergents, high brightness paper, cosmetics, high-visibility clothing and more." ], [ "See also", " Absorption-re-emission atomic line filters use the phenomenon of fluorescence to filter light extremely effectively.", "* Black light* Blacklight paint* Fiber photometry* Fluorescence-activating and absorption-shifting tag* Fluorescence correlation spectroscopy* Fluorescence image-guided surgery* Fluorescence in plants* Fluorescence spectroscopy* Fluorescent lamp* Fluorescent Multilayer Disc* Fluorometer* High-visibility clothing* Integrated fluorometer* Laser-induced fluorescence* List of light sources* Microbial art, using fluorescent bacteria* Mössbauer effect, resonant fluorescence of gamma rays* Organic light-emitting diodes can be fluorescent* Phosphorescence* Phosphor thermometry, the use of phosphorescence to measure temperature.", "* Spectroscopy* Two-photon absorption* Vibronic spectroscopy* X-ray fluorescence" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "" ], [ "External links", " Fluorophores.org, the database of fluorescent dyes* FSU.edu, Basic Concepts in Fluorescence* \"A nano-history of fluorescence\" lecture by David Jameson* Excitation and emission spectra of various fluorescent dyes* Database of fluorescent minerals with pictures, activators and spectra (fluomin.org)* \"Biofluorescent Night Dive – Dahab/Red Sea (Egypt), Masbat Bay/Mashraba, \"Roman Rock\"\".", "YouTube.", "9 October 2012.", "* Steffen O. Beyer.", "\"FluoPedia.org: Publications\".", "fluopedia.org.", "* Steffen O. Beyer.", "\"FluoMedia.org: Science\".", "fluomedia.org." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Fundamental theorem of arithmetic" ], [ "Introduction", "In ''Disquisitiones Arithmeticae'' (1801) Gauss proved the unique factorization theorem and used it to prove the law of quadratic reciprocity.In mathematics, the '''fundamental theorem of arithmetic''', also called the '''unique factorization theorem''' and '''prime factorization theorem''', states that every integer greater than 1 can be represented uniquely as a product of prime numbers, up to the order of the factors.", "For example,:The theorem says two things about this example: first, that 1200 be represented as a product of primes, and second, that no matter how this is done, there will always be exactly four 2s, one 3, two 5s, and no other primes in the product.The requirement that the factors be prime is necessary: factorizations containing composite numbers may not be unique (for example, ).This theorem is one of the main reasons why 1 is not considered a prime number: if 1 were prime, then factorization into primes would not be unique; for example, The theorem generalizes to other algebraic structures that are called unique factorization domains and include principal ideal domains, Euclidean domains, and polynomial rings over a field.", "However, the theorem does not hold for algebraic integers.", "This failure of unique factorization is one of the reasons for the difficulty of the proof of Fermat's Last Theorem.", "The implicit use of unique factorization in rings of algebraic integers is behind the error of many of the numerous false proofs that have been written during the 358 years between Fermat's statement and Wiles's proof." ], [ "History", "The fundamental theorem can be derived from Book VII, propositions 30, 31 and 32, and Book IX, proposition 14 of Euclid's ''Elements''.", "(In modern terminology: if a prime ''p'' divides the product ''ab'', then ''p'' divides either ''a'' or ''b'' or both.)", "Proposition 30 is referred to as Euclid's lemma, and it is the key in the proof of the fundamental theorem of arithmetic.", "(In modern terminology: every integer greater than one is divided evenly by some prime number.)", "Proposition 31 is proved directly by infinite descent.Proposition 32 is derived from proposition 31, and proves that the decomposition is possible.", "(In modern terminology: a least common multiple of several prime numbers is not a multiple of any other prime number.)", "Book IX, proposition 14 is derived from Book VII, proposition 30, and proves partially that the decomposition is unique – a point critically noted by André Weil.", "Indeed, in this proposition the exponents are all equal to one, so nothing is said for the general case.While Euclid took the first step on the way to the existence of prime factorization, Kamāl al-Dīn al-Fārisī took the final step and stated for the first time the fundamental theorem of arithmetic.Article 16 of Gauss' ''Disquisitiones Arithmeticae'' is an early modern statement and proof employing modular arithmetic." ], [ "Applications", "===Canonical representation of a positive integer=== Every positive integer can be represented in exactly one way as a product of prime powers:where are primes and the are positive integers.", "This representation is commonly extended to all positive integers, including 1, by the convention that the empty product is equal to 1 (the empty product corresponds to ).This representation is called the '''canonical representation''' of , or the '''standard form''' of ''n''.", "For example,:999 = 33×37,:1000 = 23×53,:1001 = 7×11×13.Factors may be inserted without changing the value of (for example, ).", "In fact, any positive integer can be uniquely represented as an infinite product taken over all the positive prime numbers, as:where a finite number of the are positive integers, and the others are zero.", "Allowing negative exponents provides a canonical form for positive rational numbers.===Arithmetic operations===The canonical representations of the product, greatest common divisor (GCD), and least common multiple (LCM) of two numbers ''a'' and ''b'' can be expressed simply in terms of the canonical representations of ''a'' and ''b'' themselves::However, integer factorization, especially of large numbers, is much more difficult than computing products, GCDs, or LCMs.", "So these formulas have limited use in practice.===Arithmetic functions===Many arithmetic functions are defined using the canonical representation.", "In particular, the values of additive and multiplicative functions are determined by their values on the powers of prime numbers." ], [ "Proof", "The proof uses Euclid's lemma (''Elements'' VII, 30): If a prime divides the product of two integers, then it must divide at least one of these integers.===Existence===It must be shown that every integer greater than is either prime or a product of primes.", "First, is prime.", "Then, by strong induction, assume this is true for all numbers greater than and less than .", "If is prime, there is nothing more to prove.", "Otherwise, there are integers and , where , and .", "By the induction hypothesis, and are products of primes.", "But then is a product of primes.===Uniqueness===Suppose, to the contrary, there is an integer that has two distinct prime factorizations.", "Let be the least such integer and write , where each and is prime.", "We see that divides , so divides some by Euclid's lemma.", "Without loss of generality, say divides .", "Since and are both prime, it follows that .", "Returning to our factorizations of , we may cancel these two factors to conclude that .", "We now have two distinct prime factorizations of some integer strictly smaller than , which contradicts the minimality of .===Uniqueness without Euclid's lemma===The fundamental theorem of arithmetic can also be proved without using Euclid's lemma.", "The proof that follows is inspired by Euclid's original version of the Euclidean algorithm.", "Assume that is the smallest positive integer which is the product of prime numbers in two different ways.", "Incidentally, this implies that , if it exists, must be a composite number greater than .", "Now, say :Every must be distinct from every Otherwise, if say then there would exist some positive integer that is smaller than and has two distinct prime factorizations.", "One may also suppose that by exchanging the two factorizations, if needed.Setting and one has Also, since one has It then follows that:As the positive integers less than have been supposed to have a unique prime factorization, must occur in the factorization of either or .", "The latter case is impossible, as , being smaller than , must have a unique prime factorization, and differs from every The former case is also impossible, as, if is a divisor of it must be also a divisor of which is impossible as and are distinct primes.Therefore, there cannot exist a smallest integer with more than a single distinct prime factorization.", "Every positive integer must either be a prime number itself, which would factor uniquely, or a composite that also factors uniquely into primes, or in the case of the integer , not factor into any prime." ], [ "Generalizations", "The first generalization of the theorem is found in Gauss's second monograph (1832) on biquadratic reciprocity.", "This paper introduced what is now called the ring of Gaussian integers, the set of all complex numbers ''a'' + ''bi'' where ''a'' and ''b'' are integers.", "It is now denoted by He showed that this ring has the four units ±1 and ±''i'', that the non-zero, non-unit numbers fall into two classes, primes and composites, and that (except for order), the composites have unique factorization as a product of primes (up to the order and multiplication by units).Similarly, in 1844 while working on cubic reciprocity, Eisenstein introduced the ring , where is a cube root of unity.", "This is the ring of Eisenstein integers, and he proved it has the six units and that it has unique factorization.However, it was also discovered that unique factorization does not always hold.", "An example is given by .", "In this ring one has:Examples like this caused the notion of \"prime\" to be modified.", "In it can be proven that if any of the factors above can be represented as a product, for example, 2 = ''ab'', then one of ''a'' or ''b'' must be a unit.", "This is the traditional definition of \"prime\".", "It can also be proven that none of these factors obeys Euclid's lemma; for example, 2 divides neither (1 + ) nor (1 − ) even though it divides their product 6.In algebraic number theory 2 is called irreducible in (only divisible by itself or a unit) but not prime in (if it divides a product it must divide one of the factors).", "The mention of is required because 2 is prime and irreducible in Using these definitions it can be proven that in any integral domain a prime must be irreducible.", "Euclid's classical lemma can be rephrased as \"in the ring of integers every irreducible is prime\".", "This is also true in and but not in The rings in which factorization into irreducibles is essentially unique are called unique factorization domains.", "Important examples are polynomial rings over the integers or over a field, Euclidean domains and principal ideal domains.In 1843 Kummer introduced the concept of ideal number, which was developed further by Dedekind (1876) into the modern theory of ideals, special subsets of rings.", "Multiplication is defined for ideals, and the rings in which they have unique factorization are called Dedekind domains.There is a version of unique factorization for ordinals, though it requires some additional conditions to ensure uniqueness.Any commutative Möbius monoid satisfies a unique factorization theorem and thus possesses arithmetical properties similar to those of the multiplicative semigroup of positive integers.", "Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic is, in fact, a special case of the unique factorization theorem in commutative Möbius monoids." ], [ "See also", "* " ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "The ''Disquisitiones Arithmeticae'' has been translated from Latin into English and German.", "The German edition includes all of his papers on number theory: all the proofs of quadratic reciprocity, the determination of the sign of the Gauss sum, the investigations into biquadratic reciprocity, and unpublished notes.", " * The two monographs Gauss published on biquadratic reciprocity have consecutively numbered sections: the first contains §§ 1–23 and the second §§ 24–76.Footnotes referencing these are of the form \"Gauss, BQ, § ''n''\".", "Footnotes referencing the ''Disquisitiones Arithmeticae'' are of the form \"Gauss, DA, Art.", "''n''\".", "* * These are in Gauss's ''Werke'', Vol II, pp.", "65–92 and 93–148; German translations are pp.", "511–533 and 534–586 of the German edition of the ''Disquisitiones''.", "* * * .", "* .", "* " ], [ "External links", " Why isn’t the fundamental theorem of arithmetic obvious?", "* GCD and the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic at cut-the-knot.", "* PlanetMath: Proof of fundamental theorem of arithmetic* Fermat's Last Theorem Blog: Unique Factorization, a blog that covers the history of Fermat's Last Theorem from Diophantus of Alexandria to the proof by Andrew Wiles.", "* \"Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic\" by Hector Zenil, Wolfram Demonstrations Project, 2007.", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Flamenco" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Flamenco''' () is an art form based on the various folkloric music traditions of southern Spain, developed within the gitano subculture of the region of Andalusia, and also having historical presence in Extremadura and Murcia.", "In a wider sense, the term is used to refer to a variety of both contemporary and traditional musical styles typical of southern Spain.", "Flamenco is closely associated to the gitanos of the Romani ethnicity who have contributed significantly to its origination and professionalization.", "However, its style is uniquely Andalusian and flamenco artists have historically included Spaniards of both gitano and non-gitano heritage.The oldest record of flamenco music dates to 1774 in the book ''Las Cartas Marruecas'' (The Moroccan Letters) by José Cadalso.", "The development of flamenco over the past two centuries is well documented: \"the theatre movement of sainetes (one-act plays) and tonadillas, popular song books and song sheets, customs, studies of dances, and ''toques'', perfection, newspapers, graphic documents in paintings and engravings. ...", "in continuous evolution together with rhythm, the poetic stanzas, and the ambiance.", "\"On 16 November 2010, UNESCO declared flamenco one of the Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity." ], [ "Etymology", "Historically, the term ''Flamenco'' was used to identify the Romani people (Gitanos) of Spain.", "The English traveller George Borrow who travelled through Spain during the 1830s stated that the Gitanos were also called Flemish (in Spanish, 'flamenco') due to German and Fleming being erroneously considered synonymous.", "According to flamencologist Cristina Cruces-Roldán, a year prior to Borrow's account, there already existed a Gitano party in Madrid that was clearly identified as Flamenco.", "This equivalency between Gitano and Flamenco is also noted by Manuel Fernández y González, Demófilo, and the scholar Iriving Brown who stated in 1938 that \"Flamenco is simply another term for Gitano, with special connotations.", "\"The origins of the term lie in the sociological prejudice towards the Roma who were seen as ruffians and cocky troublemakers by the Spaniards and were thus associated with the 18th century German colonists of the Sierra Morena who formed groups of urban Bohemians that lived outside the law and were seen as idle and lazy.", "Other less successful hypotheses include those of Felipe Pedrell and Carlos Alemendros who state that while the term Flamenco is Spanish for Flemish, it is actually synonymous with ''Cantador'' (professional singer) in reference to the group of Flemish singers brought by Spanish King Carlos I in 1516.Another hypothesis that is not widely accepted is the Arabist theory of Blas Infante, which presents in his book ''Orígenes de lo flamenco (Origins of flamenco)'''','' Flamenco as a phonetic deformation of Arabic ''fellah-mengu'' (runaway laborer) or was derived from the Arabic terms ''Felah-Mengus,'' which together mean \"wandering peasant\".The first use of the term Flamenco to refer to the music genre appears in a 1847 newspaper article of ''El Espectador'' where it was referred to as a \"Gitano genre.\"", "In the early years of Flamenco, the term was versatile and was used to refer to a variety of concepts in the Gitano-Andalusian world.", "For example, in the 1860s-70s this versatility was exemplified through its use to refer to a musical style and a certain aesthetic, manners, and way of life that were perceived to be Gitano.", "At that time, Flamenco was not a strict genre but a way of performing music in a Gitano-Andalusian style." ], [ "History", "=== Cultural Origins ===There are hypotheses that point to the influence on flamenco of types of dance from the Indian subcontinent; the place of origin of the Romani people.", "The Indo-Pakistani scales of Flamenco were introduced to Andalusia by the Romani migrations from Northern India.", "These Roma migrants also brought bells, and an extensive repertoire of songs and dances.", "Upon arrival to Andalusia in the 15th century, they were exposed to the rich Arab-Andalusian music culture, itself a hybrid of Spanish music tradition going back to the 8th century with the establishment of Al-Andalus, which brought in traditions and music from the Arabian peninsula, Northern Africa and Sephardic features.", "Some of the instruments associated with Flamenco and Spanish folklore in different regions today, are the wooden castanets and tambourines, both believed to originate during the Al Andalus period.", "This centuries-long period of cultural intermingling, formed the roots of Flamenco song and dance genres.=== Birth of Flamenco ===It is believed that the flamenco genre emerged at the end of the 18th century in cities and agrarian towns of Baja Andalusia, highlighting Jerez de la Frontera as the first written vestige of this art, although there is practically no data related to those dates and the manifestations of this time are more typical of the bolero school than of flamenco.", "It appeared as a modern art form from the convergence of the urban subaltern groups, Gitano communities, and journeyman of Andalusia that formed the marginalized Flamenco artistic working class who established Flamenco as a singular art form, marked from the beginning by the Gitano brand.", "Andalusia was the origin and cradle of the early Flamenco cantaores and of the three or four dozen Gitano families who created and cultivated Flamenco.=== The casticismo ===During the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th century, a number of factors led to rise in Spain of a phenomenon known as \"Costumbrismo Andaluz\" or \"Andalusian Mannerism\".In 1783 Carlos III promulgated a pragmatics that regulated the social situation of the .", "This was a momentous event in the history of Spanish gitanos who, after centuries of marginalization and persecution, saw their legal situation improve substantially.After the Spanish War of Independence (1808–1812), a feeling of racial pride developed in the Spanish conscience, in opposition to the \"gallified\" \"Afrancesados\" - Spaniards who were influenced by French culture and the idea of the enlightenment.", "In this context, gitanos were seen as an ideal embodiment of Spanish culture and the emergence of the bullfighting schools of Ronda and Seville, the rise of the Bandidos and Vaqueros led to a taste for Andalusian romantic culture which triumphed in the Madrid court.At this time there is evidence of disagreements due to the introduction of innovations in art.=== Los cafés cantantes ===\"Café cantante\" in Seville, Spain, c.1888.Photograph by Emilio Beauchy aka \"E. Beauchy\"In 1881 Silverio Franconetti opened the first flamenco singer café in Seville.", "In Silverio's café the cantaores were in a very competitive environment, which allowed the emergence of the professional cantaor and served as a crucible where flamenco art was configured.", "Locals learned the cantes, while reinterpreting the Andalusian folk songs in their own style, expanding the repertoire.", "Likewise, the taste of the public contributed to configure the flamenco genre, unifying its technique and its theme.=== The antiflamenquismo of \"La generación del 98\" ===''Flamenquismo'', defined by the Royal Spanish Academy as a \"fondness for flamenco art and customs\", is a conceptual catch-all where flamenco singing and a fondness for bullfighting, among other traditional Spanish elements, fit.", "These customs were strongly attacked by the generation of 98, all of its members being \"anti-flamenco\", with the exception of the Machado brothers, Manuel and Antonio.", "Being Sevillians and sons of the folklorist Demófilo Machado, the brothers had a more complex view of the matter.", "The greatest standard bearer of anti-flamenquism was the Madrid writer Eugenio Noel, who, in his youth, had been a militant ''casticista''.", "Noel attributed to flamenco and bullfighting the origin of the ills of Spain which he saw as manifestations of the country's Oriental character which hindered economic and social development.", "These considerations caused an insurmountable rift to be established for decades between flamenco and most \"intellectuals\" of the time.=== The flamenca opera ===Between 1920 and 1955, flamenco shows began to be held in bullrings and theaters, under the name \"flamenco opera\".", "This denomination was an economic strategy of the promoters, since opera only paid 3% while variety shows paid 10%.", "At this time, flamenco shows spread throughout Spain and the main cities of the world.", "The great social and commercial success achieved by flamenco at this time eliminated some of the oldest and most sober styles from the stage, in favor of lighter airs, such as cantiñas, los cantes de ida y vuelta and fandangos, of which many personal versions were created.", "The purist critics attacked this lightness of the cantes, as well as the use of falsete and the gaitero style.In the line of purism, the poet Federico García Lorca and the composer Manuel de Falla had the idea of concurso de cante jondo en Granada en 1922.Both artists conceived of flamenco as folklore, not as a scenic artistic genre; for this reason, they were concerned, since they believed that the massive triumph of flamenco would end its purest and deepest roots.", "To remedy this, they organized a cante jondo contest in which only amateurs could participate and in which festive cantes (such as cantiñas) were excluded, which Falla and Lorca did not consider jondos, but flamencos.", "The jury was chaired by Antonio Chacón, who at that time was the leading figure in cante.", "The winners were \"El Tenazas\", a retired professional cantaor from Morón de la Frontera, and Manuel Ortega, an eight-year-old boy from Seville who would go down in flamenco history as Manolo Caracol.", "The contest turned out to be a failure due to the scant echo it had and because Lorca and Falla did not know how to understand the professional character that flamenco already had at that time, striving in vain to seek a purity that never existed in an art that was characterized by mixture and the personal innovation of its creators.", "Apart from this failure, with the Generation of '27, whose most eminent members were Andalusians and therefore knew the genre first-hand, the recognition of flamenco by intellectuals began.At that time, there were already flamenco recordings related to Christmas, which can be divided into two groups: the traditional flamenco carol and flamenco songs that adapt their lyrics to the Christmas theme.", "These cantes have been maintained to this day, the Zambomba Jerezana being spatially representative, declared an Asset of Intangible Cultural Interest by the Junta de Andalucía in December 2015.During the Spanish Civil War, a large number of singers were exiled or died defending the Republic and the humiliations to which they were being subjected by the National Party: Bando Nacional: Corruco de Algeciras, Chaconcito, El Carbonerillo, El Chato De Las Ventas, Vallejito, Rita la Cantaora, Angelillo, Guerrita are some of them.", "In the postwar period and the first years of the Franco regime, the world of flamenco was viewed with suspicion, as the authorities were not clear that this genre contributed to the national conscience.", "However, the regime soon ended up adopting flamenco as one of the quintessential Spanish cultural manifestations.", "The singers who have survived the war go from stars to almost outcasts, singing for the young men in the private rooms of the brothels in the center of Seville where they have to adapt to the whims of aristocrats, soldiers and businessmen who have become rich.In short, the period of the flamenco opera was a time open to creativity and that definitely made up most of the flamenco repertoire.", "It was the Golden Age of this genre, with figures such as Antonio Chacón, Manuel Vallejo , Manuel Torre, La Niña de los Peines, Pepe Marchena and Manolo Caracol.=== Flamencología ===Starting in the 1950s, abundant anthropological and musicological studies on flamenco began to be published.", "In 1954 Hispavox published the first Antología del Cante Flamenco, a sound recording that was a great shock to its time, dominated by orchestrated cante and, consequently, mystified.", "In 1955, the Argentine intellectual Anselmo González Climent published an essay called \"Flamencología\", whose title he baptized the \"set of knowledge, techniques, etc., on flamenco singing and dancing.\"", "This book dignified the study of flamenco by applying the academic methodology of musicology to it and served as the basis for subsequent studies on this genre.As a result, in 1956 the National Contest of Cante Jondo de Córdoba was organized and in 1958 the first flamencology chair was founded in Jerez de la Frontera, the oldest academic institution dedicated to the study, research, conservation, promotion and defense of the flamenco art.", "Likewise, in 1963 the Cordovan poet Ricardo Molina and the Sevillian cantaor Antonio Mairena published Alalimón Mundo y Formas del Cante flamenco, which has become a must-have reference work.For a long time the Mairenistas postulates were considered practically unquestionable, until they found an answer in other authors who elaborated the \"Andalusian thesis\", which defended that flamenco was a genuinely Andalusian product, since it had been developed entirely in this region and because its styles basic ones derived from the folklore of Andalusia.", "They also maintained that the Andalusian Gitanos had contributed decisively to their formation, highlighting the exceptional nature of flamenco among gypsy music and dances from other parts of Spain and Europe.", "The unification of the Gitanos and Andalusian thesis has ended up being the most accepted today.", "In short, between the 1950s and 1970s, flamenco went from being a mere show to also becoming an object of study.=== Flamenco protest during the Franco regime ===Flamenco became one of the symbols of Spanish national identity during the Franco regime, since the regime knew how to appropriate a folklore traditionally associated with Andalusia to promote national unity and attract tourism, constituting what was called national-flamenquismo.", "Hence, flamenco had long been seen as a reactionary or retrograde element.", "In the mid-60s and until the transition, cantaores who opposed the regime began to appear with the use of protest lyrics.", "These include: José Menese and lyricist Francisco Moreno Galván, Enrique Morente, Manuel Gerena, El Lebrijano, El Cabrero, Lole y Manuel, el Piki or Luis Marín, among many others.In contrast to this conservatism with which it was associated during the Franco regime, flamenco suffered the influence of the wave of activism that also shook the university against the repression of the regime when university students came into contact with this art in the recitals that were held, for example, at the Colegio Mayor de San Juan Evangelista: \"flamenco amateurs and professionals got involved with performances of a manifestly political nature.", "It was a kind of flamenco protest charged with protest, which meant censorship and repression for the flamenco activists \".As the political transition progressed, the demands were deflated as flamenco inserted itself within the flows of globalized art.", "At the same time, this art was institutionalized until it reached the point that the Junta de Andalucía was attributed in 2007 \"exclusive competence in matters of knowledge, conservation, research, training, promotion and dissemination\".=== Flamenco fusion ===Finnish Flamenco dancer Reima Nikkinen with an unidentified woman dancer in December 1971In the 1970s, there were airs of social and political change in Spain, and Spanish society was already quite influenced by various musical styles from the rest of Europe and the United States.", "There were also numerous singers who had grown up listening to Antonio Mairena, Pepe Marchena and Manolo Caracol.", "The combination of both factors led to a revolutionary period called flamenco fusion.The singer Rocío Jurado internationalized flamenco at the beginning of the 70s, replacing the bata de cola with evening dresses.", "Her facet in the \"Fandangos de Huelva\" and in the Alegrías was recognized internationally for her perfect voice tessitura in these genres.", "She used to be accompanied in her concerts by guitarists Enrique de Melchor and Tomatito, not only at the national level but in countries like Colombia, Venezuela and Puerto Rico.The musical representative José Antonio Pulpón was a decisive character in that fusion, as he urged the cantaor Agujetas to collaborate with the Sevillian Andalusian rock group \"Pata Negra\", the most revolutionary couple since Antonio Chacón and Ramón Montoya, initiating a new path for flamenco.", "It also fostered the artistic union between the virtuoso guitarist from Algeciras Paco de Lucía and the long-standing singer from the island Camarón de la Isla, who gave a creative impulse to flamenco that would mean its definitive break with Mairena's conservatism.", "When both artists undertook their solo careers, Camarón became a mythical cantaor for his art and personality, with a legion of followers, while Paco de Lucía reconfigured the entire musical world of flamenco, opening up to new influences, such as Brazilian music, Arabic and jazz and introducing new musical instruments such as the Peruvian cajon, the transverse flute, etc.Other leading performers in this process of formal flamenco renewal were Juan Peña El Lebrijano, who married flamenco with Andalusian music, and Enrique Morente, who throughout his long artistic career has oscillated between the purism of his first recordings and the crossbreeding with rock, or Remedios Amaya from Triana, cultivator of a unique style of tangos from Extremadura, and a wedge of purity in her cante make her part of this select group of established artists.", "Other singers with their own style include Cancanilla de Marbella.", "In 2011 this style became known in India thanks to María del Mar Fernández, who acts in the video clip of the film You Live Once, entitled Señorita.", "The film was seen by more than 73 million viewers.=== New flamenco ===In the 1980s a new generation of flamenco artists emerged who had been influenced by the mythical cantaor Camarón, Paco de Lucía, Morente, etc.", "These artists were interested in popular urban music, which in those years was renewing the Spanish music scene, it was the time of the Movida madrileña.", "Among them are \"Pata Negra\", who fused flamenco with blues and rock, Ketama, of pop and Cuban inspiration and Ray Heredia, creator of his own musical universe where flamenco occupies a central place.Also the recording company Nuevos Medios released many musicians under the label nuevo flamenco and this denomination has grouped musicians very different from each other like Rosario Flores, daughter of Lola Flores, or the renowned singer Malú, niece of Paco de Lucía and daughter of Pepe de Lucía, who despite sympathizing with flamenco and keeping it in her discography has continued with her personal style.", "However, the fact that many of the interpreters of this new music are also renowned cantaores, in the case of José Mercé, El Cigala, and others, has led to labeling everything they perform as flamenco, although the genre of their songs differs quite a bit from the classic flamenco.", "This has generated very different feelings, both for and against.Other contemporary artists of that moment were O'Funkillo and Ojos de Brujo, Arcángel, Miguel Poveda, Mayte Martín, Marina Heredia, Estrella Morente or Manuel Lombo, etc.But the discussion between the difference of flamenco and new flamenco in Spain has just gained strength during since 2019 due to the success of new flamenco attracting the taste of the youngest Spanish fans but also in the international musical scene emphasizing the problem of how should we call this new musical genre mixed with flamenco.One of these artist who has reinvented flamenco is Rosalía, an indisputable name on the international music scene.", "\"Pienso en tu mirá\", \"Di mi nombre\" or the song that catapulted her to fame, \"Malamente\", are a combination of styles that includes a flamenco/south Spain traditional musical base.", "Rosalía has broken the limits of this musical genre by embracing other urban rhythms, but has also created a lot of controversy about which genre is she using.", "The Catalan artist has been awarded several Latin GrammyAwards and MTV Video Music Awards, which also, at just 30 years old, garners more than 40 million monthly listeners on Spotify.But it is not the only successful case, the Granada-born Dellafuente, C. Tangana, MAKA, RVFV, Demarco Flamenco, Maria Àrnal and Marcel Bagés, El Niño de Elche, Sílvia Pérez Cruz; Califato 3/4, Juanito Makandé, Soledad Morente, María José Llergo o Fuel Fandango are only a few of the new spanish musical scene that includes flamenco in their music.It seems that the Spanish music scene is experiencing a change in its music and new rhythms are re-emerging together with new artists who are experimenting to cover a wider audience that wants to maintain the closeness that flamenco has transmitted for decades.=== Flamenco Culture Overseas ===The state of New Mexico, located in the southwest of the United States maintains a strong identity with Flamenco culture.", "The University of New Mexico located in Albuquerque offers a graduate degree program in Flamenco.", "Flamenco performances are widespread in the Albuquerque and Santa Fe communities, with the National institute of Flamenco sponsoring an annual festival, as well as a variety of professional flamenco performances offered at various locales.", "Emmy Grimm, known by her stage name La Emi is a professional Flamenco dancer and native to New Mexico who performs as well as teaches Flamenco in Santa Fe.", "She continues studying her art by traveling to Spain to work intensively with Carmela Greco and La Popi, as well as José Galván, Juana Amaya, Yolanda Heredia, Ivan Vargas Heredia, Torombo and Rocio Alcaide Ruiz." ], [ "Main ''Palos''", "The ''Palos'' of flamenco''Palos'' (formerly known as ''cantes'') are flamenco styles, classified by criteria such as rhythmic pattern, mode, chord progression, stanzaic form and geographic origin.", "There are over 50 different ''palos'', some are sung unaccompanied while others have guitar or other accompaniment.", "Some forms are danced while others are not.", "Some are reserved for men and others for women while some may be performed by either, though these traditional distinctions are breaking down: the ''Farruca'', for example, once a male dance, is now commonly performed by women too.There are many ways to categorize ''Palos'' but they traditionally fall into three classes: the most serious is known as ''cante jondo'' (or ''cante grande''), while lighter, frivolous forms are called ''Cante Chico''.", "Forms that do not fit either category are classed as ''Cante Intermedio'' .", "These are the best known ''palos'' (; ):===Alegrías===The alegrías are thought to derive from the Aragonese jota, which took root in Cadiz during the Peninsular war and the establishment of the Cortes de Cadiz.", "That is why its classic lyrics contain so many references to the Virgen del Pilar, the Ebro River and Navarra.Enrique Butrón is considered to have formalized the current flamenco style of alegrías and Ignacio Espeleta who introduced the characteristic \"tiriti, tran, tran...\".", "Some of the best known interpreters of alegrías are Enrique el Mellizo, Chato de la Isla, Pinini, Pericón de Cádiz, Aurelio Sellés, La Perla de Cádiz, Chano Lobato and El Folli.One of the structurally strictest forms of flamenco, a traditional dance in alegrías must contain each of the following sections: a salida (entrance), paseo (walkaround), silencio (similar to an adagio in ballet), castellana (upbeat section) zapateado (Literally \"a tap of the foot\") and bulerías.", "This structure though, is not followed when alegrías are sung as a standalone song (with no dancing).", "In that case, the stanzas are combined freely, sometimes together with other types of cantiñas.Alegrías has a rhythm consisting of 12 beats.", "It is similar to Soleares.", "Its beat emphasis is as follows: 1 2 '''3''' 4 5 '''6''' 7 '''8''' 9 '''10''' 11 '''12'''.", "Alegrías originated in Cádiz.", "Alegrías belongs to the group of ''palos'' called Cantiñas and it is usually played in a lively rhythm (120–170 beats per minute).", "The livelier speeds are chosen for dancing, while quieter rhythms are preferred for the song alone.===Bulerías===Bulerías a fast flamenco rhythm made up of a 12 beat cycle with emphasis in two general forms as follows: '''12''' 1 2 '''3''' 4 5 '''6''' 7 '''8''' 9 '''10''' 11 or '''12''' 1 2 '''3''' 4 5 6 '''7''' '''8''' 9 '''10''' 11.It originated among the Calé Romani people of Jerez during the 19th century, originally as a fast, upbeat ending to ''soleares'' or ''alegrias''.", "It is among the most popular and dramatic of the flamenco forms and often ends any flamenco gathering, often accompanied by vigorous dancing and tapping.===Fandango======Granaínas======Guajiras======Malagueñas======Peteneras======Saeta======Seguiriyas======Soleá======Tangos======Tanguillos======Tarantos======Tientos===" ], [ "Music", "=== Structure ===A typical flamenco recital with voice and guitar accompaniment comprises a series of pieces (not exactly \"songs\") in different palos.", "Each song is a set of verses (called ''copla'', ''tercio'', or ''letras''), punctuated by guitar interludes (''falsetas'').", "The guitarist also provides a short introduction setting the tonality, ''compás'' (see below) and tempo of the cante .", "In some palos, these falsetas are played with a specific structure too; for example, the typical sevillanas is played in an AAB pattern, where A and B are the same falseta with only a slight difference in the ending .=== Harmony ===Flamenco uses the flamenco mode (which can also be described as the modern Phrygian mode (''modo frigio''), or a harmonic version of that scale with a major 3rd degree), in addition to the major and minor scales commonly used in modern Western music.", "The Phrygian mode occurs in ''palos'' such as soleá, most bulerías, siguiriyas, tangos and tientos.Descending E Phrygian scale in flamenco music, with common alterations in parenthesesA typical chord sequence, usually called the \"Andalusian cadence\" may be viewed as in a modified Phrygian: in E the sequence is '''Am–G–F–E''' .", "According to Manolo Sanlúcar '''E''' is here the tonic, '''F''' has the harmonic function of dominant while '''Am''' and '''G''' assume the functions of subdominant and mediant respectively .Guitarists tend to use only two basic inversions or \"chord shapes\" for the tonic chord (music), the open 1st inversion '''E''' and the open 3rd inversion '''A''', though they often transpose these by using a capo.", "Modern guitarists such as Ramón Montoya, have introduced other positions: Montoya himself started to use other chords for the tonic in the modern Dorian sections of several ''palos''; '''F''' for ''tarantas'', '''B''' for ''granaínas'' and '''A''' for the ''minera''.", "Montoya also created a new ''palo'' as a solo for guitar, the ''rondeña'' in '''C''' with ''scordatura''.", "Later guitarists have further extended the repertoire of tonalities, chord positions and ''scordatura''.There are also ''palos'' in major mode; most cantiñas and alegrías, guajiras, some ''bulerías'' and ''tonás'', and the ''cabales'' (a major type of ''siguiriyas'').", "The minor mode is restricted to the ''Farruca'', the ''milongas'' (among ''cantes de ida y vuelta''), and some styles of ''tangos, bulerías'', etc.", "In general traditional palos in major and minor mode are limited harmonically to two-chord (tonic–dominant) or three-chord (tonic–subdominant–dominant) progressions .", "However modern guitarists have introduced chord substitution, transition chords, and even modulation.", "''Fandangos'' and derivative ''palos'' such as ''malagueñas'', ''tarantas'' and ''cartageneras are bimodal'': guitar introductions are in Phrygian mode while the singing develops in major mode, modulating to Phrygian at the end of the stanza .=== Melody ===Dionisio Preciado, quoted by Sabas de , established the following characteristics for the melodies of flamenco singing:#Microtonality: presence of intervals smaller than the semitone.#Portamento: frequently, the change from one note to another is done in a smooth transition, rather than using discrete intervals.#Short tessitura or range: Most traditional flamenco songs are limited to a range of a sixth (four tones and a half).", "The impression of vocal effort is the result of using different timbres, and variety is accomplished by the use of microtones.#Use of enharmonic scale.", "While in equal temperament scales, enharmonics are notes with identical pitch but different spellings (e.g.", "A♭ and G♯); in flamenco, as in unequal temperament scales, there is a microtonal intervalic difference between enharmonic notes.#Insistence on a note and its contiguous chromatic notes (also frequent in the guitar), producing a sense of urgency.#Baroque ornamentation, with an expressive, rather than merely aesthetic function.#Apparent lack of regular rhythm, especially in the siguiriyas: the melodic rhythm of the sung line is different from the metric rhythm of the accompaniment.#Most styles express sad and bitter feelings.#Melodic improvisation: flamenco singing is not, strictly speaking, improvised, but based on a relatively small number of traditional songs, singers add variations on the spur of the moment.Musicologist Hipólito Rossy adds the following characteristics :Flamenco melodies are characterized by a descending tendency, as opposed to, for example, a typical opera aria, they usually go from the higher pitches to the lower ones, and from forte to piano, as was usual in ancient Greek scales.", "In many styles, such as soleá or siguiriya, the melody tends to proceed in contiguous degrees of the scale.", "Skips of a third or a fourth are rarer.", "However, in fandangos and fandango-derived styles, fourths and sixths can often be found, especially at the beginning of each line of verse.", "According to Rossy, this is proof of the more recent creation of this type of songs, influenced by Castilian jota.=== Compás or time signature==='''Compás''' is the Spanish word for metre or time signature (in classical music theory).", "It also refers to the rhythmic cycle, or layout, of a ''palo''.The compás is fundamental to flamenco.", "Compás is most often translated as rhythm but it demands far more precise interpretation than any other Western style of music.", "If there is no guitarist available, the compás is rendered through hand clapping (''palmas'') or by hitting a table with the knuckles.", "The guitarist uses techniques like strumming (''rasgueado'') or tapping the soundboard (''golpe'').", "Changes of chords emphasize the most important downbeats.Flamenco uses three basic counts or measures: Binary, Ternary and a form of a twelve-beat cycle that is unique to flamenco.", "There are also free-form styles including, among others, the tonás, saetas, malagueñas, tarantos, and some types of fandangos:Rhythms in or .", "These metres are used in forms like tangos, tientos, gypsy rumba, zambra and tanguillos.", "Rhythms in .", "These are typical of fandangos and sevillanas, suggesting their origin as non-Roma styles, since the and measures are not common in ethnic Roma music.", "12-beat rhythms usually rendered in amalgams of + and sometimes .", "The 12-beat cycle is the most common in flamenco, differentiated by the accentuation of the beats in different palos.", "The accents do not correspond to the classic concept of the downbeat.", "The alternating of groups of 2 and 3 beats is also common in Spanish folk dances of the 16th century such as the ''zarabanda'', ''jácara'' and ''canarios''.There are three types of 12-beat rhythms, which vary in their layouts, or use of accentuations: soleá, seguiriya and bulería:#peteneras and guajiras: 1 2 '''3''' 4 5 '''6''' 7 '''8''' 9 '''10''' 11 '''12'''.", "Both palos start with the strong accent on 12.Hence the meter is '''12''' 1 2 '''3''' 4 5 '''6''' 7 '''8''' 9 '''10''' 11.#The seguiriya, liviana, serrana, toná liviana, cabales: '''12''' 1 '''2''' 3 '''4''' 5 6 '''7''' 8 9 '''10''' 11 '''12'''.#soleá, within the cantiñas group of palos which includes the alegrías, cantiñas, mirabras, romera, caracoles and soleá por bulería (also \"bulería por soleá\"): 1 2 '''3''' 4 5 '''6''' 7 '''8''' 9 '''10''' 11 '''12'''.", "For practical reasons, when transferring flamenco guitar music to sheet music, this rhythm is written as a regular .The Bulerías is the emblematic palo of flamenco: today its 12-beat cycle is most often played with accents on the 3rd, 6th, 8th, 10th and 12th beats.", "The accompanying ''palmas'' are played in groups of 6 beats, giving rise to a multitude of counter-rhythms and percussive voices within the 12 beat compás.", "In certain regions like, Xerez, Spain, the rhythm stays in a simpler six-count rhythm, only including the twelve count in a musical resolve.Flamenco Bulerías with emphasis as '''12''' 1 2 '''3''' 4 5 '''6''' 7 '''8''' 9 '''10''' 11 – also the rhythm for the song \"America\" from ''West Side Story''" ], [ "Forms of flamenco expression", "=== Toque (guitar) ===The posture and technique of flamenco guitarists, called \"tocaores\", differs from that used by the players of classical guitar.", "While the classical guitarist supports the guitar on his left leg in an inclined way, the flamenco guitarist usually crosses his legs and supports it on the one that is higher, placing the neck in an almost horizontal position with respect to the ground.", "Modern guitarists usually use classical guitars, although there is a specific instrument for this genre called flamenco guitar.", "This is less heavy, and its body is narrower than that of the classical guitar, so its sound is lower and does not overshadow the cantaor.", "It is usually made of cypress wood, with the handle of cedar and the top of fir.", "The cypress gives it a brilliant sound very suitable for the characteristics of flamenco.", "Formerly, the palo santo from Rio or India was also used, being the first of higher quality, but currently it is in disuse due to its scarcity.", "The palo santo gave guitars an amplitude of sound especially suitable for solo playing.", "At present, the most widely used headstock is the metal one, since the wooden one poses tuning problems.The main guitar makers were Antonio de Torres Jurado (Almería, 1817–1892) considered the father of the guitar, , the Great Ramírez (Madrid, 1864 -1920), and his disciples Santos Hernández (Madrid, 1873–1943), who built several guitars for the maestro Sabicas, Domingo Esteso and .", "Also noteworthy are the Conde Brothers, Faustino (1913–1988), Mariano (1916–1989) and Julio (1918–1996), nephews of Domingo Esteso, whose children and heirs continue the saga.The guitarists use the technique of alzapúa, picado, the strum and the tremolo, among others.", "One of the first touches that is considered flamenco, such as the \"rondeña\", was the first composition recorded for solo guitar, by Julián Arcas (María, Almería, 1832 – Antequera, Málaga, 1882) in Barcelona in 1860.The strum can be performed with 5, 4 or 3 fingers, the latter invented by Sabicas.", "The use of the thumb is also characteristic of flamenco playing.", "Guitarists rest their thumb on the guitar's soundboard and their index and middle fingers on the string above the one they are playing, thus achieving greater power and sound than the classical guitarist.", "The middle finger is also placed on the pickguard of the guitar for more precision and strength when plucking the string.", "Likewise, the use of the pickguard as an element of percussion gives great strength to flamenco guitar playing.", "The melodic or flourishing phrase that is inserted between the chord sequences intended to accompany the couplet is called \"falseta\".The accompaniment and solo playing of flamenco guitarists is based on both the modal harmonic system and the tonal system, although the most frequent is a combination of both.", "Some flamenco songs are performed \"a palo seco\" (a cappella), without guitar accompaniment.=== Cante (song) ===According to the Royal Spanish Academy, \"cante\" is called the \"action or effect of singing any Andalusian singing\", defining \"flamenco singing\" as \"agitated Andalusian singing\" and cante jondo as \"the most genuine song.", "Andalusian, of deep feeling \".", "The interpreter of flamenco singing is called ''cantaor'' instead of singer, with the loss of the intervocalic characteristic of the Andalusian dialect.The most important award in flamenco singing is probably the , which has been awarded five times to: , , Antonio Mairena, Camarón de la Isla and Fosforito.=== Baile (dance) ===''El baile flamenco'' is known for its emotional intensity, proud carriage, expressive use of the arms and rhythmic stamping of the feet, unlike tap dance or Irish dance which use different techniques.", "As with any dance form, many different styles of flamenco have developed.In the 20th century, flamenco danced informally at gitano (Roma) celebrations in Spain was considered the most \"authentic\" form of flamenco.", "There was less virtuoso technique in gitano flamenco, but the music and steps are fundamentally the same.", "The arms are noticeably different from classical flamenco, curving around the head and body rather than extending, often with a bent elbow.Flamenco, Córdoba\"Flamenco puro\" otherwise known as \"flamenco por derecho\" is considered the form of performance flamenco closest to its gitano influences.", "In this style, the dance is often performed solo, and is based on signals and calls of structural improvisation rather than choreographed.", "In the improvisational style, castanets are not often used.", "\"Classical flamenco\" is the style most frequently performed by Spanish flamenco dance companies.", "It is danced largely in a proud and upright style.", "For women, the back is often held in a marked back bend.", "Unlike the more gitano influenced styles, there is little movement of the hips, the body is tightly held, and the arms are long, like a ballet dancer.", "In fact, many of the dancers in these companies are trained in Ballet Clásico Español more than in the improvisational language of flamenco.", "Flamenco has both influenced and been influenced by Ballet Clásico Español, as evidenced by the fusion of the two ballets created by 'La Argentinita' in the early part of the 20th century and later, by Joaquín Cortés, eventually by the entire Ballet Nacional de España et al.In the 1950s Jose Greco was one of the most famous male flamenco dancers, performing on stage worldwide and on television including the Ed Sullivan Show, and reviving the art almost singlehandedly.", "Greco's company left a handful of prominent pioneers, most notably: Maria Benitez and Vicente Romero of New Mexico.", "Today, there are many centers of flamenco art.", "Albuquerque, New Mexico is considered the \"Center of the Nation\" for flamenco art.", "Much of this is due to Maria Benitez's 37 years of sold-out summer seasons.", "Albuquerque boasts three distinct prominent centers: National Institute of Flamenco, Casa Flamenca and Flamenco Works.", "Each center dedicates time to daily training, cultural diffusion and world-class performance equaled only to world-class performances one would find in the heart of Southern Spain, Andalucía.Modern flamenco is a highly technical dance style requiring years of study.", "The emphasis for both male and female performers is on lightning-fast footwork performed with absolute precision.", "In addition, the dancer may have to dance while using props such as castanets, canes, shawls and fans.", "\"Flamenco nuevo\" is a recent marketing phenomenon in flamenco.", "Marketed as a \"newer version\" of flamenco, its roots came from world-music promoters trying to sell albums of artists who created music that \"sounded like\" or had Spanish-style influences.", "Though some of this music was played in similar pitches, scales and was well-received, it has little to nothing to do with the art of flamenco guitar, dance, cante Jondo or the improvisational language.", "\"Nuevo flamenco\" consists largely of compositions and repertoire, while traditional flamenco music and dance is a language composed of stanzas, actuated by oral formulaic calls and signals.Los Angeles, United StatesThe flamenco most foreigners are familiar with is a style that was developed as a spectacle for tourists.", "To add variety, group dances are included and even solos are more likely to be choreographed.", "The frilly, voluminous spotted dresses are derived from a style of dress worn for the Sevillanas at the annual Feria in Seville.In traditional flamenco, only the very young or older dancers are considered to have the emotional innocence or maturity to adequately convey the ''duende'' (soul) of the genre .", "Therefore, unlike other dance forms, where dancers turn professional through techniques early on to take advantage of youth and strength, many flamenco dancers do not hit their peak until their thirties and will continue to perform into their fifties and beyond.", "One artist that is considered a young master is Juan Manuel Fernandez Montoya, otherwise known as \"Farruquito\".", "At age 12, Farruquito was considered a pioneer and for \"Flamenco Puro\", or \"Flamenco por Derecho\", because of his emotional depth.File:Castelucho.jpg\|Claudio Castelucho, flamencoFile:Theatre Flamenco Work Sample.webm\|Theatre flamenco work sampleFile:Baile andaluz 1893 José Villegas Cordero.jpg\|José Villegas Cordero, Baile AndaluzFile:Sargent John Singer Spanish Dancer.jpg\|John Singer Sargent, ''Spanish Dancer'';Scenes of flamenco performance in Seville.Flamenco en el Palacio Andaluz, Sevilla, España, 2015-12-06, DD 07.JPGFlamenco en el Palacio Andaluz, Sevilla, España, 2015-12-06, DD 11.JPGFlamenco en el Palacio Andaluz, Sevilla, España, 2015-12-06, DD 20.JPGFlamenco en el Palacio Andaluz, Sevilla, España, 2015-12-06, DD 23.JPG" ], [ "Regulated teaching of flamenco in educational centers", "In Spain, regulated flamenco studies are officially taught in various music conservatories, dance conservatories and music schools in various autonomous communities.=== Conservatories of music ===Rafael Orozco Superior Conservatory of Music of Córdoba.Flamenco guitar studies in official educational centers began in Spain in 1988 at the hands of the great concert performer and teacher from Granada Manuel Cano Tamayo, who obtained a position as emeritus professor at the Superior Conservatory de Música Rafael Orozco from Córdoba.There are specialized flamenco conservatories throughout the country, although mainly in the Andalusia region, such as the aforementioned Córdoba Conservatory, the Murcia Superior Music Conservatory or the Superior Music School of Catalonia, among others.", "Outside of Spain, a unique case is the Rotterdam Conservatory, in the Netherlands, which offers regulated flamenco guitar studies under the direction of maestro Paco Peña since 1985, a few years before they existed in Spain." ], [ "University", "In 2018 the first university master's degree in flamenco research and analysis begins, after the previous attempts of the \"Doctorate Program of Approach to Flamenco\", taught by several universities such as Huelva, Seville, Cádiz and Córdoba, among others.=== History ===The fandango, which in the 17th century was the most widespread song and dance throughout Spain, eventually ended up generating local and regional variants, especially in the province of Huelva.", "In Alta Andalucía and bordering areas, the fandangos were accompanied with the bandola, an instrument with which they accompanied themselves following a regular beat that allowed dancing and from whose name the style derives \" abandoned \".", "Thus arose the fandangos of Lucena, the drones of Puente Genil, the primitive malagueñas, the rondeñas, the jaberas, the jabegotes, the verdiales, the chacarrá, the granaína, the taranto and the taranta.", "Due to the expansion of the Sevillanas in Baja Andalusia, the fandango gradually lost its role as a support for the dance, which allowed the singer to shine and freedom, generating a multitude of fandangos of personal creation in the 20th century.", "Likewise, thousands of Andalusian peasants, especially from the Eastern Andalusian provinces, emigrated to the mining sites Murcian, where the tarantos and taranta s evolved.", "The Tarante de Linares, evolved into the mining of the Union, the Cartagena and the Levantica.", "At the time of the cafés cantantes, some of these cantes were separated from the dance and acquired a free beat, which allowed the performers to show off.", "The great promoter of this process was Antonio Chacón, who developed precious versions of malagueñas, granainas and cantes mineros.The stylization of romance and cord sheets gave rise to corrido.", "The extraction of the romances from quatrains or three significant verses gave rise to the primitive tonás, the caña and the polo, which share meter and melody, but differing in their execution.", "The guitar accompaniment gave them a beat that made them danceable.", "It is believed that their origin was in Ronda, a city in Alta Andalucía close to Baja Andalucía and closely related to it, and that from there they reached the Sevillian suburb of Triana, with a great tradition of corridos, where they became the soleá.", "From the festive performance of corridos and soleares, the jaleos arose in Triana, who traveled to Extremadura and in Jerez and Utrera led to the bulería, from where they spread throughout Baja Andalucía, generating local variations." ], [ "Lexicon", "=== Ole ===Adolfo Salazar states that the expressive voice ''ole'', with which Andalusian ''cantaores'' and ''bailaores'' are encouraged, can come from the Hebrew verb ''oleh'' which means \"to throw upwards\", showing that the dervish girovaghi of Tunisia, Maghreb, also dance around to the sound of repeated \"ole\" or \"joleh\".", "The use of the word \"arza\", which is the Andalusian dialect form, of pronouncing the voice imperative \"rise\", with the characteristic Andalusian equalization of / l / and / r / implosives.", "The indiscriminate use of the voices \"arza\" and \"ole\" is frequent when it comes to ''jalear'', but the most evidence of the origin of this word can be from the caló: ''Olá'', which means \"come\".", "Likewise, in Andalusia it is known as jaleo al ojeo de hunt, that is, the act of glancing, which is \"driving away the game with voices, shots, blows or noise, so that they 'get up.=== Duende ===According to the RAE dictionary (1956!)", "The \"duende\" in Andalusia is a \"mysterious and ineffable charm\", a charisma that the Gitanos call duende.", "Federico García Lorca, in his lecture ''Teoría y juego del duende'' confirms this ineffability of the duende by defining it with the following words from Goethe: \"Mysterious power that everyone feels and that no philosopher explains\".", "In the flamenco imaginary, the duende goes beyond technique and inspiration, in Lorca's words \"To search for the duende there is no map or exercise\".", "When a flamenco artist experiences the arrival of this mysterious charm, the expressions \"have duende\" or sing, play or dance \"with duende\" are used.Along with those previously mentioned, there are many other words and expressions characteristic of the flamenco genre, such as \"tablao flamenco\", \"flamenco spree\", \"third\", \"aflamencar\", and \"flamenco\"." ], [ "See also" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* * Álvarez Caballero, Ángel: ''El cante flamenco'', Alianza Editorial, Madrid, Second edition, 1998.", "(First edition: 1994)* Álvarez Caballero, Ángel: ''La Discografía ideal del cante flamenco'', Planeta, Barcelona, 1995.", "* * * * Arredondo Pérez, Herminia, and Francisco J. García Gallardo: \"Música flamenca.", "Nuevos artistas, antiguas tradiciones\" In ''Andalucía en la música.", "Expresión de comunidad, construcción de identidad'', edited by Francisco J. García y Herminia Arredondo.", "Sevilla: Centro de Estudios Andaluces, 2014, pp. 225–242.", "* Banzi, Julia Lynn (PhD): \"Flamenco Guitar Innovation and the Circumscription of Tradition\" 2007, 382 pages; AAT 328581, DAI-A 68/10, University of California, Santa Barbara.", "* Caba Landa, Pedro, and Carlos Caba Landa.", "''Andalucía, su comunismo y su cante jondo''.", "First edition, Editorial Atlántico 1933.Third edition, Editorial Renacimiento 2008.", "* * Coelho, Víctor Anand (Editor): \"Flamenco Guitar: History, Style, and Context\", in ''The Cambridge Companion to the Guitar'', Cambridge University Press, 2003, pp. 13–32.", "* * * **** * Mairena, Antonio, and Ricardo Molina.", "''Mundo y formas del cante flamenco'', Librería Al-Ándalus, third edition, 1979 (First Edition: Revista de Occidente, 1963)*.", " Martín Salazar, Jorge: ''Los cantes flamencos'', Diputación Provincial de Granada, Granada, 1991 * ** Ortiz Nuevo, José Luis: ''Alegato contra la pureza'', Libros PM, Barcelona, 1996.", "* * * *** * ''Rito y geografía del cante''.", "Serie documental de los años 70 del siglo XX sobre los orígenes, estilos y pervivencia del cante flamenco, con José María Velázquez-Gaztelu.", "* '' Nuestro flamenco'': programa de Radio Clásica, con José María Velázquez-Gaztelu.", "* Agencia Andaluza para el Desarrollo del Flamenco* Flamenco Viejo* Flamenco Olímpico Reportaje Documental* ''Flamenco de la A a la Z'': breve enciclopedia del flamenco que incluye diccionario en el sitio de Radiolé.", "* GRANDE, Félix: ''Memoria del flamenco'', con prólogo de José Manuel Caballero Bonald.", "Galaxia Gutenberg/Círculo de Lectores, Barcelona, 1991.", "** Texto en ''PDF''.", "* Flamenco en Sevilla* Lafuente Alcántara, Emilio (1825–1868): ''Cancionero popular.", "Colección escogida de seguidillas y coplas'', 1865.", " Vol.", "II: ''Coplas''; texto en Google Books.", " Sobre Emilio Lafuente Alcántara , hermano de Miguel Lafuente Alcántara, en el sitio Biblioteca Virtual de Arabistas y Africanistas Españoles.", "* * Universo Lorca \| El Concurso del Cante Jondo de 1922.Web dedicada a la vida y obra de Federico García Lorca y su vinculación con Granada.", "(Diputación de Granada)* Los Palos del Flamenco \| Los Palos del Flamenco.", "Artículos sobre el origen y evolución del arte flamenco.", "(Flamencos Online)=== Notes ===" ], [ "External links", "* Flamenco show in Seville" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Father Christmas" ], [ "Introduction", "1848 depiction of Father Christmas crowned with a holly wreath, holding a staff and a wassail bowl and carrying the Yule log'''Father Christmas''' is the traditional English name for the personification of Christmas.", "Although now known as a Christmas gift-bringer, and typically considered to be synonymous with Santa Claus, he was originally part of a much older and unrelated English folkloric tradition.", "The recognisably modern figure of the English Father Christmas developed in the late Victorian period, but Christmas had been personified for centuries before then.English personifications of Christmas were first recorded in the 15th century, with Father Christmas himself first appearing in the mid 17th century in the aftermath of the English Civil War.", "The Puritan-controlled English government had legislated to abolish Christmas, considering it popish, and had outlawed its traditional customs.", "Royalist political pamphleteers, linking the old traditions with their cause, adopted Old Father Christmas as the symbol of 'the good old days' of feasting and good cheer.", "Following the Restoration in 1660, Father Christmas's profile declined.", "His character was maintained during the late 18th and into the 19th century by the Christmas folk plays later known as mummers' plays.Until Victorian times, Father Christmas was concerned with adult feasting and merry-making.", "He had no particular connection with children, nor with the giving of presents, nocturnal visits, stockings, chimneys or reindeer.", "But as later Victorian Christmases developed into child-centric family festivals, Father Christmas became a bringer of gifts.", "The popular American myth of Santa Claus arrived in England in the 1850s and Father Christmas started to take on Santa's attributes.", "By the 1880s the new customs had become established, with the nocturnal visitor sometimes being known as Santa Claus and sometimes as Father Christmas.", "He was often illustrated wearing a long red hooded gown trimmed with white fur.Most residual distinctions between Father Christmas and Santa Claus largely faded away in the early years of the 20th century, and modern dictionaries consider the terms Father Christmas and Santa Claus to be synonymous." ], [ "Early midwinter celebrations", "The custom of merrymaking and feasting at Christmastide first appears in the historical record during the High Middle Ages (c 1100–1300).", "This almost certainly represented a continuation of pre-Christian midwinter celebrations in Britain of which—as the historian Ronald Hutton has pointed out—\"we have no details at all\".", "Personifications came later, and when they did they reflected the existing custom." ], [ "15th century—the first English personifications of Christmas", "The first known English personification of Christmas was associated with merry-making, singing and drinking.", "A carol attributed to Richard Smart, Rector of Plymtree in Devon from 1435 to 1477, has 'Sir Christemas' announcing the news of Christ's birth and encouraging his listeners to drink: \"''Buvez bien par toute la compagnie'', / Make good cheer and be right merry, / And sing with us now joyfully: Nowell, nowell.", "\"Many Christmas customs of the Late Middle Ages incorporated both sacred and secular themes.", "In Norwich in January 1443, at a traditional battle between the flesh and the spirit (represented by Christmas and Lent), John Gladman, crowned and disguised as 'King of Christmas', rode behind a pageant of the months \"disguysed as the seson requird\" on a horse decorated with tinfoil." ], [ "16th century—feasting, entertainment and music", "In most of England the archaic word 'Yule' had been replaced by 'Christmas' by the 11th century, but in some places 'Yule' survived as the normal dialect term.", "The City of York maintained an annual St Thomas's Day celebration of ''The Riding of Yule and his Wife'' which involved a figure representing Yule who carried bread and a leg of lamb.", "In 1572, the riding was suppressed on the orders of Edmund Grindal, the Archbishop of York (term 1570-1576), who complained of the \"undecent and uncomely disguising\" which drew multitudes of people from divine service.Such personifications, illustrating the medieval fondness for pageantry and symbolism, extended throughout the Tudor and Stuart periods with Lord of Misrule characters, sometimes called 'Captain Christmas', 'Prince Christmas' or 'The Christmas Lord', presiding over feasting and entertainment in grand houses, university colleges and Inns of Court.In his allegorical play ''Summer's Last Will and Testament'', written in about 1592, Thomas Nashe introduced for comic effect a miserly Christmas character who refuses to keep the feast.", "He is reminded by Summer of the traditional role that he ought to be playing: \"Christmas, how chance thou com’st not as the rest, / Accompanied with some music, or some song?", "/ A merry carol would have graced thee well; / Thy ancestors have used it heretofore.\"" ], [ "17th century—religion and politics", "===Puritan criticisms===Early 17th century writers used the techniques of personification and allegory as a means of defending Christmas from attacks by radical Protestants.Responding to a perceived decline in the levels of Christmas hospitality provided by the gentry, Ben Jonson in ''Christmas, His Masque'' (1616) dressed his Old Christmas in out-of-date fashions: \"attir'd in round Hose, long Stockings, a close Doublet, a high crownd Hat with a Broach, a long thin beard, a Truncheon, little Ruffes, white shoes, his Scarffes, and Garters tyed crosse\".", "Surrounded by guards, Christmas asserts his rightful place in the Protestant Church and protests against attempts to exclude him: \"Why Gentlemen, doe you know what you doe?", "ha!", "would you ha'kept me out?", "Christmas, old Christmas?", "Christmas of London, and Captaine Christmas?", "... they would not let me in: I must come another time!", "a good jeast, as if I could come more then once a yeare; why, I am no dangerous person, and so I told my friends, o'the Guard.", "I am old Gregorie Christmas still, and though I come out of Popes-head-alley as good a Protestant, as any i'my Parish.", "\"The stage directions to ''The Springs Glorie'', a 1638 court masque by Thomas Nabbes, state, \"Christmas is personated by an old reverend Gentleman in a furr'd gown and cappe &c.\" Shrovetide and Christmas dispute precedence, and Shrovetide issues a challenge: \"I say Christmas you are past date, you are out of the Almanack.", "Resigne, resigne.\"", "To which Christmas responds: \"Resigne to thee!", "I that am the King of good cheere and feasting, though I come but once a yeare to raigne over bak't, boyled, roast and plum-porridge, will have being in despight of thy lard-ship.", "\"This sort of character was to feature repeatedly over the next 250 years in pictures, stage plays and folk dramas.", "Initially known as 'Sir Christmas' or 'Lord Christmas', he later became increasingly referred to as 'Father Christmas'.===Puritan revolution—enter 'Father Christmas'=== The rise of puritanism led to accusations of popery in connection with pre-reformation Christmas traditions.", "When the Puritans took control of government in the mid-1640s they made concerted efforts to abolish Christmas and to outlaw its traditional customs.", "For 15 years from around 1644, before and during the Interregnum of 1649-1660, the celebration of Christmas in England was forbidden.", "The suppression was given greater legal weight from June 1647 when parliament passed an ''Ordinance for Abolishing of Festivals'' which formally abolished Christmas in its entirety, along with the other traditional church festivals of Easter and Whitsun.It was in this context that Royalist pamphleteers linked the old traditions of Christmas with the cause of King and Church, while radical puritans argued for the suppression of Christmas both in its religious and its secular aspects.", "In the hands of Royalist pamphlet writers, Old Father Christmas served as the symbol and spokesman of 'the good old days' of feasting and good cheer, and it became popular for Christmastide's defenders to present him as lamenting past times.", "''The Arraignment, Conviction and Imprisoning of Christmas'' (January 1646) describes a discussion between a town crier and a Royalist gentlewoman enquiring after Old Father Christmas who 'is gone from hence'.", "Its anonymous author, a parliamentarian, presents Father Christmas in a negative light, concentrating on his allegedly popish attributes: \"For age, this hoarie headed man was of great yeares, and as white as snow; he entred the Romish Kallender time out of mind; he is old ...; he was full and fat as any dumb Docter of them all.", "He looked under the consecrated Laune sleeves as big as Bul-beefe ... but, since the catholike liquor is taken from him, he is much wasted, so that he hath looked very thin and ill of late ...", "But yet some other markes that you may know him by, is that the wanton Women dote after him; he helped them to so many new Gownes, Hatts, and Hankerches, and other fine knacks, of which he hath a pack on his back, in which is good store of all sorts, besides the fine knacks that he got out of their husbands' pockets for household provisions for him.", "He got Prentises, Servants, and Schollars many play dayes, and therefore was well beloved by them also, and made all merry with Bagpipes, Fiddles, and other musicks, Giggs, Dances, and Mummings.", "\"Father Christmas depicted in ''The Vindication of Christmas'', 1652The character of 'Christmas' (also called 'father Christmas') speaks in a pamphlet of 1652, immediately after the English Civil War, published anonymously by the satirical Royalist poet John Taylor: ''The Vindication of Christmas or, His Twelve Yeares' Observations upon the Times''.", "A frontispiece illustrates an old, bearded Christmas in a brimmed hat, a long open robe and undersleeves.", "Christmas laments the pitiful quandary he has fallen into since he came into \"this headlesse countrey\".", "\"I was in good hope that so long a misery would have made them glad to bid a merry Christmas welcome.", "But welcome or not welcome, I am come....\" He concludes with a verse: \"Lets dance and sing, and make good chear, / For Christmas comes but once a year.", "\"Father Christmas, as illustrated in Josiah King's two pamphlets of 1658 and 1678In 1658 Josiah King published ''The Examination and Tryall of Old Father Christmas'' (the earliest citation for the specific term 'Father Christmas' recognised by the Oxford English Dictionary).", "King portrays Father Christmas as a white-haired old man who is on trial for his life based on evidence laid against him by the Commonwealth.", "Father Christmas's counsel mounts the defence: \"Me thinks my Lord, the very Clouds blush, to see this old Gentleman thus egregiously abused.", "if at any time any have abused themselves by immoderate eating, and drinking or otherwise spoil the creatures, it is none of this old mans fault; neither ought he to suffer for it; for example the Sun and the Moon are by the heathens worship’d are they therefore bad because idolized?", "so if any abuse this old man, they are bad for abusing him, not he bad, for being abused.\"", "The jury acquits.===Restoration===Following the Restoration in 1660, most traditional Christmas celebrations were revived, although as these were no longer contentious the historic documentary sources become fewer.In 1678 Josiah King reprinted his 1658 pamphlet with additional material.", "In this version, the restored Father Christmas is looking better: \"he look't so smug and pleasant, his cherry cheeks appeared through his thin milk white locks, like blushing Roses vail'd with snow white Tiffany ... the true Emblem of Joy and Innocence.", "\"''Old Christmass Returnd'', a ballad collected by Samuel Pepys, celebrated the revival of festivities in the latter part of the century: \"Old Christmass is come for to keep open house / He scorns to be guilty of starving a mouse, / Then come boyes and welcome, for dyet the chief / Plumb pudding, Goose, Capon, minc't pies & Roast beef\"." ], [ "18th century—a low profile", "As interest in Christmas customs waned, Father Christmas's profile declined.", "He still continued to be regarded as Christmas's presiding spirit, although his occasional earlier associations with the Lord of Misrule died out with the disappearance of the Lord of Misrule himself.", "The historian Ronald Hutton notes, \"after a taste of genuine misrule during the Interregnum nobody in the ruling elite seems to have had any stomach for simulating it.\"", "Hutton also found \"patterns of entertainment at late Stuart Christmases are remarkably timeless and nothing very much seems to have altered during the next century either.\"", "The diaries of 18th and early 19th century clergy take little note of any Christmas traditions.In ''The Country Squire'', a play of 1732, Old Christmas is depicted as someone who is rarely-found: a generous squire.", "The character Scabbard remarks, \"Men are grown so ... stingy, now-a-days, that there is scarce One, in ten Parishes, makes any House-keeping.", "... Squire Christmas ... keeps a good House, or else I do not know of One besides.\"", "When invited to spend Christmas with the squire, he comments \"I will ... else I shall forget Christmas, for aught I see.\"", "Similar opinions were expressed in ''Round About Our Coal Fire ... with some curious Memories of Old Father Christmas; Shewing what Hospitality was in former Times, and how little there remains of it at present'' (1734, reprinted with Father Christmas subtitle 1796).David Garrick's popular 1774 Drury Lane production of ''A Christmas Tale'' included a personified Christmas character who announced \"Behold a personage well known to fame; / Once lov'd and honour'd – Christmas is my name!", "/.../ I, English hearts rejoic'd in days of yore; / for new strange modes, imported by the score, / You will not sure turn Christmas out of door!", "\"===Early records of folk plays===By the late 18th century Father Christmas had become a stock character in the Christmas folk plays later known as mummers plays.", "During the following century they became probably the most widespread of all calendar customs.", "Hundreds of villages had their own mummers who performed traditional plays around the neighbourhood, especially at the big houses.", "Father Christmas appears as a character in plays of the Southern England type, being mostly confined to plays from the south and west of England and Wales.", "His ritual opening speech is characterised by variants of a couplet closely reminiscent of John Taylor's \"But welcome or not welcome, I am come...\" from 1652.The oldest extant speech is from Truro, Cornwall in the late 1780s:: hare comes i ould father Christmas welcom or welcom not i hope ould father Christmas will never be forgot ould father Christmas a pair but woance a yare he lucks like an ould man of 4 score yare ''Here comes I, old Father Christmas, welcome or welcome not,I hope old Father Christmas will never be forgot.Old Father Christmas appears but once a year,He looks like an old man of fourscore year 80''." ], [ "19th century—revival", "During the Victorian period, Christmas customs enjoyed a significant revival, including the figure of Father Christmas himself as the emblem of 'good cheer'.", "His physical appearance at this time became more variable, and he was by no means always portrayed as the old and bearded figure imagined by 17th century writers.==='Merry England' view of Christmas===In his 1808 poem ''Marmion'', Walter Scott wrote::\"England was merry England, when / Old Christmas brought his sports again.", ":'Twas Christmas broach'd the mightiest ale; / 'Twas Christmas told the merriest tale;:A Christmas gambol oft could cheer / The poor man's heart through half the year.", "\"Scott's phrase Merry England has been adopted by historians to describe the romantic notion that there was a Golden Age of the English past, allegedly since lost, that was characterised by universal hospitality and charity.", "The notion had a profound influence on the way that popular customs were seen, and most of the 19th century writers who bemoaned the state of contemporary Christmases were, at least to some extent, yearning for the mythical Merry England version.A Merry England vision of Old Christmas 1836Thomas Hervey's ''The Book of Christmas'' (1836), illustrated by Robert Seymour, exemplifies this view.", "In Hervey's personification of the lost charitable festival, \"Old Father Christmas, at the head of his numerous and uproarious family, might ride his goat through the streets of the city and the lanes of the village, but he dismounted to sit for some few moments by each man's hearth; while some one or another of his merry sons would break away, to visit the remote farm-houses or show their laughing faces at many a poor man's door.\"", "Seymour's illustration shows Old Christmas dressed in a fur gown, crowned with a holly wreath, and riding a yule goat.Christmas with his children 1836In an extended allegory, Hervey imagines his contemporary Old Father Christmas as a white-bearded magician dressed in a long robe and crowned with holly.", "His children are identified as Roast Beef (Sir Loin) and his faithful squire or bottle-holder Plum Pudding; the slender figure of Wassail with her fount of perpetual youth; a 'tricksy spirit' who bears the bowl and is on the best of terms with the Turkey; Mumming; Misrule, with a feather in his cap; the Lord of Twelfth Night under a state-canopy of cake and wearing his ancient crown; Saint Distaff looking like an old maid (\"she used to be a sad romp; but her merriest days we fear are over\"); Carol singing; the Waits; and the twin-faced Janus.Hervey ends by lamenting the lost \"uproarious merriment\" of Christmas, and calls on his readers \"who know anything of the 'old, old, very old, gray-bearded gentleman' or his family to aid us in our search after them; and with their good help we will endeavor to restore them to some portion of their ancient honors in England\".Father Christmas or Old Christmas, represented as a jolly-faced bearded man often surrounded by plentiful food and drink, started to appear regularly in illustrated magazines of the 1840s.", "He was dressed in a variety of costumes and usually had holly on his head, as in these illustrations from the ''Illustrated London News'':File:Old Christmas, Illustrated London News 24 Dec 1842.jpg\|alt=Engraving of Old Christmas 1842\|Old Christmas 1842File:The Music in the Hall, Illustrated London News, 23 Dec 1843.jpg\|alt=Engraving of Old Christmas or Father Christmas 1843\|Old Christmas / Father Christmas 1843File:Merry Christmas, Illustrated London News, 25 December 1847.jpg\|alt=Engraving of Old Christmas 1847\|Old Christmas 1847'Ghost of Christmas Present' in Charles Dickens's ''A Christmas Carol 1843''.Charles Dickens's 1843 novel ''A Christmas Carol'' was highly influential, and has been credited both with reviving interest in Christmas in England and with shaping the themes attached to it.", "A famous image from the novel is John Leech's illustration of the 'Ghost of Christmas Present'.", "Although not explicitly named Father Christmas, the character wears a holly wreath, is shown sitting among food, drink and wassail bowl, and is dressed in the traditional loose furred gown—but in green rather than the red that later become ubiquitous.===Later 19th century mumming===Old Father Christmas continued to make his annual appearance in Christmas folk plays throughout the 19th century, his appearance varying considerably according to local custom.", "Sometimes, as in Hervey's book of 1836, he was portrayed (below left) as a hunchback.One unusual portrayal (below centre) was described several times by William Sandys between 1830 and 1852, all in essentially the same terms: \"Father Christmas is represented as a grotesque old man, with a large mask and comic wig, and a huge club in his hand.\"", "This representation is considered by the folklore scholar Peter Millington to be the result of the southern Father Christmas replacing the northern Beelzebub character in a hybrid play.", "A spectator to a Worcestershire version of the ''St George'' play in 1856 noted, \"Beelzebub was identical with Old Father Christmas.", "\"A mummers play mentioned in ''The Book of Days'' (1864) opened with \"Old Father Christmas, bearing, as emblematic devices, the holly bough, wassail-bowl, &c\".", "A corresponding illustration (below right) shows the character wearing not only a holly wreath but also a gown with a hood.File:Mummers, by Robert Seymour, 1836.jpg\|alt=Engraving showing a hunchback Old Father Christmas in an 1836 mummers play\|A hunchback Old Father Christmas in an 1836 play with long robe, holly wreath and staff.File:Sandys 1852 - Modern Christmas Plays, ChapterVIII.jpg\|alt=Engraving of an 1852 play with grotesque Old Father Christmas character\|An 1852 play.", "The Old Father Christmas character is on the far left.File:A party of mummers, Robert Chambers, The Book of Days, vol II, 1864.jpg\|alt=Engraving of a party of mummers 1864\|A party of mummers 1864In a Hampshire folk play of 1860 Father Christmas is portrayed as a disabled soldier: \"he wore breeches and stockings, carried a begging-box, and conveyed himself upon two sticks; his arms were striped with chevrons like a noncommissioned officer.", "\"In the latter part of the 19th century and the early years of the next the folk play tradition in England rapidly faded, and the plays almost died out after the First World War taking their ability to influence the character of Father Christmas with them.===Father Christmas as gift-giver===In pre-Victorian personifications, Father Christmas had been concerned essentially with adult feasting and games.", "He had no particular connection with children, nor with the giving of presents.", "But as Victorian Christmases developed into family festivals centred mainly on children, Father Christmas started to be associated with the giving of gifts.The Cornish Quaker diarist Barclay Fox relates a family party given on 26 December 1842 that featured \"the venerable effigies of Father Christmas with scarlet coat & cocked hat, stuck all over with presents for the guests, by his side the old year, a most dismal & haggard old beldame in a night cap and spectacles, then 1843 the new year, a promising baby asleep in a cradle\".In Britain, the first evidence of a child writing letters to Father Christmas requesting gift has been found in 1895.===Santa Claus crosses the Atlantic===The figure of Santa Claus had originated in the US, drawing at least partly upon Dutch St Nicolas traditions.", "A New York publication of 1821, ''A New-Year’s Present'', contained an illustrated poem ''Old Santeclaus with Much Delight'' in which a Santa figure on a reindeer sleigh brings presents for good children and a \"long, black birchen rod\" for use on the bad ones.", "In 1823 came the famous poem ''A Visit from St. Nicholas'', usually attributed to the New York writer Clement Clarke Moore, which developed the character further.", "Moore's poem became immensely popular and Santa Claus customs, initially localized in the Dutch American areas, were becoming general in the United States by the middle of the century.Santa Claus, as presented in ''Howitt's Journal of Literature and Popular Progress'', London 1848The January 1848 edition of ''Howitt's Journal of Literature and Popular Progress'', published in London, carried an illustrated article entitled \"New Year's Eve in Different Nations\".", "This noted that one of the chief features of the American New Year's Eve was a custom carried over from the Dutch, namely the arrival of Santa Claus with gifts for the children.", "Santa Claus is \"no other than the Pelz Nickel of Germany ... the good Saint Nicholas of Russia ...", "He arrives in Germany about a fortnight before Christmas, but as may be supposed from all the visits he has to pay there, and the length of his voyage, he does not arrive in America, until this eve.", "\"In 1851 advertisements began appearing in Liverpool newspapers for a new transatlantic passenger service to and from New York aboard the Eagle Line's ship ''Santa Claus'', and returning visitors and emigrants to the British Isles on this and other vessels will have been familiar with the American figure.", "There were some early adoptions in Britain.", "A Scottish reference has Santa Claus leaving presents on New Year's Eve 1852, with children \"hanging their stockings up on each side of the fire-place, in their sleeping apartments, at night, and waiting patiently till morning, to see what Santa Claus puts into them during their slumbers\".", "In Ireland in 1853, on the other hand, presents were being left on Christmas Eve according to a character in a newspaper short story who says \"... tomorrow will be Christmas.", "What will Santa Claus bring us?\"", "A poem published in Belfast in 1858 includes the lines \"The children sleep; they dream of him, the fairy, / Kind Santa Claus, who with a right good will / Comes down the chimney with a footstep airy ...\"''A Visit from St. Nicholas'' was published in England in December 1853 in ''Notes and Queries''.", "An explanatory note states that the St Nicholas figure is known as Santa Claus in New York State and as Krishkinkle in Pennsylvania.1854 marked the first English publication of ''Carl Krinkin; or, The Christmas Stocking'' by the popular American author Susan Warner.", "The novel was published three times in London in 1854–5, and there were several later editions.", "Characters in the book include both Santa Claus (complete with sleigh, stocking and chimney), leaving presents on Christmas Eve and—separately—Old Father Christmas.", "The Stocking of the title tells of how in England, \"a great many years ago\", it saw Father Christmas enter with his traditional refrain \"Oh!", "here come I, old father Christmas, welcome or not ...\" He wore a crown of yew and ivy, and he carried a long staff topped with holly-berries.", "His dress \"was a long brown robe which fell down about his feet, and on it were sewed little spots of white cloth to represent snow\".===Merger with Santa Claus===As the US-inspired customs became popular in England, Father Christmas started to take on Santa's attributes.", "His costume became more standardised, and although depictions often still showed him carrying holly, the holly crown became rarer and was often replaced with a hood.", "It still remained common, though, for Father Christmas and Santa Claus to be distinguished, and as late as the 1890s there were still examples of the old-style Father Christmas appearing without any of the new American features.====Appearances in public====The blurring of public roles occurred quite rapidly.", "In an 1854 newspaper description of the public Boxing Day festivities in Luton, Bedfordshire, a gift-giving Father Christmas/Santa Claus figure was already being described as 'familiar': \"On the right-hand side was Father Christmas's bower, formed of evergreens, and in front was the proverbial Yule log, glistening in the snow ...", "He wore a great furry white coat and cap, and a long white beard and hair spoke to his hoar antiquity.", "Behind his bower he had a large selection of fancy articles which formed the gifts he distributed to holders of prize tickets from time to time during the day ... Father Christmas bore in his hand a small Christmas tree laden with bright little gifts and bon-bons, and altogether he looked like the familiar Santa Claus or Father Christmas of the picture book.\"", "Discussing the shops of Regent Street in London, another writer noted in December of that year, \"you may fancy yourself in the abode of Father Christmas or St. Nicholas himself.", "\"During the 1860s and the 1870s, Father Christmas became a popular subject on Christmas cards, where he was shown in many different costumes.", "Sometimes he gave presents and sometimes received them.", "''Old Father Christmas, or The Cave of Mystery'' 1866An illustrated article of 1866 explained the concept of ''The Cave of Mystery''.", "In an imagined children's party this took the form of a recess in the library which evoked \"dim visions of the cave of Aladdin\" and was \"well filled ... with all that delights the eye, pleases the ear, or tickles the fancy of children\".", "The young guests \"tremblingly await the decision of the improvised Father Christmas, with his flowing grey beard, long robe, and slender staff\".Father Christmas 1879, with holly crown and wassail bowl, the bowl now being used for the delivery of children's presentsFrom the 1870s onwards, Christmas shopping had begun to evolve as a separate seasonal activity, and by the late 19th century it had become an important part of the English Christmas.", "The purchasing of toys, especially from the new department stores, became strongly associated with the season.", "The first retail Christmas Grotto was set up in JR Robert's store in Stratford, London in December 1888, and shopping arenas for children—often called 'Christmas Bazaars'—spread rapidly during the 1890s and 1900s, helping to assimilate Father Christmas/Santa Claus into society.Sometimes the two characters continued to be presented as separate, as in a procession at the Olympia Exhibition of 1888 in which both Father Christmas and Santa Claus took part, with Little Red Riding Hood and other children's characters in between.", "At other times the characters were conflated: in 1885 Mr Williamson's London Bazaar in Sunderland was reported to be a \"Temple of juvenile delectation and delight.", "In the well-lighted window is a representation of Father Christmas, with the printed intimation that 'Santa Claus is arranging within.", "'\"''Domestic Theatricals'' 1881Even after the appearance of the store grotto, it was still not firmly established who should hand out gifts at parties.", "A writer in the ''Illustrated London News'' of December 1888 suggested that a Sibyl should dispense gifts from a 'snow cave', but a little over a year later she had changed her recommendation to a gypsy in a 'magic cave'.", "Alternatively, the hostess could \"have Father Christmas arrive, towards the end of the evening, with a sack of toys on his back.", "He must have a white head and a long white beard, of course.", "Wig and beard can be cheaply hired from a theatrical costumier, or may be improvised from tow in case of need.", "He should wear a greatcoat down to his heels, liberally sprinkled with flour as though he had just come from that land of ice where Father Christmas is supposed to reside.", "\"====As secret nocturnal visitor====The nocturnal visitor aspect of the American myth took much longer to become naturalised.", "From the 1840s it had been accepted readily enough that presents were left for children by unseen hands overnight on Christmas Eve, but the receptacle was a matter of debate, as was the nature of the visitor.", "Dutch tradition had St Nicholas leaving presents in shoes laid out on 5 December, while in France shoes were filled by Père Noël.", "The older shoe custom and the newer American stocking custom trickled only slowly into Britain, with writers and illustrators remaining uncertain for many years.", "Although the stocking eventually triumphed, the shoe custom had still not been forgotten by 1901 when an illustration entitled ''Did you see Santa Claus, Mother?''", "was accompanied by the verse \"Her Christmas dreams / Have all come true; / Stocking o'erflows / and likewise shoe.", "\"JA Fitzgerald showing nocturnal visitors in 1868, before the American Santa Claus tradition took hold.Before Santa Claus and the stocking became ubiquitous, one English tradition had been for fairies to visit on Christmas Eve to leave gifts in shoes set out in front of the fireplace.Aspects of the American Santa Claus myth were sometimes adopted in isolation and applied to Father Christmas.", "In a short fantasy piece, the editor of the ''Cheltenham Chronicle'' in 1867 dreamt of being seized by the collar by Father Christmas, \"rising up like a Geni of the Arabian Nights ... and moving rapidly through the ''aether''\".", "Hovering over the roof of a house, Father Christmas cries 'Open Sesame' to have the roof roll back to disclose the scene within.It was not until the 1870s that the tradition of a nocturnal Santa Claus began to be adopted by ordinary people.", "The poem ''The Baby's Stocking'', which was syndicated to local newspapers in 1871, took it for granted that readers would be familiar with the custom, and would understand the joke that the stocking might be missed as \"Santa Claus wouldn't be looking for anything half so small.\"", "On the other hand, when ''The Preston Guardian'' published its poem ''Santa Claus and the Children'' in 1877 it felt the need to include a long preface explaining exactly who Santa Claus was.Folklorists and antiquarians were not, it seems, familiar with the new local customs and Ronald Hutton notes that in 1879 the newly formed Folk-Lore Society, ignorant of American practices, was still \"excitedly trying to discover the source of the new belief\".In January 1879 the antiquarian Edwin Lees wrote to ''Notes and Queries'' seeking information about an observance he had been told about by 'a country person': \"On Christmas Eve, when the inmates of a house in the country retire to bed, all those desirous of a present place a stocking outside the door of their bedroom, with the expectation that some mythical being called Santiclaus will fill the stocking or place something within it before the morning.", "This is of course well known, and the master of the house does in reality place a Christmas gift secretly in each stocking; but the giggling girls in the morning, when bringing down their presents, affect to say that Santiclaus visited and filled the stockings in the night.", "From what region of the earth or air this benevolent Santiclaus takes flight I have not been able to ascertain ...\" Lees received several responses, linking 'Santiclaus' with the continental traditions of St Nicholas and 'Petit Jesus' (Christkind), but no-one mentioned Father Christmas and no-one was correctly able to identify the American source.By the 1880s the American myth had become firmly established in the popular English imagination, the nocturnal visitor sometimes being known as Santa Claus and sometimes as Father Christmas (often complete with a hooded robe).", "An 1881 poem imagined a child awaiting a visit from Santa Claus and asking \"Will he come like Father Christmas, / Robed in green and beard all white?", "/ Will he come amid the darkness?", "/ Will he come at all tonight?\"", "The French writer Max O'Rell, who evidently thought the custom was established in the England of 1883, explained that Father Christmas \"''descend par la cheminée, pour remplir de bonbons et de joux les bas que les enfants ont suspendus au pied du lit.''\"", "comes down the chimney, to fill with sweets and games the stockings that the children have hung from the foot of the bed.", "And in her poem ''Agnes: A Fairy Tale'' (1891), Lilian M Bennett treats the two names as interchangeable: \"Old Santa Claus is exceedingly kind, / but he won't come to Wide-awakes, you will find... / Father Christmas won't come if he can hear / You're awake.", "So to bed my bairnies dear.\"", "The commercial availability from 1895 of Tom Smith & Co's ''Santa Claus Surprise Stockings'' indicates how deeply the American myth had penetrated English society by the end of the century.Representations of the developing character at this period were sometimes labelled 'Santa Claus' and sometimes 'Father Christmas', with a tendency for the latter still to allude to old-style associations with charity and with food and drink, as in several of these ''Punch'' illustrations:File:The Awakening of Father Christmas, Punch, Dec 1891.jpg\|alt=1891 engraving of Father Christmas being awoken by a figure representing Charity\|''The Awakening of Father Christmas'' 1891File:A Christmas Puzzle, Punch, Dec 1895.jpg\|alt=1895 engraving of Father Christmas asking a ragged child \"Where's your stocking?", "\"\|\"Where's your stocking?\"", "1895File:Father Christmas Up-To-Date, Punch, Dec 1896.jpg\|alt=1896 engraving of Father Christmas driving an early car\|''Father Christmas Up-To-Date'' 1896File:Father Christmas Not Up-To-Date, Punch, Dec 1897.jpg\|alt=1897 engraving of Father Christmas\|''Father Christmas Not Up-To-Date'' 1897" ], [ "20th century", "Any residual distinctions between Father Christmas and Santa Claus largely faded away in the early years of the new century, and it was reported in 1915, \"The majority of children to-day ... do not know of any difference between our old Father Christmas and the comparatively new Santa Claus, as, by both wearing the same garb, they have effected a happy compromise.", "\"It took many years for authors and illustrators to agree that Father Christmas's costume should be portrayed as red—although that was always the most common colour—and he could sometimes be found in a gown of brown, green, blue or white.", "Mass media approval of the red costume came following a Coca-Cola advertising campaign that was launched in 1931.", "''Punch'', Dec 1919OED's'' definition of Father Christmas as \"a personification of Christmas, now conventionally pictured as a benevolent old man with a long white beard and red clothes trimmed with white fur, who brings presents for children on the night before Christmas Day\".Father Christmas's common form for much of the 20th century was described by his entry in the ''Oxford English Dictionary''.", "He is \"the personification of Christmas as a benevolent old man with a flowing white beard, wearing a red sleeved gown and hood trimmed with white fur, and carrying a sack of Christmas presents\".", "One of the OED's sources is a 1919 cartoon in ''Punch'', reproduced here.", "The caption reads::''Uncle James (who after hours of making up rather fancies himself as Father Christmas)''.", "\"Well, my little man, and do you know who I am?", "\":''The Little Man.''", "\"No, as a matter of fact I don't.", "But Father's downstairs; perhaps he may be able to tell you.", "\"In 1951 an editorial in ''The Times'' opined that while most adults may be under the impression that the English Father Christmas is home-bred, and is \"a good insular John Bull old gentleman\", many children, \"led away ... by the false romanticism of sledges and reindeer\", post letters to Norway addressed simply to Father Christmas or, \"giving him a foreign veneer, Santa Claus\".Differences between the English and US representations were discussed in ''The Illustrated London News'' of 1985.The classic illustration by the US artist Thomas Nast was held to be \"the authorised version of how Santa Claus should look—in America, that is.\"", "In Britain, people were said to stick to the older Father Christmas, with a long robe, large concealing beard, and boots similar to Wellingtons.JRR Tolkien, published in 1976Father Christmas appeared in many 20th century English-language works of fiction, including J. R. R. Tolkien's ''Father Christmas Letters'', a series of private letters to his children written between 1920 and 1942 and first published in 1976.Other 20th century publications include C. S. Lewis's ''The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe'' (1950), Raymond Briggs's ''Father Christmas'' (1973) and its sequel ''Father Christmas Goes on Holiday'' (1975).", "The character was also celebrated in popular songs, including \"I Believe in Father Christmas\" by Greg Lake (1974) and \"Father Christmas\" by The Kinks (1977).In 1991, Raymond Briggs's two books were adapted as an animated short film, ''Father Christmas'', starring Mel Smith as the voice of the title character." ], [ "21st century", "Modern dictionaries consider the terms Father Christmas and Santa Claus to be synonymous.", "The respective characters are now to all intents and purposes indistinguishable, although some people are still said to prefer the term 'Father Christmas' over 'Santa', nearly 150 years after Santa's arrival in England.", "According to ''Brewer's Dictionary of Phrase and Fable'' (19th edn, 2012), Father Christmas is considered to be \"a British rather than a US name for Santa Claus, associating him specifically with Christmas.", "The name carries a somewhat socially superior cachet and is thus preferred by certain advertisers.\"" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Federal jurisdiction (United States)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Federal jurisdiction''' refers to the legal scope of the government's powers in the United States of America.", "The United States is a federal republic, governed by the U.S. Constitution, containing fifty states and a federal district which elect the President and Vice President, and having other territories and possessions in its national jurisdiction.", "This government is variously known as the Union, the United States, or the federal government.Under the Constitution and various treaties, the legal jurisdiction of the United States includes territories and territorial waters." ], [ "Legislative Branch", "One aspect of federal jurisdiction is the extent of legislative power.", "Under the Constitution, Congress has power to legislate only in the areas that are delegated to it.", "Under clause 17 Article I Section 8 of the Constitution however, Congress has power to \"exercise exclusive Legislation in all cases whatsoever\" over the federal district (Washington, D.C.) and other territory ceded to the federal government by the states, such as for military installations.Federal jurisdiction in this sense is important in criminal law because federal law does not supersede state criminal law.", "Congress has enacted the Assimilative Crimes Act (), which provides that any act that would have been a crime under the laws of the state in which a federal enclave is situated is also a federal crime.", "As most such enclaves are occupied by the military, military law is especially concerned with these enclaves, especially the issue of establishing who has jurisdiction and what type of jurisdiction.", "In such areas, the federal government may have proprietary jurisdiction (rights as landowner), concurrent jurisdiction (with federal and state law applicable), or exclusive jurisdiction over the land where an act was committed.", "Courts-martial involving military members subject to the Uniform Code of Military Justice apply regardless of location.Article Four of the United States Constitution also states that the Congress has the power to enact laws ''respecting the Territory or other Property belonging to the United States.''", "'''Federal jurisdiction''' exists over any territory thus subject to laws enacted by the Congress." ], [ "Judicial branch", "The American legal system includes both state courts and federal courts.", "State courts hear cases involving state law, and such federal laws as are not restricted to hearing in federal courts.", "Federal courts may only hear cases where federal jurisdiction can be established.", "Specifically, the court must have both subject-matter jurisdiction over the matter of the claim and personal jurisdiction over the parties.The Federal Courts are courts of limited jurisdiction, meaning that they only exercise powers granted to them by the Constitution and Federal Laws.", "There are several forms of subject-matter jurisdiction, but the two most commonly appealed to are federal-question jurisdiction and diversity jurisdiction.", "Federal question jurisdiction is available when the plaintiff raises a claim that arises under the laws, treaties, or Constitution of the United States, as opposed to claims arising under state law.", "By the \"Well-Pleaded Complaint\" rule, federal question jurisdiction is not available if the federal issue arises only as a defense to a state-law claim.", "Diversity jurisdiction, on the other hand, is available regarding state-law claims if every plaintiff is from a different state from every defendant (the requirement for so-called complete or total diversity) and the amount in controversy exceeds $75,000.If a Federal Court has subject matter jurisdiction over one or more of the claims in a case, it has discretion to exercise ancillary jurisdiction over other state law claims.The Supreme Court has \"cautioned that ... Courts must take great care to 'resist the temptation' to express preferences about certain types of cases in the form of jurisdictional rules.", "Judges must strain to remove the influence of the merits from their jurisdictional rules.", "The law of jurisdiction must remain apart from the world upon which it operates\".Generally, when a case has successfully overcome the hurdles of standing, Case or Controversy and State Action, it will be heard by a trial court.", "The non-governmental party may raise claims or defenses relating to alleged constitutional violation(s) by the government.", "If the non-governmental party loses, the constitutional issue may form part of the appeal.", "Eventually, a petition for certiorari may be sent to the Supreme Court.", "If the Supreme Court grants certiorari and accepts the case, it will receive written briefs from each side (and any amici curiae or friends of the court—usually interested third parties with some expertise to bear on the subject) and schedule oral arguments.", "The Justices will closely question both parties.", "When the Court renders its decision, it will generally do so in a single majority opinion and one or more dissenting opinions.", "Each opinion sets forth the facts, prior decisions, and legal reasoning behind the position taken.", "The majority opinion constitutes binding precedent on all lower courts; when faced with very similar facts, they are bound to apply the same reasoning or face reversal of their decision by a higher court." ], [ "References" ], [ "See also", "* Jurisdiction* Law of the United States* Federalism* Territorial Clause - U.S. Const.", "art.", "IV, § 3, cl.", "2* Merrill Lynch, Pierce, Fenner & Smith Inc. v. Manning, a 2016 Supreme Court case that ruled on federal jurisdiction issues in securities law cases." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Fossil Record" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Fossil Record''''' is a biannual peer-reviewed scientific journal covering palaeontology.", "It was established in 1998 as the '''''Mitteilungen aus dem Museum für Naturkunde in Berlin, Geowissenschaftliche Reihe''''' and originally published on behalf of the ''Museum für Naturkunde'' by Wiley-VCH.", "On 1 January 2022, ''Fossil Record'' changed publisher to Pensoft Publishers, the editor-in-chief is Florian Witzmann." ], [ "Abstracting and indexing", "The journal is abstracted and indexed in the Science Citation Index Expanded, BIOSIS Previews, The Zoological Record, and Scopus.", "According to the ''Journal Citation Reports'', the journal has a 2020 impact factor of 2.081." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Frequency modulation synthesis" ], [ "Introduction", "+ '''FM synthesis using 2 operators'''200px A 220 Hz carrier tone ''fc'' modulated by a 440 Hz modulating tone ''fm'', with various choices of frequency modulation index, ''β''.", "The time domain signals are illustrated above, and the corresponding spectra are shown below (spectrum amplitudes in dB).", "; Waveforms for each ''β'':Image:frequencymodulationdemo-td.png; Spectra for each ''β'':Image:frequencymodulationdemo-fd.png'''Frequency modulation synthesis''' (or '''FM synthesis''') is a form of sound synthesis whereby the frequency of a waveform is changed by modulating its frequency with a modulator.", "The (instantaneous) frequency of an oscillator is altered in accordance with the amplitude of a modulating signal.FM synthesis can create both harmonic and inharmonic sounds.", "To synthesize harmonic sounds, the modulating signal must have a harmonic relationship to the original carrier signal.", "As the amount of frequency modulation increases, the sound grows progressively complex.", "Through the use of modulators with frequencies that are non-integer multiples of the carrier signal (i.e.", "inharmonic), inharmonic bell-like and percussive spectra can be created." ], [ "Applications", "FM synthesis using analog oscillators may result in pitch instability.", "However, FM synthesis can also be implemented digitally, which is more stable and became standard practice.", "Digital FM synthesis (equivalent to the phase modulation using the time integration of instantaneous frequency) was the basis of several musical instruments beginning as early as 1974.Yamaha built the first prototype digital synthesizer in 1974, based on FM synthesis, before commercially releasing the Yamaha GS-1 in 1980.The Synclavier I, manufactured by New England Digital Corporation beginning in 1978, included a digital FM synthesizer, using an FM synthesis algorithm licensed from Yamaha.", "Yamaha's groundbreaking Yamaha DX7 synthesizer, released in 1983, brought FM to the forefront of synthesis in the mid-1980s.=== Amusement use: FM sound chips on PCs, arcades, game consoles, and mobile phones ===FM synthesis also became the usual setting for games and software up until the mid-nineties.", "For IBM PC compatible systems, sound cards like the AdLib and Sound Blaster popularized Yamaha chips like the OPL2 and OPL3.Other computers such as the Sharp X68000 and MSX (Yamaha CX5M computer unit) use the OPM sound chip (which was also commonly used for arcade machines up to the mid-nineties) with later CX5M units using the OPP sound chip, and the NEC PC-88 and PC-98 computers use the OPN and OPNA.", "For arcade systems and game consoles, OPNB was used as main basic sound generator board in Taito's arcade boards (with a variant of the OPNB being used in the Taito Z System) and notably used in SNK's Neo Geo arcade (MVS) and home console (AES) machines.", "The related OPN2 was used in the Sega's Mega Drive (Genesis) and Fujitsu's FM Towns Marty as one of its sound generator chips.", "Throughout the 2000s, FM synthesis was also used on a wide range of phones to play ringtones and other sounds, typically in the Yamaha SMAF format." ], [ "History", "=== Don Buchla (mid-1960s) ===Don Buchla implemented FM on his instruments in the mid-1960s, prior to Chowning's patent.", "His 158, 258 and 259 dual oscillator modules had a specific FM control voltage input, and the model 208 (Music Easel) had a modulation oscillator hard-wired to allow FM as well as AM of the primary oscillator.", "These early applications used analog oscillators, and this capability was also followed by other modular synthesizers and portable synthesizers including Minimoog and ARP Odyssey.=== John Chowning (late-1960s–1970s) ===Digital frequency modulation synthesis was developed by John ChowningBy the mid-20th century, frequency modulation (FM), a means of carrying sound, had been understood for decades and was being used to broadcast radio transmissions.", "FM synthesis was developed since 1967 at Stanford University, California, by John Chowning, .", "His was licensed to Japanese company Yamaha in 1973.The implementation commercialized by Yamaha (US Patent 4018121 Apr 1977 or U.S. Patent 4,018,121) , .=== 1970s–1980s ======= Expansions by Yamaha ====Yamaha's engineers began adapting Chowning's algorithm for use in a commercial digital synthesizer, adding improvements such as the \"key scaling\" method , though it would take several years before Yamaha released their FM digital synthesizers.", "In the 1970s, Yamaha were granted a number of patents, under the company's former name \"Nippon Gakki Seizo Kabushiki Kaisha\", evolving Chowning's work.", "Yamaha built the first prototype FM digital synthesizer in 1974.Yamaha eventually commercialized FM synthesis technology with the Yamaha GS-1, the first FM digital synthesizer, released in 1980.FM digital synthesizer Yamaha DX7 (1983)FM synthesis was the basis of some of the early generations of digital synthesizers, most notably those from Yamaha, as well as New England Digital Corporation under license from Yamaha.", "Yamaha's DX7 synthesizer, released in 1983, was ubiquitous throughout the 1980s.", "Several other models by Yamaha provided variations and evolutions of FM synthesis during that decade.Yamaha had patented its hardware implementation of FM in the 1970s, allowing it to nearly monopolize the market for FM technology until the mid-1990s.==== Related development by Casio ====Casio developed a related form of synthesis called phase distortion synthesis, used in its CZ range of synthesizers.", "It had a similar (but slightly differently derived) sound quality to the DX series.", "=== 1990s ======= Popularization after the expiration of patent ====With the expiration of the Stanford University FM patent in 1995, digital FM synthesis can now be implemented freely by other manufacturers.", "The FM synthesis patent brought Stanford $20 million before it expired, making it (in 1994) \"the second most lucrative licensing agreement in Stanford's history\".", "FM today is mostly found in software-based synths such as FM8 by Native Instruments or Sytrus by Image-Line, but it has also been incorporated into the synthesis repertoire of some modern digital synthesizers, usually coexisting as an option alongside other methods of synthesis such as subtractive, sample-based synthesis, additive synthesis, and other techniques.", "The degree of complexity of the FM in such hardware synths may vary from simple 2-operator FM, to the highly flexible 6-operator engines of the Korg Kronos and Alesis Fusion, to creation of FM in extensively modular engines such as those in the latest synthesisers by Kurzweil Music Systems.==== Realtime Convolution & Modulation (AFM + Sample) and Formant Shaping Synthesis ====New hardware synths specifically marketed for their FM capabilities disappeared from the market after the release of the Yamaha SY99 and FS1R, and even those marketed their highly powerful FM abilities as counterparts to sample-based synthesis and formant synthesis respectively.", "Combining sets of 8 FM operators with multi-spectral wave forms began in 1999 by Yamaha in the FS1R.", "The FS1R had 16 operators, 8 standard FM operators and 8 additional operators that used a noise source rather than an oscillator as its sound source.", "By adding in tuneable noise sources the FS1R could model the sounds produced in the human voice and in a wind instrument, along with making percussion instrument sounds.", "The FS1R also contained an additional wave form called the Formant wave form.", "Formants can be used to model resonating body instrument sounds like the cello, violin, acoustic guitar, bassoon, English horn, or human voice.", "Formants can even be found in the harmonic spectrum of several brass instruments.=== 2000s–present ======= Variable Phase Modulation, FM-X Synthesis, Altered FM, etc ====In 2016, Korg released the Korg Volca FM, a, 3-voice, 6 operators FM iteration of the Korg Volca series of compact, affordable desktop modules,.", "More recently Korg released the opsix (2020) and opsix SE (2023) integrating 6 operators FM synthesis with subtractive, analogue modeling, additive, semi-modular and Waveshaping.", "Yamaha released the Montage, which combines a 128-voice sample-based engine with a 128-voice FM engine.", "This iteration of FM is called FM-X, and features 8 operators; each operator has a choice of several basic wave forms, but each wave form has several parameters to adjust its spectrum.", "The Yamaha Montage was followed by the more affordable Yamaha MODX in 2018, with 64-voice, 8 operators FM-X architecture in addition to a 128-voice sample-based engine.", "Elektron in 2018 launched the Digitone, an 8-voice, 4 operators FM synth featuring Elektron's renowned sequence engine.FM-X synthesis was introduced with the Yamaha Montage synthesizers in 2016.FM-X uses 8 operators.", "Each FM-X operator has a set of multi-spectral wave forms to choose from, which means each FM-X operator can be equivalent to a stack of 3 or 4 DX7 FM operators.", "The list of selectable wave forms includes sine waves, the All1 and All2 wave forms, the Odd1 and Odd2 wave forms, and the Res1 and Res2 wave forms.", "The sine wave selection works the same as the DX7 wave forms.", "The All1 and All2 wave forms are a saw-tooth wave form.", "The Odd1 and Odd2 wave forms are pulse or square waves.", "These two types of wave forms can be used to model the basic harmonic peaks in the bottom of the harmonic spectrum of most instruments.", "The Res1 and Res2 wave forms move the spectral peak to a specific harmonic and can be used to model either triangular or rounded groups of harmonics further up in the spectrum of an instrument.", "Combining an All1 or Odd1 wave form with multiple Res1 (or Res2) wave forms (and adjusting their amplitudes) can model the harmonic spectrum of an instrument or sound." ], [ "Spectral analysis", "2-operator demonstation: if the frequency of the modulator is lower than that of the carrier, the output note will be that of the modulator.There are multiple variations of FM synthesis, including:Various operator arrangements (known as \"FM Algorithms\" in Yamaha terminology)2 operatorsSerial FM (multiple stages)Parallel FM (multiple modulators, multiple-carriers),Mix of themVarious waveform of operatorsSinusoidal waveformOther waveformsAdditional modulationLinear FMExponential FM (preceded by the anti-logarithm conversion for CV/oct.", "interface of analog synthesizers)Oscillator sync with FM''etc''.As the basic of these variations, we analyze the spectrum of 2 operators (linear FM synthesis using two sinusoidal operators) on the following.=== 2 operators ===The spectrum generated by FM synthesis with one modulator is expressed as follows:For modulation signal , the carrier signal is::If we were to ignore the constant phase terms on the carrier and the modulator , finally we would get the following expression, as seen on and ::where are angular frequencies () of carrier and modulator, is frequency modulation index, and amplitudes is -th Bessel function of first kind, respectively." ], [ "See also", "Additive synthesisChiptuneDigital synthesizerElectronic musicSound cardSound chipVideo game music" ], [ "References", "=== Footnotes ======Citations======Bibliography===* * * *" ], [ "External links", " An Introduction To FM, by Bill Schottstaedt* FM tutorial* Synth Secrets, Part 12: An Introduction To Frequency Modulation, by Gordon Reid* Synth Secrets, Part 13: More On Frequency Modulation, by Gordon Reid* Paul Wiffens Synth School: Part 3* F.M.", "Synthesis including complex operator analysis mirror site of F.M.", "Synthesis, 2019" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Font (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''font''' in typography is a complete character set in a particular point size, in a particular typeface.", "'''Font''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Religion", "* Holy water font, a vessel for holy water, often seen at the entrance of a church* Baptismal font, a container for holy water used in the Christian ceremonial of baptism" ], [ "People with the surname", "* Héctor Font (born 1984), Spanish footballer* Pedro Font (1737-1781), Franciscan missionary and diarist" ], [ "Locations", "* Font, Switzerland, a municipality of the canton of Fribourg* Font Hill Beach, a beach on the south coast of Jamaica* La Font de la Figuera, a municipality in Spain* La Font de la Guatlla, a neighborhood in Barcelona, Spain* La Font d'En Carròs, a municipality in Spain* River Font, a river in Northumberland, England" ], [ "Other", "* Computer font, a digital data file containing a set of graphically related glyphs, characters, or symbols * Fountain (archaic usage, also spelled fount)* Kerosene lamp font, the container at the base of an oil or kerosene lamp that holds the oil, also spelled fount" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Friedrich Bessel" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel''' (; 22 July 1784 – 17 March 1846) was a German astronomer, mathematician, physicist, and geodesist.", "He was the first astronomer who determined reliable values for the distance from the sun to another star by the method of parallax.", "Certain important mathematical functions were named Bessel functions after Bessel's death, though they had originally been discovered by Daniel Bernoulli before being generalised by Bessel." ], [ "Life and family", "Bessel was born in Minden, Westphalia, then capital of the Prussian administrative region Minden-Ravensberg, as second son of a civil servant into a large family.", "At the age of 14 he left the school, because he did not like the education in Latin language, and apprenticed in the import-export concern Kulenkamp at Bremen.", "The business's reliance on cargo ships led him to turn his mathematical skills to problems in navigation.", "This in turn led to an interest in astronomy as a way of determining longitude.Bessel came to the attention of Heinrich Wilhelm Olbers, a practising physician of Bremen and well-known astronomer, by producing a refinement on the orbital calculations for Halley's Comet in 1804, using old observation data taken from Thomas Harriot and Nathaniel Torporley in 1607.Franz Xaver von Zach edited the results in his journal ''Monatliche Correspondenz''.Having finished his commercial education, Bessel left Kulenkamp in 1806 and became assistant at Johann Hieronymus Schröter's private observatory in Lilienthal near Bremen as successor of Karl Ludwig Harding.", "There he worked on James Bradley's stellar observation data to produce precise positions for some 3,222 stars.Despite lacking any higher education, especially at university, Bessel was appointed director of the newly founded Königsberg Observatory by King Frederick William III of Prussia in January 1810, at the age of 25, and remained in that position until his death.", "Some elder professors of the Philosophical Faculty disputed Bessel's right to teach mathematics without any academic degree.", "Therefore he turned to his fellow Carl Friedrich Gauss, who provided the award of an honorary doctor degree from the University of Göttingen in March 1811.Both scientists were in correspondence from 1804 to 1843.In 1837 they got in quarrel about Gauss' habit of very slow publication.In 1842 Bessel took part in the annual meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science in Manchester, accompanied by the geophysicist Georg Adolf Erman and the mathematician Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi, where he gave a report on astronomical clocks.Bessel married Johanna Hagen, the daughter of the chemist and pharmacist Karl Gottfried Hagen who was the uncle of the physician and biologist Hermann August Hagen and the hydraulic engineer Gotthilf Hagen, the latter also Bessel's student and assistant from 1816 to 1818.The physicist Franz Ernst Neumann, Bessel's close companion and colleague, was married to Johanna Hagen's sister Florentine.", "Neumann introduced Bessel's exacting methods of measurement and data reduction into his mathematico-physical seminar, which he co-directed with Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi at Königsberg.", "These exacting methods had a lasting impact upon the work of Neumann's students and upon the Prussian conception of precision in measurement.Bessel had two sons and three daughters.", "His elder son became an architect but died suddenly in 1840 aged 26; his younger son died shortly after birth.", "His eldest daughter, Marie, married the physicist Georg Adolf Erman, member of the scholar family Erman.", "One of their sons in turn was the renowned Egyptologist Adolf Erman.", "His third daughter Johanna married the politician Adolf Hermann Hagen; one of their sons was the physicist Ernst Bessel Hagen, and the mathematician Erich Bessel-Hagen was a grandson of them.", "Bessel was godfather of Adolf von Baeyer, son of his collaborator Johann Jacob Baeyer.After several months of illness Bessel died in March 1846 at his observatory from retroperitoneal fibrosis." ], [ "Work", "Königsberg Observatory (1830)Crop of a Daguerreotype (1843)While the observatory was still in construction Bessel elaborated the ''Fundamenta Astronomiae'' based on Bradley's observations.", "As a preliminary result he produced tables of atmospheric refraction that won him the Lalande Prize from the French Academy of Sciences in 1811.The Königsberg Observatory began operation in 1813.Starting in 1819, Bessel determined the position of over 50,000 stars with a meridian circle from Reichenbach, assisted by some of his qualified students.", "The most prominent of them was Friedrich Wilhelm Argelander, his successors were Otto August Rosenberger and August Ludwig Busch.Bessel determined the first reliable value for the distance between a star and the solar system with a heliometer from Fraunhofer using the method of stellar parallax.", "In 1838 he published a parallax of 0.314 arcseconds for 61 Cygni, which indicated that the star is 10.3 ly away.", "Compared with the current measurement of 11.4 ly, Bessel's figure had an error of 9.6%.", "Thanks to these results astronomers had not only enlarged the vision of the universe well beyond the cosmic magnitude, but after the discovery in 1728 by James Bradley of the aberration of light a second empirical evidence of the Earth's relative movement was produced.", "A short time later Friedrich Georg Wilhelm Struve and Thomas Henderson reported the parallaxes of Vega and Alpha Centauri.Bessel's precise measurements with a new meridian circle from Adolf Repsold allowed him to notice deviations in the motions of Sirius and Procyon, which must be caused by the gravitational attraction of unseen companions.His announcement of Sirius's \"dark companion\" in 1844 was the first correct claim of a previously unobserved companion by positional measurement, and eventually led to the discovery of Sirius B by Alvan Graham Clark in 1862, the first discovery of a white dwarf.", "John Martin Schaeberle discovered Procyon B in 1896.Bessel was the first scientist who realized the effect later called ''personal equation'', that several simultaneously observing persons determine slightly different values, especially recording the transit time of stars.In 1824, Bessel developed a new method for calculating the circumstances of eclipses using the so-called Besselian elements.", "His method simplified the calculation to such an extent, without sacrificing accuracy, that it is still in use today.On Bessel's proposal the Prussian Academy of Sciences started the edition of the ''Berliner Akademische Sternkarten'' (''Berlin Academic Star Charts'') in 1825 as an international project with Johann Franz Encke as executive editor.", "One unpublished new chart enabled Johann Gottfried Galle to find Neptune near the position calculated by Le Verrier in September 1846 at Berlin Observatory.In the second decade of the 19th century, while studying the dynamics gravitational systems as multi-body problem, Bessel developed what are now known as Bessel functions.", "Critical for the solution of certain differential equations, these functions are used throughout both classical and quantum physics.A correction term in the formula for the sample variance estimator is named in his honour.", "This is the use of the factor ''n'' − 1 in the denominator of the formula, rather than just ''n''.", "This occurs when the ''sample mean'' rather than the ''population mean'' is used to centre the data and since the sample mean is a linear combination of the data the residual to the sample mean overcounts the number of degrees of freedom by the number of constraint equations — in this case one.Like numerous astronomers of his time Bessel dealt on the field of geodesy, too,first theoretically, when he published a method for solving the main geodetic problem.In 1830 he got the royal order for the survey of East Prussia with the purpose to connect the yet existing Prussian and Russian triangulation networks.", "This work was carried out in cooperation with Johann Jacob Baeyer, then major of the Prussian army; the final report was published in 1838.He also obtained an estimate of increased accuracy for the Earth's ellipsoid, nowadays called the Bessel ellipsoid, based on several arc measurements." ], [ "Honors and prizes", "* Honorary doctor degree from the University of Göttingen in March 1811* Lalande Prize of the French Academy of Sciences in 1811 and 1816* Member of the Prussian Academy of Sciences in 1812* Member of the French Academy of Sciences in 1816* Foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1823* Fellow of the Royal Society in 1825* Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1832* Member of the Royal Institute of the Netherlands, predecessor of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1827* Member of the American Philosophical Society in 1840* Bessel won the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society twice, in 1829 and 1841Bessel was one of the first members of the Order Pour le Merite (Civil class) when it was established in 1842.The first cosmic object named after Bessel is the largest crater in the Moon's Mare Serenitatis.", "The main-belt asteroid 1552 Bessel was named at the centenary of the parallaxe determination in 1938.Geographical commemorations are two fjords in Greenland, Bessel Fjord, NE Greenland and Bessel Fjord, NW Greenland.", "''Xyletinus besseli'' a fossil beetle from the Eocene belonging to the family Ptinidae, found in the Baltic amber in Sambia, was named in his honour." ], [ "Publications", "''Tabulae Regiomontanae reductionum observationum astronomicarum ab anno 1750 usque ad annum 1850 computatae'', 1830;Latin* * ;German* * * * * * * * * * Vol.", "1: ''I.", "Bewegungen der Körper im Sonnensystem.", "II.", "Sphärische Astronomie''.", "Leipzig 1875 Vol.", "2: ''III.", "Theorie der Instrumente.", "IV.", "Stellarastronomie.", "V. Mathematik''.", "Leipzig 1876** Vol.", "3: ''VI.", "Geodäsie.", "VII.", "Physik.", "VIII.", "Verschiedenes – Literatur''.", "Leipzig 1876.", "* ;Correspondence* Königlich Preußische Akademie der Wissenschaften, ed.", "(1880): ''Briefwechsel zwischen Gauss und Bessel.''", "Correspondence Leipzig." ], [ "See also", "* List of things named after Friedrich Bessel" ], [ "References", "* John Frederick William Herschel, ''A brief notice of the life, researches, and discoveries of Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel'', London: Barclay, 1847 ( on-line)* * Jürgen Hamel: Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel.", "Leipzig 1984 .", "* Kasimir Ławrynowicz: Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel, 1784–1846.Basel, Boston, Berlin 1995, .", "* * * Publications of Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel Astrophysics Data System ADS" ], [ "Further reading", "" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "FSB" ], [ "Introduction", "'''FSB''' may refer to:" ], [ "Organizations", "* Federal Security Service ( ('''FSB'''), the principal security agency of the Russian Federation and main successor to the defunct ''Committee for State Security'' (KGB) of the Soviet Union" ], [ "Banking and finance", "* Federal savings bank, a class of bank in the United States* Federation of Small Businesses, a British lobbying group* Financial Services Board (South Africa), a financial regulatory authority* Financial Stability Board, an international group of financial authorities* First Somali Bank, a bank headquartered in Mogadishu, Somalia* Swedbank, formerly FöreningsSparbanken, a retail banking group" ], [ "Computing", "* Fast syndrome-based hash, cryptographic hash functions* Front-side bus, a computer communication interface" ], [ "Schools", "* Farmer School of Business, at Miami University in the U.S. state of Ohio* Friends School of Baltimore, a Quaker institution in Baltimore* Fuqua School of Business, at Duke University in the U.S. state of North Carolina" ], [ "Other", "* FSB (band), a Bulgarian band* Bolivian Socialist Falange (Spanish: ''''), a Bolivian political party* Brinjal fruit and shoot borer (''Leucinodes orbonalis''), a moth species* Fellow of the Society of Biology, U.K.* Fire support base, a temporary military encampment * Fishbourne railway station, in England* ''Fortune Small Business'', a defunct magazine* Trade Union Social Citizens List (Danish: ''''), a Danish political group" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Fermi paradox" ], [ "Introduction", "Enrico Fermi (Los Alamos 1945) The '''Fermi paradox''' is the discrepancy between the lack of conclusive evidence of advanced extraterrestrial life and the apparently high likelihood of its existence.", "As a 2015 article put it, \"If life is so easy, someone from somewhere must have come calling by now.", "\"Italian-American physicist Enrico Fermi's name is associated with the paradox because of a casual conversation in the summer of 1950 with fellow physicists Edward Teller, Herbert York, and Emil Konopinski.", "While walking to lunch, the men discussed recent UFO reports and the possibility of faster-than-light travel.", "The conversation moved on to other topics, until during lunch Fermi blurted out, \"But where is everybody?\"", "(although the exact quote is uncertain).There have been many attempts to resolve the Fermi paradox, such as suggesting that intelligent extraterrestrial beings are extremely rare, that the lifetime of such civilizations is short, or that they exist but (for various reasons) humans see no evidence." ], [ "Chain of reasoning", "The following are some of the facts and hypotheses that together serve to highlight the apparent contradiction:* There are billions of stars in the Milky Way similar to the Sun.", "* With high probability, some of these stars have Earth-like planets in a circumstellar habitable zone.", "* Many of these stars, and hence their planets, are much older than the Sun.", "If Earth-like planets are typical, some may have developed intelligent life long ago.", "* Some of these civilizations may have developed interstellar travel, a step humans are investigating now.", "* Even at the slow pace of currently envisioned interstellar travel, the Milky Way galaxy could be completely traversed in a few million years.", "* Since many of the Sun-like stars are billions of years older than the Sun, the Earth should have already been visited by extraterrestrial civilizations, or at least their probes.", "* However, there is no convincing evidence that this has happened." ], [ "History", "Fermi was not the first to ask the question.", "An earlier implicit mention was by Konstantin Tsiolkovsky in an unpublished manuscript from 1933.He noted \"people deny the presence of intelligent beings on the planets of the universe\" because \"(i) if such beings exist they would have visited Earth, and (ii) if such civilizations existed then they would have given us some sign of their existence.\"", "This was not a paradox for others, who took this to imply the absence of extraterrestrial life.", "But it was one for him, since he believed in extraterrestrial life and the possibility of space travel.", "Therefore, he proposed what is now known as the zoo hypothesis and speculated that mankind is not yet ready for higher beings to contact us.", "In turn, Tsiolkovsky himself was not the first to discover the paradox, as shown by his reference to other people's reasons for not accepting the premise that extraterrestrial civilizations exist.In 1975, Michael H. Hart published a detailed examination of the paradox, one of the first to do so.", "He argued that if intelligent extraterrestrials exist, and are capable of space travel, then the galaxy could have been colonized in a time much less than that of the age of the Earth.", "However, there is no observable evidence they have been here, which Hart called \"Fact A\".Other names closely related to Fermi's question (\"Where are they?\")", "include the Great Silence, and (Latin for \"silence of the universe\"), though these only refer to one portion of the Fermi Paradox, that humans see no evidence of other civilizations.=== Original conversations ===Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico, United StatesIn the summer of 1950 at Los Alamos National Laboratory in New Mexico, Enrico Fermi and co-workers Emil Konopinski, Edward Teller, and Herbert York had one or several lunchtime conversations.", "In one, Fermi suddenly blurted out, \"Where is everybody?\"", "(Teller's letter), or \"Don't you ever wonder where everybody is?\"", "(York's letter), or \"But where is everybody?\"", "(Konopinski's letter).", "Teller wrote, \"The result of his question was general laughter because of the strange fact that in spite of Fermi's question coming from the clear blue, everybody around the table seemed to understand at once that he was talking about extraterrestrial life.", "\"In 1984 York wrote that Fermi \"followed up with a series of calculations on the probability of earthlike planets, the probability of life given an earth, the probability of humans given life, the likely rise and duration of high technology, and so on.", "He concluded on the basis of such calculations that we ought to have been visited long ago and many times over.\"", "Teller remembers that not much came of this conversation \"except perhaps a statement that the distances to the next location of living beings may be very great and that, indeed, as far as our galaxy is concerned, we are living somewhere in the sticks, far removed from the metropolitan area of the galactic center.", "\"Fermi died of cancer in 1954.However, in letters to the three surviving men decades later in 1984, Dr. Eric Jones of Los Alamos was able to partially put the original conversation back together.", "He informed each of the men that he wished to include a reasonably accurate version or composite in the written proceedings he was putting together for a previously held conference entitled \"Interstellar Migration and the Human Experience\".", "Jones first sent a letter to Edward Teller which included a secondhand account from Hans Mark.", "Teller responded, and then Jones sent Teller's letter to Herbert York.", "York responded, and finally, Jones sent both Teller's and York's letters to Emil Konopinski who also responded.", "Furthermore, Konopinski was able to later identify a cartoon which Jones found as the one involved in the conversation and thereby help to settle the time period as being the summer of 1950." ], [ "Basis", "Enrico Fermi (1901–1954)The Fermi paradox is a conflict between the argument that scale and probability seem to favor intelligent life being common in the universe, and the total lack of evidence of intelligent life having ever arisen anywhere other than on Earth.The first aspect of the Fermi paradox is a function of the scale or the large numbers involved: there are an estimated 200–400 billion stars in the Milky Way (2–4 × 1011) and 70 sextillion (7×1022) in the observable universe.", "Even if intelligent life occurs on only a minuscule percentage of planets around these stars, there might still be a great number of extant civilizations, and if the percentage were high enough it would produce a significant number of extant civilizations in the Milky Way.", "This assumes the mediocrity principle, by which Earth is a typical planet.The second aspect of the Fermi paradox is the argument of probability: given intelligent life's ability to overcome scarcity, and its tendency to colonize new habitats, it seems possible that at least some civilizations would be technologically advanced, seek out new resources in space, and colonize their star system and, subsequently, surrounding star systems.", "Since there is no significant evidence on Earth, or elsewhere in the known universe, of other intelligent life after 13.8 billion years of the universe's history, there is a conflict requiring a resolution.", "Some examples of possible resolutions are that intelligent life is rarer than is thought, that assumptions about the general development or behavior of intelligent species are flawed, or, more radically, that current scientific understanding of the nature of the universe itself is quite incomplete.The Fermi paradox can be asked in two ways.", "The first is, \"Why are no aliens or their artifacts found on Earth, or in the Solar System?\".", "If interstellar travel is possible, even the \"slow\" kind nearly within the reach of Earth technology, then it would only take from 5 million to 50 million years to colonize the galaxy.", "This is relatively brief on a geological scale, let alone a cosmological one.", "Since there are many stars older than the Sun, and since intelligent life might have evolved earlier elsewhere, the question then becomes why the galaxy has not been colonized already.", "Even if colonization is impractical or undesirable to all alien civilizations, large-scale exploration of the galaxy could be possible by probes.", "These might leave detectable artifacts in the Solar System, such as old probes or evidence of mining activity, but none of these have been observed.The second form of the question is \"Why are there no signs of intelligence elsewhere in the universe?\".", "This version does not assume interstellar travel, but includes other galaxies as well.", "For distant galaxies, travel times may well explain the lack of alien visits to Earth, but a sufficiently advanced civilization could potentially be observable over a significant fraction of the size of the observable universe.", "Even if such civilizations are rare, the scale argument indicates they should exist somewhere at some point during the history of the universe, and since they could be detected from far away over a considerable period of time, many more potential sites for their origin are within range of human observation.", "It is unknown whether the paradox is stronger for the Milky Way galaxy or for the universe as a whole.=== Drake equation ===The theories and principles in the Drake equation are closely related to the Fermi paradox.", "The equation was formulated by Frank Drake in 1961 in an attempt to find a systematic means to evaluate the numerous probabilities involved in the existence of alien life.", "The equation is presented as follows::Where is the number of technologically advanced civilizations in the Milky Way galaxy, and is asserted to be the product of * , the rate of formation of stars in the galaxy;* , the fraction of those stars with planetary systems;* , the number of planets, per solar system, with an environment suitable for organic life;* , the fraction of those suitable planets whereon organic life appears;* , the fraction of life-bearing planets whereon ''intelligent'' life appears;* , the fraction of civilizations that reach the technological level whereby detectable signals may be dispatched; and* , the length of time that those civilizations dispatch their signals.The fundamental problem is that the last four terms (, , , and ) are entirely unknown, rendering statistical estimates impossible.The Drake equation has been used by both optimists and pessimists, with wildly differing results.", "The first scientific meeting on the search for extraterrestrial intelligence (SETI), which had 10 attendees including Frank Drake and Carl Sagan, speculated that the number of civilizations was roughly between 1,000 and 100,000,000 civilizations in the Milky Way galaxy.", "Conversely, Frank Tipler and John D. Barrow used pessimistic numbers and speculated that the average number of civilizations in a galaxy is much less than one.", "Almost all arguments involving the Drake equation suffer from the overconfidence effect, a common error of probabilistic reasoning about low-probability events, by guessing specific numbers for likelihoods of events whose mechanism is not yet understood, such as the likelihood of abiogenesis on an Earth-like planet, with current likelihood estimates varying over many hundreds of orders of magnitude.", "An analysis that takes into account some of the uncertainty associated with this lack of understanding has been carried out by Anders Sandberg, Eric Drexler and Toby Ord, and suggests \"a substantial ''ex ante'' probability of there being no other intelligent life in our observable universe\".=== Great Filter ===The Great Filter, a concept introduced by Robin Hanson in 1996, represents whatever natural phenomena that would make it unlikely for life to evolve from inanimate matter to an advanced civilization.", "The most commonly agreed-upon low probability event is abiogenesis: a gradual process of increasing complexity of the first self-replicating molecules by a randomly occurring chemical process.", "Other proposed great filters are the emergence of eukaryotic cells or of meiosis or some of the steps involved in the evolution of a brain capable of complex logical deductions.Astrobiologists Dirk Schulze-Makuch and William Bains, reviewing the history of life on Earth, including convergent evolution, concluded that transitions such as oxygenic photosynthesis, the eukaryotic cell, multicellularity, and tool-using intelligence are likely to occur on any Earth-like planet given enough time.", "They argue that the Great Filter may be abiogenesis, the rise of technological human-level intelligence, or an inability to settle other worlds because of self-destruction or a lack of resources." ], [ "Empirical evidence", "There are two parts of the Fermi paradox that rely on empirical evidence—that there are many potential habitable planets, and that humans see no evidence of life.", "The first point, that many suitable planets exist, was an assumption in Fermi's time but is now supported by the discovery that exoplanets are common.", "Current models predict billions of habitable worlds in the Milky Way.The second part of the paradox, that humans see no evidence of extraterrestrial life, is also an active field of scientific research.", "This includes both efforts to find any indication of life, and efforts specifically directed to finding intelligent life.", "These searches have been made since 1960, and several are ongoing.Although astronomers do not usually search for extraterrestrials, they have observed phenomena that they could not immediately explain without positing an intelligent civilization as the source.", "For example, pulsars, when first discovered in 1967, were called little green men (LGM) because of the precise repetition of their pulses.", "In all cases, explanations with no need for intelligent life have been found for such observations, but the possibility of discovery remains.", "Proposed examples include asteroid mining that would change the appearance of debris disks around stars, or spectral lines from nuclear waste disposal in stars.Explanations based on technosignatures, such as radio communications, have been presented.=== Electromagnetic emissions ===Radio telescopes are often used by SETI projects.Radio technology and the ability to construct a radio telescope are presumed to be a natural advance for technological species, theoretically creating effects that might be detected over interstellar distances.", "The careful searching for non-natural radio emissions from space may lead to the detection of alien civilizations.", "Sensitive alien observers of the Solar System, for example, would note unusually intense radio waves for a G2 star due to Earth's television and telecommunication broadcasts.", "In the absence of an apparent natural cause, alien observers might infer the existence of a terrestrial civilization.", "Such signals could be either \"accidental\" by-products of a civilization, or deliberate attempts to communicate, such as the Arecibo message.", "It is unclear whether \"leakage\", as opposed to a deliberate beacon, could be detected by an extraterrestrial civilization.", "The most sensitive radio telescopes on Earth, , would not be able to detect non-directional radio signals (such as broadband) even at a fraction of a light-year away, but other civilizations could hypothetically have much better equipment.A number of astronomers and observatories have attempted and are attempting to detect such evidence, mostly through SETI organizations such as the SETI Institute and Breakthrough Listen.", "Several decades of SETI analysis have not revealed any unusually bright or meaningfully repetitive radio emissions.=== Direct planetary observation ===A composite picture of Earth at night, created using data from the Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP) Operational Linescan System (OLS).", "Large-scale artificial lighting produced by human civilization is detectable from space.Exoplanet detection and classification is a very active sub-discipline in astronomy; the first candidate terrestrial planet discovered within a star's habitable zone was found in 2007.New refinements in exoplanet detection methods, and use of existing methods from space (such as the Kepler and TESS missions) are starting to detect and characterize Earth-size planets, to determine whether they are within the habitable zones of their stars.", "Such observational refinements may allow for a better estimation of how common these potentially habitable worlds are.=== Conjectures about interstellar probes ===The Hart-Tipler conjecture is a form of contraposition which states that because no interstellar probes have been detected, there likely is no other intelligent life in the universe, as such life should be expected to eventually create and launch such probes.", "Self-replicating probes could exhaustively explore a galaxy the size of the Milky Way in as little as a million years.", "If even a single civilization in the Milky Way attempted this, such probes could spread throughout the entire galaxy.", "Another speculation for contact with an alien probe—one that would be trying to find human beings—is an alien Bracewell probe.", "Such a hypothetical device would be an autonomous space probe whose purpose is to seek out and communicate with alien civilizations (as opposed to von Neumann probes, which are usually described as purely exploratory).", "These were proposed as an alternative to carrying a slow speed-of-light dialogue between vastly distant neighbors.", "Rather than contending with the long delays a radio dialogue would suffer, a probe housing an artificial intelligence would seek out an alien civilization to carry on a close-range communication with the discovered civilization.", "The findings of such a probe would still have to be transmitted to the home civilization at light speed, but an information-gathering dialogue could be conducted in real time.Direct exploration of the Solar System has yielded no evidence indicating a visit by aliens or their probes.", "Detailed exploration of areas of the Solar System where resources would be plentiful may yet produce evidence of alien exploration, though the entirety of the Solar System is vast and difficult to investigate.", "Attempts to signal, attract, or activate hypothetical Bracewell probes in Earth's vicinity have not succeeded.=== Searches for stellar-scale artifacts ===A variant of the speculative Dyson sphere.", "Such large-scale artifacts would drastically alter the spectrum of a star.In 1959, Freeman Dyson observed that every developing human civilization constantly increases its energy consumption, and he conjectured that a civilization might try to harness a large part of the energy produced by a star.", "He proposed a hypothetical \"Dyson sphere\" as a possible means: a shell or cloud of objects enclosing a star to absorb and utilize as much radiant energy as possible.", "Such a feat of astroengineering would drastically alter the observed spectrum of the star involved, changing it at least partly from the normal emission lines of a natural stellar atmosphere to those of black-body radiation, probably with a peak in the infrared.", "Dyson speculated that advanced alien civilizations might be detected by examining the spectra of stars and searching for such an altered spectrum.There have been some attempts to find evidence of the existence of Dyson spheres that would alter the spectra of their core stars.", "Direct observation of thousands of galaxies has shown no explicit evidence of artificial construction or modifications.", "In October 2015, there was some speculation that a dimming of light from star KIC 8462852, observed by the Kepler space telescope, could have been a result of Dyson sphere construction.", "However, in 2018, observations determined that the amount of dimming varied by the frequency of the light, pointing to dust, rather than an opaque object such as a Dyson sphere, as the culprit for causing the dimming." ], [ "Hypothetical explanations for the paradox", "=== Rarity of intelligent life======= Extraterrestrial life is rare or non-existent ====Those who think that intelligent extraterrestrial life is (nearly) impossible argue that the conditions needed for the evolution of life—or at least the evolution of biological complexity—are rare or even unique to Earth.", "Under this assumption, called the rare Earth hypothesis, a rejection of the mediocrity principle, complex multicellular life is regarded as exceedingly unusual.The rare Earth hypothesis argues that the evolution of biological complexity requires a host of fortuitous circumstances, such as a galactic habitable zone, a star and planet(s) having the requisite conditions, such as enough of a continuous habitable zone, the advantage of a giant guardian like Jupiter and a large moon, conditions needed to ensure the planet has a magnetosphere and plate tectonics, the chemistry of the lithosphere, atmosphere, and oceans, the role of \"evolutionary pumps\" such as massive glaciation and rare bolide impacts.", "Perhaps most importantly, advanced life needs whatever it was that led to the transition of (some) prokaryotic cells to eukaryotic cells, sexual reproduction and the Cambrian explosion.In his book ''Wonderful Life'' (1989), Stephen Jay Gould suggested that if the \"tape of life\" were rewound to the time of the Cambrian explosion, and one or two tweaks made, human beings most probably never would have evolved.", "Other thinkers such as Fontana, Buss, and Kauffman have written about the self-organizing properties of life.==== Extraterrestrial intelligence is rare or non-existent ====It is possible that even if complex life is common, intelligence (and consequently civilizations) is not.", "While there are remote sensing techniques that could perhaps detect life-bearing planets without relying on the signs of technology, none of them have any ability to tell if any detected life is intelligent.", "This is sometimes referred to as the \"algae vs. alumnae\" problem.Charles Lineweaver states that when considering any extreme trait in an animal, intermediate stages do not necessarily produce \"inevitable\" outcomes.", "For example, large brains are no more \"inevitable\", or convergent, than are the long noses of animals such as aardvarks and elephants.", "Humans, apes, whales, dolphins, octopuses, and squids are among the small group of definite or probable intelligence on Earth.", "As he points out, \"dolphins have had ~20million years to build a radio telescope and have not done so\".In addition, Rebecca Boyle points out that of all the species who have ever evolved in the history of life on the planet Earth, only one—human beings and only in the beginning stages—has ever become space-faring.==== Periodic extinction by natural events ====An asteroid impact may trigger an extinction event.New life might commonly die out due to runaway heating or cooling on their fledgling planets.", "On Earth, there have been numerous major extinction events that destroyed the majority of complex species alive at the time; the extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs is the best known example.", "These are thought to have been caused by events such as impact from a large meteorite, massive volcanic eruptions, or astronomical events such as gamma-ray bursts.", "It may be the case that such extinction events are common throughout the universe and periodically destroy intelligent life, or at least its civilizations, before the species is able to develop the technology to communicate with other intelligent species.=== Evolutionary explanations ======= Intelligent alien species have not developed advanced technologies ====''Le Moustier'' Neanderthals (Charles R. Knight, 1920)It may be that while alien species with intelligence exist, they are primitive or have not reached the level of technological advancement necessary to communicate.", "Along with non-intelligent life, such civilizations would also be very difficult to detect.", "A trip using conventional rockets would take hundreds of thousands of years to reach the nearest stars.To skeptics, the fact that in the history of life on the Earth only one species has developed a civilization to the point of being capable of spaceflight and radio technology lends more credence to the idea that technologically advanced civilizations are rare in the universe.Another hypothesis in this category is the \"Water World hypothesis\".", "According to author and scientist David Brin: \"it turns out that our Earth skates the very inner edge of our sun's continuously habitable—or 'Goldilocks'—zone.", "And Earth may be anomalous.", "It may be that because we are so close to our sun, we have an anomalously oxygen-rich atmosphere, and we have anomalously little ocean for a water world.", "In other words, 32 percent continental mass may be high among water worlds...\" Brin continues, \"In which case, the evolution of creatures like us, with hands and fire and all that sort of thing, may be rare in the galaxy.", "In which case, when we do build starships and head out there, perhaps we'll find lots and lots of life worlds, but they're all like Polynesia.", "We'll find lots and lots of intelligent lifeforms out there, but they're all dolphins, whales, squids, who could never build their own starships.", "What a perfect universe for us to be in, because nobody would be able to boss us around, and we'd get to be the voyagers, the ''Star Trek'' people, the starship builders, the policemen, and so on.", "\"==== It is the nature of intelligent life to destroy itself ====A 23-kiloton tower shot called BADGER, fired as part of the Operation Upshot–Knothole nuclear test seriesThis is the argument that technological civilizations may usually or invariably destroy themselves before or shortly after developing radio or spaceflight technology.", "The astrophysicist Sebastian von Hoerner stated that the progress of science and technology on Earth was driven by two factors—the struggle for domination and the desire for an easy life.", "The former potentially leads to complete destruction, while the latter may lead to biological or mental degeneration.", "Possible means of annihilation via major global issues, where global interconnectedness actually makes humanity more vulnerable than resilient, are many, including war, accidental environmental contamination or damage, the development of biotechnology, synthetic life like mirror life, resource depletion, climate change, or poorly-designed artificial intelligence.", "This general theme is explored both in fiction and in scientific hypothesizing.In 1966, Sagan and Shklovskii speculated that technological civilizations will either tend to destroy themselves within a century of developing interstellar communicative capability or master their self-destructive tendencies and survive for billion-year timescales.", "Self-annihilation may also be viewed in terms of thermodynamics: insofar as life is an ordered system that can sustain itself against the tendency to disorder, Stephen Hawking's \"external transmission\" or interstellar communicative phase, where knowledge production and knowledge management is more important than transmission of information via evolution, may be the point at which the system becomes unstable and self-destructs.", "Here, Hawking emphasizes self-design of the human genome (transhumanism) or enhancement via machines (e.g., brain–computer interface) to enhance human intelligence and reduce aggression, without which he implies human civilization may be too stupid collectively to survive an increasingly unstable system.", "For instance, the development of technologies during the \"external transmission\" phase, such as weaponization of artificial general intelligence or antimatter, may not be met by concomitant increases in human ability to manage its own inventions.", "Consequently, disorder increases in the system: global governance may become increasingly destabilized, worsening humanity's ability to manage the possible means of annihilation listed above, resulting in global societal collapse.Possible trajectories of anthropogenic climate change in a model by Frank ''et al''., 2018Using extinct civilizations such as Easter Island (Rapa Nui) as models, a study conducted in 2018 by Adam Frank ''et al.''", "posited that climate change induced by \"energy intensive\" civilizations may prevent sustainability within such civilizations, thus explaining the paradoxical lack of evidence for intelligent extraterrestrial life.", "According to his model, possible outcomes of climate change include gradual population decline until an equilibrium is reached; a scenario where sustainability is attained and both population and surface temperature level decrease; and societal collapse, including scenarios where a tipping point is crossed.A less theoretical example might be the resource-depletion issue on Polynesian islands, of which Easter Island is only the best known.", "David Brin points out that during the expansion phase from 1500 BC to 800 AD there were cycles of overpopulation followed by what might be called periodic cullings of adult males through war or ritual.", "He writes, \"There are many stories of islands whose men were almost wiped out—sometimes by internal strife, and sometimes by invading males from other islands.", "\"==== It is the nature of intelligent life to destroy others ====Another hypothesis is that an intelligent species beyond a certain point of technological capability will destroy other intelligent species as they appear, perhaps by using self-replicating probes.", "Science fiction writer Fred Saberhagen has explored this idea in his ''Berserker'' series, as has physicist Gregory Benford and, as well, science fiction writer Greg Bear in his ''The Forge of God'' novel, and later Liu Cixin in his ''The Three-Body Problem'' series.A species might undertake such extermination out of expansionist motives, greed, paranoia, or aggression.", "In 1981, cosmologist Edward Harrison argued that such behavior would be an act of prudence: an intelligent species that has overcome its own self-destructive tendencies might view any other species bent on galactic expansion as a threat.", "It has also been suggested that a successful alien species would be a superpredator, as are humans.", "Another possibility invokes the \"tragedy of the commons\" and the anthropic principle: the first lifeform to achieve interstellar travel will necessarily (even if unintentionally) prevent competitors from arising, and humans simply happen to be first.==== Civilizations only broadcast detectable signals for a brief period of time ====It may be that alien civilizations are detectable through their radio emissions for only a short time, reducing the likelihood of spotting them.", "The usual assumption is that civilizations outgrow radio through technological advancement.", "However, there could be other leakage such as that from microwaves used to transmit power from solar satellites to ground receivers.Regarding the first point, in a 2006 ''Sky & Telescope'' article, Seth Shostak wrote, \"Moreover, radio leakage from a planet is only likely to get weaker as a civilization advances and its communications technology gets better.", "Earth itself is increasingly switching from broadcasts to leakage-free cables and fiber optics, and from primitive but obvious carrier-wave broadcasts to subtler, hard-to-recognize spread-spectrum transmissions.", "\"More hypothetically, advanced alien civilizations may evolve beyond broadcasting at all in the electromagnetic spectrum and communicate by technologies not developed or used by mankind.", "Some scientists have hypothesized that advanced civilizations may send neutrino signals.", "If such signals exist, they could be detectable by neutrino detectors that are now under construction for other goals.==== Alien life may be too incomprehensible ====Microwave window as seen by a ground-based system.", "From NASA report SP-419: SETI – the Search for Extraterrestrial IntelligenceAnother possibility is that human theoreticians have underestimated how much alien life might differ from that on Earth.", "Aliens may be psychologically unwilling to attempt to communicate with human beings.", "Perhaps human mathematics is parochial to Earth and not shared by other life, though others argue this can only apply to abstract math since the math associated with physics must be similar (in results, if not in methods).Physiology might also cause a communication barrier.", "Carl Sagan speculated that an alien species might have a thought process orders of magnitude slower (or faster) than that of humans.", "A message broadcast by that species might well seem like random background noise to humans, and therefore go undetected.Another thought is that technological civilizations invariably experience a technological singularity and attain a post-biological character.", "Hypothetical civilizations of this sort may have advanced drastically enough to render communication impossible.In his 2009 book, SETI scientist Seth Shostak wrote, \"Our experiments such as plans to use drilling rigs on Mars are still looking for the type of extraterrestrial that would have appealed to Percival Lowell astronomer who believed he had observed canals on Mars.", "\"Paul Davies states that 500 years ago the very idea of a computer doing work merely by manipulating internal data may not have been viewed as a technology at all.", "He writes, \"Might there be a still level...", "If so, this 'third level' would never be manifest through observations made at the informational level, still less the matter level.", "There is no vocabulary to describe the third level, but that doesn't mean it is non-existent, and we need to be open to the possibility that alien technology may operate at the third level, or maybe the fourth, fifth...", "levels.", "\"Arthur C. Clarke hypothesized that \"our technology must still be laughably primitive; we may well be like jungle savages listening for the throbbing of tom-toms, while the ether around them carries more words per second than they could utter in a lifetime\".=== Sociological explanations ======= Colonization is not the cosmic norm ====In response to Tipler's idea of self-replicating probes, Stephen Jay Gould wrote, \"I must confess that I simply don't know how to react to such arguments.", "I have enough trouble predicting the plans and reactions of the people closest to me.", "I am usually baffled by the thoughts and accomplishments of humans in different cultures.", "I'll be damned if I can state with certainty what some extraterrestrial source of intelligence might do.", "\"==== Alien species may have only settled part of the galaxy ====A February 2019 article in ''Popular Science'' states, \"Sweeping across the Milky Way and establishing a unified galactic empire might be inevitable for a monolithic super-civilization, but most cultures are neither monolithic nor super—at least if our experience is any guide.\"", "Astrophysicist Adam Frank, along with co-authors such as astronomer Jason Wright, ran a variety of simulations in which they varied such factors as settlement lifespans, fractions of suitable planets, and recharge times between launches.", "They found many of their simulations seemingly resulted in a \"third category\" in which the Milky Way remains partially settled indefinitely.", "The abstract to their 2019 paper states, \"These results break the link between Hart's famous 'Fact A' (no interstellar visitors on Earth now) and the conclusion that humans must, therefore, be the only technological civilization in the galaxy.", "Explicitly, our solutions admit situations where our current circumstances are consistent with an otherwise settled, steady-state galaxy.", "\"An alternative scenario is that long-lived civilizations may only choose to colonize stars during closest approach.", "As low mass K- and M-type dwarfs are by far the most common types of main sequence stars in the Milky Way, they are more likely to pass close to existing civilizations.", "These stars have longer life spans, which may be preferred by such a civilization.", "Interstellar travel capability of 0.3 light years is theoretically sufficient to colonize all M-dwarfs in the galaxy within 2 billion years.", "If the travel capability is increased to 2 light years, then all K-dwarfs can be colonized in the same time frame.==== Alien species may not live on planets ====Some colonization scenarios predict spherical expansion across star systems, with continued expansion coming from the systems just previously settled.", "It has been suggested that this would cause a strong selection process among the colonization front favoring cultural or biological adaptations to living in starships or space habitats.", "As a result, they may forgo living on planets.This may result in the destruction of terrestrial planets in these systems for use as building materials, thus preventing the development of life on those worlds.", "Or, they may have an ethic of protection for \"nursery worlds\", and protect them in a similar fashion to the zoo hypothesis.==== Alien species may isolate themselves from the outside world ====It has been suggested that some advanced beings may divest themselves of physical form, create massive artificial virtual environments, transfer themselves into these environments through mind uploading, and exist totally within virtual worlds, ignoring the external physical universe.It may also be that intelligent alien life develops an \"increasing disinterest\" in their outside world.", "Possibly any sufficiently advanced society will develop highly engaging media and entertainment well before the capacity for advanced space travel, with the rate of appeal of these social contrivances being destined, because of their inherent reduced complexity, to overtake any desire for complex, expensive endeavors such as space exploration and communication.", "Once any sufficiently advanced civilization becomes able to master its environment, and most of its physical needs are met through technology, various \"social and entertainment technologies\", including virtual reality, are postulated to become the primary drivers and motivations of that civilization.=== Economic explanations ======= Lack of resources needed to physically spread throughout the galaxy ====The ability of an alien culture to colonize other star systems is based on the idea that interstellar travel is technologically feasible.", "While the current understanding of physics rules out the possibility of faster-than-light travel, it appears that there are no major theoretical barriers to the construction of \"slow\" interstellar ships, even though the engineering required is considerably beyond present human capabilities.", "This idea underlies the concept of the Von Neumann probe and the Bracewell probe as a potential evidence of extraterrestrial intelligence.It is possible, however, that present scientific knowledge cannot properly gauge the feasibility and costs of such interstellar colonization.", "Theoretical barriers may not yet be understood, and the resources needed may be so great as to make it unlikely that any civilization could afford to attempt it.", "Even if interstellar travel and colonization are possible, they may be difficult, leading to a colonization model based on percolation theory.Colonization efforts may not occur as an unstoppable rush, but rather as an uneven tendency to \"percolate\" outwards, within an eventual slowing and termination of the effort given the enormous costs involved and the expectation that colonies will inevitably develop a culture and civilization of their own.", "Colonization may thus occur in \"clusters\", with large areas remaining uncolonized at any one time.==== Information is cheaper to transmit than matter is to transfer ====If a human-capability machine construct, such as via mind uploading, is possible, and if it is possible to transfer such constructs over vast distances and rebuild them on a remote machine, then it might not make strong economic sense to travel the galaxy by spaceflight.", "After the first civilization has physically explored or colonized the galaxy, as well as sent such machines for easy exploration, then any subsequent civilizations, after having contacted the first, may find it cheaper, faster, and easier to explore the galaxy through intelligent mind transfers to the machines built by the first civilization, which is cheaper than spaceflight by a factor of 108–1017.However, since a star system needs only one such remote machine, and the communication is most likely highly directed, transmitted at high-frequencies, and at a minimal power to be economical, such signals would be hard to detect from Earth.=== Discovery of extraterrestrial life is too difficult ======= Humans have not listened properly ====There are some assumptions that underlie the SETI programs that may cause searchers to miss signals that are present.", "Extraterrestrials might, for example, transmit signals that have a very high or low data rate, or employ unconventional (in human terms) frequencies, which would make them hard to distinguish from background noise.", "Signals might be sent from non-main sequence star systems that humans search with lower priority; current programs assume that most alien life will be orbiting Sun-like stars.The greatest challenge is the sheer size of the radio search needed to look for signals (effectively spanning the entire observable universe), the limited amount of resources committed to SETI, and the sensitivity of modern instruments.", "SETI estimates, for instance, that with a radio telescope as sensitive as the Arecibo Observatory, Earth's television and radio broadcasts would only be detectable at distances up to 0.3 light-years, less than 1/10 the distance to the nearest star.", "A signal is much easier to detect if it consists of a deliberate, powerful transmission directed at Earth.", "Such signals could be detected at ranges of hundreds to tens of thousands of light-years distance.", "However, this means that detectors must be listening to an appropriate range of frequencies, and be in that region of space to which the beam is being sent.", "Many SETI searches assume that extraterrestrial civilizations will be broadcasting a deliberate signal, like the Arecibo message, in order to be found.Thus, to detect alien civilizations through their radio emissions, Earth observers either need more sensitive instruments or must hope for fortunate circumstances: that the broadband radio emissions of alien radio technology are much stronger than humanity's own; that one of SETI's programs is listening to the correct frequencies from the right regions of space; or that aliens are deliberately sending focused transmissions in Earth's general direction.==== Humans have not listened for long enough ====Humanity's ability to detect intelligent extraterrestrial life has existed for only a very brief period—from 1937 onwards, if the invention of the radio telescope is taken as the dividing line—and ''Homo sapiens'' is a geologically recent species.", "The whole period of modern human existence to date is a very brief period on a cosmological scale, and radio transmissions have only been propagated since 1895.Thus, it remains possible that human beings have neither existed long enough nor made themselves sufficiently detectable to be found by extraterrestrial intelligence.==== Intelligent life may be too far away ====NASA's conception of the Terrestrial Planet FinderIt may be that non-colonizing technologically capable alien civilizations exist, but that they are simply too far apart for meaningful two-way communication.", "Sebastian von Hoerner estimated the average duration of civilization at 6,500 years and the average distance between civilizations in the Milky Way at 1,000 light years.", "If two civilizations are separated by several thousand light-years, it is possible that one or both cultures may become extinct before meaningful dialogue can be established.", "Human searches may be able to detect their existence, but communication will remain impossible because of distance.", "It has been suggested that this problem might be ameliorated somewhat if contact and communication is made through a Bracewell probe.", "In this case at least one partner in the exchange may obtain meaningful information.", "Alternatively, a civilization may simply broadcast its knowledge, and leave it to the receiver to make what they may of it.", "This is similar to the transmission of information from ancient civilizations to the present, and humanity has undertaken similar activities like the Arecibo message, which could transfer information about Earth's intelligent species, even if it never yields a response or does not yield a response in time for humanity to receive it.", "It is possible that observational signatures of self-destroyed civilizations could be detected, depending on the destruction scenario and the timing of human observation relative to it.A related speculation by Sagan and Newman suggests that if other civilizations exist, and are transmitting and exploring, their signals and probes simply have not arrived yet.", "However, critics have noted that this is unlikely, since it requires that humanity's advancement has occurred at a very special point in time, while the Milky Way is in transition from empty to full.", "This is a tiny fraction of the lifespan of a galaxy under ordinary assumptions, so the likelihood that humanity is in the midst of this transition is considered low in the paradox.Some SETI skeptics may also believe that humanity is at a very special point of time.", "Specifically, a transitional period from no space-faring societies to one space-faring society, namely that of human beings.==== Intelligent life may exist hidden from view ====Planetary scientist Alan Stern put forward the idea that there could be a number of worlds with subsurface oceans (such as Jupiter's Europa or Saturn's Enceladus).", "The surface would provide a large degree of protection from such things as cometary impacts and nearby supernovae, as well as creating a situation in which a much broader range of orbits are acceptable.", "Life, and potentially intelligence and civilization, could evolve.", "Stern states, \"If they have technology, and let's say they're broadcasting, or they have city lights or whatever—we can't see it in any part of the spectrum, except maybe very-low-frequency radio.", "\"==== Advanced civilizations may limit their search for life to technological signatures ====If life is abundant in the universe but the cost of space travel is high, an advanced civilization may choose to focus its search not on signs of life in general, but on those of other advanced civilizations, and specifically on radio signals.", "Since humanity has only recently began to use radio communication, its signals may have yet to arrive to other inhabited planets, and if they have, probes from those planets may have yet to arrive on Earth.=== Willingness to communicate ======= Everyone is listening but no one is transmitting ====Alien civilizations might be technically capable of contacting Earth, but could be only listening instead of transmitting.", "If all or most civilizations act in the same way, the galaxy could be full of civilizations eager for contact, but everyone is listening and no one is transmitting.", "This is the so-called ''SETI Paradox''.The only civilization known, humanity, does not explicitly transmit, except for a few small efforts.", "Even these efforts, and certainly any attempt to expand them, are controversial.", "It is not even clear humanity would respond to a detected signal—the official policy within the SETI community is that \"no response to a signal or other evidence of extraterrestrial intelligence should be sent until appropriate international consultations have taken place\".", "However, given the possible impact of any reply, it may be very difficult to obtain any consensus on who would speak and what they would say.==== Communication is dangerous ====An alien civilization might feel it is too dangerous to communicate, either for humanity or for them.", "It is argued that when very different civilizations have met on Earth, the results have often been disastrous for one side or the other, and the same may well apply to interstellar contact.", "Even contact at a safe distance could lead to infection by computer code or even ideas themselves.", "Perhaps prudent civilizations actively hide not only from Earth but from everyone, out of fear of other civilizations.Perhaps the Fermi paradox itself—or the alien equivalent of it—is the reason for any civilization to avoid contact with other civilizations, even if no other obstacles existed.", "From any one civilization's point of view, it would be unlikely for them to be the first ones to make first contact.", "Therefore, according to this reasoning, it is likely that previous civilizations faced fatal problems with first contact and doing so should be avoided.", "So perhaps every civilization keeps quiet because of the possibility that there is a real reason for others to do so.In Liu Cixin's 2008 novel ''The Dark Forest'', the author proposes a literary explanation for the Fermi paradox in which many multiple alien civilizations exist, but are both silent and paranoid, destroying any nascent lifeforms loud enough to make themselves known.", "This is because any other intelligent life may represent a future threat.", "As a result, Liu's fictional universe contains a plethora of quiet civilizations which do not reveal themselves, as in a \"dark forest\"...filled with \"armed hunter(s) stalking through the trees like a ghost\".", "This idea has come to be known as the dark forest hypothesis.==== Earth is deliberately being avoided ====The zoo hypothesis states that intelligent extraterrestrial life exists and does not contact life on Earth to allow for its natural evolution and development.", "A variation on the zoo hypothesis is the laboratory hypothesis, where humanity has been or is being subject to experiments, with Earth or the Solar System effectively serving as a laboratory.", "The zoo hypothesis may break down under the uniformity of motive flaw: all it takes is a single culture or civilization to decide to act contrary to the imperative within humanity's range of detection for it to be abrogated, and the probability of such a violation of hegemony increases with the number of civilizations, tending not towards a 'Galactic Club' with a unified foreign policy with regard to life on Earth but multiple 'Galactic Cliques'.", "However, if artificial superintelligences dominate galactic life, and if it is true that such intelligences tend towards merged hegemonic behavior, then this would address the uniformity of motive flaw by dissuading rogue behavior.Analysis of the inter-arrival times between civilizations in the galaxy based on common astrobiological assumptions suggests that the initial civilization would have a commanding lead over the later arrivals.", "As such, it may have established what has been termed the ''zoo hypothesis'' through force or as a galactic or universal norm and the resultant \"paradox\" by a cultural founder effect with or without the continued activity of the founder.It is possible that a civilization advanced enough to travel between solar systems could be actively visiting or observing Earth while remaining undetected or unrecognized.==== Earth is deliberately being isolated ====A related idea to the zoo hypothesis is that, beyond a certain distance, the perceived universe is a simulated reality.", "The planetarium hypothesis speculates that beings may have created this simulation so that the universe appears to be empty of other life.=== Alien life is already here, unacknowledged === A significant fraction of the population believes that at least some UFOs (Unidentified Flying Objects) are spacecraft piloted by aliens.", "While most of these are unrecognized or mistaken interpretations of mundane phenomena, some occurrences remain puzzling even after investigation.", "The consensus scientific view is that although they may be unexplained, they do not rise to the level of convincing evidence.Similarly, it is theoretically possible that SETI groups are not reporting positive detections, or governments have been blocking signals or suppressing publication.", "This response might be attributed to security or economic interests from the potential use of advanced extraterrestrial technology.", "It has been suggested that the detection of an extraterrestrial radio signal or technology could well be the most highly secret information that exists.", "Claims that this has already happened are common in the popular press, but the scientists involved report the opposite experience—the press becomes informed and interested in a potential detection even before a signal can be confirmed.Regarding the idea that aliens are in secret contact with governments, David Brin writes, \"Aversion to an idea, simply because of its long association with crackpots, gives crackpots altogether too much influence.\"" ], [ "See also", "* * * * ''Calculating God'' — 2000 novel by Robert J. Sawyer* * * * * * * " ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", " * Ćirković, Milan Why we downplay Fermi's paradox.", "Nautilus* Ćirković, Milan The Great Silence: Science and Philosophy of Fermi's Paradox The Great Silence Oxford University Press* * * " ], [ "External links", " Kestenbaum, David.", "\"Three people grapple with the question, 'Are we alone?", "'\", ''This American Life'' radio show, hosted by Ira Glass.", "This episode's first 22 minutes discusses the Fermi Paradox.", "See also the show's May 19, 2017 transcript.", "* * The Fermi Paradox — Where Are All The Aliens?", "(2015), Kurzgesagt – In a Nutshell* Webb, Stephen (video; 13:09): ''Where Are All The Aliens?''", "(TED talk – 2018) ( transcript)* (TED Talk – 2018)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Fundamentalism" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Fundamentalism''' is a tendency among certain groups and individuals that is characterized by the application of a strict literal interpretation to scriptures, dogmas, or ideologies, along with a strong belief in the importance of distinguishing one's ingroup and outgroup,which leads to an emphasis on some conception of \"purity\", and a desire to return to a previous ideal from which advocates believe members have strayed.", "The term is usually used in the context of religion to indicate an unwavering attachment to a set of irreducible beliefs (the \"fundamentals\").The term \"fundamentalism\" is generally regarded by scholars of religion as referring to a largely modern religious phenomenon which, while itself a reinterpretation of religion as defined by the parameters of modernism, reifies religion in reaction against modernist, secularist, liberal and ecumenical tendencies developing in religion and society in general that it perceives to be foreign to a particular religious tradition.", "Depending upon the context, the label \"fundamentalism\" can be a pejorative rather than a neutral characterization, similar to the ways that calling political perspectives \"right-wing\" or \"left-wing\" can have negative connotations." ], [ "Religious fundamentalism", "===Buddhism===Buddhist fundamentalism has targeted other religious and ethnic groups, as in Myanmar.", "A Buddhist-dominated country, Myanmar has seen tensions between Muslim minorities and the Buddhist majority, especially during the 2013 Burma anti-Muslim riots (possibly instigated by hardline groups such as the 969 Movement).", "as well as during actions which are associated with the Rohingya genocide (2016 onwards).Buddhist fundamentalism also features in Sri Lanka.", "Buddhist-dominated Sri Lanka has seen recent tensions between Muslim minorities and the Buddhist majority, especially during the 2014 anti-Muslim riots in Sri Lanka and in the course of the 2018 anti-Muslim riots in Sri Lanka, allegedly instigated by hardline groups such as the Bodu Bala Sena.Historic and contemporary examples of Buddhist fundamentalism occur in each of the three main branches of Buddhism: Theravada, Mahayana, and Vajrayana.", "In addition to the above examples of fundamentalism in Theravada-dominated societies, the reification of a protector deity, Dorje Shugden, by 19th-century Tibetan lama Pabongkhapa could be seen as an example of fundamentalism in the Vajrayana tradition.", "Dorje Shugden was a key tool in Pabongkhapa's persecution of the flourishing Rimé movement, an ecumenical movement which fused the teachings of the Sakya, Kagyu and Nyingma, in response to the dominance of the Gelug school.", "While Pabongkhapa had an initially inclusive view early in his life, he received a number of signs that he had displeased Dorje Shugden by receiving teachings from non-Gelug schools, and thus initiated a revival movement that opposed the mixing of non-Gelug practices by Gelug practitioners.", "The main function of the deity was presented as \"the protection of the Ge-luk tradition through violent means, even including the killing of its enemies.\"", "Crucially, however, these \"‘enemies’ of the Gelug refers less to the members of rivalschools than to members of the Gelug tradition ‘who mix Dzong-ka-ba’s tradition with elements coming from other traditions, particularly the Nying-maDzok-chen’.\"", "In Japan, a prominent example has been the practice among some members of the Mahayana Nichiren sect of shakubuku – a method of proselytizing which involves the strident condemnation of other sects as deficient or evil.===Christianity=== George Marsden has defined Christian fundamentalism as the demand for strict adherence to certain theological doctrines, in opposition to Modernist theology.", "Its supporters originally coined the term in order to describe what they claimed were five specific classic theological beliefs of Christianity, and the coinage of the term led to the development of a Christian fundamentalist movement within the Protestant community of the United States in the early part of the 20th century.", "Fundamentalism as a movement arose in the United States, starting among conservative Presbyterian theologians at Princeton Theological Seminary in the late 19th century.", "It soon spread to conservatives among the Baptists and other denominations around 1910 to 1920.The movement's purpose was to reaffirm key theological tenets and defend them against the challenges of liberal theology and higher criticism.The concept of \"fundamentalism\" has roots in the Niagara Bible Conferences which were held annually between 1878 and 1897.During those conferences, the tenets widely considered to be ''fundamental'' Christian belief were identified.", "\"Fundamentalism\" was prefigured by ''The Fundamentals: A Testimony To The Truth'', a collection of twelve pamphlets published between 1910 and 1915 by brothers Milton and Lyman Stewart.", "It is widely considered to be the foundation of modern Christian fundamentalism.In 1910, the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church identified what became known as the ''five fundamentals'':* Biblical inspiration and the infallibility of scripture as a result of this* Virgin birth of Jesus* Belief that Christ's death was the atonement for sin* Bodily resurrection of Jesus* Historical reality of the miracles of JesusIn 1920, the word \"fundamentalist\" was first used in print by Curtis Lee Laws, editor of ''The Watchman Examiner'', a Baptist newspaper.", "Laws proposed that those Christians who were fighting for the fundamentals of the faith should be called \"fundamentalists\".Theological conservatives who rallied around the five fundamentals came to be known as \"fundamentalists\".", "They rejected the existence of commonalities with theologically related religious traditions, such as the grouping of Christianity, Islam, and Judaism into one Abrahamic family of religions.", "By contrast, while Evangelical groups (such as the Billy Graham Evangelistic Association) typically agree with the \"fundamentals\" as they are expressed in ''The Fundamentals'', they are often willing to participate in events with religious groups that do not hold to the \"essential\" doctrines.===Hinduism===The existence of fundamentalism in Hinduism is a complex and contradictory phenomenon.", "While some would argue that certain aspects of Gaudiya Vaishnavism manifest fundamentalist tendencies, these tendencies are more clearly displayed in Hindutva, the predominant form of Hindu nationalism in India today, and an increasingly powerful and influential voice within the religion.", "Hinduism includes a diversity of ideas on spirituality and traditions, but has no ecclesiastical order, no unquestionable religious authorities, no governing body, no prophet(s) nor any binding holy book; Hindus can choose to be polytheistic, pantheistic, panentheistic, pandeistic, henotheistic, monotheistic, monistic, agnostic, atheistic or humanist.", "According to Doniger, \"ideas about all the major issues of faith and lifestyle – vegetarianism, nonviolence, belief in rebirth, even caste – are subjects of debate, not dogma.", "\"Some would argue that, because of the wide range of traditions and ideas covered by the term Hinduism, a lack of theological 'fundamentals' means that a dogmatic 'religious fundamentalism' per se is hard to find.", "Others point to the recent rise of Hindu nationalism in India as evidence to the contrary.", "The religion \"defies our desire to define and categorize it.\"", "In India, the term “dharma” is preferred, which is broader than the Western term “religion.”Hence, certain scholars argue that Hinduism lacks dogma and thus a specific notion of \"fundamentalism,\" while other scholars identify several politically active Hindu movements as part of a \"Hindu fundamentalist family.", "\"===Islam===Fundamentalism within Islam goes back to the early history of Islam in the 7th century, to the time of the Kharijites.", "From their essentially political position, they developed extreme doctrines that set them apart from both mainstream Shia and Sunni Muslims.", "The Kharijites were particularly noted for adopting a radical approach to ''takfir'', whereby they declared other Muslims to be unbelievers and therefore deemed them worthy of death.The Shia and Sunni religious conflicts since the 7th century created an opening for radical ideologues, such as Ali Shariati (1933–77), to merge social revolution with Islamic fundamentalism, as exemplified by the Iranian Revolution in 1979.Islamic fundamentalism has appeared in many countries; the Salafi-Wahhabi version is promoted worldwide and financed by Saudi Arabia, Qatar, and Pakistan.The Iran hostage crisis of 1979–80 marked a major turning point in the use of the term \"fundamentalism\".", "The media, in an attempt to explain the ideology of Ayatollah Khomeini and the Iranian Revolution to a Western audience described it as a \"fundamentalist version of Islam\" by way of analogy to the Christian fundamentalist movement in the U.S.", "Thus was born the term ''Islamic fundamentalist'', which became a common use of the term in following years.===Judaism===Jewish fundamentalism has been used to characterize militant religious Zionism, and both Ashkenazi and Sephardic versions of Haredi Judaism.", "Ian S Lustik has characterized Jewish fundamentalism as \"an ultranationalist, eschatologically based, irredentist ideology.\"" ], [ "Politics", "In modern politics, fundamentalism has been associated with right-wing conservative ideology, especially social conservatism.", "Social conservatives often support policies in line with religious fundamentalism, such as support for school prayer and opposition to LGBT rights and abortion.", "Conversely, secularism has been associated with left-wing liberal ideology, as it takes the opposite stance to said policies.Political usage of the term \"fundamentalism\" has been criticized.", "It has been used by political groups to berate opponents, using the term flexibly depending on their political interests.", "According to Judith Nagata, a professor of Asia Research Institute in the National University of Singapore, \"The Afghan ''mujahiddin'', locked in combat with the Soviet enemy in the 1980s, could be praised as 'freedom fighters' by their American backers at the time, while the present Taliban, viewed, among other things, as protectors of American enemy Osama bin Laden, are unequivocally 'fundamentalist'.", "\"\"Fundamentalist\" has been used pejoratively to refer to philosophies perceived as literal-minded or carrying a pretense of being the sole source of objective truth, regardless of whether it is usually called a religion.", "For instance, the Archbishop of Wales has criticized \"atheistic fundamentalism\" broadly and said \"Any kind of fundamentalism, be it Biblical, atheistic or Islamic, is dangerous\".", "He also said, \"the new fundamentalism of our age ... leads to the language of expulsion and exclusivity, of extremism and polarisation, and the claim that, because God is on our side, he is not on yours.\"", "He claimed it led to situations such as councils calling Christmas \"Winterval\", schools refusing to put on nativity plays and crosses being removed from chapels.", "Others have countered that some of these attacks on Christmas are urban legends, not all schools do nativity plays because they choose to perform other traditional plays like ''A Christmas Carol'' or \"The Snow Queen\" and, because of rising tensions between various religions, opening up public spaces to alternate displays rather than the Nativity scene is an attempt to keep government religion-neutral.In ''The New Inquisition'', Robert Anton Wilson lampoons the members of skeptical organizations such as the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal as fundamentalist materialists, alleging that they dogmatically dismiss any evidence that conflicts with materialism as hallucination or fraud.In France, during a protestation march against the imposition of restrictions on the wearing of headscarves in state-run schools, a banner labeled the ban as \"secular fundamentalism\".", "In the United States, private or cultural intolerance of women wearing the hijab (Islamic headcovering) and political activism by Muslims also has been labeled \"secular fundamentalism\".The term \"fundamentalism\" is sometimes applied to signify a counter-cultural fidelity to a principle or set of principles, as in the pejorative term \"market fundamentalism\", used to imply exaggerated religious-like faith in the ability of unfettered ''laissez-faire'' or free-market capitalist economic views or policies to solve economic and social problems.", "According to economist John Quiggin, the standard features of \"economic fundamentalist rhetoric\" are \"dogmatic\" assertions and the claim that anyone who holds contrary views is not a real economist.", "Retired professor in religious studies Roderick Hindery lists positive qualities attributed to political, economic, or other forms of cultural fundamentalism, including \"vitality, enthusiasm, willingness to back up words with actions, and the avoidance of facile compromise\" as well as negative aspects such as psychological attitudes, occasionally elitist and pessimistic perspectives, and in some cases literalism." ], [ "Criticism", "A criticism by Elliot N. Dorff:In order to carry out the fundamentalist program in practice, one would need a perfect understanding of the ancient language of the original text, if indeed the true text can be discerned from among variants.", "Furthermore, human beings are the ones who transmit this understanding between generations.", "Even if one wanted to follow the literal word of God, the need for people first to understand that word necessitates human interpretation.", "Through that process human fallibility is inextricably mixed into the very meaning of the divine word.", "As a result, it is impossible to follow the indisputable word of God; one can only achieve a human understanding of God's will.Howard Thurman was interviewed in the late 1970s for a BBC feature on religion.", "He told the interviewer:Influential criticisms of fundamentalism include James Barr's books on Christian fundamentalism and Bassam Tibi's analysis of Islamic fundamentalism.A study at the University of Edinburgh found that of its six measured dimensions of religiosity, \"lower intelligence is most associated with higher levels of fundamentalism.\"" ], [ "Use as a label", "The Associated Press' ''AP Stylebook'' recommends that the term fundamentalist not be used for any group that does not apply the term to itself.", "Many scholars have adopted a similar position.", "Other scholars, however, use the term in the broader descriptive sense to refer to various groups in various religious traditions including those groups that would object to being classified as fundamentalists, such as in the Fundamentalism Project.Tex Sample asserts that it is a mistake to refer to a Muslim, Jewish, or Christian fundamentalist.", "Rather, a fundamentalist's fundamentalism is their primary concern, over and above other denominational or faith considerations." ], [ "See also", "AuthoritarianismBiblical literalismChristian identityChristian ReconstructionismChristian nationalismCreation scienceCultDogmatismDominionismEvangelical atheismEvangelicalismExtremismFormalism (philosophy)Fundamentalism (sculpture)Historical-grammatical methodIndependent Fundamental BaptistIndoctrinationIntegrismIslamic extremismIslamic StateIslamismLegalism (theology)Militant atheismMoral absolutismMormon fundamentalismPentecostalismPolitical radicalismReactionaryReligious discriminationReligious fanaticismReligious intoleranceReligious nationalismReligious persecutionReligious segregationReligious violenceRestorationismRitualism in the Church of EnglandSectSectarianismTrue Orthodox church" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* Appleby, R. Scott, Gabriel Abraham Almond, and Emmanuel Sivan (2003).", "''Strong Religion''.", "Chicago, Il; London: University of Chicago Press.", "* Armstrong, Karen (2001).", "''The Battle for God: A History of Fundamentalism''.", "New York: Ballantine Books.", "* Brasher, Brenda E. (2001).", "''The Encyclopedia of Fundamentalism''.", "New York: Routledge.", "* Caplan, Lionel.", "(1987).", "\"Studies in Religious Fundamentalism\".", "London: The MacMillan Press Ltd.* Dorff, Elliot N. and Rosett, Arthur, ''A Living Tree; The Roots and Growth of Jewish Law'', SUNY Press, 1988.", "* * Keating, Karl (1988).", "''Catholicism and Fundamentalism''.", "San Francisco: Ignatius.", "* Gorenberg, Gershom.", "(2000).", "''The End of Days: Fundamentalism and the Struggle for the Temple Mount.''", "New York: The Free Press.", "* Hindery, Roderick.", "2001.", "''Indoctrination and Self-deception or Free and Critical Thought?''", "Mellen Press: aspects of fundamentalism, pp. 69–74.", "* Lawrence, Bruce B.", "''Defenders of God: The Fundamentalist Revolt against the Modern Age.''", "San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1989.", "* Marsden; George M. (1980).", "''Fundamentalism and American Culture: The Shaping of Twentieth Century Evangelicalism, 1870-1925'' Oxford University Press.", "* * * * * * Noll, Mark A.", "(1992).", "''A History of Christianity in the United States and Canada''.", "Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.", "* Ruthven, Malise (2005).", "\"Fundamentalism: The Search for Meaning\".", "Oxford: Oxford University Press.", "* * Torrey, R.A.", "(ed.).", "(1909).", "''The Fundamentals''.", "Los Angeles: The Bible Institute of Los Angeles (B.I.O.L.A.", "now Biola University).", "* \"Religious movements: fundamentalist.\"", "In Goldstein, Norm (Ed.)", "(2003).", "''The Associated Press Stylebook and Briefing on Media Law 2003'' (38th ed.", "), p. 218.New York: The Associated Press.", "." ], [ "External links", "* The Sword of the Lord: The Roots of Fundamentalism in an American Family, book by Andrew Himes* Can Anyone Define Fundamentalist?", "Article by Terry Mattingly via Scripps Howard News Service* * Richard Dawkins' ''The God Delusion'' and Atheist Fundamentalism by Simon Watson, published in Anthropoetics XV,2 Spring 2010* Q & A on Islamic Fundamentalism* www.blessedquietness.com a conservative Christian website, maintained by Steve van Natten* Women Against Fundamentalism (UK)* Yahya Abdul Rahman's Take On Fundamentalists And Fundamentalism* Roots of Fundamentalism Traced to 16th Century Bible Translations, Harvard University, November 7, 2007.", "* The Fundamentalist Distortion of the Islamic Message by Syed Manzar Abbas Saidi, published in Athena Intelligence Journal* Admiel Kosman, Between Orthodox Judaism and nihilism: Reflections on the recently published writings of the late Rabbi Shimon Gershon Rosenberg, Haaretz, Aug.17, 2012." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Show Me Love (film)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Show Me Love''''' (original Swedish title: '''''Fucking Åmål''''') is a 1998 Swedish romantic comedy-drama film written and directed by Lukas Moodysson in his feature-length directorial debut.", "It stars Rebecka Liljeberg and Alexandra Dahlström as two seemingly disparate teenage girls who begin a tentative romantic relationship.", "The film was released theatrically in Sweden on 23 October 1998, and premiered internationally at the 1998 Cannes Film Festival.It received an overwhelmingly positive reception and won four Guldbagge Awards (Sweden's official film awards) at the 1999 ceremony.", "Its international awards include the Teddy Award at the 1999 Berlin International Film Festival, and the Special Jury Prize at the 34th Karlovy Vary International Film Festival.The Swedish title refers to the small town of Åmål in Västra Götaland County, western Sweden.", "However, only a few scenes were filmed in Åmål, and they were not included in the final product.", "Primary filming took place in the nearby town of Trollhättan, the location of producing company Film i Väst's studios." ], [ "Plot", "Two girls, Agnes and Elin, attend school in the small town of Åmål, Sweden.", "Elin is outgoing and popular but finds her life unsatisfying and dull.", "Agnes, by contrast, has no real friends and is constantly depressed.", "Agnes is in love with Elin but cannot find any way to express it.Agnes's parents worry about their daughter's reclusive life and try to be reassuring.", "Her mother decides, against Agnes's will, to throw a 16th birthday party for her.", "Agnes is afraid no one will come.", "Viktoria, a girl in a wheelchair, shows up and Agnes shouts at her in front of her parents, telling her they are friends only because no one else will talk to them.", "Agnes, overcome with anger and depression, goes to her room and cries into her pillow shouting that she wishes she were dead, while her father tries to soothe her.", "Viktoria leaves and Agnes's family eats the food made for the party.Elin arrives at Agnes's house, mainly as an excuse to avoid going to another party, where there will be a boy (Johan, played by Mathias Rust) she wants to avoid.", "Elin's older sister, Jessica, who comes with her, dares her to kiss Agnes, who is rumoured to be a lesbian.", "Elin fulfills the dare and then runs out with Jessica, only to soon feel guilty for having humiliated Agnes.After becoming drunk at the other party, Elin gets sick and throws up.", "Johan tries to help her and ends up professing his love to her.", "Elin leaves Johan and the party, only to return to Agnes's house to apologize for how she acted earlier.", "In doing so, Elin stops Agnes from cutting herself.", "She even manages to persuade Agnes to return with her to the other party.", "On the way, Elin shares her real feelings about being trapped in Åmål.", "She asks Agnes about being a lesbian and believes that their problems could be solved by leaving Åmål and going to Stockholm.", "On impulse, Elin persuades Agnes to hitchhike to Stockholm, which is a five-hour journey by car.", "They find a driver who agrees to take them, believing them to be sisters who are visiting their grandmother.", "While sitting in the back seat, they have their first real kiss.", "The driver sees them and, shocked at the behaviour of the two 'sisters', orders them to leave the car.Elin discovers that she is attracted to Agnes but is afraid to admit it.", "She proceeds to ignore Agnes and refuses to talk to her.", "Elin's sister Jessica sees that she is in love and pushes her to figure out who it is.", "To cover the fact that she is in love with Agnes, Elin lies, pretending to be in love with Johan, and loses her virginity during a short-lived relationship with him.", "Elin eventually admits her feelings, when, after a climactic scene in a school bathroom, they are forced to 'out' their relationship to the school.The film ends with Elin and Agnes sitting in Elin's bedroom drinking chocolate milk.", "Elin explains that she often adds too much chocolate until her milk is nearly black.", "She must fill another glass with milk and mix it and that her sister Jessica often gets mad that she finishes the chocolate.", "Elin has the last word saying \"It makes a lot of chocolate milk.", "But that doesn't matter\"." ], [ "Cast", "* Alexandra Dahlström as Elin Olsson* Rebecka Liljeberg as Agnes Ahlberg* Erica Carlson as Jessica Olsson* Mathias Rust as Johan Hulth* Stefan Hörberg as Markus* Josefine Nyberg as Viktoria* Ralph Carlsson as Agnes's father, Olof* Maria Hedborg as Agnes's mother, Karin* Axel Widegren as Agnes's little brother, Oskar* Jill Ung as Elin's and Jessica's mother, Birgitta" ], [ "Title", "The original title of the film, ''Fucking Åmål'', refers to the girls' feelings about their small town: In a key scene, Elin shouts in desperation \"''varför måste vi bo i fucking jävla kuk-Åmål?''\"", "(which roughly translates to \"why do we have to live in fucking bloody cock-Åmål?", "\").According to Moodysson, the problem with the original title started when the film was Sweden's candidate for the Academy Awards, though eventually it was not chosen as a nominee.", "The Hollywood industry magazine ''Variety'' refused to run an advertisement for ''Fucking Åmål''.", "Thus, American distributor Strand Releasing asked for a new title.", "Moodysson took the new title from the song at the end of the film, by Robyn.", "Distributors in other native English-speaking countries then followed suit.", "* * (\"Discovering Love\")* (\"School Friends\")* (\"Love is Love\") The Czech title is based on a Lucie Bílá song of the same name, which references homosexuality.", "* (, \"Show Me Love\")* Hebrew: ''F- Åmål''* English: ''Show Me Love''* French (Canada): ''Qui Aimes-Tu?''", "(\"Who do you love/like?\")" ], [ "Reception", "===Political controversy===Even before the film was completed, it created controversy in the town of Åmål.", "Local politicians campaigned to get the title changed because they argued that it would show the town in an unfair way and even undermine it as an economic centre.", "Further pressure was brought on the makers of the film, the Film i Väst studio, who are partly financed by Swedish local authorities, including Åmål.However, the local complaints had no effect on the content or release of the film.", "Since the release, the town of Åmål has tried to embrace the publicity generated, despite the fact that the town's name is missing from the English title.", "In the early 2000s the town founded the pop music \"Fucking Åmål Festival.", "\"===Critical and commercial response===''Fucking Åmål'' received the highest audience figures for a Swedish film in 1998–9, with a total audience of 867,576 and a total audience for the whole of Europe of 2.1 million.", "Some international reports stated that the film had outgrossed the Hollywood film ''Titanic'' in Sweden.", "In fact, ''Titanic'' had over twice as many viewers as ''Show Me Love'' in Sweden in 1998.Based on 43 reviews collected by the film review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, 91% of critics gave ''Show Me Love'' a positive review.", "It is among the top ten of the British Film Institute list of the 50 films you should see by the age of 14.The film received consistently good reviews, including the realism and credibility of its portrayal of what it is like to be a teenager in a small town in the 1990s.", "In addition, the efforts of the young actors were praised.", "Jan-Olov Andersson at Aftonbladet felt that Dahlström's and Liljeberg's imaginative appearance and interaction was \"sensationally credible\", and Bo Ludvigsson at Svenska Dagbladet wrote that it was \"a warm, strong and confident film about the courage to be human\".", "Ludvigsson also believed that ''Fucking Åmål'', with its storytelling drive, leave and authenticity, was well above most of the Swedish films of recent years.", "Anders Hansson at Göteborgs-Posten thought that director Moodysson with fairly ordinary elements created \"a film with unusual rise\".Autostraddle placed it at number one on its \"Top 10 Best Lesbian Movies\" list.===Cultural impact===According to Russian singer Lena Katina, producer Ivan Shapovalov was inspired to create the pop duo t.A.T.u.", "after the release of this film.", "The track \"Show Me Love\" is featured in their album ''200 km/h in the Wrong Lane''.The creators of the 2018 Netflix series ''Everything Sucks!''", "called the film the \"biggest influence\" on that show's creation." ], [ "Soundtrack", "The film's soundtrack was released through Metronome Records and consists of songs in English and Swedish language.", "Swedish band Broder Daniel, who contributed three English language songs to ''Fucking Åmål'', saw a spike in popularity after the film's release.", "The band also released an EP titled ''Fucking Åmål''.", ";Fucking Åmål/Musiken Från Filmen:Label: Metronome Records:Format: CD, compilation:Country: Sweden:Released: 1998" ], [ "Awards and nominations", " 1999 Amanda Award Best Foreign Feature Film ''Fucking Åmål'', director Lukas Moodysson Best Nordic Feature Film Lukas Moodysson Atlantic Film Festival Best International Feature Lukas Moodysson Berlin International Film Festival C.I.C.A.E.", "Award - Recommendation (Panorama) Lukas Moodysson Teddy Award - Best Feature Film Lukas Moodysson British Film Institute Awards Sutherland Trophy - Special Mention Lukas Moodysson Manaki Brothers Film Festival Special Jury Award Ulf Brantås Cinema Jove - Valencia International Film Festival Golden Moon of Valencia Lukas Moodysson European Film Awards Best Film Lars Jönsson Flanders International Film Festival Ghent Student Jury Award Lukas Moodysson Grand Prix Lukas Moodysson Guldbagge Awards Best Film Lars Jönsson Best Director Lukas Moodysson Best Screenplay Lukas Moodysson Best Actress in a Leading Role Alexandra DahlströmRebecka Liljeberg Best Actor in a Supporting Role Ralph Carlsson Karlovy Vary International Film Festival Audience Award Lukas Moodysson FICC - The Don Quixote Prize Lukas Moodysson Special Jury Prize Lukas Moodysson Crystal Globe Lukas Moodysson Kyiv International Film Festival \"Molodist\" Best Full-Length Fiction Film Lukas Moodysson FIPRESCI Lukas Moodysson Youth Jury Award - Full-Length Feature Film Lukas Moodysson Verzaubert International Gay & Lesbian Film Festival Rosebud - Best Film Lukas Moodysson 2000 Bodil Awards Best Non-American Film Lukas Moodysson GLAAD Media Award Outstanding Film – Limited Release Lukas Moodysson International Film Festival Rotterdam MovieZone Young Jury Award Lukas Moodysson" ], [ "See also", "* List of submissions to the 71st Academy Awards for Best Foreign Language Film* List of Swedish submissions for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Full disclosure (computer security)" ], [ "Introduction", "In the field of computer security, independent researchers often discover flaws in software that can be abused to cause unintended behaviour; these flaws are called vulnerabilities.", "The process by which the analysis of these vulnerabilities is shared with third parties is the subject of much debate, and is referred to as the researcher's ''disclosure policy''.", "'''Full disclosure''' is the practice of publishing analysis of software vulnerabilities as early as possible, making the data accessible to everyone without restriction.", "The primary purpose of widely disseminating information about vulnerabilities is so that potential victims are as knowledgeable as those who attack them.In his 2007 essay on the topic, Bruce Schneier stated \"Full disclosure – the practice of making the details of security vulnerabilities public – is a damned good idea.", "Public scrutiny is the only reliable way to improve security, while secrecy only makes us less secure\".", "Leonard Rose, co-creator of an electronic mailing list that has superseded bugtraq to become the de facto forum for disseminating advisories, explains \"We don't believe in security by obscurity, and as far as we know, full disclosure is the only way to ensure that everyone, not just the insiders, have access to the information we need.\"" ], [ "The vulnerability disclosure debate", "The controversy around the public disclosure of sensitive information is not new.", "The issue of full disclosure was first raised in the context of locksmithing, in a 19th-century controversy regarding whether weaknesses in lock systems should be kept secret in the locksmithing community, or revealed to the public.", "Today, there are three major disclosure policies under which most others can be categorized: Non Disclosure, Coordinated Disclosure, and Full Disclosure.The major stakeholders in vulnerability research have their disclosure policies shaped by various motivations, it is not uncommon to observe campaigning, marketing or lobbying for their preferred policy to be adopted and chastising those who dissent.", "Many prominent security researchers favor full disclosure, whereas most vendors prefer coordinated disclosure.", "Non disclosure is generally favored by commercial exploit vendors and blackhat hackers.=== Coordinated vulnerability disclosure ===Coordinated vulnerability disclosure is a policy under which researchers agree to report vulnerabilities to a coordinating authority, which then reports it to the vendor, tracks fixes and mitigations, and coordinates the disclosure of information with stakeholders including the public.", "In some cases the coordinating authority is the vendor.", "The premise of coordinated disclosure is typically that nobody should be informed about a vulnerability until the software vendor says it is time.", "While there are often exceptions or variations of this policy, distribution must initially be limited and vendors are given privileged access to nonpublic research.The original name for this approach was “responsible disclosure”, based on the essay by Microsoft Security Manager Scott Culp “It's Time to End Information Anarchy” (referring to full disclosure).", "Microsoft later called for the term to be phased out in favor of “Coordinated Vulnerability Disclosure” (CVD).Although the reasoning varies, many practitioners argue that end-users cannot benefit from access to vulnerability information without guidance or patches from the vendor, so the risks of sharing research with malicious actors is too great for too little benefit.", "As Microsoft explain, \"Coordinated disclosure serves everyone's best interests by ensuring that customers receive comprehensive, high-quality updates for security vulnerabilities but are not exposed to malicious attacks while the update is being developed.", "\"To prevent vendors to indefinitely delaying the disclosure, a common practice in the security industry, pioneered by Google, is to publish all the details of vulnerabilities after a deadline, usually 90 or 120 days reduced to 7 days if the vulnerability is under active exploitation.=== Full disclosure ===Full disclosure is the policy of publishing information on vulnerabilities without restriction as early as possible, making the information accessible to the general public without restriction.", "In general, proponents of full disclosure believe that the benefits of freely available vulnerability research outweigh the risks, whereas opponents prefer to limit the distribution.The free availability of vulnerability information allows users and administrators to understand and react to vulnerabilities in their systems, and allows customers to pressure vendors to fix vulnerabilities that vendors may otherwise feel no incentive to solve.", "There are some fundamental problems with coordinated disclosure that full disclosure can resolve.", "* If customers do not know about vulnerabilities, they cannot request patches, and vendors experience no economic incentive to correct vulnerabilities.", "* Administrators cannot make informed decisions about the risks to their systems, as information on vulnerabilities is restricted.", "* Malicious researchers who also know about the flaw have a long period of time to continue exploiting the flaw.Discovery of a specific flaw or vulnerability is not a mutually exclusive event, multiple researchers with differing motivations can and do discover the same flaws independently.There is no standard way to make vulnerability information available to the public, researchers often use mailing lists dedicated to the topic, academic papers or industry conferences.=== Non disclosure ===Non disclosure is the policy that vulnerability information should not be shared, or should only be shared under non-disclosure agreement (either contractually or informally).Common proponents of non-disclosure include commercial exploit vendors, researchers who intend to exploit the flaws they find, and proponents of security through obscurity.=== Debate ===In 2009, Charlie Miller, Dino Dai Zovi and Alexander Sotirov announced at the CanSecWest conference the \"No More Free Bugs\" campaign, arguing that companies are profiting and taking advantage of security researchers by not paying them for disclosing bugs.", "This announce made it to the news and opened a broader debate about the problem and its associated incentives.==== Arguments against coordinated disclosure ====Researchers in favor of coordinated disclosure believe that users cannot make use of advanced knowledge of vulnerabilities without guidance from the vendor, and that the majority is best served by limiting distribution of vulnerability information.", "Advocates argue that low-skilled attackers can use this information to perform sophisticated attacks that would otherwise be beyond their ability, and the potential benefit does not outweigh the potential harm caused by malevolent actors.", "Only when the vendor has prepared guidance that even the most unsophisticated users can digest should the information be made public.This argument presupposes that vulnerability discovery is a mutually exclusive event, that only one person can discover a vulnerability.", "There are many examples of vulnerabilities being discovered simultaneously, often being exploited in secrecy before discovery by other researchers.", "While there may exist users who cannot benefit from vulnerability information, full disclosure advocates believe this demonstrates a contempt for the intelligence of end users.", "While it's true that some users cannot benefit from vulnerability information, if they're concerned with the security of their networks they are in a position to hire an expert to assist them as you would hire a mechanic to help with a car.==== Arguments against non disclosure ====Non disclosure is typically used when a researcher intends to use knowledge of a vulnerability to attack computer systems operated by their enemies, or to trade knowledge of a vulnerability to a third party for profit, who will typically use it to attack their enemies.Researchers practicing non disclosure are generally not concerned with improving security or protecting networks.", "However, some proponents argue that they simply do not want to assist vendors, and claim no intent to harm others.While full and coordinated disclosure advocates declare similar goals and motivations, simply disagreeing on how best to achieve them, non disclosure is entirely incompatible." ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Feminist theology" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Feminist theology''' is a movement found in several religions, including Buddhism, Hinduism, Sikhism, Neopaganism, Baháʼí Faith, Judaism, Islam, Christianity and New Thought, to reconsider the traditions, practices, scriptures, and theologies of those religions from a feminist perspective.", "Some of the goals of feminist theology include increasing the role of women among clergy and religious authorities, reinterpreting patriarchal (male-dominated) imagery and language about God, determining women's place in relation to career and motherhood, studying images of women in the religions' sacred texts, and matriarchal religion." ], [ "Methodology", "===Development of feminist theology===While there is no specific date to pinpoint the beginning of this movement, its origins can be traced back to the 1960s article, \"The Human Situation: A Feminine View\", written by Valerie Saiving (Goldstein).", "Her piece of work questioned theologies written by men for men in a modern perspective to then dismantle what it had created over the years, patriarchal systems that oppress women.", "After Saiving's work was published, many scholars took up her ideas and elaborated upon them, which built the feminist theology movement further.", "Grenz and Olson view the steps of feminist theology in threes: first, feminist theologians critique the treatment of women in the past, second, they determine alternative biblical/religious texts that support feminist ideologies, and third, they claim the theology that adheres to such standards, through reclamation, abolishment, and/or revision.", "Grenz and Olson also mention that while all feminists agree there is a flaw in the system, there is disagreement over how far outside of the Bible and the Christian tradition women are willing to go to seek support for their ideals.", "This concept is also important when feminist theology is relating to other religions or spiritual connections outside of Christianity.===Prehistoric religion and archaeology===The primacy of a monotheistic or near-monotheistic \"Great Goddess\" is advocated by some modern matriarchists as a female version of, preceding, or analogue to, the Abrahamic God associated with the historical rise of monotheism in the Mediterranean Axis Age.Mother Nature (sometimes known as ''Mother Earth'') is a common representation of nature that focuses on the life-giving and nurturing features of nature by embodying it in the form of the mother.", "Images of women representing mother earth, and mother nature, are timeless.", "In prehistoric times, goddesses were worshipped for their association with fertility, fecundity, and agricultural bounty.", "Priestesses held dominion over aspects of Incan, Assyrian, Babylonian, Slavonic, Roman, Greek, Indian, and Iroquoian religions in the millennia prior to the inception of Patriarchal religion.===Gender and God===Others who practice feminist spirituality may instead adhere to a feminist re-interpretation of Western monotheistic traditions.", "In those cases, the notion of God as having a male gender is rejected, and God is not referred to using male pronouns.", "Feminist spirituality may also object to images of God that they perceive as authoritarian, parental, or disciplinarian, instead emphasizing \"maternal\" attributes such as nurturing, acceptance, and creativity.Carol P. Christ is the author of the widely reprinted essay \"Why Women Need the Goddess\", which argues in favor of the concept of there having been an ancient religion of a supreme goddess.", "This essay was presented as the keynote address to an audience of over 500 at the \"Great Goddess Re-emerging\" conference at the University of California at Santa Cruz in the spring of 1978, and was first published in ''Heresies: The Great Goddess Issue'' (1978), pgs.", "8–13.Carol P. Christ also co-edited the classic feminist religion anthologies ''Weaving the Visions: New Patterns in Feminist Spirituality'' (1989) and ''Womanspirit Rising'' (1979/1989); the latter included her essay ''Why Women Need the Goddess''.The Latter-Day Saint movement is unique among Christian denominations in that it affirms the existence of a Divine Feminine as a part of its core doctrine.", "The Latter-Day Saint Divine Feminine is called \"Heavenly Mother\".", "While Latter-day Saints do not pray to Heavenly Mother, she is considered to be the wife of Heavenly Father and therefore His equal in heaven, according to \"The Family: A Proclamation to the World\"'s description of husbands and wives as equal partners.===New Thought movement===New Thought as a movement had no single origin, but was rather propelled along by a number of spiritual thinkers and philosophers and emerged through a variety of religious denominations and churches, particularly the Unity Church, Religious Science, and Church of Divine Science.", "It was a feminist movement in that most of its teachers and students were women; notable among the founders of the movement were Emma Curtis Hopkins, known as the \"teacher of teachers\" Myrtle Fillmore, Malinda Cramer, and Nona L. Brooks; with its churches and community centers mostly led by women, from the 1880s to today." ], [ "Within specific religions", "===Baháʼí Faith======Judaism===Jewish feminism is a movement that seeks to make the religious, political, and social status of Jewish women equal to that of Jewish men.", "Feminist movements, with varying approaches and successes, have opened up within all major denominations of Judaism.There are different approaches and versions of feminist theology that exist within the Jewish community.Some of these theologies promote the idea that it is important to have a feminine characterization of God within the siddur (Jewish prayerbook) and service.", "They challenge the male rabbi teachings that only emphasize God as a man with masculine traits only.In 1976, Rita Gross published the article \"Female God Language in a Jewish Context\" (Davka Magazine 17), which Jewish scholar and feminist Judith Plaskow considers \"probably the first article to deal theoretically with the issue of female God-language in a Jewish context\".", "Gross was Jewish herself at this time.Reconstructionist Rabbi Rebecca Alpert (''Reform Judaism'', Winter 1991) comments:In 1990 Rabbi Margaret Wenig wrote the sermon, \"God Is a Woman and She Is Growing Older\", which as of 2011 has been published ten times (three times in German) and preached by rabbis from Australia to California.Rabbi Paula Reimers (\"Feminism, Judaism, and God the Mother\", ''Conservative Judaism'' '''46''' (1993)) comments:Ahuva Zache affirms that using both masculine and feminine language for God can be a positive thing, but reminds her Reform Jewish readership that God is beyond gender (''Is God male, female, both or neither?", "How should we phrase our prayers in response to God's gender?", "'', in the Union for Reform Judaism's iTorah, ):These views are highly controversial even within liberal Jewish movements.", "Orthodox Jews and many Conservative Jewshold that it is wrong to use English female pronouns for God, viewing such usage as an intrusion of modern, western feminist ideology into Jewish tradition.", "Liberal prayer books tend increasingly to also avoid male-specific words and pronouns, seeking that all references to God in translations be made in gender-neutral language.", "For example, the UK Liberal movement's ''Siddur Lev Chadash'' (1995) does so, as does the UK Reform Movement's ''Forms of Prayer'' (2008).", "In Mishkan T'filah, the American Reform Jewish prayer book released in 2007, references to God as \"He\" have been removed, and whenever Jewish patriarchs are named (Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob), so also are the matriarchs (Sarah, Rebecca, Rachel, and Leah.)", "In 2015 the Reform Jewish High Holy Days prayer book Mishkan HaNefesh was released; it is intended as a companion to Mishkan T'filah.", "It includes a version of the High Holy Days prayer Avinu Malkeinu that refers to God as both \"Loving Father\" and \"Compassionate Mother\".", "Other notable changes are replacing a line from the Reform movement's earlier prayerbook, \"Gates of Repentance\", that mentioned the joy of a bride and groom specifically, with the line \"rejoicing with couples under the chuppah wedding canopy\", and adding a third, non-gendered option to the way worshippers are called to the Torah, offering \"mibeit\", Hebrew for \"from the house of\", in addition to the traditional \"son of\" or \"daughter of\".In 2003 ''The Female Face of God in Auschwitz: A Jewish Feminist Theology of the Holocaust'', the first full-length feminist theology of the Holocaust, written by Melissa Raphael, was published.", "Judith Plaskow's ''Standing Again at Sinai: Judaism from a Feminist Perspective'' (1991), and Rachel Adler's ''Engendering Judaism: An Inclusive Theology and Ethics'' (1999) are the only two full-length Jewish feminist works to focus entirely on theology in general (rather than specific aspects such as Holocaust theology.)", "This work of feminist theology in regards to Judaism, also contextualizes the other goals of this movement, to re frame historical texts and how they are being taught.", "It is in addition to how God is being viewed but also the role of women historically and how they are being treated today in a new feminist light.", "While there is some opposition faced, Jewish communities believing feminism is too Western and does not validate Judaism, there is also the approval of an insider feminist perspective that takes into consideration traditions and modern thought.===Christianity===Christian feminism is an aspect of feminist theology which seeks to advance and understand the equality of men and women morally, socially, spiritually, and in leadership from a Christian perspective.", "This is through reformation to be along the lines of feminist thought in regards to their religion.", "Christian feminists argue that contributions by women in that direction are necessary for a complete understanding of Christianity.These theologians believe that God does not discriminate on the basis of biologically determined characteristics, such as sex and race.", "Their major issues include the ordination of women, male dominance in Christian marriage, recognition of equal spiritual and moral abilities, reproductive rights, and the search for a feminine or gender-transcendent divine.", "Christian feminists often draw on the teachings of more historical texts that reinforce that feminism does not go against Christianity but has always been in its texts.Mary Daly grew up an Irish Catholic and all of her education was received through Catholic schools.", "She has three doctorate degrees, one from St. Mary's College in sacred theology then two from University of Fribourg, Switzerland in theology and philosophy.", "While in her early works Daly expressed a desire to reform Christianity from the inside, she would later come to the conclusion that Christianity is not able to enact the necessary changes as it is.", "According to Ford's The Modern Theologians, \"Mary Daly has done more than anyone to clarify the problems women have concerning the central core symbolism of Christianity, and its effects on their self-understanding and their relationship to God.\"", "Daly is a prime example of how some feminist theologians come to the conclusion that reclamation and reform are no longer a viable option, that condemnation is the only way out.Rosemary Radford Ruether writes about crucial additional interpretations of how Christian feminist theology is impacted by the world.", "Ruether grew up Roman Catholic and attended Catholic schools through her sophomore year of high school.", "She was a classics major at Scripps College, worked for the Delta Ministry in 1965 and taught at Howard University School of Religion from 1966 to 1976.", "\"Rosemary Ruether has written on the question of Christian credibility, with particular attention to ecclesiology and its engagement with church-world conflicts; Jewish-Christian relations...; politics and religion in America; and Feminism\".", "Ruether is said to be one of the major Christian feminist theologians of our time.", "Her book Sexism and God-Talk is the earliest feminist theological assessment of Christian theology.In the 1970s Phyllis Trible pioneered a Christian feminist approach to biblical scholarship, using the approach of rhetorical criticism developed by her dissertation advisor, James Muilenburg.Christian feminist theology has consistently been critiqued as being focused on primarily white women.", "This has resulted in the development of movements such as womanist theology, focusing on African American women coined by the works of Alice Walker, Asian feminist theology, and mujerista theology, introduced by Ada Maria Isasi-Diaz concerning Latinas.The term Christian egalitarianism is sometimes preferred by those advocating gender equality and equity among Christians who do not wish to associate themselves with the feminist movement.Women apologists have become more visible in Christian academia.", "Their defense of the faith is differentiated by a more personal, cultural and listening approach \"driven by love\".To learn more about feminism in the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, go to this article.Some advocates of liberation theology will refer to God as \"she\".", "This is particularly true of many of the faculty at Union Theological seminary which is a hub of liberation theology and even Senator Rafael Warnock referred to God as \"she' in his exegiesis of John 3.See also: Unity Church, Christian Science, Christian theological praxis and Postmodern Christianity.===Islam===Islamic feminism is a form of feminism concerned with the role of women in Islam.", "It aims for the full equality of all Muslims, regardless of gender, in public and private life.", "Islamic feminists advocate women's rights, gender equality, and social justice grounded in an Islamic framework.", "Although rooted in Islam, the movement's pioneers have also utilized secular and non-Muslim feminist discourses and recognize the role of Islamic feminism as part of an integrated global feminist movement.", "Advocates of the movement seek to highlight the deeply rooted teachings of equality in the Quran and encourage a questioning of the patriarchal interpretation of Islamic teaching through the Qur'an (holy book), ''hadith'' (sayings of Muhammad) and ''sharia'' (law) towards the creation of a more equal and just society.", "This is done through the advocation of the female autonomy in line with the guideline of the Qur'an.", "Feminist theologians like Azizah al-Hibri, professor of law at University of Richmond, founded KARAMAH: Muslim Women Lawyers for Human Rights.", "Feminist theology and Islam is also used to strengthen the spiritual connection to the women of Islam when they undergo severe trauma, to promote human rights especially those of women.", "Fatima Mernissi's book, ''The Forgotten Queens of Islam'', is a crucial piece in feminist theology for Islam and how it relates to a non western state.Other theologists include Riffat Hassan, Amina Wadud, and Asma Barlas.", "This theology has been used to educate, re-frame religion, pose as a building block for peace, and the advancement of women's rights, in legislation and in society.===Sikhism===In Sikhism women are equal to men.", "The verse from the Sikh scripture the Guru Granth Sahib states that:According to scholars such as Nikky-Guninder Kaur Singh, feminist theology in Sikhism is also the feminization of rituals such as the ceremonial rite of who lights a funeral pyre.", "Singh further states that this is the reclamation of religion to inspire \"personal and social renewal of change\" and that these theologians are seen as gurus rather than simply women or scholars.", "The teachings of Guru Nanak focus on the singularity between men and women, with anything that differs denounced.", "He cites the example that origins and traditions stem from women as supervisors and in control, as well as engaged in history, such as Mai Bhago, who rallied men to fight against imperial forces alongside her in the battle at Muktsar in 1705.===Hinduism===Within Ancient Hinduism, women have been held in equal honour as men.", "The Manusmriti for example states: ''The society that provides respect and dignity to women flourishes with nobility and prosperity.", "And a society that does not put women on such a high pedestal has to face miseries and failures regardless of how so much noble deeds they perform otherwise.''", "Manusmrithi Chapter 3 Verse 56.Within the Vedas the Hindu holy texts, women were given the highest possible respect and equality.", "The Vedic period was glorified by this tradition.", "Many rishis were women, indeed so that several of them authored many of the slokas, a poem, proverb or hymn, in the Vedas.", "For instance, in the Rigveda there is a list of women rishis.", "Some of them are: Ghosha, Godha, Gargi, Vishwawra, Apala, Upanishad, Brahmjaya, Aditi, Indrani, Sarma, Romsha, Maitreyi, Kathyayini, Urvashi, Lopamudra, Yami, Shashwati, Sri, Laksha and many others.", "In the Vedic period women were free to enter into brahmacharya just like men, and attain salvation.During Hindu marriage ceremonies, the following slokas are uttered by the grooms, yet in recent years their importance is understood less frequently with no actie desire to analyze them in depth to come to the conclusions that was being portrayed:\"O bride!", "I accept your hand to enhance our joint good fortune.", "I pray to you to accept me as your husband and live with me until our old age.", "...\" ''Rigveda Samhita'' Part -4, sukta 85, sloka 9702\"O bride!", "May you be like the empress of your mother-in-law, father-in-law, sisters-in-law and brothers-in-law (sisters and brothers of the groom).", "May your writ run in your house.\"", "''Rigveda Samhita'' Part -4, sukta 85, sloka 9712This sloka from the Atharvaveda clearly states that the woman leads and the man follows: \"The Sun God follows the first illuminated and enlightened goddess Usha (dawn) in the same manner as men emulate and follow women.\"", "''Athravaveda Samhita'', Part 2, Kanda 27, sukta 107, sloka 5705.Women were considered to be the embodiment of great virtue and wisdom.", "Thus we have: \"O bride!", "May the knowledge of the Vedas be in front of you and behind you, in your center and in your ends.", "May you conduct your life after attaining the knowledge of the Vedas.", "May you be benevolent, the harbinger of good fortune and health and live in great dignity and indeed illuminate your husband's home.\"", "''Atharva Veda'' 14-1-64.Women were allowed full freedom of worship.", "\"The wife should do agnihotra (yagna), sandhya (puja) and all other daily religious rituals.", "If, for some reason, her husband is not present, the woman alone has full rights to do yagna\".", "''Rigveda Samhita'', part 1, sukta 79, sloka 872.Moving on towards the Monotheistic era of Hinduism when such ideals such as Shaivism and Vaishnavism, a specific deity for feministic worship was brought about under the Shaktism branch.", "From a Hinduism point of view women are equal in all measures to men in comparison, historical texts have stated this and is the basis of Hinduism, recognizing women as valuable and interconnected between men and women.", "Shakti, the name meaning power and referring to the female counterpart of Shiva, possesses connected powers that do not belong to just male or female but rather works together, equally dependent upon the other.", "Hindu feminist scholars also go beyond the reconstruction of texts but also the reestablishment of society and Hinduism in practice.===Neopaganism===Some currents of Neopaganism, in particular Wicca, have a ditheistic concept of a single goddess and a single god, who in hieros gamos represent a united whole.", "Polytheistic reconstructionists focus on reconstructing polytheistic religions, including the various goddesses and figures associated with indigenous cultures.Wicca is a duo theistic belief system.", "Members of Wicca will work individually with both a God, the son and partner of the Mother Earth, and the Goddess herself.", "The Goddess is commonly referred to as the Triple Goddess in Wicca.", "She is also commonly addressed as the Mother Goddess or the Mother Earth.", "The Goddess represents creation, strength, destruction and the Earth at once.", "Wicca's common theme across its beliefs is the feminist movement of the Female Goddess, which honours the importance of the female body.Wiccan Feminism demonstrates the strength of women within the faith.", "Wicca's history of leading women begins with examples of members such as Zsuzsanna Budapest (1940), who founded one of Wicca's first feminist covens, has formed further feminist traditions within the faith over time.", "Wicca encourages a balance in power between men and women, regardless of gender and does not favour one gender over the other.", "Wicca does not shame femininity, but rather embraces and uplifts the female body.", "Members of the practice acknowledge the menstrual cycle as a powerful form of creation and life.", "Women are not shamed for being open about their sexuality and individualism, as Wicca considers menstruation, pregnancy and menopause to be manifestations of the divine feminine and a source of creation.The faith's feminist approach and emphasis of a female deity creates an appeal to women, which has led to the majority of the Wiccan population being primarily female over the years.", "Wicca has a feminist approach to life as it encourages a theme of balance in power between men and women, highlighting the importance of equality in the faith.The term ''thealogy'' is sometimes used in the context of the Neopagan Goddess movement, a pun on theology and ''thea'' θεά \"goddess\" intended to suggest a feminist approach to theism.The Goddess movement is a loose grouping of social and religious phenomena that grew out of second-wave feminism, predominantly in North America, Western Europe, Australia, and New Zealand in the 1970s, and the metaphysical community as well.", "Spurred by the perception that women were not treated equitably in many religions, some women turned to a Female Deity as more in tune with their spiritual needs.", "Education in the Arts became a vehicle for the study of humanitarian philosophers like David Hume at that time.", "A unifying theme of this diverse movement is the femaleness of Deity (as opposed and contrasted to a patriarchal God).Goddess beliefs take many forms: some people in the Goddess movement recognize multiple goddesses, some also include gods, while others honour what they refer to as \"the Goddess\", which is not necessarily seen as monotheistic, but is often understood to be an inclusive, encompassing term incorporating many goddesses in many different cultures.", "The term \"the Goddess\" may also be understood to include a multiplicity of ways to view deity personified as female, or as a metaphor, or as a process.", "(Christ 1997, 2003) The term \"The Goddess\" may also refer to the concept of The One Divine Power, or the traditionally worshiped \"Great Goddess\" of ancient times.In the latter part of the 20th century, feminism was influential in the rise of Neopaganism in the United States, and particularly the Dianic tradition.", "Some feminists find the worship of a goddess, rather than a god, to be consonant with their views.", "Others are polytheists, and worship a number of goddesses.", "The collective set of beliefs associated with this is sometimes known as thealogy and sometimes referred to as the Goddess movement.", "See also Dianic Wicca.===Buddhism===Buddhist feminism seeks to advance and understand the equality of men and women morally, socially, spiritually, and in leadership from a Buddhist perspective and within Buddhism.", "While some core beliefs in Buddhism may cause friction with Western feminism, Buddhist feminist theology strives to find the common ground and balance between tradition and the goals of this movement.", "In carrying the teachings of Buddhism, feminist theologians critique the common feminist ideology as \"other-ing\" males.", "This idea is in conflict with Buddhist beliefs of interconnections between all.", "The enemy is not the \"other\" but the idea that there is not a singular connection and being the same.", "Buddhist feminist theologies take into consideration religious ideologies, challenge Western feminist views, and reclaim what Buddhism is at its core, interconnected and accepting." ], [ "See also", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * (1967 book)* * (1976 book)" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "**" ], [ "Bibliography", " Anderson, Pamela Sue.", "''A Feminist Philosophy of Religion: The Rationality and Myths of Religious Belief'' (Oxford; Malden, Mass.", ": Blackwell, 1998) .", "* Anderson, Pamela Sue; Clack, Beverley (eds.)", "''Feminist Philosophy of Religion: Critical Readings'' (London: Routledge, 2004) .", "* Kassian, Mary A.", "''The Feminist Gospel: the Movement to Unite Feminism with the Church''.", "Wheaton, Ill.: Crossway Books, 1992.", "* Stone, Merlin, compiler.", "''Ancient Mirrors of Womanhood: a Treasury of Goddess and Heroine Lore from around the World''.", "Updated with a new pref.", "Boston: Beacon Press, 1990.N.B.", ": Edition statement appears on the paperback book's cover, but not upon the t.p.", "or its verso.", "* Stone, Merlin.", "''When God Was a Woman''.", "San Diego, Calif.: Harcourt-Brace-Jovanovich Publishers, cop.", "1976.." ], [ "External links", "Diamant, Anita.", "\"Holding Up Half the Sky: Feminist Judaism\", ''Patheos'' Directory of Bahá'í Articles on Gender EqualityFinch, Trevor R. J. Unclipping the Wing: A Survey of Secondary Literature in English on Baha'i Perspectives on WomenRuether, Radford Rosemary. \"", "A Feminist Critique in Religious Studies\"*Scholten-Gutierrez, Melissa.", "\"An Ever-Evolving Judaism: Women Meeting the Needs of the Community\", ''Patheos''" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Freeware" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Freeware''' is software, most often proprietary, that is distributed at no monetary cost to the end user.", "There is no agreed-upon set of rights, license, or EULA that defines ''freeware'' unambiguously; every publisher defines its own rules for the freeware it offers.", "For instance, modification, redistribution by third parties, and reverse engineering are permitted by some publishers but prohibited by others.", "Unlike with free and open-source software, which are also often distributed free of charge, the source code for freeware is typically not made available.", "Freeware may be intended to benefit its producer by, for example, encouraging sales of a more capable version, as in the freemium and shareware business models." ], [ "History", "The term ''freeware'' was coined in 1982 by Andrew Fluegelman, who wanted to sell PC-Talk, the communications application he had created, outside of commercial distribution channels.", "Fluegelman distributed the program via the same process as ''shareware''.", "As software types can change, freeware can change into shareware.In the 1980s and 1990s, the term ''freeware'' was often applied to software released without source code." ], [ "Definitions", "===Software license===Freeware software is available for use without charge and typically has limited functionality with a more capable version available commercially or as shareware.", "It is typically fully functional for an unlimited period of time.In contrast to what the Free Software Foundation calls free software, the author of freeware usually restricts the rights of the user to use, copy, distribute, modify, make derivative works, or reverse engineer the software.", "The software license may impose additional usage restrictions; for instance, the license may be \"free for private, non-commercial use\" only, or usage over a network, on a server, or in combination with certain other software packages may be prohibited.", "Restrictions may be required by license or enforced by the software itself; e.g., the package may fail to function over a network.===Relation to other forms of software licensing===This Venn diagram describes the typical relationship between freeware and open source software: According to David Rosen from Wolfire Games in 2010, open source software (orange) is most often gratis but not always.", "Freeware (green) seldom expose their source codes.The U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) defines \"open source software\" (i.e., free software or free and open-source software), as distinct from \"freeware\" or \"shareware\"; it is software where \"the Government does not have access to the original source code\".", "The \"free\" in \"freeware\" refers to the price of the software, which is typically proprietary and distributed without source code.", "By contrast, the \"free\" in \"free software\" refers to freedoms granted users under the software license (for example, to run the program for any purpose, modify and redistribute the program to others), and such software may be sold at a price.According to the Free Software Foundation (FSF), \"freeware\" is a loosely defined category and it has no clear accepted definition, although FSF asks that free software (libre; unrestricted and with source code available) should not be called freeware.In contrast the Oxford English Dictionary simply characterizes freeware as being \"available free of charge (sometimes with the suggestion that users should make a donation to the provider)\".Some freeware products are released alongside paid versions that either have more features or less restrictive licensing terms.", "This approach is known as freemium (\"free\" + \"premium\"), since the free version is intended as a promotion for the premium version.", "The two often share a code base, using a compiler flag to determine which is produced.", "For example, BBEdit has a BBEdit Lite edition which has fewer features.", "XnView is available free of charge for personal use but must be licensed for commercial use.", "The free version may be advertising supported, as was the case with the DivX.Ad-supported software and free registerware also bear resemblances to freeware.", "Ad-supported software does not ask for payment for a license, but displays advertising to either compensate for development costs or as a means of income.", "Registerware forces the user to subscribe with the publisher before being able to use the product.", "While commercial products may require registration to ensure licensed use, free registerware do not.Shareware can be freely distributed, but the license only allows limited use before paying the license fee.", "Some features may be disabled prior to payment, in which case it is sometimes known as crippleware.===Creative Commons licenses===The Creative Commons offer licenses, applicable to all by copyright governed works including software, which allow a developer to define \"freeware\" in a legal safe and internationally law domains respecting way.", "The typical freeware use case \"share\" can be further refined with Creative Commons restriction clauses like non-commerciality (CC BY-NC) or no-derivatives (CC BY-ND), see description of licenses.", "There are several usage examples, for instance The White Chamber, Mari0 or Assault Cube, all freeware by being CC BY-NC-SA licensed: free sharing allowed, selling not." ], [ "Restrictions", "Freeware cannot economically rely on commercial promotion.", "In May 2015 advertising freeware on Google AdWords was restricted to \"authoritative source\"s. Thus web sites and blogs are the primary resource for information on which freeware is available, useful, and is not malware.", "However, there are also many computer magazines or newspapers that provide ratings for freeware and include compact discs or other storage media containing freeware.", "Freeware is also often bundled with other products such as digital cameras or scanners.Freeware has been criticized as \"unsustainable\" because it requires a single entity to be responsible for updating and enhancing the product, which is then given away without charge.", "Other freeware projects are simply released as one-off programs with no promise or expectation of further development.", "These may include source code, as does free software, so that users can make any required or desired changes themselves, but this code remains subject to the license of the compiled executable and does not constitute free software." ], [ "Free trial", "Free trial is another, but related, concept in which a product or service is offered in a small quantity, or for a limited period, without the need for payment." ], [ "See also", "* List of freeware* List of freeware video games* List of commercial video games released as freeware* Freely redistributable software* Gratis versus Libre* Comparison of user features of messaging platforms" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "**freesoft: directory published by the Free Software Foundation" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Flat Earth" ], [ "Introduction", "Flat Earth map drawn by Orlando Ferguson in 1893.The map contains several references to biblical passages as well as various jabs at the \"Globe Theory\".", "'''Flat Earth''' is an archaic and scientifically disproven conception of the Earth's shape as a plane or disk.", "Many ancient cultures subscribed to a flat-Earth cosmography.", "The model has undergone a recent resurgence as a conspiracy theory.The idea of a spherical Earth appeared in ancient Greek philosophy with Pythagoras (6th century BC).", "However, most pre-Socratics (6th–5th century BC) retained the flat-Earth model.", "In the early 4th century BC, Plato wrote about a spherical Earth.", "By about 330 BC, his former student Aristotle had provided strong empirical evidence for a spherical Earth.", "Knowledge of the Earth's global shape gradually began to spread beyond the Hellenistic world.", "By the early period of the Christian Church, the spherical view was widely held, with some notable exceptions.It is a historical myth that medieval Europeans generally thought the Earth was flat.", "This myth was created in the 17th century by Protestants to argue against Catholic teachings.", "More recently, flat earth theory has seen an increase in popularity with modern flat Earth societies, and unaffiliated individuals using social media.", "Despite the scientific facts and obvious effects of Earth's sphericity, pseudoscientific flat-Earth conspiracy theories prevail.", "In a study reported on by ''Scientific American'', only 82% of 18 to 24 year old respondents agreed with the statement \"I have always believed the world is round\".", "However, a firm belief in a flat Earth is rare, with less than 2% acceptance in all age groups." ], [ "History", "===Belief in flat Earth=======Near East====Imago Mundi'' Babylonian map, the oldest known world map, 6th century BC BabyloniaIn early Egyptian and Mesopotamian thought, the world was portrayed as a disk floating in the ocean.", "A similar model is found in the Homeric account from the 8th century BC in which \"Okeanos, the personified body of water surrounding the circular surface of the Earth, is the begetter of all life and possibly of all gods.", "\"The Pyramid Texts and Coffin Texts of ancient Egypt show a similar cosmography; Nun (the Ocean) encircled ''nbwt'' (\"dry lands\" or \"Islands\").The Israelites also imagined the Earth to be a disc floating on water with an arched firmament above it that separated the Earth from the heavens.", "The sky was a solid dome with the Sun, Moon, planets, and stars embedded in it.====Greece=========Poets=====Both Homer and Hesiod described a disc cosmography on the Shield of Achilles.This poetic tradition of an Earth-encircling (''gaiaokhos'') sea (Oceanus) and a disc also appears in Stasinus of Cyprus, Mimnermus, Aeschylus, and Apollonius Rhodius.Homer's description of the disc cosmography on the shield of Achilles with the encircling ocean is repeated far later in Quintus Smyrnaeus' ''Posthomerica'' (4th century AD), which continues the narration of the Trojan War.=====Philosophers=====Possible rendering of Anaximander's world mapSeveral pre-Socratic philosophers believed that the world was flat: Thales (c. 550 BC) according to several sources, and Leucippus (c. 440 BC) and Democritus (c. 460–370 BC) according to Aristotle.Thales thought that the Earth floated in water like a log.", "It has been argued, however, that Thales actually believed in a spherical Earth.", "Anaximander (c. 550 BC) believed that the Earth was a short cylinder with a flat, circular top that remained stable because it was the same distance from all things.", "Anaximenes of Miletus believed that \"the Earth is flat and rides on air; in the same way the Sun and the Moon and the other heavenly bodies, which are all fiery, ride the air because of their flatness\".", "Xenophanes of Colophon (c. 500 BC) thought that the Earth was flat, with its upper side touching the air, and the lower side extending without limit.Belief in a flat Earth continued into the 5th century BC.", "Anaxagoras (c. 450 BC) agreed that the Earth was flat, and his pupil Archelaus believed that the flat Earth was depressed in the middle like a saucer, to allow for the fact that the Sun does not rise and set at the same time for everyone.=====Historians=====Hecataeus of Miletus believed that the Earth was flat and surrounded by water.", "Herodotus in his ''Histories'' ridiculed the belief that water encircled the world, yet most classicists agree that he still believed Earth was flat because of his descriptions of literal \"ends\" or \"edges\" of the Earth.====Northern Europe====The ancient Norse and Germanic peoples believed in a flat-Earth cosmography with the Earth surrounded by an ocean, with the axis mundi, a world tree (Yggdrasil), or pillar (Irminsul) in the centre.", "In the world-encircling ocean sat a snake called Jormungandr.", "The Norse creation account preserved in Gylfaginning (VIII) states that during the creation of the Earth, an impassable sea was placed around it:The late Norse Konungs skuggsjá, on the other hand, explains Earth's shape as a sphere:====East Asia====In ancient China, the prevailing belief was that the Earth was flat and square, while the heavens were round, an assumption virtually unquestioned until the introduction of European astronomy in the 17th century.", "The English sinologist Cullen emphasizes the point that there was no concept of a round Earth in ancient Chinese astronomy:cosmographerThe model of an egg was often used by Chinese astronomers such as Zhang Heng (78–139 AD) to describe the heavens as spherical:This analogy with a curved egg led some modern historians, notably Joseph Needham, to conjecture that Chinese astronomers were, after all, aware of the Earth's sphericity.", "The egg reference, however, was rather meant to clarify the relative position of the flat Earth to the heavens:Further examples cited by Needham supposed to demonstrate dissenting voices from the ancient Chinese consensus actually refer without exception to the Earth being square, not to it being flat.", "Accordingly, the 13th-century scholar Li Ye, who argued that the movements of the round heaven would be hindered by a square Earth, did not advocate a spherical Earth, but rather that its edge should be rounded off so as to be circular.", "However, Needham disagrees, affirming that Li Ye believed the Earth to be spherical, similar in shape to the heavens but much smaller.", "This was preconceived by the 4th-century scholar Yu Xi, who argued for the infinity of outer space surrounding the Earth and that the latter could be either square or round, in accordance to the shape of the heavens.", "When Chinese geographers of the 17th century, influenced by European cartography and astronomy, showed the Earth as a sphere that could be circumnavigated by sailing around the globe, they did so with formulaic terminology previously used by Zhang Heng to describe the spherical shape of the Sun and Moon (i.e.", "that they were as round as a crossbow bullet).As noted in the book ''Huainanzi'', in the 2nd century BC, Chinese astronomers effectively inverted Eratosthenes' calculation of the curvature of the Earth to calculate the height of the Sun above the Earth.", "By assuming the Earth was flat, they arrived at a distance of (approximately ).", "The ''Zhoubi Suanjing'' also discusses how to determine the distance of the Sun by measuring the length of noontime shadows at different latitudes, a method similar to Eratosthenes' measurement of the circumference of the Earth, but the ''Zhoubi Suanjing'' assumes that the Earth is flat.===Alternate or mixed theories=======Greece: spherical Earth====Semi-circular shadow of Earth on the Moon during a partial lunar eclipsePythagoras in the 6th century BC and Parmenides in the 5th century BC stated that the Earth is spherical, and this view spread rapidly in the Greek world.", "Around 330 BC, Aristotle maintained on the basis of physical theory and observational evidence that the Earth was spherical, and reported an estimate of its circumference.", "The Earth's circumference was first determined around 240 BC by Eratosthenes.", "By the 2nd century AD, Ptolemy had derived his maps from a globe and developed the system of latitude, longitude, and climes.", "His ''Almagest'' was written in Greek and only translated into Latin in the 11th century from Arabic translations.Lucretius (1st century BC) opposed the concept of a spherical Earth, because he considered that an infinite universe had no center towards which heavy bodies would tend.", "Thus, he thought the idea of animals walking around topsy-turvy under the Earth was absurd.", "By the 1st century AD, Pliny the Elder was in a position to say that everyone agreed on the spherical shape of Earth, though disputes continued regarding the nature of the antipodes, and how it is possible to keep the ocean in a curved shape.====South Asia====An image of Thorntonbank Wind Farm (near the Belgian coast) with the lower parts of the more distant towers increasingly hidden by the horizon, demonstrating the curvature of the EarthThe Vedic texts depict the cosmos in many ways.", "One of the earliest Indian cosmological texts pictures the Earth as one of a stack of flat disks.In the Vedic texts, Dyaus (heaven) and Prithvi (Earth) are compared to wheels on an axle, yielding a flat model.", "They are also described as bowls or leather bags, yielding a concave model.", "According to Macdonell: \"the conception of the Earth being a disc surrounded by an ocean does not appear in the Samhitas.", "But it was naturally regarded as circular, being compared with a wheel (10.89) and expressly called circular (parimandala) in the ''Shatapatha Brahmana''.", "\"By about the 5th century AD, the ''siddhanta'' astronomy texts of South Asia, particularly of Aryabhata, assume a spherical Earth as they develop mathematical methods for quantitative astronomy for calendar and time keeping.The medieval Indian texts called the Puranas describe the Earth as a flat-bottomed, circular disk with concentric oceans and continents.", "This general scheme is present not only in the Hindu cosmologies, but also in Buddhist and Jain cosmologies of South Asia.", "However, some Puranas include other models.", "The fifth canto of the ''Bhagavata Purana'', for example, includes sections that describe the Earth both as flat and spherical.====Early Christian Church====During the early period of the Christian Church, the spherical view continued to be widely held, with some notable exceptions.Athenagoras, an eastern Christian writing around the year 175 AD, said that the Earth was spherical.", "Methodius (c. 290 AD), an eastern Christian writing against \"the theory of the Chaldeans and the Egyptians\" said: \"Let us first lay bare ... the theory of the Chaldeans and the Egyptians.", "They say that the circumference of the universe is likened to the turnings of a well-rounded globe, the Earth being a central point.", "They say that since its outline is spherical, ... the Earth should be the center of the universe, around which the heaven is whirling.\"", "Lactantius, a western Christian writer and advisor to the first Christian Roman Emperor, Constantine, writing sometime between 304 and 313 AD, ridiculed the notion of ''antipodes'' and the philosophers who fancied that \"the universe is round like a ball.", "They also thought that heaven revolves in accordance with the motion of the heavenly bodies. ...", "For that reason, they constructed brass globes, as though after the figure of the universe.\"", "Arnobius, another eastern Christian writing sometime around 305 AD, described the round Earth: \"In the first place, indeed, the world itself is neither right nor left.", "It has neither upper nor lower regions, nor front nor back.", "For whatever is round and bounded on every side by the circumference of a solid sphere, has no beginning or end ...\"The influential theologian and philosopher Saint Augustine, one of the four Great Church Fathers of the Western Church, similarly objected to the \"fable\" of antipodes:Some historians do not view Augustine's scriptural commentaries as endorsing any particular cosmological model, endorsing instead the view that Augustine shared the common view of his contemporaries that the Earth is spherical, in line with his endorsement of science in ''De Genesi ad litteram''.", "C. P. E. Nothaft, responding to writers like Leo Ferrari who described Augustine as endorsing a flat Earth, says that \"...other recent writers on the subject treat Augustine’s acceptance of the earth’s spherical shape as a well-established fact\".Cosmas Indicopleustes' world view – flat Earth in a TabernacleDiodorus of Tarsus, a leading figure in the School of Antioch and mentor of John Chrysostom, may have argued for a flat Earth; however, Diodorus' opinion on the matter is known only from a later criticism.", "Chrysostom, one of the four Great Church Fathers of the Eastern Church and Archbishop of Constantinople, explicitly espoused the idea, based on scripture, that the Earth floats miraculously on the water beneath the firmament.", "''Christian Topography'' (547) by the Alexandrian monk Cosmas Indicopleustes, who had traveled as far as Sri Lanka and the source of the Blue Nile, is now widely considered the most valuable geographical document of the early medieval age, although it received relatively little attention from contemporaries.", "In it, the author repeatedly expounds the doctrine that the universe consists of only two places, the Earth below the firmament and heaven above it.", "Carefully drawing on arguments from scripture, he describes the Earth as a rectangle, 400 days' journey long by 200 wide, surrounded by four oceans and enclosed by four massive walls which support the firmament.", "The spherical Earth theory is contemptuously dismissed as \"pagan\".Severian, Bishop of Gabala ( 408), wrote that the Earth is flat and the Sun does not pass under it in the night, but \"travels through the northern parts as if hidden by a wall\".", "Basil of Caesarea (329–379) argued that the matter was theologically irrelevant.====Europe: Early Middle Ages====Early medieval Christian writers felt little urge to assume flatness of the Earth, though they had fuzzy impressions of the writings of Ptolemy and Aristotle, relying more on Pliny.9th-century Macrobian cosmic diagram showing the ''sphere of the Earth'' at the center ()With the end of the Western Roman Empire, Western Europe entered the Middle Ages with great difficulties that affected the continent's intellectual production.", "Most scientific treatises of classical antiquity (in Greek) were unavailable, leaving only simplified summaries and compilations.", "In contrast, the Eastern Roman Empire did not fall, and it preserved the learning.", "Still, many textbooks of the Early Middle Ages supported the sphericity of the Earth in the western part of Europe.12th-century T and O map representing the inhabited world as described by Isidore of Seville in his ''Etymologiae'' (chapter 14, )Europe's view of the shape of the Earth in Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages may be best expressed by the writings of early Christian scholars:Bishop Isidore of Seville (560–636) taught in his widely read encyclopedia, the ''Etymologies'', diverse views such as that the Earth \"resembles a wheel\" resembling Anaximander in language and the map that he provided.", "This was widely interpreted as referring to a disc-shaped Earth.", "An illustration from Isidore's ''De Natura Rerum'' shows the five zones of the Earth as adjacent circles.", "Some have concluded that he thought the Arctic and Antarctic zones were adjacent to each other.", "He did not admit the possibility of antipodes, which he took to mean people dwelling on the opposite side of the Earth, considering them legendary and noting that there was no evidence for their existence.", "Isidore's T and O map, which was seen as representing a small part of a spherical Earth, continued to be used by authors through the Middle Ages, e.g.", "the 9th-century bishop Rabanus Maurus, who compared the habitable part of the northern hemisphere (Aristotle's northern temperate clime) with a wheel.", "At the same time, Isidore's works also gave the views of sphericity, for example, in chapter 28 of ''De Natura Rerum'', Isidore claims that the Sun orbits the Earth and illuminates the other side when it is night on this side.", "See French translation of ''De Natura Rerum''.", "In his other work ''Etymologies'', there are also affirmations that the sphere of the sky has Earth in its center and the sky being equally distant on all sides.", "Other researchers have argued these points as well.", "\"The work remained unsurpassed until the thirteenth century and was regarded as the summit of all knowledge.", "It became an essential part of European medieval culture.", "Soon after the invention of typography it appeared many times in print.\"", "However, \"The Scholastics – later medieval philosophers, theologians, and scientists – were helped by the Arabic translators and commentaries, but they hardly needed to struggle against a flat-Earth legacy from the early middle ages (500–1050).", "Early medieval writers often had fuzzy and imprecise impressions of both Ptolemy and Aristotle and relied more on Pliny, but they felt (with one exception), little urge to assume flatness.", "\"Isidore's portrayal of the five zones of the EarthSt Vergilius of Salzburg (c. 700–784), in the middle of the 8th century, discussed or taught some geographical or cosmographical ideas that St Boniface found sufficiently objectionable that he complained about them to Pope Zachary.", "The only surviving record of the incident is contained in Zachary's reply, dated 748, where he wrote:Some authorities have suggested that the sphericity of the Earth was among the aspects of Vergilius's teachings that Boniface and Zachary considered objectionable.", "Others have considered this unlikely, and take the wording of Zachary's response to indicate at most an objection to belief in the existence of humans living in the antipodes.", "In any case, there is no record of any further action having been taken against Vergilius.", "He was later appointed bishop of Salzburg and was canonised in the 13th century.12th-century depiction of a spherical Earth with the four seasons (book ''Liber Divinorum Operum'' by Hildegard of Bingen)A possible non-literary but graphic indication that people in the Middle Ages believed that the Earth (or perhaps the world) was a sphere is the use of the ''orb'' (globus cruciger) in the regalia of many kingdoms and of the Holy Roman Empire.", "It is attested from the time of the Christian late-Roman emperor Theodosius II (423) throughout the Middle Ages; the ''Reichsapfel'' was used in 1191 at the coronation of emperor Henry VI.", "However the word means \"circle\", and there is no record of a globe as a representation of the Earth since ancient times in the west until that of Martin Behaim in 1492.Additionally it could well be a representation of the entire \"world\" or cosmos.A recent study of medieval concepts of the sphericity of the Earth noted that \"since the eighth century, no cosmographer worthy of note has called into question the sphericity of the Earth\".", "However, the work of these intellectuals may not have had significant influence on public opinion, and it is difficult to tell what the wider population may have thought of the shape of the Earth if they considered the question at all.====Europe: Late Middle Ages====On the Sphere of the World'', the most influential astronomy textbook of 13th-century EuropeHermannus Contractus (1013–1054) was among the earliest Christian scholars to estimate the circumference of Earth with Eratosthenes' method.", "St. Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274), the most widely taught theologian of the Middle Ages, believed in a spherical Earth and took for granted that his readers also knew the Earth is round.", "Lectures in the medieval universities commonly advanced evidence in favor of the idea that the Earth was a sphere.Illustration of the spherical Earth in a 14th-century copy of ''L'Image du monde'' (c. 1246)Jill Tattersall shows that in many vernacular works in 12th- and 13th-century French texts the Earth was considered \"round like a table\" rather than \"round like an apple\".", "She writes, \"In virtually all the examples quoted ... from epics and from non-'historical' romances (that is, works of a less learned character) the actual form of words used suggests strongly a circle rather than a sphere\", though she notes that even in these works the language is ambiguous.Portuguese navigation down and around the coast of Africa in the latter half of the 1400s gave wide-scale observational evidence for Earth's sphericity.", "In these explorations, the Sun's position moved more northward the further south the explorers travelled.", "Its position directly overhead at noon gave evidence for crossing the equator.", "These apparent solar motions in detail were more consistent with north–south curvature and a distant Sun, than with any flat-Earth explanation.", "The ultimate demonstration came when Ferdinand Magellan's expedition completed the first global circumnavigation in 1521.Antonio Pigafetta, one of the few survivors of the voyage, recorded the loss of a day in the course of the voyage, giving evidence for east–west curvature.====Middle East: Islamic scholars====Prior to the introduction of Greek cosmology into the Islamic world, Muslims tended to view the Earth as flat, and Muslim traditionalists who rejected Greek philosophy continued to hold to this view later on while various theologians held opposing opinions.", "Beginning in the 10th century onwards, some Muslim traditionalists began to adopt the notion of a spherical Earth with the influence of Greek and Ptolemaic cosmology.The Abbasid Caliphate saw a great flowering of astronomy and mathematics in the 9th century AD.", "Muslim scholars tended to believe in a spherical Earth from this period.The Quran mentions that the Earth (''al-arḍ'') was \"spread out.\"", "Whether or not this implies a flat earth was debated by Muslims.", "Some modern historians believe the Quran saw the world as flat.", "On the other hand, the 12th-century commentary, the Tafsir al-Kabir (al-Razi) by Fakhr al-Din al-Razi argues that though this verse does describe a flat surface, it is limited in its application to local regions of the Earth which are roughly flat as opposed to the Earth as a whole.", "Others who would support a ball-shaped Earth included Ibn Hazm.====Ming Dynasty in China====A spherical terrestrial globe was introduced to Yuan-era Khanbaliq (i.e.", "Beijing) in 1267 by the Persian astronomer Jamal ad-Din, but it is not known to have made an impact on the traditional Chinese conception of the shape of the Earth.", "As late as 1595, an early Jesuit missionary to China, Matteo Ricci, recorded that the Ming-dynasty Chinese say: \"The Earth is flat and square, and the sky is a round canopy; they did not succeed in conceiving the possibility of the antipodes.", "\"In the 17th century, the idea of a spherical Earth spread in China due to the influence of the Jesuits, who held high positions as astronomers at the imperial court.", "Matteo Ricci, in collaboration with Chinese cartographers and translator Li Zhizao, published the ''Kunyu Wanguo Quantu'' in 1602, the first Chinese world map based on European discoveries.", "The astronomical and geographical treatise ''Gezhicao'' () written in 1648 by Xiong Mingyu () explained that the Earth was spherical, not flat or square, and could be circumnavigated.=== Myth of flat-Earth prevalence ===In the 19th century, a historical myth arose which held that the predominant cosmological doctrine during the Middle Ages was that the Earth was flat.", "An early proponent of this myth was the American writer Washington Irving, who maintained that Christopher Columbus had to overcome the opposition of churchmen to gain sponsorship for his voyage of exploration.", "Later significant advocates of this view were John William Draper and Andrew Dickson White, who used it as a major element in their advocacy of the thesis that there was a long-lasting and essential conflict between science and religion.", "Some studies of the historical connections between science and religion have demonstrated that theories of their mutual antagonism ignore examples of their mutual support.Subsequent studies of medieval science have shown that most scholars in the Middle Ages, including those read by Christopher Columbus, maintained that the Earth was spherical." ], [ "Modern flat Earth beliefs", "Flat Earth SocietyIn the modern era, the pseudoscientific belief in a flat Earth originated with the English writer Samuel Rowbotham with the 1849 pamphlet ''Zetetic Astronomy''.", "Lady Elizabeth Blount established the Universal Zetetic Society in 1893, which published journals.", "In 1956, Samuel Shenton set up the International Flat Earth Research Society, better known as the \"Flat Earth Society\" from Dover, England, as a direct descendant of the Universal Zetetic Society.In the Internet era, the availability of communications technology and social media like YouTube, Facebook and Twitter have made it easy for individuals, famous or not, to spread disinformation and attract others to erroneous ideas, including that of the flat Earth.Modern believers in a flat Earth face overwhelming publicly accessible evidence of Earth's sphericity.", "They also need to explain why governments, media outlets, schools, scientists, surveyors, airlines and other organizations accept that the world is spherical.", "To satisfy these tensions and maintain their beliefs, they generally embrace some form of conspiracy theory.", "In addition, believers tend to not trust observations they have not made themselves, and often distrust, disagree with or accuse each other of being in league with conspiracies." ], [ "Education", "For young children who have not yet received information from their social environment, their own perception of their surroundings often leads to a false concept about the shape of the underground on the horizon.", "Many children think that the Earth ends there and that one can fall off the edge.", "The education they receive helps them to gradually change their false concept into a realist one of a spherical Earth." ], [ "See also", "* Alderson disk* Denialism* Earth's rotation* Geocentric model* Geographical distance* Hollow Earth* Pseudoscience* Scientific myth* Scientific skepticism* World Turtle" ], [ "References", "===Bibliography===* ** * " ], [ "Further reading", " Fraser, Raymond (2007).", "''When The Earth Was Flat: Remembering Leonard Cohen, Alden Nowlan, the Flat Earth Society, the King James monarchy hoax, the Montreal Story Tellers and other curious matters.''", "Black Moss Press," ], [ "External links", "* * * * – Review of a pro-Flat Earth documentary.", "* The Myth of the Flat Earth* The Myth of the Flat Universe* You say the earth is round?", "Prove it (from The Straight Dope)* Flat Earth Fallacy * Zetetic Astronomy, or Earth Not a Globe by Parallax (Samuel Birley Rowbotham (1816–1884)) at sacred-texts.com* Flat Earth idea of the Suns trajectory* Flat Earth Theory of the Moon & Sun's paths around the world" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Persian language" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Persian''' ( or ), also known by its endonym '''Farsi''' (, '''', ), is a Western Iranian language belonging to the Iranian branch of the Indo-Iranian subdivision of the Indo-European languages.", "Persian is a pluricentric language predominantly spoken and used officially within Iran, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan in three mutually intelligible standard varieties, namely Iranian Persian (officially known as ''Persian''), Dari Persian (officially known as ''Dari'' since 1964), and Tajiki Persian (officially known as ''Tajik'' since 1999).", "It is also spoken natively in the Tajik variety by a significant population within Uzbekistan, as well as within other regions with a Persianate history in the cultural sphere of Greater Iran.", "It is written officially within Iran and Afghanistan in the Persian alphabet, a derivative of the Arabic script, and within Tajikistan in the Tajik alphabet, a derivative of the Cyrillic script.Modern Persian is a continuation of Middle Persian, an official language of the Sasanian Empire (224–651 CE), itself a continuation of Old Persian, which was used in the Achaemenid Empire (550–330 BCE).", "It originated in the region of Pars (Persia) in southwestern Iran.", "Its grammar is similar to that of many European languages.Throughout history, Persian was considered prestigious by various empires centered in West Asia, Central Asia, and South Asia.", "Old Persian is attested in Old Persian cuneiform on inscriptions from between the 6th and 4th century BC.", "Middle Persian is attested in Aramaic-derived scripts (Pahlavi and Manichaean) on inscriptions and in Zoroastrian and Manichaean scriptures from between the third to the tenth centuries (see Middle Persian literature).", "New Persian literature was first recorded in the ninth century, after the Muslim conquest of Persia, since then adopting the Perso-Arabic script.Persian was the first language to break through the monopoly of Arabic on writing in the Muslim world, with Persian poetry becoming a tradition in many eastern courts.", "It was used officially as a language of bureaucracy even by non-native speakers, such as the Ottomans in Anatolia, the Mughals in South Asia, and the Pashtuns in Afghanistan.", "It influenced languages spoken in neighboring regions and beyond, including other Iranian languages, the Turkic, Armenian, Georgian, and Indo-Aryan languages.", "It also exerted some influence on Arabic, while borrowing a lot of vocabulary from it in the Middle Ages.Some of the world's most famous pieces of literature from the Middle Ages, such as the ''Shahnameh'' by Ferdowsi, the works of Rumi, the ''Rubáiyát of Omar Khayyám'', the of Nizami Ganjavi, ''The Divān'' of Hafez, ''The Conference of the Birds'' by Attar of Nishapur, and the miscellanea of ''Gulistan'' and ''Bustan'' by Saadi Shirazi, are written in Persian.", "Some of the prominent modern Persian poets were Nima Yooshij, Ahmad Shamlou, Simin Behbahani, Sohrab Sepehri, Rahi Mo'ayyeri, Mehdi Akhavan-Sales, and Forugh Farrokhzad.There are approximately 110 million Persian speakers worldwide, including Persians, Lurs, Tajiks, Hazaras, Iranian Azeris, Iranian Kurds, Balochs, Tats, Afghan Pashtuns, and Aimaqs.", "The term ''Persophone'' might also be used to refer to a speaker of Persian." ], [ "Classification", "Persian is a member of the Western Iranian group of the Iranian languages, which make up a branch of the Indo-European languages in their Indo-Iranian subdivision.", "The Western Iranian languages themselves are divided into two subgroups: Southwestern Iranian languages, of which Persian is the most widely spoken, and Northwestern Iranian languages, of which Kurdish and Balochi are the most widely spoken." ], [ "Name", "The term ''Persian'' is an English derivation of Latin , the adjectival form of , itself deriving from Greek (), a Hellenized form of Old Persian (), which means \"Persia\" (a region in southwestern Iran, corresponding to modern-day Fars).", "According to the ''Oxford English Dictionary'', the term ''Persian'' as a language name is first attested in English in the mid-16th century.", "'''', which is the Persian word for the Persian language, has also been used widely in English in recent decades, more often to refer to Iran's standard Persian.", "However, the name ''Persian'' is still more widely used.", "The Academy of Persian Language and Literature has maintained that the endonym '''' is to be avoided in foreign languages, and that ''Persian'' is the appropriate designation of the language in English, as it has the longer tradition in western languages and better expresses the role of the language as a mark of cultural and national continuity.", "Iranian historian and linguist Ehsan Yarshater, founder of the ''Encyclopædia Iranica'' and Columbia University's Center for Iranian Studies, mentions the same concern in an academic journal on Iranology, rejecting the use of '''' in foreign languages.Etymologically, the Persian term derives from its earlier form ( in Middle Persian), which in turn comes from the same root as the English term ''Persian''.", "In the same process, the Middle Persian toponym (\"Persia\") evolved into the modern name Fars.", "The phonemic shift from to is due to the influence of Arabic in the Middle Ages, and is because of the lack of the phoneme in Standard Arabic.===Standard varieties' names===The standard Persian of Iran has been called, apart from ''Persian'' and ''Farsi'', by names such as ''Iranian Persian'' and ''Western Persian'', exclusively.", "Officially, the official language of Iran is designated simply as ''Persian'' (, ).The standard Persian of Afghanistan has been officially named ''Dari'' (, ) since 1958.Also referred to as ''Afghan Persian'' in English, it is one of Afghanistan's two official languages, together with Pashto.", "The term ''Dari'', meaning \"of the court\", originally referred to the variety of Persian used in the court of the Sasanian Empire in capital Ctesiphon, which was spread to the northeast of the empire and gradually replaced the former Iranian dialects of Parthia (Parthian).Tajik Persian (, ), the standard Persian of Tajikistan, has been officially designated as ''Tajik'' (, ) since the time of the Soviet Union.", "It is the name given to the varieties of Persian spoken in Central Asia in general.===ISO codes===The international language-encoding standard ISO 639-1 uses the code fa for the Persian language, as its coding system is mostly based on the native-language designations.", "The more detailed standard ISO 639-3 uses the code fas for the dialects spoken across Iran and Afghanistan.", "This consists of the individual languages Dari (prs) and Iranian Persian (pes).", "It uses tgk for Tajik, separately." ], [ "History", "In general, the Iranian languages are known from three periods: namely Old, Middle, and New (Modern).", "These correspond to three historical eras of Iranian history; Old era being sometime around the Achaemenid Empire (i.e., 400–300 BC), Middle era being the next period most officially around the Sasanian Empire, and New era being the period afterward down to present day.According to available documents, the Persian language is \"the only Iranian language\" for which close philological relationships between all of its three stages are established and so that Old, Middle, and New Persian represent one and the same language of Persian; that is, New Persian is a direct descendant of Middle and Old Persian.", "Gernot Windfuhr considers new Persian as an evolution of the Old Persian language and the Middle Persian language but also states that none of the known Middle Persian dialects is the direct predecessor of Modern Persian.", "Ludwig Paul states: \"The language of the Shahnameh should be seen as one instance of continuous historical development from Middle to New Persian.", "\"The known history of the Persian language can be divided into the following three distinct periods:===Old Persian===An Old Persian inscription written in Old Persian cuneiform in Persepolis, IranAs a written language, Old Persian is attested in royal Achaemenid inscriptions.", "The oldest known text written in Old Persian is from the Behistun Inscription, dating to the time of King Darius I (reigned 522–486 BC).", "Examples of Old Persian have been found in what is now Iran, Romania (Gherla), Armenia, Bahrain, Iraq, Turkey, and Egypt.", "Old Persian is one of the oldest Indo-European languages which is attested in original texts.According to certain historical assumptions about the early history and origin of ancient Persians in Southwestern Iran (where Achaemenids hailed from), Old Persian was originally spoken by a tribe called ''Parsuwash'', who arrived in the Iranian Plateau early in the 1st millennium BCE and finally migrated down into the area of present-day Fārs province.", "Their language, Old Persian, became the official language of the Achaemenid kings.", "Assyrian records, which in fact appear to provide the earliest evidence for ancient Iranian (Persian and Median) presence on the Iranian Plateau, give a good chronology but only an approximate geographical indication of what seem to be ancient Persians.", "In these records of the 9th century BCE, ''Parsuwash'' (along with ''Matai'', presumably Medians) are first mentioned in the area of Lake Urmia in the records of Shalmaneser III.", "The exact identity of the Parsuwash is not known for certain, but from a linguistic viewpoint the word matches Old Persian itself coming directly from the older word .", "Also, as Old Persian contains many words from another extinct Iranian language, Median, according to P. O. Skjærvø it is probable that Old Persian had already been spoken before the formation of the Achaemenid Empire and was spoken during most of the first half of the first millennium BCE.", "Xenophon, a Greek general serving in some of the Persian expeditions, describes many aspects of Armenian village life and hospitality in around 401 BCE, which is when Old Persian was still spoken and extensively used.", "He relates that the Armenian people spoke a language that to his ear sounded like the language of the Persians.Related to Old Persian, but from a different branch of the Iranian language family, was Avestan, the language of the Zoroastrian liturgical texts.===Middle Persian===Middle Persian text written in Inscriptional Pahlavi on the Paikuli inscription from between 293 and 297.Slemani Museum, Iraqi Kurdistan.The complex grammatical conjugation and declension of Old Persian yielded to the structure of Middle Persian in which the dual number disappeared, leaving only singular and plural, as did gender.", "Middle Persian developed the ezāfe construction, expressed through ''ī'' (modern ''e/ye''), to indicate some of the relations between words that have been lost with the simplification of the earlier grammatical system.Although the \"middle period\" of the Iranian languages formally begins with the fall of the Achaemenid Empire, the transition from Old to Middle Persian had probably already begun before the 4th century BC.", "However, Middle Persian is not actually attested until 600 years later when it appears in the Sassanid era (224–651 AD) inscriptions, so any form of the language before this date cannot be described with any degree of certainty.", "Moreover, as a literary language, Middle Persian is not attested until much later, in the 6th or 7th century.", "From the 8th century onward, Middle Persian gradually began yielding to New Persian, with the middle-period form only continuing in the texts of Zoroastrianism.Middle Persian is considered to be a later form of the same dialect as Old Persian.", "The native name of Middle Persian was ''Parsig'' or ''Parsik'', after the name of the ethnic group of the southwest, that is, \"of ''Pars''\", Old Persian ''Parsa'', New Persian ''Fars''.", "This is the origin of the name ''Farsi'' as it is today used to signify New Persian.", "Following the collapse of the Sassanid state, ''Parsik'' came to be applied exclusively to (either Middle or New) Persian that was written in the Arabic script.", "From about the 9th century onward, as Middle Persian was on the threshold of becoming New Persian, the older form of the language came to be erroneously called ''Pahlavi'', which was actually but one of the ''writing systems'' used to render both Middle Persian as well as various other Middle Iranian languages.", "That writing system had previously been adopted by the Sassanids (who were Persians, i.e.", "from the southwest) from the preceding Arsacids (who were Parthians, i.e.", "from the northeast).", "While Ibn al-Muqaffa' (eighth century) still distinguished between ''Pahlavi'' (i.e.", "Parthian) and ''Persian'' (in Arabic text: al-Farisiyah) (i.e.", "Middle Persian), this distinction is not evident in Arab commentaries written after that date.===New Persian===Ferdowsi's ''Shahnameh''\"New Persian\" (also referred to as Modern Persian) is conventionally divided into three stages:Early New Persian (8th/9th centuries)Classical Persian (10th–18th centuries)Contemporary Persian (19th century to present)Early New Persian remains largely intelligible to speakers of Contemporary Persian, as the morphology and, to a lesser extent, the lexicon of the language have remained relatively stable.====Early New Persian====New Persian texts written in the Arabic script first appear in the 9th-century.", "The language is a direct descendant of Middle Persian, the official, religious, and literary language of the Sasanian Empire (224–651).", "However, it is not descended from the literary form of Middle Persian (known as ''pārsīk'', commonly called Pahlavi), which was spoken by the people of Fars and used in Zoroastrian religious writings.", "Instead, it is descended from the dialect spoken by the court of the Sasanian capital Ctesiphon and the northeastern Iranian region of Khorasan, known as Dari.", "The region, which comprised the present territories of northwestern Afghanistan as well as parts of Central Asia, played a leading role in the rise of New Persian.", "Khorasan, which was the homeland of the Parthians, was Persianized under the Sasanians.", "Dari Persian thus supplanted Parthian language, which by the end of the Sasanian era had fallen out of use.", "New Persian has incorporated many foreign words, including from eastern northern and northern Iranian languages such as Sogdian and especially Parthian.The transition to New Persian was already complete by the era of the three princely dynasties of Iranian origin, the Tahirid dynasty (820–872), Saffarid dynasty (860–903), and Samanid Empire (874–999).", "Abbas of Merv is mentioned as being the earliest minstrel to chant verse in the New Persian tongue and after him the poems of Hanzala Badghisi were among the most famous between the Persian-speakers of the time.The first poems of the Persian language, a language historically called Dari, emerged in present-day Afghanistan.", "The first significant Persian poet was Rudaki.", "He flourished in the 10th century, when the Samanids were at the height of their power.", "His reputation as a court poet and as an accomplished musician and singer has survived, although little of his poetry has been preserved.", "Among his lost works are versified fables collected in the ''Kalila wa Dimna''.The language spread geographically from the 11th century on and was the medium through which, among others, Central Asian Turks became familiar with Islam and urban culture.", "New Persian was widely used as a trans-regional lingua franca, a task aided due to its relatively simple morphology, and this situation persisted until at least the 19th century.", "In the late Middle Ages, new Islamic literary languages were created on the Persian model: Ottoman Turkish, Chagatai Turkic, Dobhashi Bengali, and Urdu, which are regarded as \"structural daughter languages\" of Persian.====Classical Persian====''Kalilah va Dimna'', an influential work in Persian literature\"Classical Persian\" loosely refers to the standardized language of medieval Persia used in literature and poetry.This is the language of the 10th to 12th centuries, which continued to be used as literary language and lingua franca under the \"Persianized\" Turko-Mongol dynasties during the 12th to 15th centuries, and under restored Persian rule during the 16th to 19th centuries.Persian during this time served as lingua franca of Greater Persia and of much of the Indian subcontinent.It was also the official and cultural language of many Islamic dynasties, including the Samanids, Buyids, Tahirids, Ziyarids, the Mughal Empire, Timurids, Ghaznavids, Karakhanids, Seljuqs, Khwarazmians, the Sultanate of Rum, Turkmen beyliks of Anatolia, Delhi Sultanate, the Shirvanshahs, Safavids, Afsharids, Zands, Qajars, Khanate of Bukhara, Khanate of Kokand, Emirate of Bukhara, Khanate of Khiva, Ottomans, and also many Mughal successors such as the Nizam of Hyderabad.Persian was the only non-European language known and used by Marco Polo at the Court of Kublai Khan and in his journeys through China.===== Use in Asia Minor =====Persian on an Ottoman miniatureA branch of the Seljuks, the Sultanate of Rum, took Persian language, art, and letters to Anatolia.", "They adopted the Persian language as the official language of the empire.", "The Ottomans, who can roughly be seen as their eventual successors, inherited this tradition.", "Persian was the official court language of the empire, and for some time, the official language of the empire.", "The educated and noble class of the Ottoman Empire all spoke Persian, such as Sultan Selim I, despite being Safavid Iran's archrival and a staunch opposer of Shia Islam.", "It was a major literary language in the empire.", "Some of the noted earlier Persian works during the Ottoman rule are Idris Bidlisi's ''Hasht Bihisht'', which began in 1502 and covered the reign of the first eight Ottoman rulers, and the ''Salim-Namah'', a glorification of Selim I.", "After a period of several centuries, Ottoman Turkish (which was highly Persianised itself) had developed toward a fully accepted language of literature, and which was even able to lexically satisfy the demands of a scientific presentation.", "However, the number of Persian and Arabic loanwords contained in those works increased at times up to 88%.", "In the Ottoman Empire, Persian was used for diplomacy, poetry, historiographical works, literary works, and was taught in state schools, and was also offered as an elective course or recommended for study in some ''madrasas''.===== Use in the Balkans =====Persian learning was also widespread in the Ottoman-held Balkans (''Rumelia''), with a range of cities being famed for their long-standing traditions in the study of Persian and its classics, amongst them Saraybosna (modern Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina), Mostar (also in Bosnia and Herzegovina), and Vardar Yenicesi (or Yenice-i Vardar, now Giannitsa, in the northern part of Greece).Vardar Yenicesi differed from other localities in the Balkans insofar as that it was a town where Persian was also widely spoken.", "However, the Persian of Vardar Yenicesi and throughout the rest of the Ottoman-held Balkans was different from formal Persian both in accent and vocabulary.", "The difference was apparent to such a degree that the Ottomans referred to it as \"Rumelian Persian\" (''Rumili Farsisi'').", "As learned people such as students, scholars and literati often frequented Vardar Yenicesi, it soon became the site of a flourishing Persianate linguistic and literary culture.", "The 16th-century Ottoman Aşık Çelebi (died 1572), who hailed from Prizren in modern-day Kosovo, was galvanized by the abundant Persian-speaking and Persian-writing communities of Vardar Yenicesi, and he referred to the city as a \"hotbed of Persian\".Many Ottoman Persianists who established a career in the Ottoman capital of Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul) pursued early Persian training in Saraybosna, amongst them Ahmed Sudi.===== Use in Indian subcontinent =====Persian poem, Agra Fort, India, 18th centuryPersian poem, ''Takht-e Shah Jahan'', Agra Fort, IndiaThe Persian language influenced the formation of many modern languages in West Asia, Europe, Central Asia, and South Asia.", "Following the Turko-Persian Ghaznavid conquest of South Asia, Persian was firstly introduced in the region by Turkic Central Asians.", "The basis in general for the introduction of Persian language into the subcontinent was set, from its earliest days, by various Persianized Central Asian Turkic and Afghan dynasties.", "For five centuries prior to the British colonization, Persian was widely used as a second language in the Indian subcontinent.", "It took prominence as the language of culture and education in several Muslim courts on the subcontinent and became the sole \"official language\" under the Mughal emperors.The Bengal Sultanate witnessed an influx of Persian scholars, lawyers, teachers, and clerics.", "Thousands of Persian books and manuscripts were published in Bengal.", "The period of the reign of Sultan Ghiyathuddin Azam Shah, is described as the \"golden age of Persian literature in Bengal\".", "Its stature was illustrated by the Sultan's own correspondence and collaboration with the Persian poet Hafez; a poem which can be found in the ''Divan of Hafez'' today.", "A Bengali dialect emerged among the common Bengali Muslim folk, based on a Persian model and known as Dobhashi; meaning ''mixed language''.", "Dobhashi Bengali was patronised and given official status under the Sultans of Bengal, and was a popular literary form used by Bengalis during the pre-colonial period, irrespective of their religion.Following the defeat of the Hindu Shahi dynasty, classical Persian was established as a courtly language in the region during the late 10th century under Ghaznavid rule over the northwestern frontier of the subcontinent.", "Employed by Punjabis in literature, Persian achieved prominence in the region during the following centuries.", "Persian continued to act as a courtly language for various empires in Punjab through the early 19th century serving finally as the official state language of the Sikh Empire, preceding British conquest and the decline of Persian in South Asia.Beginning in 1843, though, English and Hindustani gradually replaced Persian in importance on the subcontinent.", "Evidence of Persian's historical influence there can be seen in the extent of its influence on certain languages of the Indian subcontinent.", "Words borrowed from Persian are still quite commonly used in certain Indo-Aryan languages, especially Hindi-Urdu (also historically known as Hindustani), Punjabi, Kashmiri, and Sindhi.", "There is also a small population of Zoroastrian Iranis in India, who migrated in the 19th century to escape religious execution in Qajar Iran and speak a Dari dialect.====Contemporary Persian========= Qajar dynasty =====In the 19th century, under the Qajar dynasty, the dialect that is spoken in Tehran rose to prominence.", "There was still substantial Arabic vocabulary, but many of these words have been integrated into Persian phonology and grammar.", "In addition, under the Qajar rule, numerous Russian, French, and English terms entered the Persian language, especially vocabulary related to technology.The first official attentions to the necessity of protecting the Persian language against foreign words, and to the standardization of Persian orthography, were under the reign of Naser ed Din Shah of the Qajar dynasty in 1871.After Naser ed Din Shah, Mozaffar ed Din Shah ordered the establishment of the first Persian association in 1903.This association officially declared that it used Persian and Arabic as acceptable sources for coining words.", "The ultimate goal was to prevent books from being printed with wrong use of words.", "According to the executive guarantee of this association, the government was responsible for wrongfully printed books.", "Words coined by this association, such as ''rāh-āhan'' () for \"railway\", were printed in ''Soltani Newspaper''; but the association was eventually closed due to inattention.A scientific association was founded in 1911, resulting in a dictionary called ''Words of Scientific Association'' (), which was completed in the future and renamed ''Katouzian Dictionary'' ().===== Pahlavi dynasty =====The first academy for the Persian language was founded on 20 May 1935, under the name ''Academy of Iran''.", "It was established by the initiative of Reza Shah Pahlavi, and mainly by Hekmat e Shirazi and Mohammad Ali Foroughi, all prominent names in the nationalist movement of the time.The academy was a key institution in the struggle to re-build Iran as a nation-state after the collapse of the Qajar dynasty.", "During the 1930s and 1940s, the academy led massive campaigns to replace the many Arabic, Russian, French, and Greek loanwords whose widespread use in Persian during the centuries preceding the foundation of the Pahlavi dynasty had created a literary language considerably different from the spoken Persian of the time.", "This became the basis of what is now known as \"Contemporary Standard Persian\"." ], [ "Varieties", "There are three standard varieties of modern Persian:''Iranian Persian'' (''Persian'', ''Western Persian'', or ''Farsi'') is spoken in Iran, and by minorities in Iraq and the Persian Gulf states.", "''Eastern Persian'' (''Dari Persian'', ''Afghan Persian'', or ''Dari'') is spoken in Afghanistan.", "''Tajiki'' (''Tajik Persian'') is spoken in Tajikistan and Uzbekistan.", "It is written in the Cyrillic script.All these three varieties are based on the classic Persian literature and its literary tradition.", "There are also several local dialects from Iran, Afghanistan and Tajikistan which slightly differ from the standard Persian.", "The Hazaragi dialect (in Central Afghanistan and Pakistan), Herati (in Western Afghanistan), Darwazi (in Afghanistan and Tajikistan), Basseri (in Southern Iran), and the Tehrani accent (in Iran, the basis of standard Iranian Persian) are examples of these dialects.", "Persian-speaking peoples of Iran, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan can understand one another with a relatively high degree of mutual intelligibility.", "Nevertheless, the ''Encyclopædia Iranica'' notes that the Iranian, Afghan, and Tajiki varieties comprise distinct branches of the Persian language, and within each branch a wide variety of local dialects exist.The following are some languages closely related to Persian, or in some cases are considered dialects:Luri (or ''Lori''), spoken mainly in the southwestern Iranian provinces of Lorestan, Kohgiluyeh and Boyer-Ahmad, Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari some western parts of Fars Province, and some parts of Khuzestan Province.", "Achomi (or ''Lari''), spoken mainly in southern Iranian provinces of Fars and Hormozgan.", "Tat, spoken in parts of Azerbaijan, Russia, and Transcaucasia.", "It is classified as a variety of Persian.", "(This dialect is not to be confused with the Tati language of northwestern Iran, which is a member of a different branch of the Iranian languages.)Judeo-Tat.", "Part of the Tat-Persian continuum, spoken in Azerbaijan, Russia, as well as by immigrant communities in Israel and New York.More distantly related branches of the Iranian language family include Kurdish and Balochi.The Glottolog database proposes the following phylogenetic classification:* Farsic–Caucasian Tat Caucasian Tat* Judeo-Tat* Muslim Tat (including Armeno-Tat) Farsic* Eastern Farsic Aimaq Dari Dehwari Hazaragi Pahlavani Tajikic* Bukharic* Tajik* Judeo-Persian*** Western Farsi" ], [ "Phonology", "Iranian Persian and Tajik have six vowels; Dari has 8.Iranian Persian has twenty-three consonants, but both Dari and Tajiki have twenty-four consonants.", "(due to the phonemic merger of /q/ and /ɣ/ in Iranian Persian).Persian spoken by an Iranian.", "Recorded in the United States.===Vowels===+Iranian PersianFrontBack Close Mid Open+DariFront Central Backlong short short long Close Close mid Open mid() Open ~ +TajikiFront CentralBack Close Mid ~ Open ~ The vowel phonemes of modern Tehran PersianHistorically, Persian distinguished length.", "Early New Persian had a series of five long vowels (, , , , and ) along with three short vowels , , and .", "At some point prior to the 16th century in the general area now modern Iran, and merged into , and and merged into .", "Thus, older contrasts such as ''shēr'' \"lion\" vs. ''shīr'' \"milk\", and ''zūd'' \"quick\" vs ''zōr'' \"strength\" were lost.", "However, there are exceptions to this rule, and in some words, ''ē'' and ''ō'' are merged into the diphthongs and (which are descendants of the diphthongs and in Early New Persian), instead of merging into and .", "Examples of the exception can be found in words such as (bright).", "Numerous other instances exist.However, in Dari, the archaic distinction of and (respectively known as ''Yā-ye majhūl'' and ''Yā-ye ma'rūf'') is still preserved as well as the distinction of and (known as ''Wāw-e majhūl'' and ''Wāw-e ma'rūf'').", "On the other hand, in standard Tajik, the length distinction has disappeared, and merged with and with .", "Therefore, contemporary Afghan Dari dialects are the closest to the vowel inventory of Early New Persian.According to most studies on the subject (e.g.", ", , ), the three vowels traditionally considered long (, , ) are currently distinguished from their short counterparts (, , ) by position of articulation rather than by length.", "However, there are studies (e.g.", ", ) that consider vowel length to be the active feature of the system, with , , and phonologically long or bimoraic and , , and phonologically short or monomoraic.There are also some studies that consider quality and quantity to be both active in the Iranian system (such as Toosarvandani 2004).", "That offers a synthetic analysis including both quality and quantity, which often suggests that Modern Persian vowels are in a transition state between the quantitative system of Classical Persian and a hypothetical future Iranian language, which will eliminate all traces of quantity and retain quality as the only active feature.The length distinction is still strictly observed by careful reciters of classic-style poetry for all varieties (including Tajik).===Consonants=== Labial Alveolar Post-alv./Palatal Velar Uvular GlottalNasal Stop ()Fricative Tap ɾ Approximant Notes:* in Iranian Persian and have merged into ~ɢ, as a voiced velar fricative when positioned intervocalically and unstressed, and as a voiced uvular stop otherwise." ], [ "Grammar", "===Morphology===Suffixes predominate Persian morphology, though there are a small number of prefixes.", "Verbs can express tense and aspect, and they agree with the subject in person and number.", "There is no grammatical gender in modern Persian, and pronouns are not marked for natural gender.", "In other words, in Persian, pronouns are gender-neutral.", "When referring to a masculine or a feminine subject, the same pronoun is used (pronounced \"ou\", ū).===Syntax===Persian adheres mainly to Subject-Object-Verb (SOV) word order.", "However, case endings (e.g.", "for subject, object, etc.)", "expressed via suffixes may allow users to vary word order.", "Verbs agree with the subject in person and number.", "Normal declarative sentences are structured as ''(S) (PP) (O) V'': sentences have optional subjects, prepositional phrases, and objects followed by a compulsory verb.", "If the object is specific, the object is followed by the word ''rā'' and precedes prepositional phrases: ''(S) (O + ''rā'') (PP) V''." ], [ "Vocabulary", "===Native word formation===Persian makes extensive use of word building and combining affixes, stems, nouns, and adjectives.", "Persian frequently uses derivational agglutination to form new words from nouns, adjectives, and verbal stems.", "New words are extensively formed by compounding – two existing words combining into a new one.===Influences===While having a lesser influence on Arabic and other languages of Mesopotamia and its core vocabulary being of Middle Persian origin, New Persian contains a considerable number of Arabic lexical items, which were Persianized and often took a different meaning and usage than the Arabic original.", "Persian loanwords of Arabic origin especially include Islamic terms.", "The Arabic vocabulary in other Iranian, Turkic, and Indic languages is generally understood to have been copied from New Persian, not from Arabic itself.John R. Perry, in his article \"Lexical Areas and Semantic Fields of Arabic\", estimates that about 20 percent of everyday vocabulary in current Persian, and around 25 percent of the vocabulary of classical and modern Persian literature, are of Arabic origin.", "The text frequency of these loan words is generally lower and varies by style and topic area.", "It may approach 25 percent of a text in literature.", "According to another source, about 40% of everyday Persian literary vocabulary is of Arabic origin.", "Among the Arabic loan words, relatively few (14 percent) are from the semantic domain of material culture, while a larger number are from domains of intellectual and spiritual life.", "Most of the Arabic words used in Persian are either synonyms of native terms or could be glossed in Persian.The inclusion of Mongolic and Turkic elements in the Persian language should also be mentioned, not only because of the political role a succession of Turkic dynasties played in Iranian history, but also because of the immense prestige Persian language and literature enjoyed in the wider (non-Arab) Islamic world, which was often ruled by sultans and emirs with a Turkic background.", "The Turkish and Mongolian vocabulary in Persian is minor in comparison to that of Arabic and these words were mainly confined to military, pastoral terms and political sector (titles, administration, etc.).", "New military and political titles were coined based partially on Middle Persian (e.g.", "for \"army\", instead of the Uzbek ; ; ; etc.)", "in the 20th century.", "Persian has likewise influenced the vocabularies of other languages, especially other Indo-European languages such as Armenian, Urdu, Bengali, and Hindi; the latter three through conquests of Persianized Central Asian Turkic and Afghan invaders; Turkic languages such as Ottoman Turkish, Chagatai, Tatar, Turkish, Turkmen, Azeri, Uzbek, and Karachay-Balkar; Caucasian languages such as Georgian, and, to a lesser extent, Avar and Lezgin; Afro-Asiatic languages like Assyrian (List of loanwords in Assyrian Neo-Aramaic) and Arabic, particularly Bahrani Arabic; and even Dravidian languages indirectly especially Malayalam, Tamil, Telugu, and Brahui; as well as Austronesian languages such as Indonesian and Malaysian Malay.", "Persian has also had a significant lexical influence, via Turkish, on Albanian and Serbo-Croatian, particularly as spoken in Bosnia and Herzegovina.Use of occasional foreign synonyms instead of Persian words can be a common practice in everyday communications as an alternative expression.", "In some instances in addition to the Persian vocabulary, the equivalent synonyms from multiple foreign languages can be used.", "For example, in Iranian colloquial Persian (not in Afghanistan or Tajikistan), the phrase \"thank you\" may be expressed using the French word (stressed, however, on the first syllable), the hybrid Persian-Arabic phrase ( being \"thankful\" in Arabic, commonly pronounced in Persian, and the verb ''am'' meaning \"I am\" in Persian), or by the pure Persian phrase ." ], [ "Orthography", "Example showing Nastaʿlīq's (Persian) proportion rulesAli-Akbar Dehkhoda's personal handwriting, a typical cursive Persian scriptThe word \"Persian\" in the Book Pahlavi scriptThe vast majority of modern Iranian Persian and Dari text is written with the Arabic script.", "Tajiki, which is considered by some linguists to be a Persian dialect influenced by Russian and the Turkic languages of Central Asia, is written with the Cyrillic script in Tajikistan (see Tajik alphabet).", "There also exist several romanization systems for Persian.===Persian alphabet===Modern Iranian Persian and Afghan Persian are written using the Persian alphabet which is a modified variant of the Arabic alphabet, which uses different pronunciation and additional letters not found in Arabic language.", "After the Arab conquest of Persia, it took approximately 200 years before Persians adopted the Arabic script in place of the older alphabet.", "Previously, two different scripts were used, Pahlavi, used for Middle Persian, and the Avestan alphabet (in Persian, Dīndapirak, or Din Dabire—literally: religion script), used for religious purposes, primarily for the Avestan but sometimes for Middle Persian.In the modern Persian script, historically short vowels are usually not written, only the historically long ones are represented in the text, so words distinguished from each other only by short vowels are ambiguous in writing: Iranian Persian '''' \"worm\", '''' \"generosity\", '''' \"cream\", and '''' \"chrome\" are all spelled '''' () in Persian.", "The reader must determine the word from context.", "The Arabic system of vocalization marks known as ''harakat'' is also used in Persian, although some of the symbols have different pronunciations.", "For example, a ''ḍammah'' is pronounced , while in Iranian Persian it is pronounced .", "This system is not used in mainstream Persian literature; it is primarily used for teaching and in some (but not all) dictionaries.Persian typewriter keyboard layoutA variant of the Iranian standard ISIRI 9147 keyboard layout for PersianThere are several letters generally only used in Arabic loanwords.", "These letters are pronounced the same as similar Persian letters.", "For example, there are four functionally identical letters for (), three letters for (), two letters for (), two letters for ().On the other hand, there are four letters that do not exist in Arabic .====Additions====The Persian alphabet adds four letters to the Arabic alphabet: Sound Isolated form Final form Medial form Initial form Name ''pe'' ''če (che)'' ''že (zhe or jhe)'' ''ge (gāf)''Historically, there was also a special letter for the sound .", "This letter is no longer used, as the -sound changed to , e.g.", "archaic > 'language' Sound Isolated form Final form Medial form Initial form Name ''βe''====Variations====The Persian alphabet also modifies some letters of the Arabic alphabet.", "For example, ''alef with hamza below'' ( ) changes to ''alef'' ( ); words using various hamzas get spelled with yet another kind of hamza (so that becomes ) even though the latter has been accepted in Arabic since the 1980s; and ''teh marbuta'' ( ) changes to ''heh'' ( ) or ''teh'' ( ).The letters different in shape are: Arabic style letter Persian style letter Name ك ک ''ke'' (kāf) ي ی ''ye''However, in shape and form is the traditional Arabic style that continues in the Nile Valley, namely, Egypt, Sudan, and South Sudan.===Latin alphabet===The International Organization for Standardization has published a standard for simplified transliteration of Persian into Latin, ISO 233-3, titled \"Information and documentation – Transliteration of Arabic characters into Latin characters – Part 3: Persian language – Simplified transliteration\" but the transliteration scheme is not in widespread use.Another Latin alphabet, based on the New Turkic Alphabet, was used in Tajikistan in the 1920s and 1930s.", "The alphabet was phased out in favor of Cyrillic in the late 1930s.Fingilish is Persian using ISO basic Latin alphabet.", "It is most commonly used in chat, emails, and SMS applications.", "The orthography is not standardized, and varies among writers and even media (for example, typing 'aa' for the phoneme is easier on computer keyboards than on cellphone keyboards, resulting in smaller usage of the combination on cellphones).===Tajik alphabet===Tajiki advertisement for an academyThe Cyrillic script was introduced for writing the Tajik language under the Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic in the late 1930s, replacing the Latin alphabet that had been used since the October Revolution and the Persian script that had been used earlier.", "After 1939, materials published in Persian in the Persian script were banned in the country." ], [ "Examples", "The following text is from Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.", "Iranian Persian (Nastaʿlīq) Iranian Persian (Naskh) Iranian Persiantransliteration '''' Iranian Persian IPA Tajiki Tajikitransliteration '''' English translationAll human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.", "They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act toward one another in a spirit of brotherhood." ], [ "See also", "* Academy of Persian Language and Literature* Indo-European copula* Iranian languages* Iranian Persian, Western Persian* List of countries and territories where Persian is an official language* List of English words of Persian origin* List of French loanwords in Persian* Middle Persian* Parthian language* Persian Braille* Persian metres* Persian name* Romanization of Persian" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "Works cited", "* * * * * * * * * " ], [ "General references", " * * * * * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", " * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ** * * * " ], [ "External links", " Academy of Persian Language and Literature official website (archived 30 August 2009)* Assembly for the Expansion of the Persian Language official website * Persian language Resources (archived 9 December 2012)* Persian Language Resources, parstimes.com* Persian language tutorial books for beginners* Haim, Soleiman.", "New Persian–English dictionary.", "Teheran: Librairie-imprimerie Beroukhim, 1934–1936.uchicago.edu* Steingass, Francis Joseph.", "A Comprehensive Persian–English dictionary.", "London: Routledge & K. Paul, 1892.uchicago.edu* UCLA Language Materials Project: Persian, ucla.edu (archived 20 July 2006)* How Persian Alphabet Transits into Graffiti, Persian Graffiti* Basic Persian language course (book + audio files) – USA Foreign Service Institute (FSI)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Farsi (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Farsi''' is the indigenous name or endonym for Persian.", "It primarily refers to the Persian language.", "'''Farsi''' may also refer to:something referring to or inhabitant of Fars Province, IranPersian peopleFarsi, AfghanistanFarsi District in Herat province, AfghanistanFarsi Island, an Iranian island off the coast of Fars, IranFarsi village, located in Hormozgan province, IranFarsi1, a Persian-language TV channelHijra Farsi, a Hindustani-based argot spoken by transgender communities in India and Pakistan" ], [ "See also", "* Farsian (disambiguation)* Persia (disambiguation)* Persian (disambiguation)* Iranian (disambiguation)* Parsi (disambiguation)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Frances Abington" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Frances \"Fanny\" Abington''' (; 1737 – 4 March 1815) was an English actress who was also known for her sense of fashion.", "Writer and politician Horace Walpole described her as one of the finest actors of their time, and Richard Brinsley Sheridan was said to have written the part of Lady Teazle in ''The School for Scandal'' for her to perform." ], [ "Early life", "She was born Frances Barton (nicknamed \"Fanny\"), as the daughter of a private soldier.", "She began her career as a flower girl and a street singer.", "It was also rumoured that she recited Shakespeare in taverns at the age of 12, along with being a prostitute for a short period to help her family with financial problems.", "Later, she became a servant to a French milliner.", "During that time, she learnt about costume and learnt French.", "Her early nickname, Nosegay Fan, came from her time as a flower girl." ], [ "Career", "Her first appearance on stage was at Haymarket in 1755 as Miranda in Mrs Centlivre's play, ''Busybody''.", "She rose to become a principal actor in October 1756 when she was cast as Lady Pliant in ''The Double Dealer''at the Drury Lane.", "The play's cast also included the stars Hannah Pritchard and Kitty Clive.", "She also appeared in Ireland, where her Lady Townley (in ''The Provoked Husband'' by Vanbrugh and Cibber) was a success.", "David Garrick convinced her to return to Drury Lane, and they worked together there until his retirement in 1776.From 1759 onwards she appeared in the bills as \"Mrs Abington\", following her marriage to her music tutor, the royal trumpeter James Abington.", "They separated shortly after their marriage as he could not cope with her popularity.", "They lived separately, with Fanny paying James a small annual stipend to stay away from her.", "She subsequently had affairs with an Irish MP, Needham, who left her a considerable estate, and William Petty, 2nd Earl of Shelburne.", "The income from her estate and her stage work made her a wealthy woman.She remained at the Drury Lane for 18 years, being the first to play more than 30 important characters, notably Lady Teazle (1777) in The School for Scandal.In April 1772, when James Northcote saw her as Miss Notable in Cibber's ''The Lady's Last Stake'', he remarked to his brother ''Mrs Abington as Miss Prue'' by Sir Joshua ReynoldsHer wealth and popularity meant she influenced fashion.", "The press reported on her hair styles: her low hair in ''The School for Scandal'' was praised for changing the fashion.", "Her performance as Kitty in \"High Life Below Stairs\" put her in the foremost rank of comic actresses and made the mob cap she wore in the role fashionable.", "It was soon being referred to as the \"Abington Cap\" on stage and at hatters' shops across Ireland and England.", "It was as the last character in Congreve's ''Love for Love'' that Sir Joshua Reynolds painted the best-known of his half-dozen or more portraits of her (''illustration, left'').", "In 1782 she left Drury Lane for Covent Garden.", "After an absence from the stage from 1790 until 1797, she reappeared, quitting finally in 1799." ], [ "Death", "Frances Abington died on 4 March 1815 at her home on Pall Mall, London.", "She was buried at St James's Church, Piccadilly." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "External links", "***" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Finite field" ], [ "Introduction", "In mathematics, a '''finite field''' or '''Galois field''' (so-named in honor of Évariste Galois) is a field that contains a finite number of elements.", "As with any field, a finite field is a set on which the operations of multiplication, addition, subtraction and division are defined and satisfy certain basic rules.", "The most common examples of finite fields are given by the integers mod when is a prime number.The ''order'' of a finite field is its number of elements, which is either a prime number or a prime power.", "For every prime number and every positive integer there are fields of order , all of which are isomorphic.Finite fields are fundamental in a number of areas of mathematics and computer science, including number theory, algebraic geometry, Galois theory, finite geometry, cryptography and coding theory." ], [ "Properties", "A finite field is a finite set that is a field; this means that multiplication, addition, subtraction and division (excluding division by zero) are defined and satisfy the rules of arithmetic known as the field axioms.The number of elements of a finite field is called its ''order'' or, sometimes, its ''size''.", "A finite field of order exists if and only if is a prime power (where is a prime number and is a positive integer).", "In a field of order , adding copies of any element always results in zero; that is, the characteristic of the field is .If , all fields of order are isomorphic (see '''' below).", "Moreover, a field cannot contain two different finite subfields with the same order.", "One may therefore identify all finite fields with the same order, and they are unambiguously denoted , or , where the letters GF stand for \"Galois field\".In a finite field of order , the polynomial has all elements of the finite field as roots.", "The non-zero elements of a finite field form a multiplicative group.", "This group is cyclic, so all non-zero elements can be expressed as powers of a single element called a primitive element of the field.", "(In general there will be several primitive elements for a given field.", ")The simplest examples of finite fields are the fields of prime order: for each prime number , the prime field of order may be constructed as the integers modulo , .The elements of the prime field of order may be represented by integers in the range .", "The sum, the difference and the product are the remainder of the division by of the result of the corresponding integer operation.", "The multiplicative inverse of an element may be computed by using the extended Euclidean algorithm (see '''').Let be a finite field.", "For any element in and any integer , denote by the sum of copies of .", "The least positive such that is the characteristic of the field.", "This allows defining a multiplication of an element of by an element of by choosing an integer representative for .", "This multiplication makes into a -vector space.", "It follows that the number of elements of is for some integer .The identity(sometimes called the freshman's dream) is true in a field of characteristic .", "This follows from the binomial theorem, as each binomial coefficient of the expansion of , except the first and the last, is a multiple of .By Fermat's little theorem, if is a prime number and is in the field then .", "This implies the equalityfor polynomials over .", "More generally, every element in satisfies the polynomial equation .Any finite field extension of a finite field is separable and simple.", "That is, if is a finite field and is a subfield of , then is obtained from by adjoining a single element whose minimal polynomial is separable.", "To use a piece of jargon, finite fields are perfect.A more general algebraic structure that satisfies all the other axioms of a field, but whose multiplication is not required to be commutative, is called a division ring (or sometimes ''skew field'').", "By Wedderburn's little theorem, any finite division ring is commutative, and hence is a finite field." ], [ "Existence and uniqueness", "Let be a prime power, and be the splitting field of the polynomial over the prime field .", "This means that is a finite field of lowest order, in which has distinct roots (the formal derivative of is , implying that , which in general implies that the splitting field is a separable extension of the original).", "The above identity shows that the sum and the product of two roots of are roots of , as well as the multiplicative inverse of a root of .", "In other words, the roots of form a field of order , which is equal to by the minimality of the splitting field.The uniqueness up to isomorphism of splitting fields implies thus that all fields of order are isomorphic.", "Also, if a field has a field of order as a subfield, its elements are the roots of , and cannot contain another subfield of order .In summary, we have the following classification theorem first proved in 1893 by E. H. Moore:''The order of a finite field is a prime power.", "For every prime power'' ''there are fields of order'' , ''and they are all isomorphic.", "In these fields, every element satisfies''''and the polynomial'' ''factors as'' It follows that contains a subfield isomorphic to if and only if is a divisor of ; in that case, this subfield is unique.", "In fact, the polynomial divides if and only if is a divisor of ." ], [ "Explicit construction", "=== Non-prime fields ===Given a prime power with prime and , the field may be explicitly constructed in the following way.", "One first chooses an irreducible polynomial in of degree (such an irreducible polynomial always exists).", "Then the quotient ring of the polynomial ring by the ideal generated by is a field of order .More explicitly, the elements of are the polynomials over whose degree is strictly less than .", "The addition and the subtraction are those of polynomials over .", "The product of two elements is the remainder of the Euclidean division by of the product in .The multiplicative inverse of a non-zero element may be computed with the extended Euclidean algorithm; see ''''.However, with this representation, elements of may be difficult to distinguish from the corresponding polynomials.", "Therefore, it is common to give a name, commonly to the element of that corresponds to the polynomial .", "So, the elements of become polynomials in , where , and, when one encounters a polynomial in of degree greater or equal to (for example after a multiplication), one knows that one has to use the relation to reduce its degree (it is what Euclidean division is doing).Except in the construction of , there are several possible choices for , which produce isomorphic results.", "To simplify the Euclidean division, one commonly chooses for a polynomial of the form which make the needed Euclidean divisions very efficient.", "However, for some fields, typically in characteristic , irreducible polynomials of the form may not exist.", "In characteristic , if the polynomial is reducible, it is recommended to choose with the lowest possible that makes the polynomial irreducible.", "If all these trinomials are reducible, one chooses \"pentanomials\" , as polynomials of degree greater than , with an even number of terms, are never irreducible in characteristic , having as a root.A possible choice for such a polynomial is given by Conway polynomials.", "They ensure a certain compatibility between the representation of a field and the representations of its subfields.In the next sections, we will show how the general construction method outlined above works for small finite fields.=== Field with four elements ===The smallest non-prime field is the field with four elements, which is commonly denoted or It consists of the four elements such that , , , and , for every , the other operation results being easily deduced from the distributive law.", "See below for the complete operation tables.This may be deduced as follows from the results of the preceding section.Over , there is only one irreducible polynomial of degree :Therefore, for the construction of the preceding section must involve this polynomial, andLet denote a root of this polynomial in .", "This implies thatand that and are the elements of that are not in .", "The tables of the operations in result from this, and are as follows:+ Addition Multiplication Division A table for subtraction is not given, because subtraction is identical to addition, as is the case for every field of characteristic 2.In the third table, for the division of by , the values of must be read in the left column, and the values of in the top row.", "(Because for every in every ring the division by 0 has to remain undefined.)", "From the tables, it can be seen that the additive structure of is isomorphic to the Klein four-group, while the non-zero multiplicative structure is isomorphic to the group Z3.The mapis the non-trivial field automorphism, called the Frobenius automorphism, which sends into the second root of the above mentioned irreducible polynomial .=== GF(''p''2) for an odd prime ''p'' ===For applying the above general construction of finite fields in the case of , one has to find an irreducible polynomial of degree 2.For , this has been done in the preceding section.", "If is an odd prime, there are always irreducible polynomials of the form , with in .More precisely, the polynomial is irreducible over if and only if is a quadratic non-residue modulo (this is almost the definition of a quadratic non-residue).", "There are quadratic non-residues modulo .", "For example, is a quadratic non-residue for , and is a quadratic non-residue for .", "If , that is , one may choose as a quadratic non-residue, which allows us to have a very simple irreducible polynomial .Having chosen a quadratic non-residue , let be a symbolic square root of , that is, a symbol that has the property , in the same way that the complex number is a symbolic square root of .", "Then, the elements of are all the linear expressionswith and in .", "The operations on are defined as follows (the operations between elements of represented by Latin letters are the operations in ):=== GF(8) and GF(27) ===The polynomialis irreducible over and , that is, it is irreducible modulo and (to show this, it suffices to show that it has no root in nor in ).", "It follows that the elements of and may be represented by expressionswhere are elements of or (respectively), and is a symbol such that The addition, additive inverse and multiplication on and may thus be defined as follows; in following formulas, the operations between elements of or , represented by Latin letters, are the operations in or , respectively:=== GF(16) ===The polynomialis irreducible over , that is, it is irreducible modulo .", "It follows that the elements of may be represented by expressionswhere are either or (elements of ), and is a symbol such that (that is, is defined as a root of the given irreducible polynomial).", "As the characteristic of is , each element is its additive inverse in .", "The addition and multiplication on may be defined as follows; in following formulas, the operations between elements of , represented by Latin letters are the operations in .The field has eight primitive elements (the elements that have all nonzero elements of as integer powers).", "These elements are the four roots of and their multiplicative inverses.", "In particular, is a primitive element, and the primitive elements are with less than and coprime with (that is, 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 11, 13, 14)." ], [ "Multiplicative structure", "The set of non-zero elements in is an abelian group under the multiplication, of order .", "By Lagrange's theorem, there exists a divisor of such that for every non-zero in .", "As the equation has at most solutions in any field, is the lowest possible value for .The structure theorem of finite abelian groups implies that this multiplicative group is cyclic, that is, all non-zero elements are powers of a single element.", "In summary:Such an element is called a primitive element of .", "Unless , the primitive element is not unique.", "The number of primitive elements is where is Euler's totient function.The result above implies that for every in .", "The particular case where is prime is Fermat's little theorem.=== Discrete logarithm ===If is a primitive element in , then for any non-zero element in , there is a unique integer with such thatThis integer is called the discrete logarithm of to the base .While can be computed very quickly, for example using exponentiation by squaring, there is no known efficient algorithm for computing the inverse operation, the discrete logarithm.", "This has been used in various cryptographic protocols, see ''Discrete logarithm'' for details.When the nonzero elements of are represented by their discrete logarithms, multiplication and division are easy, as they reduce to addition and subtraction modulo .", "However, addition amounts to computing the discrete logarithm of .", "The identity allows one to solve this problem by constructing the table of the discrete logarithms of , called Zech's logarithms, for (it is convenient to define the discrete logarithm of zero as being ).Zech's logarithms are useful for large computations, such as linear algebra over medium-sized fields, that is, fields that are sufficiently large for making natural algorithms inefficient, but not too large, as one has to pre-compute a table of the same size as the order of the field.=== Roots of unity ===Every nonzero element of a finite field is a root of unity, as for every nonzero element of .If is a positive integer, an th '''primitive root of unity''' is a solution of the equation that is not a solution of the equation for any positive integer .", "If is a th primitive root of unity in a field , then contains all the roots of unity, which are .The field contains a th primitive root of unity if and only if is a divisor of ; if is a divisor of , then the number of primitive th roots of unity in is (Euler's totient function).", "The number of th roots of unity in is .In a field of characteristic , every th root of unity is also a th root of unity.", "It follows that primitive th roots of unity never exist in a field of characteristic .On the other hand, if is coprime to , the roots of the th cyclotomic polynomial are distinct in every field of characteristic , as this polynomial is a divisor of , whose discriminant is nonzero modulo .", "It follows that the th cyclotomic polynomial factors over into distinct irreducible polynomials that have all the same degree, say , and that is the smallest field of characteristic that contains the th primitive roots of unity.=== Example: GF(64) ===The field has several interesting properties that smaller fields do not share: it has two subfields such that neither is contained in the other; not all generators (elements with minimal polynomial of degree over ) are primitive elements; and the primitive elements are not all conjugate under the Galois group.The order of this field being , and the divisors of being , the subfields of are , , , and itself.", "As and are coprime, the intersection of and in is the prime field .The union of and has thus elements.", "The remaining elements of generate in the sense that no other subfield contains any of them.", "It follows that they are roots of irreducible polynomials of degree over .", "This implies that, over , there are exactly irreducible monic polynomials of degree .", "This may be verified by factoring over .The elements of are primitive th roots of unity for some dividing .", "As the 3rd and the 7th roots of unity belong to and , respectively, the generators are primitive th roots of unity for some in .", "Euler's totient function shows that there are primitive th roots of unity, primitive st roots of unity, and primitive rd roots of unity.", "Summing these numbers, one finds again elements.By factoring the cyclotomic polynomials over , one finds that:* The six primitive th roots of unity are roots of and are all conjugate under the action of the Galois group.", "* The twelve primitive st roots of unity are roots of They form two orbits under the action of the Galois group.", "As the two factors are reciprocal to each other, a root and its (multiplicative) inverse do not belong to the same orbit.", "* The primitive elements of are the roots of They split into six orbits of six elements each under the action of the Galois group.This shows that the best choice to construct is to define it as .", "In fact, this generator is a primitive element, and this polynomial is the irreducible polynomial that produces the easiest Euclidean division." ], [ "Frobenius automorphism and Galois theory", "In this section, is a prime number, and is a power of .In , the identity implies that the mapis a -linear endomorphism and a field automorphism of , which fixes every element of the subfield .", "It is called the Frobenius automorphism, after Ferdinand Georg Frobenius.Denoting by the composition of with itself times, we have It has been shown in the preceding section that is the identity.", "For , the automorphism is not the identity, as, otherwise, the polynomial would have more than roots.There are no other -automorphisms of .", "In other words, has exactly -automorphisms, which are In terms of Galois theory, this means that is a Galois extension of , which has a cyclic Galois group.The fact that the Frobenius map is surjective implies that every finite field is perfect." ], [ "Polynomial factorization", "If is a finite field, a non-constant monic polynomial with coefficients in is irreducible over , if it is not the product of two non-constant monic polynomials, with coefficients in .As every polynomial ring over a field is a unique factorization domain, every monic polynomial over a finite field may be factored in a unique way (up to the order of the factors) into a product of irreducible monic polynomials.There are efficient algorithms for testing polynomial irreducibility and factoring polynomials over finite field.", "They are a key step for factoring polynomials over the integers or the rational numbers.", "At least for this reason, every computer algebra system has functions for factoring polynomials over finite fields, or, at least, over finite prime fields.=== Irreducible polynomials of a given degree ===The polynomial factors into linear factors over a field of order .", "More precisely, this polynomial is the product of all monic polynomials of degree one over a field of order .This implies that, if then is the product of all monic irreducible polynomials over , whose degree divides .", "In fact, if is an irreducible factor over of , its degree divides , as its splitting field is contained in .", "Conversely, if is an irreducible monic polynomial over of degree dividing , it defines a field extension of degree , which is contained in , and all roots of belong to , and are roots of ; thus divides .", "As does not have any multiple factor, it is thus the product of all the irreducible monic polynomials that divide it.This property is used to compute the product of the irreducible factors of each degree of polynomials over ; see ''Distinct degree factorization''.=== Number of monic irreducible polynomials of a given degree over a finite field ===The number of monic irreducible polynomials of degree over is given bywhere is the Möbius function.", "This formula is an immediate consequence of the property of above and the Möbius inversion formula.By the above formula, the number of irreducible (not necessarily monic) polynomials of degree over is .The exact formula implies the inequalitythis is sharp if and only if is a power of some prime.For every and every , the right hand side is positive, so there is at least one irreducible polynomial of degree over ." ], [ "Applications", "In cryptography, the difficulty of the discrete logarithm problem in finite fields or in elliptic curves is the basis of several widely used protocols, such as the Diffie–Hellman protocol.", "For example, in 2014, a secure internet connection to Wikipedia involved the elliptic curve Diffie–Hellman protocol (ECDHE) over a large finite field.", "In coding theory, many codes are constructed as subspaces of vector spaces over finite fields.Finite fields are used by many error correction codes, such as Reed–Solomon error correction code or BCH code.", "The finite field almost always has characteristic of , since computer data is stored in binary.", "For example, a byte of data can be interpreted as an element of .", "One exception is PDF417 bar code, which is .", "Some CPUs have special instructions that can be useful for finite fields of characteristic , generally variations of carry-less product.", "Finite fields are widely used in number theory, as many problems over the integers may be solved by reducing them modulo one or several prime numbers.", "For example, the fastest known algorithms for polynomial factorization and linear algebra over the field of rational numbers proceed by reduction modulo one or several primes, and then reconstruction of the solution by using Chinese remainder theorem, Hensel lifting or the LLL algorithm.Similarly many theoretical problems in number theory can be solved by considering their reductions modulo some or all prime numbers.", "See, for example, ''Hasse principle''.", "Many recent developments of algebraic geometry were motivated by the need to enlarge the power of these modular methods.", "Wiles' proof of Fermat's Last Theorem is an example of a deep result involving many mathematical tools, including finite fields.The Weil conjectures concern the number of points on algebraic varieties over finite fields and the theory has many applications including exponential and character sum estimates.Finite fields have widespread application in combinatorics, two well known examples being the definition of Paley Graphs and the related construction for Hadamard Matrices.", "In arithmetic combinatorics finite fields and finite field models are used extensively, such as in Szemerédi's theorem on arithmetic progressions." ], [ "Extensions", "=== Wedderburn's little theorem ===A division ring is a generalization of field.", "Division rings are not assumed to be commutative.", "There are no non-commutative finite division rings: Wedderburn's little theorem states that all finite division rings are commutative, and hence are finite fields.", "This result holds even if we relax the associativity axiom to alternativity, that is, all finite alternative division rings are finite fields, by the Artin–Zorn theorem.=== Algebraic closure ===A finite field is not algebraically closed: the polynomialhas no roots in , since for all in .Given a prime number , let be an algebraic closure of It is not only unique up to an isomorphism, as do all algebraic closures, but contrarily to the general case, all its subfield are fixed by all its automorphisms, and it is also the algebraic closure of all finite fields of the same characteristic .This property results mainly from the fact that the elements of are exactly the roots of and this defines an inclusion for These inclusions allow writing informally The formal validation of this notation results from the fact that the above field inclusions form a directed set of fields; Its direct limit is which may thus be considered as \"directed union\".====Primitive elements in the algebraic closure====Given a primitive element of then is a primitive element of For explicit computations, it may be useful to have a coherent choice of the primitive elements for all finite fields; that is, to choose the primitive element of in order that, whenever one has where is the primitive element already chosen for Such a construction may be obtained by Conway polynomials.==== Quasi-algebraic closure ====Although finite fields are not algebraically closed, they are quasi-algebraically closed, which means that every homogeneous polynomial over a finite field has a non-trivial zero whose components are in the field if the number of its variables is more than its degree.", "This was a conjecture of Artin and Dickson proved by Chevalley (see ''Chevalley–Warning theorem'')." ], [ "See also", "* Quasi-finite field* Field with one element* Finite field arithmetic* Finite ring* Finite group* Elementary abelian group* Hamming space" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* W. H. Bussey (1905) \"Galois field tables for \", Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society 12(1): 22–38, * W. H. Bussey (1910) \"Tables of Galois fields of order < 1000\", ''Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society'' 16(4): 188–206, * * * * " ], [ "External links", " Finite Fields at Wolfram research." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Franchising" ], [ "Introduction", "A McDonald's franchise in Moncton, New Brunswick, Canada'''Franchising''' is based on a marketing concept which can be adopted by an organization as a strategy for business expansion.", "Where implemented, a franchisor licenses some or all of its know-how, procedures, intellectual property, use of its business model, brand, and rights to sell its branded products and services to a franchisee.", "In return, the franchisee pays certain fees and agrees to comply with certain obligations, typically set out in a franchise agreement.The word ''franchise'' is of Anglo-French derivation—from , meaning 'free'—and is used both as a noun and as a (transitive) verb.For the franchisor, use of a franchise system is an alternative business growth strategy, compared to expansion through corporate owned outlets or \"chain stores\".", "Adopting a franchise system business growth strategy for the sale and distribution of goods and services minimizes the franchisor's capital investment and liability risk.Franchising is rarely an equal partnership, especially in the typical arrangement where the franchisee is an individual, unincorporated partnership or small privately held corporation, as this will ensure the franchisor has substantial legal and/or economic advantages over the franchisee.", "The usual exception to this rule is when the prospective franchisee is also a powerful corporate entity controlling a highly lucrative location and/or captive market (for example, a large sports stadium) in which prospective franchisors must then compete to exclude one another from.", "However, under specific circumstances like transparency, favourable legal conditions, financial means and proper market research, franchising can be a vehicle of success for both a large franchisor and a small franchisee.Thirty-six countries have laws that explicitly regulate franchising, with the majority of all other countries having laws which have a direct or indirect effect on franchising.Franchising is also used as a foreign market entry mode." ], [ "History", "The boom in franchising did not take place until after World War II.", "Nevertheless, the rudiments of modern franchising date back to the Middle Ages when landowners made franchise-like agreements with tax collectors, who retained a percentage of the money they collected and turned the rest over.", "The practice ended around 1562 but spread to other endeavors.", "For example, in 17th-century England franchisees were granted the right to sponsor markets and fairs or operate ferries.", "There was little growth in franchising, though, until the mid-19th century, when it appeared in the United States for the first time.One of the first successful American franchising operations was started by an enterprising druggist named John S. Pemberton.", "In 1886, he concocted a beverage comprising sugar, molasses, spices, and cocaine.", "Pemberton licensed selected people to bottle and sell the drink, which was an early version of what is now known as Coca-Cola.", "His was one of the earliest—and most successful—franchising operations in the United States.The Singer Company implemented a franchising plan in the 1850s to distribute its sewing machines.", "The operation failed, though, because the company did not earn much money even though the machines sold well.", "The dealers, who had exclusive rights to their territories, absorbed most of the profits because of deep discounts.", "Some failed to push Singer products, so competitors were able to outsell the company.", "Under the existing contract, Singer could neither withdraw rights granted to franchisees nor send in its own salaried representatives.", "So, the company started repurchasing the rights it had sold.", "The experiment proved to be a failure.", "That may have been one of the first times a franchisor failed, but it was by no means the last.", "(Even Colonel Sanders did not initially succeed in his KFC franchising efforts.)", "Still, the Singer venture did not put an end to franchising.Other companies tried franchising in one form or another after the Singer experience.", "For example, several decades later, General Motors established a somewhat successful franchising operation in order to raise capital.", "Perhaps the father of modern franchising, though, is Louis K. Liggett.", "In 1902, Liggett invited a group of druggists to join a \"drug cooperative.\"", "As he explained to them, they could increase profits by paying less for their purchases, especially if they set up their own manufacturing company.", "His idea was to market private label products.", "About 40 druggists pooled $4,000 of their own money and adopted the name Rexall.", "Sales soared, and Rexall became a franchisor.", "The chain's success set a pattern for other franchisors to follow.Although many business owners did affiliate with cooperative ventures of one type or another, there was little growth in franchising until the early 20th century, and in whatever form franchising existed, it looked nothing like what it is today.", "As the United States shifted from an agricultural to an industrial economy, manufacturers licensed individuals to sell automobiles, trucks, gasoline, beverages, and a variety of other products.", "The franchisees did little more than selling the products, though.", "The sharing of responsibility associated with contemporary franchising arrangement did not exist to a great extent.", "Consequently, franchising was not a growth industry in the United States.It was not until the 1960s and 1970s that people began to take a close look at the attractiveness of franchising.", "The concept intrigued people with entrepreneurial spirit.", "However, there were serious pitfalls for investors, which almost ended the practice before it became truly popular.", "A Pizza Hut franchiseThe United States is a leader in franchising, a position it has held since the 1930s when it used the approach for fast-food restaurants, food inns and, slightly later, motels at the time of the Great Depression.", "As of 2005, there were 909,253 established franchised businesses, generating $880.9 billion of output and accounting for 8.1 percent of all private, non-farm jobs.", "This amounts to 11 million jobs, and 4.4 percent of all private sector output.Mid-sized franchises like restaurants, gasoline stations and trucking stations involve substantial investment and require all the attention of a businessperson.There are also large franchises like hotels, spas and hospitals, which are discussed further under technological alliances.", "\"No poaching\" agreements are prevalent within franchises, thus limiting the ability of employers at one franchise establishment to hire employees at an affiliated franchise.", "Economists have characterized these agreements as a contributor to oligopsony." ], [ "Fees and contract arrangement", "Three important payments are made to a franchisor: (a) a royalty for the trademark, (b) reimbursement for the training and advisory services given to the franchisee, and (c) a percentage of the individual business unit's sales.", "These three fees may be combined in a single 'management' fee.", "A fee for \"disclosure\" is separate and is always a \"front-end fee\".A franchise usually lasts for a fixed time period (broken down into shorter periods, which each require renewal), and serves a specific territory or geographical area surrounding its location.", "One franchisee may manage several such locations.", "Agreements typically last from five to thirty years, with premature cancellations or terminations of most contracts bearing serious consequences for franchisees.", "A franchise is merely a temporary business investment involving renting or leasing an opportunity, not the purchase of a business for the purpose of ownership.", "It is classified as a wasting asset due to the finite term of the license.Franchise fees are on average 6.7% with an additional average marketing fee of 2%.", "However, not all franchise opportunities are the same and many franchise organizations are pioneering new models that challenge antiquated structures and redefine success for the organization as well as the franchisee.A franchise can be exclusive, non-exclusive or \"sole and exclusive\".Although franchisor revenues and profit may be listed in a franchise disclosure document (FDD), no laws require an estimate of franchisee profitability, which depends on how intensively the franchisee \"works\" the franchise.", "Therefore, franchisor fees are typically based on \"gross revenue from sales\" and not on profits realized.", "See remuneration.Various tangibles and intangibles such as national or international advertising, training and other support services are commonly made available by the franchisor.Franchise brokers help franchisors find appropriate franchisees.", "There are also main 'master franchisors' who obtain the rights to sub-franchise in a territory.According to the International Franchise Association approximately 44% of all businesses in the United States are franchisee-worked." ], [ "Rationale and risk shift", "Franchising is one of the few means available to access venture capital without the need to give up control of the operation of the chain and build a distribution system for servicing it.", "After the brand and formula are carefully designed and properly executed, franchisors are able to sell franchises and expand rapidly across countries and continents using the capital and resources of their franchisees while reducing their own risk.There is also risk for the people buying the franchises.", "However, failure rates are much lower for franchise businesses than independent business startups.Franchisor rules imposed by the franchising authority are becoming increasingly strict.", "Some franchisors are using minor rule violations to terminate contracts and seize the franchise without any reimbursement." ], [ "Advantages and disadvantages of franchising as an entry mode", "Franchising brings with it several advantages and disadvantages for firms looking to expand into new areas and foreign markets.", "The primary advantage is that the firm does not have to bear the development cost and risks of opening a foreign market on its own, as the franchisee is typically responsible for those costs and risks, putting the onus on them to build a profitable operation as quickly as possible.", "Through franchising, a firm has the potential of building a global presence quickly and also at a low cost and risk.For the franchisee, the primary advantages are access to a well-known brand, support in setting up the business using operating manuals, and ongoing operational support including access to suppliers and employee training.A primary disadvantage to franchising is quality control, as the franchisor wants the firm's brand name to convey a message to consumers about the quality and consistency of the firm's product.", "They want the consumer to experience the same quality regardless of location or franchise status.", "This can prove to be an issue with franchising, as a customer who had a bad experience at one franchise may assume that they will have the same experience at other locations with other services.", "Distance can make it difficult for firms to detect whether or not the franchises are of poor quality.", "One way around this disadvantage is to set up extra subsidiaries in each country or state in which the firm expands.", "This creates a smaller number of franchisees to oversee, which will reduce the quality control challenges." ], [ "Obligations of the parties", "Each party to a franchise has several interests to protect.", "The franchisor is involved in securing protection for the trademark, controlling the business concept and securing know-how.", "The franchisee is obligated to carry out the services for which the trademark has been made prominent or famous.", "There is a great deal of standardization required.", "The place of service has to bear the franchisor's signs, logos and trademark in a prominent place.", "The uniforms worn by the staff of the franchisee have to be of a particular design and color.", "The service has to be in accordance with the pattern followed by the franchisor in the successful franchise operations.", "Thus, franchisees are not in full control of the business, as they would be in retailing.A service can be successful if equipment and supplies are purchased at a fair price from the franchisor or sources recommended by the franchisor.", "A coffee brew, for example, can be readily identified by the trademark if its raw materials come from a particular supplier.", "If the franchisor requires purchase from her stores, it may come under anti-trust legislation or equivalent laws of other countries.", "So, too, with purchases such as the uniforms of personnel and signs, as well as the franchise sites, if they are owned or controlled by the franchisor.The franchisee must carefully negotiate the license and must develop a marketing or business plan with the franchisor.", "The fees must be fully disclosed and there should not be any hidden fees.", "The start-up costs and working capital must be known before the license is granted.", "There must be assurance that additional licensees will not crowd the \"territory\" if the franchise is worked according to plan.", "The franchisee must be seen as an independent merchant.", "It must be protected by the franchisor from any trademark infringement by third parties.", "A franchise attorney is required to assist the franchisee during negotiations.Often the training period – the costs of which are in great part covered by the initial fee – is too short in cases where it is necessary to operate complicated equipment, and the franchisee has to learn on their own from instruction manuals.", "The training period must be adequate, but in low-cost franchises it may be considered expensive.", "Many franchisors have set up corporate universities to train staff online.", "This is in addition to providing literature, sales documents and email access.Also, franchise agreements carry no guarantees or warranties and the franchisee has little or no recourse to legal intervention in the event of a dispute.", "Franchise contracts tend to be unilateral and favor of the franchisor, who is generally protected from lawsuits from their franchisees because of the non-negotiable contracts that franchisees are required to acknowledge, in effect, that they are buying the franchise knowing that there is risk, and that they have not been promised success or profits by the franchisor.", "Contracts are renewable at the sole option of the franchisor.", "Most franchisors require franchisees to sign agreements that mandate where and under what law any dispute would be litigated." ], [ "Regulations", "===Australia===In 2016 there were an estimated 1,120 franchise brands operating in Australia and an estimated 79,000 units operating in business format franchises, with a total brand turnover of approximately $146 billion and a sales revenue of approximately $66.5 billion.", "In 2016 the majority of franchise brands were retailers with the largest segment being non-food retailing, accounting for 26 percent of brands, a further 19 percent of brands were involved in food retailing, 15 percent of franchisors operated in administration and support services, 10 percent in other services, 7 percent in education and training and 7 percent in rental, hire and real estate services.Franchising in Australia commenced in a significant way in the early 1970s under the influence of the franchised US fast food systems such as KFC, Pizza Hut, and McDonald's.", "It was however underway prior to this and a decade earlier in 1960 Leslie Joseph Hooker, considered a pioneer of franchising, created Australia's first national real estate agency network of Hooker real estate agencies.In Australia, franchising is regulated by the Franchising Code of Conduct, a mandatory code of conduct concluded under the Trade Practices Act 1974.The ACCC regulates the Franchising Code of Conduct, which is a mandatory industry code that applies to the parties to a franchise agreement.This code requires franchisors to produce a disclosure document which must be given to a prospective franchisee at least 14 days before the franchise agreement is entered into.The code also regulates the content of franchise agreements, for example in relation to marketing funds, a cooling-off period, termination, and the resolution of disputes by mediation.==== Franchising code of conduct ====On 1 January 2015, the old Franchising Code was repealed and replaced with a new Franchising Code of Conduct.", "The new Code applies to conduct on or after 1 January 2015.", "'''The new Code:'''* introduces an obligation under the Code for parties to act in good faith in their dealings with one another* introduces financial penalties and infringement notices for serious breaches of the Code* requires franchisors to provide prospective franchisees with a short information sheet outlining the risks and rewards of franchising* requires franchisors to provide greater transparency in the use of and accounting for money used for marketing and advertising and to set up a separate marketing fund for marketing and advertising fees* requires additional disclosure about the ability of the franchisor and a franchisee to sell online* prohibits franchisors from imposing significant capital expenditure except in limited circumstances.These are significant changes and it is important that franchisors, franchisees and potential franchises understand their rights and responsibilities under the Code.For further information about the changes to the Code, please see the updated Franchisor Compliance Manual and the Franchisee Manual.The Code explanatory materials are available from the ComLaw website (link is external).===New Zealand===New Zealand is served by around 423 franchise systems operating 450 brands, giving it the highest proportion of franchises per capita in the world.", "Despite (or because of) the 2008–2009 recession, the total number of franchised units increased by 5.3% from 2009 to 2010.There is no separate law covering franchises, so they are covered by normal commercial law.", "This functions very well in New Zealand and includes law as it applies to contracts, restrictive trade practices, intellectual property, and the law of misleading or deceptive conduct.The Franchise Association of New Zealand introduced a self-regulatory code of practice for its members in 1996.This contains many provisions similar to those of the Australian Franchising Code of Practice legislation, although only around a third of all franchises are members of the association and therefore bound by the code.A case of fraud in 2007 perpetrated by a former master franchisee of the country's largest franchise system led to a review of the need for franchise law by the Ministry of Economic Development.", "The New Zealand Government decided there was no case for franchise-specific legislation at that time.", "This decision was criticised by the opposition, which had initiated the review when in power, and the review process was questioned by a leading academic.", "The Franchise Association originally supported the positive regulation of the franchise sector but its eventual submission to the review was in favour of the status quo of self-regulation.===Brazil===By the end of 2012, about 2,031 franchise brands were operating in Brazil, with approximately 93,000 locations, making it one of the largest countries in the world in terms of number of units.", "Around 11 percent of this total were foreign-based franchisors.The Brazilian Franchise Law (Law No.", "8955 of December 15, 1994) defines the franchise as a system in which the franchisor licenses the franchisee, for a payment, the right to use a trademark or patent along with the right to distribute products or services on an exclusive or semi-exclusive basis.The provision of a \"Franchise Offer Circular\", or disclosure document, is mandatory before execution of agreement and is valid for all of the Brazilian territory.", "Failure to disclose voids the agreement, which leads to refunds and serious payments for damages.", "The Franchise Law does not distinguish between Brazilian and foreign franchisors.", "The National Institute of Industrial Property (INPI) is the registering authority.", "Indispensable documents are a Statement of Delivery (of disclosure documentation) and a Certification of Recording (INPI).", "The latter is necessary for payments.", "All sums may not be convertible into foreign currency.", "Certification may also mean compliance with Brazil's antitrust legislation.Parties to international franchising may decide to adopt the English language for the document, as long as the Brazilian party knows English fluently and expressly acknowledges that fact, to avoid translation.", "The registration accomplishes three things:: * It make the agreement effective against third parties: * It permits the remittance of payments: * It qualifies the franchisee for tax deductions.===Canada===In Canada, recent legislation has mandated better disclosure and fair treatment of franchisees.", "The regulations also ensure their right to form associations and launch collective action, even if they signed contracts prohibiting such moves.", "Franchising in Canada involves 1,300 brands, 80,000 franchise units accounting for about 20% of all consumer spending.===China===China has the most franchises in the world but the scale of their operations is relatively small.", "The average franchise system in China has about 45 outlets, compared to more than 540 in the United States.", "Together, there are 2600 brands in some 200,000 retail markets.", "KFC was the most significant foreign entry in 1987 and is widespread.", "Many franchises are in fact joint-ventures, as at their forming the franchise law was not explicit.", "For example, McDonald's is a joint venture.", "Pizza Hut, TGIF, Wal-mart, Starbucks followed not long thereafter.", "But total franchising is only 3% of retail trade, which seeks foreign franchise growth.The year 2005 saw the birth of an updated franchise law, \"Measures for the Administration of Commercial Franchise\".", "Previous legislation (1997) made no specific inclusion of foreign investors.", "Further updates were made in 2007, with the objective of increased clarity of the law.The laws are applicable if there are transactions involving a trademark combined with payments with many obligations on the franchisor.", "The law comprises 42 articles and eight chapters.Among the franchisor obligations are:* The FIE (foreign-invested enterprise) franchisor must be registered by the regulator* The franchisor (or its subsidiary) must have operated at least two company-owned franchises in China (revised to \"anywhere\") for more than 12 months (\"the two-shop, one-year\" rule)* The franchisor must disclose any information requested by the franchisee* Cross-border franchising, with some caveats, is possible (2007 law).The franchisor must meet a list of requirements for registration, among which are:* The standard franchise agreement, working manual and working capital requirements,* A track-record of operations, and ample ability to supply materials,* The ability to train the Chinese personnel and provide long-term operational guidance,* The franchise agreement must have a minimum three-year term.Among other provisions:* The franchisor is liable for certain actions of its suppliers* Monetary and other penalties apply for infractions of the regulations.The disclosure must take place 20 days in advance.", "It has to contain:* Details of the franchisor's experience in the franchised business with scope of business* Identification of the franchisor's principal officers* Litigation of the franchisor during the past five years* Full details about all franchise fees* The amount of a franchisee's initial investment* A list of the goods or services the franchisor can supply, and the terms of supply* The training franchisees will receive* Information about the trademarks, including registration, usage and litigation* Demonstration of the franchisor's capabilities to provide training and guidance* Statistics about existing units, including number, locations and operational results, and the percentage of franchises that have been terminated, and* An audited financial report and tax information (for an unspecified period of time).Other elements of this legislation are:* The franchisee's confidentiality obligations continue indefinitely after termination or expiration of the franchise agreement* If the franchisee has paid a deposit to the franchisor, it must be refunded on termination of the franchise agreement; upon termination, the franchisee is prohibited from continuing to use the franchisor's marks.===India===The franchising of foreign goods and services to India is in its infancy.", "The first International Exhibition was only held in 2009.India is, however, one of the biggest franchising markets because of its large middle-class of 300 million who are not reticent about spending and because the population is entrepreneurial in character.", "In a highly diversified society, (see Demographics of India) McDonald's is a success story despite its menu differing from that of the rest of the world.So far, franchise agreements are covered under two standard commercial laws: the Contract Act 1872 and the Specific Relief Act 1963, which provide for both specific enforcement of covenants in a contract and remedies in the form of damages for breach of contract.===Kazakhstan===In Kazakhstan franchise turnover for 2013 is 2.5 billion US$ dollars per year.", "Kazakhstan is the leader in Central Asia in the franchising market.", "A special law on franchising came into effect in 2002.There are more than 300 franchise systems and the number of franchised outlets approaches 2000.Kazakhstan franchising began with the emergence of a Coca-Cola factory, opened to sublicense a Turkish licensor of the same brand.", "The plant was built in 1994.Other brands that are also present in Kazakhstan through the franchise system include Pepsi, Hilton, Marriott, Intercontinental, and Pizza Hut.===Europe===Franchising has grown rapidly in Europe in recent years, but the industry is largely unregulated.", "The European Union has not adopted a uniform franchise law.", "Only six of the 27 member states have a pre-contract disclosure law.", "They are France (1989), Spain (1996), Romania (1997), Italy (2004), Sweden (2004) and Belgium (2005).", "Estonia and Lithuania have franchise laws that impose mandatory terms on franchise agreements.", "In Spain there is also mandatory registration on a public registry.", "Although they have no franchise specific laws, Germany and those countries with a legal system based upon that of Germany, such as Austria, Greece and Portugal, probably impose the greatest regulatory burden on franchisors due to their tendency to treat franchisees as quasi consumers in certain circumstances and the willingness of the judiciary to use the concept of good faith to make pro-franchisee decisions.", "In the UK, the recent Papa John case shows that there is also a need for pre-contractual disclosure and the Yam Seng case shows that there is a duty of good faith in franchise relationships.The European Franchising Federation's Code of Ethics has been adopted by seventeen national franchise associations.", "However this has no legal force and enforcement by the national associations is neither uniform of rigorous.", "Commentators like Dr Mark Abell, in his book \"The Law and Regulation of Franchising in the EU\" (published in 2013 by Edward Elgar, ) consider this lack of uniformity to be one of the greatest barriers to franchising realising its potential in the EU.When adopting a European strategy, it is important that a franchisor takes expert legal advice.", "Most often one of the principal tasks in Europe is to find retail space, which is not so significant a factor in the USA.", "This is where the franchise broker, or the master franchisor, plays an important role.", "Cultural factors are also relevant, as local populations tend to be heterogeneous.====France====France is one of Europe's largest markets.", "Similar to the United States, it has a long history of franchising, dating back to the 1930s.", "Growth came in the 1970s.", "The market is considered difficult for outside franchisors because of cultural characteristics, yet McDonald's and Century 21 are found everywhere.", "There are some 30 U.S. firms involved in franchising in France.There are no government agencies regulating franchises.", "The Loi Doubin Law of 1989 was the first European franchise disclosure law.", "Combined with Decree No.", "91-337, it regulates disclosure, although the decree also applies to any person who provides to another person a corporate name, trademark or trade name or other business arrangements.", "The law applies to \"exclusive or quasi-exclusive territory\".", "The disclosure document must be delivered at least 20 days before the execution of the agreement or any payments are made.The specific and important disclosures to be made are:# The date of the founding of the franchisor's enterprise and a summary of its business history and all information necessary to assess the business experience of the franchisor, including bankers,# A description of the local market for the goods or services,# The franchisor's financial statements for the previous two years,# A list of all other franchisees currently in the network,# All franchisees who have left the network during the preceding year, whether by termination or non-renewal, and# The conditions for renewal, assignment, termination and the scope of exclusivity.Initially, there was some uncertainty whether any breach of the provisions of the Doubin Law would enable the franchisee to walk away from the contract.However, the French supreme court () eventually ruled that agreements should only be annulled where missing or incorrect information affected the decision of the franchisee to enter into the agreement.", "The burden of proof is on the franchisee.Dispute settlement features are only incorporated in some European countries.", "By not being rigorous, franchising is encouraged.====Italy====Under Italian law franchise is defined as an arrangement between two financially independent parties where a franchisee is granted, in exchange for a consideration, the right to market goods and services under particular trademarks.", "In addition, articles dictate the form and content of the franchise agreement and define the documents that must be made available 30 days prior to execution.", "The franchisor must disclose::a) A summary of the franchise activities and operations,:b) A list of franchisees currently operating in the franchise system in Italy,:c) Year-by-year details of the changes in the number of franchisees for the previous three years in Italy,:d) A summary of any court or arbitral proceedings in Italy related to the franchise system, and:e) If requested by the franchisee, copies of franchisor's balance sheets for the previous three years, or since start-up if that period is shorter.====Norway====There are no specific laws regulating franchising in Norway.", "However, the Norwegian Competition Act section 10 prohibits cooperation which may prevent, limit or diminish the competition.", "This may also apply to vertical cooperation such as franchising.====Russia====In Russia, under chapter 54 of the Civil Code (passed 1996), franchise agreements are invalid unless written and registered, and franchisors cannot set standards or limits on the prices of the franchisee's goods.", "Enforcement of laws and resolution of contractual disputes is a problem: Dunkin' Donuts chose to terminate its contract with Russian franchisees who were selling vodka and meat patties contrary to their contracts, rather than pursue legal remedies.====Spain====The legal definition of franchising in Spain is an activity in which an undertaking, the franchisor, grants to another party, the franchisee, for a specific market and in exchange for financial compensation (either direct, indirect or both), the right to exploit an owned system to commercialize products or services already exploited by the franchisor with enough success and experience.The Spanish Retail Trading Act regulates franchising.", "The contents of the franchise must include, at least:* The use of a common name or brand or any other intellectual property right and a uniform presentation of the premises or the transport means included in the agreement.", "* The communication by the franchisor to the franchise of certain technical knowledge or substantial and singular know-how that has to be owned by the franchisor, and* Technical or commercial assistance or both, provided by the franchisor to the franchisee during the agreement, without prejudice to any supervision faculty to which the parties could freely agree in the contract.In Spain, the franchisor submits the disclosure information 20 days prior to signing the agreement or prior to any payment made by the franchisee to the franchisor.", "Franchisors are to disclose to the potential franchisee specific information in writing.", "This information has to be true and not misleading and include:* Identification of the franchisor;* Justification of ownership or license for use of any trademark or similar sign and judicial claims affecting them as well as the duration of the license;* General description of the sector in which the franchise operates;* Experience of the franchisor;* Contents and characteristics of the franchise and its exploitation;* Structure and extension of the network in Spain;* Essential elements of the franchise agreement.Franchisors (with some exceptions) should be registered in the Franchisors' Register and provide the requested information.", "According to the regulation in force in 2010 this obligation has to be met within three months after the start of its activities in Spain.====Turkey====Franchising is a sui generis contract which bears the characteristics of several explicitly regulated contracts such as; agency, sales contract and so forth.", "The regulations concerning these kinds of contracts in Turkish Commercial Code and in Turkish Code of Obligations are applied to franchising.", "Franchising is described in doctrine and has several essential components such as; the independence of the franchisee from the franchisor, the use of know-how and the uniformity of product and services, standard use of the brand and logo, payment of a royalty fee, increasement of sales by the franchisee and continuity.Franchising may be for a determined or undetermined period of time.", "The undetermined one can only be annulled either by a notice before a reasonable amount of time or by a just cause.", "The franchising agreement with a determined time period ends within the end of the time period if not specified otherwise in the agreement.", "However, termination based on just cause is also foreseen for franchising agreement with a determined time period.====United Kingdom====In the United Kingdom there are no franchise-specific laws, and franchises are subject to the same laws that govern other businesses.", "Even without direct legislation, judicial decisions indicate that a franchisor is expected to provide a clear disclosure of relevant facts before the franchisee enters into a franchise, and that franchisors have a duty of good faith.", "The Trading Schemes Act, which governs arrangements in which participants may receive a benefit or reward for introducing other participants to a scheme or sell goods or services provided by the person who is promoting the scheme, may apply to multi-tiered franchises.", "The industry engages in some self-regulation through the British Franchise Association (BFA) and the Quality Franchise Association (QFA).There are a number of franchise businesses which are not members of the BFA and many which do not meet the BFA membership criteria.", "Part of the BFA's role in self-regulation is to work with franchisors through the application process and recommend changes which will lead to the franchise business meeting BFA standards.", "A number of businesses that refer to themselves as franchises do not conform to the BFA Code of Ethics are therefore excluded from membership.On 22 May 2007, hearings were held in the UK Parliament concerning citizen-initiated petitions for special regulation of franchising by the government of the UK due to losses incurred by citizens who had invested in franchises.", "The Minister for Industry and the Regions, Margaret Hodge, conducted hearings but saw no need for any government regulation of franchising with the advice that government regulation of franchising might lull the public into a false sense of security.", "Mr Mark Prisk MP suggested that the costs of such regulation to the franchisee and franchisor could be prohibitive and would in any case provide a system which mirrored the work already being completed by the BFA.", "The Minister for Industry and the Regions indicated that if due diligence were performed by the investors and the banks, the current laws governing business contracts in the UK offered sufficient protection for the public and the banks.", "The debate also made reference to the self-regulatory function performed by the BFA recognizing that the association \"punched above its weight\".In the 2010 case of MGB Printing v Kall Kwik UK Ltd., the High Court established that a franchisor may assume a duty of care to a franchisee in certain circumstances.", "Kall Kwik, a design and print franchisor, had incorrectly advised MGB, who was purchasing a franchise, of the costs of undertaking refit work needed to meet Kall Kwik's franchising requirements.", "In this particular case, Kall Kwik had stated that they would provide professional advice to potential franchisees, and because they had not provided details of the fitting standards which must be met, they had encouraged MGB to rely on the advice offered by themselves.On 3 June 2021, it was announced that the Approved Franchise Association (AFA) would merge with the British Franchise Association (BFA) and that both franchise associations would operate under the BFA umbrella.===United States===Isaac Singer, who made improvements to an existing model of a sewing machine in the 1850s, began one of the first franchising efforts in the United States, followed later by Coca-Cola, Western Union, and by agreements between automobile manufacturers and dealers.Modern franchising came to prominence with the rise of franchise-based food service establishments.", "In 1932, Howard Deering Johnson established the first modern restaurant franchise based on his successful Quincy, Massachusetts Howard Johnson's restaurant founded in the late 1920s.", "The idea was to let independent operators use the same name, food, supplies, logo and even building design in exchange for a fee.", "The growth in franchising accelerated in the 1930s when such chains as Howard Johnson's started to franchise motels.", "The 1950s saw a boom in franchise chains in conjunction with the development of the U.S. Interstate Highway System and the growing popularity of fast food.The Federal Trade Commission has oversight of franchising via the FTC Franchise Rule.The FTC requires that the franchisee be furnished with a Franchise Disclosure Document (FDD) by the franchisor at least fourteen days before money changes hands or a franchise agreement is signed.", "Whereas elements of the disclosure may be available from third parties, only that provided by the franchisor can be depended upon.", "The U.S.", "Franchise Disclosure Document (FDD) is lengthy (300–700 pp +) and detailed (see Franchise Disclosure Document, above), and generally requires audited financial statements from the franchisor in a particular format, except in some circumstances, such as where a franchisor is new.", "It must include such data as the names, addresses and telephone numbers of the franchisees in the licensed territory (who may be contacted and consulted before negotiations), estimate of total franchise revenues and franchisor profitability.Individual states may require the FDD to contain their own specific requirements, but the requirements in state disclosure documents must be in compliance with the federal rule that governs federal regulatory policy.", "There is no private right of action of action under the FTC rule for franchisor violation of the rule, but fifteen or more of the states have passed statutes that provide this right of action to franchisees when fraud can be proven under these special statutes.", "The majority of franchisors have inserted mandatory arbitration clauses into their agreements with their franchisees, some of which the U.S. Supreme Court has dealt with.In response to the implementation of California Assembly Bill 5 (2019) which limits the use of classifying workers as independent contractors rather than employees in California, the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit reinstated its decision in Vazquez v. Jan-Pro which impacts California franchise law and California independent contractor law by making it unclear that if a franchisor licenses its trademark to a franchisee, whether the franchisor incurs the liabilities of an employer for a franchisee's employees.There is no federal registry of franchises or any federal filing requirements for information.", "States are the primary collectors of data on franchising companies and enforce laws and regulations regarding their presence and their spread in their jurisdictions.Where the franchisor has many partners, the agreement may take the shape of a business format franchise – an agreement that is identical for all franchisees." ], [ "Social franchises", "In recent years, the idea of franchising has been picked up by the social enterprise sector, which hopes to simplify and expedite the process of setting up new businesses.", "A number of business ideas, such as soap making, wholefood retailing, aquarium maintenance, and hotel operation have been identified as suitable for adoption by social firms employing disabled and disadvantaged people.The most successful examples are probably the ''Kringwinkel'' second-hand shops employing 5,000 people in Flanders, franchised by KOMOSIE, the CAP Markets, a steadily growing chain of 100 neighbourhood supermarkets in Germany.", "and the Hotel Tritone in Trieste, which inspired the Le Mat social franchise, now active in Italy and Sweden.Social franchising also refers to a technique used by governments and aid donors to provide essential clinical health services in the developing world.Social Franchise Enterprises objective is to achieve development goals by creating self sustainable activities by providing services and goods in un-served areas.", "They use the Franchise Model characteristics to deliver Capacity Building, Access to Market and Access to Credit/Finance." ], [ "Third-party logistics franchising", "Third-party logistics has become an increasingly more popular franchise opportunity due to the quickly growing transportation industry and low cost franchising.", "In 2012, ''Inc.", "Magazine'' ranked three logistics and transportation companies in the top 100 fastest growing companies in the annual Inc. 5000 rankings." ], [ "Event franchising", "Event franchising is the duplication of public events in other geographical areas, retaining the original brand (logo), mission, concept and format of the event.", "As in classic franchising, event franchising is built on precisely copying successful events.", "An example of event franchising is the World Economic Forum, also known as the Davos forum, which has regional event franchisees in China, Latin America, etc.", "Likewise, the alter-globalist World Social Forum has launched many national events.", "When The Music Stops is an example of an events franchise in the UK, in this case, running speed dating and singles events." ], [ "Home-based franchises", "The franchising or duplication of another firm's successful home-based business model is referred to as a home-based franchise.", "Home-based franchises are becoming popular as they are considered to be an easy way to start a business as they may provide a low barrier for entry into entrepreneurship.", "It may cost little to start a home-based franchise, but experts say that \"the work is no less hard.\"" ], [ "See also", "* American Association of Franchisees and Dealers* Franchise termination* Franchise agreement* Franchise consulting* Franchise Disclosure Document* Franchise fraud* List of franchises* The Franchise Rule* U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission* Martha Matilda Harper, another female franchising pioneer* Leslie Joseph Hooker, Australian pioneer of franchising of LJ Hooker real estate" ], [ "Further reading", "* Callaci, B.", "(2021). \"", "Control Without Responsibility: The Legal Creation of Franchising, 1960–1980.\"", "''Enterprise & Society,'' ''22''(1), 156–182." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* International Franchise Association" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Feynman diagram" ], [ "Introduction", "In this Feynman diagram, an electron ('''e−''') and a positron ('''e+''') annihilate, producing a photon ('''γ''', represented by the blue sine wave) that becomes a quark–antiquark pair (quark '''q''', antiquark '''q̄'''), after which the antiquark radiates a gluon ('''g''', represented by the green helix).Richard Feynman in 1984In theoretical physics, a '''Feynman diagram''' is a pictorial representation of the mathematical expressions describing the behavior and interaction of subatomic particles.", "The scheme is named after American physicist Richard Feynman, who introduced the diagrams in 1948.The interaction of subatomic particles can be complex and difficult to understand; Feynman diagrams give a simple visualization of what would otherwise be an arcane and abstract formula.", "According to David Kaiser, \"Since the middle of the 20th century, theoretical physicists have increasingly turned to this tool to help them undertake critical calculations.", "Feynman diagrams have revolutionized nearly every aspect of theoretical physics.\"", "While the diagrams are applied primarily to quantum field theory, they can also be used in other areas of physics, such as solid-state theory.", "Frank Wilczek wrote that the calculations that won him the 2004 Nobel Prize in Physics \"would have been literally unthinkable without Feynman diagrams, as would Wilczek's calculations that established a route to production and observation of the Higgs particle.", "\"Feynman used Ernst Stueckelberg's interpretation of the positron as if it were an electron moving backward in time.", "Thus, antiparticles are represented as moving backward along the time axis in Feynman diagrams.The calculation of probability amplitudes in theoretical particle physics requires the use of rather large and complicated integrals over a large number of variables.", "Feynman diagrams can represent these integrals graphically.A Feynman diagram is a graphical representation of a perturbative contribution to the transition amplitude or correlation function of a quantum mechanical or statistical field theory.", "Within the canonical formulation of quantum field theory, a Feynman diagram represents a term in the Wick's expansion of the perturbative -matrix.", "Alternatively, the path integral formulation of quantum field theory represents the transition amplitude as a weighted sum of all possible histories of the system from the initial to the final state, in terms of either particles or fields.", "The transition amplitude is then given as the matrix element of the -matrix between the initial and final states of the quantum system." ], [ "Motivation and history", "In this diagram, a kaon, made of an up and strange antiquark, decays both weakly and strongly into three pions, with intermediate steps involving a W boson and a gluon, represented by the blue sine wave and green spiral, respectively.When calculating scattering cross-sections in particle physics, the interaction between particles can be described by starting from a free field that describes the incoming and outgoing particles, and including an interaction Hamiltonian to describe how the particles deflect one another.", "The amplitude for scattering is the sum of each possible interaction history over all possible intermediate particle states.", "The number of times the interaction Hamiltonian acts is the order of the perturbation expansion, and the time-dependent perturbation theory for fields is known as the Dyson series.", "When the intermediate states at intermediate times are energy eigenstates (collections of particles with a definite momentum) the series is called old-fashioned perturbation theory (or time-dependent/time-ordered perturbation theory).The Dyson series can be alternatively rewritten as a sum over Feynman diagrams, where at each vertex both the energy and momentum are conserved, but where the length of the energy-momentum four-vector is not necessarily equal to the mass, i.e.", "the intermediate particles are so-called off-shell.", "The Feynman diagrams are much easier to keep track of than \"old-fashioned\" terms, because the old-fashioned way treats the particle and antiparticle contributions as separate.", "Each Feynman diagram is the sum of exponentially many old-fashioned terms, because each internal line can separately represent either a particle or an antiparticle.", "In a non-relativistic theory, there are no antiparticles and there is no doubling, so each Feynman diagram includes only one term.Feynman gave a prescription for calculating the amplitude (the Feynman rules, below) for any given diagram from a field theory Lagrangian.", "Each internal line corresponds to a factor of the virtual particle's propagator; each vertex where lines meet gives a factor derived from an interaction term in the Lagrangian, and incoming and outgoing lines carry an energy, momentum, and spin.In addition to their value as a mathematical tool, Feynman diagrams provide deep physical insight into the nature of particle interactions.", "Particles interact in every way available; in fact, intermediate virtual particles are allowed to propagate faster than light.", "The probability of each final state is then obtained by summing over all such possibilities.", "This is closely tied to the functional integral formulation of quantum mechanics, also invented by Feynman—see path integral formulation.The naïve application of such calculations often produces diagrams whose amplitudes are infinite, because the short-distance particle interactions require a careful limiting procedure, to include particle self-interactions.", "The technique of renormalization, suggested by Ernst Stueckelberg and Hans Bethe and implemented by Dyson, Feynman, Schwinger, and Tomonaga compensates for this effect and eliminates the troublesome infinities.", "After renormalization, calculations using Feynman diagrams match experimental results with very high accuracy.Feynman diagram and path integral methods are also used in statistical mechanics and can even be applied to classical mechanics.=== Alternative names ===Murray Gell-Mann always referred to Feynman diagrams as '''Stueckelberg diagrams''', after a Swiss physicist, Ernst Stueckelberg, who devised a similar notation many years earlier.", "Stueckelberg was motivated by the need for a manifestly covariant formalism for quantum field theory, but did not provide as automated a way to handle symmetry factors and loops, although he was first to find the correct physical interpretation in terms of forward and backward in time particle paths, all without the path-integral.Historically, as a book-keeping device of covariant perturbation theory, the graphs were called '''Feynman–Dyson diagrams''' or '''Dyson graphs''', because the path integral was unfamiliar when they were introduced, and Freeman Dyson's derivation from old-fashioned perturbation theory borrowed from the perturbative expansions in statistical mechanics was easier to follow for physicists trained in earlier methods.", "Feynman had to lobby hard for the diagrams, which confused the establishment physicists trained in equations and graphs." ], [ "Representation of physical reality", "In their presentations of fundamental interactions, written from the particle physics perspective, Gerard 't Hooft and Martinus Veltman gave good arguments for taking the original, non-regularized Feynman diagrams as the most succinct representation of our present knowledge about the physics of quantum scattering of fundamental particles.", "Their motivations are consistent with the convictions of James Daniel Bjorken and Sidney Drell:The Feynman graphs and rules of calculation summarize quantum field theory in a form in close contact with the experimental numbers one wants to understand.", "Although the statement of the theory in terms of graphs may imply perturbation theory, use of graphical methods in the many-body problem shows that this formalism is flexible enough to deal with phenomena of nonperturbative characters ...", "Some modification of the Feynman rules of calculation may well outlive the elaborate mathematical structure of local canonical quantum field theory ...In quantum field theories the Feynman diagrams are obtained from a Lagrangian by Feynman rules.Dimensional regularization is a method for regularizing integrals in the evaluation of Feynman diagrams; it assigns values to them that are meromorphic functions of an auxiliary complex parameter , called the dimension.", "Dimensional regularization writes a Feynman integral as an integral depending on the spacetime dimension and spacetime points." ], [ "Particle-path interpretation", "A Feynman diagram is a representation of quantum field theory processes in terms of particle interactions.", "The particles are represented by the lines of the diagram, which can be squiggly or straight, with an arrow or without, depending on the type of particle.", "A point where lines connect to other lines is a ''vertex'', and this is where the particles meet and interact: by emitting or absorbing new particles, deflecting one another, or changing type.There are three different types of lines: ''internal lines'' connect two vertices, ''incoming lines'' extend from \"the past\" to a vertex and represent an initial state, and ''outgoing lines'' extend from a vertex to \"the future\" and represent the final state (the latter two are also known as ''external lines'').", "Traditionally, the bottom of the diagram is the past and the top the future; other times, the past is to the left and the future to the right.", "When calculating correlation functions instead of scattering amplitudes, there is no past and future and all the lines are internal.", "The particles then begin and end on little x's, which represent the positions of the operators whose correlation is being calculated.Feynman diagrams are a pictorial representation of a contribution to the total amplitude for a process that can happen in several different ways.", "When a group of incoming particles are to scatter off each other, the process can be thought of as one where the particles travel over all possible paths, including paths that go backward in time.Feynman diagrams are often confused with spacetime diagrams and bubble chamber images because they all describe particle scattering.", "Feynman diagrams are graphs that represent the interaction of particles rather than the physical position of the particle during a scattering process.", "Unlike a bubble chamber picture, only the sum of all the Feynman diagrams represent any given particle interaction; particles do not choose a particular diagram each time they interact.", "The law of summation is in accord with the principle of superposition—every diagram contributes to the total amplitude for the process." ], [ "Description", "General features of the scattering process A + B → C + D:• internal lines '''(red)''' for intermediate particles and processes, which has a propagator factor (\"prop\"), external lines '''(orange)''' for incoming/outgoing particles to/from vertices '''(black)''',• at each vertex there is 4-momentum conservation using delta functions, 4-momenta entering the vertex are positive while those leaving are negative, the factors at each vertex and internal line are multiplied in the amplitude integral,• space and time axes are not always shown, directions of external lines correspond to passage of time.A Feynman diagram represents a perturbative contribution to the amplitude of a quantum transition from some initial quantum state to some final quantum state.For example, in the process of electron-positron annihilation the initial state is one electron and one positron, the final state: two photons.The initial state is often assumed to be at the left of the diagram and the final state at the right (although other conventions are also used quite often).A Feynman diagram consists of points, called vertices, and lines attached to the vertices.The particles in the initial state are depicted by lines sticking out in the direction of the initial state (e.g., to the left), the particles in the final state are represented by lines sticking out in the direction of the final state (e.g., to the right).In QED there are two types of particles: matter particles such as electrons or positrons (called fermions) and exchange particles (called gauge bosons).", "They are represented in Feynman diagrams as follows:# Electron in the initial state is represented by a solid line, with an arrow indicating the spin of the particle e.g.", "pointing toward the vertex (→•).# Electron in the final state is represented by a line, with an arrow indicating the spin of the particle e.g.", "pointing away from the vertex: (•→).# Positron in the initial state is represented by a solid line, with an arrow indicating the spin of the particle e.g.", "pointing away from the vertex: (←•).# Positron in the final state is represented by a line, with an arrow indicating the spin of the particle e.g.", "pointing toward the vertex: (•←).# Virtual Photon in the initial and the final state is represented by a wavy line (~• and •~).In QED a vertex always has three lines attached to it: one bosonic line, one fermionic line with arrow toward the vertex, and one fermionic line with arrow away from the vertex.The vertices might be connected by a bosonic or fermionic propagator.", "A bosonic propagator is represented by a wavy line connecting two vertices (•~•).", "A fermionic propagator is represented by a solid line (with an arrow in one or another direction) connecting two vertices, (•←•).The number of vertices gives the order of the term in the perturbation series expansion of the transition amplitude.=== Electron–positron annihilation example ===Feynman diagram of electron/positron annihilationThe electron–positron annihilation interaction::e+ + e− → 2γhas a contribution from the second order Feynman diagram shown adjacent:In the initial state (at the bottom; early time) there is one electron (e−) and one positron (e+) and in the final state (at the top; late time) there are two photons (γ)." ], [ "Canonical quantization formulation", "The probability amplitude for a transition of a quantum system (between asymptotically free states) from the initial state to the final state is given by the matrix element:where is the -matrix.", "In terms of the time-evolution operator , it is simply:In the interaction picture, this expands to:where is the interaction Hamiltonian and signifies the time-ordered product of operators.", "Dyson's formula expands the time-ordered matrix exponential into a perturbation series in the powers of the interaction Hamiltonian density,:Equivalently, with the interaction Lagrangian , it is:A Feynman diagram is a graphical representation of a single summand in the Wick's expansion of the time-ordered product in the th-order term of the Dyson series of the -matrix,:where signifies the normal-ordered product of the operators and (±) takes care of the possible sign change when commuting the fermionic operators to bring them together for a contraction (a propagator) and represents all possible contractions.=== Feynman rules ===The diagrams are drawn according to the Feynman rules, which depend upon the interaction Lagrangian.", "For the QED interaction Lagrangian:describing the interaction of a fermionic field with a bosonic gauge field , the Feynman rules can be formulated in coordinate space as follows:# Each integration coordinate is represented by a point (sometimes called a vertex);# A bosonic propagator is represented by a wiggly line connecting two points;# A fermionic propagator is represented by a solid line connecting two points;# A bosonic field is represented by a wiggly line attached to the point ;# A fermionic field is represented by a solid line attached to the point with an arrow toward the point;# An anti-fermionic field is represented by a solid line attached to the point with an arrow away from the point;=== Example: second order processes in QED ===The second order perturbation term in the -matrix is:==== Scattering of fermions ==== The Feynman diagram of the term The Wick's expansion of the integrand gives (among others) the following term:where:is the electromagnetic contraction (propagator) in the Feynman gauge.", "This term is represented by the Feynman diagram at the right.", "This diagram gives contributions to the following processes:# e− e− scattering (initial state at the right, final state at the left of the diagram);# e+ e+ scattering (initial state at the left, final state at the right of the diagram);# e− e+ scattering (initial state at the bottom/top, final state at the top/bottom of the diagram).==== Compton scattering and annihilation/generation of e− e+ pairs ====Another interesting term in the expansion is:where:is the fermionic contraction (propagator)." ], [ "Path integral formulation", "In a path integral, the field Lagrangian, integrated over all possible field histories, defines the probability amplitude to go from one field configuration to another.", "In order to make sense, the field theory should have a well-defined ground state, and the integral should be performed a little bit rotated into imaginary time, i.e.", "a Wick rotation.", "The path integral formalism is completely equivalent to the canonical operator formalism above.=== Scalar field Lagrangian ===A simple example is the free relativistic scalar field in dimensions, whose action integral is::The probability amplitude for a process is::where and are space-like hypersurfaces that define the boundary conditions.", "The collection of all the on the starting hypersurface give the initial value of the field, analogous to the starting position for a point particle, and the field values at each point of the final hypersurface defines the final field value, which is allowed to vary, giving a different amplitude to end up at different values.", "This is the field-to-field transition amplitude.The path integral gives the expectation value of operators between the initial and final state::and in the limit that A and B recede to the infinite past and the infinite future, the only contribution that matters is from the ground state (this is only rigorously true if the path-integral is defined slightly rotated into imaginary time).", "The path integral can be thought of as analogous to a probability distribution, and it is convenient to define it so that multiplying by a constant does not change anything::The normalization factor on the bottom is called the ''partition function'' for the field, and it coincides with the statistical mechanical partition function at zero temperature when rotated into imaginary time.The initial-to-final amplitudes are ill-defined if one thinks of the continuum limit right from the beginning, because the fluctuations in the field can become unbounded.", "So the path-integral can be thought of as on a discrete square lattice, with lattice spacing and the limit should be taken carefully.", "If the final results do not depend on the shape of the lattice or the value of , then the continuum limit exists.=== On a lattice ===On a lattice, (i), the field can be expanded in Fourier modes::Here the integration domain is over restricted to a cube of side length , so that large values of are not allowed.", "It is important to note that the -measure contains the factors of 2 from Fourier transforms, this is the best standard convention for -integrals in QFT.", "The lattice means that fluctuations at large are not allowed to contribute right away, they only start to contribute in the limit .", "Sometimes, instead of a lattice, the field modes are just cut off at high values of instead.It is also convenient from time to time to consider the space-time volume to be finite, so that the modes are also a lattice.", "This is not strictly as necessary as the space-lattice limit, because interactions in are not localized, but it is convenient for keeping track of the factors in front of the -integrals and the momentum-conserving delta functions that will arise.On a lattice, (ii), the action needs to be discretized::where is a pair of nearest lattice neighbors and .", "The discretization should be thought of as defining what the derivative means.In terms of the lattice Fourier modes, the action can be written::For near zero this is::Now we have the continuum Fourier transform of the original action.", "In finite volume, the quantity is not infinitesimal, but becomes the volume of a box made by neighboring Fourier modes, or .The field is real-valued, so the Fourier transform obeys::In terms of real and imaginary parts, the real part of is an even function of , while the imaginary part is odd.", "The Fourier transform avoids double-counting, so that it can be written::over an integration domain that integrates over each pair exactly once.For a complex scalar field with action:the Fourier transform is unconstrained::and the integral is over all .Integrating over all different values of is equivalent to integrating over all Fourier modes, because taking a Fourier transform is a unitary linear transformation of field coordinates.", "When you change coordinates in a multidimensional integral by a linear transformation, the value of the new integral is given by the determinant of the transformation matrix.", "If:then:If is a rotation, then:so that , and the sign depends on whether the rotation includes a reflection or not.The matrix that changes coordinates from to can be read off from the definition of a Fourier transform.", ":and the Fourier inversion theorem tells you the inverse::which is the complex conjugate-transpose, up to factors of 2.On a finite volume lattice, the determinant is nonzero and independent of the field values.", ":and the path integral is a separate factor at each value of .", ":The factor is the infinitesimal volume of a discrete cell in -space, in a square lattice box:where is the side-length of the box.", "Each separate factor is an oscillatory Gaussian, and the width of the Gaussian diverges as the volume goes to infinity.In imaginary time, the ''Euclidean action'' becomes positive definite, and can be interpreted as a probability distribution.", "The probability of a field having values is:The expectation value of the field is the statistical expectation value of the field when chosen according to the probability distribution::Since the probability of is a product, the value of at each separate value of is independently Gaussian distributed.", "The variance of the Gaussian is , which is formally infinite, but that just means that the fluctuations are unbounded in infinite volume.", "In any finite volume, the integral is replaced by a discrete sum, and the variance of the integral is .=== Monte Carlo ===The path integral defines a probabilistic algorithm to generate a Euclidean scalar field configuration.", "Randomly pick the real and imaginary parts of each Fourier mode at wavenumber to be a Gaussian random variable with variance .", "This generates a configuration at random, and the Fourier transform gives .", "For real scalar fields, the algorithm must generate only one of each pair , and make the second the complex conjugate of the first.To find any correlation function, generate a field again and again by this procedure, and find the statistical average::where is the number of configurations, and the sum is of the product of the field values on each configuration.", "The Euclidean correlation function is just the same as the correlation function in statistics or statistical mechanics.", "The quantum mechanical correlation functions are an analytic continuation of the Euclidean correlation functions.For free fields with a quadratic action, the probability distribution is a high-dimensional Gaussian, and the statistical average is given by an explicit formula.", "But the Monte Carlo method also works well for bosonic interacting field theories where there is no closed form for the correlation functions.=== Scalar propagator ===Each mode is independently Gaussian distributed.", "The expectation of field modes is easy to calculate::for , since then the two Gaussian random variables are independent and both have zero mean.", ":in finite volume , when the two -values coincide, since this is the variance of the Gaussian.", "In the infinite volume limit,:Strictly speaking, this is an approximation: the lattice propagator is::But near , for field fluctuations long compared to the lattice spacing, the two forms coincide.It is important to emphasize that the delta functions contain factors of 2, so that they cancel out the 2 factors in the measure for integrals.", ":where is the ordinary one-dimensional Dirac delta function.", "This convention for delta-functions is not universal—some authors keep the factors of 2 in the delta functions (and in the -integration) explicit.=== Equation of motion ===The form of the propagator can be more easily found by using the equation of motion for the field.", "From the Lagrangian, the equation of motion is::and in an expectation value, this says::Where the derivatives act on , and the identity is true everywhere except when and coincide, and the operator order matters.", "The form of the singularity can be understood from the canonical commutation relations to be a delta-function.", "Defining the (Euclidean) ''Feynman propagator'' as the Fourier transform of the time-ordered two-point function (the one that comes from the path-integral)::So that::If the equations of motion are linear, the propagator will always be the reciprocal of the quadratic-form matrix that defines the free Lagrangian, since this gives the equations of motion.", "This is also easy to see directly from the path integral.", "The factor of disappears in the Euclidean theory.==== Wick theorem ====Because each field mode is an independent Gaussian, the expectation values for the product of many field modes obeys ''Wick's theorem''::is zero unless the field modes coincide in pairs.", "This means that it is zero for an odd number of , and for an even number of , it is equal to a contribution from each pair separately, with a delta function.", ":where the sum is over each partition of the field modes into pairs, and the product is over the pairs.", "For example,:An interpretation of Wick's theorem is that each field insertion can be thought of as a dangling line, and the expectation value is calculated by linking up the lines in pairs, putting a delta function factor that ensures that the momentum of each partner in the pair is equal, and dividing by the propagator.==== Higher Gaussian moments — completing Wick's theorem ====There is a subtle point left before Wick's theorem is proved—what if more than two of the s have the same momentum?", "If it's an odd number, the integral is zero; negative values cancel with the positive values.", "But if the number is even, the integral is positive.", "The previous demonstration assumed that the s would only match up in pairs.But the theorem is correct even when arbitrarily many of the are equal, and this is a notable property of Gaussian integration:::Dividing by ,::If Wick's theorem were correct, the higher moments would be given by all possible pairings of a list of different ::where the are all the same variable, the index is just to keep track of the number of ways to pair them.", "The first can be paired with others, leaving .", "The next unpaired can be paired with different leaving , and so on.", "This means that Wick's theorem, uncorrected, says that the expectation value of should be::and this is in fact the correct answer.", "So Wick's theorem holds no matter how many of the momenta of the internal variables coincide.==== Interaction ====Interactions are represented by higher order contributions, since quadratic contributions are always Gaussian.", "The simplest interaction is the quartic self-interaction, with an action::The reason for the combinatorial factor 4!", "will be clear soon.", "Writing the action in terms of the lattice (or continuum) Fourier modes::Where is the free action, whose correlation functions are given by Wick's theorem.", "The exponential of in the path integral can be expanded in powers of , giving a series of corrections to the free action.", ":The path integral for the interacting action is then a power series of corrections to the free action.", "The term represented by should be thought of as four half-lines, one for each factor of .", "The half-lines meet at a vertex, which contributes a delta-function that ensures that the sum of the momenta are all equal.To compute a correlation function in the interacting theory, there is a contribution from the terms now.", "For example, the path-integral for the four-field correlator::which in the free field was only nonzero when the momenta were equal in pairs, is now nonzero for all values of .", "The momenta of the insertions can now match up with the momenta of the s in the expansion.", "The insertions should also be thought of as half-lines, four in this case, which carry a momentum , but one that is not integrated.The lowest-order contribution comes from the first nontrivial term in the Taylor expansion of the action.", "Wick's theorem requires that the momenta in the half-lines, the factors in , should match up with the momenta of the external half-lines in pairs.", "The new contribution is equal to::The 4!", "inside is canceled because there are exactly 4!", "ways to match the half-lines in to the external half-lines.", "Each of these different ways of matching the half-lines together in pairs contributes exactly once, regardless of the values of , by Wick's theorem.==== Feynman diagrams ====The expansion of the action in powers of gives a series of terms with progressively higher number of s. The contribution from the term with exactly s is called th order.The th order terms has:# internal half-lines, which are the factors of from the s. These all end on a vertex, and are integrated over all possible .# external half-lines, which are the come from the insertions in the integral.By Wick's theorem, each pair of half-lines must be paired together to make a ''line'', and this line gives a factor of:which multiplies the contribution.", "This means that the two half-lines that make a line are forced to have equal and opposite momentum.", "The line itself should be labelled by an arrow, drawn parallel to the line, and labeled by the momentum in the line .", "The half-line at the tail end of the arrow carries momentum , while the half-line at the head-end carries momentum .", "If one of the two half-lines is external, this kills the integral over the internal , since it forces the internal to be equal to the external .", "If both are internal, the integral over remains.The diagrams that are formed by linking the half-lines in the s with the external half-lines, representing insertions, are the Feynman diagrams of this theory.", "Each line carries a factor of , the propagator, and either goes from vertex to vertex, or ends at an insertion.", "If it is internal, it is integrated over.", "At each vertex, the total incoming is equal to the total outgoing .The number of ways of making a diagram by joining half-lines into lines almost completely cancels the factorial factors coming from the Taylor series of the exponential and the 4!", "at each vertex.==== Loop order ====A forest diagram is one where all the internal lines have momentum that is completely determined by the external lines and the condition that the incoming and outgoing momentum are equal at each vertex.", "The contribution of these diagrams is a product of propagators, without any integration.", "A tree diagram is a connected forest diagram.An example of a tree diagram is the one where each of four external lines end on an .", "Another is when three external lines end on an , and the remaining half-line joins up with another , and the remaining half-lines of this run off to external lines.", "These are all also forest diagrams (as every tree is a forest); an example of a forest that is not a tree is when eight external lines end on two s.It is easy to verify that in all these cases, the momenta on all the internal lines is determined by the external momenta and the condition of momentum conservation in each vertex.A diagram that is not a forest diagram is called a ''loop'' diagram, and an example is one where two lines of an are joined to external lines, while the remaining two lines are joined to each other.", "The two lines joined to each other can have any momentum at all, since they both enter and leave the same vertex.", "A more complicated example is one where two s are joined to each other by matching the legs one to the other.", "This diagram has no external lines at all.The reason loop diagrams are called loop diagrams is because the number of -integrals that are left undetermined by momentum conservation is equal to the number of independent closed loops in the diagram, where independent loops are counted as in homology theory.", "The homology is real-valued (actually valued), the value associated with each line is the momentum.", "The boundary operator takes each line to the sum of the end-vertices with a positive sign at the head and a negative sign at the tail.", "The condition that the momentum is conserved is exactly the condition that the boundary of the -valued weighted graph is zero.A set of valid -values can be arbitrarily redefined whenever there is a closed loop.", "A closed loop is a cyclical path of adjacent vertices that never revisits the same vertex.", "Such a cycle can be thought of as the boundary of a hypothetical 2-cell.", "The -labellings of a graph that conserve momentum (i.e.", "which has zero boundary) up to redefinitions of (i.e.", "up to boundaries of 2-cells) define the first homology of a graph.", "The number of independent momenta that are not determined is then equal to the number of independent homology loops.", "For many graphs, this is equal to the number of loops as counted in the most intuitive way.==== Symmetry factors ====The number of ways to form a given Feynman diagram by joining together half-lines is large, and by Wick's theorem, each way of pairing up the half-lines contributes equally.", "Often, this completely cancels the factorials in the denominator of each term, but the cancellation is sometimes incomplete.The uncancelled denominator is called the ''symmetry factor'' of the diagram.", "The contribution of each diagram to the correlation function must be divided by its symmetry factor.For example, consider the Feynman diagram formed from two external lines joined to one , and the remaining two half-lines in the joined to each other.", "There are 4 × 3 ways to join the external half-lines to the , and then there is only one way to join the two remaining lines to each other.", "The comes divided by , but the number of ways to link up the half lines to make the diagram is only 4 × 3, so the contribution of this diagram is divided by two.For another example, consider the diagram formed by joining all the half-lines of one to all the half-lines of another .", "This diagram is called a ''vacuum bubble'', because it does not link up to any external lines.", "There are 4!", "ways to form this diagram, but the denominator includes a 2!", "(from the expansion of the exponential, there are two s) and two factors of 4!.", "The contribution is multiplied by = .Another example is the Feynman diagram formed from two s where each links up to two external lines, and the remaining two half-lines of each are joined to each other.", "The number of ways to link an to two external lines is 4 × 3, and either could link up to either pair, giving an additional factor of 2.The remaining two half-lines in the two s can be linked to each other in two ways, so that the total number of ways to form the diagram is , while the denominator is .", "The total symmetry factor is 2, and the contribution of this diagram is divided by 2.The symmetry factor theorem gives the symmetry factor for a general diagram: the contribution of each Feynman diagram must be divided by the order of its group of automorphisms, the number of symmetries that it has.An automorphism of a Feynman graph is a permutation of the lines and a permutation of the vertices with the following properties:# If a line goes from vertex to vertex , then goes from to .", "If the line is undirected, as it is for a real scalar field, then can go from to too.# If a line ends on an external line, ends on the same external line.# If there are different types of lines, should preserve the type.This theorem has an interpretation in terms of particle-paths: when identical particles are present, the integral over all intermediate particles must not double-count states that differ only by interchanging identical particles.Proof: To prove this theorem, label all the internal and external lines of a diagram with a unique name.", "Then form the diagram by linking a half-line to a name and then to the other half line.Now count the number of ways to form the named diagram.", "Each permutation of the s gives a different pattern of linking names to half-lines, and this is a factor of .", "Each permutation of the half-lines in a single gives a factor of 4!.", "So a named diagram can be formed in exactly as many ways as the denominator of the Feynman expansion.But the number of unnamed diagrams is smaller than the number of named diagram by the order of the automorphism group of the graph.==== Connected diagrams: ''linked-cluster theorem'' ====Roughly speaking, a Feynman diagram is called ''connected'' if all vertices and propagator lines are linked by a sequence of vertices and propagators of the diagram itself.", "If one views it as an undirected graph it is connected.", "The remarkable relevance of such diagrams in QFTs is due to the fact that they are sufficient to determine the quantum partition function .", "More precisely, connected Feynman diagrams determine:To see this, one should recall that:with constructed from some (arbitrary) Feynman diagram that can be thought to consist of several connected components .", "If one encounters (identical) copies of a component within the Feynman diagram one has to include a ''symmetry factor'' .", "However, in the end each contribution of a Feynman diagram to the partition function has the generic form:where labels the (infinitely) many connected Feynman diagrams possible.A scheme to successively create such contributions from the to is obtained by:and therefore yields:To establish the ''normalization'' one simply calculates all connected ''vacuum diagrams'', i.e., the diagrams without any ''sources'' (sometimes referred to as ''external legs'' of a Feynman diagram).==== Vacuum bubbles ====An immediate consequence of the linked-cluster theorem is that all vacuum bubbles, diagrams without external lines, cancel when calculating correlation functions.", "A correlation function is given by a ratio of path-integrals::The top is the sum over all Feynman diagrams, including disconnected diagrams that do not link up to external lines at all.", "In terms of the connected diagrams, the numerator includes the same contributions of vacuum bubbles as the denominator::Where the sum over diagrams includes only those diagrams each of whose connected components end on at least one external line.", "The vacuum bubbles are the same whatever the external lines, and give an overall multiplicative factor.", "The denominator is the sum over all vacuum bubbles, and dividing gets rid of the second factor.The vacuum bubbles then are only useful for determining itself, which from the definition of the path integral is equal to::where is the energy density in the vacuum.", "Each vacuum bubble contains a factor of zeroing the total at each vertex, and when there are no external lines, this contains a factor of , because the momentum conservation is over-enforced.", "In finite volume, this factor can be identified as the total volume of space time.", "Dividing by the volume, the remaining integral for the vacuum bubble has an interpretation: it is a contribution to the energy density of the vacuum.==== Sources ====Correlation functions are the sum of the connected Feynman diagrams, but the formalism treats the connected and disconnected diagrams differently.", "Internal lines end on vertices, while external lines go off to insertions.", "Introducing ''sources'' unifies the formalism, by making new vertices where one line can end.Sources are external fields, fields that contribute to the action, but are not dynamical variables.", "A scalar field source is another scalar field that contributes a term to the (Lorentz) Lagrangian::In the Feynman expansion, this contributes H terms with one half-line ending on a vertex.", "Lines in a Feynman diagram can now end either on an vertex, or on an vertex, and only one line enters an vertex.", "The Feynman rule for an vertex is that a line from an with momentum gets a factor of .The sum of the connected diagrams in the presence of sources includes a term for each connected diagram in the absence of sources, except now the diagrams can end on the source.", "Traditionally, a source is represented by a little \"×\" with one line extending out, exactly as an insertion.", ":where is the connected diagram with external lines carrying momentum as indicated.", "The sum is over all connected diagrams, as before.The field is not dynamical, which means that there is no path integral over : is just a parameter in the Lagrangian, which varies from point to point.", "The path integral for the field is::and it is a function of the values of at every point.", "One way to interpret this expression is that it is taking the Fourier transform in field space.", "If there is a probability density on , the Fourier transform of the probability density is::The Fourier transform is the expectation of an oscillatory exponential.", "The path integral in the presence of a source is::which, on a lattice, is the product of an oscillatory exponential for each field value::The Fourier transform of a delta-function is a constant, which gives a formal expression for a delta function::This tells you what a field delta function looks like in a path-integral.", "For two scalar fields and ,:which integrates over the Fourier transform coordinate, over .", "This expression is useful for formally changing field coordinates in the path integral, much as a delta function is used to change coordinates in an ordinary multi-dimensional integral.The partition function is now a function of the field , and the physical partition function is the value when is the zero function:The correlation functions are derivatives of the path integral with respect to the source::In Euclidean space, source contributions to the action can still appear with a factor of , so that they still do a Fourier transform.=== Spin ; \"photons\" and \"ghosts\" ======= Spin : Grassmann integrals ====The field path integral can be extended to the Fermi case, but only if the notion of integration is expanded.", "A Grassmann integral of a free Fermi field is a high-dimensional determinant or Pfaffian, which defines the new type of Gaussian integration appropriate for Fermi fields.The two fundamental formulas of Grassmann integration are::where is an arbitrary matrix and are independent Grassmann variables for each index , and:where is an antisymmetric matrix, is a collection of Grassmann variables, and the is to prevent double-counting (since ).In matrix notation, where and are Grassmann-valued row vectors, and are Grassmann-valued column vectors, and is a real-valued matrix::where the last equality is a consequence of the translation invariance of the Grassmann integral.", "The Grassmann variables are external sources for , and differentiating with respect to pulls down factors of .", ":again, in a schematic matrix notation.", "The meaning of the formula above is that the derivative with respect to the appropriate component of and gives the matrix element of .", "This is exactly analogous to the bosonic path integration formula for a Gaussian integral of a complex bosonic field:::So that the propagator is the inverse of the matrix in the quadratic part of the action in both the Bose and Fermi case.For real Grassmann fields, for Majorana fermions, the path integral is a Pfaffian times a source quadratic form, and the formulas give the square root of the determinant, just as they do for real Bosonic fields.", "The propagator is still the inverse of the quadratic part.The free Dirac Lagrangian::formally gives the equations of motion and the anticommutation relations of the Dirac field, just as the Klein Gordon Lagrangian in an ordinary path integral gives the equations of motion and commutation relations of the scalar field.", "By using the spatial Fourier transform of the Dirac field as a new basis for the Grassmann algebra, the quadratic part of the Dirac action becomes simple to invert::The propagator is the inverse of the matrix linking and , since different values of do not mix together.", ":The analog of Wick's theorem matches and in pairs::where S is the sign of the permutation that reorders the sequence of and to put the ones that are paired up to make the delta-functions next to each other, with the coming right before the .", "Since a pair is a commuting element of the Grassmann algebra, it does not matter what order the pairs are in.", "If more than one pair have the same , the integral is zero, and it is easy to check that the sum over pairings gives zero in this case (there are always an even number of them).", "This is the Grassmann analog of the higher Gaussian moments that completed the Bosonic Wick's theorem earlier.The rules for spin- Dirac particles are as follows: The propagator is the inverse of the Dirac operator, the lines have arrows just as for a complex scalar field, and the diagram acquires an overall factor of −1 for each closed Fermi loop.", "If there are an odd number of Fermi loops, the diagram changes sign.", "Historically, the −1 rule was very difficult for Feynman to discover.", "He discovered it after a long process of trial and error, since he lacked a proper theory of Grassmann integration.The rule follows from the observation that the number of Fermi lines at a vertex is always even.", "Each term in the Lagrangian must always be Bosonic.", "A Fermi loop is counted by following Fermionic lines until one comes back to the starting point, then removing those lines from the diagram.", "Repeating this process eventually erases all the Fermionic lines: this is the Euler algorithm to 2-color a graph, which works whenever each vertex has even degree.", "The number of steps in the Euler algorithm is only equal to the number of independent Fermionic homology cycles in the common special case that all terms in the Lagrangian are exactly quadratic in the Fermi fields, so that each vertex has exactly two Fermionic lines.", "When there are four-Fermi interactions (like in the Fermi effective theory of the weak nuclear interactions) there are more -integrals than Fermi loops.", "In this case, the counting rule should apply the Euler algorithm by pairing up the Fermi lines at each vertex into pairs that together form a bosonic factor of the term in the Lagrangian, and when entering a vertex by one line, the algorithm should always leave with the partner line.To clarify and prove the rule, consider a Feynman diagram formed from vertices, terms in the Lagrangian, with Fermion fields.", "The full term is Bosonic, it is a commuting element of the Grassmann algebra, so the order in which the vertices appear is not important.", "The Fermi lines are linked into loops, and when traversing the loop, one can reorder the vertex terms one after the other as one goes around without any sign cost.", "The exception is when you return to the starting point, and the final half-line must be joined with the unlinked first half-line.", "This requires one permutation to move the last to go in front of the first , and this gives the sign.This rule is the only visible effect of the exclusion principle in internal lines.", "When there are external lines, the amplitudes are antisymmetric when two Fermi insertions for identical particles are interchanged.", "This is automatic in the source formalism, because the sources for Fermi fields are themselves Grassmann valued.==== Spin 1: photons ====The naive propagator for photons is infinite, since the Lagrangian for the A-field is::The quadratic form defining the propagator is non-invertible.", "The reason is the gauge invariance of the field; adding a gradient to does not change the physics.To fix this problem, one needs to fix a gauge.", "The most convenient way is to demand that the divergence of is some function , whose value is random from point to point.", "It does no harm to integrate over the values of , since it only determines the choice of gauge.", "This procedure inserts the following factor into the path integral for ::The first factor, the delta function, fixes the gauge.", "The second factor sums over different values of that are inequivalent gauge fixings.", "This is simply:The additional contribution from gauge-fixing cancels the second half of the free Lagrangian, giving the Feynman Lagrangian::which is just like four independent free scalar fields, one for each component of .", "The Feynman propagator is::The one difference is that the sign of one propagator is wrong in the Lorentz case: the timelike component has an opposite sign propagator.", "This means that these particle states have negative norm—they are not physical states.", "In the case of photons, it is easy to show by diagram methods that these states are not physical—their contribution cancels with longitudinal photons to only leave two physical photon polarization contributions for any value of .If the averaging over is done with a coefficient different from , the two terms do not cancel completely.", "This gives a covariant Lagrangian with a coefficient , which does not affect anything::and the covariant propagator for QED is::==== Spin 1: non-Abelian ghosts ====To find the Feynman rules for non-Abelian gauge fields, the procedure that performs the gauge fixing must be carefully corrected to account for a change of variables in the path-integral.The gauge fixing factor has an extra determinant from popping the delta function::To find the form of the determinant, consider first a simple two-dimensional integral of a function that depends only on , not on the angle .", "Inserting an integral over ::The derivative-factor ensures that popping the delta function in removes the integral.", "Exchanging the order of integration,:but now the delta-function can be popped in ,:The integral over just gives an overall factor of 2, while the rate of change of with a change in is just , so this exercise reproduces the standard formula for polar integration of a radial function::In the path-integral for a nonabelian gauge field, the analogous manipulation is::The factor in front is the volume of the gauge group, and it contributes a constant, which can be discarded.", "The remaining integral is over the gauge fixed action.", ":To get a covariant gauge, the gauge fixing condition is the same as in the Abelian case::Whose variation under an infinitesimal gauge transformation is given by::where is the adjoint valued element of the Lie algebra at every point that performs the infinitesimal gauge transformation.", "This adds the Faddeev Popov determinant to the action::which can be rewritten as a Grassmann integral by introducing ghost fields::The determinant is independent of , so the path-integral over can give the Feynman propagator (or a covariant propagator) by choosing the measure for as in the abelian case.", "The full gauge fixed action is then the Yang Mills action in Feynman gauge with an additional ghost action::The diagrams are derived from this action.", "The propagator for the spin-1 fields has the usual Feynman form.", "There are vertices of degree 3 with momentum factors whose couplings are the structure constants, and vertices of degree 4 whose couplings are products of structure constants.", "There are additional ghost loops, which cancel out timelike and longitudinal states in loops.In the Abelian case, the determinant for covariant gauges does not depend on , so the ghosts do not contribute to the connected diagrams." ], [ "Particle-path representation", "Feynman diagrams were originally discovered by Feynman, by trial and error, as a way to represent the contribution to the S-matrix from different classes of particle trajectories.=== Schwinger representation ===The Euclidean scalar propagator has a suggestive representation::The meaning of this identity (which is an elementary integration) is made clearer by Fourier transforming to real space.", ":The contribution at any one value of to the propagator is a Gaussian of width .", "The total propagation function from 0 to is a weighted sum over all proper times of a normalized Gaussian, the probability of ending up at after a random walk of time .The path-integral representation for the propagator is then::which is a path-integral rewrite of the '''Schwinger representation'''.The Schwinger representation is both useful for making manifest the particle aspect of the propagator, and for symmetrizing denominators of loop diagrams.=== Combining denominators ===The Schwinger representation has an immediate practical application to loop diagrams.", "For example, for the diagram in the theory formed by joining two s together in two half-lines, and making the remaining lines external, the integral over the internal propagators in the loop is:: Here one line carries momentum and the other .", "The asymmetry can be fixed by putting everything in the Schwinger representation.", ":Now the exponent mostly depends on ,:except for the asymmetrical little bit.", "Defining the variable and , the variable goes from 0 to , while goes from 0 to 1.The variable is the total proper time for the loop, while parametrizes the fraction of the proper time on the top of the loop versus the bottom.The Jacobian for this transformation of variables is easy to work out from the identities::and \"wedging\" gives:.This allows the integral to be evaluated explicitly::leaving only the -integral.", "This method, invented by Schwinger but usually attributed to Feynman, is called ''combining denominator''.", "Abstractly, it is the elementary identity::But this form does not provide the physical motivation for introducing ; is the proportion of proper time on one of the legs of the loop.Once the denominators are combined, a shift in to symmetrizes everything::This form shows that the moment that is more negative than four times the mass of the particle in the loop, which happens in a physical region of Lorentz space, the integral has a cut.", "This is exactly when the external momentum can create physical particles.When the loop has more vertices, there are more denominators to combine::The general rule follows from the Schwinger prescription for denominators::The integral over the Schwinger parameters can be split up as before into an integral over the total proper time and an integral over the fraction of the proper time in all but the first segment of the loop for .", "The are positive and add up to less than 1, so that the integral is over an -dimensional simplex.The Jacobian for the coordinate transformation can be worked out as before:::Wedging all these equations together, one obtains:This gives the integral::where the simplex is the region defined by the conditions:as well as:Performing the integral gives the general prescription for combining denominators::Since the numerator of the integrand is not involved, the same prescription works for any loop, no matter what the spins are carried by the legs.", "The interpretation of the parameters is that they are the fraction of the total proper time spent on each leg.=== Scattering ===The correlation functions of a quantum field theory describe the scattering of particles.", "The definition of \"particle\" in relativistic field theory is not self-evident, because if you try to determine the position so that the uncertainty is less than the compton wavelength, the uncertainty in energy is large enough to produce more particles and antiparticles of the same type from the vacuum.", "This means that the notion of a single-particle state is to some extent incompatible with the notion of an object localized in space.In the 1930s, Wigner gave a mathematical definition for single-particle states: they are a collection of states that form an irreducible representation of the Poincaré group.", "Single particle states describe an object with a finite mass, a well defined momentum, and a spin.", "This definition is fine for protons and neutrons, electrons and photons, but it excludes quarks, which are permanently confined, so the modern point of view is more accommodating: a particle is anything whose interaction can be described in terms of Feynman diagrams, which have an interpretation as a sum over particle trajectories.A field operator can act to produce a one-particle state from the vacuum, which means that the field operator produces a superposition of Wigner particle states.", "In the free field theory, the field produces one particle states only.", "But when there are interactions, the field operator can also produce 3-particle, 5-particle (if there is no +/− symmetry also 2, 4, 6 particle) states too.", "To compute the scattering amplitude for single particle states only requires a careful limit, sending the fields to infinity and integrating over space to get rid of the higher-order corrections.The relation between scattering and correlation functions is the LSZ-theorem: The scattering amplitude for particles to go to particles in a scattering event is the given by the sum of the Feynman diagrams that go into the correlation function for field insertions, leaving out the propagators for the external legs.For example, for the interaction of the previous section, the order contribution to the (Lorentz) correlation function is::Stripping off the external propagators, that is, removing the factors of , gives the invariant scattering amplitude ::which is a constant, independent of the incoming and outgoing momentum.", "The interpretation of the scattering amplitude is that the sum of over all possible final states is the probability for the scattering event.", "The normalization of the single-particle states must be chosen carefully, however, to ensure that is a relativistic invariant.Non-relativistic single particle states are labeled by the momentum , and they are chosen to have the same norm at every value of .", "This is because the nonrelativistic unit operator on single particle states is::In relativity, the integral over the -states for a particle of mass m integrates over a hyperbola in space defined by the energy–momentum relation::If the integral weighs each point equally, the measure is not Lorentz-invariant.", "The invariant measure integrates over all values of and , restricting to the hyperbola with a Lorentz-invariant delta function::So the normalized -states are different from the relativistically normalized -states by a factor of:The invariant amplitude is then the probability amplitude for relativistically normalized incoming states to become relativistically normalized outgoing states.For nonrelativistic values of , the relativistic normalization is the same as the nonrelativistic normalization (up to a constant factor ).", "In this limit, the invariant scattering amplitude is still constant.", "The particles created by the field scatter in all directions with equal amplitude.The nonrelativistic potential, which scatters in all directions with an equal amplitude (in the Born approximation), is one whose Fourier transform is constant—a delta-function potential.", "The lowest order scattering of the theory reveals the non-relativistic interpretation of this theory—it describes a collection of particles with a delta-function repulsion.", "Two such particles have an aversion to occupying the same point at the same time." ], [ "Nonperturbative effects", "Thinking of Feynman diagrams as a perturbation series, nonperturbative effects like tunneling do not show up, because any effect that goes to zero faster than any polynomial does not affect the Taylor series.", "Even bound states are absent, since at any finite order particles are only exchanged a finite number of times, and to make a bound state, the binding force must last forever.But this point of view is misleading, because the diagrams not only describe scattering, but they also are a representation of the short-distance field theory correlations.", "They encode not only asymptotic processes like particle scattering, they also describe the multiplication rules for fields, the operator product expansion.", "Nonperturbative tunneling processes involve field configurations that on average get big when the coupling constant gets small, but each configuration is a coherent superposition of particles whose local interactions are described by Feynman diagrams.", "When the coupling is small, these become collective processes that involve large numbers of particles, but where the interactions between each of the particles is simple.", "(The perturbation series of any interacting quantum field theory has zero radius of convergence, complicating the limit of the infinite series of diagrams needed (in the limit of vanishing coupling) to describe such field configurations.", ")This means that nonperturbative effects show up asymptotically in resummations of infinite classes of diagrams, and these diagrams can be locally simple.", "The graphs determine the local equations of motion, while the allowed large-scale configurations describe non-perturbative physics.", "But because Feynman propagators are nonlocal in time, translating a field process to a coherent particle language is not completely intuitive, and has only been explicitly worked out in certain special cases.", "In the case of nonrelativistic bound states, the Bethe–Salpeter equation describes the class of diagrams to include to describe a relativistic atom.", "For quantum chromodynamics, the Shifman–Vainshtein–Zakharov sum rules describe non-perturbatively excited long-wavelength field modes in particle language, but only in a phenomenological way.The number of Feynman diagrams at high orders of perturbation theory is very large, because there are as many diagrams as there are graphs with a given number of nodes.", "Nonperturbative effects leave a signature on the way in which the number of diagrams and resummations diverge at high order.", "It is only because non-perturbative effects appear in hidden form in diagrams that it was possible to analyze nonperturbative effects in string theory, where in many cases a Feynman description is the only one available." ], [ "In popular culture", "* The use of the above diagram of the virtual particle producing a quark–antiquark pair was featured in the television sit-com ''The Big Bang Theory'', in the episode \"The Bat Jar Conjecture\".", "* ''PhD Comics'' of January 11, 2012, shows Feynman diagrams that ''visualize and describe quantum academic interactions'', i.e.", "the paths followed by Ph.D. students when interacting with their advisors.", "* ''Vacuum Diagrams'', a science fiction story by Stephen Baxter, features the titular vacuum diagram, a specific type of Feynman diagram.", "* Feynman and his wife, Gweneth Howarth, bought a Dodge Tradesman Maxivan in 1975, and had it painted with Feynman diagrams.", "The van is currently owned by video game designer and physicist Seamus Blackley." ], [ "See also", "* One-loop Feynman diagram* Julian Schwinger#Schwinger and Feynman* Stueckelberg–Feynman interpretation* Penguin diagram* Path integral formulation* Propagator* List of Feynman diagrams* Angular momentum diagrams (quantum mechanics)" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* * * (expanded, updated version of 't Hooft & Veltman, 1973, cited above)* " ], [ "External links", " AMS article: \"What's New in Mathematics: Finite-dimensional Feynman Diagrams\"* Draw Feynman diagrams explained by Flip Tanedo at Quantumdiaries.com* Drawing Feynman diagrams with FeynDiagram C++ library that produces PostScript output.", "* Online Diagram Tool A graphical application for creating publication ready diagrams.", "* JaxoDraw A Java program for drawing Feynman diagrams.", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Food writing" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Food writing''' is a genre of writing that focuses on food and includes works by food critics, food journalists, chefs and food historians." ], [ "Definition", "Food writers regard food as a substance and a cultural phenomenon.", "John T. Edge, an American food writer, explains how writers in the genre view its topic: Food is essential to life.", "It's arguably our nation's biggest industry.", "Food, not sex, is our most frequently indulged pleasure.", "Food—too much, not enough, the wrong kind, the wrong frequency—is one of our society's greatest causes of disease and death.", "Another American food writer, Mark Kurlansky, links this vision of food directly to food writing, giving the genre's scope and range when he observes: Food is about agriculture, about ecology, about man's relationship with nature, about the climate, about nation-building, cultural struggles, friends and enemies, alliances, wars, religion.", "It is about memory and tradition and, at times, even about sex.Because food writing is topic centered, it is not a genre in itself, but a writing that uses a wide range of traditional genres, including recipes, journalism, memoir, and travelogues.", "Food writing can refer to poetry and fiction, such as Marcel Proust's ''À la recherche du temps perdu'' (''In Search of Lost Time''), with its famous passage where the narrator recollects his childhood memories as a result of sipping tea and eating a madeleine; or Robert Burns' poem \"Address to a Haggis\", 1787.Charles Dickens, a notable novelist wrote memorably about food, e.g., in his ''A Christmas Carol'' (1843).Often, food writing is used to specify writing that takes a more literary approach to food, such as that of the famous American food writer M. F. K. Fisher, who describes her writing about food as follows:It seems to me our three basic needs, for food and security and love, are so mixed and mingled and entwined that we cannot straightly think of one without the others.", "So it happens that when I write of hunger, I am really writing about love and the hunger for it, and warmth and the love of it and the hunger for it ... and then the warmth and richness and fine reality of hunger satisfied ... and it is all one.In this literary sense, food writing aspires toward more than merely communicating information about food; it also aims to provide readers with an aesthetic experience.", "Another American food writer, Adam Gopnik, divides food writing into two categories, \"the mock epic and the mystical microcosmic,\" and provides examples of their most noted practitioners: The mock epic (A. J. Liebling, Calvin Trillin, the French writer Robert Courtine, and any good restaurant critic) is essentially comic and treats the small ambitions of the greedy eater as though they were big and noble, spoofing the idea of the heroic while raising the minor subject to at least temporary greatness.", "The mystical microcosmic, of which Elizabeth David and M. F. K. Fisher are the masters, is essentially poetic, and turns every remembered recipe into a meditation on hunger and the transience of its fulfillment.", "Contemporary food writers working in this mode include Ruth Reichl, Betty MacDonald, and Jim Harrison.As a term, \"food writing\" is a relatively new descriptor.", "It came into wide use in the 1990s and, unlike \"sports writing\", or \"nature writing\", it has yet to be included in the ''Oxford English Dictionary''.", "Consequently, definitions of food writing when applied to historical works are retrospective.", "Classics of food writing, such as the 18th century French gastronome Jean Anthelme Brillat-Savarin's ''La physiologie du goût'' (''The Physiology of Taste''), pre-date the term and have helped to shape its meaning." ], [ "In academia", "Food writer Michael Pollan holds the Knight Professorship of Science and Environmental Journalism at the University of California, Berkeley and since 2013 has directed the 11th Hour Food and Farming Journalism Fellowship Program.In 2013, the University of South Florida St. Petersburg began a graduate certificate program in Food Writing and Photography, created by longtime ''Tampa Bay Times'' food and travel editor Janet K. Keeler." ], [ "Notable food writers and books", "===Authors===This is a list of some prominent writers on food, cooking, dining, and cultural history related to food.", "Karen AnandRobert AppelbaumArchestratusAthenaeusJames BeardMaggie BeerMrs BeetonEdward BehrRaymond BlancAnthony BourdainJean-Anthelme Brillat-SavarinAlton BrownRobert Farrar CaponJulia ChildMei ChinCraig ClaiborneBrendan ConnellShirley CorriherFanny CradockElizabeth CraigCurnonskyTarla DalalElizabeth DavidAlan DavidsonEmiko DaviesGiada De LaurentiisAvis DeVotoAndrew DornenburgEscoffierJudith Lynn FergusonSusie FishbeinM. F. K. FisherAlexandros GiotisAdam GopnikGael GreeneJane GrigsonTim HaywardMarcella HazanKaren HessAmanda HesserKate HeyhoeAlison HolstJudith JonesDiana KennedyChristopher KimballMark KurlanskyKylie KwongNigella LawsonDavid LeitePaul LevyA. J. LieblingManju MalhiGinette MathiotHarold McGeeZora Mintalová - ZubercováProsper MontagnéMassimo MontanariJoan NathanMarion NestleJamie OliverRichard OlneyClementine PaddlefordKaren A.", "PageJean ParéAngelo PellegriniElizabeth Robins PennellJacques PépinMichael PollanEdouard de PomianeWolfgang PuckGordon RamsayRachael RayRuth ReichlGary RhodesClaudia RodenWaverley RootMarcel RouffMichael RuhlmanNigel SlaterDelia SmithRaymond SokolovJeffrey SteingartenJoanne StepaniakMartha StewartJohn ThorneRaquel Torres CerdánMapie de Toulouse-LautrecAnne WillanMartin Yan===Important texts in the genre (not easily attributable to an author)=== ''Larousse Gastronomique'' (1938; 1961; 1988; 2001: four editions, the first of which describes French cuisine; the last of the three English editions also includes coverage of cuisines other than French; the original editor was Prosper Montagné)* ''The Forme of Cury'' (compiled by the chief master cooks of King Richard II of England)''Le Viandier'' (a French cookery book of the 14th century)" ], [ "See also", " List of chefs* Cookbook* Gastronomy* Gourmet ideal* Gourmet Museum and Library* Guild of Food Writers of the United Kingdom" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "Golden, Lilly, ed.", "(1993) ''A Literary Feast: an anthology''.", "New York: Atlantic Monthly Press; (authors include V. S. Pritchett, W. Somerset Maugham, Jorge Luis Borges, M. F. K. Fisher, Ernest Hemingway, Isak Dinesen, Virginia Woolf, and James Joyce)" ], [ "External links", " Books for Cooks An online exhibit of historical cookbooks at the British Library.", "* \"Dining Out: The Food Critic at Table\" A review of food writing and writers by Adam Gopnik that examines the genre.", "* \"In Defense of Food Writing: A Reader's Manifesto\" A defense of the genre by Eric LeMay based on Michael Pollan's ''In Defense of Food''.", "* \"On Food Writing\" Advice about the craft of food writing from Michael Ruhlman.", "* \"Between the Lines: Picnic in the Democrative Forest\" An argument that food writing should take on \"a democratic way of looking at our food culture.", "\"* \"Interview with Jonathan Gold\" Appears in ''The Believer'', September 2012." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Four Pillars" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Four Pillars''' or '''four pillars''' may refer to:" ], [ "Politics and government", "Four pillars policy, to keep Australia's four largest banks separateFour Pillars of Nepal Bhasa, four people who campaign to revive the language and literatureFour Pillars of Transnistria, basis of the declaration of independence of a separatist region in Moldova in Eastern EuropeFour pillars, Vietnamese term for the four most important people in the governmentThe four pillars of green politicsThe four pillars of communication rights" ], [ "Science, technology and mathematics", "Four Pillars (Geneva Association), an economic policy research programmeFour pillars of manufacturing engineering, devised by the American SME''Four Pillars of Geometry'', a 2005 book by John Stillwell" ], [ "Religion and astrology", "Four Pillars of Destiny, a Chinese component used in fortune telling''Four Pillars of Dominican Life'', principles of the Dominican Order" ], [ "See also", "Three pillars (disambiguation)*Five pillars (disambiguation)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Futurama (New York World's Fair)" ], [ "Introduction", "Detail of the Futurama dioramaFull size Futurama street intersection, c. 1939Illustration of the Highways and Horizons building by Edwin D. Mott, c. 1939Shell Oil City of Tomorrow model, c. 1936/37Cover of ''Magic Motorways'' by Norman Bel Geddes, Random House, New York, 1940'''Futurama''' was an exhibit and ride at the 1939 New York World's Fair designed by Norman Bel Geddes, which presented a possible model of the world 20 years into the future (1959–1960).", "The installation was sponsored by the General Motors Corporation and was characterized by automated highways and vast suburbs." ], [ "Background", "Geddes had built a model city for a Shell Oil advertising campaign in 1937 that was described as the Shell Oil City of Tomorrow and was effectively a prototype for the much larger and more ambitious Futurama." ], [ "Overview", "Geddes' \"vision of the future\" was rather achievable; the most advanced technology posited was the automated highway system of which General Motors built a working prototype by 1960.Futurama is widely held to have first introduced the general American public to the concept of a network of expressways connecting the nation.", "It provided a direct connection between the streamlined style which was popular in America at the time, and the concept of steady-flow which appeared in street and highway design in the same period.Geddes expounds upon his design in his book ''Magic Motorways'':The modeled highway construction emphasized hope for the future as it served as a proposed solution to traffic congestion of the day, and demonstrated the probable development of traffic in proportion to the automotive growth of the next 20 years.", "Bel Geddes assumed that the automobile would be the same type of carrier and still the most common means of transportation in 1960, albeit with increased vehicle use and traffic lanes also capable of much higher speeds.Four general ideas for improvement were incorporated into the exhibition showcase to meet these assumptions.", "First, each section of road was designed to receive greater capacity of traffic.", "Second, traffic moving in one direction could be isolated from traffic moving in any other.", "Third, segregating traffic by subdividing towns and cities into certain units restricted traffic and allowed pedestrians to predominate.", "And fourth, traffic control included maximum and minimum speeds.", "Through this, the exhibition was designed to inspire greater public enthusiasm and support for the constructive work and planning of streets and highways.The popularity of the Futurama exhibit fit closely with the fair's overall theme of \"The World of Tomorrow\" in its emphasis on the future and its redesign of the American landscape.", "The highway system was supported within a animated model of a projected America containing more than 500,000 individually designed buildings, a million trees of 13 different species, and approximately 50,000 cars, 10,000 of which traveled along a 14-lane multi-speed interstate highway.", "It prophesied an American utopia regulated by an assortment of cutting-edge technologies: multi-lane highways with remote-controlled semi-automated vehicles (according to Geddes' ''Magic Motorways'', these vehicles are supposed to be equipped with lane centering and lane change/blind spot assist systems), power plants, farms for artificially produced crops, rooftop platforms for individual flying machines, and various gadgets, all intended to make an ideal built environment and ultimately to reform society.Geddes' \"future\" was synonymous with technological progress in its simulated low-flying airplane journey through the exhibit.", "The aerial journey was simulated by an 18-minute ride on a conveyor system, carrying 552 seated spectators at a time, covering a ⅓-mile winding path through the model, along with light, sound, and color effects.", "The ride moved at a rate of approximately per minute or , allowing spectators to look down through a continuous curved pane of glass towards the model.", "The virtue of this elevated position allowed spectators to see multiple scales simultaneously, viewing city blocks in proportion to a highway system, as well as artificially controlled trees in glass domes.", "This scale was modeled off 408 topographical sections based on aerial photographs of different regions of the U.S. provided by Fairchild Aircraft Ltd." ], [ "Reception", "Before General Motors invited Bel Geddes to submit a proposal for the exhibit, they had planned to put in another production line as was featured at their exhibit in the Century of Progress Exposition of 1933 in Chicago.", "However, after they heard Bel Geddes outline his project all other plans were scrapped as they favored his design for its appeal to a broader audience.", "The Futurama exhibition was subsequently presented as one of the 1939 New York World Fair's main attractions, as it was the \"number-one hit show\".", "It was considered highly interesting by the public and critics alike, with journalists competing to find adequate words to convey Bel Geddes' \"ingenuity\", \"daring\", \"showmanship\" and \"genius\".", "One neutral survey of 1000 departing fairgoers awarded the General Motors exhibit 39.4 points to only 8.5 points for second place Ford as the most interesting exhibit.", "''Business Week'' described the scene:His ideas of the future were considered to have a remarkable degree of realism and immediacy, especially for an American audience slowly recovering from the Great Depression and that was longing for prosperity.", "Futurama's imaginary landscape of 1960 was, at the time, seen not just as a novel physical space, but as a glimpse of the future." ], [ "Legacy", "The General Motors pavilion at the 1964 New York World's Fair included a ride, '''Futurama II''', that was also known as \"The New Futurama\".The 1964 version had a 110 foot tall front facade which was tilted toward the viewer as they approached the front of the building.", "Inside, moving theater seats took visitors on a multi-media ride into the future around the world, narrated by a description of all the future scenarios.", "After the 15 minute ride, visitors exited into a showroom of futuristic models and current General Motors products.The October 1965 attendance statistics beat the old record from 1939 for the two-year period by about five million visitors, the largest ever attendance of any exhibit at any fair in the world.It is the namesake of the show ''Futurama''." ], [ "See also", "Automotive city List of proposed future transport* Transit desert* World of Motion* Automated highway systemEPCOT" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " : A video document recording the display at the 1939/40 World's Fair (from Prelinger Archives)* ; this 1940 book contains a narration of what it was like to visit Futurama in its chapter \"Design for 1960\".", "* , Geddes' explanation of the motorway system shown in the ride" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Francesco I Sforza" ], [ "Introduction", "Bianca Maria Visconti in a portrait by Bonifacio Bembo, Pinacoteca di Brera, Milan.garter.", "'''Francesco I Sforza''' (; 23 July 1401 – 8 March 1466) was an Italian condottiero who founded the Sforza dynasty in the duchy of Milan, ruling as its (fourth) duke from 1450 until his death.In the 1420s, he participated in the War of L'Aquila and in the 1430s fought for the Papal States and Milan against Venice.", "Once the war between Milan and Venice ended in 1441 under mediation by Sforza, he successfully invaded southern Italy alongside René of Anjou, pretender to the throne of Naples, and after that returned to Milan.", "He was instrumental in the Treaty of Lodi (1454) which ensured peace in the Italian realms for a time by ensuring a strategic balance of power.", "He died in 1466 and was succeeded as duke by his son, Galeazzo Maria Sforza.", "While Sforza was recognized as duke of Milan, his son Ludovico would be the first to have formal investiture under the Holy Roman Empire by Maximilian I in 1494." ], [ "Biography", "===Early life===Francesco Sforza was born in Cigoli, near San Miniato, Tuscany, one of the seven illegitimate sons of the condottiero Muzio Sforza and Lucia de Martini.", "He was the brother of Alessandro Sforza.", "He spent his childhood in Tricarico (in the modern Basilicata), the marquisate of which he was granted in 1412 by King Ladislaus of Naples.", "In 1418, he married Polissena Ruffo, a Calabrese noblewoman.From 1419, he fought alongside his father, soon gaining fame for being able to bend metal bars with his bare hands.", "He later proved himself to be an expert tactician and a very skilled field commander.", "After the death of his father during the War of L'Aquila, he participated in Braccio da Montone's final defeat in that campaign; he fought subsequently for the Neapolitan army and then for Pope Martin V and the Duke of Milan, Filippo Maria Visconti.", "After some successes, he fell in disgrace and was sent to the castle of Mortara as a prisoner.", "He regained his status after leading an expedition against Lucca.In 1431, after fighting again for the Papal States, he led the Milanese army against Venice; the following year the duke's daughter, Bianca Maria, was betrothed to him.", "Despite these moves, the wary Filippo Maria never ceased to be distrustful of Sforza.", "The allegiance of mercenary leaders was dependent, of course, on pay; in 1433–1435, Sforza led the Milanese attack on the Papal States, but when he conquered Ancona, in Marche, he changed sides, obtaining the title of vicar of the city directly from Pope Eugene IV.", "In 1436–39, he served variously both in Florence and Venice.In 1440, his fiefs in the Kingdom of Naples were occupied by King Alfonso I, and, to recover the situation, Sforza reconciled himself with Filippo Visconti.", "On 25 October 1441, in Cremona, he could finally marry Bianca Maria as part of the agreements that ended the war between Milan and Venice.", "The following year, he allied with René of Anjou, pretender to the throne of Naples, and marched against southern Italy.", "After some initial setbacks, he defeated the Neapolitan commander Niccolò Piccinino, who had invaded his possessions in Romagna and Marche, through the help of Sigismondo Pandolfo Malatesta (who had married his daughter Polissena) and the Venetians, and could return to Milan.Sforza later found himself warring against Francesco Piccinino (whom he defeated at the Battle of Montolmo in 1444) and, later, the alliance of Visconti, Eugene IV, and Malatesta, who had allegedly murdered Polissena.", "With the help of Venice, Sforza was again victorious and, in exchange for abandoning the Venetians, received the title of ''capitano generale'' (commander-in-chief) of the Duchy of Milan's armies.===Duke of Milan===After Filippo Maria Visconti, duke of Milan, died without a male heir in 1447, fighting broke out to restore the so-called Ambrosian Republic.", "The name Ambrosian Republic takes its name from St. Ambrose, the patron saint of Milan.", "Agnese del Maino, his wife's mother, convinced the condottiero who held Pavia to restore it to him.He also received the seigniory of other cities of the duchy, including Lodi, and started to carefully plan the conquest of the ephemeral republic, allying with William VIII of Montferrat and (again) Venice.", "In 1450, after years of famine, riots raged in the streets of Milan and the city's senate decided to entrust him with the duchy.", "Sforza entered the city as duke on 26 February.", "It was the first time that such a title was handed over by a lay institution.", "While the other Italian states gradually recognized Sforza as the legitimate Duke of Milan, he was never able to obtain official investiture from the Holy Roman Emperor.", "That did not come to the Sforza Dukes until 1494, when Emperor Maximilian formally invested Francesco's son, Ludovico, as duke of Milan.Under his rule (which was moderate and skilful), Sforza modernised the city and duchy.", "He created an efficient system of taxation that generated enormous revenues for the government, his court became a centre of Renaissance learning and culture, and the people of Milan grew to love him.", "In Milan, he founded the Ospedale Maggiore, restored the Palazzo ducale, and had the Naviglio d'Adda, a channel connecting with the Adda River, built.During Sforza's reign, Florence was under the command of Cosimo de' Medici and the two rulers became close friends.", "This friendship eventually manifested in first the Peace of Lodi and then the Italian League, a multi-polar defensive alliance of Italian states that succeeded in stabilising almost all of Italy for its duration.", "After the peace, Sforza renounced part of the conquests in eastern Lombardy obtained by his condottieri Bartolomeo Colleoni, Ludovico Gonzaga, and Roberto Sanseverino d'Aragona after 1451.As King Alfonso I of Naples was among the signatories of the treaty, Sforza also abandoned his long support of the Angevin pretenders to Naples.", "He also aimed to conquer Genoa, then an Angevin possession; when a revolt broke out there in 1461, he had Spinetta Campofregoso elected as Doge, as his puppet.", "Sforza occupied Genoa and Savona in 1464.Sforza was the first European ruler to follow a foreign policy based on the concept of the balance of power, and the first native Italian ruler to conduct extensive diplomacy outside the peninsula to counter the power of threatening states such as France.", "Sforza's policies succeeded in keeping foreign powers from dominating Italian politics for the rest of the century.Edward IV of England sought to strengthen friendly relations with Sforza and accordingly offered him membership in the prestigious Order of the Garter.", "He accepted and became a knight of the Garter in 1463.Sforza suffered from hydropsy and gout.", "In 1462, rumours spread that he was dead and a riot exploded in Milan.", "He however survived for four more years, finally dying in March 1466.He was succeeded as duke by his son, Galeazzo Maria Sforza.Francesco's successor Ludovico commissioned Leonardo da Vinci to design an equestrian statue as part of a monument to Francesco I Sforza.", "A clay model of a horse which was to be used as part of the design was completed by Leonardo in 1492 — but the statue was never built.", "In 1999 the horse alone was cast from Leonardo's original designs in bronze and placed in Milan outside the racetrack of Ippodromo del Galoppo." ], [ "Issue", "Francesco Sforza with his second wife Bianca Maria Visconti had:* Galeazzo Maria (24 January 1444 — 26 December 1476), Duke of Milan from 1466 to 1476.", "* Ippolita Maria (18 April 1446 — 20 August 1484), wife of Alfonso II of Naples and mother of Isabella of Aragon, who was to marry Galeazzo's heir.", "* Filippo Maria (12 December 1449 — 1492), Count of Corsica.", "* Sforza Maria (18 August 1451 — 29 July 1479), Duke of Bari from 1464 to 1479.", "* Francesco Galeazzo Maria (5 August 1453/54 — died young).", "* Ludovico Maria (3 August 1452 — 27 May 1508), Duke of Bari from 1479 to 1494 and Duke of Milan from 1494 to 1499.", "* Ascanio Maria (3 March 1455 — 28 May 1505), Abbot of Chiaraville, Bishop of Pavia, Cremona, Pesaro, and Novara and Cardinal.", "* Elisabetta Maria (10 June 1456 — 1473), wife of Guglielmo VIII Paleologo, Margrave of Montferrat.", "* Ottaviano Maria (30 April 1458 — 1477), Count of Lugano, who drowned while escaping arrest.Francesco Sforza also had an unspecified number (possibly 35) of illegitimate children.Giovanna d'Acquapendente, who was Francesco's official lover between the death of his first wife and his marriage to Bianca Maria Visconti, gave him 7 children including:Sforza Secondo Sforza (1433–1492 or 1493), count of Borgonuovo;Drusiana Sforza (30 September 1437 - 29 June 1474), married Jacopo Piccinino." ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "**** *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Folk dance" ], [ "Introduction", "Traditional Valencian dancesA '''folk dance''' is a dance that reflects the life of the people of a certain country or region.", "Not all ethnic dances are folk dances.", "For example, ritual dances or dances of ritual origin are not considered to be folk dances.", "Ritual dances are usually called \"religious dances\" because of their purpose.The terms \"ethnic\" and \"traditional\" are used when it is required to emphasize the cultural roots of the dance.", "In this sense, nearly all folk dances are ethnic ones.", "If some dances, such as polka, cross ethnic boundaries and even cross the boundary between \"folk\" and \"ballroom dance\", ethnic differences are often considerable enough to mention." ], [ "Background", "Traditional dancers and performance during the Pulljay festivities in TarabucoFolk dances share some or all of the following attributes:Dances are usually held at folk dance gatherings or social functions by people with little or no professional training, often to traditional music.", "Dances not generally designed for public performance or the stage, though they may later be arranged and set for stage performances.", "Execution dominated by an inherited tradition from various international cultures rather than innovation (though folk traditions change over time).", "New dancers often learn informally by observing others or receiving help from others.More controversially, some people define folk dancing as dancing for which there is no governing body or dancing for which there are no competitive or professional institutions.", "The term \"folk dance\" is sometimes applied to dances of historical importance in European culture and history; typically originating before the 20th century.", "For other cultures the terms \"ethnic dance\" or \"traditional dance\" are sometimes used, although the latter terms may encompass ceremonial dances.There are a number of modern dances, such as hip hop dance, that evolve spontaneously, but the term \"folk dance\" is generally not applied to them, and the terms \"street dance\" or \"vernacular dance\" are used instead.", "The term \"folk dance\" is reserved for dances which are to a significant degree bound by tradition and originated in the times when the distinction existed between the dances of \"common folk\" and the dances of the modern ballroom dances originated from folk ones." ], [ "Europe", "Rapper Sword Dancers - Sheffield SteelFolk Dancing at Jack in the Green May Day festival in Hastings, UK.Turkey folk danceArmenian dancers.", "HlushenkovFolkFest in Khmelnytskyi, Ukraine.Varieties of European folk dances include:Ball de bastonsBalletBarn danceBulgarian dancesPravo horoPaidushko horoGankino horoDajchovo horoCircle danceCloggingDutch crossingEnglish country danceFandangoFlamenco FreilekhsGeorgian danceGreek dancesHoraInternational folk dance Irish dance** Ceili dance* Italian folk danceTarantellaCalabrian TarantellaPizzicaMonferrina*Ballu tunduJenkkaJotaKoloMaypole danceMorris dance*Welsh Morris dancePolkaPolish folk dancesPolonaiseOberekKrakowiakMazurkaKujawiakRussian folk danceTurkish danceUkrainian danceVerbuňkNordic polska danceSquare danceSword danceWeapon danceSword dances include long sword dances and rapper dancing.", "Some choreographed dances such as contra dance, Scottish highland dance, Scottish country dance, and modern western square dance, are called folk dances, though this is not true in the strictest sense.", "Country dance overlaps with contemporary folk dance and ballroom dance.", "Most country dances and ballroom dances originated from folk dances, with gradual refinement over the years.People familiar with folk dancing can often determine what country a dance is from even if they have not seen that particular dance before.", "Some countries' dances have features that are unique to that country, although neighboring countries sometimes have similar features.", "For example, the German and Austrian schuhplattling dance consists of slapping the body and shoes in a fixed pattern, a feature that few other countries' dances have.Folk dances sometimes evolved long before current political boundaries, so that certain dances are shared by several countries.", "For example, some Serbian, Bulgarian, and Croatian dances share the same or similar dances, and sometimes even use the same name and music for those dances.International folk dance groups exist in cities and college campuses in many countries, in which dancers learn folk dances from many cultures for recreation.Balfolk events are social dance events with live music in Western and Central Europe, originating in the folk revival of the 1970s and becoming more popular since about 2000, where popular European partner dances from the end of the 19th century such as the schottische, polka, mazurka and waltz are danced, with additionally other European folk dances, mainly from France, but also from Sweden, Spain and other countries." ], [ "Middle East, Central Asia and South Asia", " Ardah* Armenian dance* Assyrian folk dance* Azerbaijani dances* Bihu, an Assamese dance celebrating the arrival of spring, traditionally the beginning of the Assamese New Year* Attan - The national dance of Afghanistan.", "Also a popular folk dance of Pashtuns tribes of Pakistan including the unique styles of Quetta and Waziristan in Pakistan.", "* Belly Dance* Bhangra, a Punjabi harvest dance in Pakistan and India, and a music style that has become popular worldwide.", "* Chitrali Dance - Chitral, Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa in Pakistan.", "* Circassian dance* Circle dance* Dabke, a folk dance of the Levant* Domkach, folk dance of Bihar and Jharkhand, India* Garba Circular Devotional dance from Gujarat danced the world over * Israeli folk dance* Kalbelia is one of the most sensuous dance forms of Rajasthan, performed by the kalbelia tribe* Khattak Dance - Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa in Pakistan.", "* Khigga, a common folk dance among Assyrian people* Kurdish dance* Luri dances* Lewa (folk dance) - Baluch folk dance in Pakistan.", "* Mazanderani dances* Middle Eastern Dance* Chaap (traditional Baloch folk dance in Pakistan)various dances such as tamang selo and many others* Thabal chongba* Kyushtdepdi - The national dance of Turkmenistan===India===" ], [ "East and Southeast Asia", "===China===Yangge===Cambodia===Cambodian Peacock danceRomvongRom kbachRobam Neary Chea ChuorPeacock DanceChhayamCambodian Coconut DanceCambodian Fish DanceTrot Dance===Indonesia===Javanese dancer performing ''Srimpi'' dance in Java, Indonesia===Japan===Bon danceBuyō, typical dance of the Japanese geishas or dance artistsRimse (Ainu people)Kachāshī (Okinawa)===Korea===Nongak===Malaysia===Zapin===Nepal===Tamang Selo danceChhokaraKhyaliMaruniDeudaChauloDhan NachMadikholePhagu (dance)SorathiSakela (Chandi)SingaruTarbareBajrayogini danceCharitraJat-jatinCharyaHanuman dance===Philippines===''Singkil'', traditional folk dance of the ''Maranao people'' of the Philippines depicting parts of the epic poem, ''Darangen''.Members from the Philippine Cultural Dancers group perform ''tinikling'' during the 2007 Asian Pacific Heritage Month celebration at the Kadena Air Base, JapanBalse MarikinaBenjanBinasuanCariñosaHabañera BotoleñaItik-itikKalesaKuntao Silat Amil BangsaKuntawKuratsaLa Jota MoncadenaLerionMagkasuyoMaglalatikPagdiwataPandanggoPangalayParaguanenPistaSagayanSayaw sa BangkoSingkilSubliTiklosTinikling===Taiwan===Bamboo dance (Amis people)" ], [ "South America", "=== Argentina ===ChacareraBailecitoZambaGatoCuecaChamaméMalambo=== Peru ===Marinera=== Venezuela ===Gaita Zuliana" ], [ "Africa", "=== Angola ===* Kizomba=== Cameroon ===* Ambasse bey* Assiko* Bikutsi=== Ghana ===* Adowa* Agbadza* Agbekor (Atamga)* Kpanlogo* Bobobo* Alkayida=== Niger ===* Bitti Harey" ], [ "North America", "=== United States ===* Modern Dance=== Mexico ===Baile Folklorico (Mexico and Central America)ContradanceSquare Dance" ], [ "Oceania", " Hula (Hawaii)* Haka (New Zealand)" ], [ "Notable People", "* Olivia Hussey* Cheng Xiao* The Mayyas* Zhang Ziyi" ], [ "Gallery", "File:Csángó körtánc.ogv\|Körtánc - Hungarian (csango) folk danceFile:Independence Day Parade - Flickr - Kerri-Jo (242).jpg\|KyushtdepdiFile:Assyriankhigga.jpg\|Assyrians dancing khigga.File:Mtiuluri.jpg\|MtiuluriFile:Bastoners terrassa 13.jpg\|A Ball de bastons stick dance from CataloniaFile:Cyprus The Dance with glasses OM107.JPG\|Cyprus folk dance with glasses in PaphosFile:Tanec folk ensemble Macedonia 3.jpg\|Macedonian female folk dance, Tresenica, performed by TanecFile:\"A Goral Wedding\" at Dom Ludowy Theatre - bride and groom dancing.jpg\|Podhale Gorals dancingFile:Russian dancer at the Imagine Cup.jpg\|Traditional Russian squat dancing" ], [ "See also", "* List of ethnic, regional, and folk dances sorted by origin* International folk dance* Dance basic topics, a list of general dance topics* Balfolk, contemporary folk dance practised across Europe* Elizabeth Burchinal, authority on American folk dance" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Folk Dance Hawaii** Dancilla * Folklore People Community* Folk Dance* Folklore Festivals* Folklore Festivals* Society for International Folk Dancing* ''French Folk Dances, Volume 1 to 3'', by Karsten Evers and Ulrike Frydrych, Hildesheim and Eiterfeld, 1982, 1983 and 1987.Dance descriptions (in German), sheet music and audios." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Fyodor Dostoevsky" ], [ "Introduction", " '''Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky''' (, ; ; 11 November 18219 February 1881), sometimes transliterated as '''Dostoyevsky''', was a Russian novelist, short story writer, essayist and journalist.", "Numerous literary critics regard him as one of the greatest novelists in all of world literature, as many of his works are considered highly influential masterpieces.Dostoevsky's literary works explore the human condition in the troubled political, social, and spiritual atmospheres of 19th-century Russia, and engage with a variety of philosophical and religious themes.", "His most acclaimed novels include ''Crime and Punishment'' (1866), ''The Idiot'' (1869), ''Demons'' (1872), and ''The Brothers Karamazov'' (1880).", "His 1864 novella ''Notes from Underground'' is considered to be one of the first works of existentialist literature.Born in Moscow in 1821, Dostoevsky was introduced to literature at an early age through fairy tales and legends, and through books by Russian and foreign authors.", "His mother died in 1837 when he was 15, and around the same time, he left school to enter the Nikolayev Military Engineering Institute.", "After graduating, he worked as an engineer and briefly enjoyed a lavish lifestyle, translating books to earn extra money.", "In the mid-1840s he wrote his first novel, ''Poor Folk'', which gained him entry into Saint Petersburg's literary circles.", "However, he was arrested in 1849 for belonging to a literary group, the Petrashevsky Circle, that discussed banned books critical of Tsarist Russia.", "Dostoevsky was sentenced to death but the sentence was commuted at the last moment.", "He spent four years in a Siberian prison camp, followed by six years of compulsory military service in exile.", "In the following years, Dostoevsky worked as a journalist, publishing and editing several magazines of his own and later ''A Writer's Diary'', a collection of his writings.", "He began to travel around western Europe and developed a gambling addiction, which led to financial hardship.", "For a time, he had to beg for money, but he eventually became one of the most widely read and highly regarded Russian writers.Dostoevsky's body of work consists of thirteen novels, three novellas, seventeen short stories, and numerous other works.", "His writings were widely read both within and beyond his native Russia and influenced an equally great number of later writers including Russians such as Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn and Anton Chekhov, philosophers Friedrich Nietzsche and Jean-Paul Sartre, and the emergence of Existentialism and Freudianism.", "His books have been translated into more than 170 languages, and served as the inspiration for many films." ], [ "Ancestry", "Dostoevsky's paternal ancestors were part of a noble family of Russian Orthodox Christians.", "The family traced its roots back to Danilo Irtishch, who was granted lands in the Pinsk region (for centuries part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, now in modern-day Belarus) in 1509 for his services under a local prince, his progeny then taking the name \"Dostoevsky\" based on a village there called Dostoïevo (derived from Old Polish ''dostojnik'' – dignitary).Dostoevsky's immediate ancestors on his mother's side were merchants; the male line on his father's side were priests.In 1809, the 20-year-old Mikhail Dostoevsky enrolled in Moscow's Imperial Medical-Surgical Academy.", "From there he was assigned to a Moscow hospital, where he served as military doctor, and in 1818 he was appointed a senior physician.", "In 1819 he married Maria Nechayeva.", "The following year, he took up a post at the Mariinsky Hospital for the poor.", "In 1828, when his two sons, Mikhail and Fyodor, were eight and seven respectively, he was promoted to collegiate assessor, a position which raised his legal status to that of the nobility and enabled him to acquire a small estate in Darovoye, a town about 150 km (100 miles) from Moscow, where the family usually spent the summers.", "Dostoevsky's parents subsequently had six more children: Varvara (1822–1892), Andrei (1825–1897), Lyubov (born and died 1829), Vera (1829–1896), Nikolai (1831–1883) and Aleksandra (1835–1889).Both of his parents may have had Tatar ancestry as well." ], [ "Childhood (1821–1836)", "Fyodor Dostoevsky, born on in Moscow, was the second child of Dr. Mikhail Dostoevsky and Maria Dostoevskaya (born Nechayeva).", "He was raised in the family home in the grounds of the Mariinsky Hospital for the Poor, which was in a lower class district on the edges of Moscow.", "Dostoevsky encountered the patients, who were at the lower end of the Russian social scale, when playing in the hospital gardens.Dostoevsky was introduced to literature at an early age.", "From the age of three, he was read heroic sagas, fairy tales and legends by his nanny, Alena Frolovna, an especially influential figure in his upbringing and his love for fictional stories.", "When he was four, his mother used the Bible to teach him to read and write.", "His parents introduced him to a wide range of literature, including Russian writers Karamzin, Pushkin and Derzhavin; Gothic fiction such as the works from writer Ann Radcliffe; romantic works by Schiller and Goethe; heroic tales by Miguel de Cervantes and Walter Scott; and Homer's epics.", "Dostoevsky was greatly influenced by the work of Nikolai Gogol.", "Although his father's approach to education has been described as strict and harsh, Dostoevsky himself reported that his imagination was brought alive by nightly readings by his parents.Some of his childhood experiences found their way into his writings.", "When a nine-year-old girl had been raped by a drunk, he was asked to fetch his father to attend to her.", "The incident haunted him, and the theme of the desire of a mature man for a young girl appears in ''The Devils'', ''The Brothers Karamazov'', ''Crime and Punishment'', and other writings.", "An incident involving a family servant, or serf, in the estate in Darovoye, is described in \"The Peasant Marey\": when the young Dostoevsky imagines hearing a wolf in the forest, Marey, who is working nearby, comforts him.Although Dostoevsky had a delicate physical constitution, his parents described him as hot-headed, stubborn, and cheeky.", "In 1833, Dostoevsky's father, who was profoundly religious, sent him to a French boarding school and then to the Chermak boarding school.", "He was described as a pale, introverted dreamer and an over-excitable romantic.", "To pay the school fees, his father borrowed money and extended his private medical practice.", "Dostoevsky felt out of place among his aristocratic classmates at the Moscow school, and the experience was later reflected in some of his works, notably ''The Adolescent''." ], [ "Youth (1836–1843)", "military engineerOn 27 September 1837, Dostoevsky's mother died of tuberculosis.", "The previous May, his parents had sent Dostoevsky and his brother Mikhail to Saint Petersburg to attend the free Nikolayev Military Engineering Institute, forcing the brothers to abandon their academic studies for military careers.", "Dostoevsky entered the academy in January 1838, but only with the help of family members.", "Mikhail was refused admission on health grounds and was sent to an academy in Reval (now Tallinn, Estonia).Dostoevsky disliked the academy, primarily because of his lack of interest in science, mathematics, and military engineering and his preference for drawing and architecture.", "As his friend Konstantin Trutovsky once said, \"There was no student in the entire institution with less of a military bearing than F.M.", "Dostoevsky.", "He moved clumsily and jerkily; his uniform hung awkwardly on him; and his knapsack, shako and rifle all looked like some sort of fetter he had been forced to wear for a time and which lay heavily on him.\"", "Dostoevsky's character and interests made him an outsider among his 120 classmates: he showed bravery and a strong sense of justice, protected newcomers, aligned himself with teachers, criticised corruption among officers, and helped poor farmers.", "Although he was solitary and inhabited his own literary world, he was respected by his classmates.", "His reclusiveness and interest in religion earned him the nickname \"Monk Photius\".Signs of Dostoevsky's epilepsy may have first appeared on learning of the death of his father on 16 June 1839, although the reports of a seizure originated from accounts written by his daughter (later expanded by Sigmund Freud) which are now considered to be unreliable.", "His father's official cause of death was an apoplectic stroke, but a neighbour, Pavel Khotiaintsev, accused the father's serfs of murder.", "Had the serfs been found guilty and sent to Siberia, Khotiaintsev would have been in a position to buy the vacated land.", "The serfs were acquitted in a trial in Tula, but Dostoevsky's brother Mikhail perpetuated the story.", "After his father's death, Dostoevsky continued his studies, passed his exams and obtained the rank of engineer cadet, entitling him to live away from the academy.", "He visited Mikhail in Reval (Tallinn) and frequently attended concerts, operas, plays and ballets.", "During this time, two of his friends introduced him to gambling.On 12 August 1843 Dostoevsky took a job as a lieutenant engineer and lived with Adolph Totleben in an apartment owned by Dr. Rizenkampf, a friend of Mikhail.", "Rizenkampf characterised him as \"no less good-natured and no less courteous than his brother, but when not in a good mood he often looked at everything through dark glasses, became vexed, forgot good manners, and sometimes was carried away to the point of abusiveness and loss of self-awareness\".", "Dostoevsky's first completed literary work, a translation of Honoré de Balzac's novel ''Eugénie Grandet'', was published in June and July 1843 in the 6th and 7th volumes of the journal ''Repertoire and Pantheon'', followed by several other translations.", "None were successful, and his financial difficulties led him to write a novel." ], [ "Career", "=== Early career (1844–1849) ===Dostoevsky, 1847Dostoevsky completed his first novel, ''Poor Folk'', in May 1845.His friend Dmitry Grigorovich, with whom he was sharing an apartment at the time, took the manuscript to the poet Nikolay Nekrasov, who in turn showed it to the renowned and influential literary critic Vissarion Belinsky.", "Belinsky described it as Russia's first \"social novel\".", "''Poor Folk'' was released on 15 January 1846 in the ''St Petersburg Collection'' almanac and became a commercial success.Dostoevsky felt that his military career would endanger his now flourishing literary career, so he wrote a letter asking to resign his post.", "Shortly thereafter, he wrote his second novel, ''The Double'', which appeared in the journal ''Notes of the Fatherland'' on 30 January 1846, before being published in February.", "Around the same time, Dostoevsky discovered socialism through the writings of French thinkers Fourier, Cabet, Proudhon and Saint-Simon.", "Through his relationship with Belinsky he expanded his knowledge of the philosophy of socialism.", "He was attracted to its logic, its sense of justice and its preoccupation with the destitute and the disadvantaged.", "However, his Russian Orthodox faith and religious sensibilities could not accord with Belinsky's admixture of atheism, utilitarianism and scientific materialism, leading to increasing friction between them.", "Dostoevsky eventually parted with him and his associates.After ''The Double'' received negative reviews (including a particularly scathing one from Belinsky) Dostoevsky's health declined and his seizures became more frequent, but he continued writing.", "From 1846 to 1848 he published several short stories in the magazine ''Notes of the Fatherland'', including \"Mr. Prokharchin\", \"The Landlady\", \"A Weak Heart\", and \"White Nights\".", "The negative reception of these stories, combined with his health problems and Belinsky's attacks, caused him distress and financial difficulty, but this was greatly alleviated when he joined the utopian socialist Beketov circle, a tightly knit community which helped him to survive.", "When the circle dissolved, Dostoevsky befriended Apollon Maykov and his brother Valerian.", "In 1846, on the recommendation of the poet Aleksey Pleshcheyev, he joined the Petrashevsky Circle, founded by Mikhail Petrashevsky, who had proposed social reforms in Russia.", "Mikhail Bakunin once wrote to Alexander Herzen that the group was \"the most innocent and harmless company\" and its members were \"systematic opponents of all revolutionary goals and means\".", "Dostoevsky used the circle's library on Saturdays and Sundays and occasionally participated in their discussions on freedom from censorship and the abolition of serfdom.", "Bakunin's description, however, was not true of the aristocrat Nikolay Speshnev, who joined the circle in 1848 and set about creating a secret revolutionary society from amongst its members.", "Dostoevsky himself became a member of this society, was aware of its conspiratorial aims, and actively participated, although he harboured significant doubts about their actions and intentions.In 1849, the first parts of ''Netochka Nezvanova'', a novel Dostoevsky had been planning since 1846, were published in ''Notes of the Fatherland'', but his banishment ended the project.", "Dostoevsky never attempted to complete it.=== Siberian exile (1849–1854) ===A sketch of the Petrashevsky Circle mock executionThe members of the Petrashevsky Circle were denounced to Liprandi, an official at the Ministry of Internal Affairs.", "Dostoevsky was accused of reading works by Belinsky, including the banned ''Letter to Gogol'', and of circulating copies of these and other works.", "Antonelli, the government agent who had reported the group, wrote in his statement that at least one of the papers criticised Russian politics and religion.", "Dostoevsky responded to these charges by declaring that he had read the essays only \"as a literary monument, neither more nor less\"; he spoke of \"personality and human egoism\" rather than of politics.", "Even so, he and his fellow \"conspirators\" were arrested on 23 April 1849 at the request of Count A. Orlov and Tsar Nicholas I, who feared a revolution like the Decembrist revolt of 1825 in Russia and the Revolutions of 1848 in Europe.", "The members were held in the well-defended Peter and Paul Fortress, which housed the most dangerous convicts.The case was discussed for four months by an investigative commission headed by the Tsar, with Adjutant General Ivan Nabokov, senator Prince Pavel Gagarin, Prince Vasili Dolgorukov, General Yakov Rostovtsev and General Leonty Dubelt, head of the secret police.", "They sentenced the members of the circle to death by firing squad, and the prisoners were taken to Semyonov Place in Saint Petersburg on 23 December 1849.They were split into three-man groups and the first group was taken in front of the firing squad.", "Dostoevsky was the third in the second row; next to him stood Pleshcheyev and Durov.", "The execution was stayed when a cart delivered a letter from the Tsar commuting the sentence.", "Dostoevsky later described the experience of what he believed to be the last moments of his life in his novel ''The Idiot''.", "The story of a young man sentenced to death by firing squad but reprieved at the last moment is recounted by the main character, Prince Myshkin, who describes the experience from the point of view of the victim, and considers the philosophical and spiritual implications.Dostoevsky served four years of exile with hard labour at a katorga prison camp in Omsk, Siberia, followed by a term of compulsory military service.", "After a fourteen-day sleigh ride, the prisoners reached Tobolsk, a prisoner way station.", "Despite the circumstances, Dostoevsky consoled the other prisoners, such as the Petrashevist Ivan Yastrzhembsky, who was surprised by Dostoevsky's kindness and eventually abandoned his decision to kill himself.", "In Tobolsk, the members received food and clothes from the Decembrist women, as well as several copies of the New Testament with a ten-ruble banknote inside each copy.", "Eleven days later, Dostoevsky reached Omsk together with just one other member of the Petrashevsky Circle, the writer Sergei Durov.", "Dostoevsky described his barracks:Classified as \"one of the most dangerous convicts\", Dostoevsky had his hands and feet shackled until his release.", "He was only permitted to read his New Testament Bible.", "In addition to his seizures, he had haemorrhoids, lost weight and was \"burned by some fever, trembling and feeling too hot or too cold every night\".", "The smell of the privy pervaded the entire building, and the small bathroom had to suffice for more than 200 people.", "Dostoevsky was occasionally sent to the military hospital, where he read newspapers and Dickens novels.", "He was respected by most of the other prisoners, but despised by some Polish political prisoners because of his Russian nationalism and anti-Polish sentiments.=== Release from prison and first marriage (1854–1866) ===After his release on 14 February 1854, Dostoevsky asked Mikhail to help him financially and to send him books by Vico, Guizot, Ranke, Hegel and Kant.", "''The House of the Dead'', based on his experience in prison, was published in 1861 in the journal ''Vremya'' (\"Time\") – it was the first published novel about Russian prisons.", "Before moving in mid-March to Semipalatinsk, where he was forced to serve in the Siberian Army Corps of the Seventh Line Battalion, Dostoevsky met geographer Pyotr Semyonov and ethnographer Shokan Walikhanuli.", "Around November 1854, he met Baron Alexander Egorovich Wrangel, an admirer of his books, who had attended the aborted execution.", "They both rented houses in the Cossack Garden outside Semipalatinsk.", "Wrangel remarked that Dostoevsky \"looked morose.", "His sickly, pale face was covered with freckles, and his blond hair was cut short.", "He was a little over average height and looked at me intensely with his sharp, grey-blue eyes.", "It was as if he were trying to look into my soul and discover what kind of man I was.", "\"In Semipalatinsk, Dostoevsky tutored several schoolchildren and came into contact with upper-class families, including that of Lieutenant-Colonel Belikhov, who used to invite him to read passages from newspapers and magazines.", "During a visit to Belikhov, Dostoevsky met the family of Alexander Ivanovich Isaev and Maria Dmitrievna Isaeva and fell in love with the latter.", "Alexander Isaev took a new post in Kuznetsk, where he died in August 1855.Maria and her son then moved with Dostoevsky to Barnaul.", "In 1856, Dostoevsky sent a letter through Wrangel to General Eduard Totleben, apologising for his activity in several utopian circles.", "As a result, he obtained the right to publish books and to marry, although he remained under police surveillance for the rest of his life.", "Maria married Dostoevsky in Semipalatinsk on 7 February 1857, even though she had initially refused his marriage proposal, stating that they were not meant for each other and that his poor financial situation precluded marriage.", "Their family life was unhappy and she found it difficult to cope with his seizures.", "Describing their relationship, he wrote: \"Because of her strange, suspicious and fantastic character, we were definitely not happy together, but we could not stop loving each other; and the more unhappy we were, the more attached to each other we became\".", "They mostly lived apart.", "In 1859 he was released from military service because of deteriorating health and was granted permission to return to European Russia, first to Tver, where he met his brother for the first time in ten years, and then to St Petersburg.Dostoevsky in Paris, 1863The short story \"A Little Hero\" (Dostoevsky's only work completed in prison) appeared in a journal, but \"Uncle's Dream\" and \"The Village of Stepanchikovo\" were not published until 1860.", "''Notes from the House of the Dead'' was released in ''Russky Mir'' (Russian World) in September 1860.", "''Humiliated and Insulted'' was published in the new ''Vremya'' magazine, which had been created with the help of funds from his brother's cigarette factory.Dostoevsky travelled to western Europe for the first time on 7 June 1862, visiting Cologne, Berlin, Dresden, Wiesbaden, Belgium, and Paris.", "In London, he met Herzen and visited the Crystal Palace.", "He travelled with Nikolay Strakhov through Switzerland and several North Italian cities, including Turin, Livorno, and Florence.", "He recorded his impressions of those trips in the essay \"Winter Notes on Summer Impressions\", in which he also criticised capitalism, social modernisation, materialism, Catholicism and Protestantism.", "Dostoevsky viewed the Crystal Palace as a monument to soulless modern society, the myth of progress, and the worship of empty materialism.From August to October 1863, Dostoevsky made another trip to western Europe.", "He met his second love, Polina Suslova, in Paris and lost nearly all his money gambling in Wiesbaden and Baden-Baden.", "In 1864 his wife Maria and his brother Mikhail died, and Dostoevsky became the lone parent of his stepson Pasha and the sole supporter of his brother's family.", "The failure of ''Epoch'', the magazine he had founded with Mikhail after the suppression of ''Vremya'', worsened his financial situation, although the continued help of his relatives and friends averted bankruptcy.=== Second marriage and honeymoon (1866–1871) ===The first two parts of ''Crime and Punishment'' were published in January and February 1866 in the periodical ''The Russian Messenger'', attracting at least 500 new subscribers to the magazine.Dostoevsky returned to Saint Petersburg in mid-September and promised his editor, Fyodor Stellovsky, that he would complete ''The Gambler'', a short novel focused on gambling addiction, by November, although he had not yet begun writing it.", "One of Dostoevsky's friends, Milyukov, advised him to hire a secretary.", "Dostoevsky contacted stenographer Pavel Olkhin from Saint Petersburg, who recommended his pupil, the twenty-year-old Anna Grigoryevna Snitkina.", "Her shorthand helped Dostoevsky to complete ''The Gambler'' on 30 October, after 26 days' work.", "She remarked that Dostoevsky was of average height but always tried to carry himself erect.", "\"He had light brown, slightly reddish hair, he used some hair conditioner, and he combed his hair in a diligent way ... his eyes, they were different: one was dark brown; in the other, the pupil was so big that you could not see its color, this was caused by an injury.", "The strangeness of his eyes gave Dostoyevsky some mysterious appearance.", "His face was pale, and it looked unhealthy.", "\"Memorial plaque to Dostoevsky in Baden-BadenOn 15 February 1867 Dostoevsky married Snitkina in Trinity Cathedral, Saint Petersburg.", "The 7,000 rubles he had earned from ''Crime and Punishment'' did not cover their debts, forcing Anna to sell her valuables.", "On 14 April 1867, they began a delayed honeymoon in Germany with the money gained from the sale.", "They stayed in Berlin and visited the Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister in Dresden, where he sought inspiration for his writing.", "They continued their trip through Germany, visiting Frankfurt, Darmstadt, Heidelberg and Karlsruhe.", "They spent five weeks in Baden-Baden, where Dostoevsky had a quarrel with Turgenev and again lost much money at the roulette table.", "At one point, his wife was reportedly forced to pawn her underwear.", "The couple travelled on to Geneva.In September 1867, Dostoevsky began work on ''The Idiot'', and after a prolonged planning process that bore little resemblance to the published novel, he eventually managed to write the first 100 pages in only 23 days; the serialisation began in ''The Russian Messenger ''in January 1868.Plaque for baby SofyaTheir first child, Sofya, had been conceived in Baden-Baden, and was born in Geneva on 5 March 1868.The baby died of pneumonia three months later, and Anna recalled how Dostoevsky \"wept and sobbed like a woman in despair\".", "Sofya was buried at the Cimetière des Rois (''Cemetery of Kings''), which is considered the Genevan Panthéon.", "The grave was later dissolved but in 1986 the International Dostoevsky Society donated a commemorative plaque.The couple moved from Geneva to Vevey and then to Milan before continuing to Florence.", "''The Idiot'' was completed there in January 1869, the final part appearing in ''The Russian Messenger ''in February 1869.Anna gave birth to their second daughter, Lyubov, on 26 September 1869 in Dresden.", "In April 1871, Dostoevsky made a final visit to a gambling hall in Wiesbaden.", "Anna claimed that he stopped gambling after the birth of their second daughter, but this is a subject of debate.After hearing news that the socialist revolutionary group \"People's Vengeance\" had murdered one of its own members, Ivan Ivanov, on 21 November 1869, Dostoevsky began writing ''Demons''.", "In 1871, Dostoevsky and Anna travelled by train to Berlin.", "During the trip, he burnt several manuscripts, including those of ''The Idiot'', because he was concerned about potential problems with customs.", "The family arrived in Saint Petersburg on 8 July, marking the end of a honeymoon (originally planned for three months) that had lasted over four years.=== Back in Russia (1871–1875) ===Dostoevsky (left) in the Haymarket, 21/22 March 1874Back in Russia in July 1871, the family was again in financial trouble and had to sell their remaining possessions.", "Their son Fyodor was born on 16 July, and they moved to an apartment near the Institute of Technology soon after.", "They hoped to cancel their large debts by selling their rental house in Peski, but difficulties with the tenant resulted in a relatively low selling price, and disputes with their creditors continued.", "Anna proposed that they raise money on her husband's copyrights and negotiate with the creditors to pay off their debts in installments.Dostoevsky revived his friendships with Maykov and Strakhov and made new acquaintances, including church politician Terty Filipov and the brothers Vsevolod and Vladimir Solovyov.", "Konstantin Pobedonostsev, future Imperial High Commissioner of the Most Holy Synod, influenced Dostoevsky's political progression to conservatism.", "Around early 1872 the family spent several months in Staraya Russa, a town known for its mineral spa.", "Dostoevsky's work was delayed when Anna's sister Maria Svatkovskaya died on 1 May 1872, from either typhus or malaria, and Anna developed an abscess on her throat.The family returned to St Petersburg in September.", "''Demons'' was finished on 26 November and released in January 1873 by the \"Dostoevsky Publishing Company\", which was founded by Dostoevsky and his wife.", "Although they accepted only cash payments and the bookshop was in their own apartment, the business was successful, and they sold around 3,000 copies of ''Demons''.", "Anna managed the finances.", "Dostoevsky proposed that they establish a new periodical, which would be called ''A Writer's Diary'' and would include a collection of essays, but funds were lacking, and the ''Diary'' was published in Vladimir Meshchersky's ''The Citizen'', beginning on 1 January, in return for a salary of 3,000 rubles per year.", "In the summer of 1873, Anna returned to Staraya Russa with the children, while Dostoevsky stayed in St Petersburg to continue with his ''Diary''.In March 1874, Dostoevsky left ''The Citizen'' because of the stressful work and interference from the Russian bureaucracy.", "In his fifteen months with ''The Citizen'', he had been taken to court twice: on 11 June 1873 for citing the words of Prince Meshchersky without permission, and again on 23 March 1874.Dostoevsky offered to sell a new novel he had not yet begun to write to ''The Russian Messenger'', but the magazine refused.", "Nikolay Nekrasov suggested that he publish ''A Writer's Diary'' in ''Notes of the Fatherland''; he would receive 250 rubles for each printer's sheet – 100 more than the text's publication in ''The Russian Messenger'' would have earned.", "Dostoevsky accepted.", "As his health began to decline, he consulted several doctors in St Petersburg and was advised to take a cure outside Russia.", "Around July, he reached Ems and consulted a physician, who diagnosed him with acute catarrh.", "During his stay he began ''The Adolescent''.", "He returned to Saint Petersburg in late July.Anna proposed that they spend the winter in Staraya Russa to allow Dostoevsky to rest, although doctors had suggested a second visit to Ems because his health had previously improved there.", "On 10 August 1875 his son Alexey was born in Staraya Russa, and in mid-September the family returned to Saint Petersburg.", "Dostoevsky finished ''The Adolescent'' at the end of 1875, although passages of it had been serialised in ''Notes of the Fatherland'' since January.", "''The Adolescent'' chronicles the life of Arkady Dolgoruky, the illegitimate child of the landowner Versilov and a peasant mother.", "It deals primarily with the relationship between father and son, which became a frequent theme in Dostoevsky's subsequent works.=== Last years (1876–1881) ===Dostoevsky, 1879In early 1876, Dostoevsky continued work on his ''Diary''.", "The book includes numerous essays and a few short stories about society, religion, politics and ethics.", "The collection sold more than twice as many copies as his previous books.", "Dostoevsky received more letters from readers than ever before, and people of all ages and occupations visited him.", "With assistance from Anna's brother, the family bought a dacha in Staraya Russa.", "In the summer of 1876, Dostoevsky began experiencing shortness of breath again.", "He visited Ems for the third time and was told that he might live for another 15 years if he moved to a healthier climate.", "When he returned to Russia, Tsar Alexander II ordered Dostoevsky to visit his palace to present the ''Diary'' to him, and he asked him to educate his sons, Sergey and Paul.", "This visit further increased Dosteyevsky's circle of acquaintances.", "He was a frequent guest in several salons in Saint Petersburg and met many famous people, including Countess Sophia Tolstaya, Yakov Polonsky, Sergei Witte, Alexey Suvorin, Anton Rubinstein and Ilya Repin.Dostoevsky's health declined further, and in March 1877 he had four epileptic seizures.", "Rather than returning to Ems, he visited Maly Prikol, a manor near Kursk.", "While returning to St Petersburg to finalise his ''Diary'', he visited Darovoye, where he had spent much of his childhood.", "In December he attended Nekrasov's funeral and gave a speech.", "He was appointed an honorary member of the Russian Academy of Sciences, from which he received an honorary certificate in February 1879.He declined an invitation to an international congress on copyright in Paris after his son Alyosha had a severe epileptic seizure and died on 16 May.", "The family later moved to the apartment where Dostoevsky had written his first works.", "Around this time, he was elected to the board of directors of the Slavic Benevolent Society in Saint Petersburg.", "That summer, he was elected to the honorary committee of the Association Littéraire et Artistique Internationale, whose members included Victor Hugo, Ivan Turgenev, Paul Heyse, Alfred Tennyson, Anthony Trollope, Henry Longfellow, Ralph Waldo Emerson and Leo Tolstoy.", "Dostoevsky made his fourth and final visit to Ems in early August 1879.He was diagnosed with early-stage pulmonary emphysema, which his doctor believed could be successfully managed, but not cured.Dostoevsky's funeralOn 3 February 1880 Dostoevsky was elected vice-president of the Slavic Benevolent Society, and he was invited to speak at the unveiling of the Pushkin memorial in Moscow.", "On 8 June he delivered his speech, giving an impressive performance that had a significant emotional impact on his audience.", "His speech was met with thunderous applause, and even his long-time rival Turgenev embraced him.", "Konstantin Staniukovich praised the speech in his essay \"The Pushkin Anniversary and Dostoevsky's Speech\" in ''The Business'', writing that \"the language of Dostoevsky's Pushkin Speech really looks like a sermon.", "He speaks with the tone of a prophet.", "He makes a sermon like a pastor; it is very deep, sincere, and we understand that he wants to impress the emotions of his listeners.\"", "The speech was criticised later by liberal political scientist Alexander Gradovsky, who thought that Dostoevsky idolised \"the people\", and by conservative thinker Konstantin Leontiev, who, in his essay \"On Universal Love\", compared the speech to French utopian socialism.", "The attacks led to a further deterioration in his health." ], [ "Death", "Dostoevsky on his bier, drawing by Ivan Kramskoi, 1881Dostoevsky's grave in Saint PetersburgOn , while searching for members of the terrorist organisation Narodnaya Volya (\"The People's Will\") who would soon assassinate Tsar Alexander II, the Tsar's secret police executed a search warrant in the apartment of one of Dostoevsky's neighbours.", "On the following day, Dostoevsky suffered a pulmonary haemorrhage.", "Anna denied that the search had caused it, saying that the haemorrhage had occurred after her husband had been looking for a dropped pen holder.", "After another haemorrhage, Anna called the doctors, who gave a poor prognosis.", "A third haemorrhage followed shortly afterwards.", "While seeing his children before dying, Dostoevsky requested that the parable of the Prodigal Son be read to his children.", "The profound meaning of this request is pointed out by Joseph Frank:It was this parable of transgression, repentance, and forgiveness that he wished to leave as a last heritage to his children, and it may well be seen as his own ultimate understanding of the meaning of his life and the message of his work.Among Dostoevsky's last words was his quotation of : \"But John forbad him, saying, I have a need to be baptised of thee, and comest thou to me?", "And Jesus answering said unto him, Suffer it to be so now: for thus it becometh us to fulfil all righteousness\", and he finished with \"Hear now—permit it.", "Do not restrain me!\".", "His last words to his wife Anna were: \"Remember, Anya, I have always loved you passionately and have never been unfaithful to you ever, even in my thoughts!\"", "When he died, his body was placed on a table, following Russian custom.", "He was interred in the Tikhvin Cemetery at the Alexander Nevsky Convent, near his favourite poets, Nikolay Karamzin and Vasily Zhukovsky.", "It is unclear how many attended his funeral.", "According to one reporter, more than 100,000 mourners were present, while others describe attendance between 40,000 and 50,000.His tombstone is inscribed with lines from the New Testament:" ], [ "Personal life", "=== Extramarital affairs ===Dostoevsky had his first known affair with Avdotya Yakovlevna, whom he met in the Panayev circle in the early 1840s.", "He described her as educated, interested in literature, and a femme fatale.", "He admitted later that he was uncertain about their relationship.", "According to Anna Dostoevskaya's memoirs, Dostoevsky once asked his sister's sister-in-law, Yelena Ivanova, whether she would marry him, hoping to replace her mortally ill husband after he died, but she rejected his proposal.Dostoevsky and Apollonia (Polina) Suslova had a short but intimate affair, which peaked in the winter of 1862–1863.Suslova's dalliance with a Spaniard in late spring and Dostoevsky's gambling addiction and age ended their relationship.", "He later described her in a letter to Nadezhda Suslova as a \"great egoist.", "Her egoism and her vanity are colossal.", "She demands ''everything'' of other people, all the perfections, and does not pardon the slightest imperfection in the light of other qualities that one may possess\", and later stated \"I still love her, but I do not want to love her any more.", "She doesn't deserve this love ...\" In 1858 Dostoevsky had a romance with comic actress Aleksandra Ivanovna Schubert.", "Although she divorced Dostoevsky's friend Stepan Yanovsky, she would not live with him.", "Dostoevsky did not love her either, but they were probably good friends.", "She wrote that he \"became very attracted to me\".Through a worker in ''Epoch'', Dostoevsky learned of the Russian-born Martha Brown (née Elizaveta Andreyevna Chlebnikova), who had had affairs with several westerners.", "Her relationship with Dostoevsky is known only through letters written between November 1864 and January 1865.In 1865, Dostoevsky met Anna Korvin-Krukovskaya.", "Their relationship is not verified; Anna Dostoevskaya spoke of a good affair, but Korvin-Krukovskaya's sister, the mathematician Sofia Kovalevskaya, thought that Korvin-Krukovskaya had rejected him.=== Political beliefs ===In his youth, Dostoevsky enjoyed reading Nikolai Karamzin's ''History of the Russian State'', which praised conservatism and Russian independence, ideas that Dostoevsky would embrace later in life.", "Before his arrest for participating in the Petrashevsky Circle in 1849, Dostoevsky remarked, \"As far as I am concerned, nothing was ever more ridiculous than the idea of a republican government in Russia.\"", "In an 1881 edition of his ''Diaries'', Dostoevsky stated that the Tsar and the people should form a unity: \"For the people, the tsar is not an external power, not the power of some conqueror ... but a power of all the people, an all-unifying power the people themselves desired.", "\"While critical of serfdom, Dostoevsky was skeptical about the creation of a constitution, a concept he viewed as unrelated to Russia's history.", "He described it as a mere \"gentleman's rule\" and believed that \"a constitution would simply enslave the people\".", "He advocated social change instead, for example removal of the feudal system and a weakening of the divisions between the peasantry and the affluent classes.", "His ideal was a utopian, Christianized Russia where \"if everyone were actively Christian, not a single social question would come up ...", "If they were Christians they would settle everything\".", "He thought democracy and oligarchy were poor systems; of France he wrote, \"the oligarchs are only concerned with the interest of the wealthy; the democrats, only with the interest of the poor; but the interests of society, the interest of all and the future of France as a whole—no one there bothers about these things.\"", "He maintained that political parties ultimately led to social discord.", "In the 1860s, he discovered ''Pochvennichestvo'', a movement similar to Slavophilism in that it rejected Europe's culture and contemporary philosophical movements, such as nihilism and materialism.", "''Pochvennichestvo'' differed from Slavophilism in aiming to establish, not an isolated Russia, but a more open state modelled on the Russia of Peter the Great.In his incomplete article \"Socialism and Christianity\", Dostoevsky claimed that civilisation (\"the second stage in human history\") had become degraded, and that it was moving towards liberalism and losing its faith in God.", "He asserted that the traditional concept of Christianity should be recovered.", "He thought that contemporary western Europe had \"rejected the single formula for their salvation that came from God and was proclaimed through revelation, 'Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself', and replaced it with practical conclusions such as, ''Chacun pour soi et Dieu pour tous'' Every man for himself and God for all, or \"scientific\" slogans like 'the struggle for survival.", "He considered this crisis to be the consequence of the collision between communal and individual interests, brought about by a decline in religious and moral principles.Dostoevsky distinguished three \"enormous world ideas\" prevalent in his time: Roman Catholicism, Protestantism and (Russian) Orthodoxy.", "He claimed that Catholicism had continued the tradition of Imperial Rome and had thus become anti-Christian and proto-socialist, inasmuch as the Church's interest in political and mundane affairs led it to abandon the idea of Christ.", "For Dostoevsky, socialism was \"the latest incarnation of the Catholic idea\" and its \"natural ally\".", "He found Protestantism self-contradictory and claimed that it would ultimately lose power and spirituality.", "He deemed (Russian) Orthodoxy to be the ideal form of Christianity.For all that, to place Dostoevsky politically is not that simple, but: as a Christian, he rejected atheistic socialism; as a traditionalist, he rejected the destruction of the institutions; and, as a pacifist, he rejected any violent method or upheaval led by either progressives or reactionaries.", "He supported private property and business rights, and did not agree with many criticisms of the free market from the socialist utopians of his time.During the Russo-Turkish War, Dostoevsky asserted that war might be necessary if salvation were to be granted.", "He wanted the Muslim Ottoman Empire eliminated and the Christian Byzantine Empire restored, and he hoped for the liberation of Balkan Slavs and their unification with the Russian Empire.=== Ethnic beliefs ===Many characters in Dostoevsky's works, including Jews, have been described as displaying negative stereotypes.", "In an 1877 letter to Arkady Kovner, a Jew who had accused Dostoevsky of antisemitism, he replied with the following:\"I am not an enemy of the Jews at all and never have been.", "But as you say, its 40-century existence proves that this tribe has exceptional vitality, which would not help, during the course of its history, taking the form of various Status in Statu ... how can they fail to find themselves, even if only partially, at variance with the indigenous population – the Russian tribe?", "\"Dostoevsky held to a Pan-Slavic ideology that was conditioned by the Ottoman occupations of Eastern Europe.", "In 1876, the Slavic populations of Serbia and Bulgaria rose up against their Ottoman overlords, but the rebellion was put down.", "In the process, an estimated 12,000 people were killed.", "In his diaries, he scorned Westerners and those who were against the Pan-Slavic movement.", "This ideology was motivated in part by the desire to promote a common Orthodox Christian heritage, which he saw as both unifying as well as a force for liberation.=== Religious beliefs ===The New Testament that Dostoevsky took with him to prison in SiberiaDostoevsky was an Orthodox Christian who was raised in a religious family and knew the Gospel from a very young age.", "He was influenced by the Russian translation of Johannes Hübner's ''One Hundred and Four Sacred Stories from the Old and New Testaments Selected for Children'' (partly a German bible for children and partly a catechism).", "He attended Sunday liturgies from an early age and took part in annual pilgrimages to the St. Sergius Trinity Monastery.", "A deacon at the hospital gave him religious instruction.", "Among his most cherished childhood memories were reciting prayers in front of guests and reading passages from the Book of Job that impressed him while \"still almost a child.", "\"According to an officer at the military academy, Dostoevsky was profoundly religious, followed Orthodox practice, and regularly read the Gospels and Heinrich Zschokke's (\"Hours of Devotion\"), which \"preached a sentimental version of Christianity entirely free from dogmatic content and with a strong emphasis on giving Christian love a social application.\"", "This book may have prompted his later interest in Christian socialism.", "Through the literature of Hoffmann, Balzac, Eugène Sue, and Goethe, Dostoevsky created his own belief system, similar to Russian sectarianism and the Old Belief.", "After his arrest, aborted execution, and subsequent imprisonment, he focused intensely on the figure of Christ and on the New Testament: the only book allowed in prison.", "In a January 1854 letter to the woman who had sent him the New Testament, Dostoevsky wrote that he was a \"child of unbelief and doubt up to this moment, and I am certain that I shall remain so to the grave.\"", "He also wrote that \"even if someone were to prove to me that the truth lay outside Christ, I should choose to remain with Christ rather than with the truth.", "\"In Semipalatinsk, Dostoevsky revived his faith by looking frequently at the stars.", "Wrangel said that he was \"rather pious, but did not often go to church, and disliked priests, especially the Siberian ones.", "But he spoke about Christ ecstatically.\"", "Two pilgrimages and two works by Dmitri Rostovsky, an archbishop who influenced Ukrainian and Russian literature by composing groundbreaking religious plays, strengthened his beliefs.", "Through his visits to western Europe and discussions with Herzen, Grigoriev, and Strakhov, Dostoevsky discovered the ''Pochvennichestvo'' movement and the theory that the Catholic Church had adopted the principles of rationalism, legalism, materialism, and individualism from ancient Rome and had passed on its philosophy to Protestantism and consequently to atheistic socialism." ], [ "Themes and style", "Demons''Dostoevsky's canon includes novels, novellas, novelettes, short stories, essays, pamphlets, limericks, epigrams and poems.", "He wrote more than 700 letters, a dozen of which are lost.Dostoevsky expressed religious, psychological, and philosophical ideas in his writings.", "His works explore such themes as suicide, poverty, human manipulation, and morality.", "Psychological themes include dreaming, first seen in \"White Nights\", and the father-son relationship, beginning in ''The Adolescent''.", "Most of his works demonstrate a vision of the chaotic sociopolitical structure of contemporary Russia.", "His early works viewed society (for example, the differences between poor and rich) through the lens of literary realism and naturalism.", "The influences of other writers, particularly evident in his early works, led to accusations of plagiarism, but his style gradually became more individual.", "After his release from prison, Dostoevsky incorporated religious themes, especially those of Russian Orthodoxy, into his writing.", "Elements of gothic fiction, romanticism, and satire are observable in some of his books.", "He frequently used autobiographical or semi-autobiographical details.An important stylistic element in Dostoevsky's writing is polyphony, the simultaneous presence of multiple narrative voices and perspectives.", "Kornelije Kvas wrote that Bakhtin's theory of \"the polyphonic novel and Dostoevsky's dialogicness of narration postulates the non-existence of the 'final' word, which is why the thoughts, emotions and experiences of the world of the narrator and his/her characters are reflected through the words of another, with which they can never fully blend.\"" ], [ "Legacy", "=== Reception and influence ===Dostoevsky monument in Dresden (Germany)Dostoevsky is regarded as one of the greatest and most influential novelists of the Golden Age of Russian literature.", "Leo Tolstoy admired some of Dostoevsky's works, particularly ''The House of the Dead'', which he saw as exalted religious art, inspired by deep faith and love of humanity.", "Albert Einstein called Dostoevsky a \"great religious writer\" who explores \"the mystery of spiritual existence\".", "Sigmund Freud ranked Dostoevsky second only to Shakespeare as a creative writer, and called ''The Brothers Karamazov'' \"the most magnificent novel ever written\".", "Friedrich Nietzsche called Dostoevsky \"the only psychologist from whom I had something to learn\" and described him as being \"among the most beautiful strokes of fortune in my life.\"", "The Russian literary theorist Mikhail Bakhtin's analysis of Dostoevsky came to be at the foundation of his theory of the novel.", "Bakhtin argued that Dostoevsky's use of polyphony was a major advancement in the development of the novel as a genre.In his posthumous collection of sketches ''A Moveable Feast'', Ernest Hemingway stated that in Dostoevsky \"there were things believable and not to be believed, but some so true that they changed you as you read them; frailty and madness, wickedness and saintliness, and the insanity of gambling were there to know\".", "James Joyce praised Dostoevsky's prose: \"... he is the man more than any other who has created modern prose, and intensified it to its present-day pitch.", "It was his explosive power which shattered the Victorian novel with its simpering maidens and ordered commonplaces; books which were without imagination or violence.\"", "In her essay ''The Russian Point of View'', Virginia Woolf said, \"Out of Shakespeare there is no more exciting reading\".", "Franz Kafka called Dostoevsky his \"blood-relative\" and was heavily influenced by his works, particularly ''The Brothers Karamazov'' and ''Crime and Punishment'', both of which profoundly influenced ''The Trial''.", "Hermann Hesse enjoyed Dostoevsky's work and said that to read him is like a \"glimpse into the havoc\".", "The Norwegian novelist Knut Hamsun wrote that \"no one has analyzed the complicated human structure as Dostoyevsky.", "His psychologic sense is overwhelming and visionary.\"", "Writers associated with cultural movements such as surrealism, existentialism and the Beats cite Dostoevsky as an influence, and he is regarded as a forerunner to Russian symbolism, expressionism and psychoanalysis.J.M.", "Coetzee featured Dostoevsky as the protagonist in his 1997 novel ''The Master of Petersburg''.", "The famous Malayalam novel ''Oru Sankeerthanam Pole'' by Perumbadavam Sreedharan deals with the life of Dostoevsky and his love affair with Anna.=== Honours ===Soviet Union stamp, 1971In 1956 an olive-green postage stamp dedicated to Dostoevsky was released in the Soviet Union, with a print run of 1,000 copies.", "A Dostoevsky Museum was opened on 12 November 1971 in the apartment where he wrote his first and final novels.", "A crater on Mercury was named after him in 1979, and a minor planet discovered in 1981 by Lyudmila Karachkina was named 3453 Dostoevsky.", "Music critic and broadcaster Artemy Troitsky has hosted the radio show \"FM Достоевский\" (FM Dostoevsky) since 1997.Viewers of the TV show ''Name of Russia'' voted him the ninth greatest Russian of all time, just after Dmitry Mendeleev, and just ahead of ruler Ivan IV.", "An Eagle Award-winning TV series directed by Vladimir Khotinenko about Dostoevsky's life was screened in 2011.Numerous memorials were inaugurated in cities and regions such as Moscow, Saint Petersburg, Novosibirsk, Omsk, Semipalatinsk, Kusnetsk, Darovoye, Staraya Russa, Lyublino, Tallinn, Dresden, Baden-Baden and Wiesbaden.", "The Dostoyevskaya metro station in Saint Petersburg was opened on 30 December 1991, and the station of the same name in Moscow was opened on 19 June 2010, the 75th anniversary of the Moscow Metro.", "The Moscow station is decorated with murals by artist Ivan Nikolaev depicting scenes from Dostoevsky's works, such as controversial suicides.In 2021, Kazakhstan celebrated the 200th anniversary of Dostoyevsky's birth.=== Criticism ===Dostoevsky's work did not always gain a positive reception.", "Some critics, such as Nikolay Dobrolyubov, Ivan Bunin and Vladimir Nabokov, viewed his writing as excessively psychological and philosophical rather than artistic.", "Others found fault with chaotic and disorganised plots, and others, like Turgenev, objected to \"excessive psychologising\" and too-detailed naturalism.", "His style was deemed \"prolix, repetitious and lacking in polish, balance, restraint and good taste\".", "Saltykov-Shchedrin, Nikolay Mikhaylovsky and others criticised his puppet-like characters, most prominently in ''The Idiot'', ''Demons'' (''The Possessed'', ''The Devils'') and ''The Brothers Karamazov''.", "These characters were compared to those of Hoffmann, an author whom Dostoevsky admired.Basing his estimation on stated criteria of enduring art and individual genius, Nabokov judges Dostoevsky \"not a great writer, but rather a mediocre one—with flashes of excellent humour but, alas, with wastelands of literary platitudes in between.\"", "Nabokov complains that the novels are peopled by \"neurotics and lunatics\" and states that Dostoevsky's characters do not develop: \"We get them all complete at the beginning of the tale and so they remain.\"", "He finds the novels full of contrived \"surprises and complications of plot\", which are effective when first read, but on second reading, without the shock and benefit of these surprises, appear loaded with \"glorified cliché\".", "The Scottish poet and critic Edwin Muir, however, addressed this criticism, noting that \"regarding the 'oddness' of Dostoevsky's characters, it has been pointed out that they perhaps only seem 'pathological', whereas in reality they are 'only visualized more clearly than any figures in imaginative literature'.=== Reputation ===Dostoevsky's books have been translated into more than 170 languages.", "The German translator Wilhelm Wolfsohn published one of the first translations, parts of ''Poor Folk'', in an 1846–1847 magazine, and a French translation followed.", "French, German and Italian translations usually came directly from the original, while English translations were second-hand and of poor quality.", "The first English translations were by Marie von Thilo in 1881, but the first highly regarded ones were produced between 1912 and 1920 by Constance Garnett.", "Her flowing and easy translations helped popularise Dostoevsky's novels in anglophone countries, and Bakhtin's ''Problems of Dostoevsky's Creative Art'' (1929) (republished and revised as ''Problems of Dostoevsky's Poetics'' in 1963) provided further understanding of his style.Dostoevsky's works were interpreted in film and on stage in many different countries.", "Princess Varvara Dmitrevna Obolenskaya was among the first to propose staging ''Crime and Punishment''.", "Dostoevsky did not refuse permission, but he advised against it, as he believed that \"each art corresponds to a series of poetic thoughts, so that one idea cannot be expressed in another non-corresponding form\".", "His extensive explanations in opposition to the transposition of his works into other media were groundbreaking in fidelity criticism.", "He thought that just one episode should be dramatised, or an idea should be taken and incorporated into a separate plot.", "According to critic Alexander Burry, some of the most effective adaptions are Sergei Prokofiev's opera ''The Gambler'', Leoš Janáček's opera ''From the House of the Dead'', Akira Kurosawa's film ''The Idiot'' and Andrzej Wajda's film ''The Possessed''.After the 1917 Russian Revolution, passages of Dostoevsky books were sometimes shortened, although only two books were censored: ''Demons'' and ''Diary of a Writer''.", "His philosophy, particularly in ''Demons'', was deemed anti-capitalist but also anti-Communist and reactionary.", "According to historian Boris Ilizarov, Stalin read Dostoevsky's ''The Brothers Karamazov'' several times." ], [ "Works", "Dostoevsky's works of fiction include 16 novels and novellas, 17 short stories, and 5 translations.", "Many of his longer novels were first published in serialised form in literary magazines and journals.", "The years given below indicate the year in which the novel's final part or first complete book edition was published.", "In English many of his novels and stories are known by different titles.=== Major works ======= ''Poor Folk'' ====''Poor Folk'' is an epistolary novel that depicts the relationship between the small, elderly official Makar Devushkin and the young seamstress Varvara Dobroselova, remote relatives who write letters to each other.", "Makar's tender, sentimental adoration for Varvara and her confident, warm friendship for him explain their evident preference for a simple life, although it keeps them in humiliating poverty.", "An unscrupulous merchant finds the inexperienced girl and hires her as his housewife and guarantor.", "He sends her to a manor somewhere on a steppe, while Makar alleviates his misery and pain with alcohol.The story focuses on poor people who struggle with their lack of self-esteem.", "Their misery leads to the loss of their inner freedom, to dependence on the social authorities, and to the extinction of their individuality.", "Dostoevsky shows how poverty and dependence are indissolubly aligned with deflection and deformation of self-esteem, combining inward and outward suffering.==== ''Notes from Underground'' ====''Notes from Underground'' is split into two stylistically different parts, the first essay-like, the second in narrative style.", "The protagonist and first-person narrator is an unnamed 40-year-old civil servant known as The Underground Man.", "The only known facts about his situation are that he has quit the service, lives in a basement flat on the outskirts of Saint Petersburg and finances his livelihood from a modest inheritance.The first part is a record of his thoughts about society and his character.", "He describes himself as vicious, squalid and ugly; the chief focuses of his polemic are the \"modern human\" and his vision of the world, which he attacks severely and cynically, and towards which he develops aggression and vengefulness.", "He considers his own decline natural and necessary.", "Although he emphasises that he does not intend to publish his notes for the public, the narrator appeals repeatedly to an ill-described audience, whose questions he tries to address.In the second part he describes scenes from his life that are responsible for his failure in personal and professional life and in his love life.", "He tells of meeting old school friends, who are in secure positions and treat him with condescension.", "His aggression turns inward on to himself and he tries to humiliate himself further.", "He presents himself as a possible saviour to the poor prostitute Lisa, advising her to reject self-reproach when she looks to him for hope.", "Dostoevsky added a short commentary saying that although the storyline and characters are fictional, such things were inevitable in contemporary society.The Underground Man was very influential on philosophers.", "His alienated existence from the mainstream influenced modernist literature.==== ''Crime and Punishment'' ====The novel ''Crime and Punishment'' has received both critical and popular acclaim.", "It remains one of the most influential and widely read novels in Russian literature, and has been sometimes described as Dostoevsky's magnum opus.", "''Crime and Punishment'' follows the mental anguish and moral dilemmas of Rodion Raskolnikov, an impoverished ex-student in Saint Petersburg who plans to kill an unscrupulous pawnbroker, an old woman who stores money and valuable objects in her flat.", "He theorises that with the money he could liberate himself from poverty and go on to perform great deeds, and seeks to convince himself that certain crimes are justifiable if they are committed in order to remove obstacles to the higher goals of 'extraordinary' men.", "Once the deed is done, however, he finds himself racked with confusion, paranoia, and disgust.", "His theoretical justifications lose all their power as he struggles with guilt and horror and confronts both the internal and external consequences of his deed.Strakhov remarked that \"Only ''Crime and Punishment'' was read in 1866\" and that Dostoevsky had managed to portray a Russian person aptly and realistically.", "In contrast, Grigory Eliseev of the radical magazine ''The Contemporary'' called the novel a \"fantasy according to which the entire student body is accused without exception of attempting murder and robbery\".", "The Encyclopaedia Britannica describes ''Crime and Punishment'' as \"a masterpiece\" and \"one of the finest studies of the psychopathology of guilt written in any language.", "\"==== ''The Idiot'' ====The title is an ironic reference to the central character of the novel, Prince Lev Nikolayevich Myshkin, a young man whose goodness, open-hearted simplicity and guilelessness lead many of the more worldly characters he encounters to mistakenly assume that he lacks intelligence and insight.", "In the character of Prince Myshkin, Dostoevsky set himself the task of depicting \"the positively good and beautiful man.\"", "The novel examines the consequences of placing such a singular individual at the centre of the conflicts, desires, passions and egoism of worldly society, both for the man himself and for those with whom he becomes involved.Joseph Frank describes ''The Idiot'' as \"the most personal of all Dostoevsky's major works, the book in which he embodies his most intimate, cherished, and sacred convictions.\"", "It includes descriptions of some of his most intense personal ordeals, such as epilepsy and mock execution, and explores moral, spiritual and philosophical themes consequent upon them.", "His primary motivation in writing the novel was to subject his own highest ideal, that of true Christian love, to the crucible of contemporary Russian society.==== ''Demons'' ====''Demons'' is a social and political satire, a psychological drama, and large-scale tragedy.", "Joyce Carol Oates has described it as \"Dostoevsky's most confused and violent novel, and his most satisfactorily 'tragic' work.\"", "According to Ronald Hingley, it is Dostoevsky's \"greatest onslaught on Nihilism\", and \"one of humanity's most impressive achievements—perhaps even its supreme achievement—in the art of prose fiction.", "\"''Demons'' is an allegory of the potentially catastrophic consequences of the political and moral nihilism that were becoming prevalent in Russia in the 1860s.", "A fictional town descends into chaos as it becomes the focal point of an attempted revolution, orchestrated by master conspirator Pyotr Verkhovensky.", "The mysterious aristocratic figure of Nikolai Stavrogin—Verkhovensky's counterpart in the moral sphere—dominates the book, exercising an extraordinary influence over the hearts and minds of almost all the other characters.", "The idealistic, Western-influenced generation of the 1840s, epitomized in the character of Stepan Verkhovensky (who is both Pyotr Verkhovensky's father and Nikolai Stavrogin's childhood teacher), are presented as the unconscious progenitors and helpless accomplices of the \"demonic\" forces that take possession of the town.==== ''The Brothers Karamazov'' ====''The Brothers Karamazov'' is Dostoevsky's largest work.", "It received both critical and popular acclaim and is often cited as his ''magnum opus''.", "Composed of 12 \"books\", the novel tells the story of the novice Alyosha Karamazov, the non-believer Ivan Karamazov, and the soldier Dmitri Karamazov.", "The first books introduce the Karamazovs.", "The main plot is the death of their father Fyodor, while other parts are philosophical and religious arguments by Father Zosima to Alyosha.The most famous chapter is \"The Grand Inquisitor\", a parable told by Ivan to Alyosha about Christ's Second Coming in Seville, Spain, in which Christ is imprisoned by a ninety-year-old Catholic Grand Inquisitor.", "Instead of answering him, Christ gives him a kiss, and the Inquisitor subsequently releases him, telling him not to return.", "The tale was misunderstood as a defence of the Inquisitor, but some, such as Romano Guardini, have argued that the Christ of the parable was Ivan's own interpretation of Christ, \"the idealistic product of the unbelief\".", "Ivan, however, has stated that he is against Christ.", "Most contemporary critics and scholars agree that Dostoevsky is attacking Roman Catholicism and socialist atheism, both represented by the Inquisitor.", "He warns the readers against a terrible revelation in the future, referring to the Donation of Pepin around 750 and the Spanish Inquisition in the 16th century, which in his view corrupted true Christianity.Sigmund Freud wrote an essay called \"Dostoevsky and Parricide\" (German: Dostojewski und die Vatertötung) as an introductory article to a scholarly collection on \"The Brothers Karamazov\".=== Bibliography ======= Novels and novellas ====* (1846) ''Poor Folk''* (1846) ''The Double''* (1847) ''The Landlady'' (novella)* (1849) ''Netochka Nezvanova'' (unfinished)* (1859) ''Uncle's Dream'' (novella)* (1859) ''The Village of Stepanchikovo''* (1861) ''Humiliated and Insulted''* (1862) ''The House of the Dead''* (1864) ''Notes from Underground'' (novella)* (1866) ''Crime and Punishment''* (1867) ''The Gambler''* (1869) ''The Idiot''* (1870) ''The Eternal Husband''* (1872) ''Demons'' (also titled: ''The Possessed'', ''The Devils'')* (1875) ''The Adolescent''* (1880) ''The Brothers Karamazov''==== Short stories ====* (1846) \"Mr. Prokharchin\"* (1847) \"Novel in Nine Letters\"* (1848) \"Another Man's Wife and a Husband Under the Bed\" (merger of \"Another Man's Wife\" and \"A Jealous Husband\")* (1848) \"A Weak Heart\"* (1848) \"Polzunkov\"* (1848) \"An Honest Thief\"* (1848) \"A Christmas Tree and a Wedding\"* (1848) \"White Nights\"* (1849) \"A Little Hero\"* (1862) \"A Nasty Story\"* (1865) \"The Crocodile\"* (1873) \"Bobok\"* (1876) \"The Heavenly Christmas Tree\" (also titled: \"The Beggar Boy at Christ's Christmas Tree\")* (1876) \"A Gentle Creature\" (also titled: \"The Meek One\")* (1876) \"The Peasant Marey\"* (1877) \"The Dream of a Ridiculous Man\"==== Essay collections ====* ''Winter Notes on Summer Impressions'' (1863)* ''A Writer's Diary'' (1873–1881)==== Translations ====* (1843) ''Eugénie Grandet'' (Honoré de Balzac)* (1843) ''La dernière Aldini'' (George Sand)* (1843) ''Mary Stuart'' (Friedrich Schiller)==== Personal letters ====* (1912) ''Letters of Fyodor Michailovitch Dostoevsky to His Family and Friends'' by Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky (Author), translator Ethel Colburn Mayne Kessinger Publishing, LLC (26 May 2006) ==== Posthumously published notebooks ====* (1922) ''Stavrogin's Confession & the Plan of the Life of a Great Sinner'' – English translation by Virginia Woolf and S.S. Koteliansky" ], [ "References", "=== Notes ====== Citations ====== Bibliography ===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ;Biographies* * * * * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", " Allen, James Sloan (2008), \"Condemned to Be Free,\" ''Worldly Wisdom: Great Books and the Meanings of Life,'' Savannah: Frederic C. Beil.", "Birmingham, Kevin.", "2021.", "''The sinner and the saint: Dostoevsky and the gentleman murderer who inspired a masterpiece.''", "New York: Penguin.", " Berdyaev, Nicolas (1948).", "''The Russian Idea'', The Macmillan Company.", "* Bierbaum, Otto Julius (1910–1911).", "\"Dostoyevsky and Nietzsche,\" ''The Hibbert Journal'', Vol.", "IX.", "* Hubben, William.", "(1997).", "''Dostoevsky, Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, and Kafka: Four Prophets of Our Destiny,'' Simon & Schuster.", "Originally published in 1952.", "* Lavrin, Janko (1918).", "\"Dostoyevsky and Certain of his Problems,\" Part II, Part III, Part IV, Part V, Part VI, Part VII, Part VIII, Part IX, Part X, ''The New Age'', Vol.", "XXII, Nos.", "12–21.", "* Lavrin, Janko (1918).", "\"The Dostoyevsky Problem,\" ''The New Age'', Vol.", "XXII, No.", "24, pp. 465–66.", "* Maeztu, Ramiro de (1918).", "\"Dostoyevsky the Manichean,\" ''The New Age'', Vol.", "XXII, No.", "23, 1918, pp. 449–51.", "* Manning, Clarence Augustus (1922).", "\"Dostoyevsky and Modern Russian Literature,\" ''The Sewanee Review'', Vol.", "30, No.", "3.", "* * Simmons, Ernest J.", "(1940).", "''Dostoevsky: The Making Of A Novelist'', Vintage Books.", "* Westbrook, Perry D. (1961).", "''The Greatness of Man: An Essay on Dostoyevsky and Whitman''.", "New York: Thomas Yoseloff." ], [ "External links", "'''Digital collections'''* * * * * Fyodor Dostoyevsky collection at One More Library* The complete works of Fyodor Dostoyevsky – the online published bibliography in its original language'''Scholarly works'''* International Dostoevsky Society – a network of scholars dedicated to studying the life and works of Fyodor Dostoevsky* FyodorDostoevsky.com – discussion forums, essays, quotes, photos, biography of the author* Archives of Dostoevsky Studies , a journal published from 1980 to 1988'''Other links'''* Dostoevsky's family tree* * Also available in the original Russian .", "* * * Places of Fyodor Dostoevsky in Saint Petersburg" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Faith healing" ], [ "Introduction", "The prophet Elijah praying for the recovery of the son of the widow of Zarephath, from the Bible's Books of Kings'''Faith healing''' is the practice of prayer and gestures (such as laying on of hands) that are believed by some to elicit divine intervention in spiritual and physical healing, especially the Christian practice.", "Believers assert that the healing of disease and disability can be brought about by religious faith through prayer or other rituals that, according to adherents, can stimulate a divine presence and power.", "Religious belief in divine intervention does not depend on empirical evidence of an evidence-based outcome achieved via faith healing.", "Virtually all scientists and philosophers dismiss faith healing as pseudoscience.Claims that \"a myriad of techniques\" such as prayer, divine intervention, or the ministrations of an individual healer can cure illness have been popular throughout history.", "There have been claims that faith can cure blindness, deafness, cancer, HIV/AIDS, developmental disorders, anemia, arthritis, corns, defective speech, multiple sclerosis, skin rashes, total body paralysis, and various injuries.", "Recoveries have been attributed to many techniques commonly classified as faith healing.", "It can involve prayer, a visit to a religious shrine, or simply a strong belief in a supreme being.Many people interpret the Bible, especially the New Testament, as teaching belief in, and the practice of, faith healing.", "According to a 2004 ''Newsweek'' poll, 72 percent of Americans said they believe that praying to God can cure someone, even if science says the person has an incurable disease.", "Unlike faith healing, advocates of spiritual healing make no attempt to seek divine intervention, instead believing in divine energy.", "The increased interest in alternative medicine at the end of the 20th century has given rise to a parallel interest among sociologists in the relationship of religion to health.Faith healing can be classified as a spiritual, supernatural, or paranormal topic, and, in some cases, belief in faith healing can be classified as magical thinking.", "The American Cancer Society states \"available scientific evidence does not support claims that faith healing can actually cure physical ailments\".", "\"Death, disability, and other unwanted outcomes have occurred when faith healing was elected instead of medical care for serious injuries or illnesses.\"", "When parents have practiced faith healing rather than medical care, many children have died that otherwise would have been expected to live.", "Similar results are found in adults." ], [ "In various belief systems", "===Christianity=======Overview====Faith healing by Fernando Suarez, PhilippinesRegarded as a Christian belief that God heals people through the power of the Holy Spirit, faith healing often involves the laying on of hands.", "It is also called supernatural healing, divine healing, and miracle healing, among other things.", "Healing in the Bible is often associated with the ministry of specific individuals including Elijah, Jesus and Paul.Christian physician Reginald B. Cherry views faith healing as a pathway of healing in which God uses both the natural and the supernatural to heal.", "Being healed has been described as a privilege of accepting Christ's redemption on the cross.", "Pentecostal writer Wilfred Graves Jr. views the healing of the body as a physical expression of salvation.", ", after describing Jesus exorcising at sunset and healing all of the sick who were brought to him, quotes these miracles as a fulfillment of the prophecy in : \"He took up our infirmities and carried our diseases\".Even those Christian writers who believe in faith healing do not all believe that one's faith presently brings about the desired healing.", "\"Your faith does not effect your healing now.", "When you are healed rests entirely on what the sovereign purposes of the Healer are.\"", "Larry Keefauver cautions against allowing enthusiasm for faith healing to stir up false hopes.", "\"Just believing hard enough, long enough or strong enough will not strengthen you or prompt your healing.", "Doing mental gymnastics to 'hold on to your miracle' will not cause your healing to manifest now.\"", "Those who actively lay hands on others and pray with them to be healed are usually aware that healing may not always follow immediately.", "Proponents of faith healing say it may come later, and it may not come in this life.", "\"The truth is that your healing may manifest in eternity, not in time\".====New Testament====Parts of the four canonical gospels in the New Testament say that Jesus cured physical ailments well outside the capacity of first-century medicine.", "Jesus' healing acts are considered miraculous and spectacular due to the results being impossible or statistically improbable.", "One example is the case of \"a woman who had had a discharge of blood for twelve years, and who had suffered much under many physicians, and had spent all that she had, and was not better but rather grew worse\".", "After healing her, Jesus tells her \"Daughter, your faith has made you well.", "Go in peace!", "Be cured from your illness\".", "At least two other times Jesus credited the sufferer's faith as the means of being healed: and .Jesus endorsed the use of the medical assistance of the time (medicines of oil and wine) when he told the parable of the Good Samaritan (Luke 10:25–37), who \"bound up an injured man's wounds, pouring on oil and wine\" (verse 34) as a physician would.", "Jesus then told the doubting teacher of the law (who had elicited this parable by his self-justifying question, \"And who is my neighbor?\"", "in verse 29) to \"go, and do likewise\" in loving others with whom he would never ordinarily associate (verse 37).The healing in the gospels is referred to as a \"sign\" to prove Jesus' divinity and to foster belief in him as the Christ.", "However, when asked for other types of miracles, Jesus refused some but granted others in consideration of the motive of the request.", "Some theologians' understanding is that Jesus healed ''all'' who were present every single time.", "Sometimes he determines whether they had faith that he would heal them.", "Four of the seven miraculous signs performed in the Fourth Gospel that indicated he was sent from God were acts of healing or resurrection.", "He heals the Capernaum official's son, heals a paralytic by the pool in Bethsaida, healing a man born blind, and resurrecting Lazarus of Bethany.Jesus told his followers to heal the sick and stated that signs such as healing are evidence of faith.", "Jesus also told his followers to \"cure sick people, raise up dead persons, make lepers clean, expel demons.", "You received free, give free\".Jesus sternly ordered many who received healing from him: \"Do not tell anyone!\"", "Jesus did not approve of anyone asking for a sign just for the spectacle of it, describing such as coming from a \"wicked and adulterous generation\".The apostle Paul believed healing is one of the special gifts of the Holy Spirit, and that the possibility exists that certain persons may possess this gift to an extraordinarily high degree.In the New Testament Epistle of James, the faithful are told that to be healed, those who are sick should call upon the elders of the church to pray over them and anoint them with oil in the name of the Lord.The New Testament says that during Jesus' ministry and after his Resurrection, the apostles healed the sick and cast out demons, made lame men walk, raised the dead and performed other miracles.", "Apostles were holy men who had direct access to God and could channel his power to help and heal people.", "For example, Saint Peter healed a disabled man.Jesus used miracles to convince people that he was inaugurating the Messianic Age, as in Mt 12.28.Scholars have described Jesus' miracles as establishing the kingdom during his lifetime.====Early Christian church====Accounts or references to healing appear in the writings of many Ante Nicene Fathers, although many of these mentions are very general and do not include specifics.====Catholicism====The Roman Catholic Church recognizes two \"not mutually exclusive\" kinds of healing, one justified by science and one justified by faith:* healing by human \"natural means through the practice of medicine\" which emphasizes that the theological virtue of \"charity demands that we not neglect natural means of healing people who are ill\" and the cardinal virtue of prudence forewarns not \"to employ a technique that has no scientific support (or even plausibility)\"* healing by divine grace \"interceded on behalf of the sick through the invocation of the name of the Lord Jesus, asking for healing through the power of the Holy Spirit, whether in the form of the sacramental laying on of hands and anointing with oil or of simple prayers for healing, which often include an appeal to the saints for their aid\"In 2000, the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith issued \"Instruction on prayers for healing\" with specific norms about prayer meetings for obtaining healing, which presents the Catholic Church's doctrines of sickness and healing.It accepts \"that there may be means of natural healing that have not yet been understood or recognized by science\", but it rejects superstitious practices which are neither compatible with Christian teaching nor compatible with scientific evidence.Faith healing is reported by Catholics as the result of intercessory prayer to a saint or to a person with the gift of healing.", "According to ''U.S.", "Catholic'' magazine, \"Even in this skeptical, postmodern, scientific agemiracles really are possible.\"", "According to a ''Newsweek'' poll, three-fourths of American Catholics say they pray for \"miracles\" of some sort.According to John Cavadini, when healing is granted, \"The miracle is not primarily for the person healed, but for all people, as a sign of God's work in the ultimate healing called 'salvation', or a sign of the kingdom that is coming.\"", "Some might view their own healing as a sign they are particularly worthy or holy, while others do not deserve it.The Catholic Church has a special Congregation dedicated to the careful investigation of the validity of alleged miracles attributed to prospective saints.", "Pope Francis tightened the rules on money and miracles in the canonization process.", "Since Catholic Christians believe the lives of canonized saints in the Church will reflect Christ's, many have come to expect healing miracles.", "While the popular conception of a miracle can be wide-ranging, the Catholic Church has a specific definition for the kind of miracle formally recognized in a canonization process.According to ''Catholic Encyclopedia'', it is often said that cures at shrines and during Christian pilgrimages are mainly due to psychotherapypartly to confident trust in Divine providence, and partly to the strong expectancy of cure that comes over suggestible persons at these times and places.Among the best-known accounts by Catholics of faith healings are those attributed to the miraculous intercession of the apparition of the Blessed Virgin Mary known as Our Lady of Lourdes at the Sanctuary of Our Lady of Lourdes in France and the remissions of life-threatening disease claimed by those who have applied for aid to Saint Jude, who is known as the \"patron saint of lost causes\"., Catholic medics have asserted that there have been 67 miracles and 7,000 unexplainable medical cures at Lourdes since 1858.In a 1908 book, it says these cures were subjected to intense medical scrutiny and were only recognized as authentic spiritual cures after a commission of doctors and scientists, called the Lourdes Medical Bureau, had ruled out any physical mechanism for the patient's recovery.==== Evangelicalism ====Laying on of hands for healing in Living Streams International Church, Accra, Ghana, 2018In some Pentecostal and Charismatic Evangelical churches, a special place is thus reserved for faith healings with laying on of hands during worship services or for campaigns evangelization.", "Faith healing or divine healing is considered to be an inheritance of Jesus acquired by his death and resurrection.", "Biblical inerrancy ensures that the miracles and healings described in the Bible are still relevant and may be present in the life of the believer.At the beginning of the 20th century, the new Pentecostal movement drew participants from the Holiness movement and other movements in America that already believed in divine healing.", "By the 1930s, several faith healers drew large crowds and established worldwide followings.The first Pentecostals in the modern sense appeared in Topeka, Kansas, in a Bible school conducted by Charles Fox Parham, a holiness teacher and former Methodist pastor.", "Pentecostalism achieved worldwide attention in 1906 through the Azusa Street Revival in Los Angeles led by William Joseph Seymour.Smith Wigglesworth was also a well-known figure in the early part of the 20th century.", "A former English plumber turned evangelist who lived simply and read nothing but the Bible from the time his wife taught him to read, Wigglesworth traveled around the world preaching about Jesus and performing faith healings.", "Wigglesworth claimed to raise several people from the dead in Jesus' name in his meetings.During the 1920s and 1930s, Aimee Semple McPherson was a controversial faith healer of growing popularity during the Great Depression.", "Subsequently, William M. Branham has been credited as the initiator of the post-World War II healing revivals.", "The healing revival he began led many to emulate his style and spawned a generation of faith healers.", "Because of this, Branham has been recognized as the \"father of modern faith healers\".", "According to writer and researcher Patsy Sims, \"the power of a Branham service and his stage presence remains a legend unparalleled in the history of the Charismatic movement\".", "By the late 1940s, Oral Roberts, who was associated with and promoted by Branham's ''Voice of Healing'' magazine also became well known, and he continued with faith healing until the 1980s.", "Roberts discounted faith healing in the late 1950s, stating, \"I never was a faith healer and I was never raised that way.", "My parents believed very strongly in medical science and we have a doctor who takes care of our children when they get sick.", "I cannot heal anyone – God does that.\"", "A friend of Roberts was Kathryn Kuhlman, another popular faith healer, who gained fame in the 1950s and had a television program on CBS.", "Also in this era, Jack Coe and A.", "A. Allen were faith healers who traveled with large tents for large open-air crusades.Oral Roberts's successful use of television as a medium to gain a wider audience led others to follow suit.", "His former pilot, Kenneth Copeland, started a healing ministry.", "Pat Robertson, Benny Hinn, and Peter Popoff became well-known televangelists who claimed to heal the sick.", "Richard Rossi is known for advertising his healing clinics through secular television and radio.", "Kuhlman influenced Benny Hinn, who adopted some of her techniques and wrote a book about her.====Christian Science====Christian Science claims that healing is possible through prayer based on an understanding of God and the underlying spiritual perfection of God's creation.", "The material world as humanly perceived is believed to not be the spiritual reality.", "Christian Scientists believe that healing through prayer is possible insofar as it succeeds in bringing the spiritual reality of health into human experience.", "Prayer does not change the spiritual creation but gives a clearer view of it, and the result appears in the human scene as healing: the human picture adjusts to coincide more nearly with the divine reality.", "Therefore, Christian Scientists do not consider themselves to be faith healers since faith or belief in Christian Science is not required on the part of the patient, and because they consider healings reliable and provable rather than random.Although there is no hierarchy in Christian Science, practitioners devote full time to prayer for others on a professional basis, and advertise in an online directory published by the church.", "Christian Scientists sometimes tell their stories of healing at weekly testimony meetings at local Christian Science churches, or publish them in the church's magazines including ''The Christian Science Journal'' printed monthly since 1883, the ''Christian Science Sentinel'' printed weekly since 1898, and ''The Herald of Christian Science'' a foreign language magazine beginning with a German edition in 1903 and later expanding to Spanish, French, and Portuguese editions.", "Christian Science Reading Rooms often have archives of such healing accounts.====The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints====The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS) has had a long history of faith healings.", "Many members of the LDS Church have told their stories of healing within the LDS publication, the ''Ensign''.", "The church believes healings come most often as a result of priesthood blessings given by the laying on of hands; however, prayer often accompanied with fasting is also thought to cause healings.", "Healing is always attributed to be God's power.", "Latter-day Saints believe that the Priesthood of God, held by prophets (such as Moses) and worthy disciples of the Savior, was restored via heavenly messengers to the first prophet of this dispensation, Joseph Smith.According to LDS doctrine, even though members may have the restored priesthood authority to heal in the name of Jesus Christ, all efforts should be made to seek the appropriate medical help.", "Brigham Young stated this effectively, while also noting that the ultimate outcome is still dependent on the will of God.===Islam===A number of healing traditions exist among Muslims.", "Some healers are particularly focused on diagnosing cases of possession by jinn or demons.===Buddhism===Chinese-born Australian businessman Jun Hong Lu was a prominent proponent of the \"Guan Yin Citta Dharma Door\", claiming that practicing the three \"golden practices\" of reciting texts and mantras, liberation of beings, and making vows, laid a solid foundation for improved physical, mental, and psychological well-being, with many followers publicly attesting to have been healed through practice.===Scientology===Some critics of Scientology have referred to some of its practices as being similar to faith healing, based on claims made by L. Ron Hubbard in ''Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health'' and other writings." ], [ "Scientific investigation", "Nearly all scientists dismiss faith healing as pseudoscience.", "Believers assert that faith healing makes no scientific claims and thus should be treated as a matter of faith that is not testable by science.", "Critics reply that claims of medical cures should be tested scientifically because, although faith in the supernatural is not in itself usually considered to be the purview of science, claims of reproducible effects are nevertheless subject to scientific investigation.Scientists and doctors generally find that faith healing lacks biological plausibility or epistemic warrant, which is one of the criteria used to judge whether clinical research is ethical and financially justified.", "A Cochrane review of intercessory prayer found \"although some of the results of individual studies suggest a positive effect of intercessory prayer, the majority do not\".", "The authors concluded: \"We are not convinced that further trials of this intervention should be undertaken and would prefer to see any resources available for such a trial used to investigate other questions in health care\".A review in 1954 investigated spiritual healing, therapeutic touch and faith healing.", "Of the hundred cases reviewed, none revealed that the healer's intervention alone resulted in any improvement or cure of a measurable organic disability.In addition, at least one study has suggested that adult Christian Scientists, who generally use prayer rather than medical care, have a higher death rate than other people of the same age.The Global Medical Research Institute (GMRI) was created in 2012 to start collecting medical records of patients who claim to have received a supernatural healing miracle as a result of Christian Spiritual Healing practices.", "The organization has a panel of medical doctors who review the patient's records looking at entries prior to the claimed miracles and entries after the miracle was claimed to have taken place.", "\"The overall goal of GMRI is to promote an empirically grounded understanding of the physiological, emotional, and sociological effects of Christian Spiritual Healing practices\".", "This is accomplished by applying the same rigorous standards used in other forms of medical and scientific research.A 2011 article in the New Scientist magazine cited positive physical results from meditation, positive thinking and spiritual faith" ], [ "Criticism", "Skeptics of faith healing offer primarily two explanations for anecdotes of cures or improvements, relieving any need to appeal to the supernatural.", "The first is ''post hoc ergo propter hoc'', meaning that a genuine improvement or spontaneous remission may have been experienced coincidental with but independent from anything the faith healer or patient did or said.", "These patients would have improved just as well even had they done nothing.", "The second is the placebo effect, through which a person may experience genuine pain relief and other symptomatic alleviation.", "In this case, the patient genuinely has been helped by the faith healer or faith-based remedy, not through any mysterious or numinous function, but by the power of their own belief that they would be healed.", "In both cases the patient may experience a real reduction in symptoms, though in neither case has anything miraculous or inexplicable occurred.", "Both cases, however, are strictly limited to the body's natural abilities.According to the American Cancer Society:The American Medical Association considers that prayer as therapy should not be a medically reimbursable or deductible expense.Belgian philosopher and skeptic Etienne Vermeersch coined the term Lourdes effect as a criticism of the magical thinking and placebo effect possibilities for the claimed miraculous cures as there are no documented events where a severed arm has been reattached through faith healing at Lourdes.", "Vermeersch identifies ambiguity and equivocal nature of the miraculous cures as a key feature of miraculous events.===Negative impact on public health===Reliance on faith healing to the exclusion of other forms of treatment can have a public health impact when it reduces or eliminates access to modern medical techniques.", "This is evident in both higher mortality rates for children and in reduced life expectancy for adults.", "Critics have also made note of serious injury that has resulted from falsely labelled \"healings\", where patients erroneously consider themselves cured and cease or withdraw from treatment.", "For example, at least six people have died after faith healing by their church and being told they had been healed of HIV and could stop taking their medications.", "It is the stated position of the AMA that \"prayer as therapy should not delay access to traditional medical care\".", "Choosing faith healing while rejecting modern medicine can and does cause people to die needlessly.===Christian theological criticism of faith healing===Christian theological criticism of faith healing broadly falls into two distinct levels of disagreement.The first is widely termed the \"open-but-cautious\" view of the miraculous in the church today.", "This term is deliberately used by Robert L. Saucy in the book ''Are Miraculous Gifts for Today?''.", "Don Carson is another example of a Christian teacher who has put forward what has been described as an \"open-but-cautious\" view.", "In dealing with the claims of Warfield, particularly \"Warfield's insistence that miracles ceased\", Carson asserts, \"But this argument stands up only if such miraculous gifts are theologically tied exclusively to a role of attestation; and that is demonstrably not so.\"", "However, while affirming that he does not expect healing to happen today, Carson is critical of aspects of the faith healing movement, \"Another issue is that of immense abuses in healing practises....", "The most common form of abuse is the view that since all illness is directly or indirectly attributable to the devil and his works, and since Christ by his cross has defeated the devil, and by his Spirit has given us the power to overcome him, healing is the inheritance right of all true Christians who call upon the Lord with genuine faith.", "\"The second level of theological disagreement with Christian faith healing goes further.", "Commonly referred to as cessationism, its adherents either claim that faith healing will not happen today at all, or may happen today, but it would be unusual.", "Richard Gaffin argues for a form of cessationism in an essay alongside Saucy's in the book ''Are Miraculous Gifts for Today''?", "In his book ''Perspectives on Pentecost'' Gaffin states of healing and related gifts that \"the conclusion to be drawn is that as listed in 1 Corinthians 12(vv.", "9f., 29f.)", "and encountered throughout the narrative in Acts, these gifts, particularly when exercised regularly by a given individual, are part of the foundational structure of the church... and so have passed out of the life of the church.\"", "Gaffin qualifies this, however, by saying \"At the same time, however, the sovereign will and power of God today to heal the sick, particularly in response to prayer (see e.g.", "James 5:14, 15), ought to be acknowledged and insisted on.", "\"===Fraud===Skeptics of faith healers point to fraudulent practices either in the healings themselves (such as plants in the audience with fake illnesses), or concurrent with the healing work supposedly taking place and claim that faith healing is a quack practice in which the \"healers\" use well known non-supernatural illusions to exploit credulous people in order to obtain their gratitude, confidence and money.", "James Randi's ''The Faith Healers'' investigates Christian evangelists such as Peter Popoff, who claimed to heal sick people on stage in front of an audience.", "Popoff pretended to know private details about participants' lives by receiving radio transmissions from his wife who was off-stage and had gathered information from audience members prior to the show.", "According to this book, many of the leading modern evangelistic healers have engaged in deception and fraud.", "The book also questioned how faith healers use funds that were sent to them for specific purposes.", "Physicist Robert L. Park and doctor and consumer advocate Stephen Barrett have called into question the ethics of some exorbitant fees.There have also been legal controversies.", "For example, in 1955 at a Jack Coe revival service in Miami, Florida, Coe told the parents of a three-year-old boy that he healed their son who had polio.", "Coe then told the parents to remove the boy's leg braces.", "However, their son was not cured of polio and removing the braces left the boy in constant pain.", "As a result, through the efforts of Joseph L. Lewis, Coe was arrested and charged on February 6, 1956, with practicing medicine without a license, a felony in the state of Florida.", "A Florida Justice of the Peace dismissed the case on grounds that Florida exempts divine healing from the law.", "Later that year Coe was diagnosed with bulbar polio, and died a few weeks later at Dallas' Parkland Hospital on December 17, 1956.===Miracles for sale===TV personality Derren Brown produced a show on faith healing entitled ''Miracles for Sale'' which arguably exposed the art of faith healing as a scam.", "In this show, Derren trained a scuba diver trainer picked from the general public to be a faith healer and took him to Texas to successfully deliver a faith healing session to a congregation." ], [ "United States law", "The 1974 Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act (CAPTA) required states to grant religious exemptions to child neglect and child abuse laws in order to receive federal money.", "The CAPTA amendments of 1996 state:Thirty-one states have child-abuse religious exemptions.", "These are Alabama, Alaska, California, Colorado, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, Nevada, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New Mexico, Ohio, Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Vermont, Virginia, and Wyoming.", "In six of these states, Arkansas, Idaho, Iowa, Louisiana, Ohio and Virginia, the exemptions extend to murder and manslaughter.", "Of these, Idaho is the only state accused of having a large number of deaths due to the legislation in recent times.", "In February 2015, controversy was sparked in Idaho over a bill believed to further reinforce parental rights to deny their children medical care.===Reckless homicide convictions===Parents have been convicted of child abuse and felony reckless negligent homicide and found responsible for killing their children when they withheld lifesaving medical care and chose only prayers." ], [ "See also", "* Anointing of the sick* Efficacy of prayer* Egregore* Energy medicine* Folk medicine* Self-efficacy* Thaumaturgy* Witch doctor* List of ineffective cancer treatments* List of topics characterized as pseudoscience" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* Beyer, Jürgen (2013) \"Wunderheilung\".", "In ''Enzyklopädie des Märchens.", "Handwörterbuch zur historischen und vergleichenden Erzählforschung'', vol.", "14, Berlin & Boston: Walter de Gruyter, coll.", "1043–1050* * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "External links", "" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Furry" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Furry''' may refer to:* The state of being covered with fur* Furry fandom, a subculture interested in non-human animal characters with human personalities and characteristics* Furry, Mississippi, U.S., a place* Wendell H. Furry (1907–1984), an American physicist* Furry Lewis (Walter E. Lewis, 1893 or 1899 – 1981), an American country blues guitarist and songwriter" ], [ "See also", "* Furry Creek, British Columbia, a community in Canada" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Fritz Lang" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Friedrich Christian Anton Lang''' (; December 5, 1890 – August 2, 1976), better known as '''Fritz Lang''' (), was an Austrian film director, screenwriter, and producer who worked in Germany and later the United States.", "One of the best-known ''émigrés'' from Germany's school of Expressionism, he was dubbed the \"Master of Darkness\" by the British Film Institute.", "He has been cited as one of the most influential filmmakers of all time.Lang's most celebrated films include the groundbreaking futuristic science-fiction film ''Metropolis'' (1927) and the influential ''M'' (1931), a film noir precursor.", "His 1929 film ''Woman in the Moon'' showcased the use of a multi-stage rocket, and also pioneered the concept of a rocket launch pad (a rocket standing upright against a tall building before launch having been slowly rolled into place) and the rocket-launch countdown clock.", "His other major films include ''Dr.", "Mabuse the Gambler'' (1922), ''Die Nibelungen'' (1924), and after moving to Hollywood in 1934, ''Fury'' (1936), ''You Only Live Once'' (1937), ''Hangmen Also Die!''", "(1943), ''The Woman in the Window'' (1944), ''Scarlet Street'' (1945) and ''The Big Heat'' (1953).", "He became a naturalized citizen of the United States in 1939." ], [ "Early life", "Lang was born in Vienna, as the second son of Anton Lang (1860–1940), an architect and construction company manager, and his wife Pauline \"Paula\" Lang ( Schlesinger; 1864–1920).", "His mother was born Jewish and converted to Catholicism.", "His father was described as a “lapsed Catholic.” He was baptized on December 28, 1890, at the Schottenkirche in Vienna.", "He had an elder brother, Adolf (1884–1961).Lang's parents were of Moravian descent.", "At one point, he noted that he was “born a Catholic and very puritan\".", "Ultimately describing himself as an atheist, Lang believed that religion was important for teaching ethics.After finishing school, Lang briefly attended the Technical University of Vienna, where he studied civil engineering and eventually switched to art.", "He left Vienna in 1910 in order to see the world, traveling throughout Europe and Africa, and later Asia and the Pacific area.", "In 1913, he studied painting in Paris.At the outbreak of World War I, Lang returned to Vienna and volunteered for military service in the Austrian Army and fought in Russia and Romania, where he was wounded four times and lost sight in his right eye, the first of many vision issues he would face in his lifetime.", "While recovering from his injuries and shell shock in 1916, he wrote some scenarios and ideas for films.", "He was discharged from the army with the rank of lieutenant in 1918 and did some acting in the Viennese theater circuit for a short time before being hired as a writer at Decla Film, Erich Pommer's Berlin-based production company.In 1919, he married Jewish Lisa Rosenthal, who died in 1920 under mysterious circumstances of a single gunshot wound deemed to have been fired by a sidearm weapon from World War I." ], [ "Career", "===Expressionist films: the Weimar years (1918–1933)===Lang's writing stint was brief, as he soon started to work as a director at the German film studio UFA, and later Nero-Film, just as the Expressionist movement was building.", "In this first phase of his career, Lang alternated between films such as ''Der Müde Tod'' (\"The Weary Death\") and popular thrillers such as ''Die Spinnen'' (\"The Spiders\"), combining popular genres with Expressionist techniques to create an unprecedented synthesis of popular entertainment with art cinema.Lang and Thea von Harbou in their Berlin flat, 1923 or 1924In 1920, Lang met his future second wife, the writer Thea von Harbou.", "She and Lang co-wrote all of his movies from 1921 through 1933, including ''Dr.", "Mabuse, der Spieler'' (\"Dr. Mabuse the Gambler,\" 1922 – which ran for over four hours, in two parts in the original version, and was the first in the Dr. Mabuse trilogy), the five-hour ''Die Nibelungen'' (1924), the dystopian film ''Metropolis'' (1927), and the science fiction film ''Woman in the Moon'' (1929).", "''Metropolis'' went far over budget and nearly destroyed UFA, which was bought by right-wing businessman and politician Alfred Hugenberg.", "It was a financial flop, as were his last silent films ''Spies'' (1928) and ''Woman in the Moon'', produced by Lang's own company.In 1931, independent producer Seymour Nebenzahl hired Lang to direct ''M'' for Nero-Film.", "His first \"talking\" picture, considered by many film scholars to be a masterpiece of the early sound era, ''M'' is a disturbing story of a child murderer (Peter Lorre in his first starring role) who is hunted down and brought to rough justice by Berlin's criminal underworld.", "''M'' remains a powerful work; it was remade in 1951 by Joseph Losey, but this version had little impact on audiences, and has become harder to see than the original film.During the climactic final scene in ''M'', Lang allegedly threw Peter Lorre down a flight of stairs in order to give more authenticity to Lorre's battered look.", "Lang, who was known for being hard to work with, epitomized the stereotype of the tyrannical Germanic film director, a type embodied also by Erich von Stroheim and Otto Preminger; Lang wore a monocle, adding to the stereotype.In the films of his German period, Lang produced a coherent oeuvre that established the characteristics later attributed to film noir, with its recurring themes of psychological conflict, paranoia, fate and moral ambiguity.At the end of 1932, Lang started filming ''The Testament of Dr. Mabuse''.", "Adolf Hitler came to power in January 1933, and by March 30, the new regime banned it as an incitement to public disorder.", "''Testament'' is sometimes deemed an anti-Nazi film, as Lang had put phrases used by the Nazis into the mouth of the title character.", "A screening of the film was cancelled by Joseph Goebbels, and it was later banned by the Reich Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda.", "In banning the film, Goebbels stated that the film \"showed that an extremely dedicated group of people are perfectly capable of overthrowing any state with violence\", and that the film posed a threat to public health and safety.Lang was worried about the advent of the Nazi regime, partly because of his Jewish heritage, whereas his wife and co-screenwriter Thea von Harbou had started to sympathize with the Nazis in the early 1930s, and later joined the Nazi party in 1940.After he discovered von Harbou in bed with Ayi Tendulkar, an Indian journalist and student 17 years younger than her, they soon divorced.", "Lang's fears would be realized following his departure from Austria, as under the racist Nuremberg Laws he would be identified as half-Jewish even though his mother was a converted Roman Catholic, and he was raised as such.===Emigration===According to Lang, propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels called Lang to his offices to inform him – apologetically – that ''The Testament of Dr. Mabuse'' was being banned but, nevertheless, he was so impressed by Lang's abilities as a filmmaker (especially ''Metropolis''), that he offered Lang the position of head of German film studio UFA.", "Lang said it was during that meeting he had decided to leave for Paris – but that the banks had closed by the time the meeting was over.", "Lang claimed that, after selling his wife's jewelry, he fled by train to Paris that evening, leaving most of his money and personal possessions behind.", "However, his passport of the time showed that he traveled to and from Germany a few times during 1933.Lang left Berlin for good on July 31, 1933, four months after his meeting with Goebbels and his initial departure.", "He moved to Paris, having divorced Thea von Harbou, who stayed behind, earlier in 1933.In Paris, Lang filmed a version of Ferenc Molnár's ''Liliom'', starring Charles Boyer.", "That was Lang's only film in French (excluding the French version of ''Testament'').", "He then moved to the United States.=== Hollywood career (1936–1957) ===Lang made twenty-two features in his 20-year American career, working in a variety of genres at every major studio in Hollywood, and occasionally producing his films as an independent.", "He became a naturalized citizen of the United States in 1939.Signing first with MGM Studios, Lang's crime drama ''Fury'' (1936) saw Spencer Tracy cast as a man who is wrongly accused of a crime and nearly killed when a lynch mob sets fire to the jail where he is awaiting trial.", "However, in ''Fury'', he was not allowed to represent black victims in a lynching scenario or to criticize racism, which was his original intention.", "By the time ''Fury'' was released, Lang had been involved in the creation of the Hollywood Anti-Nazi League, working with Otto Katz, a Czech who was a Comintern spy.", "He made four films with an explicitly anti-Nazi theme, ''Man Hunt'' (1941), ''Hangmen Also Die!''", "(1943), ''Ministry of Fear'' (1944) and ''Cloak and Dagger'' (1946).", "''Man Hunt'', wrote Dave Kehr in 2009, \"may be the best\" of the \"many interventionist films produced by the Hollywood studios before Pearl Harbor\" as it is \"clean and concentrated, elegant and precise, pointed without being preachy.", "\"Lang with Gloria Grahame and Broderick Crawford on the set of ''Human Desire''His American films were often compared unfavorably to his earlier works by contemporary critics, although the restrained Expressionism of these films is now seen as integral to the emergence and evolution of American genre cinema, film noir in particular.", "''Scarlet Street'' (1945), one of his films featuring Edward G. Robinson and Joan Bennett, is considered a central film in the genre.One of Lang's most praised ''films noir'' is the police drama ''The Big Heat'' (1953), known for its uncompromising brutality, especially for a scene in which Lee Marvin throws scalding coffee on Gloria Grahame's face.", "As Lang's visual style simplified, in part due to the constraints of the Hollywood studio system, his worldview became increasingly pessimistic, culminating in the cold, geometric style of his last American films, ''While the City Sleeps'' (1956) and ''Beyond a Reasonable Doubt'' (1956).===Last films (1959–1963)===Finding it difficult to find congenial production conditions and backers in Hollywood, particularly as his health declined with age, Lang contemplated retirement.", "The German producer Artur Brauner had expressed interest in remaking ''The Indian Tomb'' (from an original story by Thea von Harbou, that Lang had developed in the 1920s which had ultimately been directed by Joe May), so Lang returned to Germany to make his \"Indian Epic\" (consisting of ''The Tiger of Eschnapur'' and ''The Indian Tomb'').Following the production, Brauner was preparing for a remake of ''The Testament of Dr. Mabuse'' when Lang approached him with the idea of adding a new original film to the series.", "The result was ''The Thousand Eyes of Dr. Mabuse'' (1960), whose success led to a series of new Mabuse films, which were produced by Brauner (including the remake of ''The Testament of Dr. Mabuse''), though Lang did not direct any of the sequels.", "Lang was approaching blindness during the production, and it was his final project as director.In 1963, he appeared as himself in Jean-Luc Godard's film ''Contempt''." ], [ "Death and legacy", "On February 8, 1960, Lang received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for his contributions to the motion picture industry, located at 1600 Vine Street.Grave of Lang, at Forest Lawn Hollywood HillsLang died from a stroke on August 2, 1976, and was interred in the Forest Lawn Hollywood Hills Cemetery in the Hollywood Hills of Los Angeles.While his career had ended without fanfare, Lang's American and later German works were championed by the critics of the ''Cahiers du cinéma'', such as François Truffaut and Jacques Rivette.", "Truffaut wrote that Lang, especially in his American career, was greatly underappreciated by \"cinema historians and critics\" who \"deny him any genius when he 'signs' spy movies ... war movies ... or simple thrillers.\"", "Filmmakers that were influenced by his work include George Lucas, Jacques Rivette, William Friedkin, Steven Spielberg, Christopher Nolan, Luis Buñuel, Osamu Tezuka, Alfred Hitchcock, Jean-Luc Godard and Stanley Kubrick.Lang is credited with launching or developing many different genres of film.", "Philip French of ''The Observer'' believed that Lang helped craft the \"entertainment war flick\" and that his interpretation of the story of Bonnie and Clyde \"helped launch the Hollywood film noir\".", "Geoff Andrew of the British Film Institute believed he set the \"blueprint for the serial killer movie\" through ''M''.In December 2021 Lang was the subject for BBC Radio 4's ''In Our Time''.===Preservation===The Academy Film Archive has preserved a number of Lang's films, including ''Human Desire'' and ''Man Hunt''." ], [ "Filmography" ], [ "Awards", "* ''Silver Hand'' in 1931, for his film ''M'', by the German Motion Picture Arts Association* Commander Cross, Order of Merit in 1957 and 1966* Golden Ribbon of Motion Picture Arts in 1963 by the Federal Republic of Germany* Order of Arts and Letters from France in 1965* Plaque from El Festival Internacional del Cine de San Sebastian in 1970* Order of the Yugoslavia Flag with a Golden Wreath in 1971* Honorary Professor of Fine Arts by the University of Vienna, Austria, in 1973" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* .", "\"Je les chasserai jusqu'au bout du monde jusqu'à ce qu'ils en crèvent,\" Paris: Éditions n°1, 1997; .", "* Friedrich, Otto.", "''City of Nets'': ''A Portrait of Hollywood in the 1940s''; New York: Harper & Row, 1986; .", "(See e.g.", "pp.", "45–46 for anecdotes revealing Lang's arrogance.", ")* McGilligan, Patrick.", "''Fritz Lang: The Nature of the Beast''; New York: St. Martin's Press, 1997; .", "* Schnauber, Cornelius.", "''Fritz Lang in Hollywood''; Wien: Europaverlag, 1986; (in German).", "* Shaw, Dan.", "Great Directors: Fritz Lang.", "''Senses of Cinema'' issue 22, October 2002.", "* – contains interviews with Lang and a discussion of the making of the film ''M''." ], [ "External links", "* * * Fritz Lang Bibliography (via UC Berkeley Media Resources Center)* Senses of Cinema – Biographie* Fritz Lang at filmportal.de* Photos of Fritz Lang and cast of ''Hangmen Also Die'' by Ned Scott* The Fritz Lang papers at the American Heritage Center* \"Interview with Fritz Lang, Beverley Hills, August 12, 1972\" at Mubi.com" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Food and Drug Administration" ], [ "Introduction", "The United States '''Food and Drug Administration''' ('''FDA''' or '''US FDA''') is a federal agency of the Department of Health and Human Services.", "The FDA is responsible for protecting and promoting public health through the control and supervision of food safety, tobacco products, caffeine products, dietary supplements, prescription and over-the-counter pharmaceutical drugs (medications), vaccines, biopharmaceuticals, blood transfusions, medical devices, electromagnetic radiation emitting devices (ERED), cosmetics, animal foods & feed and veterinary products.The FDA's primary focus is enforcement of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FD&C), but the agency also enforces other laws, notably Section 361 of the Public Health Service Act, as well as associated regulations.", "Much of this regulatory-enforcement work is not directly related to food or drugs, but involves such things as regulating lasers, cellular phones, and condoms, as well as control of disease in contexts varying from household pets to human sperm donated for use in assisted reproduction.The FDA is led by the Commissioner of Food and Drugs, appointed by the President with the advice and consent of the Senate.", "The Commissioner reports to the Secretary of Health and Human Services.", "Robert Califf is the current commissioner, The FDA has its headquarters in unincorporated White Oak, Maryland.", "The agency also has 223 field offices and 13 laboratories located throughout the 50 states, the United States Virgin Islands, and Puerto Rico.", "In 2008, the FDA began to post employees to foreign countries, including China, India, Costa Rica, Chile, Belgium, and the United Kingdom.Office of the Commissioner and the Office of Regulatory Department of Health and Human Services.", "The agency consists of fourteen Centers and Offices.\|alt=" ], [ "Organizational structure", "* Department of Health and Human Services '''Food and Drug Administration'''* Office of the Commissioner** Office of the Chief Counsel (OCC) Office of the Executive Secretariat (OES) Office of the Counselor to the Commissioner Office of Digital Transformation (ODT)* Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research (CBER)* Center for Devices and Radiological Health (CDRH)* Center for Drug Evaluation and Research (CDER)* Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition (CFSAN)* Center for Tobacco Products (CTP)* Center for Veterinary Medicine (CVM)* Oncology Center of Excellence (OCE)* Office of Regulatory Affairs (ORA)* Office of Clinical Policy and Programs (OCPP)* Office of External Affairs (OEA)* Office of Food Policy and Response (OFPR)* Office of Minority Health and Health Equity (OMHHE)* Office of Operations (OO)* Office of Policy, Legislation, and International Affairs (OPLIA)* Office of the Chief Scientist (OCS)** National Center for Toxicological Research (NCTR)* Office of Women's Health (OWH)" ], [ "Location", "Center for Devices and Radiological Health.\|alt==== Headquarters ===FDA headquarters facilities are currently located in Montgomery County and Prince George's County, Maryland.=== White Oak Federal Research Center ===Since 1990, the FDA has had employees and facilities on of the White Oak Federal Research Center in the White Oak area of Silver Spring, Maryland.", "In 2001, the General Services Administration (GSA) began new construction on the campus to consolidate the FDA's 25 existing operations in the Washington metropolitan area, its headquarters in Rockville, and several fragmented office buildings.", "The first building, the Life Sciences Laboratory, was dedicated and opened with 104 employees in December 2003.the FDA campus has a population of 10,987 employees housed in approximately of space, divided into ten offices and four laboratory buildings.", "The campus houses the Office of the Commissioner (OC), the Office of Regulatory Affairs (ORA), the Center for Drug Evaluation and Research (CDER), the Center for Devices and Radiological Health (CDRH), the Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research (CBER) and offices for the Center for Veterinary Medicine (CVM).With the passing of the FDA Reauthorization Act of 2017, the FDA projects a 64% increase in employees to 18,000 over the next 15 years and wants to add approximately of office and special use space to their existing facilities.", "The National Capital Planning Commission approved a new master plan for this expansion in December 2018, and construction is expected to be completed by 2035, dependent on GSA appropriations.===Field locations===Jefferson, Arkansas is the headquarters of the National Center for Toxicological Research.==== Office of Regulatory Affairs ====The Office of Regulatory Affairs is considered the agency's \"eyes and ears\", conducting the vast majority of the FDA's work in the field.", "Its employees, known as Consumer Safety Officers, or more commonly known simply as investigators, inspect production, warehousing facilities, investigate complaints, illnesses, or outbreaks, and review documentation in the case of medical devices, drugs, biological products, and other items where it may be difficult to conduct a physical examination or take a physical sample of the product.", "The Office of Regulatory Affairs is divided into five regions, which are further divided into 20 districts.", "The districts are based roughly on the geographic divisions of the Federal court system.", "Each district comprises a main district office and a number of Resident Posts, which are FDA remote offices that serve a particular geographic area.", "ORA also includes the Agency's network of regulatory laboratories, which analyze any physical samples taken.", "Though samples are usually food-related, some laboratories are equipped to analyze drugs, cosmetics, and radiation-emitting devices.==== Office of Criminal Investigations ====Jamaica, Queens, New York Regional Office - USFDAThe Office of Criminal Investigations was established in 1991 to investigate criminal cases.", "To do so, OCI employs approximately 200 Special Agents nationwide who, unlike ORA Investigators, are armed, have badges, and do not focus on technical aspects of the regulated industries.", "Rather, OCI agents pursue and develop cases when individuals and companies commit criminal actions, such as fraudulent claims or knowingly and willfully shipping known adulterated goods in interstate commerce.", "In many cases, OCI pursues cases involving violations of Title 18 of the United States Code (e.g., conspiracy, false statements, wire fraud, mail fraud), in addition to prohibited acts as defined in Chapter III of the FD&C Act.", "OCI Special Agents often come from other criminal investigations backgrounds, and frequently work closely with the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Assistant Attorney General, and even Interpol.", "OCI receives cases from a variety of sources—including ORA, local agencies, and the FBI, and works with ORA Investigators to help develop the technical and science-based aspects of a case.==== Other locations ====The FDA has a number of field offices across the United States, in addition to international locations in China, India, Europe, the Middle East, and Latin America." ], [ "Scope and funding", "As of 2021, the FDA had responsibility for overseeing $2.7 trillion in food, medical, and tobacco products.", "Some 54% of its budget derives from the federal government, and 46% is covered by industry user fees for FDA services.", "For example, pharmaceutical firms pay fees to expedite drug reviews.According to Forbes, pharmaceutical firms provide 75% of the FDA's drug review budget" ], [ "Regulatory programs", "===Emergency approvals (EUA)===Emergency Use Authorization (EUA) is a mechanism that was created to facilitate the availability and use of medical countermeasures, including vaccines and personal protective equipment, during public health emergencies such as the Zika virus epidemic, the Ebola virus epidemic and the COVID-19 pandemic.===Regulations===The programs for safety regulation vary widely by the type of product, its potential risks, and the regulatory powers granted to the agency.", "For example, the FDA regulates almost every facet of prescription drugs, including testing, manufacturing, labeling, advertising, marketing, efficacy, and safety—yet FDA regulation of cosmetics focuses primarily on labeling and safety.", "The FDA regulates most products with a set of published standards enforced by a modest number of facility inspections.", "Inspection observations are documented on Form 483.In June 2018, the FDA released a statement regarding new guidelines to help food and drug manufacturers \"implement protections against potential attacks on the U.S. food supply\".", "One of the guidelines includes the Intentional Adulteration (IA) rule, which requires strategies and procedures by the food industry to reduce the risk of compromise in facilities and processes that are significantly vulnerable.The FDA also uses tactics of regulatory shaming, mainly through online publication of non-compliance, warning letters, and \"shaming lists.\"", "Regulation by shaming harnesses firms' sensitivity to reputational damage.", "For example, in 2018, the agency published an online \"black list\", in which it named dozens of branded drug companies that are supposedly using unlawful or unethical means to attempt to impede competition from generic drug companies.The FDA frequently works with other federal agencies, including the Department of Agriculture, the Drug Enforcement Administration, Customs and Border Protection, and the Consumer Product Safety Commission.", "They also often work with local and state government agencies in performing regulatory inspections and enforcement actions.===Food and dietary supplements===The regulation of food and dietary supplements by the Food and Drug Administration is governed by various statutes enacted by the United States Congress and interpreted by the FDA.", "Pursuant to the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act and accompanying legislation, the FDA has authority to oversee the quality of substances sold as food in the United States, and to monitor claims made in the labeling of both the composition and the health benefits of foods.The FDA subdivides substances that it regulates as food into various categories—including foods, food additives, added substances (human-made substances that are not intentionally introduced into food, but nevertheless end up in it), and dietary supplements.", "Dietary supplements or dietary ingredients include vitamins, minerals, herbs, amino acids, and enzymes.", "Specific standards the FDA exercises differ from one category to the next.", "Furthermore, legislation had granted the FDA a variety of means to address violations of standards for a given substance category.Under the Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act of 1994 (DSHEA), the FDA is responsible for ensuring that manufacturers and distributors of dietary supplements and dietary ingredients meet the current requirements.", "These manufacturers and distributors are not allowed to advertise their products in an adulterated way, and they are responsible for evaluating the safety and labeling of their product.The FDA has a \"Dietary Supplement Ingredient Advisory List\" that includes ingredients that sometimes appear on dietary supplements but need further evaluation further.", "An ingredient is added to this list when it is excluded from use in a dietary supplement, does not appear to be an approved food additive or recognized as safe, and/or is subjected to the requirement for pre-market notification without having a satisfied requirement.====\"FDA-Approved\" vs. \"FDA-Accepted in Food Processing\"====The FDA does not approve applied coatings used in the food processing industry.", "There is no review process to approve the composition of nonstick coatings; nor does the FDA inspect or test these materials.", "Through their governing of processes, however, the FDA does have a set of regulations that cover the formulation, manufacturing, and use of nonstick coatings.", "Hence, materials like Polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon) are not and cannot be considered as FDA Approved, but rather, they are a \"FDA Compliant\" or \"FDA Acceptable\".===Medical countermeasures (MCMs)===Medical countermeasures (MCMs) are products such as biologics and pharmaceutical drugs that can protect from or treat the health effects of a chemical, biological, radiological, or nuclear (CBRN) attack.", "MCMs can also be used for prevention and diagnosis of symptoms associated with CBRN attacks or threats.", "The FDA runs a program called the \"FDA Medical Countermeasures Initiative\" (MCMi), with programs funded by the federal government.", "It helps support \"partner\" agencies and organisations prepare for public health emergencies that could require MCMs.===Medications===FDA Building 51 houses the alt=The Center for Drug Evaluation and Research uses different requirements for the three main drug product types: new drugs, generic drugs, and over-the-counter drugs.", "A drug is considered \"new\" if it is made by a different manufacturer, uses different excipients or inactive ingredients, is used for a different purpose, or undergoes any substantial change.", "The most rigorous requirements apply to ''new molecular entities'': drugs that are not based on existing medications.====New medications====New drugs receive extensive scrutiny before FDA approval in a process called a new drug application (NDA).", "Under the Trump administration, the agency has worked to make the drug-approval process go faster.''''''", "Critics, however, argue that FDA standards are not sufficiently rigorous to prevent unsafe or ineffective drugs from getting approval.", "New drugs are available only by prescription by default.", "A change to over-the-counter (OTC) status is a separate process, and the drug must be approved through an NDA first.", "A drug that is approved is said to be \"safe and effective when used as directed\".Very rare, limited exceptions to this multi-step process involving animal testing and controlled clinical trials can be granted out of compassionate use protocols.", "This was the case during the 2015 Ebola epidemic with the use, by prescription and authorization, of ZMapp and other experimental treatments, and for new drugs that can be used to treat debilitating and/or very rare conditions for which no existing remedies or drugs are satisfactory, or where there has not been an advance in a long period of time.", "The studies are progressively longer, gradually adding more individuals as they progress from stage I to stage III, normally over a period of years, and normally involve drug companies, the government and its laboratories, and often medical schools and hospitals and clinics.", "However, any exceptions to the aforementioned process are subject to strict review and scrutiny and conditions, and are only given if a substantial amount of research and at least some preliminary human testing has shown that they are believed to be somewhat safe and possibly effective.", "(See FDA Special Protocol Assessment about Phase III trials.", ")=====Advertising and promotion=====The FDA's Office of Prescription Drug Promotion (OPDP) has responsibilities that revolve around the review and regulation of prescription drug advertising and promotion.", "This is achieved through surveillance activities and the issuance of enforcement letters to pharmaceutical manufacturers.", "Advertising and promotion for over-the-counter drugs is regulated by the Federal Trade Commission.", "The FDA also implements regulatory oversight through engagement with third-party enforcer-firms.", "It expects pharmaceutical companies to ensure that third-party suppliers and labs comply with the agency's health and safety guidelines .The drug advertising regulation contains two broad requirements: (1) a company may advertise or promote a drug only for the specific indication or medical use for which it was approved by FDA.", "Also, an advertisement must contain a \"fair balance\" between the benefits and the risks (side effects) of a drug.", "The regulation of drug advertising in the U.S. is divided between the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the Federal Trade Commission (FTC), based on whether the drug in question is a prescription drug or an over-the-counter (OTC) drug.", "The FDA oversees the advertising of prescription drugs, while the FTC regulates the advertising of OTC drugs.The term off-label refers to the practice of prescribing a drug for a different purpose than what the FDA approved.=====Post-market safety surveillance=====After NDA approval, the sponsor must then review and report to the FDA every single patient adverse drug experience it learns of.", "They must report unexpected serious and fatal adverse drug events within 15 days, and other events on a quarterly basis.", "The FDA also receives directly adverse drug event reports through its MedWatch program.", "These reports are called \"spontaneous reports\" because reporting by consumers and health professionals is voluntary.While this remains the primary tool of post-market safety surveillance, FDA requirements for post-marketing risk management are increasing.", "As a condition of approval, a sponsor may be required to conduct additional clinical trials, called Phase IV trials.", "In some cases, the FDA requires risk management plans called Risk Evaluation and Mitigation Strategies (REMS) for some drugs that require actions to be taken to ensure that the drug is used safely.", "For example, thalidomide can cause birth defects, but has uses that outweigh the risks if men and women taking the drugs do not conceive a child; a REMS program for thalidomide mandates an auditable process to ensure that people taking the drug take action to avoid pregnancy; many opioid drugs have REMS programs to avoid addiction and diversion of drugs.", "The drug isotretinoin has a REMS program called iPLEDGE.====Generic drugs====Generic drugs are chemical and therapeutic equivalents of name-brand drugs, normally whose patents have expired.", "Approved generic drugs should have the same dosage, safety, effectiveness, strength, stability, and quality, as well as route of administration.", "In general, they are less expensive than their name brand counterparts, are manufactured and marketed by rival companies and, in the 1990s, accounted for about a third of all prescriptions written in the United States.", "For a pharmaceutical company to gain approval to produce a generic drug, the FDA requires scientific evidence that the generic drug is interchangeable with or therapeutically equivalent to the originally approved drug.", "This is called an Abbreviated New Drug Application (ANDA).", "As of 2012, 80% of all FDA approved drugs are available in generic form.=====Generic drug scandal=====In 1989, a major scandal erupted involving the procedures used by the FDA to approve generic drugs for sale to the public.", "Charges of corruption in generic drug approval first emerged in 1988 during the course of an extensive congressional investigation into the FDA.", "The oversight subcommittee of the United States House Energy and Commerce Committee resulted from a complaint brought against the FDA by Mylan Laboratories Inc. of Pittsburgh.", "When its application to manufacture generics were subjected to repeated delays by the FDA, Mylan, convinced that it was being discriminated against, soon began its own private investigation of the agency in 1987.Mylan eventually filed suit against two former FDA employees and four drug-manufacturing companies, charging that corruption within the federal agency resulted in racketeering and in violations of antitrust law.", "\"The order in which new generic drugs were approved was set by the FDA employees even before drug manufacturers submitted applications\" and, according to Mylan, this illegal procedure was followed to give preferential treatment to certain companies.", "During the summer of 1989, three FDA officials (Charles Y. Chang, David J. Brancato, Walter Kletch) pleaded guilty to criminal charges of accepting bribes from generic drugs makers, and two companies (Par Pharmaceutical and its subsidiary Quad Pharmaceuticals) pleaded guilty to giving bribes.Furthermore, it was discovered that several manufacturers had falsified data submitted in seeking FDA authorization to market certain generic drugs.", "Vitarine Pharmaceuticals of New York, which sought approval of a generic version of the drug Dyazide, a medication for high blood pressure, submitted Dyazide, rather than its generic version, for the FDA tests.", "In April 1989, the FDA investigated 11 manufacturers for irregularities; and later brought that number up to 13.Dozens of drugs were eventually suspended or recalled by manufacturers.", "In the early 1990s, the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission filed securities fraud charges against the Bolar Pharmaceutical Company, a major generic manufacturer based in Long Island, New York.====Over-the-counter drugs====Over-the-counter (OTC) are drugs like aspirin that do not require a doctor's prescription.", "The FDA has a list of approximately 800 such approved ingredients that are combined in various ways to create more than 100,000 OTC drug products.", "Many OTC drug ingredients had been previously approved prescription drugs now deemed safe enough for use without a medical practitioner's supervision like ibuprofen.====Ebola treatment====In 2014, the FDA added an Ebola treatment being developed by Canadian pharmaceutical company Tekmira to the Fast Track program, but halted the phase 1 trials in July pending the receipt of more information about how the drug works.", "This was widely viewed as increasingly important in the face of a major outbreak of the disease in West Africa that began in late March 2014 and ended in June 2016.==== Coronavirus (COVID-19) testing ====During the coronavirus pandemic, FDA granted emergency use authorization for personal protective equipment (PPE), in vitro diagnostic equipment, ventilators and other medical devices.On March 18, 2020, FDA inspectors postponed most foreign facility inspections and all domestic routine surveillance facility inspections.", "In contrast, the USDA's Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS) continued inspections of meatpacking plants, which resulted in 145 FSIS field employees who tested positive for COVID-19, and three who died.===Vaccines, blood and tissue products, and biotechnology===FDA scientist prepares blood donation samples for testing.The Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research is the branch of the FDA responsible for ensuring the safety and efficacy of biological therapeutic agents.", "These include blood and blood products, vaccines, allergenics, cell and tissue-based products, and gene therapy products.", "New biologics are required to go through a premarket approval process called a Biologics License Application (BLA), similar to that for drugs.The original authority for government regulation of biological products was established by the 1902 Biologics Control Act, with additional authority established by the 1944 Public Health Service Act.", "Along with these Acts, the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act applies to all biologic products, as well.", "Originally, the entity responsible for regulation of biological products resided under the National Institutes of Health; this authority was transferred to the FDA in 1972.===Medical and radiation-emitting devices===Center for Devices and Radiological Health.\|alt=The Center for Devices and Radiological Health (CDRH) is the branch of the FDA responsible for the premarket approval of all medical devices, as well as overseeing the manufacturing, performance and safety of these devices.", "The definition of a medical device is given in the FD&C Act, and it includes products from the simple toothbrush to complex devices such as implantable neurostimulators.", "CDRH also oversees the safety performance of non-medical devices that emit certain types of electromagnetic radiation.", "Examples of CDRH-regulated devices include cellular phones, airport baggage screening equipment, television receivers, microwave ovens, tanning booths, and laser products.CDRH regulatory powers include the authority to require certain technical reports from the manufacturers or importers of regulated products, to require that radiation-emitting products meet mandatory safety performance standards, to declare regulated products defective, and to order the recall of defective or noncompliant products.", "CDRH also conducts limited amounts of direct product testing.====\"FDA-Cleared\" vs \"FDA-Approved\"====Clearance requests are required for medical devices that prove they are \"substantially equivalent\" to the predicate devices already on the market.", "Approved requests are for items that are new or substantially different and need to demonstrate \"safety and efficacy\", for example they may be inspected for safety in case of new toxic hazards.", "Both aspects need to be proved or provided by the submitter to ensure proper procedures are followed.===Cosmetics===Cosmetics are regulated by the Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, the same branch of the FDA that regulates food.", "Cosmetic products are not, in general, subject to premarket approval by the FDA unless they make \"structure or function claims\" that make them into drugs (see Cosmeceutical).", "However, all color additives must be specifically FDA approved before manufacturers can include them in cosmetic products sold in the U.S.", "The FDA regulates cosmetics labeling, and cosmetics that have not been safety tested must bear a warning to that effect.According to the industry advocacy group, the American Council on Science and Health, though the cosmetic industry is primarily responsible for its own product safety, the FDA can intervene when necessary to protect the public.", "In general, though, cosmetics do not require pre-market approval or testing.", "The ACSH says that companies must place a warning note on their products if they have not been tested, and that experts in cosmetic ingredient review also play a role in monitoring safety through influence on ingredients, but they lack legal authority.", "According to the ACSH, it has reviewed about 1,200 ingredients and has suggested that several hundred be restricted—but there is no standard or systemic method for reviewing chemicals for safety, or a clear definition of what 'safety' even means so that all chemicals get tested on the same basis.However, on December 29, 2022, President Biden signed the '2023 Consolidated Budget Act', which includes the 'Cosmetics Regulatory Modernization Act of 2022 (MoCRA)', which is a stricter regulation that is different from the previous regulations.", "MoCRA requires compliance with matters such as serious adverse event reporting, safety substantiation, additional labeling, record keeping, and Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP).", "MoCRA also calls on the FDA to grant Mandatory Recall Authority and establish regulations for GMP rules, flavor allergen labeling rules, and testing methods for cosmetics containing talc.===Veterinary products===The Center for Veterinary Medicine (CVM) is a center of the FDA that regulates food additives and drugs that are given to animals.", "CVM regulates animal drugs, animal food including pet animal, and animal medical devices.", "The FDA's requirements to prevent the spread of bovine spongiform encephalopathy are also administered by CVM through inspections of feed manufacturers.", "CVM does not regulate vaccines for animals; these are handled by the United States Department of Agriculture.===Tobacco products===The FDA regulates tobacco products with authority established by the 2009 Family Smoking Prevention and Tobacco Control Act.", "This Act requires color warnings on cigarette packages and printed advertising, and text warnings from the U.S.", "Surgeon General.The nine new graphic warning labels were announced by the FDA in June 2011 and were scheduled to be required to appear on packaging by September 2012.The implementation date is uncertain, due to ongoing proceedings in the case of ''R.J.", "Reynolds Tobacco Co. v. U.S. Food and Drug Administration''.", "R.J. Reynolds, Lorillard, Commonwealth Brands, Liggett Group and Santa Fe Natural Tobacco Company have filed suit in Washington, D.C. federal court claiming that the graphic labels are an unconstitutional way of forcing tobacco companies to engage in anti-smoking advocacy on the government's behalf.A First Amendment lawyer, Floyd Abrams, is representing the tobacco companies in the case, contending requiring graphic warning labels on a lawful product cannot withstand constitutional scrutiny.", "The Association of National Advertisers and the American Advertising Federation have also filed a brief in the suit, arguing that the labels infringe on commercial free speech and could lead to further government intrusion if left unchallenged.", "In November 2011, Federal judge Richard Leon of the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia temporarily halted the new labels, likely delaying the requirement that tobacco companies display the labels.", "The U.S. Supreme Court ultimately could decide the matter.In July 2017, the FDA announced a plan that would reduce the current levels of nicotine permitted in tobacco cigarettes.===Regulation of living organisms===With acceptance of premarket notification 510(k) k033391 in January 2004, the FDA granted Ronald Sherman permission to produce and market medical maggots for use in humans or other animals as a prescription medical device.", "Medical maggots represent the first living organism allowed by the Food and Drug Administration for production and marketing as a prescription medical device.In June 2004, the FDA cleared ''Hirudo medicinalis'' (medicinal leeches) as the second living organism legal to use as a medical device.The FDA also requires that milk be pasteurized to remove bacteria.===International Cooperation===In February 2011, President Barack Obama and Canadian Prime Minister Stephen Harper issued a \"Declaration on a Shared Vision for Perimeter Security and Economic Competitiveness\" and announced the creation of the Canada-United States Regulatory Cooperation Council (RCC) \"to increase regulatory transparency and coordination between the two countries.", "\"Under the RCC mandate, the FDA and Health Canada undertook a \"first of its kind\" initiative by selecting \"as its first area of alignment common cold indications for certain over-the-counter antihistamine ingredients (GC 2013-01-10).", "\"A more recent example of the FDA's international work is their 2018 cooperation with regulatory and law-enforcement agencies worldwide through Interpol as part of Operation Pangea XI.", "The FDA targeted 465 websites that illegally sold potentially dangerous, unapproved versions of opioid, oncology, and antiviral prescription drugs to U.S. consumers.", "The agency focused on transaction laundering schemes in order to uncover the complex online drug network." ], [ "Science and research programs", "FDA lab at Building 64 in Silver Spring, MarylandThe FDA carries out research and development activities to develop technology and standards that support its regulatory role, with the objective of resolving scientific and technical challenges before they become impediments.", "The FDA's research efforts include the areas of biologics, medical devices, drugs, women's health, toxicology, food safety and applied nutrition, and veterinary medicine." ], [ "Data management", "The FDA has collected a large amount of data through the decades.", "The OpenFDA project was created to enable easy access of the data for the public and was officially launched in June 2014." ], [ "History", "Up until the 20th century, there were few federal laws regulating the contents and sale of domestically produced food and pharmaceuticals, with one exception being the short-lived Vaccine Act of 1813.The history of the FDA can be traced to the latter part of the 19th century and the Division of Chemistry of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, which itself derived from the Copyright and Patent Clause.", "Under Harvey Washington Wiley, appointed chief chemist in 1883, the Division began conducting research into the adulteration and misbranding of food and drugs on the American market.", "Wiley's advocacy came at a time when the public had become aroused to hazards in the marketplace by muckraking journalists like Upton Sinclair, and became part of a general trend for increased federal regulations in matters pertinent to public safety during the Progressive Era.", "The Biologics Control Act of 1902 was put in place after a diphtheria antitoxin derived from tetanus-contaminated serum caused the deaths of thirteen children in St. Louis, Missouri.", "The serum was originally collected from a horse named Jim who had contracted tetanus.Harvey W. Wiley, chief advocate of the Food and Drug ActIn June 1906, President Theodore Roosevelt signed into law the Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906, also known as the \"Wiley Act\" after its chief advocate.", "The Act prohibited, under penalty of seizure of goods, the interstate transport of food that had been \"adulterated\".", "The Act applied similar penalties to the interstate marketing of \"adulterated\" drugs, in which the \"standard of strength, quality, or purity\" of the active ingredient was not either stated clearly on the label or listed in the ''United States Pharmacopeia'' or the ''National Formulary''.The responsibility for examining food and drugs for such \"adulteration\" or \"misbranding\" was given to Wiley's USDA Bureau of Chemistry.", "Wiley used these new regulatory powers to pursue an aggressive campaign against the manufacturers of foods with chemical additives, but the Chemistry Bureau's authority was soon checked by judicial decisions, which narrowly defined the bureau's powers and set high standards for proof of fraudulent intent.", "In 1927, the Bureau of Chemistry's regulatory powers were reorganized under a new USDA body, the Food, Drug, and Insecticide Administration.", "This name was shortened to the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) three years later.By the 1930s, muckraking journalists, consumer protection organizations, and federal regulators began mounting a campaign for stronger regulatory authority by publicizing a list of injurious products that had been ruled permissible under the 1906 law, including radioactive beverages, mascara that could cause blindness, and worthless \"cures\" for diabetes and tuberculosis.", "The resulting proposed law did not get through the Congress of the United States for five years, but was rapidly enacted into law following the public outcry over the 1937 Elixir Sulfanilamide tragedy, in which over 100 people died after using a drug formulated with a toxic, untested solvent.President Franklin Delano Roosevelt signed the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act into law on June 24, 1938.The new law significantly increased federal regulatory authority over drugs by mandating a pre-market review of the safety of all new drugs, as well as banning false therapeutic claims in drug labeling without requiring that the FDA prove fraudulent intent.Soon after passage of the 1938 Act, the FDA began to designate certain drugs as safe for use only under the supervision of a medical professional, and the category of \"prescription-only\" drugs was securely codified into law by the Durham-Humphrey Amendment in 1951.These developments confirmed extensive powers for the FDA to enforce post-marketing recalls of ineffective drugs.Medical Officer Alexander Fleming, M. D., examines a portion of a 240-volume new drug application around the late 1980s.", "Applications grew considerably after the efficacy mandate under the 1962 Drug Amendments.Outside of the US, the drug thalidomide was marketed for the relief of general nausea and morning sickness, but caused birth defects and even the death of thousands of babies when taken during pregnancy.", "American mothers were largely unaffected as Frances Oldham Kelsey of the FDA refused to authorize the medication for market.", "In 1962, the Kefauver-Harris Amendment to the FD&C Act was passed, which represented a \"revolution\" in FDA regulatory authority.", "The most important change was the requirement that all new drug applications demonstrate \"substantial evidence\" of the drug's efficacy for a marketed indication, in addition to the existing requirement for pre-marketing demonstration of safety.", "This marked the start of the FDA approval process in its modern form.These reforms had the effect of increasing the time, and the difficulty, required to bring a drug to market.", "One of the most important statutes in establishing the modern American pharmaceutical market was the 1984 Drug Price Competition and Patent Term Restoration Act, more commonly known as the \"Hatch-Waxman Act\" after its chief sponsors.", "The act extended the patent exclusivity terms of new drugs, and tied those extensions, in part, to the length of the FDA approval process for each individual drug.", "For generic manufacturers, the Act created a new approval mechanism, the Abbreviated New Drug Application (ANDA), in which the generic drug manufacturer need only demonstrate that their generic formulation has the same active ingredient, route of administration, dosage form, strength, and pharmacokinetic properties (\"bioequivalence\") as the corresponding brand-name drug.", "This Act has been credited with, in essence, creating the modern generic drug industry.Concerns about the length of the drug approval process were brought to the fore early in the AIDS epidemic.", "In the mid- and late 1980s, ACT-UP and other HIV activist organizations accused the FDA of unnecessarily delaying the approval of medications to fight HIV and opportunistic infections.", "Partly in response to these criticisms, the FDA issued new rules to expedite approval of drugs for life-threatening diseases, and expanded pre-approval access to drugs for patients with limited treatment options.", "All of the initial drugs approved for the treatment of HIV/AIDS were approved through these accelerated approval mechanisms.", "Frank Young, then commissioner of the FDA, was behind the Action Plan Phase II, established in August 1987 for quicker approval of AIDS medication.In two instances, state governments have sought to legalize drugs that the FDA has not approved.", "Under the theory that federal law, passed pursuant to Constitutional authority, overrules conflicting state laws, federal authorities still claim the authority to seize, arrest, and prosecute for possession and sales of these substances, even in states where they are legal under state law.", "The first wave was the legalization by 27 states of laetrile in the late 1970s.", "This drug was used as a treatment for cancer, but scientific studies both before and after this legislative trend found it ineffective.", "The second wave concerned medical marijuana in the 1990s and 2000s.", "Though Virginia passed legislation allowing doctors to recommend cannabis for glaucoma or the side effects of chemotherapy, a more widespread trend began in California with the Compassionate Use Act of 1996.When the FDA requested Endo Pharmaceuticals on June 8, 2017, to remove ''oxymorphone hydrochloride'' from the market, it was the first such request in FDA history." ], [ "21st century reforms", "===Critical Path Initiative===The Critical Path Initiative is the FDA's effort to stimulate and facilitate a national effort to modernize the sciences through which FDA-regulated products are developed, evaluated, and manufactured.", "The Initiative was launched in March 2004, with the release of a report entitled Innovation/Stagnation: Challenge and Opportunity on the Critical Path to New Medical Products.===Patients' rights to access unapproved drugs===The Compassionate Investigational New Drug program was created after ''Randall v. U.S.'' ruled in favor of Robert C. Randall in 1978, creating a program for medical marijuana.A 2006 court case, ''Abigail Alliance v. von Eschenbach'', would have forced radical changes in FDA regulation of unapproved drugs.", "The Abigail Alliance argued that the FDA must license drugs for use by terminally ill patients with \"desperate diagnoses\", after they have completed Phase I testing.", "The case won an initial appeal in May 2006, but that decision was reversed by a March 2007 rehearing.", "The US Supreme Court declined to hear the case, and the final decision denied the existence of a right to unapproved medications.Critics of the FDA's regulatory power argue that the FDA takes too long to approve drugs that might ease pain and human suffering faster if brought to market sooner.", "The AIDS crisis created some political efforts to streamline the approval process.", "However, these limited reforms were targeted for AIDS drugs, not for the broader market.", "This has led to the call for more robust and enduring reforms that would allow patients, under the care of their doctors, access to drugs that have passed the first round of clinical trials.===Post-marketing drug safety monitoring===The widely publicized recall of Vioxx, a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) now estimated to have contributed to fatal heart attacks in thousands of Americans, played a strong role in driving a new wave of safety reforms at both the FDA rulemaking and statutory levels.", "The FDA approved Vioxx in 1999, and initially hoped it would be safer than previous NSAIDs due to its reduced risk of intestinal tract bleeding.", "However, a number of pre and post-marketing studies suggested that Vioxx might increase the risk of myocardial infarction, and results from the APPROVe trial in 2004 conclusively demonstrated this.Faced with numerous lawsuits, the manufacturer voluntarily withdrew it from the market.", "The example of Vioxx has been prominent in an ongoing debate over whether new drugs should be evaluated on the basis of their absolute safety, or their safety relative to existing treatments for a given condition.", "In the wake of the Vioxx recall, there were widespread calls by major newspapers, medical journals, consumer advocacy organizations, lawmakers, and FDA officials for reforms in the FDA's procedures for pre- and post-market drug safety regulation.In 2006, a Congressional committee was appointed by the Institute of Medicine to review pharmaceutical safety regulation in the U.S. and to issue recommendations for improvements.", "The committee was composed of 16 experts, including leaders in clinical medicine medical research, economics, biostatistics, law, public policy, public health, and the allied health professions, as well as current and former executives from the pharmaceutical, hospital, and health insurance industries.", "The authors found major deficiencies in the current FDA system for ensuring the safety of drugs on the American market.", "Overall, the authors called for an increase in the regulatory powers, funding, and independence of the FDA.", "Some of the committee's recommendations were incorporated into drafts of the PDUFA IV amendment, which was signed into law as the Food and Drug Administration Amendments Act of 2007.As of 2011, Risk Minimization Action Plans (RiskMAPS) have been created to ensure risks of a drug never outweigh the benefits of that drug within the post-marketing period.", "This program requires that manufacturers design and implement periodic assessments of their programs' effectiveness.", "The Risk Minimization Action Plans are set in place depending on the overall level of risk a prescription drug is likely to pose to the public.===Pediatric drug testing===Prior to the 1990s, only 20% of all drugs prescribed for children in the United States were tested for safety or efficacy in a pediatric population.", "This became a major concern of pediatricians as evidence accumulated that the physiological response of children to many drugs differed significantly from those drugs' effects on adults.", "Children react differently to the drugs because of many reasons, including size, weight, etc.", "There were several reasons that few medical trials were done with children.", "For many drugs, children represented such a small proportion of the potential market, that drug manufacturers did not see such testing as cost-effective.Also, the belief that children are ethically restricted in their ability to give informed consent brought increased governmental and institutional hurdles to approval of these clinical trials, and greater concerns about legal liability.", "Thus, for decades, most medicines prescribed to children in the U.S. were done so in a non-FDA-approved, \"off-label\" manner, with dosages \"extrapolated\" from adult data through body weight and body-surface-area calculations.In an initial FDA attempt to address this issue they produced the 1994 FDA Final Rule on Pediatric Labeling and Extrapolation, which allowed manufacturers to add pediatric labeling information, but required drugs that had not been tested for pediatric safety and efficacy to bear a disclaimer to that effect.", "However, this rule failed to motivate many drug companies to conduct additional pediatric drug trials.", "In 1997, the FDA proposed a rule to require pediatric drug trials from the sponsors of New Drug Applications.", "However, this new rule was successfully preempted in federal court as exceeding the FDA's statutory authority.While this debate was unfolding, Congress used the Food and Drug Administration Modernization Act of 1997 to pass incentives that gave pharmaceutical manufacturers a six-month patent term extension on new drugs submitted with pediatric trial data.", "The Best Pharmaceuticals for Children Act of 2007 reauthorized these provisions and allowed the FDA to request NIH-sponsored testing for pediatric drug testing, although these requests are subject to NIH funding constraints.", "In the Pediatric Research Equity Act of 2003, Congress codified the FDA's authority to mandate manufacturer-sponsored pediatric drug trials for certain drugs as a \"last resort\" if incentives and publicly funded mechanisms proved inadequate.===Priority review voucher (PRV)===The priority review voucher is a provision of the Food and Drug Administration Amendments Act of 2007, which awards a transferable \"priority review voucher\" to any company that obtains approval for a treatment for a neglected tropical diseases.", "The system was first proposed by Duke University faculty David Ridley, Henry Grabowski, and Jeffrey Moe in their 2006 ''Health Affairs'' paper: \"Developing Drugs for Developing Countries\".", "President Obama signed into law the Food and Drug Administration Safety and Innovation Act of 2012, which extended the authorization until 2017.===Rules for generic biologics===Since the 1990s, many successful new drugs for the treatment of cancer, autoimmune diseases, and other conditions have been protein-based biotechnology drugs, regulated by the Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research.", "Many of these drugs are extremely expensive; for example, the anti-cancer drug Avastin costs $55,000 for a year of treatment, while the enzyme replacement therapy drug Cerezyme costs $200,000 per year, and must be taken by Gaucher's disease patients for life.Biotechnology drugs do not have the simple, readily verifiable chemical structures of conventional drugs, and are produced through complex, often proprietary, techniques, such as transgenic mammalian cell cultures.", "Because of these complexities, the 1984 Hatch-Waxman Act did not include biologics in the Abbreviated New Drug Application (ANDA) process.", "This precluded the possibility of generic drug competition for biotechnology drugs.", "In February 2007, identical bills were introduced into the House to create an ANDA process for the approval of generic biologics, but were not passed.===Mobile medical applications===In 2013, a guidance was issued to regulate mobile medical applications and protect users from their unintended use.", "This guidance distinguishes the apps subjected to regulation based on the marketing claims of the apps.", "Incorporation of the guidelines during the development phase of these apps has been proposed for expedited market entry and clearance." ], [ "Criticism", "The FDA has regulatory oversight over a large array of products that affect the health and life of American citizens.", "As a result, the FDA's powers and decisions are carefully monitored by several governmental and non-governmental organizations.", "A $1.8million 2006 Institute of Medicine report on pharmaceutical regulation in the U.S. found major deficiencies in the current FDA system for ensuring the safety of drugs on the American market.", "Overall, the authors called for an increase in the regulatory powers, funding, and independence of the FDA.A 2022 article from ''Politico'' raised concerns that food is not a high priority at the FDA.", "The report explains the FDA has structural and leadership problems in the food division and is often deferential to industry.", "This might be attributed to lobbying and influence of big food companies in Washington, D.C." ], [ "See also", "* Adverse reaction* Adverse event* Adverse drug reaction* Biosecurity* Biosecurity in the United States* Drug Efficacy Study Implementation* Food and Drug Administration Modernization Act of 1997* FDA Food Safety Modernization Act of 2011* FDA Fast Track Development Program (for drugs)* Food and Drug Administration Amendments Act of 2007 (e.g.", "drugs)* Food and Drug Administration Safety and Innovation Act of 2012 (GAIN/QIDP etc.", ")* Inverse benefit law* Investigational Device Exemption (for use in clinical trials)* Kefauver Harris Amendment 1962 – required \"proof-of-efficacy\" for drugs'''International:'''* Food Administration* International Conference on Harmonisation of Technical Requirements for Registration of Pharmaceuticals for Human Use (ICH)* African Union: African Medicines Agency* Australia: Therapeutic Goods Administration* Brazil: National Health Surveillance Agency* Canada: Marketed Health Products Directorate* Canada: Health Canada* Denmark: Danish Medicines Agency* European Union: European Medicines Agency* Germany: Federal Institute for Drugs and Medical Devices* India: Food Safety and Standards Authority of India* India: Central Drugs Standard Control Organization* Japan: Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare (MHLW)* Japan: Pharmaceuticals and Medical Devices Agency* Mexico: Federal Commission for the Protection against Sanitary Risk* Philippines: Food and Drug Administration (FDA)* Singapore: Health Sciences Authority* United Kingdom: Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency* United States: Food and Drug Administration" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Givel, Michael (December 2005).", "\"Philip Morris' FDA Gambit: Good for Public Health?\"", "''Journal of Public Health Policy'' (26): pp.", "450–468* * Hilts, Philip J.", "(2003).", "''Protecting America's Health: The FDA, Business, and One Hundred Years of Regulation.''", "New York: Alfred E. Knopf.", "* Kevin Fain, Matthew Daubresse, G. Caleb Alexander (2013).", "\"The Food and Drug Administration Amendments Act and Postmarketing Commitments.\"", "\"JAMA\" 310(2): 202–204 .", "* Madden, Bartley (2010) ''Free To Choose Medicine: How Faster Access to New Drugs Would Save Countless Lives and End Needless Suffering'' Chicago: The Heartland Institute.", "* Moore, Thomas J.", "(1998).", "''Prescription for Disaster: The Hidden Dangers in Your Medicine Cabinet.''", "New York: Simon & Schuster.", "* Obenchain, Janel, and Arlene Spark.", "Food Policy: Looking Forward from the Past.", "CRC Press, 2015.", "* Shah, Soleil, and Abdul El-Sayed, \"Medical Algorithms Need Better Regulation: Many do not require FDA approval, and those that do often do not undergo clinical trials\", ''Scientific American'', vol.", "326, no.", "1 (January 2022), pp. 10–11.", "\"Medical algorithms are less transparent, far more complex, more likely to reflect preexisting human bias, and more apt to evolve (and fail) over time than medical devices in the past.\"", "(p. 11.)" ], [ "External links", "* * Food and Drug Administration in the Federal Register* Strategic Plan* * Online books by United States Food and Drug Administration at The Online Books Page" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Field extension" ], [ "Introduction", "In mathematics, particularly in algebra, a '''field extension''' is a pair of fields such that the operations of ''K'' are those of ''L'' restricted to ''K''.", "In this case, ''L'' is an '''extension field''' of ''K'' and ''K'' is a '''subfield''' of ''L''.", "For example, under the usual notions of addition and multiplication, the complex numbers are an extension field of the real numbers; the real numbers are a subfield of the complex numbers.Field extensions are fundamental in algebraic number theory, and in the study of polynomial roots through Galois theory, and are widely used in algebraic geometry." ], [ "Subfield", "A '''subfield''' of a field is a subset that is a field with respect to the field operations inherited from .", "Equivalently, a subfield is a subset that contains , and is closed under the operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and taking the inverse of a nonzero element of .As , the latter definition implies and have the same zero element.For example, the field of rational numbers is a subfield of the real numbers, which is itself a subfield of the complex numbers.", "More generally, the field of rational numbers is (or is isomorphic to) a subfield of any field of characteristic .The characteristic of a subfield is the same as the characteristic of the larger field." ], [ "Extension field", "If ''K'' is a subfield of ''L'', then ''L'' is an '''extension field''' or simply '''extension''' of ''K'', and this pair of fields is a '''field extension'''.", "Such a field extension is denoted ''L'' / ''K'' (read as \"''L'' over ''K''\").If ''L'' is an extension of ''F'', which is in turn an extension of ''K'', then ''F'' is said to be an '''intermediate field''' (or '''intermediate extension''' or '''subextension''') of ''L'' / ''K''.Given a field extension , the larger field ''L'' is a ''K''-vector space.", "The dimension of this vector space is called the '''degree''' of the extension and is denoted by ''L'' : ''K''.", "The degree of an extension is 1 if and only if the two fields are equal.", "In this case, the extension is a ''''''.", "Extensions of degree 2 and 3 are called '''quadratic extensions''' and '''cubic extensions''', respectively.", "A '''finite extension''' is an extension that has a finite degree.Given two extensions and , the extension is finite if and only if both and are finite.", "In this case, one has:Given a field extension ''L'' / ''K'' and a subset ''S'' of ''L'', there is a smallest subfield of ''L'' that contains ''K'' and ''S''.", "It is the intersection of all subfields of ''L'' that contain ''K'' and ''S'', and is denoted by ''K''(''S'') (read as \"''K'' '''' ''S''\").", "One says that ''K''(''S'') is the field ''generated'' by ''S'' over ''K'', and that ''S'' is a generating set of ''K''(''S'') over ''K''.", "When is finite, one writes instead of and one says that ''K''(''S'') is over ''K''.", "If ''S'' consists of a single element ''s'', the extension is called a simple extension and ''s'' is called a primitive element of the extension.An extension field of the form is often said to result from the '''' of ''S'' to ''K''.In characteristic 0, every finite extension is a simple extension.", "This is the primitive element theorem, which does not hold true for fields of non-zero characteristic.If a simple extension is not finite, the field ''K''(''s'') is isomorphic to the field of rational fractions in ''s'' over ''K''." ], [ "Caveats", "The notation ''L'' / ''K'' is purely formal and does not imply the formation of a quotient ring or quotient group or any other kind of division.", "Instead the slash expresses the word \"over\".", "In some literature the notation ''L'':''K'' is used.It is often desirable to talk about field extensions in situations where the small field is not actually contained in the larger one, but is naturally embedded.", "For this purpose, one abstractly defines a field extension as an injective ring homomorphism between two fields.", "''Every'' non-zero ring homomorphism between fields is injective because fields do not possess nontrivial proper ideals, so field extensions are precisely the morphisms in the category of fields.Henceforth, we will suppress the injective homomorphism and assume that we are dealing with actual subfields." ], [ "Examples", "The field of complex numbers is an extension field of the field of real numbers , and in turn is an extension field of the field of rational numbers .", "Clearly then, is also a field extension.", "We have because is a basis, so the extension is finite.", "This is a simple extension because (the cardinality of the continuum), so this extension is infinite.The field :is an extension field of also clearly a simple extension.", "The degree is 2 because can serve as a basis.", "The field:is an extension field of both and of degree 2 and 4 respectively.", "It is also a simple extension, as one can show that :Finite extensions of are also called algebraic number fields and are important in number theory.", "Another extension field of the rationals, which is also important in number theory, although not a finite extension, is the field of p-adic numbers for a prime number ''p''.It is common to construct an extension field of a given field ''K'' as a quotient ring of the polynomial ring ''K''''X'' in order to \"create\" a root for a given polynomial ''f''(''X'').", "Suppose for instance that ''K'' does not contain any element ''x'' with ''x''2 = −1.Then the polynomial is irreducible in ''K''''X'', consequently the ideal generated by this polynomial is maximal, and is an extension field of ''K'' which ''does'' contain an element whose square is −1 (namely the residue class of ''X'').By iterating the above construction, one can construct a splitting field of any polynomial from ''K''''X''.", "This is an extension field ''L'' of ''K'' in which the given polynomial splits into a product of linear factors.If ''p'' is any prime number and ''n'' is a positive integer, there is a unique (up to isomorphism) finite field with ''pn'' elements; this is an extension field of the prime field with ''p'' elements.Given a field ''K'', we can consider the field ''K''(''X'') of all rational functions in the variable ''X'' with coefficients in ''K''; the elements of ''K''(''X'') are fractions of two polynomials over ''K'', and indeed ''K''(''X'') is the field of fractions of the polynomial ring ''K''''X''.", "This field of rational functions is an extension field of ''K''.", "This extension is infinite.Given a Riemann surface ''M'', the set of all meromorphic functions defined on ''M'' is a field, denoted by It is a transcendental extension field of if we identify every complex number with the corresponding constant function defined on ''M''.", "More generally, given an algebraic variety ''V'' over some field ''K'', the function field ''K''(''V''), consisting of the rational functions defined on ''V'', is an extension field of ''K''." ], [ "Algebraic extension", "An element ''x'' of a field extension is algebraic over ''K'' if it is a root of a nonzero polynomial with coefficients in ''K''.", "For example, is algebraic over the rational numbers, because it is a root of If an element ''x'' of ''L'' is algebraic over ''K'', the monic polynomial of lowest degree that has ''x'' as a root is called the minimal polynomial of ''x''.", "This minimal polynomial is irreducible over ''K''.An element ''s'' of ''L'' is algebraic over ''K'' if and only if the simple extension is a finite extension.", "In this case the degree of the extension equals the degree of the minimal polynomial, and a basis of the ''K''-vector space ''K''(''s'') consists of where ''d'' is the degree of the minimal polynomial.The set of the elements of ''L'' that are algebraic over ''K'' form a subextension, which is called the algebraic closure of ''K'' in ''L''.", "This results from the preceding characterization: if ''s'' and ''t'' are algebraic, the extensions and are finite.", "Thus is also finite, as well as the sub extensions , and (if ).", "It follows that , ''st'' and 1/''s'' are all algebraic.An ''algebraic extension'' is an extension such that every element of ''L'' is algebraic over ''K''.", "Equivalently, an algebraic extension is an extension that is generated by algebraic elements.", "For example, is an algebraic extension of , because and are algebraic over A simple extension is algebraic if and only if it is finite.", "This implies that an extension is algebraic if and only if it is the union of its finite subextensions, and that every finite extension is algebraic.", "Every field ''K'' has an algebraic closure, which is up to an isomorphism the largest extension field of ''K'' which is algebraic over ''K'', and also the smallest extension field such that every polynomial with coefficients in ''K'' has a root in it.", "For example, is an algebraic closure of , but not an algebraic closure of , as it is not algebraic over (for example is not algebraic over )." ], [ "Transcendental extension", "Given a field extension , a subset ''S'' of ''L'' is called algebraically independent over ''K'' if no non-trivial polynomial relation with coefficients in ''K'' exists among the elements of ''S''.", "The largest cardinality of an algebraically independent set is called the transcendence degree of ''L''/''K''.", "It is always possible to find a set ''S'', algebraically independent over ''K'', such that ''L''/''K''(''S'') is algebraic.", "Such a set ''S'' is called a transcendence basis of ''L''/''K''.", "All transcendence bases have the same cardinality, equal to the transcendence degree of the extension.", "An extension ''L''/''K'' is said to be '''''' if and only if there exists a transcendence basis ''S'' of ''L''/''K'' such that ''L'' = ''K''(''S'').", "Such an extension has the property that all elements of ''L'' except those of ''K'' are transcendental over ''K'', but, however, there are extensions with this property which are not purely transcendental—a class of such extensions take the form ''L''/''K'' where both ''L'' and ''K'' are algebraically closed.", "If ''L''/''K'' is purely transcendental and ''S'' is a transcendence basis of the extension, it doesn't necessarily follow that ''L'' = ''K''(''S'').", "On the opposite, even when one knows a transcendence basis, it may be difficult to decide whether the extension is purely separable, and if it is so, it may be difficult to find a transcendence basis ''S'' such that ''L'' = ''K''(''S'').For example, consider the extension where is transcendental over and is a root of the equation Such an extension can be defined as in which and are the equivalence classes of and Obviously, the singleton set is transcendental over and the extension is algebraic; hence is a transcendence basis that does not generates the extension .", "Similarly, is a transcendence basis that does not generates the whole extension.", "However the extension is purely transcendental since, if one set one has and and thus generates the whole extension.", "Purely transcendental extensions of an algebraically closed field occur as function fields of rational varieties.", "The problem of finding a rational parametrization of a rational variety is equivalent with the problem of finding a transcendence basis that generates the whole extension." ], [ "Normal, separable and Galois extensions", "An algebraic extension ''L''/''K'' is called normal if every irreducible polynomial in ''K''''X'' that has a root in ''L'' completely factors into linear factors over ''L''.", "Every algebraic extension ''F''/''K'' admits a normal closure ''L'', which is an extension field of ''F'' such that ''L''/''K'' is normal and which is minimal with this property.An algebraic extension ''L''/''K'' is called separable if the minimal polynomial of every element of ''L'' over ''K'' is separable, i.e., has no repeated roots in an algebraic closure over ''K''.", "A Galois extension is a field extension that is both normal and separable.A consequence of the primitive element theorem states that every finite separable extension has a primitive element (i.e.", "is simple).Given any field extension ''L''/''K'', we can consider its '''automorphism group''' Aut(''L''/''K''), consisting of all field automorphisms ''α'': ''L'' → ''L'' with ''α''(''x'') = ''x'' for all ''x'' in ''K''.", "When the extension is Galois this automorphism group is called the Galois group of the extension.", "Extensions whose Galois group is abelian are called abelian extensions.For a given field extension ''L''/''K'', one is often interested in the intermediate fields ''F'' (subfields of ''L'' that contain ''K'').", "The significance of Galois extensions and Galois groups is that they allow a complete description of the intermediate fields: there is a bijection between the intermediate fields and the subgroups of the Galois group, described by the fundamental theorem of Galois theory." ], [ "Generalizations", "Field extensions can be generalized to ring extensions which consist of a ring and one of its subrings.", "A closer non-commutative analog are central simple algebras (CSAs) – ring extensions over a field, which are simple algebra (no non-trivial 2-sided ideals, just as for a field) and where the center of the ring is exactly the field.", "For example, the only finite field extension of the real numbers is the complex numbers, while the quaternions are a central simple algebra over the reals, and all CSAs over the reals are Brauer equivalent to the reals or the quaternions.", "CSAs can be further generalized to Azumaya algebras, where the base field is replaced by a commutative local ring." ], [ "Extension of scalars", "Given a field extension, one can \"extend scalars\" on associated algebraic objects.", "For example, given a real vector space, one can produce a complex vector space via complexification.", "In addition to vector spaces, one can perform extension of scalars for associative algebras defined over the field, such as polynomials or group algebras and the associated group representations.", "Extension of scalars of polynomials is often used implicitly, by just considering the coefficients as being elements of a larger field, but may also be considered more formally.", "Extension of scalars has numerous applications, as discussed in extension of scalars: applications." ], [ "See also", "* Field theory* Glossary of field theory* Tower of fields* Primary extension* Regular extension" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "***" ], [ "External links", "" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Flood fill" ], [ "Introduction", "Recursive flood fill with 4 directions'''Flood fill''', also called '''seed fill''', is a flooding algorithm that determines and alters the area connected to a given node in a multi-dimensional array with some matching attribute.", "It is used in the \"bucket\" fill tool of paint programs to fill connected, similarly-colored areas with a different color, and in games such as Go and Minesweeper for determining which pieces are cleared.", "A variant called '''boundary fill''' uses the same algorithms but is defined as the area connected to a given node that does not have a particular attribute.Note that flood filling is not suitable for drawing filled polygons, as it will miss some pixels in more acute corners.", "Instead, see Even-odd rule and Nonzero-rule." ], [ "The algorithm parameters", "Recursive flood fill with 8 directionsThe traditional flood-fill algorithm takes three parameters: a start node, a target color, and a replacement color.", "The algorithm looks for all nodes in the array that are connected to the start node by a path of the target color and changes them to the replacement color.", "For a boundary-fill, in place of the target color, a border color would be supplied.In order to generalize the algorithm in the common way, the following descriptions will instead have two routines available.", "One called Inside which returns true for unfilled points that, by their color, would be inside the filled area, and one called Set which fills a pixel/node.", "Any node that has Set called on it must then no longer be Inside.Depending on whether we consider nodes touching at the corners connected or not, we have two variations: eight-way and four-way respectively." ], [ "Stack-based recursive implementation (four-way)", "The earliest-known, implicitly stack-based, recursive, four-way flood-fill implementation goes as follows: '''Flood-fill''' (node): 1.If ''node'' is not ''Inside'' return.", "2.", "''Set'' the ''node'' 3.Perform '''Flood-fill''' one step to the south of ''node''.", "4.Perform '''Flood-fill''' one step to the north of ''node'' 5.Perform '''Flood-fill''' one step to the west of ''node'' 6.Perform '''Flood-fill''' one step to the east of ''node'' 7.Return.Though easy to understand, the implementation of the algorithm used above is impractical in languages and environments where stack space is severely constrained (e.g.", "Microcontrollers).=== Moving the recursion into a data structure ===Moving the recursion into a data structure (either a stack or a queue) prevents a stack overflow.", "It is similar to the simple recursive solution, except that instead of making recursive calls, it pushes the nodes onto a stack or queue for consumption, with the choice of data structure affecting the proliferation pattern: '''Flood-fill''' (node): 1.Set ''Q'' to the empty queue or stack.", "2.Add ''node'' to the end of ''Q''.", "3.While ''Q'' is not empty: 4.Set ''n'' equal to the first element of ''Q''.", "5.Remove first element from ''Q''.", "6.If ''n'' is ''Inside'': ''Set'' the ''n'' Add the node to the west of ''n'' to the end of ''Q''.", "Add the node to the east of ''n'' to the end of ''Q''.", "Add the node to the north of ''n'' to the end of ''Q''.", "Add the node to the south of ''n'' to the end of ''Q''.", "7.Continue looping until ''Q'' is exhausted.", "8.Return.=== Further potential optimizations ===* Check and set each node's pixel color before adding it to the stack/queue, reducing stack/queue size.", "* Use a loop for the east/west directions, queuing pixels above/below as you go (making it similar to the span filling algorithms, below).", "* Interleave two or more copies of the code with extra stacks/queues, to allow out-of-order processors more opportunity to parallelize.", "* Use multiple threads (ideally with slightly different visiting orders, so they don't stay in the same area).=== Advantages ===* Very simple algorithm - easy to make bug-free.=== Disadvantages ===* Uses a lot of memory, particularly when using a stack.", "* Tests most filled pixels a total of four times.", "* Not suitable for pattern filling, as it requires pixel test results to change.", "* Access pattern is not cache-friendly, for the queuing variant.", "* Cannot easily optimize for multi-pixel words or bitplanes." ], [ "Span filling", "Scanline fill using a stack for storageIt's possible to optimize things further by working primarily with spans, a row with constant y.", "The first published complete example works on the following basic principle.", "# Starting with a seed point, fill left and right.", "Keep track of the leftmost filled point lx and rightmost filled point rx.", "This defines the span.", "# Scan from lx to rx above and below the seed point, searching for new seed points to continue with.As an optimisation, the scan algorithm does not need restart from every seed point, but only those at the start of the next span.", "Using a stack explores spans depth first, whilst a queue explores spans breadth first.This algorithm is the most popular, for both citations and implementations , despite testing most filled pixels three times in total.", "fn '''fill'''(''x'', ''y''): if not '''Inside'''(''x'', ''y'') then return let ''s'' = new empty stack or queue Add (''x'', ''y'') to ''s'' while ''s'' is not empty: Remove an (''x'', ''y'') from ''s'' let ''lx'' = ''x'' while '''Inside'''(''lx'' - 1, ''y''): '''Set'''(''lx'' - 1, ''y'') ''lx'' = ''lx'' - 1 while '''Inside'''(''x'', ''y''): '''Set'''(''x'', ''y'') ''x'' = ''x'' + 1 '''scan'''(''lx'', ''x'' - 1, ''y'' + 1, ''s'') '''scan'''(''lx'', ''x'' - 1, ''y'' - 1, ''s'') fn '''scan'''(''lx'', ''rx'', ''y'', ''s''): let ''span_added'' = ''false'' for ''x'' in ''lx'' .. ''rx'': if not '''Inside'''(''x'', ''y''): ''span_added'' = ''false'' else if not ''span_added'': Add (''x'', ''y'') to ''s'' ''span_added'' = ''true''Over time, the following optimizations were realized:* When a new scan would be entirely within a grandparent span, it would certainly only find filled pixels, and so wouldn't need queueing.", "* Further, when a new scan overlaps a grandparent span, only the overhangs (U-turns and W-turns) need to be scanned.", "* It's possible to fill while scanning for seeds The final, combined-scan-and-fill span filler was then published in 1990.In pseudo-code form: fn '''fill'''(''x'', ''y''): if not '''Inside'''(''x'', ''y'') then return let ''s'' = new empty queue or stack Add (''x'', ''x'', ''y'', 1) to ''s'' Add (''x'', ''x'', ''y'' - 1, -1) to ''s'' while ''s'' is not empty: Remove an (''x1'', ''x2'', ''y'', ''dy'') from ''s'' let ''x'' = ''x1'' if '''Inside'''(''x'', ''y''): while '''Inside'''(''x'' - 1, ''y''): '''Set'''(''x'' - 1, ''y'') ''x'' = ''x'' - 1 if ''x'' ''x'': '''Add''' (''x'', ''x1'' - 1, ''y'' + ''dy'', ''dy'') to ''s'' if ''x1'' - 1 > ''x2'': '''Add''' (''x2'' + 1, ''x1'' - 1, ''y'' - ''dy'', -''dy'') to ''s'' ''x1'' = ''x1'' + 1 while ''x1'' < ''x2'' and not '''Inside'''(''x1'', ''y''): ''x1'' = ''x1'' + 1 ''x'' = ''x1''===Advantages===* 2–8x faster than the pixel-recursive algorithm.", "* Access pattern is cache and bitplane-friendly.", "* Can draw a horizontal line rather than setting individual pixels.===Disadvantages===* Still visits pixels it has already filled.", "(For the popular algorithm, 3 scans of most pixels.", "For the final one, only doing extra scans of pixels where there are holes in the filled area.", ")* Not suitable for pattern filling, as it requires pixel test results to change." ], [ "Adding pattern filling support", "Two common ways to make the span and pixel-based algorithms support pattern filling are either to use a unique color as a plain fill and then replace that with a pattern or to keep track (in a 2d boolean array or as regions) of which pixels have been visited, using it to indicate pixels are no longer fillable.", "''Inside'' must then return ''false'' for such visited pixels." ], [ "Graph-theoretic filling", "Some theorists applied explicit graph theory to the problem, treating spans of pixels, or aggregates of such, as nodes and studying their connectivity.", "The first published graph theory algorithm worked similarly to the span filling, above, but had a way to detect when it would duplicate filling of spans.", "Unfortunately, it had bugs that made it not complete some fills.", "A corrected algorithm was later published with a similar basis in graph theory; however, it alters the image as it goes along, to temporarily block off potential loops, complicating the programmatic interface.", "A later published algorithm depended on the boundary being distinct from everything else in the image and so isn't suitable for most uses; it also requires an extra bit per pixel for bookkeeping.===Advantages===* Suitable for pattern filling, directly, as it never retests filled pixels.", "* Double the speed of the original span algorithm, for uncomplicated fills.", "* Access pattern is cache and bitplane-friendly.===Disadvantages===* Regularly, a span has to be compared to every other 'front' in the queue, which significantly slows down complicated fills.", "* Switching back and forth between graph theoretic and pixel domains complicates understanding.", "* The code is fairly complicated, increasing the chances of bugs." ], [ "Walk-based filling (Fixed-memory method)", "A method exists that uses essentially no memory for four-connected regions by pretending to be a painter trying to paint the region without painting themselves into a corner.", "This is also a method for solving mazes.", "The four pixels making the primary boundary are examined to see what action should be taken.", "The painter could find themselves in one of several conditions:# All four boundary pixels are filled.# Three of the boundary pixels are filled.# Two of the boundary pixels are filled.# One boundary pixel is filled.# Zero boundary pixels are filled.Where a path or boundary is to be followed, the right-hand rule is used.", "The painter follows the region by placing their right-hand on the wall (the boundary of the region) and progressing around the edge of the region without removing their hand.For case #1, the painter paints (fills) the pixel the painter is standing upon and stops the algorithm.For case #2, a path leading out of the area exists.", "Paint the pixel the painter is standing upon and move in the direction of the open path.For case #3, the two boundary pixels define a path which, if we painted the current pixel, may block us from ever getting back to the other side of the path.", "We need a \"mark\" to define where we are and which direction we are heading to see if we ever get back to exactly the same pixel.", "If we already created such a \"mark\", then we preserve our previous mark and move to the next pixel following the right-hand rule.A mark is used for the first 2-pixel boundary that is encountered to remember where the passage started and in what direction the painter was moving.", "If the mark is encountered again and the painter is traveling in the same direction, then the painter knows that it is safe to paint the square with the mark and to continue in the same direction.", "This is because (through some unknown path) the pixels on the other side of the mark can be reached and painted in the future.", "The mark is removed for future use.If the painter encounters the mark but is going in a different direction, then some sort of loop has occurred, which caused the painter to return to the mark.", "This loop must be eliminated.", "The mark is picked up, and the painter then proceeds in the direction indicated previously by the mark using a left-hand rule for the boundary (similar to the right-hand rule but using the painter's left hand).", "This continues until an intersection is found (with three or more open boundary pixels).", "Still using the left-hand rule the painter now searches for a simple passage (made by two boundary pixels).", "Upon finding this two-pixel boundary path, that pixel is painted.", "This breaks the loop and allows the algorithm to continue.For case #4, we need to check the opposite 8-connected corners to see whether they are filled or not.", "If either or both are filled, then this creates a many-path intersection and cannot be filled.", "If both are empty, then the current pixel can be painted and the painter can move following the right-hand rule.The algorithm trades time for memory.", "For simple shapes it is very efficient.", "However, if the shape is complex with many features, the algorithm spends a large amount of time tracing the edges of the region trying to ensure that all can be painted.This algorithm was first available commercially in 1981 on a Vicom Image Processing system manufactured by Vicom Systems, Inc. A walking algorithm was published in 1994.The classic recursive flood fill algorithm was available on the Vicom system as well.=== Pseudocode ===This is a pseudocode implementation of an optimal fixed-memory flood-fill algorithm written in structured English:; The variables* cur, mark, and mark2 each hold either pixel coordinates or a null value** NOTE: when mark is set to null, do not erase its previous coordinate value.", "Keep those coordinates available to be recalled if necessary.", "* cur-dir, mark-dir, and mark2-dir each hold a direction (left, right, up, or down)* backtrack and findloop each hold boolean values* count is an integer; The algorithm: NOTE: All directions (front, back, left, right) are relative to cur-dir set cur to starting pixel set cur-dir to default direction clear mark and mark2 (set values to null) set backtrack and findloop to false '''while''' front-pixel is empty '''do''' move forward '''end while''' jump to START MAIN LOOP: move forward '''if''' right-pixel is inside '''then''' '''if''' backtrack is true '''and''' findloop is false '''and''' either front-pixel '''or''' left-pixel is inside '''then''' set findloop to true '''end if''' turn right PAINT: move forward '''end if''' START: '''set''' ''count'' to number of non-diagonally adjacent pixels filled (front/back/left/right ONLY) '''if''' ''count'' '''is not''' 4 '''then''' '''do''' turn right '''while''' front-pixel is inside '''do''' turn left '''while''' front-pixel is not inside '''end if''' '''switch''' ''count'' case 1 '''if''' backtrack is true '''then''' set findloop to true '''else if''' findloop is true '''then''' '''if''' mark is null '''then''' restore mark '''end if''' '''else if''' front-left-pixel and back-left-pixel are both inside '''then''' clear mark set cur jump to PAINT '''end if''' end case case 2 '''if''' back-pixel is not inside '''then''' '''if''' front-left-pixel is inside '''then''' clear mark set cur jump to PAINT '''end if''' '''else if''' mark is not set '''then''' set mark to cur set mark-dir to cur-dir clear mark2 set findloop and backtrack to false '''else''' '''if''' mark2 is not set '''then''' '''if''' cur is at mark '''then''' '''if''' cur-dir is the same as mark-dir '''then''' clear mark turn around set cur jump to PAINT '''else''' set backtrack to true set findloop to false set cur-dir to mark-dir '''end if''' '''else if''' findloop is true '''then''' set mark2 to cur set mark2-dir to cur-dir '''end if''' '''else''' '''if''' cur is at mark '''then''' set cur to mark2 set cur-dir to mark2-dir clear mark and mark2 set backtrack to false turn around set cur jump to PAINT '''else''' if cur at mark2 '''then''' set mark to cur set cur-dir and mark-dir to mark2-dir clear mark2 '''end if''' '''end if''' '''end if''' end case case 3 clear mark set cur jump to PAINT end case case 4 set cur done end case '''end switch''' end MAIN LOOP===Advantages===* Constant memory usage.===Disadvantages===* Access pattern is not cache or bitplane-friendly.", "* Can spend a lot of time walking around loops before closing them." ], [ "Vector implementations", "Version 0.46 of Inkscape includes a bucket fill tool, giving output similar to ordinary bitmap operations and indeed using one: the canvas is rendered, a flood fill operation is performed on the selected area and the result is then traced back to a path.", "It uses the concept of a boundary condition." ], [ "See also", "* Breadth-first search* Depth-first search* Graph traversal* Connected-component labeling* Dijkstra's algorithm* Watershed (image processing)" ], [ "External links", "* Sample implementations for recursive and non-recursive, classic and scanline flood fill, by Lode Vandevenne.", "* Sample Java implementation using Q non-recursive." ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Francis of Assisi" ], [ "Introduction", "The oldest surviving depiction of St. Francis is a fresco near the entrance of the Benedictine abbey of Subiaco, painted between March 1228 and March 1229.He is depicted without the stigmata, but the image is a religious image and not a portrait.", "'''Giovanni di Pietro di Bernardone''' ( – 3 October 1226), known as '''Francis of Assisi''' , was an Italian mystic, poet and Catholic friar who founded the religious order of the Franciscans.", "He was inspired to lead a Christian life of poverty as a beggar and itinerant preacher.", "One of the most venerated figures in Christianity, Francis was canonized by Pope Gregory IX on 16 July 1228.He is commonly portrayed wearing a brown habit with a rope tied around his waist, featuring three knots that symbolize the three Franciscan vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience.In 1219, he went to Egypt in an attempt to convert the sultan al-Kamil and put an end to the conflict of the Fifth Crusade.", "In 1223, he arranged for the first live nativity scene as part of the annual Christmas celebration in Greccio.", "According to Christian tradition, in 1224 Francis received the stigmata during the apparition of a Seraphic angel in a religious ecstasy.He founded the men's Order of Friars Minor, the women's Order of St. Clare, the Third Order of St. Francis and the Custody of the Holy Land.", "Once his community was authorized by Pope Innocent III, he withdrew increasingly from external affairs.Francis is associated with patronage of animals and the environment.", "It became customary for churches to hold ceremonies blessing animals on his feast day of the fourth of October.", "He is known for devotion to the Eucharist.", "Along with Catherine of Siena, he was designated patron saint of Italy.", "He is also the namesake of the American city of San Francisco." ], [ "Names", "Francis (; ) was baptized Giovanni by his mother.", "His surnames, di Pietro di Bernardone, come from his father, Pietro di Bernardone.", "The latter was in France on business when Francis was born in Assisi, a small town in Italy.", "Upon his return, Pietro took to calling his son Francesco (\"Free man\" or \"Frenchman\"), possibly in honor of his commercial success and enthusiasm for all things French.His full name contemporarily could be translated to John Peter \"Francis\" Bernardone." ], [ "Biography", "''São Francisco das Chagas'', painted by Ducarmo Teles.===Early life===Francis of Assisi was born , one of the children of an Italian father, Pietro di Bernardone dei Moriconi, a prosperous silk merchant, and a French mother, Pica di Bourlemont, about whom little is known except that she was a noblewoman originally from Provence.Indulged by his parents, Francis lived the high-spirited life typical of a wealthy young man.", "As a youth, Francis became a devotee of troubadours and was fascinated with all things Transalpine.", "He was handsome, witty, gallant, and delighted in fine clothes.", "He spent money lavishly.", "Although many hagiographers remark about his bright clothing, rich friends, and love of pleasures, his displays of disillusionment toward the world that surrounded him came fairly early in his life, as is shown in the \"story of the beggar\".", "In this account, he was selling cloth and velvet in the marketplace on behalf of his father when a beggar came to him and asked for alms.", "At the conclusion of his business deal, Francis abandoned his wares and ran after the beggar.", "When he found him, Francis gave the man everything he had in his pockets.", "His friends mocked him for his charity; his father scolded him in rage.Around 1202, he joined a military expedition against Perugia and was taken as a prisoner at Collestrada.", "He spent a year as a captive, during which an illness caused him to re-evaluate his life.", "However, upon his return to Assisi in 1203, Francis returned to his carefree life.", "In 1205, Francis left for Apulia to enlist in the army of Walter III, Count of Brienne.", "A strange vision made him return to Assisi and lose interest in the worldly life.", "According to hagiographic accounts, thereafter he began to avoid the sports and feasts of his former companions.", "A friend asked him whether he was thinking of marrying, to which he answered: \"Yes, a fairer bride than any of you have ever seen\", meaning his \"Lady Poverty\".On a pilgrimage to Rome, he joined the poor in begging at St. Peter's Basilica.", "He spent some time in lonely places, asking God for divine illumination.", "He said he had a mystical vision of Jesus Christ in the forsaken country chapel of San Damiano, just outside Assisi, in which the Icon of Christ Crucified said to him, \"Francis, Francis, go and repair My church which, as you can see, is falling into ruins.\"", "He took this to mean the ruined church in which he was presently praying, and so he sold some cloth from his father's store to assist the priest there.", "When the priest refused to accept the ill-gotten gains, an indignant Francis threw the coins on the floor.In order to avoid his father's wrath, Francis hid in a cave near San Damiano for about a month.", "When he returned to town, hungry and dirty, he was dragged home by his father, beaten, bound, and locked in a small storeroom.", "Freed by his mother during Bernardone's absence, Francis returned at once to San Damiano, where he found shelter with the officiating priest, but he was soon cited before the city consuls by his father.", "The latter, not content with having recovered the scattered gold from San Damiano, sought also to force his son to forego his inheritance by way of restitution.", "In the midst of legal proceedings before the Bishop of Assisi, Francis renounced his father and his patrimony.", "Some accounts report that he stripped himself naked in token of this renunciation, and the bishop covered him with his own cloak.For the next couple of months, Francis wandered as a beggar in the hills behind Assisi.", "He spent some time at a neighbouring monastery working as a scullion.", "He then went to Gubbio, where a friend gave him, as an alms, the cloak, girdle, and staff of a pilgrim.", "Returning to Assisi, he traversed the city, begging stones for the restoration of St. Damiano's.", "These he carried to the old chapel, set in place himself, and so at length rebuilt it.", "Over the course of two years, he embraced the life of a penitent, during which he restored several ruined chapels in the countryside around Assisi, among them San Pietro in Spina (in the area of San Petrignano in the valley about a kilometer from Rivotorto, today on private property and once again in ruin); and the Porziuncola, the little chapel of St. Mary of the Angels in the plain just below the town.", "This later became his favorite abode.", "By degrees he took to nursing lepers, in the leper colonies near Assisi.File:Casa-de-sao-francisco.jpg\|The house where Francis of Assisi lived when youngFile:Sassetta 001.jpg\|''Saint Francis renounces his earthly father''.===Founding of the Franciscan Orders=======Friars Minor====One morning in February 1208, Francis was taking part in a Mass in the chapel of St. Mary of the Angels, near which he had by then built himself a hut.", "The Gospel of the day was the \"Commissioning of the Twelve\" from the Book of Matthew.", "The disciples were to go and proclaim that the Kingdom of God is at hand.", "Francis was inspired to devote himself to a life of poverty.", "Having obtained a coarse woolen tunic, the dress then worn by the poorest Umbrian peasants, he tied it around himself with a knotted rope and went about exhorting the people of the countryside to penance, brotherly love, and peace.", "Francis's preaching to ordinary people was unusual as he had no license to do so.", "His example attracted others.", "Within a year Francis had eleven followers.", "The brothers lived a simple life in the deserted leper colony of Rivo Torto near Assisi; but they spent much of their time wandering through the mountainous districts of Umbria, making a deep impression upon their hearers by their earnest exhortations.Pope Innocent III approving the statutes of the Order of the Franciscans, by Giotto, 1295–1300In 1209 he composed a simple rule for his followers (\"friars\"), the ''Regula primitiva'' or \"Primitive Rule\", which came from verses in the Bible.", "The rule was \"to follow the teachings of our Lord Jesus Christ and to walk in his footsteps.\"", "He then led eleven followers to Rome to seek permission from Pope Innocent III to found a new religious order.", "Upon entry to Rome, the brothers encountered Bishop Guido of Assisi, who had in his company Giovanni di San Paolo, the Cardinal Bishop of Sabina.", "The Cardinal, who was the confessor of Pope Innocent III, was immediately sympathetic to Francis and agreed to represent Francis to the pope.", "After several days, the pope agreed to admit the group informally, adding that when God increased the group in grace and number, they could return for an official audience.", "The group was tonsured.", "This was important in part because it recognized Church authority and prevented his following from accusations of heresy, as had happened to the Waldensians decades earlier.", "Though a number of the pope's counselors considered the mode of life proposed by Francis to be unsafe and impractical, following a dream in which he saw Francis holding up the Lateran Basilica, he decided to endorse Francis's order.", "This occurred, according to tradition, on 16 April 1210, and constituted the official founding of the Franciscan Order.", "The group, then the \"Lesser Brothers\" (''Order of Friars Minor'' also known as the ''Franciscan Order'' or the ''Seraphic Order''), were centered in the Porziuncola and preached first in Umbria, before expanding throughout Italy.", "Francis was later ordained a deacon, but not a priest.====Poor Clares and Third Order====From then on, the new order grew quickly.", "Hearing Francis preaching in the church of San Rufino in Assisi in 1211, the young noblewoman Clare of Assisi sought to live like them.", "Her cousin Rufino also sought to join.", "On the night of Palm Sunday, 28 March 1212, Clare clandestinely left her family's palace.", "Francis received her at the Porziuncola and thereby established the Order of Poor Clares.", "He gave Clare a religious habit, a garment similar to his own, before lodging her, her younger sister Caterina, and other young women in a nearby monastery of Benedictine nuns until he could provide a suitable monastery.", "Later he transferred them to San Damiano, to a few small huts or cells.", "This became the first monastery of the Second Franciscan Order, now known as Poor Clares.For those who could not leave their affairs, Francis later formed the Third Order of Brothers and Sisters of Penance, a fraternity composed of either laity or clergy whose members neither withdrew from the world nor took religious vows.", "Instead, they observed the principles of Franciscan life in their daily lives.", "Before long, the Third Order – now titled the Secular Franciscan Order – grew beyond Italy.===Travels===Determined to bring the Gospel to all peoples and let God convert them, Francis sought on several occasions to take his message out of Italy.", "In the late spring of 1212, he set out for Jerusalem, but was shipwrecked by a storm on the Dalmatian coast, forcing him to return to Italy.", "On 8 May 1213, he was given the use of the mountain of La Verna (Alverna) as a gift from Count Orlando di Chiusi, who described it as \"eminently suitable for whoever wishes to do penance in a place remote from mankind\".", "The mountain would become one of his favourite retreats for prayer.In the same year, Francis sailed for Morocco, but an illness forced him to break off his journey while in Spain.In 1219, accompanied by Friar Illuminatus of Arce and hoping to convert the Sultan of Egypt or be martyred in the attempt, Francis went to Egypt during the Fifth Crusade where a Crusader army had been encamped for over a year besieging the walled city of Damietta.", "The Sultan, al-Kamil, a nephew of Saladin, had succeeded his father as Sultan of Egypt in 1218 and was encamped upstream of Damietta.", "A bloody and futile attack on the city was launched by the Christians on 29 August 1219, following which both sides agreed to a ceasefire that lasted four weeks.", "Probably during this interlude Francis and his companion crossed the Muslims' lines and were brought before the Sultan, remaining in his camp for a few days.", "Reports give no information about what transpired during the encounter beyond noting that the Sultan received Francis graciously and that Francis preached to the Muslims.", "He returned unharmed.", "No known Arab sources mention the visit.Francis and others treating victims of leprosy or smallpoxSuch an incident is alluded to in a scene in the late 13th-century fresco cycle, attributed to Giotto, in the upper basilica at Assisi.According to some late sources, the Sultan gave Francis permission to visit the sacred places in the Holy Land and even to preach there.", "All that can safely be asserted is that Francis and his companion left the Crusader camp for Acre, from where they embarked for Italy in the latter half of 1220.Drawing on a 1267 sermon by Bonaventure, later sources report that the Sultan secretly converted or accepted a death-bed baptism as a result of meeting Francis.Due to these events in Jerusalem, Franciscans have been present in the Holy Land almost uninterruptedly since 1217.They received concessions from the Mameluke Sultan in 1333 with regard to certain Holy Places in Jerusalem and Bethlehem, and (so far as concerns the Catholic Church) jurisdictional privileges from Pope Clement VI in 1342.===Reorganization of the Franciscan Order===St.", "Francis preaching to the birds outside of Bevagna (by Master of St. Francis).", "The growing order of friars was divided into provinces; groups were sent to France, Germany, Hungary, and Spain and to the East.", "Upon receiving a report of the martyrdom of five brothers in Morocco, Francis returned to Italy via Venice.", "Cardinal Ugolino di Conti was then nominated by the pope as the protector of the order.", "Another reason for Francis' return to Italy was that the Franciscan Order had grown at an unprecedented rate compared to previous religious orders, but its organizational sophistication had not kept up with this growth and had little more to govern it than Francis' example and simple rule.", "To address this problem, Francis prepared a new and more detailed Rule, the \"First Rule\" or \"Rule Without a Papal Bull\" (''Regula prima'', ''Regula non bullata''), which again asserted devotion to poverty and the apostolic life.", "However, it also introduced greater institutional structure, though this was never officially endorsed by the pope.On 29 September 1220, Francis handed over the governance of the order to Brother Peter Catani at the Porziuncola, but Peter died only five months later.Brother Peter was succeeded by Brother Elias as Vicar of Francis.", "Two years later, Francis modified the \"First Rule\", creating the \"Second Rule\" or \"Rule With a Bull\", which was approved by Pope Honorius III on 29 November 1223.As the order's official rule, it called on the friars \"to observe the Holy Gospel of our Lord Jesus Christ, living in obedience without anything of our own and in chastity\".", "In addition, it set regulations for discipline, preaching, and entering the order.", "Once the rule was endorsed by the pope, Francis withdrew increasingly from external affairs.", "During 1221 and 1222, he crossed Italy, first as far south as Catania in Sicily and afterward as far north as Bologna.=== Stigmata, final days, and sainthood ===Francis considered his stigmata part of the ''Imitation of Christ''.", "by Cigoli, 1699While he was praying on the mountain of Verna, during a forty-day fast in preparation for Michaelmas (29 September), Francis is said to have had a vision on or about 13 September 1224, the Feast of the Exaltation of the Cross, as a result of which he received the stigmata.", "Brother Leo, who had been with Francis at the time, left a clear and simple account of the event, the first definite account of the phenomenon of stigmata.", "\"Suddenly he saw a vision of a seraph, a six-winged angel on a cross.", "This angel gave him the gift of the five wounds of Christ.\"", "Suffering from these stigmata and from trachoma, Francis received care in several cities (Siena, Cortona, Nocera) to no avail.", "In the end, he was brought back to a hut next to the Porziuncola.", "Here he spent his last days dictating his spiritual testament.", "He died on the evening of Saturday, 3 October 1226, singing Psalm 141, ''\"Voce mea ad Dominum\"''.On 16 July 1228, he was declared a saint by Pope Gregory IX (the former cardinal Ugolino di Conti, a friend of Francis and Cardinal Protector of the Order).", "The next day, the pope laid the foundation stone for the Basilica of St. Francis in Assisi.", "Francis was buried on 25 May 1230, under the Lower Basilica, but his tomb was soon hidden on orders of Brother Elias, in order to protect it from Saracen invaders.", "His burial place remained unknown until it was rediscovered in 1818.Pasquale Belli then constructed a crypt for the remains in the Lower Basilica.", "It was refashioned between 1927 and 1930 into its present form by Ugo Tarchi.", "In 1978, the remains of Francis were examined and confirmed by a commission of scholars appointed by Pope Paul VI, and put into a glass urn in the ancient stone tomb." ], [ "Character and legacy", "St. Francis talking to the wolf of Gubbio (Carl Weidemeyer, 1911)Francis led semi-naked for humility Francis set out to imitate Christ and literally carry out his work.", "This is important in understanding Francis' character, his affinity for the Eucharist and respect for the priests who carried out the sacrament.", "He preached: \"Your God is of your flesh, He lives in your nearest neighbor, in every man.", "\"He and his followers celebrated and even venerated poverty, which was so central to his character that in his last written work, the Testament, he said that absolute personal and corporate poverty was the essential lifestyle for the members of his order.He believed that nature itself was the mirror of God.", "He called all creatures his \"brothers\" and \"sisters\", and even preached to the birds and supposedly persuaded a wolf in Gubbio to stop attacking some locals if they agreed to feed the wolf.", "His deep sense of brotherhood under God embraced others, and he declared that \"he considered himself no friend of Christ if he did not cherish those for whom Christ died\".Francis' visit to Egypt and attempted rapprochement with the Muslim world had far-reaching consequences, long past his own death, since after the fall of the Crusader Kingdom, it would be the Franciscans, of all Catholics, who would be allowed to stay on in the Holy Land and be recognized as \"Custodians of the Holy Land\" on behalf of the Catholic Church.At Greccio near Assisi, around 1220, Francis celebrated Christmas by setting up the first known ''presepio'' or ''crèche'' (Nativity scene).", "His nativity imagery reflected the scene in traditional paintings.", "He used real animals to create a living scene so that the worshipers could contemplate the birth of the child Jesus in a direct way, making use of the senses, especially sight.", "Both Thomas of Celano and Bonaventure, biographers of Francis, tell how he used only a straw-filled manger (feeding trough) set between a real ox and donkey.", "According to Thomas, it was beautiful in its simplicity, with the manger acting as the altar for the Christmas Mass.===Nature and the environment===A garden statue of Francis of Assisi with birdsFrancis preached the Christian doctrine that the world was created good and beautiful by God but suffers a need for redemption because of human sin.", "As someone who saw God reflected in nature, \"St. Francis was a great lover of God's creation ...\" In the Canticle of the Sun he gives God thanks for Brother Sun, Sister Moon, Brother Wind, Water, Fire, and Earth, all of which he sees as rendering praise to God.Many of the stories that surround the life of Francis say that he had a great love for animals and the environment.", "The ''Fioretti'' (\"Little Flowers\") is a collection of legends and folklore that sprang up after his death.", "One account describes how one day, while Francis was travelling with some companions, they happened upon a place in the road where birds filled the trees on either side.", "Francis told his companions to \"wait for me while I go to preach to my sisters the birds.\"", "The birds surrounded him, intrigued by the power of his voice, and not one of them flew away.", "He is often portrayed with a bird, typically in his hand.Another legend from the ''Fioretti'' tells that in the city of Gubbio, where Francis lived for some time, was a wolf \"terrifying and ferocious, who devoured men as well as animals\".", "Francis went up into the hills and when he found the wolf, he made the sign of the cross and commanded the wolf to come to him and hurt no one.", "Then Francis led the wolf into the town, and surrounded by startled citizens made a pact between them and the wolf.", "Because the wolf had \"done evil out of hunger\", the townsfolk were to feed the wolf regularly.", "In return, the wolf would no longer prey upon them or their flocks.", "In this manner Gubbio was freed from the menace of the predator.On 29 November 1979, Pope John Paul II declared Francis the patron saint of ecology.", "On 28 March 1982, John Paul II said that Francis' love and care for creation was a challenge for contemporary Catholics and a reminder \"not to behave like dissident predators where nature is concerned, but to assume responsibility for it, taking all care so that everything stays healthy and integrated, so as to offer a welcoming and friendly environment even to those who succeed us.\"", "The same Pope wrote on the occasion of the World Day of Peace, 1 January 1990, that Francis \"invited all of creation – animals, plants, natural forces, even Brother Sun and Sister Moon – to give honour and praise to the Lord.", "The poor man of Assisi gives us striking witness that when we are at peace with God we are better able to devote ourselves to building up that peace with all creation which is inseparable from peace among all peoples.", "\"In 2015, Pope Francis published his encyclical letter Laudato Si' about the ecological crisis and \"care for our common home, which takes its name from the Canticle of the Sun, which Francis of Assisi composed.", "It presents Francis as \"the example par excellence of care for the vulnerable and of an integral ecology lived out joyfully and authentically\".", "This inspired the birth of the Laudato Si' Movement, a global network of nearly 1000 organizations promoting the Laudato Si' message and the Franciscan approach to ecology.It is a popular practice on his feast day, 4 October, for people to bring their pets and other animals to church for a blessing.===Feast day===Francis' last resting place at AssisiFrancis' feast day is observed on 4 October.", "A secondary feast in honor of the stigmata received by Francis, celebrated on 17 September, was inserted in the General Roman Calendar in 1585 (later than the Tridentine calendar) and suppressed in 1604, but was restored in 1615.In the New Roman Missal of 1969, it was removed again from the General Calendar, as something of a duplication of the main feast on 4 October, and left to the calendars of certain localities and of the Franciscan Order.", "Wherever the Tridentine Missal is used, however, the feast of the Stigmata remains in the General Calendar.Francis is honored with a Lesser Festival in the Church of England, the Anglican Church of Canada, the Episcopal Church USA, the Old Catholic Churches, the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America, and other churches and religious communities on 4 October.===Papal name===On 13 March 2013, upon his election as Pope, Archbishop and Cardinal Jorge Mario Bergoglio of Argentina chose Francis as his papal name in honor of Francis of Assisi, becoming Pope Francis.At his first audience on 16 March 2013, Pope Francis told journalists that he had chosen the name in honor of Francis of Assisi, and had done so because he was especially concerned for the well-being of the poor.", "The pontiff recounted that Cardinal Cláudio Hummes had told him, \"Don't forget the poor\", right after the election; that made Bergoglio think of Francis.", "It is the first time a pope has taken the name.===Patronage===A relic of Francis of AssisiOn 18 June 1939, Pope Pius XII named Francis a joint patron saint of Italy along with Catherine of Siena with the apostolic letter \"Licet Commissa\".", "Pope Pius also mentioned the two saints in the laudative discourse he pronounced on 5 May 1949, in the Church of Santa Maria sopra Minerva.Francis is the patron of animals and ecology.", "As such, he is the patron saint of the Laudato Si' Movement, a network that promotes the Franciscan ecological paradigm as outlined in the encyclical Laudato Si'.He is also considered the patron against dying alone; against fire; patron of the Franciscan Order and Catholic Action; of families, peace, and needleworkers.", "and a number of religious congregations.He is the patron of many churches and other locations around the world, including: Italy; San Pawl il-Baħar, Malta; Freising, Germany; Lancaster, England; Kottapuram, India; General Trias, Philippines; San Francisco; Santa Fe, New Mexico; Colorado; Salina, Kansas; Metuchen, New Jersey; and Quibdó, Colombia.===Outside Catholicism=======Anglicanism====One of the results of the Oxford Movement in the Anglican Church during the 19th century was the re-establishment of religious orders, including some of Franciscan inspiration.", "The principal Anglican communities in the Franciscan tradition are the Community of St. Francis (women, founded 1905), the Poor Clares of Reparation (P.C.R.", "), the Society of St. Francis (men, founded 1934), and the Community of St. Clare (women, enclosed).A U.S.-founded order within the Anglican world communion is the Seattle-founded order of Clares in Seattle (Diocese of Olympia), The Little Sisters of St. Clare.The Anglican church retained the Catholic tradition of blessing animals on or near Francis' feast day of 4 October, and more recently Lutheran and other Protestant churches have adopted the practice.====Protestantism====Several Protestant groups have emerged since the 19th century that strive to adhere to the teachings of St. Francis.There are also some small Franciscan communities within European Protestantism and the Old Catholic Church.", "There are some Franciscan orders in Lutheran Churches, including the Order of Lutheran Franciscans, the Evangelical Sisterhood of Mary, and the Evangelische Kanaan Franziskus-Bruderschaft (Kanaan Franciscan Brothers).====Orthodox churches====Francis is not recognized as a saint by any Orthodox Church and stigmatas are considered foreign to the faith.", "Orthodox Saint, bishop, and theologian Ignatius Brianchaninov called Francis of Assisi's claims delusions.Francis' feast is celebrated at New Skete, an Orthodox Christian monastic community in Cambridge, New York founded by Catholic Franciscans in the 20th century.====Other religions====Outside of Christianity, other individuals and movements are influenced by the example and teachings of Francis.", "These include the popular philosopher Eckhart Tolle, who has made videos on the spirituality of Francis.The interreligious spiritual community of Skanda Vale in Wales also takes inspiration from the example of Francis, and models itself as an interfaith Franciscan order.===Main writings===''Francisci Assisiatis opuscula'', Antverpiae, apud Balthasarem Moretum, 1623* ''Canticum Fratris Solis'' or ''Laudes Creaturarum''; Canticle of the Sun, 1224* ''Oratio ante Crucifixum'', Prayer before the Crucifix, 1205 (extant in the original Umbrian dialect as well as in a contemporary Latin translation)* ''Regula non bullata'', the Earlier Rule, 1221* ''Regula bullata'', the Later Rule, 1223* ''Testament'', 1226* ''Admonitions'', 1205 to 1209For a complete list, see ''The Franciscan Experience''.Francis is considered the first Italian poet by some literary critics.", "He believed commoners should be able to pray to God in their own language, and he wrote often in the dialect of Umbria instead of Latin.The anonymous 20th-century prayer \"Make Me an Instrument of Your Peace\" is widely attributed to Francis, but there is no evidence for it." ], [ "In art", "The Franciscan Order promoted devotion to the life of Francis from his canonization onwards, and Francis appeared in European art soon after his death.", "The order commissioned many works for Franciscan churches, either showing him with sacred figures, or episodes from his life.", "There are large early fresco cycles in the Basilica of San Francesco d'Assisi, parts of which are shown above.There are countless seventeenth- and eighteenth-century depictions of Saint Francis of Assisi and a musical angel in churches and museums throughout western Europe.", "The titles of these depictions vary widely, at times describing Francis as \"consoled\", \"comforted\", in \"ecstasy\" or in \"rapture\"; the presence of the musical angel may or may not be mentioned.File:Master of the bardi saint francis .", "St. Francis and scenes from his life 13 cent Santa croce.jpg\|''St.", "Francis and scenes from his life'', 13th centuryFile:Saint Francis of Assisi Receiving the Stigmata.jpg\|''Saint Francis of Assisi Receiving the Stigmata'', Jan van Eyck, c. 1430–1432, Turin versionFile:Domenico Veneziano - The Stigmatization of St Francis (predella 1) - WGA06432.jpg\|''The Stigmatization of St Francis'', Domenico Veneziano, 1445File:Giovanni Bellini - Saint Francis in the Desert - Google Art Project.jpg\|''Saint Francis in the Desert'' Giovanni Bellini, c. 1480File:Carlo Crivelli - Saint Francis Collecting the Blood of Christ - Google Art Project.jpg\|''Saint Francis with the Blood of Christ'', Carlo Crivelli, c. 1500File:El Greco - Saint Francis Receiving the Stigmata - Google Art Project.jpg\|''Saint Francis Receiving the Stigmata'', Studio of El Greco, 1585–1590File:Ribalta-san francisco-prado.jpg\|''Francis of Assisi with angel music'', Francisco Ribalta, c. 1620File:Francisco de Zurbarán 053.jpg\|''Saint Francis in Meditation'', Francisco de Zurbarán, 1639File:Saint Francis of Assisi by Jusepe de Ribera.jpg\|''Saint Francis of Assisi in Ecstasy'', Jusepe de Ribera, 1639File:Saint Francis of Assisi in Ecstasy-Caravaggio (c.1595).jpg\|''Saint Francis of Assisi in Ecstasy'', Caravaggio, c. 1595File:Josep Benlliure Gil19.jpg\|''Francis of Assisi visiting his convent while far away, in a chariot of fire'', José Benlliure y Gil (1855–1937)File:The Ecstasy of st Francis--Sassetta--Bernson collecton--Settignano.jpg\|''The Ecstasy of St. Francis'', Stefano di Giovanni, 1444File:Nazario Gerardi as St. Francis in Francesco, giullare di Dio 2.jpg\|Nazario Gerardi as Francis in ''The Flowers of St. Francis'', 1950File:Statue in Cloisters said to have the cure for toothache.", "You can see teeth as votive offerings at the foot of the statue!.jpg\|Statue in Askeaton Abbey, Ireland, claimed to cure toothache, 14th–15th centuryFile:Late 15th - Early 16th century depiction of Saint Francis of Assisi, by Tiberio of Assisi.jpg\|''St Francis,'' Tiberio d'Assisi, 1470 - 1524" ], [ "Media", "Basilica of St. Francis, AssisiStatue of St. Francis in front of the Catholic church of Chania===Films===* ''The Flowers of St. Francis'', a 1950 film directed by Roberto Rossellini and co-written by Federico Fellini.", "Francis was played by Nazario Gerardi, a real-life Franciscan friar from the monastery Nocera Inferiore.", "* ''Francis of Assisi'', a 1961 film directed by Michael Curtiz, based on the novel ''The Joyful Beggar'' by Louis de Wohl, starring Bradford Dillman as Francis.", "Dolores Hart, who plays Clare, later became a Benedictine nun.", "* ''Francis of Assisi'', a 1966 made-for-television film directed by Liliana Cavani, starring Lou Castel as Francis.", "* ''The Hawks and the Sparrows'', a 1966 film directed by Pier Paolo Pasolini* ''Brother Sun, Sister Moon'', a 1972 film by Franco Zeffirelli, starring Graham Faulkner as Francis.", "* ''Francesco'', a 1989 film by Liliana Cavani, contemplatively paced, follows Francis of Assisi's evolution from rich man's son to religious humanitarian, and eventually to a full-fledged self-tortured saint.", "Francis is played by Mickey Rourke.", "* ''St.", "Francis'', a 2002 film directed by Michele Soavi, starring Raoul Bova as Francis.", "* ''Clare and Francis'', a 2007 film directed by Fabrizio Costa, starring Mary Petruolo and Ettore Bassi* ''Pranchiyettan and the Saint'', a 2010 satirical Indian Malayalam film* ''Finding St. Francis'', a 2014 film directed by Paul Alexander* ''L'ami – François d'Assise et ses frères'' (The friend – Francis of Assisi and his brothers), a 2016 film directed by Renaud Fely and Arnaud Louvet starring Elio Germano* ''The Sultan and the Saint'', a 2016 film directed by Alexander Kronemer, starring Alexander McPherson* ''Sign of Contradiction'', a 2018 documentary film featuring commentary by Fr.", "Dave Pivonka, Cardinal Raniero Cantalamessa, and others, focusing on a revealing of the true St. Francis to modern audiences.", "''In Search of St. Francis of Assisi'', documentary featuring Franciscan friars and others ''The Letter: A Message for our Earth'', a 2022 film on YouTube Originals by Nicolas Brown, telling the story of Saint Francis and the encyclical Laudato Si'.===Music===* Franz Liszt: ''Cantico del sol di Francesco d'Assisi'', S.4 (sacred choral work, 1862, 1880–81; versions of the Prelude for piano, S. 498c, 499, 499a; version of the Prelude for organ, S. 665, 760; version of the Hosannah for organ and bass trombone, S.677) ''St.", "François d'Assise: La Prédication aux oiseaux'', No.", "1 of ''Deux Légendes'', S.175 (piano, 1862–63)* Gabriel Pierné: ''Saint François d'Assise'' (oratorio, 1912)* William Henry Draper: ''All Creatures of Our God and King'' (hymn paraphrase of ''Canticle of the Sun'', published 1919)* Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco: ''Fioretti'' (voice and orchestra, 1920)* Gian Francesco Malipiero: ''San Francesco d'Assisi'' (soloists, chorus and orchestra, 1920–21)* Hermann Suter: ''Le Laudi'' (The Praises) or ''Le Laudi di San Francesco d'Assisi'', based on the ''Canticle of the Sun'', (oratorio, 1923)* Amy Beach: ''Canticle of the Sun'' (soloists, chorus and orchestra, 1928)* Paul Hindemith: ''Nobilissima Visione'' (ballet 1938)* Leo Sowerby: ''Canticle of the Sun'' (cantata for mixed voices with accompaniment for piano or orchestra, 1944)* Francis Poulenc: ''Quatre petites prières de saint François d'Assise'' (men's chorus, 1948)* Seth Bingham: ''The Canticle of the Sun'' (cantata for chorus of mixed voices with soli ad lib.", "and accompaniment for organ or orchestra, 1949)* William Walton: ''Cantico del sol'' (chorus, 1973–74)* Olivier Messiaen: ''St.", "François d'Assise'' (opera, 1975–83)* : ''Święty Franciszek z Asyżu'' (oratorio for soprano, tenor, baritone, mixed chorus and orchestra, 1976)* Peter Janssens: ''Franz von Assisi'', ''Musikspiel'' (Musical play, text: Wilhelm Wilms, 1978)* Michele Paulicelli: '''' (musical theater, 1981)* John Michael Talbot: ''Troubador of the Great King'' (1981), double-LP composed in honor of the 800th birthday of St. Francis of Assisi.", "* Karlheinz Stockhausen: ''Luzifers Abschied'' (1982), scene 4 of the opera ''Samstag aus Licht''* Libby Larsen: ''I Will Sing and Raise a Psalm'' (SATB chorus and organ, 1995)* Sofia Gubaidulina: ''Sonnengesang'' (solo cello, chamber choir and percussion, 1997)* : ''Balada de Francisco'' (voices accompanied by guitar, 1999)* Angelo Branduardi: ''L'infinitamente piccolo'' (album, 2000)* Lewis Nielson: ''St.", "Francis Preaches to the Birds'' (chamber concerto for violin, 2005)* Peter Reulein (composer) / Helmut Schlegel (libretto): ''Laudato si''' (oratorio, 2016)* Daniel Dorff: ''Flowers of St. Francis'' (solo for Bass Clarinet, 2013)* Mel Hornyak & Elliot Valentine Lee: ''Litany of the Martyrs'', appears in ''Adamandi'' (musical number, 2022)===Selected biographical books===Hundreds of books have been written about him.", "The following suggestions are from Franciscan friar Conrad Harkins (1935–2020), director of the Franciscan Institute at St. Bonaventure University.", "* Paul Sabatier, ''Life of St. Francis of Assisi'' (Scribner's, 1905).", "* Johannes Jurgensen, ''St.", "Francis of Assisi: A Biography'' (translated by T. O’Conor Sloane; Longmans, 1912).", "* Arnaldo Fortini, ''Francis of Assisi'' (translated by Helen Moak, Crossroad, 1981).", "* Nikos Kazantzakis, ''Saint Francis'' (Ο Φτωχούλης του Θεού, in Greek; 1954)* John Moorman, ''St.", "Francis of Assisi'' (SPCK, 1963)* John Moorman, \"The Spirituality of St. Francis of Assisi\" (''Our Sunday Visitor'', 1977).", "* Erik Doyle, ''St.", "Francis and the Song of Brotherhood'' (Seabury, 1981).", "* Raoul Manselli, ''St.", "Francis of Assisi'' (translated by Paul Duggan; Franciscan, 1988).===Other===* In Rubén Darío's poem \"''Los Motivos del Lobo'' (\"The Reasons of the Wolf\") St. Francis tames a terrible wolf only to discover that the human heart harbors darker desires than those of the beast.", "* In Fyodor Dostoevsky's ''The Brothers Karamazov'', Ivan Karamazov invokes the name of \"Pater Seraphicus\", an epithet applied to St. Francis, to describe Alyosha's spiritual guide Zosima.", "The reference is found in Goethe's ''Faust'', Part 2, Act 5, lines 11,918–25.", "* In ''Mont Saint Michel and Chartres'', Henry Adams' chapter on the \"Mystics\" discusses Francis extensively.", "* ''Francesco's Friendly World'' was a 1996–97 direct-to-video Christian animated series produced by Lyrick Studios that was about Francesco and his talking animal friends as they rebuild the Church of San Damiano.", "* Rich Mullins co-wrote ''Canticle of the Plains'', a musical, with Mitch McVicker.", "Released in 1997, it was based on the life of St. Francis of Assisi, but told as a Western story.", "* Bernard Malamud's novel ''The Assistant'' (1957) features a protagonist, Frank Alpine, who exemplifies the life of St. Francis in mid-20th-century Brooklyn, New York City.", "* G. K. Chesterton's book ''St.", "Francis of Assisi'', a biographical and philosophical explanation of St. Francis" ], [ "See also", "* Feast of Saint Francis* ''St.", "François d'Assise'', an opera by Olivier Messiaen* Blessing of animals* Fraticelli* List of places named after St. Francis* Pardon of Assisi* St. Francis of Assisi, patron saint archive* Society of St. Francis* St. Benedict's Cave, which contains a portrait of Francis made during his lifetime* St. Juniper, one of Francis' original followers* Wolf of Gubbio===Prayers===* Canticle of the Sun, a prayer by Francis* Little Office of the Passion, composed by Francis* Prayer of St. Francis, a prayer often misattributed to Francis" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===General references===**.", " Scripta Leonis, Rufini et Angeli Sociorum S. Francisci: The Writings of Leo, Rufino and Angelo Companions of St. Francis, original manuscript, 1246, compiled by Brother Leo and other companions (1970, 1990, reprinted with corrections), Oxford: Oxford University Press, edited by Rosalind B. Brooke, in Latin and English, , containing testimony recorded by intimate, longtime companions of St.", "Francis.", "* Francis of Assisi, ''The Little Flowers (Fioretti)'', London, 2012.limovia.net .", "* Bonaventure; Cardinal Manning (1867).", "The Life of St. Francis of Assisi (from the Legenda Sancti Francisci) (1988 ed.).", "Rockford, Illinois: TAN Books & Publishers .", "* Chesterton, Gilbert Keith (1924).", "St. Francis of Assisi (14th ed.).", "Garden City, New York: Image Books.", "* Englebert, Omer (1951).", "The Lives of the Saints.", "New York: Barnes & Noble.", "* Karrer, Otto, ed., St. Francis, The Little Flowers, Legends, and Lauds, trans.", "N. Wydenbruck (London: Sheed and Ward, 1979).", "" ], [ "Further reading", " .", "* * * ''The Little Flowers Fioretti of Saint Francis'' (Translated by Raphael Brown), Doubleday, 1998..* Valerie Martin, ''Salvation: Scenes from the Life of St. Francis'', New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2001..* Giovanni Morello and Laurence B. Kanter, eds., ''The Treasury of Saint Francis of Assisi'', Electa, Milan, 1999.Catalog of exhibition at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, March 16 – June 27, 1999.", "** Paul Moses, ''The Saint and the Sultan: The Crusades, Islam, and Francis of Assisi's Mission of Peace'', New York: Doubleday, 2009.", "* Donald Spoto, ''Reluctant Saint: The Life of Francis of Assisi'', New York: Viking Compass, 2002..* André Vauchez, ''Francis of Assisi: The Life and Afterlife of a Medieval Saint'', Yale University Press, 2012.." ], [ "External links", "* \"St. Francis of Assisi\", ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' online* \"St. Francis of Assisium, Confessor\", ''Butler's Lives of the Saints''* The Franciscan Archive* St. Francis of Assisi – Catholic Saints & Angels* Here Followeth the Life of St. Francis from Caxton's translation of the Golden Legend* Colonnade Statue in St. Peter's Square* Founder Statue in St. Peter's Basilica* * * * Saint Francis of Assisi Exhibition at the National Gallery, London, May 6 – July 30, 2023.Review: Julian Bell, \"Opulence and Humility\", ''The New York Review of Books'', August 17, 2023.Review: Mary Wellesley \"St Francis of Assisi\", ''London Review of Books'', 27 July 2023." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon''' is an American single-engine supersonic multirole fighter aircraft originally developed by General Dynamics for the United States Air Force (USAF).", "Designed as an air superiority day fighter, it evolved into a successful all-weather multirole aircraft with over 4,600 built since 1976.Although no longer purchased by the U.S. Air Force, improved versions are being built for export.", "In 1993, General Dynamics sold its aircraft manufacturing business to the Lockheed Corporation, which became part of Lockheed Martin after a 1995 merger with Martin Marietta.The Fighting Falcon's key features include a frameless bubble canopy for enhanced cockpit visibility, a side-mounted control stick to ease control while maneuvering, an ejection seat reclined 30 degrees from vertical to reduce the effect of g-forces on the pilot, and the first use of a relaxed static stability/fly-by-wire flight control system that helps to make it an agile aircraft.", "The F-16 has an internal M61 Vulcan cannon and 11 hardpoints.In addition to active duty in the U.S. Air Force, Air Force Reserve Command, and Air National Guard units, the aircraft is also used by the U.S. Air Force Thunderbirds aerial demonstration team, the US Air Combat Command F-16 Viper Demonstration Team, and as an adversary/aggressor aircraft by the United States Navy.", "The F-16 has also been procured by the air forces of 25 other nations.", "As of 2015, it was the world's most common fixed-wing aircraft in military service." ], [ "Development", "===Lightweight Fighter program===US Vietnam War experience showed the need for air superiority fighters and better air-to-air training for fighter pilots.", "Based on his experience in the Korean War and as a fighter tactics instructor in the early 1960s, Colonel John Boyd with mathematician Thomas Christie developed the energy–maneuverability theory to model a fighter aircraft's performance in combat.", "Boyd's work called for a small, lightweight aircraft that could maneuver with the minimum possible energy loss and which also incorporated an increased thrust-to-weight ratio.", "In the late 1960s, Boyd gathered a group of like-minded innovators who became known as the Fighter Mafia, and in 1969, they secured Department of Defense funding for General Dynamics and Northrop to study design concepts based on the theory.Air Force F-X proponents were opposed to the concept because they perceived it as a threat to the F-15 program, but the USAF's leadership understood that its budget would not allow it to purchase enough F-15 aircraft to satisfy all of its missions.", "The Advanced Day Fighter concept, renamed ''F-XX'', gained civilian political support under the reform-minded Deputy Secretary of Defense David Packard, who favored the idea of competitive prototyping.", "As a result, in May 1971, the Air Force Prototype Study Group was established, with Boyd a key member, and two of its six proposals would be funded, one being the Lightweight Fighter (LWF).", "The request for proposals issued on 6 January 1972 called for a class air-to-air day fighter with a good turn rate, acceleration, and range, and optimized for combat at speeds of and altitudes of .", "This was the region where USAF studies predicted most future air combat would occur.", "The anticipated average flyaway cost of a production version was .", "This production plan was hypothetical as the USAF had no firm plans to procure the winner.====Selection of finalists and flyoff====A right-side view of a YF-16 (foreground) and a alt=Two jet aircraft flying together over mountain range and cloudFive companies responded, and in 1972, the Air Staff selected General Dynamics' Model 401 and Northrop's P-600 for the follow-on prototype development and testing phase.", "GD and Northrop were awarded contracts worth and to produce the YF-16 and YF-17, respectively, with the first flights of both prototypes planned for early 1974.To overcome resistance in the Air Force hierarchy, the Fighter Mafia and other LWF proponents successfully advocated the idea of complementary fighters in a high-cost/low-cost force mix.", "The \"high/low mix\" would allow the USAF to be able to afford sufficient fighters for its overall fighter force structure requirements.", "The mix gained broad acceptance by the time of the prototypes' fly-off, defining the relationship between the LWF and the F-15.The YF-16 was developed by a team of General Dynamics engineers led by Robert H. Widmer.", "The first YF-16 was rolled out on 13 December 1973.Its 90-minute maiden flight was made at the Air Force Flight Test Center at Edwards AFB, California, on 2 February 1974.Its actual first flight occurred accidentally during a high-speed taxi test on 20 January 1974.While gathering speed, a roll-control oscillation caused a fin of the port-side wingtip-mounted missile and then the starboard stabilator to scrape the ground, and the aircraft then began to veer off the runway.", "The test pilot, Phil Oestricher, decided to lift off to avoid a potential crash, safely landing six minutes later.", "The slight damage was quickly repaired and the official first flight occurred on time.", "The YF-16's first supersonic flight was accomplished on 5 February 1974, and the second YF-16 prototype first flew on 9 May 1974.This was followed by the first flights of Northrop's YF-17 prototypes on 9 June and 21 August 1974, respectively.", "During the fly-off, the YF-16s completed 330 sorties for a total of 417 flight hours; the YF-17s flew 288 sorties, covering 345 hours.===Air Combat Fighter competition===Increased interest turned the LWF into a serious acquisition program.", "NATO allies Belgium, Denmark, the Netherlands, and Norway were seeking to replace their F-104G Starfighter fighter-bombers.", "In early 1974, they reached an agreement with the U.S. that if the USAF ordered the LWF winner, they would consider ordering it as well.", "The USAF also needed to replace its F-105 Thunderchief and F-4 Phantom II fighter-bombers.", "The U.S. Congress sought greater commonality in fighter procurements by the Air Force and Navy, and in August 1974 redirected Navy funds to a new Navy Air Combat Fighter program that would be a naval fighter-bomber variant of the LWF.", "The four NATO allies had formed the Multinational Fighter Program Group (MFPG) and pressed for a U.S. decision by December 1974; thus, the USAF accelerated testing.YF-16 on display at the Virginia Air and Space CenterTo reflect this serious intent to procure a new fighter-bomber, the LWF program was rolled into a new Air Combat Fighter (ACF) competition in an announcement by U.S. Secretary of Defense James R. Schlesinger in April 1974.The ACF would not be a pure fighter, but multirole, and Schlesinger made it clear that any ACF order would be in addition to the F-15, which extinguished opposition to the LWF.", "ACF also raised the stakes for GD and Northrop because it brought in competitors intent on securing what was touted at the time as \"the arms deal of the century\".", "These were Dassault-Breguet's proposed Mirage F1M-53, the Anglo-French SEPECAT Jaguar, and the proposed Saab 37E \"Eurofighter\".", "Northrop offered the P-530 Cobra, which was similar to the YF-17.The Jaguar and Cobra were dropped by the MFPG early on, leaving two European and two U.S. candidates.", "On 11 September 1974, the U.S. Air Force confirmed plans to order the winning ACF design to equip five tactical fighter wings.", "Though computer modeling predicted a close contest, the YF-16 proved significantly quicker going from one maneuver to the next and was the unanimous choice of those pilots that flew both aircraft.On 13 January 1975, Secretary of the Air Force John L. McLucas announced the YF-16 as the winner of the ACF competition.", "The chief reasons given by the secretary were the YF-16's lower operating costs, greater range, and maneuver performance that was \"significantly better\" than that of the YF-17, especially at supersonic speeds.", "Another advantage of the YF-16 – unlike the YF-17 – was its use of the Pratt & Whitney F100 turbofan engine, the same powerplant used by the F-15; such commonality would lower the cost of engines for both programs.", "Secretary McLucas announced that the USAF planned to order at least 650, possibly up to 1,400 production F-16s.", "In the Navy Air Combat Fighter competition, on 2 May 1975, the Navy selected the YF-17 as the basis for what would become the McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet.===Production===An F-16C of the Colorado Air National Guard with AIM-9 Sidewinder missiles, an Air Combat Maneuvering Instrumentation pod, and a centerline fuel tank ( capacity)\|alt=Upright aerial photo of gray jet aircraft flying above cloudsThe U.S. Air Force initially ordered 15 full-scale development (FSD) aircraft (11 single-seat and four two-seat models) for its flight test program which was reduced to eight (six F-16A single-seaters and two F-16B two-seaters).", "The YF-16 design was altered for the production F-16.The fuselage was lengthened by , a larger nose radome was fitted for the AN/APG-66 radar, wing area was increased from to , the tailfin height was decreased, the ventral fins were enlarged, two more stores stations were added, and a single door replaced the original nosewheel double doors.", "The F-16's weight was increased by 25% over the YF-16 by these modifications.The FSD F-16s were manufactured by General Dynamics in Fort Worth, Texas, at United States Air Force Plant 4 in late 1975; the first F-16A rolled out on 20 October 1976 and first flew on 8 December.", "The initial two-seat model achieved its first flight on 8 August 1977.The initial production-standard F-16A flew for the first time on 7 August 1978 and its delivery was accepted by the USAF on 6 January 1979.The aircraft entered USAF operational service with the 34th Tactical Fighter Squadron, 388th Tactical Fighter Wing, at Hill AFB in Utah, on 1 October 1980.The F-16 was given its name of \"Fighting Falcon\" on 21 July 1980.Its pilots and crews often use the name \"Viper\" instead, because of a perceived resemblance to a viper snake as well as to the fictional Colonial Viper starfighter from the television program ''Battlestar Galactica'', which aired at the time the F-16 entered service.On 7 June 1975, the four European partners, now known as the European Participation Group, signed up for 348 aircraft at the Paris Air Show.", "This was split among the European Participation Air Forces (EPAF) as 116 for Belgium, 58 for Denmark, 102 for the Netherlands, and 72 for Norway.", "Two European production lines, one in the Netherlands at Fokker's Schiphol-Oost facility and the other at SABCA's Gosselies plant in Belgium, would produce 184 and 164 units respectively.", "Norway's Kongsberg Vaapenfabrikk and Denmark's Terma A/S also manufactured parts and subassemblies for EPAF aircraft.", "European co-production was officially launched on 1 July 1977 at the Fokker factory.", "Beginning in November 1977, Fokker-produced components were sent to Fort Worth for fuselage assembly, then shipped back to Europe for final assembly of EPAF aircraft at the Belgian plant on 15 February 1978; deliveries to the Belgian Air Force began in January 1979.The first Royal Netherlands Air Force aircraft was delivered in June 1979.In 1980, the first aircraft were delivered to the Royal Norwegian Air Force by Fokker and to the Royal Danish Air Force by SABCA.During the late 1980s and 1990s, Turkish Aerospace Industries (TAI) produced 232 Block 30/40/50 F-16s on a production line in Ankara under license for the Turkish Air Force.", "TAI also produced 46 Block 40s for Egypt in the mid-1990s and 30 Block 50s from 2010 onwards.", "Korean Aerospace Industries opened a production line for the KF-16 program, producing 140 Block 52s from the mid-1990s to mid-2000s (decade).", "If India had selected the F-16IN for its Medium Multi-Role Combat Aircraft procurement, a sixth F-16 production line would have been built in India.", "In May 2013, Lockheed Martin stated there were currently enough orders to keep producing the F-16 until 2017.===Improvements and upgrades===One change made during production was augmented pitch control to avoid deep stall conditions at high angles of attack.", "The stall issue had been raised during development but had originally been discounted.", "Model tests of the YF-16 conducted by the Langley Research Center revealed a potential problem, but no other laboratory was able to duplicate it.", "YF-16 flight tests were not sufficient to expose the issue; later flight testing on the FSD aircraft demonstrated a real concern.", "In response, the area of each horizontal stabilizer was increased by 25% on the Block 15 aircraft in 1981 and later retrofitted to earlier aircraft.", "In addition, a manual override switch to disable the horizontal stabilizer flight limiter was prominently placed on the control console, allowing the pilot to regain control of the horizontal stabilizers (which the flight limiters otherwise lock in place) and recover.", "Besides reducing the risk of deep stalls, the larger horizontal tail also improved stability and permitted faster takeoff rotation.In the 1980s, the Multinational Staged Improvement Program (MSIP) was conducted to evolve the F-16's capabilities, mitigate risks during technology development, and ensure the aircraft's worth.", "The program upgraded the F-16 in three stages.", "The MSIP process permitted the quick introduction of new capabilities, at lower costs and with reduced risks compared to traditional independent upgrade programs.", "In 2012, the USAF had allocated $2.8 billion (~$ in ) to upgrade 350 F-16s while waiting for the F-35 to enter service.", "One key upgrade has been an auto-GCAS (Ground collision avoidance system) to reduce instances of controlled flight into terrain.", "Onboard power and cooling capacities limit the scope of upgrades, which often involve the addition of more power-hungry avionics.Lockheed won many contracts to upgrade foreign operators' F-16s.", "BAE Systems also offers various F-16 upgrades, receiving orders from South Korea, Oman, Turkey, and the US Air National Guard; BAE lost the South Korean contract because of a price breach in November 2014.In 2012, the USAF assigned the total upgrade contract to Lockheed Martin.", "Upgrades include Raytheon's Center Display Unit, which replaces several analog flight instruments with a single digital display.In 2013, sequestration budget cuts cast doubt on the USAF's ability to complete the Combat Avionics Programmed Extension Suite (CAPES), a part of secondary programs such as Taiwan's F-16 upgrade.", "Air Combat Command's General Mike Hostage stated that if he only had money for a service life extension program (SLEP) or CAPES, he would fund SLEP to keep the aircraft flying.", "Lockheed Martin responded to talk of CAPES cancellation with a fixed-price upgrade package for foreign users.", "CAPES was not included in the Pentagon's 2015 budget request.", "The USAF said that the upgrade package will still be offered to Taiwan's Republic of China Air Force, and Lockheed said that some common elements with the F-35 will keep the radar's unit costs down.", "In 2014, the USAF issued a RFI to SLEP 300 F-16 C/Ds.===Production relocation===To make more room for assembly of its newer F-35 Lightning II fighter aircraft, Lockheed Martin moved the F-16 production from Fort Worth, Texas to its plant in Greenville, South Carolina.", "Lockheed delivered the last F-16 from Fort Worth to the Iraqi Air Force on 14 November 2017, ending 40 years of F-16 production there.", "The company resumed production in 2019, though engineering and modernization work will remain in Fort Worth.", "A gap in orders made it possible to stop production during the move; after completing orders for the last Iraqi purchase, the company was negotiating an F-16 sale to Bahrain that would be produced in Greenville.", "This contract was signed in June 2018, and the first planes rolled off the Greenville line in 2023." ], [ "Design", "===Overview===The F-16 is a single-engine, highly maneuverable, supersonic, multirole tactical fighter aircraft.", "It is much smaller and lighter than its predecessors but uses advanced aerodynamics and avionics, including the first use of a relaxed static stability/fly-by-wire (RSS/FBW) flight control system, to achieve enhanced maneuver performance.", "Highly agile, the F-16 was the first fighter aircraft purpose-built to pull 9-''g'' maneuvers and can reach a maximum speed of over Mach 2.Innovations include a frameless bubble canopy for better visibility, a side-mounted control stick, and a reclined seat to reduce g-force effects on the pilot.", "It is armed with an internal M61 Vulcan cannon in the left wing root and has multiple locations for mounting various missiles, bombs and pods.", "It has a thrust-to-weight ratio greater than one, providing power to climb and vertical acceleration.The F-16 was designed to be relatively inexpensive to build and simpler to maintain than earlier-generation fighters.", "The airframe is built with about 80% aviation-grade aluminum alloys, 8% steel, 3% composites, and 1.5% titanium.", "The leading-edge flaps, stabilators, and ventral fins make use of bonded aluminum honeycomb structures and graphite epoxy lamination coatings.", "The number of lubrication points, fuel line connections, and replaceable modules is significantly lower than preceding fighters; 80% of the access panels can be accessed without stands.", "The air intake was placed so it was rearward of the nose but forward enough to minimize air flow losses and reduce aerodynamic drag.Although the LWF program called for a structural life of 4,000 flight hours, capable of achieving with 80% internal fuel; GD's engineers decided to design the F-16's airframe life for 8,000 hours and for maneuvers on full internal fuel.", "This proved advantageous when the aircraft's mission changed from solely air-to-air combat to multirole operations.", "Changes in operational use and additional systems have increased weight, necessitating multiple structural strengthening programs.===General configuration===F-16CJ of the 20th Fighter Wing from Shaw AFB, South Carolina, armed with a mix of air-to-air missiles, anti-radiation missiles, external fuel tanks and support equipment\|alt=Jet heavily armed with weapons under wings taking off.The F-16 has a cropped-delta wing incorporating wing-fuselage blending and forebody vortex-control strakes; a fixed-geometry, underslung air intake (with splitter plate) to the single turbofan jet engine; a conventional tri-plane empennage arrangement with all-moving horizontal \"stabilator\" tailplanes; a pair of ventral fins beneath the fuselage aft of the wing's trailing edge; and a tricycle landing gear configuration with the aft-retracting, steerable nose gear deploying a short distance behind the inlet lip.", "There is a boom-style aerial refueling receptacle located behind the single-piece \"bubble\" canopy of the cockpit.", "Split-flap speedbrakes are located at the aft end of the wing-body fairing, and a tailhook is mounted underneath the fuselage.", "A fairing beneath the rudder often houses ECM equipment or a drag chute.", "Later F-16 models feature a long dorsal fairing along the fuselage's \"spine\", housing additional equipment or fuel.Aerodynamic studies in the 1960s demonstrated that the \"vortex lift\" phenomenon could be harnessed by highly swept wing configurations to reach higher angles of attack, using leading edge vortex flow off a slender lifting surface.", "As the F-16 was being optimized for high combat agility, GD's designers chose a slender cropped-delta wing with a leading-edge sweep of 40° and a straight trailing edge.", "To improve maneuverability, a variable-camber wing with a NACA 64A-204 airfoil was selected; the camber is adjusted by leading-edge and trailing edge flaperons linked to a digital flight control system regulating the flight envelope.", "The F-16 has a moderate wing loading, reduced by fuselage lift.", "The vortex lift effect is increased by leading-edge extensions, known as strakes.", "Strakes act as additional short-span, triangular wings running from the wing root (the junction with the fuselage) to a point further forward on the fuselage.", "Blended into the fuselage and along the wing root, the strake generates a high-speed vortex that remains attached to the top of the wing as the angle of attack increases, generating additional lift and allowing greater angles of attack without stalling.", "Strakes allow a smaller, lower-aspect-ratio wing, which increases roll rates and directional stability while decreasing weight.", "Deeper wing roots also increase structural strength and internal fuel volume.===Armament===A alt=Aircraft carrying missiles on tips of wings during flight over ocean.", "Under each wing is a cylindrical external fuel tank with pointed noseEarly F-16s could be armed with up to six AIM-9 Sidewinder heat-seeking short-range air-to-air missiles (AAM) by employing rail launchers on each wingtip, as well as radar-guided AIM-7 Sparrow medium-range AAMs in a weapons mix.", "More recent versions support the AIM-120 AMRAAM, and US aircraft often mount that missile on their wingtips to reduce wing flutter.", "The aircraft can carry various other AAMs, a wide variety of air-to-ground missiles, rockets or bombs; electronic countermeasures (ECM), navigation, targeting or weapons pods; and fuel tanks on 9 hardpoints – six under the wings, two on wingtips, and one under the fuselage.", "Two other locations under the fuselage are available for sensor or radar pods.", "The F-16 carries a 20 mm (0.787 in) M61A1 Vulcan cannon, which is mounted inside the fuselage to the left of the cockpit.===Relaxed stability and fly-by-wire===F-16C of the South Carolina Air National Guard in-flight over North Carolina equipped with air-to-air missiles, bomb rack, targeting pods, and electronic countermeasures podsThe F-16 is the first production fighter aircraft intentionally designed to be slightly aerodynamically unstable, also known as relaxed static stability (RSS), to both reduce drag and improve maneuverability.", "Most aircraft are designed to have positive static stability, which induces the aircraft to return to straight and level flight attitude if the pilot releases the controls.", "This reduces maneuverability as the inherent stability has to be overcome and increases a form of drag known as trim drag.", "Aircraft with ''relaxed'' stability are designed to be able to augment their stability characteristics while maneuvering to increase lift and reduce drag, thus greatly increasing their maneuverability.", "At , the F-16 gains positive stability because of aerodynamic changes.To counter the tendency to depart from controlled flight and avoid the need for constant trim inputs by the pilot, the F-16 has a quadruplex (four-channel) fly-by-wire (FBW) flight control system (FLCS).", "The flight control computer (FLCC) accepts pilot input from the stick and rudder controls and manipulates the control surfaces in such a way as to produce the desired result without inducing control loss.", "The FLCC conducts thousands of measurements per second on the aircraft's flight attitude to automatically counter deviations from the pilot-set flight path.", "The FLCC further incorporates limiters governing movement in the three main axes based on attitude, airspeed, and angle of attack (AOA)/''g''; these prevent control surfaces from inducing instability such as slips or skids, or a high AOA inducing a stall.", "The limiters also prevent maneuvers that would exert more than a load.Flight testing revealed that \"assaulting\" multiple limiters at high AOA and low speed can result in an AOA far exceeding the 25° limit, colloquially referred to as \"departing\"; this causes a deep stall; a near-freefall at 50° to 60° AOA, either upright or inverted.", "While at a very high AOA, the aircraft's attitude is stable but control surfaces are ineffective.", "The pitch limiter locks the stabilators at an extreme pitch-up or pitch-down attempting to recover.", "This can be overridden so the pilot can \"rock\" the nose via pitch control to recover.Unlike the YF-17, which had hydromechanical controls serving as a backup to the FBW, General Dynamics took the innovative step of eliminating mechanical linkages from the control stick and rudder pedals to the flight control surfaces.", "The F-16 is entirely reliant on its electrical systems to relay flight commands, instead of traditional mechanically linked controls, leading to the early moniker of \"the electric jet\" and aphorisms among pilots such as \"You don't fly an F-16; it flies you.\"", "The quadruplex design permits \"graceful degradation\" in flight control response in that the loss of one channel renders the FLCS a \"triplex\" system.", "The FLCC began as an analog system on the A/B variants but has been supplanted by a digital computer system beginning with the F-16C/D Block 40.The F-16's controls suffered from a sensitivity to static electricity or electrostatic discharge (ESD) and lightning.", "Up to 70–80% of the C/D models' electronics were vulnerable to ESD.===Cockpit and ergonomics===Bubble canopy, allowing all-round visibilityA key feature of the F-16's cockpit is the exceptional field of view.", "The single-piece, bird-proof polycarbonate bubble canopy provides 360° all-round visibility, with a 40° look-down angle over the side of the aircraft, and 15° down over the nose (compared to the common 12–13° of preceding aircraft); the pilot's seat is elevated for this purpose.", "Additionally, the F-16's canopy omits the forward bow frame found on many fighters, which is an obstruction to a pilot's forward vision.", "The F-16's ACES II zero/zero ejection seat is reclined at an unusual tilt-back angle of 30°; most fighters have a tilted seat at 13–15°.", "The tilted seat can accommodate taller pilots and increases tolerance; however, it has been associated with reports of neck aches, possibly caused by incorrect headrest usage.", "Subsequent U.S. fighters have adopted more modest tilt-back angles of 20°.", "Because of the seat angle and the canopy's thickness, the ejection seat lacks canopy-breakers for emergency egress; instead the entire canopy is jettisoned prior to the seat's rocket firing.alt=Cramped cockpit of jet trainer, showing dials and instrumentsThe pilot flies primarily by means of an armrest-mounted side-stick controller (instead of a traditional center-mounted stick) and an engine throttle; conventional rudder pedals are also employed.", "To enhance the pilot's degree of control of the aircraft during combat maneuvers, various switches and function controls were moved to centralized hands on throttle-and-stick (HOTAS) controls upon both the controllers and the throttle.", "Hand pressure on the side-stick controller is transmitted by electrical signals via the FBW system to adjust various flight control surfaces to maneuver the F-16.Originally, the side-stick controller was non-moving, but this proved uncomfortable and difficult for pilots to adjust to, sometimes resulting in a tendency to \"over-rotate\" during takeoffs, so the control stick was given a small amount of \"play\".", "Since the introduction of the F-16, HOTAS controls have become a standard feature on modern fighters.F-16 pilot with Joint Helmet Mounted Cueing System and cockpit head-up displayThe F-16 has a head-up display (HUD), which projects visual flight and combat information in front of the pilot without obstructing the view; being able to keep their head \"out of the cockpit\" improves the pilot's situation awareness.", "Further flight and systems information are displayed on multi-function displays (MFD).", "The left-hand MFD is the primary flight display (PFD), typically showing radar and moving maps; the right-hand MFD is the system display (SD), presenting information about the engine, landing gear, slat and flap settings, and fuel and weapons status.", "Initially, the F-16A/B had monochrome cathode-ray tube (CRT) displays; replaced by color liquid-crystal displays on the Block 50/52.The Mid-Life Update (MLU) introduced compatibility with night-vision goggles (NVG).", "The Boeing Joint Helmet Mounted Cueing System (JHMCS) is available from Block 40 onwards, for targeting based on where the pilot's head faces, unrestricted by the HUD, using high-off-boresight missiles like the AIM-9X.===Fire-control radar===The F-16A/B was originally equipped with the Westinghouse AN/APG-66 fire-control radar.", "Its slotted planar array antenna was designed to be compact to fit into the F-16's relatively small nose.", "In uplook mode, the APG-66 uses a low pulse-repetition frequency (PRF) for medium- and high-altitude target detection in a low-clutter environment, and in look-down/shoot-down employs a medium PRF for heavy clutter environments.", "It has four operating frequencies within the X band, and provides four air-to-air and seven air-to-ground operating modes for combat, even at night or in bad weather.", "The Block 15's APG-66(V)2 model added more powerful signal processing, higher output power, improved reliability, and increased range in cluttered or jamming environments.", "The Mid-Life Update (MLU) program introduced a new model, APG-66(V)2A, which features higher speed and more memory.AN-APG-68, as fitted to the noseThe AN/APG-68, an evolution of the APG-66, was introduced with the F-16C/D Block 25.The APG-68 has greater range and resolution, as well as 25 operating modes, including ground-mapping, Doppler beam-sharpening, ground moving target indication, sea target, and track while scan (TWS) for up to 10 targets.", "The Block 40/42's APG-68(V)1 model added full compatibility with Lockheed Martin Low Altitude Navigation and Targeting Infrared for Night (LANTIRN) pods, and a high-PRF pulse-Doppler track mode to provide Interrupted Continuous Wave guidance for semi-active radar homing (SARH) missiles like the AIM-7 Sparrow.", "Block 50/52 F-16s initially used the more reliable APG-68(V)5 which has a programmable signal processor employing Very High Speed Integrated Circuit (VHSIC) technology.", "The Advanced Block 50/52 (or 50+/52+) is equipped with the APG-68(V)9 radar, with a 30% greater air-to-air detection range and a synthetic aperture radar (SAR) mode for high-resolution mapping and target detection-recognition.", "In August 2004, Northrop Grumman was contracted to upgrade the APG-68 radars of Block 40/42/50/52 aircraft to the (V)10 standard, providing all-weather autonomous detection and targeting for Global Positioning System (GPS)-aided precision weapons, SAR mapping, and terrain-following radar (TF) modes, as well as interleaving of all modes.The F-16E/F is outfitted with Northrop Grumman's AN/APG-80 active electronically scanned array (AESA) radar.", "Northrop Grumman developed the latest AESA radar upgrade for the F-16 (selected for USAF and Taiwan's Republic of China Air Force F-16 upgrades), named the Scalable Agile Beam Radar (SABR) APG-83.In July 2007, Raytheon announced that it was developing a Next Generation Radar (RANGR) based on its earlier AN/APG-79 AESA radar as a competitor to Northrop Grumman's AN/APG-68 and AN/APG-80 for the F-16.On 28 February 2020, Northrop Grumman received an order from USAF to extend the service lives of their F-16s to at least 2048 with APG-83 Scalable Agile Beam Radar (SABR) as part of the service-life extension program (SLEP).===Propulsion===Afterburner – concentric ring structure inside the exhaustThe initial powerplant selected for the single-engined F-16 was the Pratt & Whitney F100-PW-200 afterburning turbofan, a modified version of the F-15's F100-PW-100, rated at thrust.", "During testing, the engine was found to be prone to compressor stalls and \"rollbacks\", wherein the engine's thrust would spontaneously reduce to idle.", "Until resolved, the Air Force ordered F-16s to be operated within \"dead-stick landing\" distance of its bases.", "It was the standard F-16 engine through the Block 25, except for the newly built Block 15s with the Operational Capability Upgrade (OCU).", "The OCU introduced the F100-PW-220, later installed on Block 32 and 42 aircraft: the main advance being a Digital Electronic Engine Control (DEEC) unit, which improved reliability and reduced stall occurrence.", "Beginning production in 1988, the \"-220\" also supplanted the F-15's \"-100\", for commonality.", "Many of the \"-220\" engines on Block 25 and later aircraft were upgraded from 1997 onwards to the \"-220E\" standard, which enhanced reliability and maintainability; unscheduled engine removals were reduced by 35%.Adjustable exhaust nozzle in contracted positionThe F100-PW-220/220E was the result of the USAF's Alternate Fighter Engine (AFE) program (colloquially known as \"the Great Engine War\"), which also saw the entry of General Electric as an F-16 engine provider.", "Its F110-GE-100 turbofan was limited by the original inlet to a thrust of , the Modular Common Inlet Duct allowed the F110 to achieve its maximum thrust of .", "(To distinguish between aircraft equipped with these two engines and inlets, from the Block 30 series on, blocks ending in \"0\" (e.g., Block 30) are powered by GE, and blocks ending in \"2\" (e.g., Block 32) are fitted with Pratt & Whitney engines.", ")The Increased Performance Engine (IPE) program led to the F110-GE-129 on the Block 50 and F100-PW-229 on the Block 52.F-16s began flying with these IPE engines in the early 1990s.", "Altogether, of the 1,446 F-16C/Ds ordered by the USAF, 556 were fitted with F100-series engines and 890 with F110s.", "The United Arab Emirates' Block 60 is powered by the General Electric F110-GE-132 turbofan with a maximum thrust of , the highest thrust engine developed for the F-16." ], [ "Operational history", "===United States===A U.S. Air Force F-16 from the 480th Fighter Squadron takes off from Spangdahlem Air Base in support of Operation Odyssey DawnThe F-16 is being used by the active-duty USAF, Air Force Reserve, and Air National Guard units, the USAF aerial demonstration team, the U.S. Air Force Thunderbirds, and as an adversary-aggressor aircraft by the United States Navy at the Naval Strike and Air Warfare Center.The U.S. Air Force, including the Air Force Reserve and the Air National Guard, flew the F-16 in combat during Operation Desert Storm in 1991 and in the Balkans later in the 1990s.", "F-16s also patrolled the no-fly zones in Iraq during Operations Northern Watch and Southern Watch and served during the War in Afghanistan and the War in Iraq from 2001 and 2003 respectively.", "In 2011, Air Force F-16s took part in the intervention in Libya.On 11 September 2001, two unarmed F-16s were launched in an attempt to ram and down United Airlines Flight 93 before it reached Washington D.C. during the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks, but Flight 93 was brought down by the passengers first, so the F-16s were retasked to patrol the local airspace and later escorted Air Force One back to Washington.The F-16 had been scheduled to remain in service with the U.S. Air Force until 2025.Its replacement was planned to be the F-35A variant of the Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II, which is expected to gradually begin replacing several multirole aircraft among the program's member nations.", "However, owing to delays in the F-35 program, all USAF F-16s will receive service life extension upgrades.", "In 2022, it was announced the USAF would continue to operate the F-16 for another two decades.===Israel===Israeli Air Force F-16A Netz 107 with 6.5 kill marks of other aircraft, a record for an F-16, as well as one kill mark of an Iraqi nuclear reactorThe F-16's first air-to-air combat success was achieved by the Israeli Air Force (IAF) over the Bekaa Valley on 28 April 1981, against a Syrian Mi-8 helicopter, which was downed with cannon fire.", "On 7 June 1981, eight Israeli F-16s, escorted by six F-15s, executed Operation Opera, their first employment in a significant air-to-ground operation.", "This raid severely damaged Osirak, an Iraqi nuclear reactor under construction near Baghdad, to prevent the regime of Saddam Hussein from using the reactor for the creation of nuclear weapons.The following year, during the 1982 Lebanon War Israeli F-16s engaged Syrian aircraft in one of the largest air battles involving jet aircraft, which began on 9 June and continued for two more days.", "Israeli Air Force F-16s were credited with 44 air-to-air kills during the conflict.In January 2000, Israel completed a purchase of 102 new F-16I aircraft in a deal totaling .", "F-16s were also used in their ground-attack role for strikes against targets in Lebanon.", "IAF F-16s participated in the 2006 Lebanon War and the 2008–09 Gaza War.", "During and after the 2006 Lebanon war, IAF F-16s shot down Iranian-made UAVs launched by Hezbollah, using Rafael Python 5 air-to-air missiles.On 10 February 2018, an Israeli Air Force F-16I was shot down in northern Israel when it was hit by a relatively old model S-200 (NATO name SA-5 Gammon) surface-to-air missile of the Syrian Air Defense Force.", "The pilot and navigator ejected safely in Israeli territory.", "The F-16I was part of a bombing mission against Syrian and Iranian targets around Damascus after an Iranian drone entered Israeli air space and was shot down.", "An Israel Air Force investigation determined on 27 February 2018 that the loss was due to pilot error since the IAF determined the air crew did not adequately defend themselves.===Pakistan===Operation Swift Retort (kill mark visible on nose)During the Soviet–Afghan War, PAF F-16As shot down between 20 and 30 Soviet and Afghan warplanes; the political situation however resulted in PAF officially recognizing only 9 kills which were made inside Pakistani airspace.", "From May 1986 to January 1989, PAF F-16s from the Tail Choppers and Griffin squadrons using mostly AIM-9 Sidewinder missiles, shot down four Afghan Su-22s, two MiG-23s, one Su-25, and one An-26.Most of these kills were by missiles, but at least one, a Su-22, was destroyed by cannon fire.", "One F-16 was lost in these battles.", "The downed F-16 was likely hit accidentally by the other F-16.On 7 June 2002, a Pakistan Air Force F-16B Block 15 (S. No.", "82-605) shot down an Indian Air Force unmanned aerial vehicle, an Israeli-made Searcher II, using an AIM-9L Sidewinder missile, during a night interception near Lahore.The Pakistan Air Force has used its F-16s in various foreign and internal military exercises, such as the \"Indus Vipers\" exercise in 2008 conducted jointly with Turkey.Between May 2009 and , the PAF F-16 fleet flew more than 5,500 sorties in support of the Pakistan Army's operations against the Taliban insurgency in the FATA region of North-West Pakistan.", "More than 80% of the dropped munitions were laser-guided bombs.On 27 February 2019, following six Pakistan Air Force airstrikes in Indian administered Kashmir, Pakistani officials said that two of its fighter jets shot down one MiG-21 and one Su-30MKI belonging to the Indian Air Force.", "Indian officials only confirmed the loss of one MiG-21 but denied losing any Su-30MKI in the clash.", "Additionally Indian officials also claimed to have shot down one F-16 belonging to the Pakistan Air Force.", "This was denied by the Pakistani side, considered dubious by neutral sources, and later backed by a report by ''Foreign Policy'' magazine, reporting that the US had completed a physical count of Pakistan's F-16s and found none missing.", "A report by ''The Washington Post'' noted that the Pentagon and State Department refused public comment on the matter but did not deny the earlier report.===Turkey===F-16 SoloTürk aerial aerobatic aircraftThe Turkish Air Force acquired its first F-16s in 1987.F-16s were later produced in Turkey under four phases of ''Peace Onyx'' programs.", "In 2015, they were upgraded to Block 50/52+ with CCIP by Turkish Aerospace Industries.", "Turkish F-16s are being fitted with indigenous AESA radars and EW suite called SPEWS-II.On 18 June 1992, a Greek Mirage F1 crashed during a dogfight with a Turkish F-16.On 8 February 1995, a Turkish F-16 crashed into the Aegean Sea after being intercepted by Greek Mirage F1 fighters.Turkish F-16s have participated in Bosnia-Herzegovina and Kosovo since 1993 in support of United Nations resolutions.On 8 October 1996, seven months after the escalation a Greek Mirage 2000 reportedly fired an R.550 Magic II missile and shot down a Turkish F-16D over the Aegean Sea.", "The Turkish pilot died, while the co-pilot ejected and was rescued by Greek forces.", "In August 2012, after the downing of an RF-4E on the Syrian coast, Turkish Defence Minister İsmet Yılmaz confirmed that the Turkish F-16D was shot down by a Greek Mirage 2000 with an R.550 Magic II in 1996 near Chios island.", "Greece denies that the F-16 was shot down.", "Both Mirage 2000 pilots reported that the F-16 caught fire and they saw one parachute.On 23 May 2006, two Greek F-16s intercepted a Turkish RF-4 reconnaissance aircraft and two F-16 escorts off the coast of the Greek island of Karpathos, within the Athens FIR.", "A mock dogfight ensued between the two sides, resulting in a midair collision between a Turkish F-16 and a Greek F-16.The Turkish pilot ejected safely, but the Greek pilot died owing to damage caused by the collision.Turkey used its F-16s extensively in its conflict with Kurdish insurgents in southeastern parts of Turkey and Iraq.", "Turkey launched its first cross-border raid on 16 December 2007, a prelude to the 2008 Turkish incursion into northern Iraq, involving 50 fighters before Operation Sun.", "This was the first time Turkey had mounted a night-bombing operation on a massive scale, and also the largest operation conducted by the Turkish Air Force.During the Syrian Civil War, Turkish F-16s were tasked with airspace protection on the Syrian border.", "After the RF-4 downing in June 2012 Turkey changed its rules of engagement against Syrian aircraft, resulting in scrambles and downings of Syrian combat aircraft.", "On 16 September 2013, a Turkish Air Force F-16 shot down a Syrian Arab Air Force Mil Mi-17 helicopter near the Turkish border.", "On 23 March 2014, a Turkish Air Force F-16 shot down a Syrian Arab Air Force MiG-23 when it allegedly entered Turkish air space during a ground attack mission against Al Qaeda-linked insurgents.", "On 16 May 2015, two Turkish Air Force F-16s shot down a Syrian Mohajer 4 UAV firing two AIM-9 missiles after it trespassed into Turkish airspace for 5 minutes.", "A Turkish Air Force F-16 shot down a Russian Air Force Sukhoi Su-24 on the Turkey-Syria border on 24 November 2015.On 1 March 2020, two Syrian Sukhoi Su-24s were shot down by Turkish Air Force F-16s using air-to-air missiles over Syria's Idlib Governorate.", "All four pilots safely ejected.", "On 3 March 2020, a Syrian Arab Army Air Force L-39 combat trainer was shot down by a Turkish F-16 over Syria's Idlib province.", "The pilot died.As a part of Turkish F-16 modernization program new air-to-air missiles are being developed and tested for the aircraft.", "GÖKTUĞ program led by TUBITAK SAGE has presented two types of air-to-air missiles named as Bozdogan (Merlin) and Gokdogan (Peregrine).", "While Bozdogan has been categorized as a Within Visual Range Air-to-Air Missile (WVRAAM), Gokdogan is a Beyond Visual Range Air-to-Air Missile (BVRAAM).", "On 14 April 2021, first live test exercise of Bozdogan have successfully completed and the first batch of missiles are expected to be delivered throughout the same year to the Turkish Air Force.===Egypt===An Egyptian Air Force F-16 prepares to make contact with a United States Air Force KC-135 Stratotanker, 2007On 16 February 2015, Egyptian F-16s struck weapons caches and training camps of the Islamic State (ISIS) in Libya in retaliation for the murder of 21 Egyptian Coptic Christian construction workers by masked militants affiliated with ISIS.", "The air strikes killed 64 ISIS fighters, including three leaders in Derna and Sirte on the coast.===Others===Iraqi Air Force F-16CThe Royal Netherlands Air Force, Belgian Air Force, Royal Danish Air Force, Royal Norwegian Air Force, and Venezuela Air Force have flown the F-16 on combat missions.A Yugoslavian MiG-29 was shot down by a Dutch F-16AM during the Kosovo War in 1999.Belgian and Danish F-16s also participated in joint operations over Kosovo during the war.", "Dutch, Belgian, Danish, and Norwegian F-16s were deployed during the 2011 intervention in Libya and in Afghanistan.", "In Libya, Norwegian F-16s dropped almost 550 bombs and flew 596 missions, some 17% of the total strike missions including the bombing of Muammar Gaddafi's headquarters.The Royal Moroccan Air Force and the Royal Bahraini Air Force each lost a single F-16C, both shot down by Houthi anti-aircraft fire during the Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen, respectively on 11 May 2015 and on 30 December 2015.In late March 2018, Croatia announced its intention to purchase 12 used Israeli F-16C/D \"Barak\"/\"Brakeet\" jets, pending U.S. approval.", "Acquiring these F-16s would allow Croatia to retire its aging MiG-21s.On 11 July 2018, Slovakia's government approved the purchase of 14 F-16 Block 70/72 to replace its aging fleet of Soviet-made MiG-29s.", "A contract was signed on 12 December 2018 in Bratislava.===Potential operators===In May 2023, an international coalition consisting of the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Belgium and Denmark announced their intention to train Ukrainian jet pilots on the F-16 ahead of possible future deliveries to increase the Ukrainian Air Force capabilities in the current Russo-Ukrainian War.", "The U.S. confirmed that it would approve the re-export from these countries to Ukraine.", "Denmark has agreed to help train Ukrainians on their usage of the fighter.", "Denmark's acting Defence Minister Troels Lund Poulsen said Denmark: \"will now be able to move forward for a collective contribution to train Ukrainian pilots to fly F-16s\".", "On 6 July 2023, Romania announced that it will host the future training center after the meeting of the Supreme Council of National Defense.", "During the 2023 Vilnius summit, a coalition was formed consisting of Denmark, the Netherlands, Belgium, Canada, Luxembourg, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Sweden, the United Kingdom, and Ukraine.", "A number of Ukrainian pilots began training in Denmark and the U.S.", "The European F-16 Training Center, organized by Romania, the Netherlands, and Lockheed Martin through several subcontractors, officially opened on 13 November 2023.It is located at the Romanian Air Force's 86th Air Base, and Ukrainian pilots are expected to start training there in early 2024.On 17 August 2023, the US approved the transfer of F-16s from the Netherlands and Denmark to Ukraine after the Ukrainian pilots have completed their training.", "The Netherlands and Denmark have announced that together they will donate up to 61 F-16AM/BM Block 15 MLU fighters to Ukraine once pilot training has been completed.The Bulgarian Air Force expects delivery of the first eight new F-16 Block 70s by 2025 and the second batch of eight F-16 Block 70s is expected to arrive in 2027.On 11 October 2023, Deputy Assistant Secretary for Regional Security Mira Resnick confirmed to Jorge Argüello, Argentinean ambassador to the US, that the State Department has approved the transfer of 38 F-16s from Denmark.On 24 June 2021, the Defense Security Cooperation Agency approved the Philippines' purchase of 12 F-16s worth an estimated US$2.43 billion.", "However, the Philippines has yet to complete this deal due to financial constraints with negotiations ongoing." ], [ "Variants", "A Republic of China Air Force F-16B landing at Hualien Air Force Base.Venezuelan Air Force F-16BTesting of the F-35 diverterless supersonic inlet on an F-16 testbed.", "The original intake with Splitter plate shown in the top image.F-16 models are denoted by increasing block numbers to denote upgrades.", "The blocks cover both single- and two-seat versions.", "A variety of software, hardware, systems, weapons compatibility, and structural enhancements have been instituted over the years to gradually upgrade production models and retrofit delivered aircraft.While many F-16s were produced according to these block designs, there have been many other variants with significant changes, usually because of modification programs.", "Other changes have resulted in role-specialization, such as the close air support and reconnaissance variants.", "Several models were also developed to test new technology.", "The F-16 design also inspired the design of other aircraft, which are considered derivatives.", "Older F-16s are being converted into QF-16 drone targets.", "; : The F-16A (single seat) and F-16B (two seat) were initial production variants.", "These variants include the Block 1, 5, 10, 15, and 20 versions.", "Block 15 was the first major change to the F-16 with larger horizontal stabilizers.", "It is the most numerous of all F-16 variants with 475 produced.", "Around 300 F-16A and B aircraft were upgraded to the Block 15 Mid-Life Update (MLU) standard, getting analogous capability to F-16C/D Block 50/52 aircraft.An F-16D assigned to the 416th Flight Test Squadron, 412th Test Wing, Air Force Test Center, flies over the Mojave Desert near Edwards AFB, California; F-16C/D: The F-16C (single seat) and F-16D (two seat) variants entered production in 1984.The first C/D version was the Block 25 with improved cockpit avionics and radar which added all-weather capability with beyond-visual-range (BVR) AIM-7 and AIM-120 air-air missiles.", "Block 30/32, 40/42, and 50/52 were later C/D versions.", "The F-16C/D had a unit cost of US$18.8 million (1998).", "Operational cost per flight hour has been estimated at $7,000 to $22,470 or $24,000, depending on the calculation method.United Arab Emirates Air Force F-16E Block 60 with the IFTS pod, CFTs, and various external armament taking off; F-16E/F: The F-16E (single seat) and F-16F (two seat) are newer F-16 Block 60 variants based on the F-16C/D Block 50/52.The United Arab Emirates invested heavily in their development.", "They feature improved AN/APG-80 active electronically scanned array (AESA) radar, infrared search and track (IRST), avionics, conformal fuel tanks (CFTs), and the more powerful General Electric F110-GE-132 engine.", "; F-16IN: For the Indian MRCA competition for the Indian Air Force, Lockheed Martin offered the ''F-16IN Super Viper''.", "The F-16IN is based on the F-16E/F Block 60 and features conformal fuel tanks; AN/APG-80 AESA radar, GE F110-GE-132A engine with FADEC controls; electronic warfare suite and infrared search and track (IRST) unit; updated glass cockpit; and a helmet-mounted cueing system.", "As of 2011, the F-16IN is no longer in the competition.", "In 2016, Lockheed Martin offered the new F-16 Block 70/72 version to India under the Make in India program.", "In 2016, the Indian government offered to purchase 200 (potentially up to 300) fighters in a deal worth $13–15bn.", "As of 2017, Lockheed Martin has agreed to manufacture F-16 Block 70 fighters in India with the Indian defense firm Tata Advanced Systems Limited.", "The new production line could be used to build F-16s for India and for exports.", "; F-16IQ: In September 2010, the Defense Security Cooperation Agency informed the United States Congress of a possible Foreign Military Sale of 18 F-16IQ aircraft along with the associated equipment and services to the newly reformed Iraqi Air Force.", "The total value of sale was estimated at .", "The Iraqi Air Force purchased those 18 jets in the second half of 2011, then later exercised an option to purchase 18 more for a total of 36 F-16IQs.", ", the Iraqi had lost two in accidents.", "By 2023, the US government reported that these jets were Iraq's most capable airborne platforms with a 66 percent mission-capable rate.", "Their maintenance was being supported by private contractors.", "At the same time, Iraq's Russian-made systems were suffering from sanctions imposed in the wake of Russia's invasion of Ukraine.", "; F-16N: The F-16N was an adversary aircraft operated by the United States Navy.", "It is based on the standard F-16C/D Block 30, is powered by the General Electric F110-GE-100 engine, and is capable of supercruise.", "The F-16N has a strengthened wing and is capable of carrying an Air Combat Maneuvering Instrumentation (ACMI) pod on the starboard wingtip.", "Although the single-seat F-16Ns and twin-seat (T)F-16Ns are based on the early-production small-inlet Block 30 F-16C/D airframe, they retain the APG-66 radar of the F-16A/B.", "In addition, the aircraft's cannon has been removed, as has the airborne self-protection jammer (ASPJ), and they carry no missiles.", "Their EW fit consists of an ALR-69 radar warning receiver (RWR) and an ALE-40 chaff/flare dispenser.", "The F-16Ns and (T)F-16Ns have the standard Air Force tailhook and undercarriage and are not aircraft carrier–capable.", "Production totaled 26 airframes, of which 22 are single-seat F-16Ns and 4 are twin-seat TF-16Ns.", "The initial batch of aircraft was in service between 1988 and 1998.At that time, hairline cracks were discovered in several bulkheads, and the Navy did not have the resources to replace them, so the aircraft were eventually retired, with one aircraft sent to the collection of the National Naval Aviation Museum at NAS Pensacola, Florida, and the remainder placed in storage at Davis-Monthan AFB.", "These aircraft were later replaced by embargoed ex-Pakistani F-16s in 2003.The original inventory of F-16Ns was previously operated by adversary squadrons at NAS Oceana, Virginia; NAS Key West, Florida; and the former NAS Miramar, California.", "The current F-16A/B aircraft are operated by the Naval Strike and Air Warfare Center at NAS Fallon, Nevada.", "; F-16V: At the 2012 Singapore Air Show, Lockheed Martin unveiled plans for the new F-16V variant with the V suffix for its Viper nickname.", "It features an AN/APG-83 active electronically scanned array (AESA) radar, a new mission computer and electronic warfare suite, an automated ground collision avoidance system, and various cockpit improvements; this package is an option on current production F-16s and can be retrofitted to most in service F-16s.", "First flight took place 21 October 2015.Taiwanese media reported that Taiwan and the U.S. both initially invested in the development of the F-16V.", "Upgrades to Taiwan's F-16 fleet began in January 2017.The first country to confirm the purchase of 16 new F-16 Block 70/72 was Bahrain.", "Greece announced the upgrade of 84 F-16C/D Block 52+ and Block 52+ Advanced (Block 52M) to the latest V (Block 70/72) variant in October 2017.Slovakia announced on 11 July 2018 that it intends to purchase 14 F-16 Block 70/72 aircraft.", "Lockheed Martin has redesignated the F-16V Block 70 as the \"F-21\" in its offering for India's fighter requirement.", "Taiwan's Republic of China Air Force announced on 19 March 2019 that it formally requested the purchase of an additional 66 F-16V fighters.", "The Trump administration approved the sale on 20 August 2019.On 14 August 2020, Lockheed Martin was awarded a US$62 billion contract by the US DoD that includes 66 new F-16s at US$8 billion (~$ in ) for Taiwan.USAF QF-16A, on its first unmanned test flight, over the Gulf of Mexico; QF-16: In September 2013, Boeing and the U.S. Air Force tested an unmanned F-16, with two US Air Force pilots controlling the airplane from the ground as it flew from Tyndall AFB over the Gulf of Mexico.===Related developments===;Vought Model 1600: Proposed naval variant;General Dynamics F-16XL: 1980s technology demonstrator;General Dynamics NF-16D VISTA: 1990s experimental fighter;Mitsubishi F-2: 1990s Japanese multi-role fighter based on the F-16" ], [ "Operators", "OperatorsF-16C Block 52 of the Hellenic Air Force with conformal fuel tanks and Advanced IFF (AIFF)By July 2010, there had been 4,500 F-16s delivered.", "*************************===Former operators=== – Italian Air Force leased up to 30 F-16As and 4 F-16Bs from the USAF from 2001 until 2012.", "* – Royal Norwegian Air Force (RNoAF) on 6 January 2022, Norway announced that all F-16s had been retired and replaced with the F-35.The RNoAF sold 32 of their F-16s to Romania, with the remaining operational aircraft being donated to Ukraine.===Future operators===* – On 3 June 2019, the US State Department approved the possible sale of 8 F-16 Block 70s to Bulgaria.", "On 26 July the deal was approved by the Bulgarian parliament, and President Rumen Radev.", "In November 2022, the purchase of a further 8 F-16 Block 70 fighters, spares, weapons and other systems was approved for delivery in 2027.", "* – On 20 August 2023, Denmark and the Netherlands announced the joint transfer of up to 61 F-16s to the Ukrainian Air Force.", "Four days later, Norway announced the donation of 5–10 aircraft, depending on how many can be made operational.", "In January 2024, the Netherlands announced the transfer of another 6 F-16s, bringing the total which will be donated by the country to 24.", "* – In 2024, Argentina bought 24 F-16AM from Denmark, beating a bid to acquire JF-17s from China.", "Each F-16AM in the deal cost about $24 million." ], [ "Notable accidents and incidents", "A U.S. Air Force Thunderbirds pilot ejects from the F-16 just before impact at an air show in September 2003.The F-16 has been involved in over 670 hull-loss accidents as of January 2020.", "On 8 May 1975, while practicing a 9-''g'' aerial display maneuver with the second YF-16 (tail number ''72-1568'') at Fort Worth, Texas, prior to being sent to the Paris Air Show, one of the main landing gears jammed.", "The test pilot, Neil Anderson, had to perform an emergency gear-up landing and chose to do so in the grass, hoping to minimize damage and avoid injuring any observers.", "The aircraft was only slightly damaged, but because of the mishap, the first prototype was sent to the Paris Air Show in its place.", "On 15 November 1982, while on a training flight outside Kunsan Air Base in South Korea, USAF Captain Ted Harduvel died when he crashed inverted into a mountain ridge.", "In 1985, Harduvel's widow filed a lawsuit against General Dynamics claiming an electrical malfunction, not pilot error, as the cause; a jury awarded the plaintiff in damages.", "However, in 1989, the U.S. Court of Appeals ruled the contractor had immunity to lawsuits, overturning the previous judgment.", "The court remanded the case to the trial court \"for entry of judgment in favor of General Dynamics\".", "The accident and subsequent trial was the subject of the 1992 film ''Afterburn''.", "On 23 March 1994, during a joint Army-Air Force exercise at Pope AFB, North Carolina, F-16D (AF Serial No.", "88-0171) of the 23d Fighter Wing / 74th Fighter Squadron was simulating an engine-out approach when it collided with a USAF C-130E.", "Both F-16 crew members ejected, but their aircraft, on full afterburner, continued on an arc towards Green Ramp and struck a USAF C-141 that was being boarded by US Army paratroopers.", "This accident resulted in 24 fatalities and at least 100 others injured.", "It has since been known as the \"Green Ramp disaster\".", "On 15 September 2003, a USAF Thunderbirds F-16C crashed during an air show at Mountain Home AFB, Idaho.", "Captain Christopher Stricklin attempted a \"split S\" maneuver based on an incorrect mean-sea-level altitude of the airfield.", "Climbing to only above ground level instead of , Stricklin had insufficient altitude to complete the maneuver, but was able to guide the aircraft away from spectators and ejected less than one second before impact.", "Stricklin survived with only minor injuries; the aircraft was destroyed.", "USAF procedure for demonstration \"Split-S\" maneuvers was changed, requiring both pilots and controllers to use above-ground-level (AGL) altitudes.", "On 26 January 2015, a Greek F-16D crashed while performing a NATO training exercise in Albacete, Spain.", "Both crew members and nine French soldiers on the ground died when it crashed in the flight line, destroying or damaging two Italian AMXs, two French Alpha jets, and one French Mirage 2000.Investigations suggested that the accident was due to an erroneous rudder setting that was caused by loose papers in the cockpit.", "On 7 July 2015, an F-16CJ collided with a Cessna 150M over Moncks Corner, South Carolina, U.S.", "The pilot of the F-16 ejected safely, but both people in the Cessna were killed.", "* On 11 October 2018, an F-16 MLU from the 2nd Tactical Wing of the Belgian Air Component, on the apron at Florennes Air Station, was hit by a gun burst from a nearby F-16, whose cannon was fired inadvertently during maintenance.", "The aircraft caught fire and was burned to the ground, while two other F-16s were damaged and two maintenance personnel were treated for aural trauma.", "* On 11 March 2020, a Pakistani F-16AM (Serial No.", "92730) of the No.", "9 Squadron (Pakistan Air Force) crashed in the Shakarparian area of Islamabad during rehearsals for the Pakistan Day Parade.", "The plane crashed when the F-16 was executing an aerobatic loop.", "As a result, the pilot of the F-16, Wing Commander Noman Akram, who was also the Commanding Officer of the No.", "9 Squadron \"Griffins\", lost his life.", "A board of inquiry ordered by the Pakistan Air Force later revealed that the pilot had every chance to eject but opted not to and tried his best to save the aircraft and avoid civilian casualties on the ground.", "Videos taken by locals on the ground show his F-16AM crashing into some woods.", "He was hailed a hero by Pakistanis while also gaining some attention internationally.", "* On 6 May 2023, a U.S. Air Force F-16C belonging to the 8th Fighter Wing crashed in a field near Osan Air Base in South Korea during a daytime training sortie.", "The pilot safely ejected from the aircraft." ], [ "Specifications (F-16C Block 50 and 52)", "3-view drawing of an F-16The underside of an F-16 during a vertical climbF-16 in afterburnerWeapons Storage and Security System vault in raised position holding a B61 nuclear bomb, adjacent to an F-16.The vault is within a Protective Aircraft Shelter.An Israeli F-16I Block 52 with conformal fuel tanks (CFTs), electronic countermeasures, and other external stores during a Red Flag exercise at Nellis AFB, Nevada" ], [ "Notable appearances in media" ], [ "See also" ], [ "References", "===Notes======Citations======Bibliography===* * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", "Drendel, Lou.", "''F-16 Fighting Falcon – Walk Around No.", "1.''", "Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Books, 1993..* Gunston, Bill.", "''United States Military Aircraft of the 20th century'' London: Salamander Books Ltd, 1984..Jenkins, Dennis R. ''McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle, Supreme Heavy-Weight Fighter''.", "Arlington, Texas: Aerofax, 1998.. Sweetman, Bill.", "''Supersonic Fighters: The F-16 Fighting Falcons''.", "Mankato, Minnesota: Capstone Press, 2008..Williams, Anthony G. and Dr. Emmanuel Gustin.", "''Flying Guns: The Modern Era''.", "Ramsbury, UK: The Crowood Press, 2004.." ], [ "External links", " F-16 USAF fact sheet* F-16 page on LockheedMartin.com and F-16 articles on Code One magazine site* F-16.net Fighting Falcon resource" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "First Council of Constantinople" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''First Council of Constantinople''' (; ) was a council of Christian bishops convened in Constantinople (now Istanbul, Turkey) in AD 381 by the Roman Emperor Theodosius I.", "This second ecumenical council, an effort to attain consensus in the church through an assembly representing all of Christendom, except for the Western Church, confirmed the Nicene Creed, expanding the doctrine thereof to produce the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed, and dealt with sundry other matters.", "It met from May to July 381 in the Church of Hagia Irene and was affirmed as ecumenical in 451 at the Council of Chalcedon." ], [ "Background", "Between 350 and 450 a number of heresies arose, forcing all Christian churches to clarify their answers to the question, \"Who is Jesus Christ?\"", "Around 380 Apollinaris, the Bishop of Laodicca, began to teach that Jesus Christ had a human body and lower soul.", "He believed that Christ's mind had been replaced by the divine word or logos, and that this logos was steady and immutable.", "Apollinaris' position raised a number of questions from Christians.", "Do not the gospels picture Jesus as a complete and genuine human being?", "If God displaced the reason of human nature and free will, how could He secure the personal salvation of mankind?When Theodosius ascended to the imperial throne in 380 in this atmosphere of criticism and inquiry, he began on a campaign to bring the Eastern Church back to Nicene Christianity.", "Theodosius wanted to further unify the entire empire behind the orthodox position and decided to convene a church council to resolve matters of faith and discipline.", "Gregory Nazianzus was of similar mind, wishing to unify Christianity.", "In the spring of 381 they convened the second ecumenical council in Constantinople.===Theological context===R.P.C.", "Hanson stated:\"The Creed of Nicaea of 325, produced in order to end the controversy, signally failed to do so.", "Indeed, it ultimately confounded the confusion because its use of the words ousia and hypostasis was so ambiguous as to suggest that the Fathers of Nicaea had fallen into Sabellianism, a view recognized as heresy even at that period.", "\"Lewis Ayres, therefore, states:“Within a few years (after Nicaea) there is a near-fifteen year absence before the creed is mentioned again.” “Nicaea's creed seemed problematic if not useless to many.”After Nicaea, Arius and his sympathizers, e.g.", "Eusebius of Nicomedia were admitted back into the church after ostensibly accepting the Nicene creed.", "Athanasius, bishop of Alexandria, the most vocal opponent of Arianism, was ultimately exiled through the machinations of Eusebius of Nicomedia.", "After the death of Constantine I in 337 and the accession of his Arian-leaning son Constantius II, open discussion of replacing the Nicene creed itself began.", "Up until about 360, theological debates mainly dealt with the divinity of the Son, the second person of the Trinity.", "However, because the Council of Nicaea had not clarified the divinity of the Holy Spirit, the third person of the Trinity, it became a topic of debate.", "The Macedonians denied the divinity of the Holy Spirit.", "This was also known as Pneumatomachianism.Nicene Christianity also had its defenders: apart from Athanasius, the Cappadocian Fathers' Trinitarian discourse was influential in the council at Constantinople.", "Apollinaris of Laodicea, another pro-Nicene theologian, proved controversial.", "Possibly in an over-reaction to Arianism and its teaching that Christ was not God, he taught that Christ consisted of a human body and a divine mind, rejecting the belief that Christ had a complete human nature, including a human mind.", "He was charged with confounding the persons of the Godhead, and with giving in to the heretical ways of Sabellius.", "Basil of Caesarea accused him of abandoning the literal sense of the scripture, and taking up wholly with the allegorical sense.", "His views were condemned in a Synod at Alexandria, under Athanasius of Alexandria, in 362, and later subdivided into several different heresies, the main ones of which were the Polemians and the Antidicomarianites.===Ecumenical Council===This Council is identified as the second ecumenical council.", "However:“The details … of this council indicate the problems with later presentation of the meeting as an ‘ecumenical’ reaffirmation of Nicaea.” “It seems unlikely that this meeting was intended as a universal council to rival Seleucia/Ariminum or Nicaea itself.", "… Those present at the council initially came from a fairly restricted area and the majority from areas known to be favourable to Meletius.”Furthermore, the delegated were carefully chosen:“Only about 150 bishops attended and they appear to have been carefully chosen from areas which would be friendly to Meletius, who was its president, that is areas under the influence of the see of Antioch.”Rome was not involved in this council at all.", "Hanson refers to the “tenuous contact which the council might have been thought to have with the see of Rome.”===Geopolitical context===The political context is important because, as Simonetti remarked, \"the Emperor was in fact the head of the church.\"", "And, as Hanson stated: \"If we ask the question, what was considered to constitute the ultimate authority in doctrine during the period reviewed in these pages, there can be only one answer.", "The will of the Emperor was the final authority.\"", "“When (emperor) Constantius died in 361 his immediate successor was his cousin Julian.” \"As Emperor, Julian soon became an active non-Christian, repudiating the Christianity that he had earlier professed.", "In his attempt to undermine the Church Julian tried to foment dissension between groups in the Church.” But Julian ruled only for two years.“After Julian's death in 363 … Constantius' most powerful successors emerged: in the east the Emperor Valens (364–78); in the west the Emperor Valentinian (364–75).” “Valens, like Constantius, has gone down in history as an ‘Arian’ emperor.” However, “again like Constantius, (he) was a pragmatic ruler prepared to promote Homoians when possible, but not at any great cost to his civil administration.” For example, “his eventual acceptance of Athanasius' position in Alexandria” and his “accepting Basil's (Basil of Caesarea) significant role in the Church of Asia Minor.” “Valens was considerably more hostile towards Heterousian theology.", "… While we read the fourth century so easily in terms of a battle between Nicenes and their opponents, it is important to remember that differences between non-Nicenes were equally important.” Under Valens, “open and large-scale challenge to the Homoian creed would have been impossible in the east: the creed of 359–60 was maintained as a universal standard.” Valens was killed in 378 at “the battle of Adrianople in 378.” “A large Roman army was defeated and, by some estimates, as many as two-thirds of the troops were wiped out.” “The authority that had promoted Homoian interests (Valens) was now gone.” Lewis Ayres explains how, in this period, various branches of Christianity attempted \"to seize the initiative.” Theodosius was \"declared Augustus in January 379 at the age of 32 or 33.” “Just as the victories of Constantius in 350–3 created the conditions for the rise of the Homoians, now the rise to power of a new emperor (Theodosius) enabled the victory of the pro-Nicene cause.” In February 380 - already a year before the ‘ecumenical’ council of Constantinople - Theodosius issued a pro-Nicene edict saying: “We shall believe in the Single Deity of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit, under the concept of equal majesty and of the Holy Trinity.”He exiled leaders of the anti-Nicenes.", "For example: \"When Theodosius had entered Constantinople in November 380 he had given the Homoian Demophilus the chance to remain as bishop if he subscribed to Nicaea.", "When he did not he was exiled and Theodosius accepted Gregory Nazianzen as de facto bishop.\"", "Theodosius issued a second Pro-Nicene decree a year later in January 381, which was still before the Council of Constantinople, saying: “Almighty God and Christ the Son of God are one in name … (we should) not violate by denial the Holy Spirit … the undivided substance of the incorrupt Trinity.”The second decree forbids “heretics,” meaning people who do not believe as required by the law, “the right to assemble for worship.” Theodosius' strong commitment to Nicene Christianity involved a calculated risk because Constantinople, the imperial capital of the Eastern Empire, was solidly Arian.To complicate matters, the two leading factions of Nicene Christianity in the East, the Alexandrians and the supporters of Meletius in Antioch, were \"bitterly divided ... almost to the point of complete animosity\".", "Furthermore, Damasus, bishop of Rome, and Basil, bishop of Caesarea and the first of the Cappadocian Fathers, opposed one another:Damasus stated “that Basil's letters addressed to the West were returned as unacceptable.” “A confession of faith (was sent) from Damasus which Basil was to sign without altering a single word.” “Basil replied to this demand in a polite but biting letter.”The bishops of Alexandria and Rome had worked over a number of years to keep the see of Constantinople from stabilizing.", "Thus, when Gregory was selected as a candidate for the bishopric of Constantinople, both Alexandria and Rome opposed him because of his Antiochene background.===Meletian schism===The Meletian schism refers to a dispute in the years preceding the 381-council between two Pro-Nicene groups about who the rightful bishop of Antioch is.", "Meletius was bishop of Antioch from 360 until his death in 381.He was opposed by a rival bishop named Paulinus.", "Athanasius and Damasus, the bishop of Rome, supported Paulinus:Paulinus “was recognized as legitimate bishop of Antioch by '''Athanasius'''.", "Later, Athanasius' successor Peter extended the same recognition to him and persuaded '''Damasus''' to do the same.” (RH, 801) “In May 373 Athanasius died, Peter his successor was driven out, fled to Rome, and proceeded to poison the mind of Damasus against Basil and Meletius.” In 375, '''Damasus''' wrote a letter which “constituted also an official recognition of Paulinus, not Meletius, as bishop of Antioch.”In contrast, Basil of Caesarea, the first of the Cappadocian fathers, supported Meletius:“Basil would not desert Meletius and Athanasius would not recognize him (Meletius) as bishop of Antioch.” (RH, 797) “Paulinus was a rival of Basil's friend and ally Meletius.”This dispute was not simply one of personalities but deeply theological.", "Basil opposed Paulinus because Paulinus was a 'one hypostasis' (Sabellian) theologian:'''Paulinus''' was “Marcellan/Sabellian.” He derived “his tradition in continuity from '''Eustathius''' who had been bishop about forty years before.” \"The fragments of Eustathius that survive present a doctrine that is close to '''Marcellus''', and to '''Alexander''' and '''Athanasius'''.", "Eustathius insists there is only one hypostasis.“ \"Basil suspected that Paulinus was at heart a Sabellian, believing in only one Person (hypostasis) in the Godhead.", "Paulinus' association with the remaining followers of Marcellus and his continuing to favour the expression 'one hypostasis' … rendered him suspect.”But Damasus supported Paulinus because he (Damasus) was also a 'one hypostasis' (Sabellian) theologian:Basil wrote a letter which “contained some shafts directed at Damasus because of his toleration of Eustathius and the Marcellans.” In response to a letter from Basil, “Damasus sent a very cool reply … conveying a considerable theological statement on the ousia and the personae which deliberately avoided making any statement about '''the three hypostases'''.", "It was the adhesion of Basil, Meletius and their followers to '''this doctrine of the hypostases''' which caused Damasus … to suspect them of heresy.”As quoted above, Athanasius supported Paulinus because he (Athanasius) was also a 'one hypostasis' (Sabellian) theologian.", "The following confirms this:“Basil was never sure in his own mind that Athanasius had abandoned Marcellus of Ancyra and his followers.” “In a letter written to Athanasius he (Basil of Caesarea) complains that the Westerners have never brought any accusation against Marcellus.” “About the year 371 adherents of Marcellus approached Athanasius, presenting to him a statement of faith.", "… He accepted it and gave them a document expressing his agreement with their doctrine.”In conclusion, both Damasus and Basil are regarded as pro-Nicene leaders, but Damasus, Athanasius, and Paulinus were 'one hypostasis' (Sabellian) theologians while Basil and his friend Meletius taught three hypostases (three Persons or Realities).", "This schism resulted in hostile relationships:“Basil writes letters to Athanasius asking him to approach Damasus and assist Basil's overtures.", "None of them was answered and nothing came of them.” Damasus stated “that Basil's letters addressed to the West were returned as unacceptable.” “A confession of faith (was sent) from Damasus which Basil was to sign without altering a single word.” “Basil replied to this demand in a polite but biting letter.”=== See of Constantinople ===The incumbent bishop of Constantinople was Demophilus, a Homoian Arian.", "On his accession to the imperial throne, Theodosius offered to confirm Demophilus as bishop of the imperial city on the condition of accepting the Nicene Creed; however, Demophilus refused to abandon his Arian beliefs, and was immediately ordered to give up his churches and leave Constantinople.", "After forty years under the control of Arian bishops, the churches of Constantinople were now restored to those who subscribed to the Nicene Creed; Arians were also ejected from the churches of other cities in the Eastern Roman Empire thus re-establishing Christian orthodoxy in the East.There ensued a contest to control the newly recovered see.", "A group led by Maximus the Cynic gained the support of Patriarch Peter of Alexandria by playing on his jealousy of the newly created see of Constantinople.", "They conceived a plan to install a cleric subservient to Peter as bishop of Constantinople so that Alexandria would retain the leadership of the Eastern Churches.", "Many commentators characterize Maximus as having been proud, arrogant and ambitious.", "However, it is not clear the extent to which Maximus sought this position due to his own ambition or if he was merely a pawn in the power struggle.", "In any event, the plot was set into motion when, on a night when Gregory was confined by illness, the conspirators burst into the cathedral and commenced the consecration of Maximus as bishop of Constantinople.", "They had seated Maximus on the archiepiscopal throne and had just begun shearing away his long curls when the day dawned.", "The news of what was transpiring quickly spread and everybody rushed to the church.", "The magistrates appeared with their officers; Maximus and his consecrators were driven from the cathedral, and ultimately completed the tonsure in the tenement of a flute-player.The news of the brazen attempt to usurp the episcopal throne aroused the anger of the local populace among whom Gregory was popular.", "Maximus withdrew to Thessalonica to lay his cause before the emperor but met with a cold reception there.", "Theodosius committed the matter to Ascholius, the much respected bishop of Thessalonica, charging him to seek the counsel of Pope Damasus I.Damasus' response repudiated Maximus summarily and advised Theodosius to summon a council of bishops for the purpose of settling various church issues such as the schism in Antioch and the consecration of a proper bishop for the see of Constantinople.", "Damasus condemned the translation of bishops from one see to another and urged Theodosius to \"take care that a bishop who is above reproach is chosen for that see.\"" ], [ "Proceedings", " Gregory of Nazianzus presided over part of the Council.Thirty-six Pneumatomachians arrived but were denied admission to the council when they refused to accept the Nicene creed.Since Peter, the Pope of Alexandria, was not present, the presidency over the council was given to Meletius as Patriarch of Antioch.", "The first order of business before the council was to declare the clandestine consecration of Maximus invalid, and to confirm Theodosius' installation of Gregory Nazianzus as Archbishop of Constantinople.", "When Meletius died shortly after the opening of the council, Gregory was selected to lead the council.The Egyptian and Macedonian bishops who had supported Maximus's ordination arrived late for the council.", "Once there, they refused to recognise Gregory's position as head of the church of Constantinople, arguing that his transfer from the See of Sasima was canonically illegitimate because one of the canons of the Council of Nicaea had forbidden bishops to transfer from their sees.McGuckin describes Gregory as physically exhausted and worried that he was losing the confidence of the bishops and the emperor.", "Ayres goes further and asserts that Gregory quickly made himself unpopular among the bishops by supporting the losing candidate for the bishopric of Antioch and vehemently opposing any compromise with the Homoiousians.Rather than press his case and risk further division, Gregory decided to resign his office: \"Let me be as the Prophet Jonah!", "I was responsible for the storm, but I would sacrifice myself for the salvation of the ship.", "Seize me and throw me...", "I was not happy when I ascended the throne, and gladly would I descend it.\"", "He shocked the council with his surprise resignation and then delivered a dramatic speech to Theodosius asking to be released from his offices.", "The emperor, moved by his words, applauded, commended his labor, and granted his resignation.", "The council asked him to appear once more for a farewell ritual and celebratory orations.", "Gregory used this occasion to deliver a final address (Or.", "42) and then departed.Nectarius, an unbaptized civil official, was chosen to succeed Gregory as president of the council." ], [ "Canons", "Seven canons, four of these doctrinal canons and three disciplinary canons, are attributed to the council and accepted by both the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Oriental Orthodox Churches; the Roman Catholic Church accepts only the first four because only the first four appear in the oldest copies and there is evidence that the last three were later additions.", "* The first canon is an important dogmatic condemnation of all shades of Arianism, and also of Macedonianism and Apollinarianism.", "* The second canon renewed the Nicene legislation imposing upon the bishops the observance of diocesan and patriarchal limits.", "* The third canon reads:* The fourth canon decreed the consecration of Maximus as Bishop of Constantinople to be invalid, declaring \"that Maximus neither was nor is a bishop, nor are they who have been ordained by him in any rank of the clergy\".", "This canon was directed not only against Maximus, but also against the Egyptian bishops who had conspired to consecrate him clandestinely at Constantinople, and against any subordinate ecclesiastics that he might have ordained in Egypt.", "* The fifth canon might actually have been passed the next year, 382, and is in regard to a ''Tome'' of the Western bishops, perhaps that of Pope Damasus I.", "* The sixth canon might belong to the year 382 as well and was subsequently passed at the Quinisext Council as canon 95.It limits the ability to accuse bishops of wrongdoing.", "* The seventh canon regards procedures for receiving certain heretics into the church." ], [ "Dispute concerning the third canon", "The third canon was a first step in the rising importance of the new imperial capital, just fifty years old, and was notable in that it demoted the patriarchs of Antioch and Alexandria.", "Jerusalem, as the site of the first church, retained its place of honor.", "It originally did not elicit controversy, as the Papal legate Paschasinus and a partisan of his, Diogenes of Cyzicus, reference the canon as being in force during the first session of the Council of Chalcedon.", "According to Eusebius of Dorlyeum, another Papal ally during Chalcedon, \"I myself read this very canon Canon 3 to the most holy pope in Rome in the presence of the clerics of Constantinople and he accepted it.", "\"Nevertheless, controversy has ensued since then.", "The status of the canon became questioned after disputes over Canon 28 of the Council of Chalcedon erupted.", "Pope Leo the Great, declared that this canon had never been submitted to Rome and that their lessened honor was a violation of the Nicene council order.", "Throughout the next several centuries, the Western Church asserted that the Bishop of Rome had supreme authority, and by the time of the Great Schism the Roman Catholic Church based its claim to supremacy on the succession of St. Peter.", "At the Fourth Council of Constantinople (869), the Roman legates asserted the place of the bishop of Rome's honor over the bishop of Constantinople's.After the Great Schism of 1054, in 1215 the Fourth Lateran Council declared, in its fifth canon, that the Roman Church \"by the will of God holds over all others pre-eminence of ordinary power as the mother and mistress of all the faithful\".", "Roman supremacy over the whole world was formally claimed by the new Latin patriarch.", "The Roman correctores of Gratian, insert the words: \"canon hic ex iis est quos apostolica Romana sedes a principio et longo post tempore non recipit\" (\"this canon is one of those that the Apostolic See of Rome has not accepted from the beginning and ever since\").Later on, Baronius asserted that the third canon was not authentic, not in fact decreed by the council.", "Contrarily, roughly contemporaneous Greeks maintained that it did not declare supremacy of the Bishop of Rome, but the primacy; \"the first among equals\", similar to how they today view the Bishop of Constantinople." ], [ "Aftermath", "It has been asserted by many that a synod was held by Pope Damasus I in the following year (382) which opposed the disciplinary canons of the Council of Constantinople, especially the third canon which placed Constantinople above Alexandria and Antioch.", "The synod protested against this raising of the bishop of the new imperial capital, just fifty years old, to a status higher than that of the bishops of Alexandria and Antioch, and stated that the primacy of the Roman see had not been established by a gathering of bishops but rather by Christ himself.", "Thomas Shahan says that, according to Photius too, Pope Damasus approved the council, but he adds that, if any part of the council were approved by this pope, it could have been only its revision of the Nicene Creed, as was the case also when Gregory the Great recognized it as one of the four general councils, but only in its dogmatic utterances.===Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed===Traditionally, the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed has been associated with the Council of Constantinople (381).", "It is roughly theologically equivalent to the Nicene Creed, but includes two additional articles: an article on the Holy Spirit—describing Him as \"the Lord, the Giver of Life, Who proceeds from the Father, Who with the Father and the Son is worshipped and glorified, and Who spoke through the prophets\"—and an article about the church, baptism, and the resurrection of the dead.", "(For the full text of both creeds, see Comparison between Creed of 325 and Creed of 381.", ")However, scholars are not agreed on the connection between the Council of Constantinople and the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed.", "Some modern scholars believe that this creed, or something close to it, was stated by the bishops at Constantinople, but not promulgated as an official act of the council.", "Scholars also dispute whether this creed was simply an expansion of the Creed of Nicaea, or whether it was an expansion of another traditional creed similar but not identical to the one from Nicaea.", "In 451, the Council of Chalcedon referred to this creed as \"the creed ... of the 150 saintly fathers assembled in Constantinople\", indicating that this creed was associated with Constantinople (381) no later than 451.===Christology===This council condemned Arianism which began to die out with further condemnations at a council of Aquileia by Ambrose of Milan in 381.With the discussion of Trinitarian doctrine now developed, the focus of discussion changed to Christology, which would be the topic of the Council of Ephesus of 431 and the Council of Chalcedon of 451.===Shift of influence from Rome to Constantinople===David Eastman cites the First Council of Constantinople as another example of the waning influence of Rome over the East.", "He notes that all three of the presiding bishops came from the East.", "Damasus had considered both Meletius and Gregory to be illegitimate bishops of their respective sees and yet, as Eastman and others point out, the Eastern bishops paid no heed to his opinions in this regard.The First Council of Constantinople (381) was the first appearance of the term 'New Rome' in connection to Constantinople.", "The term was employed as the grounds for giving the relatively young church of Constantinople precedence over Alexandria and Antioch ('because it is the New Rome')." ], [ "Liturgical commemorations", "The 150 individuals at the council are commemorated in the Calendar of saints of the Armenian Apostolic Church on February 17.The Eastern Orthodox Church in some places (e.g.", "Russia) has a feast day for the Fathers of the First Six Ecumenical Councils on the Sunday nearest to July 13 and on May 22." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Works cited===* " ], [ "Further reading", " Giuseppe Alberigo, ed., ''Conciliorum Oecumenicoum Generaliumque Decreta'', vol.", "1 (Turnhout, 2006), pp. 35–70.", "* * * * " ], [ "External links", " Catholic Encyclopedia: First Council of Constantinople* Council of Constantinople* Council of Constantinople* Canons" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Fourth Council of Constantinople (Eastern Orthodox)" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Fourth Council of Constantinople''' was held in 879–880.It confirmed the reinstatement of Photius I as patriarch of Constantinople.The result of this council is accepted by some Eastern Orthodox as having the authority of an ecumenical council, who sometimes call it the '''eighth ecumenical council'''." ], [ "Background", "The Council settled the dispute that had broken out after the deposition of Ignatius as Patriarch of Constantinople in 858.Ignatius, himself appointed to his office in an uncanonical manner, opposed Caesar Bardas, who had deposed the regent Theodora.", "In response, Bardas' nephew, the youthful Emperor Michael III engineered Ignatius's deposition and confinement on the charge of treason.", "The patriarchal throne was filled with Photius, a renowned scholar and kinsman of Bardas.", "The deposition of Ignatius without a formal ecclesiastical trial and the sudden promotion of Photios caused scandal in the church.", "Pope Nicholas I and the western bishops took up the cause of Ignatios and condemned Photios's election as uncanonical.", "In 863, at a synod in Rome the pope deposed Photios, and reappointed Ignatius as the rightful patriarch.", "However, Photius enjoined the support of the Emperor and responded by calling a Council and excommunicating the pope.This state of affairs changed when Photius's patrons, Bardas and Emperor Michael III, were murdered in 866 and 867, respectively, by Basil the Macedonian, who now usurped the throne.", "Photios was deposed as patriarch, not so much because he was a protégé of Bardas and Michael, but because Basil was seeking an alliance with the Pope and the western emperor.", "Photios was removed from his office and banished about the end of September 867, and Ignatios was reinstated on 23 November.", "Photios was condemned by a Council held at Constantinople from 5 October 869 to 28 February 870.Photius was deposed and barred from the patriarchal office, while Ignatius was reinstated." ], [ "Council of 879–880", "After the death of Ignatius in 877, the Emperor made Photius again Patriarch of Constantinople.", "A council was convened in 879, held at Constantinople, comprising the representatives of all the five patriarchates, including that of Rome (all in all 383 bishops).", "Anthony Edward Siecienski writes: \"In 879 the emperor called for another council to meet in Constantinople in the hopes that the new pope, John VIII (872-882) would recognize the validity of Photius's claim upon the patriarchate.", "This council, sometimes called the eighth ecumenical in the East was attended by the papal legates (who had brought with them a gift from the pope—a pallium for Photius) and by over 400 bishops, and who immediately confirmed Photius as rightful patriarch.", "\"The council also implicitly condemned the addition of the Filioque to the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed, an addition rejected at that time in Rome: \"The Creed (without the ''filioque'') was read out and a condemnation pronounced against those who 'impose on it their own invented phrases ἰδίας εὑρεσιολογίαις and put this forth as a common lesson to the faithful or to those who return from some kind of heresy and display the audacity to falsify completely κατακιβδηλεῦσαι άποθρασυνθείη the antiquity of this sacred and venerable ''Horos'' Rule with illegitimate words, or additions, or subtractions'.\"", "Eastern Orthodox Christians argue that thereby the council condemned not only the addition of the Filioque clause to the creed but also denounced the clause as heretical (a view strongly espoused by Photius in his polemics against Rome), while Roman Catholics separate the two and insist on the theological orthodoxy of the clause.", "According to non-Catholic Philip Schaff, \"To the Greek acts was afterwards added a (pretended) letter of Pope John VIII to Photius, declaring the Filioque to be an addition which is rejected by the church of Rome, and a blasphemy which must be abolished calmly and by degrees.\"" ], [ "Confirmation and further reception", "The council was held in the presence of papal legates, who approved of the proceedings.Roman Catholic historian Francis Dvornik argues that the pope accepted the acts of the council and annulled those of the Council of 869–870.Other Catholic historians, such as Warren Carroll, dispute this view, arguing that the pope rejected the council.", "Siecienski says that the Pope gave only a qualified assent to the acts of the council.", "Philip Schaff opines that the pope, deceived by his legates about the actual proceedings, first applauded the emperor but later denounced the council.", "In any case, the Pope had already accepted the reinstatement of Photius as Patriarch.On 8 March 870, three days after the end of the council, the papal and Eastern delegates met with the Bulgarian ambassadors led by the kavhan Peter to decide the status of the Bulgarian Orthodox Church.", "Since the Bulgarians were not satisfied with the positions of the Pope after prolonged negotiations, they reached favorable agreement with the Byzantines and the decision was taken that the Bulgarian Church should become Eastern Christian.The Photian Schism (863–867) that led to the councils of 869 and 879 represents a break between East and West.", "While the previous seven ecumenical councils are recognized as ecumenical and authoritative by both East and West, many Eastern Orthodox Christians recognize the council of 879 as the Eighth Ecumenical Council, arguing that it annulled the earlier one.", "This council is referred to as Ecumenical in the Encyclical of the Eastern Patriarchs of 1848.The Catholic Church, however, recognizes the council of 869 as the eighth ecumenical council and does not place the council of 879 among ecumenical councils." ], [ "See also", "* Fifth Council of Constantinople" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * " ], [ "Further reading", " Philip Schaff's Church History: Conflict of the Eastern and Western Churches* Catholic Encyclopedia: Fourth Council of Constantinople (on the Council of 869)* (An Eastern Orthodox perspective on the Council of 879)* T. R. Valentine, The Eighth and Ninth Ecumenical Councils (An Eastern Orthodox perspective on the Council of 879)* The First-Second Council from the Rudder" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Friedrich Hayek" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Friedrich August von Hayek''' ( , ; 8 May 1899 – 23 March 1992), often referred to by his initials '''F.", "A. Hayek''', was an Austrian-British economist and political philosopher who made contributions to economics, political philosophy, psychology, intellectual history, and other fields.", "Hayek shared the 1974 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences with Gunnar Myrdal for work on money and economic fluctuations, and the interdependence of economic, social and institutional phenomena.", "His account of how prices communicate information is widely regarded as an important contribution to economics that led to him receiving the prize.During his teenage years, Hayek fought in World War I.", "He later said this experience, coupled with his desire to help avoid the mistakes that led to the war, drew him into economics.", "He earned doctoral degrees in law in 1921 and political science in 1923 from the University of Vienna.", "He subsequently lived and worked in Austria, Great Britain, the United States, and Germany.", "He became a British citizen in 1938.His academic life was mostly spent at the London School of Economics, later at the University of Chicago, and the University of Freiburg.", "He is widely considered a major contributor to the Austrian School of Economics.Hayek had considerable influence on a variety of political movements of the 20th century, and his ideas continue to influence thinkers from a variety of political backgrounds today.", "Although sometimes described as a conservative, Hayek himself was uncomfortable with this label and preferred to be thought of as a classical liberal.", "As the co-founder of the Mont Pelerin Society he contributed to the revival of classical liberalism in the post-war era.", "His most popular work, ''The Road to Serfdom'', has been republished many times over the eight decades since its original publication.Hayek was appointed a Member of the Order of the Companions of Honour in 1984 for his academic contributions to economics.", "He was the first recipient of the Hanns Martin Schleyer Prize in 1984.He also received the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1991 from President George H. W. Bush.", "In 2011, his article \"The Use of Knowledge in Society\" was selected as one of the top 20 articles published in the ''American Economic Review'' during its first 100 years." ], [ "Life", "=== Early life ===Friedrich August von Hayek was born in Vienna to August von Hayek and Felicitas Hayek (''née'' von Juraschek).", "Both parents had Czech family names and had somewhat distant Czech ancestry, which is not uncommon among ethnic Austrians.", "He had also some Magyar (Bartha) and Italian (Patuzzi) ancestry.", "His father, born in 1871 also in Vienna, was a medical doctor employed by the municipal ministry of health.", "August was a part-time botany lecturer at the University of Vienna.", "Friedrich was the oldest of three brothers, Heinrich (1900–1969) and Erich (1904–1986), who were one-and-a-half and five years younger than he was.His father's career as a university professor influenced Hayek's goals later in life.", "Both of his grandfathers, who lived long enough for Hayek to know them, were scholars.", "Franz von Juraschek was a leading economist in Austria-Hungary and a close friend of Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk, one of the founders of the Austrian School of Economics.", "Hayek's paternal grandfather, Gustav Edler von Hayek, taught natural sciences at the Imperial ''Realobergymnasium'' (secondary school) in Vienna.", "He wrote works in the field of biological systematics, some of which are relatively well known.On his mother's side, Hayek was second cousin to the philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein.", "His mother often played with Wittgenstein's sisters and had known him well.", "As a result of their family relationship, Hayek became one of the first to read Wittgenstein's ''Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus'' when the book was published in its original German edition in 1921.Although he met Wittgenstein on only a few occasions, Hayek said that Wittgenstein's philosophy and methods of analysis had a profound influence on his own life and thought.", "In his later years, Hayek recalled a discussion of philosophy with Wittgenstein when both were officers during World War I.", "After Wittgenstein's death, Hayek had intended to write a biography of Wittgenstein and worked on collecting family materials and later assisted biographers of Wittgenstein.", "He was related to Wittgenstein on the non-Jewish side of the Wittgenstein family.", "Since his youth, Hayek frequently socialized with Jewish intellectuals, and he mentions that people often speculated whether he was also of Jewish ancestry.", "That made him curious, so he spent some time researching his ancestors and found out that he had no Jewish ancestors within five generations.", "The surname Hayek uses the German spelling of the Czech surname Hájek.", "Hayek traced his ancestry to an ancestor with the surname \"Hagek\" who came from Prague.Hayek displayed an intellectual and academic bent from a very young age and read fluently and frequently before going to school.", "However, he did quite poorly at school, due to the lack of interest and problems with teachers.", "He was at the bottom of his class in most subjects and once received three failing grades, in Latin, Greek, and mathematics.", "He was very interested in theater, even attempting to write some tragedies, and biology, regularly helping his father with his botanical work.", "At his father's suggestion, as a teenager he read the genetic and evolutionary works of Hugo de Vries and August Weismann and the philosophical works of Ludwig Feuerbach.", "He noted Goethe as the greatest early intellectual influence.", "In school, Hayek was much taken by one instructor's lectures on Aristotle's ethics.", "In his unpublished autobiographical notes, Hayek recalled a division between him and his younger brothers who were only a few years younger than him, but he believed that they were somehow of a different generation.", "He preferred to associate with adults.In 1917, Hayek joined an artillery regiment in the Austro-Hungarian Army and fought on the Italian front.", "Hayek suffered damage to his hearing in his left ear during the war and was decorated for bravery.", "He also survived the 1918 flu pandemic.Hayek then decided to pursue an academic career, determined to help avoid the mistakes that had led to the war.", "Hayek said of his experience: \"The decisive influence was really World War I.", "It's bound to draw your attention to the problems of political organization\".", "He vowed to work for a better world.=== Education ===At the University of Vienna, Hayek initially studied mostly philosophy, psychology and economics.", "The university allowed students to choose their subjects freely and there was not much obligatory written work, or tests except main exams at the end of the study.", "By the end of his studies Hayek became more interested in economics, mostly for financial and career reasons; he planned to combine law and economics to start a career in diplomatic service.", "He earned doctorates in law and political science in 1921 and 1923 respectively.For a short time, when the University of Vienna closed he studied in Constantin von Monakow's Institute of Brain Anatomy, where Hayek spent much of his time staining brain cells.", "Hayek's time in Monakow's lab and his deep interest in the work of Ernst Mach inspired his first intellectual project, eventually published as ''The Sensory Order'' (1952).", "It located connective learning at the physical and neurological levels, rejecting the \"sense data\" associationism of the empiricists and logical positivists.", "Hayek presented his work to the private seminar he had created with Herbert Furth called the Geistkreis.During Hayek's years at the University of Vienna, Carl Menger's work on the explanatory strategy of social science and Friedrich von Wieser's commanding presence in the classroom left a lasting influence on him.", "Upon the completion of his examinations, Hayek was hired by Ludwig von Mises on the recommendation of Wieser as a specialist for the Austrian government working on the legal and economic details of the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye.", "Between 1923 and 1924, Hayek worked as a research assistant to Professor Jeremiah Jenks of New York University, compiling macroeconomic data on the American economy and the operations of the Federal Reserve.", "He was influenced by Wesley Clair Mitchell and started a doctoral program on problems of monetary stabilization but didn't finish it.", "His time in America wasn't especially happy.", "He had very limited social contacts, missed the cultural life of Vienna, and was troubled by his poverty.", "His family's financial situation deteriorated significantly after the War.Initially sympathetic to Wieser's democratic socialism, Hayek found Marxism rigid and unattractive, and his mild socialist phase lasted until he was about 23.Hayek's economic thinking shifted away from socialism and toward the classical liberalism of Carl Menger after reading von Mises' book ''Socialism''.", "It was sometime after reading ''Socialism'' that Hayek began attending von Mises' private seminars, joining several of his university friends, including Fritz Machlup, Alfred Schutz, Felix Kaufmann and Gottfried Haberler, who were also participating in Hayek's own more general and private seminar.", "It was during this time that he also encountered and befriended noted political philosopher Eric Voegelin, with whom he retained a long-standing relationship.=== London School of Economics ===With the help of Mises, in the late 1920s, he founded and served as director of the Austrian Institute for Business Cycle Research before joining the faculty of the London School of Economics (LSE) in 1931 at the behest of Lionel Robbins.", "Upon his arrival in London, Hayek was quickly recognised as one of the leading economic theorists in the world and his development of the economics of processes in time and the co-ordination function of prices inspired the ground-breaking work of John Hicks, Abba P. Lerner and many others in the development of modern microeconomics.In 1932, Hayek suggested that private investment in the public markets was a better road to wealth and economic co-ordination in Britain than government spending programs as argued in an exchange of letters with John Maynard Keynes, co-signed with Lionel Robbins and others in ''The Times''.", "The nearly decade long deflationary depression in Britain dating from Winston Churchill's decision in 1925 to return Britain to the gold standard at the old pre-war and pre-inflationary par was the public policy backdrop for Hayek's dissenting engagement with Keynes over British monetary and fiscal policy.", "Keynes called Hayek's book ''Prices and Production'' \"one of the most frightful muddles I have ever read\", famously adding: \"It is an extraordinary example of how, starting with a mistake, a remorseless logician can end in Bedlam\".Notable economists who studied with Hayek at the LSE in the 1930s and 1940s include Arthur Lewis, Ronald Coase, William Baumol, John Maynard Keynes, CH Douglas, John Kenneth Galbraith, Leonid Hurwicz, Abba Lerner, Nicholas Kaldor, George Shackle, Thomas Balogh, L. K. Jha, Arthur Seldon, Paul Rosenstein-Rodan and Oskar Lange.", "Some were supportive and some were critical of his ideas.", "Hayek also taught or tutored many other LSE students, including David Rockefeller.Unwilling to return to Austria after the ''Anschluss'' brought it under the control of Nazi Germany in 1938, Hayek remained in Britain.", "Hayek and his children became British subjects in 1938.He held this status for the remainder of his life, but he did not live in Great Britain after 1950.He lived in the United States from 1950 to 1962 and then mostly in Germany, but also briefly in Austria.In 1947, Hayek was elected a Fellow of the Econometric Society.=== ''The Road to Serfdom'' ===Hayek was concerned about the general view in Britain's academia that fascism was a capitalist reaction to socialism and ''The Road to Serfdom'' arose from those concerns.", "The title was inspired by the French classical liberal thinker Alexis de Tocqueville's writings on the \"road to servitude\".", "It was first published in Britain by Routledge in March 1944 and was quite popular, leading Hayek to call it \"that unobtainable book\" also due in part to wartime paper rationing.", "When it was published in the United States by the University of Chicago in September of that year, it achieved greater popularity than in Britain.", "At the instigation of editor Max Eastman, the American magazine ''Reader's Digest'' also published an abridged version in April 1945, enabling ''The Road to Serfdom'' to reach a far wider audience than academics.", "The book is widely popular among those advocating individualism and classical liberalism.=== Chicago ===In 1950, Hayek left the London School of Economics.", "After spending the 1949–1950 academic year as a visiting professor at the University of Arkansas, Hayek was conferred professorship by the University of Chicago, where he became a professor in the Committee on Social Thought.", "Hayek's salary was funded not by the university, but by an outside foundation, the William Volker Fund.Hayek had made contact with many at the University of Chicago in the 1940s, with Hayek's ''The Road to Serfdom'' playing a seminal role in transforming how Milton Friedman and others understood how society works.", "Hayek conducted a number of influential faculty seminars while at the University of Chicago and a number of academics worked on research projects sympathetic to some of Hayek's own, such as Aaron Director, who was active in the Chicago School in helping to fund and establish what became the \"Law and Society\" program in the University of Chicago Law School.", "Hayek, Frank Knight, Friedman and George Stigler worked together in forming the Mont Pèlerin Society, an international forum for neoliberals.", "Hayek and Friedman cooperated in support of the Intercollegiate Society of Individualists, later renamed the Intercollegiate Studies Institute, an American student organisation devoted to libertarian ideas.Although they shared most political beliefs, disagreeing primarily on question of monetary policy, Hayek and Friedman worked in separate university departments with different research interests and never developed a close working relationship.", "According to Alan O. Ebenstein, who wrote biographies of both of them, Hayek probably had a closer friendship with Keynes than with Friedman.Hayek received a Guggenheim Fellowship in 1954.Another influential political philosopher and German-speaking exile at the University of Chicago at the time was Leo Strauss, but according to his student Joseph Cropsey who also knew Hayek, there was no contact between the two of them.After editing a book on John Stuart Mill's letters he planned to publish two books on the liberal order, ''The Constitution of Liberty'' and \"The Creative Powers of a Free Civilization\" (eventually the title for the second chapter of ''The Constitution of Liberty'').", "He completed ''The Constitution of Liberty'' in May 1959, with publication in February 1960.Hayek was concerned that \"with that condition of men in which coercion of some by others is reduced as much as is possible in society\".", "Hayek was disappointed that the book did not receive the same enthusiastic general reception as ''The Road to Serfdom'' had sixteen years before.He left Chicago mostly because of financial reasons, being concerned about his pension provisions.", "His primary source of income was his salary, and he received some additional money from book royalties but avoided other lucrative sources of income for academics such as writing textbooks.", "He spent a lot on his frequent travels.", "He regularly spent summers in Austrian Alps, usually in the Tyrolean village Obergurgl where he enjoyed mountain climbing, and also visited Japan four times with additional trips to Tahiti, Fiji, Indonesia, Australia, New Caledonia and Ceylon.", "After his divorce, his financial situation worsened.=== Freiburg and Salzburg ===From 1962 until his retirement in 1968, he was a professor at the University of Freiburg, West Germany, where he began work on his next book, ''Law, Legislation and Liberty''.", "Hayek regarded his years at Freiburg as \"very fruitful\".", "Following his retirement, Hayek spent a year as a visiting professor of philosophy at the University of California, Los Angeles, where he continued work on ''Law, Legislation and Liberty'', teaching a graduate seminar by the same name and another on the philosophy of social science.", "Preliminary drafts of the book were completed by 1970, but Hayek chose to rework his drafts and finally brought the book to publication in three volumes in 1973, 1976 and 1979.Hayek became a professor at the University of Salzburg from 1969 to 1977 and then returned to Freiburg.", "When Hayek left Salzburg in 1977, he wrote: \"I made a mistake in moving to Salzburg\".", "The economics department was small, and the library facilities were inadequate.Although Hayek's health suffered, and he fell into a depressionary bout, he continued to work on his magnum opus, ''Law, Legislation and Liberty'' in periods when he was feeling better.=== Nobel Memorial Prize ===On 9 October 1974, it was announced that Hayek would be awarded the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics with Swedish economist Gunnar Myrdal, with the reasons for selection being listed in a press release.", "He was surprised at being given the award and believed that he was given it with Myrdal to balance the award with someone from the opposite side of the political spectrum.", "The Sveriges-Riksbank Nobel Prize in Economics was established in 1968, and Hayek was the first non-Keynesian economist to win it.Among the reasons given, the committee stated, Hayek \"was one of the few economists who gave warning of the possibility of a major economic crisis before the great crash came in the autumn of 1929.\"", "The following year, Hayek further confirmed his original prediction.", "An interviewer asked, \"We understand that you were one of the only economists to forecast that America was headed for a depression, is that true?\"", "Hayek responded, \"Yes.\"", "However, no textual evidence has emerged of \"a prediction\".", "Indeed, Hayek wrote on 26 October 1929, three days before the crash, \"at present there is no reason to expect a sudden crash of the New York stock exchange.", "...", "The credit possibilities/conditions are, at any rate, currently very great, and therefore it appears assured that an outright crisis-like destruction of the present high price level should not be feared.", "\"During the Nobel ceremony in December 1974, Hayek met the Russian dissident Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn.", "Hayek later sent him a Russian translation of ''The Road to Serfdom''.", "He spoke with apprehension at his award speech about the danger the authority of the prize would lend to an economist, but the prize brought much greater public awareness to the then controversial ideas of Hayek and was described by his biographer as \"the great rejuvenating event in his life\".=== British politics ===In February 1975, Margaret Thatcher was elected leader of the British Conservative Party.", "The Institute of Economic Affairs arranged a meeting between Hayek and Thatcher in London soon after.", "During Thatcher's only visit to the Conservative Research Department in the summer of 1975, a speaker had prepared a paper on why the \"middle way\" was the pragmatic path the Conservative Party should take, avoiding the extremes of left and right.", "Before he had finished, Thatcher \"reached into her briefcase and took out a book.", "It was Hayek's ''The Constitution of Liberty''.", "Interrupting our pragmatist, she held the book up for all of us to see.", "'This', she said sternly, 'is what we believe', and banged Hayek down on the table\".Despite the media depictions of him as Thatcher's guru and power behind the throne, the communication between him and the Prime Minister was not very regular, they were in contact only once or twice a year.", "Besides Thatcher, Hayek also made a significant influence on Enoch Powell, Keith Joseph, Nigel Lawson, Geoffrey Howe and John Biffen.Hayek gained some controversy in 1978 by praising Thatcher's anti-immigration policy proposal in an article which ignited numerous accusations of anti-Semitism and racism because of his reflections on the inability of assimilation of Eastern European Jews in the Vienna of his youth.", "He defended himself by explaining that he made no racial judgements, only highlighted the problems of acculturation.In 1977, Hayek was critical of the Lib–Lab pact in which the British Liberal Party agreed to keep the British Labour government in office.", "Writing to ''The Times'', Hayek said: \"May one who has devoted a large part of his life to the study of the history and the principles of liberalism point out that a party that keeps a socialist government in power has lost all title to the name 'Liberal'.", "Certainly no liberal can in future vote 'Liberal'\".", "Hayek was criticised by Liberal politicians Gladwyn Jebb and Andrew Phillips, who both claimed that the purpose of the pact was to discourage socialist legislation.Lord Gladwyn pointed out that the German Free Democrats were in coalition with the German Social Democrats.", "Hayek was defended by Professor Antony Flew, who stated that—unlike the British Labour Party—the German Social Democrats had since the late 1950s abandoned public ownership of the means of production, distribution and exchange and had instead embraced the social market economy.In 1978, Hayek came into conflict with Liberal Party leader David Steel, who claimed that liberty was possible only with \"social justice and an equitable distribution of wealth and power, which in turn require a degree of active government intervention\" and that the Conservative Party were more concerned with the connection between liberty and private enterprise than between liberty and democracy.", "Hayek claimed that a limited democracy might be better than other forms of limited government at protecting liberty, but that an unlimited democracy was worse than other forms of unlimited government because \"its government loses the power even to do what it thinks right if any group on which its majority depends thinks otherwise\".Hayek stated that if the Conservative leader had said \"that free choice is to be exercised more in the market place than in the ballot box, she has merely uttered the truism that the first is indispensable for individual freedom while the second is not: free choice can at least exist under a dictatorship that can limit itself but not under the government of an unlimited democracy which cannot\".Hayek supported Britain in the Falklands War, writing that it would be justified to attack Argentinian territory instead of just defending the islands, which earned him a lot of criticism in Argentina, a country which he also visited several times.", "He was also displeased by the weak response of the United States to the Iran hostage crisis, claiming that an ultimatum should be issued and Iran bombed if they do not comply.", "He supported Ronald Reagan's decision to keep high defence spending, believing that a strong US military is a guarantee of world peace and necessary to keep the Soviet Union under control.", "President Reagan listed Hayek as among the two or three people who most influenced his philosophy and welcomed him to the White House as a special guest.", "Senator Barry Goldwater listed Hayek as his favourite political philosopher and congressman Jack Kemp named him an inspiration for his political career.=== Recognition ===In 1980, Hayek was one of twelve Nobel laureates to meet with Pope John Paul II \"to dialogue, discuss views in their fields, communicate regarding the relationship between Catholicism and science, and 'bring to the Pontiff's attention the problems which the Nobel Prize Winners, in their respective fields of study, consider to be the most urgent for contemporary man'\"Hayek was appointed a Member of the Order of the Companions of Honour (CH) in the 1984 Birthday Honours by Elizabeth II on the advice of British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher for his \"services to the study of economics\".", "Hayek had hoped to receive a baronetcy and after being awarded the CH sent a letter to his friends requesting that he be called the English version of Friedrich (i.e.", "Frederick) from now on.", "After his twenty-minute audience with the Queen, he was \"absolutely besotted\" with her according to his daughter-in-law Esca Hayek.", "Hayek said a year later that he was \"amazed by her.", "That ease and skill, as if she'd known me all my life\".", "The audience with the Queen was followed by a dinner with family and friends at the Institute of Economic Affairs.", "When later that evening Hayek was dropped off at the Reform Club, he commented: \"I've just had the happiest day of my life\".In 1991, President George H. W. Bush awarded Hayek the Presidential Medal of Freedom, one of the two highest civilian awards in the United States, for a \"lifetime of looking beyond the horizon\".=== Death ===Hayek died on 23 March 1992, aged 92, in Freiburg, Germany and was buried on 4 April in the Neustift am Walde cemetery in the northern outskirts of Vienna according to the Catholic rite.", "In 2011, his article \"The Use of Knowledge in Society\" was selected as one of the top 20 articles published in ''The American Economic Review'' during its first 100 years.The New York University ''Journal of Law and Liberty'' holds an annual lecture in his honor." ], [ "Work and views", "=== Business cycle ===Ludwig von Mises had earlier applied the concept of marginal utility to the value of money in his ''Theory of Money and Credit'' (1912) in which he also proposed an explanation for \"industrial fluctuations\" based on the ideas of the old British Currency School and of Swedish economist Knut Wicksell.", "Hayek used this body of work as a starting point for his own interpretation of the business cycle, elaborating what later became known as the Austrian theory of the business cycle.", "Hayek spelled out the Austrian approach in more detail in his book, published in 1929, an English translation of which appeared in 1933 as ''Monetary Theory and the Trade Cycle''.", "There, Hayek argued for a monetary approach to the origins of the cycle.", "In his ''Prices and Production'' (1931), Hayek argued that the business cycle resulted from the central bank's inflationary credit expansion and its transmission over time, leading to a capital misallocation caused by the artificially low interest rates.", "Hayek claimed that \"the past instability of the market economy is the consequence of the exclusion of the most important regulator of the market mechanism, money, from itself being regulated by the market process\".Hayek's analysis was based on Eugen Böhm von Bawerk's concept of the \"average period of production\" and on the effects that monetary policy could have upon it.", "In accordance with the reasoning later outlined in his essay \"The Use of Knowledge in Society\" (1945), Hayek argued that a monopolistic governmental agency like a central bank can neither possess the relevant information which should govern supply of money, nor have the ability to use it correctly.In 1929, Lionel Robbins assumed the helm of the London School of Economics (LSE).", "Eager to promote alternatives to what he regarded as the narrow approach of the school of economic thought that then dominated the English-speaking academic world (centered at the University of Cambridge and deriving largely from the work of Alfred Marshall), Robbins invited Hayek to join the faculty at LSE, which he did in 1931.According to Nicholas Kaldor, Hayek's theory of the time-structure of capital and of the business cycle initially \"fascinated the academic world\" and appeared to offer a less \"facile and superficial\" understanding of macroeconomics than the Cambridge school's.Also in 1931, Hayek crititicized John Maynard Keynes's ''Treatise on Money'' (1930) in his \"Reflections on the pure theory of Mr. J.M.", "Keynes\" and published his lectures at the LSE in book form as ''Prices and Production''.", "For Keynes, unemployment and idle resources are caused by a lack of effective demand, but for Hayek they stem from a previous unsustainable episode of easy money and artificially low interest rates.", "Keynes asked his friend Piero Sraffa to respond.", "Sraffa elaborated on the effect of inflation-induced \"forced savings\" on the capital sector and about the definition of a \"natural\" interest rate in a growing economy (see Sraffa–Hayek debate).", "Others who responded negatively to Hayek's work on the business cycle included John Hicks, Frank Knight and Gunnar Myrdal, who, later on, would share the Sveriges-Riksbank Prize in Economics with him.", "Kaldor later wrote that Hayek's ''Prices and Production'' had produced \"a remarkable crop of critics\" and that the total number of pages in British and American journals dedicated to the resulting debate \"could rarely have been equalled in the economic controversies of the past\".Hayek's work, throughout the 1940s, was largely ignored, except for scathing critiques by Nicholas Kaldor.", "Lionel Robbins himself, who had embraced the Austrian theory of the business cycle in ''The Great Depression'' (1934), later regretted having written the book and accepted many of the Keynesian counter-arguments.Hayek never produced the book-length treatment of \"the dynamics of capital\" that he had promised in the ''Pure Theory of Capital.''", "At the University of Chicago, Hayek was not part of the economics department and did not influence the rebirth of neoclassical theory that took place there (see Chicago school of economics).", "When in 1974 he shared the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics with Myrdal, the latter complained about being paired with an \"ideologue\".", "Milton Friedman declared himself \"an enormous admirer of Hayek, but not for his economics.", "Milton Friedman also commented on some of his writings, saying \"I think ''Prices and Production'' is a very flawed book.", "I think his ''Pure Theory of Capital'' is unreadable.", "On the other hand, ''The Road to Serfdom'' is one of the great books of our time\".=== Economic calculation problem ===Building on the earlier work of Mises and others, Hayek also argued that while in centrally planned economies an individual or a select group of individuals must determine the distribution of resources, these planners will never have enough information to carry out this allocation reliably.", "This argument, first proposed by Max Weber and Ludwig von Mises, says that the efficient exchange and use of resources can be maintained only through the price mechanism in free markets (see economic calculation problem).In 1935, Hayek published ''Collectivist Economic Planning'', a collection of essays from an earlier debate that had been initiated by Mises.", "Hayek included Mises's essay in which Mises argued that rational planning was impossible under socialism.Socialist Oskar Lange responded by invoking general equilibrium theory, which they argued disproved Mises's thesis.", "They noted that the difference between a planned and a free market system lay in who was responsible for solving the equations.", "They argued that if some of the prices chosen by socialist managers were wrong, gluts or shortages would appear, signalling them to adjust the prices up or down, just as in a free market.", "Through such a trial and error, a socialist economy could mimic the efficiency of a free market system while avoiding its many problems.Hayek challenged this vision in a series of contributions.", "In \"Economics and Knowledge\" (1937), he pointed out that the standard equilibrium theory assumed that all agents have full and correct information, and how, in his mind, in the real world different individuals have different bits of knowledge and furthermore some of what they believe is wrong.In \"The Use of Knowledge in Society\" (1945), Hayek argued that the price mechanism serves to share and synchronise local and personal knowledge, allowing society's members to achieve diverse and complicated ends through a principle of spontaneous self-organization.", "He contrasted the use of the price mechanism with central planning, arguing that the former allows for more rapid adaptation to changes in particular circumstances of time and place.", "Thus, Hayek set the stage for Oliver Williamson's later contrast between markets and hierarchies as alternative co-ordination mechanisms for economic transactions.", "He used the term catallaxy to describe a \"self-organizing system of voluntary co-operation\".", "Hayek's research into this argument was specifically cited by the Nobel Committee in its press release awarding Hayek the Nobel prize.=== Investment and choice ===Hayek made breakthroughs in the choice theory, and examined the inter-relations between non-permanent production goods and \"latent\" or potentially economic permanent resources, building on the choice theoretical insight that \"processes that take more time will evidently not be adopted unless they yield a greater return than those that take less time\".=== Philosophy of science ===During World War II, Hayek began the Abuse of Reason project.", "His goal was to show how a number of then-popular doctrines and beliefs had a common origin in some fundamental misconceptions about the social science.Ideas were developed in ''The Counter-Revolution of Science'' in 1952 and in some of Hayek's later essays in the philosophy of science such as \"Degrees of Explanation\" (1955) and \"The Theory of Complex Phenomena\" (1964).In ''Counter-Revolution'', for example, Hayek observed that the hard sciences attempt to remove the \"human factor\" to obtain objective and strictly controlled results: Meanwhile, the soft sciences are attempting to measure human action itself: He notes that these are mutually exclusive and that social sciences should not attempt to impose positivist methodology, nor to claim objective or definite results:=== Psychology ===Hayek's first academic essay was a psychological work titled 'Contributions to the Theory of the Development of Consciousness' (''Beiträge zur Theorie der Entwicklung des Bewußtseins'') In ''The Sensory Order: An Inquiry into the Foundations of Theoretical Psychology'' (1952), Hayek independently developed a \"Hebbian learning\" model of learning and memory—an idea he first conceived in 1920 prior to his study of economics.", "Hayek's expansion of the \"Hebbian synapse\" construction into a global brain theory received attention in neuroscience, cognitive science, computer science, and evolutionary psychology by scientists such as Gerald Edelman, Vittorio Guidano and Joaquin Fuster.", "''The Sensory Order'' can be viewed as a development of his attack on scientism.", "Hayek posited two orders, namely the sensory order that we experience and the natural order that natural science revealed.", "Hayek thought that the sensory order actually is a product of the brain.", "He described the brain as a very complex yet self-ordering hierarchical classification system, a huge network of connections.", "Because of the nature of the classifier system, richness of our sensory experience can exist.", "Hayek's description posed problems to behaviorism, whose proponents took the sensory order as fundamental.===International Relations===Hayek was a lifelong federalist.", "He joined several pan-European and pro-federalist movements throughout his career, and called for federal ties between the U.K. and Europe, and between Europe and the United States.", "After the 1950s, when the Cold War began in earnest, Hayek largely kept his federalist proposals out of the public sphere, although he did propose to federate Jerusalem as late as the 1970s.Hayek argued that closer economic ties without closer political ties would lead to more problems because interest groups in nation-states would best be able to counter the internationalization of markets that comes with closer economic ties by appealing to nationalism.", "Much of his time in the pro-federalist and pan-European groups was spent arguing with pro-federal and pan-European democratic socialists over the proper extent of a world federal government.", "Hayek argued that such a world government should do little more than act as a negative check on national sovereignties and serve as a focal point for collective defense.As the Cold War heated up, Hayek grew more hawkish and he pushed his federal proposals onto the backburner in favor of more traditional public policy proposals that acknowledged and respected the sovereignty of nation-states.", "Yet Hayek never disavowed his famous call for \"the abrogation of national sovereignties\" and his lifetime of work in the area of international relations continues to attract attention from scholars searching for federalist answers to contemporary problems in international relations.=== Social and political philosophy ======= Two traditions in the theory of liberty ====In the latter half of his career, Hayek made a number of contributions to social and political philosophy which he based on his views on the limits of human knowledge and the idea of spontaneous order in social institutions.", "He argues in favour of a society organised around a market order in which the apparatus of state is employed almost (though not entirely) exclusively to enforce the legal order (consisting of abstract rules and not particular commands) necessary for a market of free individuals to function.", "These ideas were informed by a moral philosophy derived from epistemological concerns regarding the inherent limits of human knowledge.", "Hayek argued that his ideal individualistic and free-market polity would be self-regulating to such a degree that it would be \"a society which does not depend for its functioning on our finding good men for running it\".He discusses the contrasting traditions of liberty—British and French—in the theory of freedom.", "The British tradition, influenced by thinkers like David Hume and Adam Smith, emphasizes the organic growth of institutions and the spontaneous evolution of society.", "It recognizes that political order arises from the cumulative experience and success of individuals, rather than from deliberate design.", "In contrast, the French tradition, rooted in Cartesian rationalism, seeks to construct a utopia based on a belief in the unlimited powers of human reason.", "The French tradition, that Hayek called constructivist rationalism, gained influence over time, partly due to its assumptions about human ambition and pride.", "However, according to Hayek, the British tradition, with its emphasis on the gradual development of civilization and the role of individual freedom, provides a more valid theory of liberty.==== Spontaneous order ====Hayek viewed the free price system not as a conscious invention (that which is intentionally designed by man), but as spontaneous order or what Scottish philosopher Adam Ferguson referred to as \"the result of human action but not of human design\".", "For instance, Hayek put the price mechanism on the same level as language, which he developed in his price signal theory.Hayek attributed the birth of civilisation to private property in his book ''The Fatal Conceit'' (1988).", "He explained that price signals are the only means of enabling each economic decision maker to communicate tacit knowledge or dispersed knowledge to each other to solve the economic calculation problem.", "Alain de Benoist of the ''Nouvelle Droite'' (New Right) produced a highly critical essay on Hayek's work in an issue of ''Telos'', citing the flawed assumptions behind Hayek's idea of \"spontaneous order\" and the authoritarian and totalising implications of his free-market ideology.Hayek's concept of the market as a spontaneous order has been applied to ecosystems to defend a broadly non-interventionist policy.", "Like the market, ecosystems contain complex networks of information, involve an ongoing dynamic process, contain orders within orders and the entire system operates without being directed by a conscious mind.", "On this analysis, species takes the place of price as a visible element of the system formed by a complex set of largely unknowable elements.", "Human ignorance about the countless interactions between the organisms of an ecosystem limits our ability to manipulate nature.Hayek's price signal concept is in relation to how consumers are often unaware of specific events that change market, yet change their decisions, simply because the price goes up.", "Thus pricing communicates information.==== Criticism of collectivism ====Hayek was one of the leading academic critics of collectivism in the 20th century.", "In Hayek's view, the central role of the state should be to maintain the rule of law, with as little arbitrary intervention as possible.", "In his popular book ''The Road to Serfdom'' (1944) and in subsequent academic works, Hayek argued that socialism required central economic planning and that such planning in turn leads towards totalitarianism.In ''The Road to Serfdom'', Hayek wrote:Hayek posited that a central planning authority would have to be endowed with powers that would impact and ultimately control social life because the knowledge required for centrally planning an economy is inherently decentralised, and would need to be brought under control.Though Hayek did argue that the state should provide law centrally, others have pointed out that this contradicts his arguments about the role of judges in \"discovering\" the law, suggesting that Hayek would have supported decentralized provision of legal services.Hayek also wrote that the state can play a role in the economy, specifically in creating a safety net, saying: There is no reason why, in a society which has reached the general level of wealth ours has, the first kind of security should not be guaranteed to all without endangering general freedom; that is: some minimum of food, shelter and clothing, sufficient to preserve health.", "Nor is there any reason why the state should not help to organize a comprehensive system of social insurance in providing for those common hazards of life against which few can make adequate provision.", "\"The Denationalization of Money\" is one of his literary works, in which he advocated the establishment of competitions in issuing moneys.==== Social safety nets ====With regard to a social safety net, Hayek advocated \"some provision for those threatened by the extremes of indigence or starvation due to circumstances beyond their control\" and argued that the \"necessity of some such arrangement in an industrial society is unquestioned—be it only in the interest of those who require protection against acts of desperation on the part of the needy\".", "Summarizing Hayek's views on the topic, journalist Nicholas Wapshott has argued that \"Hayek advocated mandatory universal health care and unemployment insurance, enforced, if not directly provided, by the state\".", "Critical theorist Bernard Harcourt has argued further that \"Hayek was adamant about this\".", "In 1944, Hayek wrote in ''The Road to Serfdom'': In 1973, Hayek reiterated in ''Law, Legislation and Liberty'': There is no reason why in a free society government should not assure to all, protection against severe deprivation in the form of an assured minimum income, or a floor below which nobody need to descend.", "To enter into such an insurance against extreme misfortune may well be in the interest of all; or it may be felt to be a clear moral duty of all to assist, within the organised community, those who cannot help themselves.", "So long as such a uniform minimum income is provided outside the market to all those who, for any reason, are unable to earn in the market an adequate maintenance, this need not lead to a restriction of freedom, or conflict with the Rule of law.Political theorist Adam James Tebble has argued that Hayek's concession of a social minimum provided by the state introduces a conceptual tension with his epistemically derived commitment to private property rights, free markets, and spontaneous order.==== Criticism of \"social justice\" ====Although Hayek believed in a society governed by laws, he disapproved of the notion of \"social justice\".", "He compared the market to a game in which \"there is no point in calling the outcome just or unjust\" and argued that \"social justice is an empty phrase with no determinable content\".", "Likewise, \"the results of the individual's efforts are necessarily unpredictable, and the question as to whether the resulting distribution of incomes is just has no meaning\".", "He generally regarded government redistribution of income or capital as an unacceptable intrusion upon individual freedom, saying that \"the principle of distributive justice, once introduced, would not be fulfilled until the whole of society was organized in accordance with it.", "This would produce a kind of society which in all essential respects would be the opposite of a free society\".==== Liberalism and skepticism ====Arthur M. Diamond argues Hayek's problems arise when he goes beyond claims that can be evaluated within economic science.", "Diamond argued: The human mind, Hayek says, is not just limited in its ability to synthesize a vast array of concrete facts, it is also limited in its ability to give a deductively sound ground to ethics.", "Here is where the tension develops, for he also wants to give a reasoned moral defense of the free market.", "He is an intellectual skeptic who wants to give political philosophy a secure intellectual foundation.", "It is thus not too surprising that what results is confused and contradictory.Chandran Kukathas argues that Hayek's defence of liberalism is unsuccessful because it rests on presuppositions that are incompatible.", "The unresolved dilemma of his political philosophy is how to mount a systematic defence of liberalism if one emphasizes the limited capacity of reason.", "Norman P. Barry similarly notes that the \"critical rationalism\" in Hayek's writings appears incompatible with \"a certain kind of fatalism, that we must wait for evolution to pronounce its verdict\".", "Milton Friedman and Anna Schwartz argue that the element of paradox exists in the views of Hayek.", "Noting Hayek's vigorous defense of \"invisible hand\" evolution that Hayek claimed created better economic institutions than could be created by rational design, Friedman pointed out the irony that Hayek was then proposing to replace the monetary system thus created with a deliberate construct of his own design.", "John N. Gray summarized this view as \"his scheme for an ultra-liberal constitution was a prototypical version of the philosophy he had attacked\".", "Bruce Caldwell wrote that \"if one is judging his work against the standard of whether he provided a finished political philosophy, Hayek clearly did not succeed\", although he thinks that \"economists may find Hayek's political writings useful\".==== Dictatorship and totalitarianism ====Hayek sent António de Oliveira Salazar a copy of ''The Constitution of Liberty'' (1960) in 1962.Hayek hoped that his book—this \"preliminary sketch of new constitutional principles\"—\"may assist\" Salazar \"in his endeavour to design a constitution which is proof against the abuses of democracy\".Hayek visited Chile in the 1970s and 1980s during the Government Junta of general Augusto Pinochet and accepted being appointed Honorary Chairman of the Centro de Estudios Públicos, the think tank formed by the economists who transformed Chile into a free market economy.Asked about the military dictatorship of Chile by a Chilean interviewer, Hayek is translated from German to Spanish to English as having said the following: As long term institutions, I am totally against dictatorships.", "But a dictatorship may be a necessary system for a transitional period.", "...", "Personally I prefer a liberal dictatorship to democratic government devoid of liberalism.", "My personal impression—and this is valid for South America—is that in Chile, for example, we will witness a transition from a dictatorial government to a liberal government.In a letter to the ''London Times'', he defended the Pinochet regime and said that he had \"not been able to find a single person even in much maligned Chile who did not agree that personal freedom was much greater under Pinochet than it had been under Allende\".", "Hayek admitted that \"it is not very likely that this will succeed, even if, at a particular point in time, it may be the only hope there is\", but he explained that \"it is not certain hope, because it will always depend on the goodwill of an individual, and there are very few individuals one can trust.", "But if it is the sole opportunity which exists at a particular moment it may be the best solution despite this.", "And only if and when the dictatorial government is visibly directing its steps towards limited democracy\".For Hayek, the distinction between authoritarianism and totalitarianism has much importance and he was at pains to emphasise his opposition to totalitarianism, noting that the concept of transitional dictatorship which he defended was characterised by authoritarianism, not totalitarianism.", "For example, when Hayek visited Venezuela in May 1981, he was asked to comment on the prevalence of totalitarian regimes in Latin America.", "In reply, Hayek warned against confusing \"totalitarianism with authoritarianism\" and said that he was unaware of \"any totalitarian governments in Latin America.", "The only one was Chile under Allende\".", "For Hayek, the word \"totalitarian\" signifies something very specific, namely the intention to \"organize the whole of society\" to attain a \"definite social goal\" which is stark in contrast to \"liberalism and individualism\".", "He claimed that democracy can also be repressive and totalitarian; in ''The Constitution of Liberty'' he often refers to Jacob Talmon's concept of totalitarian democracy.==== Immigration, nationalism and race ====Hayek was skeptical about international immigration and supported Thatcher's anti-immigration policies.", "In ''Law, Legislation and Liberty'' he elaborated:Freedom of migration is one of the widely accepted and wholly admirable principles of liberalism.", "But should this generally give the stranger a right to settle down in a community in which he is not welcome?", "Has he a claim to be given a job or be sold a house if no resident is willing to do so?", "He clearly should be entitled to accept a job or buy a house if offered to him.", "But have the individual inhabitants a duty to offer either to him?", "Or ought it to be an offence if they voluntarily agree not to do so?", "Swiss and Tyrolese villages have a way of keeping out strangers which neither infringe nor rely on any law.", "Is this anti-liberal or morally justified?", "For established old communities I have no certain answers to these questions.He was mainly preoccupied with practical problems concerning immigration:There exist, of course, other reasons why such restrictions appear unavoidable so long as certain differences in national or ethnic traditions (especially differences in the rate of propagation) exist-which in turn are not likely to disappear so long as restrictions on migration continue.", "We must face the fact that we here encounter a limit to the universal application of those liberal principles of policy which the existing facts of the present world make unavoidable.He was not sympathetic to nationalist ideas and was afraid that mass immigration might revive nationalist sentiment among domestic population and ruin the postwar progress that was made among Western nations.", "He additionally explained:However far modern man accepts in principle the ideal that the same rules should apply to all men, in fact he does concede it only to those whom he regards as similar to himself, and only slowly learns to extend the range of those he does accept as his likes.", "There is little legislation can do to speed up this process and much it may do to reverse it by re-awakening sentiments that are already on the wane.Despite his opposition to nationalism, Hayek made numerous controversial and inflammatory comments about specific ethnic groups.", "Answering an interview question about people he cannot deal with he mentioned his dislike of Middle Eastern populations, claiming they were dishonest, and also expressed \"profound dislike\" of Indian students at London School of Economics, saying that were usually \"detestable sons of Bengali moneylenders\".", "He claimed that his attitude is not based on any racial feeling.", "During World War II he discussed the possibility of sending his children to the United States but was concerned that they might be placed with a \"coloured family\".", "In a later interview, questioned about his attitude towards Black people, he said laconically that he \"did not like dancing Negroes\" and on another occasion he ridiculed the decision to award the Nobel Peace Prize to Martin Luther King Jr.", "He also made negative comments about awarding the Prize to Ralph Bunche, Albert Luthuli, and his LSE colleague W. Arthur Lewis who he described as an \"unusually able West Indian negro\".", "In 1978 Hayek made a month-long visit to South Africa (his third) where he gave numerous lectures, interviews, and met prominent politicians and business leaders, unconcerned about possible propagandistic effect of his tour for Apartheid regime.", "He expressed his opposition to some of the government policies, believing that publicly funded institutions should treat all citizens equally, but also claimed that private institutions have the right to discriminate.", "Additionally, he condemned the \"scandalous\" hostility and interference of the international community in South African internal affairs.", "He further explained his attitude:People in South Africa have to deal with their own problems, and the idea that you can use external pressure to change people, who after all have built up a civilization of a kind, seems to me morally a very doubtful belief.While Hayek gave somewhat ambiguous comments on the injustices of Apartheid and proper role of the state, some of his Mont Pelerin colleagues, such as John Davenport and Wilhelm Röpke, were more ardent supporters of South African government and criticized Hayek for being too soft on the subject.==== Inequality and class ====Hayek claimed that the idea that \"all men are born equal\" is untrue because evolution and genetic differences have created \"boundless variety of human nature\".", "He emphasized the importance of nature, complaining that it became too fashionable to ascribe all human differences to environment.", "Hayek defended economic inequality, believing that the existence of wealthy class is important not only for economic reasons—accumulating capital and directing investments—but also for political, cultural, scientific and conservationist goals which are often financed and promoted by philanthropists.", "Since the market mechanism cannot provide for all societal needs, some of which are outside of economic calculation, existence of wealthy individuals guarantees the efficiency and pluralism in their development and realization, which could not be guaranteed in the case of state monopoly.", "Individual wealth offers independence and can create intellectual, moral, political and artistic leaders which are not employed and influenced by the state.", "According to Hayek the society benefits from having a hereditary wealthy class because individuals born in it don't have to devote their energy to earning a living and can devote themselves to other purposes such as experimenting with different ideas, hobbies and lifestyles which can later be adopted by broader society.", "In ''The Constitution of Liberty'' he wrote:Yet is it really so obvious that the tennis or golf professional is a more useful member of society than the wealthy amateurs who devoted their time to perfecting these games?", "Or that the paid curator of a public museum is more useful than a private collector?", "Before the reader answers these questions too hastily, I would ask him to consider whether there would ever have been golf or tennis professionals or museum curators if wealthy amateurs had not preceded them.", "Can we not hope that other new interests will still arise from the playful explorations of those who can indulge in them for the short span of a human life?", "It is only natural that the development of the art of living and of the non-materialistic values should have profited most from the activities of those who had no material worries.He contrasted individuals who inherited wealth, with upper class values and education, with the ''nouveau riche'' who often use their wealth in more vulgar ways.", "He decried the disappearance of such leisured aristocratic class, claiming that contemporary Western elites are usually business groups that lack intellectual leadership and coherent \"philosophy of life\" and use their wealth mostly for economic purposes.Hayek was against high taxes on inheritance, believing that it is natural function of the family to transmit standards, traditions and material goods.", "Without transmission of property, parents might try to secure the future of their children by placing them in prestigious and high-paying positions, as was customary in socialist countries, which creates even worse injustices.", "He was also strongly against progressive taxation, noting that in most countries additional taxes paid by the rich amount to insignificantly small amount of total tax revenue and that the only major result of the policy is \"gratification of the envy of the less-well-off\".", "He also claimed that it is contrary to the idea of equality under the law and against democratic principle that the majority should not impose discriminatory rules against the minority.=== Criticism ===Hayek's work has attracted criticism from a variety of sources.", "One critique has been that Hayek's defense of capitalism is based on a flawed understanding of human nature, which critics claim is overly reliant on a primarily individualistic and self-interested picture.", "Critics argue that this view fails to account for the role of social and cultural factors in shaping human behavior and interactions.Hayek's views on social welfare policies have also been the subject of criticism.", "Critics contend that his opposition to government intervention in the economy fails to recognize the need for social safety nets and other forms of support for vulnerable populations.", "Furthermore, it has been argued that his views on welfare policy contradict his views on social justice.Hayek's argument in ''The Road to Serfdom'' has been criticized as a slippery slope argument and therefore fallacious.", "However, others have argued that this is a fundamental misunderstanding of the book and Hayek's point is about what central planning directly entails, not what it is likely to lead to." ], [ "Influence and recognition", "An elderly Hayek in 1981Hayek's influence on the development of economics is widely acknowledged.", "With regard to the popularity of his Nobel acceptance lecture, Hayek is the second-most frequently cited economist (after Kenneth Arrow) in the Nobel lectures of the prize winners in economics.", "Hayek wrote critically there of the field of orthodox economics and neo-classical modelisation.", "A number of Nobel Laureates in economics, such as Vernon Smith and Herbert A. Simon, recognise Hayek as the greatest modern economist.", "Another Nobel winner, Paul Samuelson, believed that Hayek was worthy of his award, but nevertheless claimed that \"there were good historical reasons for fading memories of Hayek within the mainstream last half of the twentieth century economist fraternity.", "In 1931, Hayek's ''Prices and Production'' had enjoyed an ultra-short Byronic success.", "In retrospect hindsight tells us that its mumbo-jumbo about the period of production grossly misdiagnosed the macroeconomics of the 1927–1931 (and the 1931–2007) historical scene\".", "Despite this comment, Samuelson spent the last 50 years of his life obsessed with the problems of capital theory identified by Hayek and Böhm-Bawerk, and Samuelson flatly judged Hayek to have been right and his own teacher Joseph Schumpeter to have been wrong on the central economic question of the 20th century, the feasibility of socialist economic planning in a production goods dominated economy.Hayek is widely recognised for having introduced the time dimension to the equilibrium construction and for his key role in helping inspire the fields of growth theory, information economics and the theory of spontaneous order.", "The \"informal\" economics presented in Milton Friedman's massively influential popular work ''Free to Choose'' (1980) is explicitly Hayekian in its account of the price system as a system for transmitting and co-ordinating knowledge.", "This can be explained by the fact that Friedman taught Hayek's famous paper \"The Use of Knowledge in Society\" (1945) in his graduate seminars.In 1944, he was elected as a Fellow of the British Academy after he was nominated for membership by Keynes.Harvard economist and former Harvard University President Lawrence Summers explains Hayek's place in modern economics: \"What's the single most important thing to learn from an economics course today?", "What I tried to leave my students with is the view that the invisible hand is more powerful than the unhidden hand.", "Things will happen in well-organized efforts without direction, controls, plans.", "That's the consensus among economists.", "That's the Hayek legacy\".By 1947, Hayek was an organiser of the Mont Pelerin Society, a group of classical liberals who sought to oppose socialism.", "Hayek was also instrumental in the founding of the Institute of Economic Affairs, the right-wing libertarian and free-market think tank that inspired Thatcherism.", "He was in addition a member of the conservative and libertarian Philadelphia Society.Hayek had a long-standing and close friendship with philosopher of science Karl Popper, who was also from Vienna.", "In a letter to Hayek in 1944, Popper stated: \"I think I have learnt more from you than from any other living thinker, except perhaps Alfred Tarski\".", "Popper dedicated his ''Conjectures and Refutations'' to Hayek.", "For his part, Hayek dedicated a collection of papers, ''Studies in Philosophy, Politics, and Economics'', to Popper and in 1982 said that \"ever since his ''Logik der Forschung'' first came out in 1934, I have been a complete adherent to his general theory of methodology\".", "Popper also participated in the inaugural meeting of the Mont Pelerin Society.", "Their friendship and mutual admiration do not change the fact that there are important differences between their ideas.Hayek also played a central role in Milton Friedman's intellectual development.", "Friedman wrote: My interest in public policy and political philosophy was rather casual before I joined the faculty of the University of Chicago.", "Informal discussions with colleagues and friends stimulated a greater interest, which was reinforced by Friedrich Hayek's powerful book The Road to Serfdom, by my attendance at the first meeting of the Mont Pelerin Society in 1947, and by discussions with Hayek after he joined the university faculty in 1950.In addition, Hayek attracted an exceptionally able group of students who were dedicated to a libertarian ideology.", "They started a student publication, The New Individualist Review, which was the outstanding libertarian journal of opinion for some years.", "I served as an adviser to the journal and published a number of articles in it....While Friedman often mentioned Hayek as an important influence, Hayek rarely mentioned Friedman.", "He deeply disagreed with Chicago School methodology, quantitative and macroeconomic focus, and claimed that Friedman's ''Essays in Positive Economics'' was as dangerous a book as Keynes' ''General Theory''.", "Friedman also claimed that despite some Popperian influence Hayek always retained basic Misesian praxeological view which he found \"utterly nonsensical\".", "He also noted that he admired Hayek only for his political works and disagreed with his technical economics; he called ''Prices and Production'' a \"very flawed book\" and ''The Pure Theory of Capital'' \"unreadable\".", "There were occasional tensions at the Mont Pelerin meetings between the Hayek's and Friedman's followers that sometimes threatened to split the Society.", "Although they worked at the same university and shared political beliefs, Hayek and Friedman rarely collaborated professionally and were not close friends.Hayek's greatest intellectual debt was to Carl Menger, who pioneered an approach to social explanation similar to that developed in Britain by Bernard Mandeville and the Scottish moral philosophers in the Scottish Enlightenment.", "He had a wide-reaching influence on contemporary economics, politics, philosophy, sociology, psychology and anthropology.", "For example, Hayek's discussion in ''The Road to Serfdom'' (1944) about truth, falsehood and the use of language influenced some later opponents of postmodernism.Some radical libertarians had a negative view of Hayek and his milder form of liberalism.", "Ayn Rand disliked him, seeing him as a conservative and compromiser.", "In a letter to Rose Wilder Lane in 1946 she wrote:Now to your question: 'Do those almost with us do more harm than 100% enemies?'", "I don't think this can be answered with a flat 'yes' or 'no,' because the 'almost' is such a wide term.", "There is one general rule to observe: those who are with us, but merely do not go far enough are the ones who may do us some good.", "Those who agree with us in some respects, yet preach contradictory ideas at the same time, are definitely more harmful than 100% enemies.", "As an example of the kind of 'almost' I would tolerate, I'd name Ludwig von Mises.", "As an example of our most pernicious enemy, I would name Hayek.", "That one is real poison.Hayek made no known written references to Rand.Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales was influenced by Hayek's ideas on spontaneous order and the Austrian School of economics, after being exposed to these ideas by Austrian economist and Mises Institute Senior Fellow Mark Thornton.=== Relation to conservatism ===Hayek received new attention in the 1980s and 1990s with the rise of conservative governments in the United States, United Kingdom and Canada.", "After winning the 1979 United Kingdom general election, Margaret Thatcher appointed Keith Joseph, the director of the Hayekian Centre for Policy Studies, as her secretary of state for industry in an effort to redirect parliament's economic strategies.", "Likewise, David Stockman, Ronald Reagan's most influential financial official in 1981, was an acknowledged follower of Hayek.Although usually identified as a conservative liberal or a liberal conservative, Hayek published an essay, \"Why I Am Not a Conservative\" (included as an appendix to ''The Constitution of Liberty''), in which he criticized certain aspects of conservatism from a liberal perspective.", "Edmund Fawcett summarizes Hayek's critique as follows:Hayek identified himself as a classical liberal, but noted that in the United States it had become almost impossible to use \"liberal\" in its original definition and the term \"libertarian\" was used instead.", "He also found libertarianism as a term \"singularly unattractive\" and offered the term \"Old Whig\" (a phrase borrowed from Edmund Burke) instead.", "In his later life, he said: \"I am becoming a Burkean Whig\".", "Whiggery as a political doctrine had little affinity for classical political economy, the tabernacle of the Manchester School and William Gladstone.In his 1956 preface to ''The Road to Serfdom'', Hayek summarized all his disagreements with conservatism in this way:Conservatism, though a necessary element in any stable society, is not a social program; in its paternalistic, nationalistic, and poweradoring tendencies it is often closer to socialism than true liberalism; and with its traditionalistic, anti-intellectual, and often mystical propensities it will never, except in short periods of disillusionment, appeal to the young and all those others who believe that some changes are desirable if this world is to become a better place.", "A conservative movement, by its very nature, is bound to be a defender of established privilege and to lean on the power of government for the protection of privilege.", "The essence of the liberal position, however, is the denial of all privilege, if privilege is understood in its proper and original meaning of the state granting and protecting rights to some which are not available on equal terms to others.Samuel Brittan, concluded in 2010 that \"Hayek's book ''The Constitution of Liberty'' is still probably the most comprehensive statement of the underlying ideas of the moderate free market philosophy espoused by neoliberals\".", "Brittan adds that although Raymond Plant (2009) comes out in the end against Hayek's doctrines, Plant gives ''The Constitution of Liberty'' a \"more thorough and fair-minded analysis than it has received even from its professed adherents\".", "As a neo-liberal, he helped found the Mont Pelerin Society, a prominent neo-liberal think tank where many other minds, such as Mises and Friedman gathered.Although Hayek is likely a student of the neo-liberal school of libertarianism, he is nonetheless influential in the conservative movement, mainly for his critique of collectivism.=== Policy discussions ===Hayek's ideas on spontaneous order and the importance of prices in dealing with the knowledge problem inspired a debate on economic development and transition economies after the fall of the Berlin wall.", "For instance, economist Peter Boettke elaborated in detail on why reforming socialism failed and the Soviet Union broke down.", "Economist Ronald McKinnon uses Hayekian ideas to describe the challenges of transition from a centralized state and planned economy to a market economy.", "Former World Bank Chief Economist William Easterly emphasizes why foreign aid tends to have no effect at best in books such as ''The White Man's Burden: Why the West's Efforts to Aid the Rest Have Done So Much Ill and So Little Good''.Since the 2007–2008 financial crisis, there is a renewed interest in Hayek's core explanation of boom-and-bust cycles, which serves as an alternative explanation to that of the savings glut as launched by economist and former Federal Reserve Chair Ben Bernanke.", "Economists at the Bank for International Settlements, e.g.", "William R. White, emphasize the importance of Hayekian insights and the impact of monetary policies and credit growth as root causes of financial cycles.", "Andreas Hoffmann and Gunther Schnabl provide an international perspective and explain recurring financial cycles in the world economy as consequence of gradual interest rate cuts led by the central banks in the large advanced economies since the 1980s.", "Nicolas Cachanosky outlines the impact of American monetary policy on the production structure in Latin America.In line with Hayek, an increasing number of contemporary researchers sees expansionary monetary policies and too low interest rates as mal-incentives and main drivers of financial crises in general and the subprime market crisis in particular.", "To prevent problems caused by monetary policy, Hayekian and Austrian economists discuss alternatives to current policies and organizations.", "For instance, Lawrence H. White argued in favor of free banking in the spirit of Hayek's \"Denationalization of Money\".", "Along with market monetarist economist Scott Sumner, White also noted that the monetary policy norm that Hayek prescribed, first in ''Prices and Production'' (1931) and as late as the 1970s, was the stabilization of nominal income.Hayek's ideas find their way into the discussion of the post-Great Recession issues of secular stagnation.", "Monetary policy and mounting regulation are argued to have undermined the innovative forces of the market economies.", "Quantitative easing following the financial crises is argued to have not only conserved structural distortions in the economy, leading to a fall in trend-growth.", "It also created new distortions and contributes to distributional conflicts.=== Central European politics ===In the 1970s and 1980s, the writings of Hayek were a major influence on some of the future postsocialist economic and political elites in Central and Eastern Europe.", "Supporting examples include the following:" ], [ "Personal life", "Hayek's grave in Neustifter Friedhof, ViennaIn August 1926, Hayek married Helen Berta Maria von Fritsch (1901–1960), a secretary at the civil service office where he worked.", "They had two children together.", "Upon the close of World War II, Hayek restarted a relationship with an old girlfriend, who had married since they first met, but kept it secret until 1948.Hayek and Fritsch divorced in July 1950 and he married his cousin Helene Bitterlich (1900–1996) just a few weeks later, after moving to Arkansas to take advantage of permissive divorce laws.", "His wife and children were offered settlement and compensation for accepting a divorce.", "The divorce caused some scandal at LSE, where certain academics refused to have anything to do with Hayek.", "In a 1978 interview to explain his actions, Hayek stated that he was unhappy in his first marriage and as his wife would not grant him a divorce he had taken steps to obtain one unilaterally.For a time after his divorce, Hayek rarely visited his children, but kept up more regular contact with them in his older years after moving to Europe.", "Hayek's son, Laurence Hayek (1934–2004) was a distinguished microbiologist.", "His daughter Christine was an entomologist at the British Museum of Natural History, and she cared for him during his last years, when he had declining health.Hayek had a lifelong interest in biology and was also concerned with ecology and environmental protection.", "After being awarded his Nobel Prize, he offered his name to be used for endorsements by World Wildlife Fund, National Audubon Society, and the National Trust, a British conservationist organisation.", "Evolutionary biology was simply one of his interests in natural sciences.", "Hayek also had an interest in epistemology, which he often applied to his own thinking, as a social scientist.", "He held that methodological differences in the social sciences and in natural sciences were key to understanding why incompetent policies are often allowed.Hayek was brought up in a non-religious setting and decided from age 15 that he was an agnostic.He died in 1992 in Freiburg, Germany, where he had lived since leaving Chicago in 1961.Despite his advanced age by the 1980s, he continued to write, even purportedly finishing a book, ''The Fatal Conceit'', in 1988, although its actual authorship is unclear." ], [ "Legacy and honours", "A street sign named for Hayek in Freiburg im Breisgau, GermanyHayek's intellectual presence has remained evident in the years following his death, especially in the universities where he had taught, namely the London School of Economics, the University of Chicago and the University of Freiburg.", "His influence and contributions have been noted by many.", "A number of tributes have resulted, many established posthumously:* The Hayek Society, a student-run group at the London School of Economics, was established in his honour.", "* The Oxford Hayek Society, founded in 1983, is named after Hayek.", "* The Cato Institute named its lower level auditorium after Hayek, who had been a Distinguished Senior Fellow at Cato during his later years.", "* The auditorium of the school of economics in Universidad Francisco Marroquín in Guatemala is named after him.", "* The Hayek Fund for Scholars of the Institute for Humane Studies provides financial awards for academic career activities of graduate students and untenured faculty members.", "* The Ludwig von Mises Institute holds a lecture named after Hayek every year at its Austrian Scholars Conference and invites notable academics to speak about subjects relating to Hayek's contributions to the Austrian School.", "* George Mason University has an economics essay award named in honour of Hayek.", "* The Mercatus Center, a free-market think tank also at George Mason University, who has a philosophy, politics and economics program of study named for Hayek.", "* The Mont Pelerin Society has a quadrennial economics essay contest named in his honour.", "* Hayek was awarded honorary degrees from Rikkyo University, University of Vienna and University of Salzburg.", "* Hayek has an investment portfolio named after him.", "The Hayek Fund invests in corporations who financially support free market public policy organisations* 1974: Austrian Decoration for Science and Art* 1974: Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences (Sweden)* 1977: Pour le Mérite for Science and Art (Germany)* 1983: Honorary Ring of Vienna* 1984: Honorary Dean of WHU – Otto Beisheim School of Management* 1984: Hanns Martin Schleyer Prize* 1984: Member of the Order of the Companions of Honour (United Kingdom)* 1990: Grand Gold Medal with Star for Services to the Republic of Austria* 1991: Presidential Medal of Freedom (United States)* 1994: The FA Hayek Scholarship in Economics or Political Science, University of Canterbury.", "The scholarship supports students toward study for an honours or master's degree in the Economics or Political Science at the university.", "It was established in 1994 by a gift from entrepreneur Alan Gibbs." ], [ "Notable works", "* ''The Road to Serfdom'', 1944.", "* ''Individualism and Economic Order'', 1948.", "* ''The Constitution of Liberty'', 1960.", "''The Definitive Edition'', 2011.Description and preview.", "* ''Law, Legislation and Liberty'' (3 volumes) Volume I.", "''Rules and Order'', 1973.", " Volume II.", "''The Mirage of Social Justice'', 1976.", "** Volume III.", "''The Political Order of a Free People'', 1979.", "* ''The Fatal Conceit: The Errors of Socialism'', 1988.Note that the authorship of ''The Fatal Conceit'' is under scholarly dispute.", "The book in its published form may actually have been written entirely by its editor W. W. Bartley III and not by Hayek." ], [ "See also", "* Neoliberalism* Constructivist epistemology* Hayek Lecture* ''Fear the Boom and Bust'', a series of music videos produced by the Mercatus Center in which Keynes and Hayek take part in a rap battle* Global financial system, which describes the financial system consisting of institutions and regulators that act on the international level* History of economic thought* Liberalism in Austria* John Maynard Keynes" ], [ "References", "=== Bibliography ===* Birner, Jack (2001).", "\"The mind-body problem and social evolution,\" CEEL Working Paper 1-02.", "* Birner, Jack, and Rudy van Zijp, eds.", "(1994).", "''Hayek: Co-ordination and Evolution: His legacy in philosophy, politics, economics and the history of ideas''* Birner, Jack (2009).", "\"From group selection to ecological niches.", "Popper's rethinking of evolutionary theory in the light of Hayek's theory of culture\", in S. Parusnikova & R.S.", "Cohen eds.", "(Spring 2009).", "\"Rethinking Popper\", ''Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science''.", "Vol.", "272* * * Caldwell, Bruce (2005).", "''Hayek's Challenge: An Intellectual Biography of F.A.", "Hayek''* * Cohen, Avi J.", "(2003).", "\"The Hayek/Knight Capital Controversy: the Irrelevance of Roundaboutness, or Purging Processes in Time?\"", "''History of Political Economy'' 35(3): 469–490.Fulltext: online in Project Muse, Swetswise and Ebsco* * Doherty, Brian (2007).", "''Radicals for Capitalism: A Freewheeling History of the Modern American Libertarian Movement''* Douma, Sytse and Hein Schreuder, (2013).", "\"Economic Approaches to Organizations\".", "5th edition.", "London: Pearson, * Ebeling, Richard M. (March 2004).", "\"F.A.", "Hayek and ''The Road to Serfdom'': A Sixtieth Anniversary Appreciation\" (''The Freeman''* Ebeling, Richard M. (March 2001).", "\"F.A.", "Hayek: A Biography\" Ludwig von Mises Institute* Ebeling, Richard M. (May 1999).", "\"Friedrich A. Hayek: A Centenary Appreciation\" ''The Freeman''* * * Frowen, S. ed.", "(1997).", "''Hayek: economist and social philosopher''* Gamble, Andrew (1996).", "''The Iron Cage of Liberty'', an analysis of Hayek's ideas* Goldsworthy, J.D.", "(1986).", "\"Hayek's Political and Legal Philosophy: An Introduction\" 1986 SydLawRw 3; 11(1) ''Sydney Law Review'' 44* Gray, John (1998).", "''Hayek on Liberty''* Hacohen, Malach (2000).", "''Karl Popper: The Formative Years, 1902–1945''* * Horwitz, Steven (2005).", "\"Friedrich Hayek, Austrian Economist\".", "''Journal of the History of Economic Thought'' 27(1): 71–85.Fulltext: in Swetswise, Ingenta and Ebsco* Issing, O.", "(1999).", "''Hayek, currency competition and European monetary union''* Jones, Daniel Stedman.", "(2012) ''Masters of the Universe: Hayek, Friedman, and the Birth of Neoliberal Politics'' (Princeton University Press; 424 pages)* Kasper, Sherryl (2002).", "''The Revival of Laissez-Faire in American Macroeconomic Theory: A Case Study of Its Pioneers''.", "Chpt.", "4* Kley, Roland (1994).", "''Hayek's Social and Political Thought''.", "Oxford Univ.", "Press.", "* Leeson, Robert, ed.", "''Hayek: A Collaborative Biography, Part I: Influences, from Mises to Bartley'' (Palgrave MacMillan, 2013), 241 pages* Muller, Jerry Z.", "(2002).", "''The Mind and the Market: Capitalism in Western Thought''.", "Anchor Books.", "* Marsh, Leslie (Ed.)", "(2011).", "''Hayek in Mind: Hayek's Philosophical Psychology''.", "Advances in Austrian Economics.", "Emerald* O'Shea, Jerry (2020).", "'Hayek's Spiritual Science', Modern Intellectual History, First View, pp.", "1–26, * Pavlík, Ján (2004).", "nb.vse.cz .", "''F.A.", "von Hayek and The Theory of Spontaneous Order.''", "Professional Publishing 2004, Prague, profespubl.cz* Plant, Raymond (2009).", "''The Neo-liberal State'' Oxford University Press, 312 pages* * Rosenof, Theodore (1974).", "\"Freedom, Planning, and Totalitarianism: The Reception of F.A.", "Hayek's Road to Serfdom\", ''Canadian Review of American Studies''* Samuelson, Paul A.", "(2009).", "\"A Few Remembrances of Friedrich von Hayek (1899–1992)\", ''Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization'', 69(1), pp.", "1–4.Reprinted at J. Bradford DeLong <eblog* Samuelson, Richard A.", "(1999).", "\"Reaction to the Road to Serfdom.\"", "''Modern Age'' 41(4): 309–317.Fulltext: in Ebsco* Schreuder, Hein (1993).", "\"Coase, Hayek and Hierarchy\", In: S. Lindenberg & Hein Schreuder, eds., Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Organization Studies, Oxford: Pergamon Press* Shearmur, Jeremy (1996).", "''Hayek and after: Hayekian Liberalism as a Research Programme''.", "Routledge.", "* * Tebble, Adam James (2013).", "''F A Hayek''.", "Bloomsbury Academic.", ".", "* Touchie, John (2005).", "''Hayek and Human Rights: Foundations for a Minimalist Approach to Law''.", "Edward Elgar* Vanberg, V. (2001).", "\"Hayek, Friedrich A von (1899–1992),\" ''International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences'', pp. 6482–6486.", "* * Wapshott, Nicholas (2011).", "''Keynes Hayek: The Clash That Defined Modern Economics'', (W.W. Norton & Company) 382 pages ; covers the debate with Keynes in letters, articles, conversation, and by the two economists' disciples* Weimer, W., and Palermo, D., eds.", "(1982).", "''Cognition and the Symbolic Processes''.", "Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.", "Contains Hayek's essay, \"''The Sensory Order'' after 25 Years\" with \"Discussion\"* Wolin, Richard.", "(2004).", "''The Seduction of Unreason: The Intellectual Romance with Fascism from Nietzsche to Postmodernism.''", "Princeton University Press, Princeton.==== Introductions ====* Boudreaux, Donald J.", "(2014).", "''The Essential Hayek''* Butler, Eamonn (2012).", "''Friedrich Hayek: The Ideas and Influence of the Libertarian Economist''=== Primary sources ===* Hayek, Friedrich.", "''The Collected Works of F.A.", "Hayek,'' ed.", "W.W. Bartley, III and others (University of Chicago Press, 1988–); \"Plan of the Collected Works of F.A.", "Hayek\" for 19 volumes; vol 2 excerpt and text search; vol 7 2012 excerpt." ], [ "External links", "* with the Nobel lecture 11 December 1974 ''The Pretence of Knowledge''* Register of the Friedrich A. von Hayek Papers at the Hoover Institution Archives.", "* .", "* * .", "* * Friedrich von Hayek (in German) from the online-archive of the Österreichische Mediathek*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Fred Brooks" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Frederick Phillips Brooks Jr.''' (April 19, 1931 – November 17, 2022) was an American computer architect, software engineer, and computer scientist, best known for managing the development of IBM's System/360 family of computers and the OS/360 software support package, then later writing candidly about those experiences in his seminal book ''The Mythical Man-Month''.In 1976, Brooks was elected to the National Academy of Engineering for \"contributions to computer system design and the development of academic programs in computer sciences\".Brooks received many awards, including the National Medal of Technology in 1985 and the Turing Award in 1999." ], [ "Education", "Born on April 19, 1931, in Durham, North Carolina, he attended Duke University, graduating in 1953 with a Bachelor of Science degree in physics, and he received a Ph.D. in applied mathematics (computer science) from Harvard University in 1956, supervised by Howard Aiken.Brooks served as the graduate teaching assistant for Ken Iverson at Harvard's graduate program in \"automatic data processing\", the first such program in the world." ], [ "Career and research", "Brooks joined IBM in 1956, working in Poughkeepsie, New York, and Yorktown, New York.", "He worked on the architecture of the IBM 7030 Stretch, a $10 million scientific supercomputer of which nine were sold, and the IBM 7950 Harvest computer for the National Security Agency.", "Subsequently, he became manager for the development of the IBM System/360 family of computers and the OS/360 software package.", "During this time he coined the term \"computer architecture\".In 1964, Brooks accepted an invitation to come to the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and founded the university's computer science department.", "He chaired it for 20 years.", "he was still engaged in active research there, primarily in virtual environments and scientific visualization.A few years after leaving IBM, he wrote ''The Mythical Man-Month''.", "The seed for the book was planted by IBM's then-CEO Thomas J. Watson Jr., who asked in Brooks's exit interview why it was so much harder to manage software projects than hardware projects.", "In this book, Brooks made the now-famous statement: \"Adding manpower to a late software project makes it later\", which has since come to be known as Brooks's law.", "In addition to ''The Mythical Man-Month'', Brooks is also known for the paper \"No Silver Bullet – Essence and Accident in Software Engineering\".In 2004 in a talk at the Computer History Museum and also in a 2010 interview in ''Wired'' magazine, Brooks was asked \"What do you consider your greatest technological achievement?\"", "Brooks responded, \"The most important single decision I ever made was to change the IBM 360 series from a 6-bit byte to an 8-bit byte, thereby enabling the use of lowercase letters.", "That change propagated everywhere.", "\"A \"20th anniversary\" edition of ''The Mythical Man-Month'' with four additional chapters was published in 1995.As well as ''The Mythical Man-Month'', Brooks has authored or co-authored many books and peer reviewed papers including ''Automatic Data Processing'', \"No Silver Bullet\", ''Computer Architecture'', and ''The Design of Design''.His contributions to human–computer interaction are described in Ben Shneiderman's HCI pioneers website.===Service and memberships===Brooks served on a number of US national boards and committees, including:* Defense Science Board (1983–86)* Member, Artificial Intelligence Task Force (1983–84)* Chairman, Military Software Task Force (1985–87)* Member, Computers in Simulation and Training Task Force (1986–87)* National Science Board (1987–92)===Awards and honors===In chronological order:* Fellow, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (1968)* W. Wallace McDowell Award for Outstanding Contribution to the Computer Art, IEEE Computer Group (1970)* Computer Sciences Distinguished Information Services Award, Information Technology Professionals (1970)* Guggenheim Fellowship for studies on computer architecture and human factors of computer systems, University of Cambridge, England (1975)* Member, National Academy of Engineering (1976)* Fellow, American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1976)* Computer Pioneer Award, IEEE Computer Society (1982)* National Medal of Technology and Innovation (1985)* Thomas Jefferson Award, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (1986)* Distinguished Service Award, Association for Computing Machinery (1987)* Harry Goode Memorial Award, American Federation of Information Processing Societies (1989)* Foreign Member, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (1991)* Honorary Doctor of Technical Science, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, ETH Zurich (1991)* IEEE John von Neumann Medal, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (1993)* Fellow of the Association for Computing Machinery (1994)* Distinguished Fellow of the British Computer Society (DFBCS) (1994)* International Fellow of the Royal Academy of Engineering (FREng), UK (1994)* Allen Newell Award, Association for Computing Machinery (1994)* Bower Award and Prize in Science, Franklin Institute (1995)* CyberEdge Journal Annual Sutherland Award (April 1997)* Turing Award, Association for Computing Machinery (1999)* Member, National Academy of Sciences (2001)* Received the Computer History Museum's Fellow Award, for his contributions to computer architecture, operating systems, and software engineering.", "(2001)* Eckert–Mauchly Award, Association for Computing Machinery and The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers–Computer Society (2004)* IEEE Virtual Reality Career Award (2010)In January 2005, he gave the Turing Lecture on the subject of \"Collaboration and Telecollaboration in Design\"." ], [ "Personal life", "Brooks was an evangelical Christian who was active with InterVarsity Christian Fellowship.Brooks married Nancy Lee Greenwood in 1956.They have three children.", "He named his eldest son after Kenneth E. Iverson.Brooks died on November 17, 2022, at age 91.He had been in poor health following a stroke." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "**" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Factoid" ], [ "Introduction", "The Great Wall of China is often incorrectly said to be visible from space with the naked eye.A '''factoid''' is either an invented or assumed statement presented as a fact, ''or'' a true but brief or trivial item of news or information.The term was coined in 1973 by American writer Norman Mailer to mean a piece of information that becomes accepted as a fact even though it is not actually true, or an invented fact believed to be true because it appears in print.", "Since the term's invention in 1973, it has become used to describe a brief or trivial item of news or information." ], [ "Usage", "The term was coined by American writer Norman Mailer in his 1973 biography of Marilyn Monroe.", "Mailer described factoids as \"facts which have no existence before appearing in a magazine or newspaper\", and formed the word by combining the word ''fact'' and the ending ''-oid'' to mean \"similar but not the same\".", "''The Washington Times'' described Mailer's new word as referring to \"something that looks like a fact, could be a fact, but in fact is not a fact\".Accordingly, factoids may give rise to, or arise from, common misconceptions and urban legends.", "Several decades after the term was coined by Mailer, it came to have several meanings, some of which are quite distinct from each other.", "In 1993, William Safire identified several contrasting senses of ''factoid'':* \"factoid: accusatory: misinformation purporting to be factual; or, a phony statistic.", "\"* \"factoid: neutral: seemingly though not necessarily factual\"* \"factoid: (the CNN version): a little-known bit of information; trivial but interesting data.", "\"This new sense of a factoid as a trivial but interesting fact was popularized by the CNN Headline News TV channel, which, during the 1980s and 1990s, often included such a fact under the heading \"factoid\" during newscasts.", "BBC Radio 2 presenter Steve Wright used factoids extensively on his show." ], [ "Versus factlet", "As a result of confusion over the meaning of factoid, some English-language style and usage guides discourage its use.", "William Safire in his \"On Language\" column advocated the use of the word ''factlet'' instead of ''factoid'' to express a brief interesting fact as well as a \"little bit of arcana\" but did not explain how adopting this new term would alleviate the ongoing confusion over the existing contradictory common use meanings of ''factoid''.Safire suggested that ''factlet'' be used to designate a small or trivial bit of information that is nonetheless true or accurate.", "A report in ''The Guardian'' identified Safire as the writer who coined the term ''factlet'', although Safire's 1993 column suggested ''factlet'' was already in use at that time.", "''The Atlantic'' magazine agreed with Safire and recommended ''factlet'' to signify a \"small probably unimportant but interesting fact\", as ''factoid'' still connoted a spurious fact.", "The term ''factlet'' has been used in publications such as ''Mother Jones'', the ''San Jose Mercury News'', and in the ''Reno Gazette Journal''." ], [ "See also" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Figured bass" ], [ "Introduction", "Melody from the opening of Henry Purcell's \"Thy Hand, Belinda\", ''Dido and Aeneas'' (1689) with figured bass below (, with figured bass realization).", "'''Figured bass''' is musical notation in which numerals and symbols appear above or below (or next to) a bass note.", "The numerals and symbols (often accidentals) indicate intervals, chords, and non-chord tones that a musician playing piano, harpsichord, organ, or lute (or other instruments capable of playing chords) should play in relation to the bass note.", "Figured bass is closely associated with basso continuo: a historically improvised accompaniment used in almost all genres of music in the Baroque period of Classical music ( 1600–1750), though rarely in modern music.", "Figured bass is also known as '''thoroughbass'''.Other systems for denoting or representing chords include plain staff notation, used in classical music; Roman numerals, commonly used in harmonic analysis; chord letters, sometimes used in modern musicology; the Nashville Number System; and various chord names and symbols used in jazz and popular music (e.g., C Major or simply C; D minor, Dm, or D−; G7, etc.", ")." ], [ "Basso continuo", "Basso continuo parts, most common in the Baroque era (1600–1750), provided the harmonic structure of the music by supplying a bassline and a chord progression.", "The phrase is often shortened to ''continuo'', and the instrumentalists playing the continuo part are called the ''continuo group''.A harpsichordist and a bassist play continuo for a small group of singers.The makeup of the continuo group is often left to the discretion of the performers (or, for a larger performance, the conductor), and practice varied enormously within the Baroque period.", "At least one instrument capable of playing chords must be included, such as a piano, harpsichord, organ, lute, theorbo, guitar, regal, or harp.", "In addition, any number of instruments that play in the bass register may be included, such as cello, double bass, bass viol, or bassoon.", "The most common combination, at least in modern performances, is harpsichord and cello for instrumental works and secular vocal works, such as operas, and organ and cello for sacred music.", "A double bass may be added, particularly when accompanying a lower-pitched solo voice (e.g., a bass singer).Typically performers match the instrument families used in the full ensemble: including bassoon when the work includes oboes or other winds, but restricting it to cello and/or double bass if only strings are involved.", "Harps, lutes, and other handheld instruments are more typical of early 17th-century music.", "Sometimes instruments are specified by the composer: in ''L'Orfeo'' (1607) Monteverdi calls for an exceptionally varied instrumentation, with multiple harpsichords and lutes with a bass violin in the pastoral scenes followed by lamenting to the accompaniment of ''organo di legno'' and ''chitarrone'', while Charon stands watch to the sound of a regal.The keyboard (or other chord-playing instrument) player ''realizes'' (adds in an improvised fashion) a continuo part by playing, in addition to the notated bass line, notes above it to complete chords, either determined ahead of time or improvised in performance.", "The figured bass notation, described below, is a guide, but performers are also expected to use their musical judgment and the other instruments or voices (notably the lead melody and any accidentals that might be present in it) as a guide.", "Experienced players sometimes incorporate motives found in the other instrumental parts into their improvised chordal accompaniment.", "Modern editions of such music usually supply a realized keyboard part, fully written out in staff notation for a player, in place of improvisation.", "With the rise in historically informed performance, however, the number of performers who are able to improvise their parts from the figures, as Baroque players would have done, has increased.Basso continuo, though an essential structural and identifying element of the Baroque period, rapidly declined in the classical period (up to around 1800).", "A late example is C. P. E. Bach's Concerto in D minor for flute, strings and basso continuo (1747).", "Examples of its use in the 19th century are rarer, but they do exist: masses by Anton Bruckner, Beethoven, and Franz Schubert, for example, have a basso continuo part that was for an organist." ], [ "Figured bass notation", "A part notated with figured bass consists of a bass line notated with notes on a musical staff plus added numbers and accidentals (or in some cases (back)slashes added to a number) beneath the staff to indicate what intervals above the bass notes should be played, and therefore which inversions of which chords are to be played.The phrase ''tasto solo'' indicates that only the bass line (without any upper chords) is to be played for a short period, usually until the next figure is encountered.", "This instructs the chord-playing instrumentalist not to play any improvised chords for a period.", "The reason ''tasto solo'' had to be specified was because it was an accepted convention that if no figures were present in a section of otherwise figured bass line, the chord-playing performer would either assume that it was a root-position triad, or deduce from the harmonic motion that another figure was implied.", "For example, if a continuo part in the key of C begins with a C bass note in the first measure, which descends to a B in the second measure, even if there were no figures, the chord-playing instrumentalist would deduce that this was most likely a first inversion dominant chord (spelled B–D–G, from bottom note of the chord to the top).Composers were inconsistent in the usages described below.", "Especially in the 17th century, the numbers were omitted whenever the composer thought the chord was obvious.", "Early composers such as Claudio Monteverdi often specified the octave by the use of compound intervals such as 10, 11, and 15.===Numbers===+Common Conventional Symbols for Figured BassTriads Inversion Intervalsabove bass Symbol ExampleRoot position None{ \\override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \\new PianoStaff 4 } >> \\new Staff 4 } >> >> }1st inversion 2nd inversion Seventh chords Inversion Intervalsabove bass Symbol ExampleRoot position { \\override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \\new PianoStaff 4 } >> \\new Staff 4 } >> >> }1st inversion 2nd inversion 3rd inversion or Contemporary figured bass abbreviations for triads and seventh chords are shown in the table to the right.The numbers indicate the number of scale steps above the given bass-line that a note should be played.", "For example::{ \\override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \\time 6/4 \\clef bass 1 } >> }Here, the bass note is a C, and the numbers 4 and 6 indicate that notes a fourth and a sixth above it should be played, that is an F and an A.", "In other words, the second inversion of an F major chord can be realized as::{ \\override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \\time 6/4 \\clef bass 1 } >> }In cases where the numbers 3 or 5 would normally be understood, these are usually left out.", "For example::{ \\override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \\clef bass 1 } >> }has the same meaning as:{ \\override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \\clef bass 1 } >> }and can be realized as:{ \\override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \\clef bass \\cadenzaOn 1 }although the performer may choose which octave to play the notes in and will often elaborate them in some way, such as by playing them as arpeggios rather than as block chords, or by adding improvised ornaments, depending on the tempo and texture of the music.Sometimes, other numbers are omitted: a 2 on its own or indicates , for example.", "From the figured bass-writer's perspective, this bass note is obviously a third inversion seventh chord, so the sixth interval is viewed as an interval that the player should automatically infer.", "In many cases entire figures can be left out, usually where the chord is obvious from the progression or the melody.Sometimes the chord changes but the bass note itself is held.", "In these cases the figures for the new chord are written wherever in the bar they are meant to occur.", ":{ \\override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \\time 6/4 2 } >> } can be realized as { \\override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \\time 6/4 2 } \\\\ { c1 } >> } >> }When the bass note changes but the notes in the chord above it are to be held, a line is drawn next to the figure or figures, for as long as the chord is to be held, to indicate this::{ \\override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \\time 6/4 \\clef bass 2 } >> } can be realized as { \\override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \\time 6/4 \\clef bass 1 } \\\\ { c2 b, } >> }When the bass moves the chord intervals have effectively changed, in this case from to , but no additional numbers are written.===Accidentals===When an accidental is shown on its own without a number, it applies to the note a third above the lowest note; most commonly, this is the third of the chord.", "Otherwise, if a number is shown, the accidental affects the said interval.", "For example, this, showing the widespread default meaning of an accidental without number as applying to the third above the bass::{ \\override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \\time 4/4 \\clef bass 1 } >> } can be realized as { \\override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \\time 4/4 \\clef bass 1 }Sometimes the accidental is placed after the number rather than before it.Alternatively, a cross placed next to a number indicates that the pitch of that note should be raised (augmented) by a semitone (so that if it is normally a flat it becomes a natural, and if it is normally a natural it becomes a sharp).", "A different way to indicate this is to draw a backslash through the number itself.", "The following three notations, therefore, all indicate the same thing::{ \\override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \\time 4/4 \\key c \\minor \\clef bass 1 } >> } can all be realized as { \\override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \\time 4/4 \\key c \\minor \\clef bass 1 } >> }More rarely, a \"forward\" slash through a number indicates that a pitch is to be lowered (diminished) by a semitone: :{ \\override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \\time 4/4 \\key c \\minor \\clef bass 1 } >> } can both be realized as { \\override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \\time 4/4 \\key c \\minor \\clef bass 1 } >> }When sharps or flats are used with key signatures, they may have a slightly different meaning, especially in 17th-century music.", "A sharp might be used to cancel a flat in the key signature, or vice versa, instead of a natural sign.===Example in context===:An example of figured bass in context.", "Taken from ''Beschränkt, ihr Weisen'', by J. S. Bach (BWV 443)." ], [ "Contemporary uses", "In the 20th and 21st century, figured bass is also sometimes used by classical musicians as a shorthand way of indicating chords when a composer is sketching out ideas for a new piece or when a music student is analyzing the harmony of a notated piece of music (e.g., a Bach chorale or a Chopin piano prelude).", "Figured bass is not generally used in modern musical compositions, except for neo-Baroque pieces.", "In the 2000s, outside of professional Baroque ensembles that specialize in the performance practice of the Baroque era, the most common use of figured bass notation is to indicate the inversion in a harmonic analysis or composer's sketch context, however, often without the staff notation, using letter note names followed with the figure.", "For instance, if a piano piece had a C major triad in the right hand (C–E–G), with the bass note a G with the left hand, this would be a second inversion C major chord, which would be written G. If this same C major triad had an E in the bass, it would be a first inversion chord, which would be written E or E (this is different from the jazz notation, where a C means the added sixth chord C–E–G–A, i.e., a C major with an added 6th degree).", "The symbols can also be used with Roman numerals in analyzing functional harmony, a usage called ''figured Roman''; see chord symbol.A form of figured bass is used in notation of accordion music; another simplified form is used to notate guitar chords." ], [ "See also", "Realization (figured bass) Unfigured bass" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "" ], [ "External links", " Figured Bass Symbology by Robert Kelley* Chords that the (major) scale degrees (in the bass) can imply by Robert Kelley* Theory and Practice of the Basso Continuo by Barry Mitchell* Historical sources on the subject of basso continuo - Viadana, Agazzari etc" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Fashion" ], [ "Introduction", "Minidress by John Bates, 1965 '''Fashion''' is a term used interchangeably to describe the creation of clothing, footwear, accessories, cosmetics, and jewellery of different cultural aesthetics and their mix and match into outfits that depict distinctive ways of dressing (styles and trends) as signifiers of social status, self-expression, and group belonging.", "As a multifaceted term, fashion describes an industry, styles, aesthetics, and trends.The term 'fashion' originates from the Latin word 'Facere,' which means 'to make,' and describes the manufacturing, mixing, and wearing of outfits adorned with specific cultural aesthetics, patterns, motifs, shapes, and cuts, allowing people to showcase their group belonging, values, meanings, beliefs, and ways of life.", "Given the rise in mass production of commodities and clothing at lower prices and global reach, reducing fashion's environmental impact and improving sustainability has become an urgent issue among politicians, brands, and consumers." ], [ "Definitions", "The French word , meaning \"fashion\", dates as far back as 1482, while the English word denoting something \"in style\" dates only to the 16th century.", "Other words exist related to concepts of style and appeal that precede ''mode''.", "In the 12th and 13th century Old French the concept of elegance begins to appear in the context of aristocratic preferences to enhance beauty and display refinement, and , the idea of making oneself more attractive to others by style or artifice in grooming and dress, appears in a 13th-century poem by Guillaume de Lorris advising men that \"handsome clothes and handsome accessories improve a man a great deal\".Fashion scholar Susan B. Kaiser states that everyone is \"forced to appear\", unmediated before others.", "Everyone is evaluated by their attire, and evaluation includes the consideration of colors, materials, silhouette, and how garments appear on the body.", "Garments identical in style and material also appear different depending on the wearer's body shape, or whether the garment has been washed, folded, mended, or is new.Woman's Bicycling Ensemble, 1898, LACMA''Fashion'' is defined in a number of different ways, and its application can be sometimes unclear.", "Though the term ''fashion'' connotes difference, as in \"the new fashions of the season\", it can also connote sameness, for example in reference to \"the fashions of the 1960s\", implying a general uniformity.", "Fashion can signify the latest trends, but may often reference fashions of a previous era, leading to the reappearance of fashions from a different time period.", "While what is fashionable can be defined by a relatively insular, esteemed and often rich aesthetic elite who make a look exclusive, such as fashion houses and haute couturiers, this 'look' is often designed by pulling references from subcultures and social groups who are not considered elite, and are thus excluded from making the distinction of what is fashion themselves.Whereas a ''trend'' often connotes a peculiar aesthetic expression, often lasting shorter than a season and being identifiable by visual extremes, fashion is a distinctive and industry-supported expression traditionally tied to the fashion season and collections.", "''Style'' is an expression that lasts over many seasons and is often connected to cultural movements and social markers, symbols, class, and culture (such as Baroque and Rococo).", "According to sociologist Pierre Bourdieu, fashion connotes \"the latest difference.", "\"Even though the terms ''fashion'', ''clothing'' and ''costume'' are often used together, fashion differs from both.", "''Clothing'' describes the material and the technical garment, devoid of any social meaning or connections; ''costume'' has come to mean fancy dress or masquerade wear.", "Fashion, by contrast, describes the social and temporal system that influences and \"activates\" dress as a social signifier in a certain time and context.", "Philosopher Giorgio Agamben connects fashion to the qualitative Ancient Greek concept of , meaning \"the right, critical, or opportune moment\", and clothing to the quantitative concept of , the personification of chronological or sequential time.While some exclusive brands may claim the label ''haute couture,'' in France, the term is technically limited to members of the in Paris.", "Haute couture is more aspirational; inspired by art and culture, and in most cases, reserved for the economic elite.", "However, New York's fashion calendar hosts Couture Fashion Week, which strives for a more equitable and inclusive mission.Fashion is also a source of art, allowing people to display their unique tastes, sensibilities, and styles.", "Different fashion designers are influenced by outside stimuli and reflect this inspiration in their work.", "For example, Gucci's 'stained green' jeans may look like a grass stain, but to others, they display purity, freshness, and summer.Fashion is unique, self-fulfilling and may be a key part of someone's identity.", "Similarly to art, the aims of a person's choices in fashion are not necessarily to be liked by everyone, but instead to be an expression of personal taste.", "A person's personal style functions as a \"societal formation always combining two opposite principles.", "It is a socially acceptable and secure way to distinguish oneself from others and, at the same time, it satisfies the individual's need for social adaptation and imitation.\"", "While philosopher Immanuel Kant believed that fashion \"has nothing to do with genuine judgements of taste\", and was instead \"a case of unreflected and 'blind' imitation\", sociologist Georg Simmel thought of fashion as something that \"helped overcome the distance between an individual and his society\"." ], [ "History of fashion", "Changes in clothing often took place at times of economic or social change, as occurred in ancient Rome and the medieval Caliphate, followed by a long period without significant changes.", "In eighth-century Moorish Spain, the musician Ziryab introduced to Córdoba sophisticated clothing styles based on seasonal and daily fashions from his native Baghdad, modified by his inspiration.", "Similar changes in fashion occurred in the 11th century in the Middle East following the arrival of the Turks, who introduced clothing styles from Central Asia and the Far East.=== Alleged Western distinctiveness ===''Gensei Kajin Shu'' by Yoshu Chikanobu, 1890.Various styles of traditional Japanese clothing and Western styles.Early Western travellers who visited India, Persia, Turkey, or China, would frequently remark on the absence of change in fashion in those countries.", "In 1609, the secretary of the Japanese bragged inaccurately to a Spanish visitor that Japanese clothing had not changed in over a thousand years.", "However, these conceptions of non-Western clothing undergoing little, if any, evolution are generally held to be untrue; for instance, there is considerable evidence in Ming China of rapidly changing fashions in Chinese clothing.", "In imperial China, clothing were not only an embodiment of freedom and comfort or used to cover the body or protect against the cold or used for decorative purposes; it was also regulated by strong sumptuary laws which was based on strict social hierarchy system and the ritual system of the Chinese society.", "It was expected for people to be dressed accordingly to their gender, social status and occupation; the Chinese clothing system had cleared evolution and varied in appearance in each period of history.", "However, ancient Chinese fashion, like in other cultures, was an indicator of the socioeconomic conditions of its population; for Confucian scholars, however, changing fashion was often associated with social disorder which was brought by rapid commercialization.", "Clothing which experienced fast changing fashion in ancient China was recorded in ancient Chinese texts, where it was sometimes referred as , \"contemporary-styles\", and was associated with the concept of , \"outrageous dress\", which typically holds a negative connotation.", "Similar changes in clothing can be seen in Japanese clothing between the Genroku period and the later centuries of the Edo period (1603–1867), during which a time clothing trends switched from flashy and expensive displays of wealth to subdued and subverted ones.The myth on the lack of fashion in what was considered the Orient was related to Western Imperialism also often accompanied Orientalism, and European imperialism was especially at its highest in the 19th century.", "In the 19th century time, Europeans described China in binary opposition to Europe, describing China as \"lacking in fashion\" among many other things, while Europeans deliberately placed themselves in a superior position when they would compare themselves to the Chinese as well as to other countries in Asia:Similar ideas were also applied to other countries in the East Asia, in India, and Middle East, where the perceived lack of fashion were associated with offensive remarks on the Asian social and political systems:=== Fashion in Africa ===Additionally, there is a long history of fashion in West Africa.", "Cloth was used as a form of currency in trade with the Portuguese and Dutch as early as the 16th century, and locally produced cloth and cheaper European imports were assembled into new styles to accommodate the growing elite class of West Africans and resident gold and slave traders.", "There was an exceptionally strong tradition of weaving in the Oyo Empire, and the areas inhabited by the Igbo people.=== Fashion in the Western world ===Marie Antoinette, wife of Louis XVI, was a leader of fashion.", "Her choices, such as this 1783 white muslin dress called a , were highly influential and widely worn.The beginning in Europe of continual and accelerating change in clothing styles can be fairly reliably dated to late medieval times.", "Historians, including James Laver and Fernand Braudel, date the start of Western fashion in clothing to the middle of the 14th century, though they tend to rely heavily on contemporary imagery, as illuminated manuscripts were not common before the 14th century.", "The most dramatic early change in fashion was a sudden drastic shortening and tightening of the male over-garment from calf-length to barely covering the buttocks, sometimes accompanied with stuffing in the chest to make it look bigger.", "This created the distinctive Western outline of a tailored top worn over leggings or trousers.The pace of change accelerated considerably in the following century, and women's and men's fashion, especially in the dressing and adorning of the hair, became equally complex.", "Art historians are, therefore, able to use fashion with confidence and precision to date images, often to within five years, particularly in the case of images from the 15th century.", "Initially, changes in fashion led to a fragmentation across the upper classes of Europe of what had previously been a very similar style of dressing and the subsequent development of distinctive national styles.", "These national styles remained very different until a counter-movement in the 17th to 18th centuries imposed similar styles once again, mostly originating from Ancien Régime France.", "Though the rich usually led fashion, the increasing affluence of early modern Europe led to the bourgeoisie and even peasants following trends at a distance, but still uncomfortably close for the elites – a factor that Fernand Braudel regards as one of the main motors of changing fashion.Albrecht Dürer's drawing contrasts a well-turned out ''bourgeoise'' from Nuremberg (left) with her counterpart from Venice.", "The Venetian lady's high chopines make her look taller.In the 16th century, national differences were at their most pronounced.", "Ten 16th century portraits of German or Italian gentlemen may show ten entirely different hats.", "Albrecht Dürer illustrated the differences in his actual (or composite) contrast of Nuremberg and Venetian fashions at the close of the 15th century (illustration, right).", "The \"Spanish style\" of the late 16th century began the move back to synchronicity among upper-class Europeans, and after a struggle in the mid-17th century, French styles decisively took over leadership, a process completed in the 18th century.Though different textile colors and patterns changed from year to year, the cut of a gentleman's coat and the length of his waistcoat, or the pattern to which a lady's dress was cut, changed more slowly.", "Men's fashions were primarily derived from military models, and changes in a European male silhouette were galvanized in theaters of European war where gentleman officers had opportunities to make notes of different styles such as the \"Steinkirk\" cravat or necktie.", "Both parties wore shirts under their clothing, the cut and style of which had little cause to change over a number of centuries.Though there had been distribution of dressed dolls from France since the 16th century and Abraham Bosse had produced engravings of fashion in the 1620s, the pace of change picked up in the 1780s with increased publication of French engravings illustrating the latest Paris styles.", "By 1800, all Western Europeans were dressing alike (or thought they were); local variation became first a sign of provincial culture and later a badge of the conservative peasant.Although tailors and dressmakers were no doubt responsible for many innovations, and the textile industry indeed led many trends, the history of fashion design is generally understood to date from 1858 when the English-born Charles Frederick Worth opened the first authentic ''haute couture'' house in Paris.", "The Haute house was the name established by the government for the fashion houses that met the standards of the industry.", "These fashion houses continue to adhere to standards such as keeping at least twenty employees engaged in making the clothes, showing two collections per year at fashion shows, and presenting a certain number of patterns to costumers.", "Since then, the idea of the fashion designer as a celebrity in their own right has become increasingly dominant.Although fashion can be feminine or masculine, additional trends are androgynous.", "The idea of unisex dressing originated in the 1960s, when designers such as Pierre Cardin and Rudi Gernreich created garments, such as stretch jersey tunics or leggings, meant to be worn by both males and females.", "The impact of unisex wearability expanded more broadly to encompass various themes in fashion, including androgyny, mass-market retail, and conceptual clothing.", "The fashion trends of the 1970s, such as sheepskin jackets, flight jackets, duffel coats, and unstructured clothing, influenced men to attend social gatherings without a dinner jacket and to accessorize in new ways.", "Some men's styles blended the sensuality and expressiveness, and the growing gay-rights movement and an emphasis on youth allowed for a new freedom to experiment with style and with fabrics such as wool crepe, which had previously been associated with women's attire.Marcus Clarks' spring and summer catalogue 1926–27The four major current fashion capitals are acknowledged to be New York City (Manhattan), Paris, Milan, and London, which are all headquarters to the most significant fashion companies and are renowned for their major influence on global fashion.", "Fashion weeks are held in these cities, where designers exhibit their new clothing collections to audiences.", "A study demonstrated that general proximity to New York's Garment District was important to participate in the American fashion ecosystem.", "''Haute couture'' has now largely been subsidized by the sale of ready-to-wear collections and perfume using the same branding.Modern Westerners have a vast number of choices in the selection of their clothes.", "What a person chooses to wear can reflect their personality or interests.", "When people who have high cultural status start to wear new or different styles, they may inspire a new fashion trend.", "People who like or respect these people are influenced by their style and begin wearing similarly styled clothes.Fashions may vary considerably within a society according to age, social class, generation, occupation, and geography, and may also vary over time.", "The terms ''fashionista'' and ''fashion victim'' refer to someone who slavishly follows current fashions.===Fashion influence from the Eastern world===In the early 2000s, Asian fashion influences became increasingly significant in local and global markets.", "Countries such as China, Japan, India, and Pakistan have traditionally had large textile industries with a number of rich traditions; though these were often drawn upon by Western designers, Asian clothing styles gained considerable influence in the early- to mid-2000s.", "'''Chinese Fashion Through the Years'''Chinese fashion remained constantly changing over the centuries.", "In China, throughout the Tang Dynasty (618-907), women wore extravagant attire to demonstrate prosperity.", "Mongol men of the Yuan Dynasty (1279-1368) wore loose robes; horsemen sported shorter robes, trousers, and boots to provide ease when horseback riding.", "The leaders of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911) maintained Manchu dress, while establishing new garments for officials; while foot binding—originally introduced in the 10th century—was not preserved, women of this era were expected to wear particular heels that pushed them to take on a ladylike walk.", "Then, in the 1920s, qipao was in vogue and the style consisted of stand collars, trumpet sleeves, straight silhouettes and short side slits.", "Since then, designers started to move into Western fashion like fur coats and cloaks and body-hugging dresses with long side slits as qipao became more popular.", "In the 1950s and 60s, ‘ Lenin coats’ with double lines of buttons, slanting pockets and a belt came into vogue among Chinese men.", "'''Indian Fashion Through the Years'''In India, it has been common for followers of different religions to wear corresponding pieces of clothing.", "During the 15th century, Muslim and Hindu women wore notably different articles of clothing.", "This is also seen in many other Eastern world countries.In the Victorian era, most women did not wear blouses under their saris, which did not suit the Victorian society; however, British and Indian fashion would be influenced by each other in following decades.", "In the 1920s, the nationalists adopted Khadi cloth as a symbol of resistance; here, Gandhi became the face of the resistance which made people spin, weave, and wear their Khadi.", "Today, the salwaar-kameez is recognized as the national dress of India.", "'''Japanese Fashion Through the Years'''For Japan, the people during the Meiji period (1868-1912) widely incorporated Western styles into Japanese fashion, which is considered to be a remarkable transformation for the Japanese vogue.", "They extensively adopted the style and practices of Western cultures.The upper classes wore more extravagant pieces of clothing like luxurious patterned silks and adorned themselves with fancy sashes.", "Women also started wearing Western dresses in public instead of their traditional Kimono.", "Most of the officials were also required to wear Western suits.", "In this way, the Japanese slowly adopted into Western fashion.", "Moreover, like India, different Japanese religions wear different pieces of clothing." ], [ "Fashion industry", "Liu Wen, supermodel, walks the runway modeling fashions by designer Diane von Fürstenberg at New York Fashion Week 2013.Haute couture fashion models walk the runway during New York Fashion Week in February 2014, at the Carolina Herrera show.In its most common use, the term fashion refers to the current expressions on sale through the fashion industry.", "The global fashion industry is a product of the modern age.", "In the Western world, tailoring has since medieval times been controlled by guilds, but with the emergence of industrialism, the power of the guilds was undermined.", "Before the mid-19th century, most clothing was custom-made.", "It was handmade for individuals, either as home production or on order from dressmakers and tailors.", "By the beginning of the 20th century, with the rise of new technologies such as the sewing machine, the rise of global trade, the development of the factory system of production, and the proliferation of retail outlets such as department stores, clothing became increasingly mass-produced in standard sizes and sold at fixed prices.Although the fashion industry developed first in Europe and America, , it is an international and highly globalized industry, with clothing often designed in one country, manufactured in another, and sold worldwide.", "For example, an American fashion company might source fabric in China and have the clothes manufactured in Vietnam, finished in Italy, and shipped to a warehouse in the United States for distribution to retail outlets internationally.The fashion industry has for a long time been one of the largest employers in the United States, and it remains so in the 21st century.", "However, U.S. employment in fashion began to decline considerably as production increasingly moved overseas, especially to China.", "Because data regarding the fashion industry typically are reported for national economies and expressed in terms of the industry's many separate sectors, aggregate figures for the world production of textiles and clothing are difficult to obtain.", "However, by any measure, the clothing industry accounts for a significant share of world economic output.The fashion industry consists of four levels:# The production of raw materials, principally fiber, and textiles but also leather and fur.# The production of fashion goods by designers, manufacturers, contractors, and others.# Retail sales.# Various forms of advertising and promotion.The levels of focus in the fashion industry consist of many separate but interdependent sectors.", "These sectors include textile design and production, fashion design and manufacturing, fashion retailing, marketing and merchandising, fashion shows, and media and marketing.", "Each sector is devoted to the goal of satisfying consumer demand for apparel under conditions that enable participants in the industry to operate at a profit." ], [ "Fashion trends", "A fashion trend signifies a specific look or expression that is spread across a population at a specific time and place.", "A trend is considered a more ephemeral look, not defined by the seasons when collections are released by the fashion industry.", "A trend can thus emerge from street style, across cultures, and from influencers and other celebrities.Fashion trends are influenced by several factors, including cinema, celebrities, climate, creative explorations, innovations, designs, political, economic, social, and technological.", "Examining these factors is called a PEST analysis.", "Fashion forecasters can use this information to help determine the growth or decline of a particular trend.People's minds as well as their perceptions and consciousness are constantly changing.", "Fads are inherently social, are constantly evolving in a contradiction between the old and the new, and are in a sense easily influenced by those around them, and therefore also begin to imitate constantly.Continuing on from the maximalist and 1980s influences of the early 2020s, vibrant coloured clothing had made a comeback for women in America, France, China, Korea, and the Ukraine by the spring of 2023.This style, sometimes referred to as \"dopamine dressing\", featured long skirts and belted maxi dresses with thigh splits, lots of gold and pearl jewelry, oversized striped cardigan sweaters, multicoloured silk skirts with seashell or floral print, strappy sandals, pants with a contrasting stripe down the leg, ugg boots, floral print maxi skirts, Y2K inspired platform shoes, chunky red rain boots, shimmery jumpsuits, knitted dresses, leather pilot jackets with faux fur collars, skirts with bold contrasting vertical stripes, trouser suits with bootcut legs, jeans with glittery heart or star-shaped details, chunky white or black sandals, and zebra print tote bags.Big, oversized garments were often made from translucent materials and featured cutouts intended to expose the wearer's bare shoulder, thigh, or midriff, such as low-cut waists on the pants or tops with strappy necklines intended to be worn braless.", "Desirable colours included neon green, watermelon green, coral pink, orange, salmon pink, magenta, gold, electric blue, aquamarine, cyan, turquoise, and royal blue.In 2023, the predominant colours in Britain, France and America were red, white and blue.", "As in the mid to late 1970s, Western shirts with pearl snaps in denim or bright madras plaid made a comeback, and sometimes featured contrasting yokes and cuffs with intricate embroidery.", "Moccasins, stonewash denim waistcoats with decorative fringes, preppy loafers, navy blue suits and sportcoats, straight leg jeans instead of the skinny jeans fashionable from the late 2000s until the early 2020s, stetsons, white baseball jerseys with bold red or blue pinstripes, striped blue neckties, baggy white pants, Union Jack motifs, flared jeans, duster coats as worn in the ''Yellowstone'' TV series, preppy style college sweaters, retro blue and white striped football shirts, chelsea boots with cowboy boot styling, two-button blazers with red and blue boating stripes, V-neck sweater vests, royal blue baseball jackets with white sleeves, Howler Brothers gilets, shirts and suits worn open to expose the chest, and boxy leather reefer jackets were popular on both sides of the Atlantic.=== Social influences ===Celebrities such as Britney Spears have popularized the concept of wearing underwear as outerwear.Fashion is inherently a social phenomenon.", "A person cannot have a fashion by oneself, but for something to be defined as fashion, there needs to be dissemination and followers.", "This dissemination can take several forms; from the top-down (\"trickle-down\") to bottom-up (\"bubble up/trickle-up\"), or transversally across cultures and through viral memes and media (\"trickle-across\").Fashion relates to the social and cultural context of an environment.", "According to Matika, \"Elements of popular culture become fused when a person's trend is associated with a preference for a genre of music … like music, news, or literature, fashion has been fused into everyday lives.\"", "Fashion is not only seen as purely aesthetic; fashion is also a medium for people to create an overall effect and express their opinions and overall art.This mirrors what performers frequently accomplish through music videos.", "In the music video 'Formation' by Beyoncé, according to Carlos,The annual or seasonal runway show is a reflection of fashion trends and a designer's inspirations.", "For designers like Vivienne Westwood, runway shows are a platform for her voice on politics and current events.", "For her AW15 menswear show, according to Water, \"where models with severely bruised faces channeled eco-warriors on a mission to save the planet.\"", "Another recent example is a staged feminist protest march for Chanel's SS15 show, rioting models chanting words of empowerment using signs like \"Feminist but feminine\" and \"Ladies first.\"", "According to Water, \"The show tapped into Chanel's long history of championing female independence: founder Coco Chanel was a trailblazer for liberating the female body in the post-WWI era, introducing silhouettes that countered the restrictive corsets then in favour.", "\"The annual Met Gala ceremony in Manhattan is the premier venue where fashion designers and their creations are celebrated.", "Social media is also a place where fashion is presented most often.", "Some influencers are paid huge amounts of money to promote a product or clothing item, where the business hopes many viewers will buy the product off the back of the advertisement.", "Instagram is the most popular platform for advertising, but Facebook, Snapchat, Twitter and other platforms are also used.", "In New York, the LGBT fashion design community contributes very significantly to promulgating fashion trends, and drag celebrities have developed a profound influence upon New York Fashion Week.=== Economic influences ======= Circular economy ====With increasing environmental awareness, the economic imperative to \"Spend now, think later\" is increasingly scrutinized.", "Today's consumer tends to be more mindful about consumption, looking for just enough and better, more durable options.", "People have also become more conscious of the impact their everyday consumption exerts upon the environment and on society, and these initiatives are often described as a move towards sustainable fashion, yet some argue that a circular economy based on growth is an oxymoron, or an increasing spiral of consumption, rather than a utopian cradle-to-cradle circular solution.In today's linear economic system, manufacturers extract resources from the earth to make products that will soon be discarded in landfills, on the other hand, under the circular model, the production of goods operates like systems in nature, where the waste and demise of a substance becomes the food and source of growth for something new.=== Marketing =======Market research====Fur fashion for sale in Tallinn, EstoniaConsumers of different groups have varying needs and demands.", "Factors taken into consideration when analyzing consumers' needs include key demographics.To understand consumers' needs and predict fashion trends, fashion companies have to do market research There are two research methods: primary and secondary.", "Secondary methods are taking other information that has already been collected, for example using a book or an article for research.", "Primary research is collecting data through surveys, interviews, observation, and/or focus groups.", "Primary research often focuses on large sample sizes to determine customer's motivations to shop.The benefits of primary research are specific information about a fashion brand's consumer is explored.", "Surveys are helpful tools; questions can be open-ended or closed-ended.", "Negative factor surveys and interviews present is that the answers can be biased, due to wording in the survey or on face-to-face interactions.", "Focus groups, about 8 to 12 people, can be beneficial because several points can be addressed in depth.", "However, there are drawbacks to this tactic, too.", "With such a small sample size, it is hard to know if the greater public would react the same way as the focus group.", "Observation can really help a company gain insight on what a consumer truly wants.", "There is less of a bias because consumers are just performing their daily tasks, not necessarily realizing they are being observed.", "For example, observing the public by taking street style photos of people, the consumer did not get dressed in the morning knowing that would have their photo taken necessarily.", "They just wear what they would normally wear.", "Through observation patterns can be seen, helping trend forecasters know what their target market needs and wants.Knowing the needs of consumers will increase fashion companies' sales and profits.", "Through research and studying the consumers' lives the needs of the customer can be obtained and help fashion brands know what trends the consumers are ready for.====Symbolic consumption====Consumption is driven not only by need, the symbolic meaning for consumers is also a factor.", "Consumers engaging in symbolic consumption may develop a sense of self over an extended period of time as various objects are collected as part of the process of establishing their identity and, when the symbolic meaning is shared in a social group, to communicate their identity to others.", "For teenagers, consumption plays a role in distinguishing the child self from the adult.", "Researchers have found that the fashion choices of teenagers are used for self-expression and also to recognize other teens who wear similar clothes.", "The symbolic association of clothing items can link individuals' personality and interests, with music as a prominent factor influencing fashion decisions.=== Political influences ===Ivanka Trump (right) along with Japanese PM Shinzō Abe wearing Western-style business suits, 2017Political figures have played a central role in the development of fashion, at least since the time of French king Louis XIV.", "For example, First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy was a fashion icon of the early 1960s.", "Wearing Chanel suits, structural Givenchy shift dresses, and soft color Cassini coats with large buttons, she inspired trends of both elegant formal dressing and classic feminine style.Cultural upheavals have also had an impact on fashion trends.", "For example, during the 1960s, the U.S. economy was robust, the divorce rate was increasing, and the government approved the birth control pill.", "These factors inspired the younger generation to rebel against entrenched social norms.", "The civil rights movement, a struggle for social justice and equal opportunity for Blacks, and the women's liberation movement, seeking equal rights and opportunities and greater personal freedom for women, were in full bloom.", "In 1964, the leg-baring mini-skirt was introduced and became a white-hot trend.", "Fashion designers then began to experiment with the shapes of garments: loose sleeveless dresses, micro-minis, flared skirts, and trumpet sleeves.", "Fluorescent colors, print patterns, bell-bottom jeans, fringed vests, and skirts became ''de rigueur'' outfits of the 1960s.Concern and protest over U.S. involvement in the failing Vietnam War also influenced fashion.", "Camouflage patterns in military clothing, developed to help military personnel be less visible to enemy forces, seeped into streetwear designs in the 1960s.", "Camouflage trends have disappeared and resurfaced several times since then, appearing in high fashion iterations in the 1990s.", "Designers such as Valentino, Dior, and Dolce & Gabbana combined camouflage into their runway and ready-to-wear collections.", "Today, variations of camouflage, including pastel shades, in every article of clothing or accessory, continue to enjoy popularity.=== Technology influences ===Today, technology plays a sizable role in society, and technological influences are correspondingly increasing within the realm of fashion.", "Wearable technology has become incorporated; for example, clothing constructed with solar panels that charge devices and smart fabrics that enhance wearer comfort by changing color or texture based on environmental changes.", "3D printing technology has influenced designers such as Iris van Herpen and Kimberly Ovitz.", "As the technology evolves, 3D printers will become more accessible to designers and eventually, consumers — these could potentially reshape design and production in the fashion industry entirely.Internet technology, enabling the far reaches of online retailers and social media platforms, has created previously unimaginable ways for trends to be identified, marketed, and sold immediately.", "Trend-setting styles are easily displayed and communicated online to attract customers.", "Posts on Instagram or Facebook can quickly increase awareness about new trends in fashion, which subsequently may create high demand for specific items or brands, new \"buy now button\" technology can link these styles with direct sales.Machine vision technology has been developed to track how fashions spread through society.", "The industry can now see the direct correlation on how fashion shows influence street-chic outfits.", "Effects such as these can now be quantified and provide valuable feedback to fashion houses, designers, and consumers regarding trends." ], [ "Environmental impact" ], [ "Media", "Latin dancers in their costumes.", "The woman is wearing backless dress with deep slits on its lower portion, while the man is wearing a shirt with top buttons open.The media plays a significant role when it comes to fashion.", "For instance, an important part of fashion is fashion journalism.", "Editorial critique, guidelines, and commentary can be found on television and in magazines, newspapers, fashion websites, social networks, and fashion blogs.", "In recent years, fashion blogging and YouTube videos have become a major outlet for spreading trends and fashion tips, creating an online culture of sharing one's style on a website or social media accounts (i.e.", "Instagram, TikTok, or Twitter).", "Through these media outlets, readers and viewers all over the world can learn about fashion, making it very accessible.", "In addition to fashion journalism, another media platform that is important in fashion industry is advertisement.", "Advertisements provide information to audiences and promote the sales of products and services.", "The fashion industry uses advertisements to attract consumers and promote its products to generate sales.", "A few decades ago when technology was still underdeveloped, advertisements heavily relied on radio, magazines, billboards, and newspapers.", "These days, there are more various ways in advertisements such as television ads, online-based ads using internet websites, and posts, videos, and live streaming in social media platforms.=== Fashion in printed media ===This 1921 clipping from the ''St.", "Louis Post-Dispatch,'' with story and drawings by Marguerite Martyn, represents the saturation newspaper coverage given to society women at a fashionable dance.There are two subsets of print styling: editorial and lifestyle.", "Editorial styling is the high-fashion styling seen in fashion magazines, and this tends to be more artistic and fashion-forward.", "Lifestyle styling focuses on a more overtly commercial goal, like a department store advertisement, a website, or an advertisement where fashion is not what's being sold but the models are hired to promote the product in the photo.The dressing practices of the powerful have traditionally been mediated through art and the practices of the courts.", "The looks of the French court were disseminated through prints from the 16th century on, but gained cohesive design with the development of a centralized court under King Louis XIV, which produced an identifiable style that took his name.", "At the beginning of the 20th century, fashion magazines began to include photographs of various fashion designs and became even more influential than in the past.", "In cities throughout the world these magazines were greatly sought after and had a profound effect on public taste in clothing.", "Talented illustrators drew exquisite fashion plates for the publications which covered the most recent developments in fashion and beauty.", "Perhaps the most famous of these magazines was ''La Gazette du Bon Ton'', which was founded in 1912 by Lucien Vogel and regularly published until 1925 (with the exception of the war years).see-through top worn along with pasties by a model at a fashion show in US, 2017.Such fashion trends get popularised through media.", "''Vogue'', founded in Manhattan in 1892, has been the longest-lasting and most successful of the hundreds of fashion magazines that have come and gone.", "Increasing affluence after World War II and, most importantly, the advent of cheap color printing in the 1960s, led to a huge boost in its sales and heavy coverage of fashion in mainstream women's magazines, followed by men's magazines in the 1990s.", "One such example of ''Vogue'''s popularity is the younger version, ''Teen Vogue'', which covers clothing and trends that are targeted more toward the \"fashionista on a budget\".", "Haute couture designers followed the trend by starting ready-to-wear and perfume lines which are heavily advertised in the magazines and now dwarf their original couture businesses.", "A recent development within fashion print media is the rise of text-based and critical magazines which aim to prove that fashion is not superficial, by creating a dialogue between fashion academia and the industry.", "Examples of this development are: ''Fashion Theory'' (1997), ''Fashion Practice: The Journal of Design, Creative Process & the Fashion Industry'' (2008), and ''Vestoj'' (2009).=== Fashion in television ===Television coverage began in the 1950s with small fashion features.", "In the 1960s and 1970s, fashion segments on various entertainment shows became more frequent, and by the 1980s, dedicated fashion shows such as ''Fashion Television'' started to appear.", "''FashionTV'' was the pioneer in this undertaking and has since grown to become the leader in both Fashion Television and new media channels.", "The Fashion Industry is beginning to promote their styles through Bloggers on social media's.", "Vogue specified Chiara Ferragni as \"blogger of the moment\" due to the rises of followers through her Fashion Blog, that became popular.A few days after the 2010 Fall Fashion Week in New York City came to a close, ''The New Islander'''s Fashion Editor, Genevieve Tax, criticized the fashion industry for running on a seasonal schedule of its own, largely at the expense of real-world consumers.", "\"Because designers release their fall collections in the spring and their spring collections in the fall, fashion magazines such as ''Vogue'' always and only look forward to the upcoming season, promoting parkas come September while issuing reviews on shorts in January\", she writes.", "\"Savvy shoppers, consequently, have been conditioned to be extremely, perhaps impractically, farsighted with their buying.", "\"The fashion industry has been the subject of numerous films and television shows, including the reality show ''Project Runway'' and the drama series ''Ugly Betty''.", "Specific fashion brands have been featured in film, not only as product placement opportunities, but as bespoke items that have subsequently led to trends in fashion.Videos in general have been very useful in promoting the fashion industry.", "This is evident not only from television shows directly spotlighting the fashion industry, but also movies, events and music videos which showcase fashion statements as well as promote specific brands through product placements.=== Controversial advertisements in fashion industry ======= Racism in fashion advertisements ====Some fashion advertisements have been accused of racism and led to boycotts from customers.", "Globally known Swedish fashion brand H&M faced this issue with one of its children's wear advertisements in 2018.A Black child wearing a hoodie with the slogan \"coolest monkey in the jungle\" was featured in the ad.", "This immediately led to controversy, as \"monkey\" is commonly used as slur against Black people, and caused many customers to boycott the brand.", "Many people, including celebrities, posted on social media about their resentments towards H&M and refusal to work with and buy its products.", "H&M issued a statement saying \"we apologise to anyone this may have offended\", though this too received some criticism for appearing insincere.Another fashion advertisement seen as racist was from GAP, an American worldwide clothing brand.", "GAP collaborated with Ellen DeGeneres in 2016 for the advertisement.", "It features four playful young girls, with a tall White girl leaning with her arm on a shorter Black girl's head.", "Upon release, some viewers harshly criticized it, claiming it shows an underlying passive racism.", "A representative from ''The Root'' commented that the ad portrays the message that Black people are undervalued and seen as props for White people to look better.", "Others saw little issue with the ad, and that the controversy was the result of people being oversensitive.", "GAP replaced the image in the ad and apologized to critics.==== Sexism in fashion advertisements ====Many fashion brands have published ads that were provocative and sexy to attract customers' attention.", "British high fashion brand, Jimmy Choo, was blamed for having sexism in its ad which featured a female British model wearing the brand's boots.", "In this two-minute ad, men whistle at a model, walking on the street with red, sleeveless mini dress.", "This ad gained much backlash and criticism by the viewers, as it was seen as promoting sexual harassment and other misconduct.", "Many people showed their dismay through social media posts, leading Jimmy Choo to pull down the ad from social media platforms.French luxury fashion brand Yves Saint Laurent also faced this issue with its print ad shown in Paris in 2017.The ad depicted a female model wearing fishnet tights with roller-skate stilettos reclining with her legs opened in front of the camera.", "This advertisement brought harsh comments from both viewers and French advertising organization directors for going against the advertising codes related to \"respect for decency, dignity and those prohibiting submission, violence or dependence, as well as the use of stereotypes.\"", "and additionally said that this ad was causing \"mental harm to adolescents.\"", "Due to the negative public reaction, the poster was removed from the city." ], [ "Public relations and social media", "A Mexican sports reporter wearing little black dress and knee-high bootsFashion public relations involves being in touch with a company's audiences and creating strong relationships with them, reaching out to media, and initiating messages that project positive images of the company.", "Social media plays an important role in modern-day fashion public relations; enabling practitioners to reach a wide range of consumers through various platforms.Building brand awareness and credibility is a key implication of good public relations.", "In some cases, the hype is built about new designers' collections before they are released into the market, due to the immense exposure generated by practitioners.", "Social media, such as blogs, microblogs, podcasts, photo and video sharing sites have all become increasingly important to fashion public relations.", "The interactive nature of these platforms allows practitioners to engage and communicate with the public in real-time, and tailor their clients' brand or campaign messages to the target audience.", "With blogging platforms such as Instagram, Tumblr, WordPress, Squarespace, and other sharing sites, bloggers have emerged as expert fashion commentators, shaping brands and having a great impact on what is 'on trend'.", "Women in the fashion public relations industry such as Sweaty Betty PR founder Roxy Jacenko and Oscar de la Renta's PR girl Erika Bearman, have acquired copious followers on their social media sites, by providing a brand identity and a behind the scenes look into the companies they work for.Social media is changing the way practitioners deliver messages, as they are concerned with the media, and also customer relationship building.", "PR practitioners must provide effective communication among all platforms, in order to engage the fashion public in an industry socially connected via online shopping.", "Consumers have the ability to share their purchases on their personal social media pages (such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, etc.", "), and if practitioners deliver the brand message effectively and meet the needs of its public, word-of-mouth publicity will be generated and potentially provide a wide reach for the designer and their products." ], [ "Fashion and political activism", "As fashion concerns people, and signifies social hierarchies, fashion intersects with politics and the social organization of societies.", "Whereas haute couture and business suits are associated by people in power, also groups aiming to challenge the political order also use clothes to signal their position.", "The explicit use of fashion as a form of activism, is usually referred to as \"fashion activism.", "\"There is a complex relationship between fashion and feminism.", "Some feminists have argued that by participating in feminine fashions women are contributing to maintaining the gender differences which are part of women's oppression.", "Brownmiller felt that women should reject traditionally feminine dress, focusing on comfort and practicality rather than fashion.", "Others believe that it is the fashion system itself that is repressive in requiring women to seasonally change their clothes to keep up with trends.", "Greer has advocated this argument that seasonal changes in dress should be ignored; she argues that women can be liberated by replacing the compulsiveness of fashion with enjoyment of rejecting the norm to create their own personal styling.This rejection of seasonal fashion led to many protests in the 1960s alongside rejection of fashion on socialist, racial and environmental grounds.", "However, Mosmann has pointed out that the relationship between protesting fashion and creating fashion is dynamic becausethe language and style used in these protests has then become part of fashion itself.Fashion designers and brands have traditionally kept themselves out of political conflicts, there has been a movement in the industry towards taking more explicit positions across the political spectrum.", "From maintaining a rather apolitical stance, designers and brands today engage more explicitly in current debates.For example, considering the U.S.'s political climate in the surrounding months of the 2016 presidential election, during 2017 fashion weeks in London, Milan, New York, Paris and São Paulo amongst others, many designers took the opportunity to take political stances leveraging their platforms and influence to reach their customers.", "This has also led to some controversy over democratic values, as fashion is not always the most inclusive platform for political debate, but a one-way broadcast of top-down messages.When taking an explicit political stance, designers generally favor issues that can be identified in clear language with virtuous undertones.", "For example, aiming to \"amplify a greater message of unity, inclusion, diversity, and feminism in a fashion space\", designer Mara Hoffman invited the founders of the ''Women's March on Washington'' to open her show which featured modern silhouettes of utilitarian wear, described by critics as \"Made for a modern warrior\" and \"Clothing for those who still have work to do\".", "Prabal Gurung debuted his collection of T-shirts featuring slogans such as \"The Future is Female\", \"We Will Not Be Silenced\", and \"Nevertheless She Persisted\", with proceeds going to the ACLU, Planned Parenthood, and Gurung's own charity, \"Shikshya Foundation Nepal\".", "Similarly, ''The Business of Fashion'' launched the ''#TiedTogether'' movement on Social Media, encouraging member of the industry from editors to models, to wear a white bandana advocating for \"unity, solidarity, and inclusiveness during fashion week\".Fashion may be used to promote a cause, such as to promote healthy behavior, to raise money for a cancer cure, or to raise money for local charities such as the Juvenile Protective Association or a children's hospice.One fashion cause is trashion, which is using trash to make clothes, jewelry, and other fashion items in order to promote awareness of pollution.", "There are a number of modern trashion artists such as Marina DeBris, Ann Wizer, and Nancy Judd.", "Other designers have used DIY fashions, in the tradition of the punk movement, to address elitism in the industry to promote more inclusion and diversity." ], [ "Anthropological perspective", "From an academic lens, the sporting of various fashions has been seen as a form of fashion language, a mode of communication that produced various fashion statements, using a grammar of fashion.", "This is a perspective promoted in the work of influential French philosopher and semiotician Roland Barthes.Anthropology, the study of culture and of human societies, examines fashion by asking why certain styles are deemed socially appropriate and others are not.", "From the theory of interactionism, a certain practice or expression is chosen by those in power in a community, and that becomes \"the fashion\" as defined at a certain time by the people under influence of those in power.", "If a particular style has a meaning in an already occurring set of beliefs, then that style may have a greater chance of become fashion.According to cultural theorists Ted Polhemus and Lynn Procter, one can describe fashion as adornment, of which there are two types: fashion and anti-fashion.", "Through the capitalization and commoditization of clothing, accessories, and shoes, etc., what once constituted anti-fashion becomes part of fashion as the lines between fashion and anti-fashion are blurred, as expressions that were once outside the changes of fashion are swept along with trends to signify new meanings.", "Examples range from how elements from ethnic dress becomes part of a trend and appear on catwalks or street cultures, for example how tattoos travel from sailors, laborers and criminals to popular culture.To cultural theorist Malcolm Bernard, fashion and anti-fashion differ as polar opposites.", "Anti-fashion is fixed and changes little over time, varying depending on the cultural or social group one is associated with or where one lives, but within that group or locality the style changes little.", "Fashion, in contrast, can change (evolve) very quickly and is not affiliated with one group or area of the world but spreads throughout the world wherever people can communicate easily with each other.", "An example of anti-fashion would be ceremonial or otherwise traditional clothing where specific garments and their designs are both reproduced faithfully and with the intent of maintaining a status quo of tradition.", "This can be seen in the clothing of some kabuki plays, where some character outfits are kept intact from designs of several centuries ago, in some cases retaining the crests of the actors considered to have 'perfected' that role.Anti-fashion is concerned with maintaining the status quo, while fashion is concerned with social mobility.", "Time is expressed in terms of continuity in anti-fashion, and in terms of change in fashion; fashion has changing modes of adornment, while anti-fashion has fixed modes of adornment.From this theoretical lens, change in fashion is part of the larger industrial system and is structured by the powerful actors in this system to be a deliberate change in style, promoted through the channels influenced by the industry (such as paid advertisements)." ], [ "Intellectual property", "Gross sales of goods vs IP laws (US 2007)In the fashion industry, intellectual property is not enforced as it is within the film industry and music industry.", "Robert Glariston, an intellectual property expert, mentioned in a fashion seminar held in LA that \"Copyright law regarding clothing is a current hot-button issue in the industry.", "We often have to draw the line between designers being inspired by a design and those outright stealing it in different places.\"", "To take inspiration from others' designs contributes to the fashion industry's ability to establish clothing trends.", "For the past few years, WGSN has been a dominant source of fashion news and forecasts in encouraging fashion brands worldwide to be inspired by one another.", "Enticing consumers to buy clothing by establishing new trends is, some have argued, a key component of the industry's success.", "Intellectual property rules that interfere with this process of trend-making would, in this view, be counter-productive.", "On the other hand, it is often argued that the blatant theft of new ideas, unique designs, and design details by larger companies is what often contributes to the failure of many smaller or independent design companies.Since fakes are distinguishable by their poorer quality, there is still a demand for luxury goods, and as only a trademark or logo can be copyrighted, many fashion brands make this one of the most visible aspects of the garment or accessory.", "In handbags, especially, the designer's brand may be woven into the fabric (or the lining fabric) from which the bag is made, making the brand an intrinsic element of the bag.In 2005, the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) held a conference calling for stricter intellectual property enforcement within the fashion industry to better protect small and medium businesses and promote competitiveness within the textile and clothing industries." ], [ "See also" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "Breward, Christopher, ''The culture of fashion: a new history of fashionable dress'', Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2003, Cabrera, Ana, and Lesley Miller.", "\"Genio y Figura.", "La influencia de la cultura española en la moda.\"", "Fashion Theory: The Journal of Dress, Body & Culture 13.1 (2009): 103–110Cumming, Valerie: ''Understanding Fashion History'', Costume & Fashion Press, 2004, Davis, F. (1989).", "Of maids' uniforms and blue jeans: The drama of status ambivalences in clothing and fashion.", "Qualitative Sociology, 12(4), 337–355.", "Hollander, Anne, ''Seeing through clothes'', Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993, Hollander, Anne, ''Sex and suits: the evolution of modern dress'', New York: Knopf, 1994, Hollander, Anne, ''Feeding the eye: essays'', New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 1999, Hollander, Anne, ''Fabric of vision: dress and drapery in painting'', London: National Gallery, 2002, Kawamura, Yuniya, ''Fashion-ology: an introduction to Fashion Studies'', Oxford and New York: Berg, 2005, Lipovetsky, Gilles (translated by Catherine Porter), ''The empire of fashion: dressing modern democracy'', Woodstock: Princeton University Press, 2002, McDermott, Kathleen, ''Style for all: why fashion, invented by kings, now belongs to all of us (An illustrated history)'', 2010, – Many hand-drawn color illustrations, extensive annotated bibliography and reading guidePerrot, Philippe (translated by Richard Bienvenu), ''Fashioning the bourgeoisie: a history of clothing in the nineteenth century'', Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994, Steele, Valerie, ''Paris fashion: a cultural history'', (2.ed., rev.", "and updated), Oxford: Berg, 1998, Steele, Valerie, ''Fifty years of fashion: new look to now'', New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000, Steele, Valerie, ''Encyclopedia of clothing and fashion'', Detroit: Thomson Gale, 2005" ], [ "External links", "**" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Fourier analysis" ], [ "Introduction", " Bass guitar time signal of open string A note (55 Hz).functions.In mathematics, '''Fourier analysis''' () is the study of the way general functions may be represented or approximated by sums of simpler trigonometric functions.", "Fourier analysis grew from the study of Fourier series, and is named after Joseph Fourier, who showed that representing a function as a sum of trigonometric functions greatly simplifies the study of heat transfer.The subject of Fourier analysis encompasses a vast spectrum of mathematics.", "In the sciences and engineering, the process of decomposing a function into oscillatory components is often called Fourier analysis, while the operation of rebuilding the function from these pieces is known as '''Fourier synthesis'''.", "For example, determining what component frequencies are present in a musical note would involve computing the Fourier transform of a sampled musical note.", "One could then re-synthesize the same sound by including the frequency components as revealed in the Fourier analysis.", "In mathematics, the term ''Fourier analysis'' often refers to the study of both operations.The decomposition process itself is called a Fourier transformation.", "Its output, the Fourier transform, is often given a more specific name, which depends on the domain and other properties of the function being transformed.", "Moreover, the original concept of Fourier analysis has been extended over time to apply to more and more abstract and general situations, and the general field is often known as harmonic analysis.", "Each transform used for analysis (see list of Fourier-related transforms) has a corresponding inverse transform that can be used for synthesis.To use Fourier analysis, data must be equally spaced.", "Different approaches have been developed for analyzing unequally spaced data, notably the least-squares spectral analysis (LSSA) methods that use a least squares fit of sinusoids to data samples, similar to Fourier analysis.", "Fourier analysis, the most used spectral method in science, generally boosts long-periodic noise in long gapped records; LSSA mitigates such problems." ], [ "Applications", "Fourier analysis has many scientific applications – in physics, partial differential equations, number theory, combinatorics, signal processing, digital image processing, probability theory, statistics, forensics, option pricing, cryptography, numerical analysis, acoustics, oceanography, sonar, optics, diffraction, geometry, protein structure analysis, and other areas.This wide applicability stems from many useful properties of the transforms:* The transforms are linear operators and, with proper normalization, are unitary as well (a property known as Parseval's theorem or, more generally, as the Plancherel theorem, and most generally via Pontryagin duality).", "* The transforms are usually invertible.", "* The exponential functions are eigenfunctions of differentiation, which means that this representation transforms linear differential equations with constant coefficients into ordinary algebraic ones.", "Therefore, the behavior of a linear time-invariant system can be analyzed at each frequency independently.", "* By the convolution theorem, Fourier transforms turn the complicated convolution operation into simple multiplication, which means that they provide an efficient way to compute convolution-based operations such as signal filtering, polynomial multiplication, and multiplying large numbers.", "* The discrete version of the Fourier transform (see below) can be evaluated quickly on computers using fast Fourier transform (FFT) algorithms.In forensics, laboratory infrared spectrophotometers use Fourier transform analysis for measuring the wavelengths of light at which a material will absorb in the infrared spectrum.", "The FT method is used to decode the measured signals and record the wavelength data.", "And by using a computer, these Fourier calculations are rapidly carried out, so that in a matter of seconds, a computer-operated FT-IR instrument can produce an infrared absorption pattern comparable to that of a prism instrument.Fourier transformation is also useful as a compact representation of a signal.", "For example, JPEG compression uses a variant of the Fourier transformation (discrete cosine transform) of small square pieces of a digital image.", "The Fourier components of each square are rounded to lower arithmetic precision, and weak components are eliminated entirely, so that the remaining components can be stored very compactly.", "In image reconstruction, each image square is reassembled from the preserved approximate Fourier-transformed components, which are then inverse-transformed to produce an approximation of the original image.In signal processing, the Fourier transform often takes a time series or a function of continuous time, and maps it into a frequency spectrum.", "That is, it takes a function from the time domain into the frequency domain; it is a decomposition of a function into sinusoids of different frequencies; in the case of a Fourier series or discrete Fourier transform, the sinusoids are harmonics of the fundamental frequency of the function being analyzed.When a function is a function of time and represents a physical signal, the transform has a standard interpretation as the frequency spectrum of the signal.", "The magnitude of the resulting complex-valued function at frequency represents the amplitude of a frequency component whose initial phase is given by the angle of (polar coordinates).Fourier transforms are not limited to functions of time, and temporal frequencies.", "They can equally be applied to analyze ''spatial'' frequencies, and indeed for nearly any function domain.", "This justifies their use in such diverse branches as image processing, heat conduction, and automatic control.When processing signals, such as audio, radio waves, light waves, seismic waves, and even images, Fourier analysis can isolate narrowband components of a compound waveform, concentrating them for easier detection or removal.", "A large family of signal processing techniques consist of Fourier-transforming a signal, manipulating the Fourier-transformed data in a simple way, and reversing the transformation.Some examples include:* Equalization of audio recordings with a series of bandpass filters;* Digital radio reception without a superheterodyne circuit, as in a modern cell phone or radio scanner;* Image processing to remove periodic or anisotropic artifacts such as jaggies from interlaced video, strip artifacts from strip aerial photography, or wave patterns from radio frequency interference in a digital camera;* Cross correlation of similar images for co-alignment;* X-ray crystallography to reconstruct a crystal structure from its diffraction pattern;* Fourier-transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry to determine the mass of ions from the frequency of cyclotron motion in a magnetic field;* Many other forms of spectroscopy, including infrared and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopies;* Generation of sound spectrograms used to analyze sounds;* Passive sonar used to classify targets based on machinery noise." ], [ "Variants of Fourier analysis", "A Fourier transform and 3 variations caused by periodic sampling (at interval T) and/or periodic summation (at interval P) of the underlying time-domain function.", "The relative computational ease of the DFT sequence and the insight it gives into make it a popular analysis tool.===(Continuous) Fourier transform===Most often, the unqualified term '''Fourier transform''' refers to the transform of functions of a continuous real argument, and it produces a continuous function of frequency, known as a ''frequency distribution''.", "One function is transformed into another, and the operation is reversible.", "When the domain of the input (initial) function is time (), and the domain of the output (final) function is ordinary frequency, the transform of function at frequency is given by the complex number::Evaluating this quantity for all values of produces the ''frequency-domain'' function.", "Then can be represented as a recombination of complex exponentials of all possible frequencies::which is the inverse transform formula.", "The complex number, , conveys both amplitude and phase of frequency .See Fourier transform for much more information, including:* conventions for amplitude normalization and frequency scaling/units* transform properties* tabulated transforms of specific functions* an extension/generalization for functions of multiple dimensions, such as images.===Fourier series===The Fourier transform of a periodic function, , with period , becomes a Dirac comb function, modulated by a sequence of complex coefficients:: (where is the integral over any interval of length ''P'').The inverse transform, known as '''Fourier series''', is a representation of in terms of a summation of a potentially infinite number of harmonically related sinusoids or complex exponential functions, each with an amplitude and phase specified by one of the coefficients::Any can be expressed as a periodic summation of another function, ::and the coefficients are proportional to samples of at discrete intervals of ::Note that any whose transform has the same discrete sample values can be used in the periodic summation.", "A sufficient condition for recovering (and therefore ) from just these samples (i.e.", "from the Fourier series) is that the non-zero portion of be confined to a known interval of duration , which is the frequency domain dual of the Nyquist–Shannon sampling theorem.See Fourier series for more information, including the historical development.===Discrete-time Fourier transform (DTFT)===The DTFT is the mathematical dual of the time-domain Fourier series.", "Thus, a convergent periodic summation in the frequency domain can be represented by a Fourier series, whose coefficients are samples of a related continuous time function::which is known as the DTFT.", "Thus the '''DTFT''' of the sequence is also the '''Fourier transform''' of the modulated Dirac comb function.The Fourier series coefficients (and inverse transform), are defined by::Parameter corresponds to the sampling interval, and this Fourier series can now be recognized as a form of the Poisson summation formula.", "Thus we have the important result that when a discrete data sequence, , is proportional to samples of an underlying continuous function, , one can observe a periodic summation of the continuous Fourier transform, .", "Note that any with the same discrete sample values produces the same DTFT But under certain idealized conditions one can theoretically recover and exactly.", "A sufficient condition for perfect recovery is that the non-zero portion of be confined to a known frequency interval of width .", "When that interval is , the applicable reconstruction formula is the Whittaker–Shannon interpolation formula.", "This is a cornerstone in the foundation of digital signal processing.Another reason to be interested in is that it often provides insight into the amount of aliasing caused by the sampling process.Applications of the DTFT are not limited to sampled functions.", "See Discrete-time Fourier transform for more information on this and other topics, including:* normalized frequency units* windowing (finite-length sequences)* transform properties* tabulated transforms of specific functions===Discrete Fourier transform (DFT)===Similar to a Fourier series, the DTFT of a periodic sequence, , with period , becomes a Dirac comb function, modulated by a sequence of complex coefficients (see ):: (where is the sum over any sequence of length ).The sequence is what is customarily known as the '''DFT''' of one cycle of .", "It is also -periodic, so it is never necessary to compute more than coefficients.", "The inverse transform, also known as a discrete Fourier series, is given by:: where is the sum over any sequence of length .When is expressed as a periodic summation of another function:: and the coefficients are proportional to samples of at disrete intervals of ::Conversely, when one wants to compute an arbitrary number () of discrete samples of one cycle of a continuous DTFT, , it can be done by computing the relatively simple DFT of , as defined above.", "In most cases, is chosen equal to the length of non-zero portion of .", "Increasing , known as ''zero-padding'' or ''interpolation'', results in more closely spaced samples of one cycle of .", "Decreasing , causes overlap (adding) in the time-domain (analogous to aliasing), which corresponds to decimation in the frequency domain.", "(see ) In most cases of practical interest, the sequence represents a longer sequence that was truncated by the application of a finite-length window function or FIR filter array.The DFT can be computed using a fast Fourier transform (FFT) algorithm, which makes it a practical and important transformation on computers.See Discrete Fourier transform for much more information, including:* transform properties* applications* tabulated transforms of specific functions===Summary===For periodic functions, both the Fourier transform and the DTFT comprise only a discrete set of frequency components (Fourier series), and the transforms diverge at those frequencies.", "One common practice (not discussed above) is to handle that divergence via Dirac delta and Dirac comb functions.", "But the same spectral information can be discerned from just one cycle of the periodic function, since all the other cycles are identical.", "Similarly, finite-duration functions can be represented as a Fourier series, with no actual loss of information except that the periodicity of the inverse transform is a mere artifact.It is common in practice for the duration of ''s''(•) to be limited to the period, or .", "But these formulas do not require that condition.+ transforms (continuous-time) Continuous frequency Discrete frequencies Transform Inverse + transforms (discrete-time) Continuous frequency Discrete frequencies Transform Inverse" ], [ "Symmetry properties", "When the real and imaginary parts of a complex function are decomposed into their even and odd parts, there are four components, denoted below by the subscripts RE, RO, IE, and IO.", "And there is a one-to-one mapping between the four components of a complex time function and the four components of its complex frequency transform::From this, various relationships are apparent, for example:The transform of a real-valued function () is the even symmetric function .", "Conversely, an even-symmetric transform implies a real-valued time-domain.", "The transform of an imaginary-valued function () is the odd symmetric function , and the converse is true.", "The transform of an even-symmetric function () is the real-valued function , and the converse is true.", "The transform of an odd-symmetric function () is the imaginary-valued function , and the converse is true." ], [ "History", "An early form of harmonic series dates back to ancient Babylonian mathematics, where they were used to compute ephemerides (tables of astronomical positions).The Classical Greek concepts of deferent and epicycle in the Ptolemaic system of astronomy were related to Fourier series (see ).In modern times, variants of the discrete Fourier transform were used by Alexis Clairaut in 1754 to compute an orbit,which has been described as the first formula for the DFT,and in 1759 by Joseph Louis Lagrange, in computing the coefficients of a trigonometric series for a vibrating string.", "Technically, Clairaut's work was a cosine-only series (a form of discrete cosine transform), while Lagrange's work was a sine-only series (a form of discrete sine transform); a true cosine+sine DFT was used by Gauss in 1805 for trigonometric interpolation of asteroid orbits.Euler and Lagrange both discretized the vibrating string problem, using what would today be called samples.An early modern development toward Fourier analysis was the 1770 paper ''Réflexions sur la résolution algébrique des équations'' by Lagrange, which in the method of Lagrange resolvents used a complex Fourier decomposition to study the solution of a cubic:Lagrange transformed the roots into the resolvents::where is a cubic root of unity, which is the DFT of order 3.A number of authors, notably Jean le Rond d'Alembert, and Carl Friedrich Gauss used trigonometric series to study the heat equation, but the breakthrough development was the 1807 paper ''Mémoire sur la propagation de la chaleur dans les corps solides'' by Joseph Fourier, whose crucial insight was to model ''all'' functions by trigonometric series, introducing the Fourier series.Historians are divided as to how much to credit Lagrange and others for the development of Fourier theory: Daniel Bernoulli and Leonhard Euler had introduced trigonometric representations of functions, and Lagrange had given the Fourier series solution to the wave equation, so Fourier's contribution was mainly the bold claim that an arbitrary function could be represented by a Fourier series.The subsequent development of the field is known as harmonic analysis, and is also an early instance of representation theory.The first fast Fourier transform (FFT) algorithm for the DFT was discovered around 1805 by Carl Friedrich Gauss when interpolating measurements of the orbit of the asteroids Juno and Pallas, although that particular FFT algorithm is more often attributed to its modern rediscoverers Cooley and Tukey." ], [ "Time–frequency transforms", "In signal processing terms, a function (of time) is a representation of a signal with perfect ''time resolution'', but no frequency information, while the Fourier transform has perfect ''frequency resolution'', but no time information.As alternatives to the Fourier transform, in time–frequency analysis, one uses time–frequency transforms to represent signals in a form that has some time information and some frequency information – by the uncertainty principle, there is a trade-off between these.", "These can be generalizations of the Fourier transform, such as the short-time Fourier transform, the Gabor transform or fractional Fourier transform (FRFT), or can use different functions to represent signals, as in wavelet transforms and chirplet transforms, with the wavelet analog of the (continuous) Fourier transform being the continuous wavelet transform." ], [ "Fourier transforms on arbitrary locally compact abelian topological groups", "The Fourier variants can also be generalized to Fourier transforms on arbitrary locally compact Abelian topological groups, which are studied in harmonic analysis; there, the Fourier transform takes functions on a group to functions on the dual group.", "This treatment also allows a general formulation of the convolution theorem, which relates Fourier transforms and convolutions.", "See also the Pontryagin duality for the generalized underpinnings of the Fourier transform.More specific, Fourier analysis can be done on cosets, even discrete cosets." ], [ "See also", "* Conjugate Fourier series* Generalized Fourier series* Fourier–Bessel series* Fourier-related transforms* Laplace transform (LT)* Two-sided Laplace transform* Mellin transform* Non-uniform discrete Fourier transform (NDFT)* Quantum Fourier transform (QFT)* Number-theoretic transform* Basis vectors* Bispectrum* Characteristic function (probability theory)* Orthogonal functions* Schwartz space* Spectral density* Spectral density estimation* Spectral music* Walsh function* Wavelet" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * " ], [ "External links", " Tables of Integral Transforms at EqWorld: The World of Mathematical Equations.", "* An Intuitive Explanation of Fourier Theory by Steven Lehar.", "* Lectures on Image Processing: A collection of 18 lectures in pdf format from Vanderbilt University.", "Lecture 6 is on the 1- and 2-D Fourier Transform.", "Lectures 7–15 make use of it., by Alan Peters* * Introduction to Fourier analysis of time series at Medium" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Fat Man" ], [ "Introduction", "\"'''Fat Man'''\" (also known as '''Mark III''') was the codename for the type of nuclear weapon the United States detonated over the Japanese city of Nagasaki on 9 August 1945.It was the second of the only two nuclear weapons ever used in warfare, the first being Little Boy, and its detonation marked the third nuclear explosion in history.", "It was built by scientists and engineers at Los Alamos Laboratory using plutonium from the Hanford Site, and was dropped from the Boeing B-29 Superfortress ''Bockscar'' piloted by Major Charles Sweeney.The name Fat Man refers to the early design of the bomb because it had a wide, round shape.", "Fat Man was an implosion-type nuclear weapon with a solid plutonium core.", "The first of that type to be detonated was the Gadget in the Trinity nuclear test less than a month earlier on 16 July at the Alamogordo Bombing and Gunnery Range in New Mexico.", "Two more were detonated during the Operation Crossroads nuclear tests at Bikini Atoll in 1946, and some 120 were produced between 1947 and 1949, when it was superseded by the Mark 4 nuclear bomb.", "The Fat Man was retired in 1950." ], [ "Early decisions", "Robert Oppenheimer held conferences in Chicago in June 1942, prior to the Army taking over wartime atomic research, and in Berkeley, California, in July, at which various engineers and physicists discussed nuclear bomb design issues.", "They chose a gun-type design in which two sub-critical masses would be brought together by firing a \"bullet\" into a \"target\".", "Richard C. Tolman suggested an implosion-type nuclear weapon, but the proposal attracted little interest.The feasibility of a plutonium bomb was questioned in 1942.Wallace Akers, the director of the British \"Tube Alloys\" project, told James Bryant Conant on 14 November that James Chadwick had \"concluded that plutonium might not be a practical fissionable material for weapons because of impurities\".", "Conant consulted Ernest Lawrence and Arthur Compton, who acknowledged that their scientists at Berkeley and Chicago, respectively, knew about the problem, but they could offer no ready solution.", "Conant informed Manhattan Project director Brigadier General Leslie R. Groves Jr., who in turn assembled a special committee consisting of Lawrence, Compton, Oppenheimer, and McMillan to examine the issue.", "The committee concluded that any problems could be overcome simply by requiring higher purity.Oppenheimer reviewed his options in early 1943 and gave priority to the gun-type weapon, but he created the E-5 Group at the Los Alamos Laboratory under Seth Neddermeyer to investigate implosion as a hedge against the threat of pre-detonation.", "Implosion-type bombs were determined to be significantly more efficient in terms of explosive yield per unit mass of fissile material in the bomb, because compressed fissile materials react more rapidly and therefore more completely.", "Nonetheless, it was decided that the plutonium gun would receive the bulk of the research effort, since it was the project with the least uncertainty involved.", "It was assumed that the uranium gun-type bomb could be easily adapted from it." ], [ "Naming", "The gun-type and implosion-type designs were codenamed \"Thin Man\" and \"Fat Man\", respectively.", "These code names were created by Robert Serber, a former student of Oppenheimer's who worked on the Manhattan Project.", "He chose them based on their design shapes; the Thin Man was a very long device, and the name came from the Dashiell Hammett detective novel ''The Thin Man'' and series of movies.", "The Fat Man was round and fat and was named after Sydney Greenstreet's character in Hammett's ''The Maltese Falcon''.", "The Little Boy uranium gun-type design came later and was named only to contrast with the Thin Man.", "Los Alamos's Thin Man and Fat Man code names were adopted by the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF).", "A cover story was devised that Silverplate was about modifying a Pullman car for use by President Franklin Roosevelt (Thin Man) and United Kingdom Prime Minister Winston Churchill (Fat Man) on a secret tour of the United States.", "Air Forces personnel used the code names over the phone to make it sound as though they were modifying a plane for Roosevelt and Churchill." ], [ "Development", "Neddermeyer discarded Serber and Tolman's initial concept of implosion as assembling a series of pieces in favor of one in which a hollow sphere was imploded by an explosive shell.", "He was assisted in this work by Hugh Bradner, Charles Critchfield, and John Streib.", "L. T. E. Thompson was brought in as a consultant, and discussed the problem with Neddermeyer in June 1943.Thompson was skeptical that an implosion could be made sufficiently symmetric.", "Oppenheimer arranged for Neddermeyer and Edwin McMillan to visit the National Defense Research Committee's Explosives Research Laboratory near the laboratories of the Bureau of Mines in Bruceton, Pennsylvania (a Pittsburgh suburb), where they spoke to George Kistiakowsky and his team.", "But Neddermeyer's efforts in July and August at imploding tubes to produce cylinders tended to produce objects that resembled rocks.", "Neddermeyer was the only person who believed that implosion was practical, and only his enthusiasm kept the project alive.Replica mockup of a ''Fat Man'' displayed in the National Museum of the United States Air Force, beside the ''Bockscar'' B-29 that dropped the original device – black liquid asphalt sealant was sprayed over the original bomb casing's seams, simulated on the mockup.Oppenheimer brought John von Neumann to Los Alamos in September 1943 to take a fresh look at implosion.", "After reviewing Neddermeyer's studies, and discussing the matter with Edward Teller, von Neumann suggested the use of high explosives in shaped charges to implode a sphere, which he showed could not only result in a faster assembly of fissile material than was possible with the gun method, but greatly reduce the amount of material required, because of the resulting higher density.", "The idea that, under such pressures, the plutonium metal itself would be compressed came from Teller, whose knowledge of how dense metals behaved under heavy pressure was influenced by his pre-war theoretical studies of the Earth's core with George Gamow.", "The prospect of more-efficient nuclear weapons impressed Oppenheimer, Teller, and Hans Bethe, but they decided that an expert on explosives would be required.", "Kistiakowsky's name was immediately suggested, and Kistiakowsky was brought into the project as a consultant in October 1943.The implosion project remained a backup until April 1944, when experiments by Emilio G. Segrè and his P-5 Group at Los Alamos on the newly reactor-produced plutonium from the X-10 Graphite Reactor at Oak Ridge and the B Reactor at the Hanford site showed that it contained impurities in the form of the isotope plutonium-240.This has a far higher spontaneous fission rate and radioactivity than plutonium-239.The cyclotron-produced isotopes, on which the original measurements had been made, held much lower traces of plutonium-240.Its inclusion in reactor-bred plutonium appeared unavoidable.", "This meant that the spontaneous fission rate of the reactor plutonium was so high that it would be highly likely that it would predetonate and blow itself apart during the initial formation of a critical mass.", "The distance required to accelerate the plutonium to speeds where predetonation would be less likely would need a gun barrel too long for any existing or planned bomber.", "The only way to use plutonium in a workable bomb was therefore implosion.Small-scale slow-motion cut-away of shaped-charge implosion device.The impracticability of a gun-type bomb using plutonium was agreed at a meeting in Los Alamos on 17 July 1944.All gun-type work in the Manhattan Project was re-directed towards the Little Boy, enriched-uranium gun design, and the Los Alamos Laboratory was reorganized, with almost all of the research focused on the problems of implosion for the Fat Man bomb.", "The idea of using shaped charges as three-dimensional explosive lenses came from James L. Tuck, and was developed by von Neumann.", "A key component needed for the success of the bomb was for there to be absolute precision in all of the plates moving inward at the same time.", "To overcome the difficulty of synchronizing multiple detonations, Luis Alvarez and Lawrence Johnston invented exploding-bridgewire detonators to replace the less precise primacord detonation system.", "Robert Christy is credited with doing the calculations that showed how a solid subcritical sphere of plutonium could be compressed to a critical state, greatly simplifying the task, since earlier efforts had attempted the more-difficult compression of a hollow spherical shell.", "After Christy's report, the solid-plutonium core weapon was referred to as the \"Christy Gadget\".The task of the metallurgists was to determine how to cast plutonium into a sphere.", "The difficulties became apparent when attempts to measure the density of plutonium gave inconsistent results.", "At first contamination was believed to be the cause, but it was soon determined that there were multiple allotropes of plutonium.", "The brittle α phase that exists at room temperature changes to the plastic β phase at higher temperatures.", "Attention then shifted to the even more malleable δ phase that normally exists in the range.", "It was found that this was stable at room temperature when alloyed with aluminum, but aluminum emits neutrons when bombarded with alpha particles, which would exacerbate the pre-ignition problem.", "The metallurgists then hit upon a plutonium–gallium alloy, which stabilized the δ phase and could be hot pressed into the desired shape.", "They found it easier to cast hemispheres than spheres.", "The core consisted of two hemispheres with a ring with a triangular cross-section between them to keep them aligned and prevent jets forming.", "As plutonium was found to corrode readily, the sphere was coated with nickel.A pumpkin bomb (Fat Man test unit) being raised from the pit into the bomb bay of a B-29 for bombing practice during the weeks before the attack on NagasakiThe size of the bomb was constrained by the available aircraft, which were investigated for suitability by Norman Foster Ramsey.", "The only Allied aircraft considered capable of carrying the Fat Man without major modification were the British Avro Lancaster and the American Boeing B-29 Superfortress.", "At the time, the B-29 represented the epitome of bomber technology with significant advantages in maximum takeoff weight, range, speed, flight ceiling, and survivability.", "Without the availability of the B-29, dropping the bomb would likely have been impossible.", "However, this still constrained the bomb to a maximum length of , width of and weight of .", "Removing the bomb rails allowed a maximum width of .Drop tests began in March 1944, and resulted in modifications to the Silverplate aircraft due to the weight of the bomb.", "High-speed photographs revealed that the tail fins folded under the pressure, resulting in an erratic descent.", "Various combinations of stabilizer boxes and fins were tested on the Fat Man shape to eliminate its persistent wobble until an arrangement dubbed a \"California Parachute\" was approved, a cubical open-rear tail box outer surface with eight radial fins inside of it, four angled at 45 degrees and four perpendicular to the line of fall holding the outer square-fin box to the bomb's rear end.", "In drop tests in early weeks, the Fat Man missed its target by an average of , but this was halved by June as the bombardiers became more proficient with it.The early Y-1222 model Fat Man was assembled with some 1,500 bolts.", "This was superseded by the Y-1291 design in December 1944.This redesign work was substantial, and only the Y-1222 tail design was retained.", "Later versions included the Y-1560, which had 72 detonators; the Y-1561, which had 32; and the Y-1562, which had 132.There were also the Y-1563 and Y-1564, which were practice bombs with no detonators at all.", "The final wartime Y-1561 design was assembled with just 90 bolts.On 16 July 1945, a Y-1561 model Fat Man, known as the Gadget, was detonated in a test explosion at a remote site in New Mexico, known as the \"Trinity\" test.", "It gave a yield of about .", "Some minor changes were made to the design as a result of the Trinity test.", "Philip Morrison recalled that \"There were some changes of importance...", "The fundamental thing was, of course, very much the same.\"" ], [ "Interior", "The bomb was long and in diameter.", "It weighed .File:Fat Man External.svg\|Fat Man external schematic.", "1.One of four AN 219 contact fuzes 2.", "''Archie'' radar antenna 3.Plate with batteries (to detonate charge surrounding nuclear components) 4.", "''X-Unit,'' a firing set placed near the charge 5.Hinge fixing the two ellipsoidal parts of the bomb 6.Physics package (see details below) 7.Plate with instruments (radars, baroswitches, and timers) 8.Barotube collector 9.", "''California Parachute'' tail assembly ( aluminum sheet)File:Fat Man Internal Components.png\|Fat Man internal schematic" ], [ "Assembly", "Cross section of the Fat Man \"physics package\".", "See description and colors in this section for details.Fat Man's \"physics package\" nuclear device about to be encasedFat Man on its transport carriage, with liquid asphalt sealant applied over the casing's seamsPreserved Tinian \"bomb pit#2\", where Fat Man was loaded aboard ''Bockscar''The plutonium pit was in diameter and contained an \"Urchin\" modulated neutron initiator that was in diameter.", "The depleted uranium tamper was an sphere, surrounded by a shell of boron-impregnated plastic.", "The plastic shell had a cylindrical hole running through it, like the hole in a cored apple, in order to allow insertion of the pit as late as possible.", "The missing tamper cylinder containing the pit could be slipped in through a hole in the surrounding aluminum pusher.", "The pit was warm to the touch, emitting 2.4 W/kg-Pu, about 15 W for the core.The explosion symmetrically compressed the plutonium to twice its normal density before the \"Urchin\" added free neutrons to initiate a fission chain reaction.", "* * * * * * * * * * The result was the fission of about of the of plutonium in the pit, i.e.", "of about 16% of the fissile material present.", "The detonation released the energy equivalent to the detonation of .", "About 30% of the yield came from fission of the uranium tamper." ], [ "Bombing of Nagasaki", "===Bomb assembly===Mushroom cloud after Fat Man exploded over Nagasaki on 9 August 1945The first plutonium core was transported with its polonium-beryllium modulated neutron initiator in the custody of Project Alberta courier Raemer Schreiber in a magnesium field carrying case designed for the purpose by Philip Morrison.", "Magnesium was chosen because it does not act as a tamper.", "It left Kirtland Army Air Field on a C-54 transport aircraft of the 509th Composite Group's 320th Troop Carrier Squadron on 26 July and arrived at North Field on Tinian on 28 July.", "Three Fat Man high-explosive pre-assemblies (designated F31, F32, and F33) were picked up at Kirtland on 28 July by three B-29s: ''Luke the Spook'' and ''Laggin' Dragon'' from the 509th Composite Group's 393d Bombardment Squadron, and another from the 216th Army Air Forces Base Unit.", "The cores were transported to North Field, arriving on 2 August, when F31 was partly disassembled in order to check all its components.", "F33 was expended near Tinian during a final rehearsal on 8 August.", "F32 presumably would have been used for a third attack or its rehearsal.On 7 August, the day after the bombing of Hiroshima, Rear Admiral William R. Purnell, Commodore William S. Parsons, Tibbets, General Carl Spaatz and Major General Curtis LeMay met on Guam to discuss what should be done next.", "Since there was no indication of Japan surrendering, they decided to proceed with their orders and drop another bomb.", "Parsons said that Project Alberta would have it ready by 11 August, but Tibbets pointed to weather reports indicating poor flying conditions on that day due to a storm and asked if the bomb could be made ready by 9 August.", "Parsons agreed to try to do so.Fat Man F31 was assembled on Tinian by Project Alberta personnel, and the physics package was fully assembled and wired.", "It was placed inside its ellipsoidal aerodynamic bombshell and wheeled out, where it was signed by nearly 60 people, including Purnell, Brigadier General Thomas F. Farrell, and Parsons.", "It was then wheeled to the bomb bay of the B-29 Superfortress named ''Bockscar'' after the plane's command pilot Captain Frederick C. Bock, who flew ''The Great Artiste'' with his crew on the mission.", "''Bockscar'' was flown by Major Charles W. Sweeney and his crew, with Commander Frederick L. Ashworth from Project Alberta as the weaponeer in charge of the bomb.===Bombing of Nagasaki===Detonation of the Mark III 'Fat Man' and ensuing mushroom cloud.rightHypocenter of Fat Man Atomic bomb in Nagasaki''Bockscar'' lifted off at 03:47 on the morning of 9 August 1945, with Kokura as the primary target and Nagasaki the secondary target.", "The weapon was already armed, but with the green electrical safety plugs still engaged.", "Ashworth changed them to red after ten minutes so that Sweeney could climb to in order to get above storm clouds.", "During the pre-flight inspection of ''Bockscar'', the flight engineer notified Sweeney that an inoperative fuel transfer pump made it impossible to use of fuel carried in a reserve tank.", "This fuel would still have to be carried all the way to Japan and back, consuming still more fuel.", "Replacing the pump would take hours; moving the Fat Man to another aircraft might take just as long and was dangerous as well, as the bomb was live.", "Colonel Paul Tibbets and Sweeney therefore elected to have ''Bockscar'' continue the mission.Effects of the Fat Man's detonation on NagasakiThe target for the bomb was the city of Kokura, but it was found to be obscured by clouds and drifting smoke from fires started by a major firebombing raid by 224 B-29s on nearby Yahata the previous day.", "This covered 70% of the area over Kokura, obscuring the aiming point.", "Three bomb runs were made over the next 50 minutes, burning fuel and repeatedly exposing the aircraft to the heavy defenses of Yahata, but the bombardier was unable to drop visually.", "By the time of the third bomb run, Japanese anti-aircraft fire was getting close; Second Lieutenant Jacob Beser was monitoring Japanese communications, and he reported activity on the Japanese fighter direction radio bands.Sweeney then proceeded to the alternative target of Nagasaki.", "It was obscured by clouds, as well, and Ashworth ordered Sweeney to make a radar approach.", "At the last minute, however, bombardier Captain Kermit K. Beahan found a hole in the clouds.", "The Fat Man was dropped and exploded at 11:02 local time, following a 43-second free-fall, at an altitude of about .", "There was poor visibility due to cloud cover and the bomb missed its intended detonation point by almost two miles, so the damage was somewhat less extensive than that in Hiroshima.An estimated 35,000–40,000 people were killed outright by the bombing at Nagasaki.", "A total of 60,000–80,000 fatalities resulted, including from long-term health effects, the strongest of which was leukemia with an attributable risk of 46% for bomb victims.", "Others died later from related blast and burn injuries, and hundreds more from radiation illnesses from exposure to the bomb's initial radiation.", "Most of the direct deaths and injuries were among munitions or industrial workers.Mitsubishi's industrial production in the city was also severed by the attack; the dockyard would have produced at 80 percent of its full capacity within three to four months, the steelworks would have required a year to get back to substantial production, the electric works would have resumed some production within two months and been back at capacity within six months, and the arms plant would have required 15 months to return to 60 to 70 percent of former capacity.", "The Mitsubishi-Urakami Ordnance Works, which manufactured the Type 91 torpedoes released in the attack on Pearl Harbor, was destroyed in the blast." ], [ "Post-war development", "Crossroads-''Baker'', 23-kilotons.After the war, two Y-1561 Fat Man bombs were used in the Operation \"Crossroads\" nuclear tests at Bikini Atoll in the Pacific.", "The first was known as ''Gilda'' after Rita Hayworth's character in the 1946 movie ''Gilda,'' and it was dropped by the B-29 ''Dave's Dream''; it missed its aim point by .", "The second bomb was nicknamed ''Helen of Bikini'' and was placed without its tail fin assembly in a steel caisson made from a submarine's conning tower; it was detonated beneath the landing craft USS ''LSM-60''.", "The two weapons yielded about each.The Los Alamos Laboratory and the Army Air Forces had already commenced work on improving the design.", "The North American B-45 Tornado, Convair XB-46, Martin XB-48, and Boeing B-47 Stratojet bombers had bomb bays sized to carry the Grand Slam, which was much longer but not as wide as the Fat Man.", "The only American bombers that could carry the Fat Man were the B-29 and the Convair B-36.In November 1945, the Army Air Forces asked Los Alamos for 200 Fat Man bombs, but there were only two sets of plutonium cores and high-explosive assemblies at the time.", "The Army Air Forces wanted improvements to the design to make it easier to manufacture, assemble, handle, transport, and stockpile.", "The wartime Project W-47 was continued, and drop tests resumed in January 1946.Sandstone-''Yoke'', 49-kilotons; utilized a newly designed 'levitated-pit' to increase yield efficiency.The Mark III Mod 0 Fat Man was ordered into production in mid-1946.High explosives were manufactured by the Salt Wells Pilot Plant, which had been established by the Manhattan Project as part of Project Camel, and a new plant was established at the Iowa Army Ammunition Plant.", "Mechanical components were made or procured by the Rock Island Arsenal; electrical and mechanical components for about 50 bombs were stockpiled at Kirtland Army Air Field by August 1946, but only nine plutonium cores were available.", "Production of the Mod 0 ended in December 1948, by which time there were still only 53 cores available.", "It was replaced by improved versions known as Mods 1 and 2 which contained a number of minor changes, the most important of which was that they did not charge the X-Unit firing system's capacitors until released from the aircraft.", "The Mod 0s were withdrawn from service between March and July 1949, and by October they had all been rebuilt as Mods 1 and 2.Some 120 Mark III Fat Man units were added to the stockpile between 1947 and 1949, when it was superseded by the Mark 4 nuclear bomb.", "The Mark III Fat Man was retired in 1950.A nuclear strike would have been a formidable undertaking in the post-war 1940s due to the limitations of the Mark III Fat Man.", "The lead-acid batteries which powered the fuzing system remained charged for only 36 hours, after which they needed to be recharged.", "To do this meant disassembling the bomb, and recharging took 72 hours.", "The batteries had to be removed in any case after nine days or they corroded.", "The plutonium core could not be left in for much longer, because its heat damaged the high explosives.", "Replacing the core also required the bomb to be completely disassembled and reassembled.", "This required about 40 to 50 men and took between 56 and 72 hours, depending on the skill of the bomb assembly team, and the Armed Forces Special Weapons Project had only three teams in June 1948.Espionage information procured by Klaus Fuchs, Theodore Hall, and David Greenglass led to the first Soviet device \"RDS–1\" (above), which closely resembled Fat Man, even in its external shape.", "The only aircraft capable of carrying the bomb were Silverplate B-29s, and the only group equipped with them was the 509th Bombardment Group at Walker Air Force Base in Roswell, New Mexico.", "They would first have to fly to Sandia Base to collect the bombs, and then to an overseas base from which a strike could be mounted.", "In March 1948, during the Berlin Blockade, all the assembly teams were in Eniwetok for the Operation Sandstone test, and the military teams were not yet qualified to assemble atomic weapons.In June 1948, General Omar Bradley, Major General Alfred Gruenther and Brigadier General Anthony McAuliffe visited Sandia and Los Alamos to show them the \"special requirements\" of atomic weapons.", "Gruenther asked Brigadier General Kenneth Nichols: \"When are you going to show us the real thing?", "Surely this laboratory monstrosity is not the only type of atomic bomb we have in stockpile?\"", "Nichols told him that better weapons would soon become available.", "After the \"astonishingly good\" results of Operation Sandstone were available, stockpiling of improved weapons began.The Soviet Union's first nuclear weapon was based closely on Fat Man's design thanks to spies Klaus Fuchs, Theodore Hall, and David Greenglass, who provided them with secret information concerning the Manhattan Project and Fat Man.", "It was detonated on 29 August 1949 as part of Operation \"First Lightning\"." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "External links", " Manhattan: The Army and the Atomic Bomb* * Fat Man Model in QuickTime VR format* Essay and interview with John Coster-Mullen, the author of ''Atom Bombs: The Top Secret Inside Story of Little Boy and Fat Man'', 2003 (first printed in 1996, self-published), considered a definitive text about Fat Man; illustrations from which are used in the Physics Package section above.", "* – Biographical film about the life and times of physicist Raemer Schreiber" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "False Claims Act" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''False Claims Act''' ('''FCA''') is an American federal law that imposes liability on persons and companies (typically federal contractors) who defraud governmental programs.", "It is the federal government's primary litigation tool in combating fraud against the government.", "The law includes a ''qui tam'' provision that allows people who are not affiliated with the government, called \"relators\" under the law, to file actions on behalf of the government.", "This is informally called \"whistleblowing\", especially when the relator is employed by the organization accused in the suit.", "Persons filing actions under the Act stand to receive a portion (15–30%, depending on certain factors) of any recovered damages.As of 2019, over 71% of all FCA actions were initiated by whistleblowers.", "Claims under the law have typically involved government health care programs (Medicare, Medicaid and TriCare), military, or other government spending programs.", "FCA actions dominate the list of largest pharmaceutical settlements.", "Between 1987 and 2019, the government recovered more than $62 billion under the False Claims Act." ], [ "History", "''Qui tam'' laws have history dating back to the Middle Ages in England.", "In 1318, King Edward II offered one third of the penalty to the relator when the relator successfully sued government officials who moonlighted as wine merchants.", "The Maintenance and Embracery Act 1540 of Henry VIII provided that common informers could sue for certain forms of interference with the course of justice in legal proceedings that were concerned with the title to land.", "This act is still in force today in the Republic of Ireland, although in 1967 it was extinguished in England.", "The idea of a common informer bringing suit for damages to the Commonwealth was later brought to Massachusetts, where \"penalties for fraud in the sale of bread are to be distributed one third to inspector who discovered the fraud and the remainder for the benefit of the town where the offense occurred.\"", "Other statutes can be found on the colonial law books of Connecticut, New York, Virginia and South Carolina.The American Civil War (1861–1865) was marked by fraud on all levels, both in the Union north and the Confederate south.", "During the war, unscrupulous contractors sold the Union Army decrepit horses and mules in ill health, faulty rifles and ammunition, and rancid rations and provisions, among other unscrupulous actions.", "In response, Congress passed the False Claims Act on March 2, 1863, .", "Because it was passed under the administration of President Abraham Lincoln, the False Claims Act is sometimes referred to as the \"Lincoln Law\".Importantly, a reward was offered in what is called the ''qui tam'' provision, which permits citizens to sue on behalf of the government and be paid a percentage of the recovery.", "''Qui tam'' is an abbreviated form of the Latin legal phrase ''qui tam pro domino rege quam pro se ipso in hac parte sequitur'' (\"he who brings a case on behalf of our lord the King, as well as for himself\") In a ''qui tam'' action, the citizen filing suit is called a \"relator\".", "As an exception to the general legal rule of standing, courts have held that ''qui tam'' relators are \"partially assigned\" a portion of the government's legal injury, thereby allowing relators to proceed with their suits.U.S.", "Senator Jacob M. Howard, who sponsored the legislation, justified giving rewards to whistle blowers, many of whom had engaged in unethical activities themselves.", "He said, \"I have based the ''qui tam'' provision upon the old-fashioned idea of holding out a temptation, and ‘setting a rogue to catch a rogue,’ which is the safest and most expeditious way I have ever discovered of bringing rogues to justice.", "\"In the massive military spending leading up to and during World War II, the US Attorney General relied on criminal provisions of the law to deal with fraud, rather than using the FCA.", "As a result, attorneys would wait for the Department of Justice to file criminal cases and then immediately file civil suits under the FCA, a practice decried as \"parasitic\" at the time.", "Congress moved to abolish the FCA but at the last minute decided instead to reduce the relator's share of the recovered proceeds.The law was again amended in 1986, again due to issues with military spending.", "Under President Ronald Reagan's military buildup, reports of massive fraud among military contractors had become major news, and Congress acted to strengthen the FCA.The first qui tam case under the amended False Claims Act was filed in 1987 by an eye surgeon against an eye clinic and one of its doctors, alleging unnecessary surgeries and other procedures were being performed.", "The case settled in 1988 for a total of $605,000.However, the law was primarily used in the beginning against defense contractors.", "By the late 1990s, health care fraud began to receive more focus, accounting for approximately 40% of recoveries by 2008 ''Franklin v. Parke-Davis'', filed in 1996, was the first case to apply the FCA to fraud committed by a pharma company against the government, due to bills submitted for payment by Medicaid/Medicare for treatments that those programs do not pay for as they are not FDA-approved or otherwise listed on a government formulary.", "FCA cases against pharma companies are often related to off-label marketing of drugs by drug companies, which is illegal under a different law, the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act; the intersection occurs when off-label marketing leads to prescriptions being filled and bills for those prescriptions being submitted to Medicare/Medicaid.As of 2019, over 72% of all federal FCA actions were initiated by whistleblowers.", "The government recovered $62.1 billion under the False Claims Act between 1987 and 2019 and of this amount, over $44.7 billion or 72% was from ''qui tam'' cases brought by relators.", "In 2014, whistleblowers filed over 700 False Claims Act lawsuits.", "In 2014, the Department of Justice had its highest annual recovery in False Claims Act history, obtaining more than $6.1 billion in settlements and judgments from civil cases involving fraud and false claims against the government.", "In fiscal year 2019, the Department of Justice recovered over $3 billion under the False Claims Act, $2.2 billion of which were generated by whistleblowers.", "Since 2010, the federal government has recovered over $37.6 billion in False Claims Act settlements and judgments.", "In 2020, the DOJ recovered $2.2 billion from FCA cases: $1.6 billion of that total was from cases filed under the FCA.", "''Qui tam'' whistleblowers received a total of $309 million in whistleblower rewards in 2020." ], [ "Provisions", "The Act establishes liability when any person or entity improperly receives from or avoids payment to the Federal government.", "The Act prohibits:# Knowingly presenting, or causing to be presented, a false claim for payment or approval;# Knowingly making, using, or causing to be made or used, a false record or statement material to a false or fraudulent claim;# Conspiring to commit any violation of the False Claims Act;# Falsely certifying the type or amount of property to be used by the government;# Certifying receipt of property on a document without completely knowing that the information is true;# Knowingly buying government property from an unauthorized officer of the government, and;# Knowingly making, using, or causing to be made or used a false record to avoid, or decrease an obligation to pay or transmit property to the government.# The False Claims act does not apply to IRS Tax matters.The statute provides that anyone who violates the law \"is liable to the United States Government for a civil penalty of not less than $5,000 and not more than $10,000, as adjusted by the Federal Civil Penalties Inflation Adjustment Act of 1990, plus 3 times the amount of damages which the Government sustains because of the act of that person.\"", "The False Claims Act requires a separate penalty for each violation of the statute.", "Under the Civil Penalties Inflation Adjustment Act, False Claims Act penalties are periodically adjusted for inflation.", "In 2020, the penalties range from $11,665 to $23,331 per violation.Certain claims are not actionable, including:# certain actions against armed forces members, members of the United States Congress, members of the judiciary, or senior executive branch officials;# claims, records, or statements made under the Internal Revenue Code of 1986 which would include tax fraud;There are unique procedural requirements in False Claims Act cases.", "For example:# a complaint under the False Claims Act must be filed under seal;# the complaint must be served on the government but must not be served on the defendant;# the complaint must be buttressed by a comprehensive memorandum, not filed in court, but served on the government detailing the factual underpinnings of the complaint.In addition, the FCA contains an anti-retaliation provision, which allows a relator to recover, in addition to his award for reporting fraud, double damages plus attorney fees for any acts of retaliation for reporting fraud against the government.", "This provision specifically provides relators with a personal claim of double damages for harm suffered and reinstatement.Under the False Claims Act, the Department of Justice is authorized to pay rewards to those who report fraud against the federal government and are not convicted of a crime related to the fraud, in an amount of between 15 and 25 (but up to 30% in some cases) of what it recovers based upon the whistleblower's report.", "The relator's share is determined based on the FCA itself, legislative history, Department of Justice guidelines released in 1997, and court decisions.== 1986 changes ==(False Claims Act Amendments ()# The elimination of the \"government possession of information\" bar against ''qui tam'' lawsuits;# The establishment of defendant liability for \"deliberate ignorance\" and \"reckless disregard\" of the truth;# Restoration of the \"preponderance of the evidence\" standard for all elements of the claim including damages;# Imposition of treble damages and civil fines of $5,000 to $10,000 per false claim;# Increased rewards for ''qui tam'' plaintiffs of between 15 and 30% of the funds recovered from the defendant;# Defendant payment of the successful plaintiff's expenses and attorney's fees, and;# Employment protection for whistleblowers including reinstatement with seniority status, special damages, and double back pay.== 2009 changes ==On May 20, 2009, the Fraud Enforcement and Recovery Act of 2009 (FERA) was signed into law.", "It includes the most significant amendments to the FCA since the 1986 amendments.", "FERA enacted the following changes:# Expanded the scope of potential FCA liability by eliminating the \"presentment\" requirement (effectively overruling the Supreme Court's opinion in ''Allison Engine Co. v. United States ex rel.", "Sanders'', 128 S. Ct. 2123 (2008));# Redefined \"claim\" under the FCA to mean \"any request or demand, whether under a contract or otherwise for money or property and whether or not the United States has title to the money or property\" that is (1) presented directly to the United States, or (2) \"to a contractor, grantee, or other recipient, if the money or property is to be spent or used on the Government's behalf or to advance a Government program or interest\" and the government provides or reimburses any portion of the requested funds;# Amended the FCA's intent requirement, and now requiring only that a false statement be \"material to\" a false claim;# Expanded conspiracy liability for any violation of the provisions of the FCA;# Amended the \"reverse false claims\" provisions to expand liability to \"knowingly and improperly avoiding or decreasing an obligation to pay or transmit money or property to the Government;\"# Increased protection for qui tam plaintiffs/relators beyond employees, to include contractors and agents;# Procedurally, the government's complaint will now relate back to the qui tam plaintiff/relator's filing;# Provided that whenever a state or local government is named as a co-plaintiff in an action, the government or the relator \"shall not be precluded... from serving the complaint, any other pleadings, or the written disclosure of substantially all material evidence;\"# Increased the Attorney General's power to delegate authority to conduct Civil Investigative Demands prior to intervening in an FCA action.With this revision, the FCA now prohibits knowingly (changes are in bold):# Submitting for payment or reimbursement a claim known to be false or fraudulent.# Making or using a false record or statement material to a false or fraudulent claim or to an ‘obligation’ to pay money to the government.# Engaging in a conspiracy to defraud by the improper submission of a false claim.# Concealing, improperly avoiding or decreasing an ‘obligation’ to pay money to the government." ], [ "2010 changes under the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act", "On March 23, 2010, the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (also referred to as the health reform bill or PPACA) was signed into law by President Barack Obama.", "The Affordable Care Act made further amendments to the False Claims Act, including:# '''Changes to the Public Disclosure Bar.'''", "Under the previous version of the FCA, cases filed by private individuals or \"relators\" could be barred if it was determined that such cases were based on a public disclosure of information arising from certain proceedings, such as civil, criminal or administrative hearings, or news media reports.", "As a result, defendants frequently used the public disclosure bar as a defense to a plaintiff's claims and grounds for dismissal of the same.", "PPACA amended the language of the FCA to allow the federal government to have the final word on whether a court may dismiss a case based on a public disclosure.", "The language now provides that \"the court shall dismiss an action unless opposed by the Government, if substantially the same allegations or transaction alleged in the action or claim were publicly disclosed.\"", "''See'' 31 U.S.C.", "3730(e)(4)(A).# '''Original Source Requirement'''.", "A plaintiff may overcome the public disclosure bar outlined above if they qualify as an \"original source,\" the definition of which has also been revised by PPACA.", "Previously, an original source must have had \"direct and independent knowledge of the information on which the allegations are based.\"", "Under PPACA, an original source is now someone who has \"knowledge that is independent of and materially adds to the publicly disclosed allegations or transactions.\"", "See 31 U.S.C.", "3730(e)(4)(B).# '''Overpayments'''.", "FERA redefined \"obligation\" under the FCA to include \"retention of any overpayments.\"", "Accordingly, such language imposed FCA liability on any provider who received Medicare/Medicaid overpayments (accidentally or otherwise) and fails to return the money to the government.", "However, FERA also raised questions as to what exactly is involved in the \"retention of overpayments\" – for example, how long a provider had to return monies after discovering an overpayment.", "PPACA clarified the changes to the FCA made by FERA.", "Under PPACA, overpayments under Medicare and Medicaid must be reported and returned within 60 days of discovery, or the date a corresponding hospital report is due.", "Failure to timely report and return an overpayment exposes a provider to liability under the FCA.# '''Statutory Anti-Kickback Liability'''.", "The federal Anti-Kickback Statute, 42 U.S.C.", "1320a-7b(b) (AKS) is a criminal statute which makes it improper for anyone to solicit, receive, offer or pay remuneration (monetary or otherwise) in exchange for referring patients to receive certain services that are paid for by the government.", "Previously, many courts had interpreted the FCA to mean that claims submitted as a result of AKS violations were false claims and therefore gave rise to FCA liability (in addition to AKS penalties).", "However, although this was the \"majority rule\" among courts, there were always opportunities for courts to hold otherwise.", "Importantly, PPACA changed the language of the AKS to provide that claims submitted in violation of the AKS automatically constitute false claims for purposes of the FCA.", "Further, the new language of the AKS provides that \"a person need not have actual knowledge … or specific intent to commit a violation\" of the AKS.", "Accordingly, providers will not be able to successfully argue that they did not know they were violating the FCA because they were not aware the AKS existed." ], [ "Practical application of the law", "The False Claims Act has a detailed process for making a claim.", "Mere complaints to the government agency are insufficient to bring claims under the Act.", "A complaint (lawsuit)must be filed in a U.S. District Court (Federal court) ''in camera'' (under seal).", "The Department of Justice (DOJ) must thence investigate within 60 days, but it often enjoys several months' worth of extensions by the Court.", "In this time, the department decides whether it will pursue the case.If the case is pursued by DOJ, the amount of the reward is less than if the Department of Justice had decided not to pursue the case and the plaintiff/relator continues the lawsuit himself.", "However, the success rate is higher in cases that the Department of Justice decides to pursue.Technically, the government has several options in handing cases.", "These include: # intervene in one or more counts of the pending ''qui tam'' action.", "This intervention expresses the Government's intention to participate as a plaintiff in prosecuting that count of the complaint.", "The department intervenes in fewer than 25% of filed ''qui tam'' actions.# decline to intervene in one or all counts of the pending ''qui tam'' action.", "If the United States declines to intervene, the relator (i.e., plaintiff) may prosecute the action alone and thus on behalf of the United States, but the United States is not a party to the proceedings apart from its right to any recovery.", "This option is frequently used by relators and their attorneys.# move to dismiss the relator's complaint, either because there is no case, or the case conflicts with significant statutory or policy interests of the United States.In practice, there are two other options for the Department of Justice:# settle the pending ''qui tam'' action with the defendant prior to the intervention decision.", "This usually, but not always, results in a simultaneous intervention and settlement with the Department of Justice (and is included in the 25% intervention rate).# advise the relator that the Department of Justice intends to decline intervention.", "This usually, but not always, results in dismissal of the ''qui tam'' action, according to the U.S. Attorney's Office of the Eastern District of Pennsylvania.There is case law where claims may be prejudiced if disclosure of the alleged unlawful act has been reported in the press, if complaints were filed to an agency instead of filing a lawsuit, or if the person filing a claim under the act is not the first person to do so.", "Individual states in the U.S. have different laws regarding whistleblowing involving state governments.===Federal income taxation of awards under FCA in the United States===The U.S. Internal Revenue Service (IRS) takes the position that, for Federal income tax purposes, ''qui tam'' payments to a relator under FCA are ordinary income and not capital gains.", "The IRS position was challenged by a relator in the case of ''Alderson v. United States;'' and, in 2012, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit upheld the IRS' stance.", "As of 2013, this remained the only circuit court decision on tax treatment of these payments." ], [ "Relevant decisions by the United States Supreme Court", "In a 2000 case, ''Vermont Agency of Natural Resources v. United States ex rel.", "Stevens'', 529 U.S. 765 (2000), the United States Supreme Court held that a private individual may not bring suit in federal court on behalf of the United States against a State (or state agency) under the FCA.", "In ''Stevens'', the Supreme Court also endorsed the \"partial assignment\" approach to ''qui tam'' relator standing to sue, which had previously been articulated by the Ninth Circuit Federal Court of Appeals and is an exception to the general legal rule for standing.In a 2007 case, ''Rockwell International Corp. v. United States'', the United States Supreme Court considered several issues relating to the \"original source\" exception to the FCA's public-disclosure bar.", "The Court held that (1) the original source requirement of the FCA provision setting for the original-source exception to the public-disclosure bar on federal-court jurisdiction is jurisdictional; (2) the statutory phrase \"information on which the allegations are based\" refers to the relator's allegations and not the publicly disclosed allegations; the terms \"allegations\" is not limited to the allegations in the original complaint, but includes, at a minimum, the allegations in the original complaint as amended; (3) relator's knowledge with respect to the pondcrete fell short of the direct and independent knowledge of the information on which the allegations are based required for him to qualify as an original source; and (4) the government's intervention did not provide an independent basis of jurisdiction with respect to the relator.In a 2008 case, ''Allison Engine Co. v. United States ex rel.", "Sanders'', the United States Supreme Court considered whether a false claim had to be presented directly to the Federal government, or if it merely needed to be paid with government money, such as a false claim by a subcontractor to a prime contractor.", "The Court found that the claim need not be presented directly to the government, but that the false statement must be made with the intention that it will be relied upon by the government in paying, or approving payment of, a claim.", "The Fraud Enforcement and Recovery Act of 2009 reversed the Court's decision and made the types of fraud to which the False Claims Act applies more explicit.In a 2009 case, ''United States ex rel.", "Eisenstein v. City of New York'', the United States Supreme Court considered whether, when the government declines to intervene or otherwise actively participate in a ''qui tam'' action under the False Claims Act, the United States is a \"party\" to the suit for purposes of Federal Rule of Appellate Procedure 4(a)(1)(A) (which requires that a notice of appeal in a federal civil action generally be filed within 30 days after entry of a judgment or order from which the appeal is taken).", "The Court held that when the United States has declined to intervene in a privately initiated FCA action, it is not a \"party\" for FRAP 4 purposes, and therefore, petitioner's appeal filed after 30 days was untimely.In a 2016 case, ''Universal Health Services, Inc. v. United States ex rel.", "Escobar'', the United States Supreme Court sought to clarify the standard for materiality under the FCA.", "The court unanimously upheld the implied certification theory of FCA liability and strengthened the FCA's materiality requirement.In a 2024 case, ''Murray v. UBS Securities, LLC, et al.''", "601 U. S. ____ (2024), a unanimous U.S. Supreme Court endorsed a lower burden of proof for whistleblowers, holding that whistleblowers do not need to prove that an employer acted with \"retaliatory intent\" in order to be protected under the Sarbanes-Oxley Act.", "The Supreme Court found that a whistleblower needs only to prove that their actions in making a whistleblower complaint were a \"contributing factor\" in the employer's unfavorable action." ], [ "State False Claims Acts", "As of 2020, 29 states and the District of Columbia have false-claims laws modeled on the federal statute to protect their publicly funded programs from fraud by including qui tam provisions, which enables them to recover money at state level.", "Some of these state False Claims Act statutes provide similar protections to those of the federal law, while others limit recovery to claims of fraud related to the Medicaid program.The California False Claims Act was enacted in 1987, but lay relatively dormant until the early 1990s, when public entities, frustrated by what they viewed as a barrage of unjustified and unmeritorious claims, began to employ the False Claims Act as a defensive measure.In 1995, the State of Texas passed the Texas Medicaid Fraud Prevention Act (TMFPA), which specifically aims at combating fraud against the Texas Medicaid Program, which provides healthcare and prescription drug coverage to low-income individuals.", "The Texas law enacts state qui tam provisions that allow individuals to report fraud and initiate action against violations of the TMFPA, imposes consequences for noncompliance and includes whistleblower protections." ], [ "Influence on other countries", "===Australia===In Australia, The Treasury Laws Amendment (Enhancing Whistleblower Protections) Act, was passed in December 2018 and went into effect in 2019.The law expanded protections for whistleblowers, allowing them to report misconduct anonymously, as well as applying anti-retaliation protections to additional kinds of whistleblowers.", "Importantly, the law does not provide for rewards for whistleblowers.", "There have been calls since 2011 for legislation modeled on the False Claims Act and for their application to the tobacco industry and carbon pricing schemes.===United Kingdom===In October 2013, the UK Government announced that it was considering the case for financially incentivising individuals reporting fraud in economic crime cases by private sector organisations, in an approach much like the US False Claims Act.", "The 'Serious and Organised Crime Strategy' paper released by the UK's Secretary of State for the Home Department sets out how that government plans to take action to prevent serious and organised crime and strengthen protections against and responses to it.", "The paper asserted that serious and organised crime costs the UK more than £24 billion a year.", "In the context of anti-corruption, the paper acknowledged that there was a need to not only target serious and organised criminals but also support those who seek to help identify and disrupt serious and organised criminality.", "Three UK agencies, the Department for Business, Innovation and Skills, the Ministry of Justice and the Home Office, were tasked with considering the case for a US-style False Claims Act in the UK.", "In July 2014, the Financial Conduct Authority and the Bank of England Prudential Regulation Authority recommended Parliament enact strong measures to encourage and protect whistleblowers, but without offering whistleblower rewards, rejecting the US model." ], [ "Rule 9(b) circuit split", "Under Rule 9(b) of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure, allegations of fraud or mistake must be pleaded with particularity.", "All appeals courts to have addressed the issue of whether Rule 9(b) pleading standards apply to qui tam actions have held that the heightened standard applies.", "The Fifth Circuit, the Sixth Circuit, the Seventh Circuit, the Eighth Circuit, the Tenth Circuit, and the Eleventh Circuit have all found that plaintiffs must allege specific false claims.In 2010, the First Circuit decision in ''U.S.", "ex rel.", "Duxbury v. Ortho Biotech Prods., L.P.''(2009) and the Eleventh Circuit ruling in ''U.S.", "ex rel.", "Hopper v. Solvay Pharms., Inc.''(2009) were both appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court.", "The Court denied ''certiorari'' for both cases, however, declining to resolve the divergent appeals court decisions." ], [ "''ACLU et al. v. Holder''", "In 2009, the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), Government Accountability Project (GAP) and OMB Watch filed suit against the Department of Justice challenging the constitutionality of the \"seal provisions\" of the FCA that require the whistleblower and the court to keep lawsuits confidential for at least 60 days.", "The plaintiffs argued that the requirements infringe the First Amendment rights of the public and the whistleblower, and that they violate the separation of powers, since courts are not free to release the documents until the executive branch acts.", "The government moved for dismissal, and the district court granted that motion in 2009.The plaintiffs appealed, and in 2011 their appeal was denied." ], [ "Examples", "In 2004, the billing groups associated with the University of Washington agreed to pay $35 million to resolve civil claims brought by whistleblower Mark Erickson, a former compliance officer, under the False Claims Act.", "The settlement, approved by the UW Board of Regents, resolved claims that they systematically overbilled Medicaid and Medicare and that employees destroyed documents to hide the practice.", "The fraud settlement, the largest against a teaching hospital since the University of Pennsylvania agreed to pay $30 million in 1995, ended a five-year investigation that resulted in guilty pleas from two prominent doctors.", "The whistleblower was awarded $7.25M.In 2010, a subsidiary of Johnson & Johnson agreed to pay over $81 million in civil and criminal penalties to resolve allegations in a FCA suit filed by two whistleblowers.", "The suit alleged that Ortho-McNeil-Janssen Pharmaceuticals, Inc. (OMJPI) acted improperly concerning the marketing, promotion and sale of the anti-convulsant drug Topamax.", "Specifically, the suit alleged that OMJPI \"illegally marketed Topamax by, among other things, promoting the sale and use of Topamax for a variety of psychiatric conditions other than those for which its use was approved by the Food and Drug Administration, (i.e., \"off-label\" uses).\"", "It also states that \"certain of these uses were not medically accepted indications for which State Medicaid programs provided coverage\" and that as a result \"OMJPI knowingly caused false or fraudulent claims for Topamax to be submitted to, or caused purchase by, certain federally funded healthcare programs.In response to a complaint from whistleblower Jerry H. Brown II, the US Government filed suit against Maersk for overcharging for shipments to US forces fighting in Iraq and Afghanistan.", "In a settlement announced on 3 January 2012, the company agreed to pay $31.9 million in fines and interest, but made no admission of wrongdoing.", "Brown was entitled to $3.6 million of the settlement.The largest healthcare fraud settlement in history was made by GlaxoSmithKline in 2012 when it paid a total of $3 billion to resolve four qui tam lawsuits brought under the False Claims Act and related criminal charges.", "The claims include allegations Glaxo engaged in off-label marketing and paid kickbacks to doctors to prescribe certain drugs, including Paxil, Wellbutrin and Advair.In 2013, Wyeth Pharmaceuticals Inc., a pharmaceutical company acquired by Pfizer, Inc. in 2009, paid $490.9 million to resolve its criminal and civil liability arising from the unlawful marketing of its drug Rapamune for uses that were not FDA-approved and potentially harmful.", "The case, ''U.S.", "ex rel.", "Sandler and Paris v. Wyeth Pharmaceuticals and Pfizer, Inc.'' was brought by multiple whistleblowers and culminated in one of the largest False Claims Act recoveries for a single drug.In 2014, CareFusion paid $40.1 million to settle allegations of violating the False Claims Act by promoting off label use of its products in the case United States ex rel.", "Kirk v. CareFusion et al., No.", "10-2492.The government alleged that CareFusion promoted the sale of its drug ChloraPrep for uses that were not approved by the FDA.", "ChloraPrep is the commercial name under which CareFusion produced the drug chlorhexidine, used to clean the skin before surgery.", "In 2017, this case was called into question and was under review by the DOJ because the lead attorney for the DOJ serving as Assistant Attorney General in the case, Jeffery Wertkin, was arrested by the FBI on January 31, 2017, for allegedly attempting to sell a copy of a complaint in a secret whistleblower suit that was under seal.In 2017, bio-pharmaceutical giant Celgene Corporation paid $240 million to settle allegations it sold and marketed its drugs Thalomid and Revlimid off-label in ''U.S.", "ex rel.", "Brown v. Celgene'', CV 10-03165 (RK) (C.D.", "Cal.).", "The case, brought by former Celgene sales representative, Beverly Brown, alleged violations under the False Claims Act including promoting Thalomid and Revlimid off-label for uses that were not FDA-approved and, in many cases, unsafe and not medically necessary, offered illegal kickbacks to influence healthcare providers to select its products, and concealed potential adverse events related to use of its drugs.In 2021, A South Carolina pain management company was ordered to pay $140 million under the False Claims Act after a judge in U.S. district court found it in default after fraud schemes.In 2023, a private equity firm agreed to pay $9 million to settle alleged False Claims Act violations that they unlawfully distributed Subsys, a potent, rapid-onset fentanyl sublingual spray, in violation of the Controlled Substances Act.==See also==* Civil Cyber-Fraud InitiativeMaking false statements Medicare Fraud* Private attorney general* War profiteering" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* The False Claims Act overview * Blog covering developments in the False Claims Act* Blog covering False Claims Act and Qui Tam developments* Department of Justice Presentation on University of Washington Overbilling Case from UW public website (pdf)* Taxpayers Against Fraud Education Fund* What is the False Claims Act?", "* masslawyersweekly.com* Federal False Claims and State False Claims Act Laws" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Fantastic Four" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Fantastic Four''' is a superhero team appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics.", "The team debuted in ''The Fantastic Four'' #1 (cover dated November 1961), helping usher in a new level of realism in the medium.", "It was the first superhero team created by artist/co-plotter Jack Kirby and editor/co-scripter Stan Lee, and through this title that the \"Marvel method\" style of production came into prominence.The four characters traditionally associated with the Fantastic Four, who gained superpowers after exposure to cosmic rays during a scientific mission to outer space, are: Mister Fantastic (Reed Richards), a scientific genius and the leader of the group, who can stretch his body into incredible lengths and shapes; the Invisible Woman (Susan \"Sue\" Storm-Richards), Reed's girlfriend and later wife, who can render herself invisible and project powerful invisible force fields and blasts; the Human Torch (Johnny Storm), Sue's younger brother, who can generate flames, surround himself with them and fly; and the monstrous Thing (Ben Grimm), their grumpy but benevolent friend, a former college football star, Reed's college roommate and a skilled pilot, who possesses tremendous superhuman strength, durability and endurance due to his stone-like flesh.Since their 1961 introduction, the Fantastic Four has been portrayed as a somewhat dysfunctional, yet loving, family.", "Breaking convention with other comic archetypes, the members squabbled, held grudges both deep and petty, and eschewed anonymity or secret identities in favor of celebrity status.", "They are also well known for their recurring encounters with characters such as the villainous monarch Doctor Doom; the planet-devouring Galactus; the Kree Empire's ruthless and tyrannical enforcer Ronan the Accuser; the Negative Zone's ruler Annihilus; the sea-dwelling prince Namor; the spacefaring Silver Surfer; the Skrull warrior Kl'rt; and the Molecule Man.The Fantastic Four have been adapted into other media, including several video games, animated series, and live-action films." ], [ "Publication history", "===Origins===Apocryphal legend has it that in 1961, longtime magazine and comic book publisher Martin Goodman was playing golf with either Jack Liebowitz or Irwin Donenfeld of rival company DC Comics, then known as National Periodical Publications, and that the top executive bragged about DC's success with the new superhero team the Justice League of America.", "While film producer and comics historian Michael Uslan has debunked the particulars of that story, Goodman, a publishing trend-follower, aware of the JLA's strong sales, did direct his comics editor, Stan Lee, to create a comic-book series about a team of superheroes.", "According to Lee, writing in 1974, \"Martin mentioned that he had noticed one of the titles published by National Comics seemed to be selling better than most.", "It was a book called ''The'' ''Justice League of America'' and it was composed of a team of superheroes.", "... 'If the Justice League is selling', spoke he, 'why don't we put out a comic book that features a team of superheroes?", "'\"Lee, who had served as editor-in-chief and art director of Marvel Comics and its predecessor companies, Timely Comics and Atlas Comics, for two decades, found that the medium had become creatively restrictive.", "Determined \"to carve a real career for myself in the nowhere world of comic books\", Lee concluded that, \"For just this once, I would do the type of story I myself would enjoy reading.... And the characters would be the kind of characters I could personally relate to: they'd be flesh and blood, they'd have their faults and foibles, they'd be fallible and feisty, and — most important of all — inside their colorful, costumed booties they'd still have feet of clay.", "\"Lee provided one of his earliest recorded comments on the creation of the Fantastic Four for a fanzine in 1968, during which time Jack Kirby was also working at Marvel (Kirby himself is interviewed separately in the same publication).", "When asked who conceived the team, him or Kirby, Lee responded \"Both – 'twas mainly my idea, but Jack created characters visually\".", "In the 1974 book Origins of Marvel Comics Lee described the creative process in more detail, stating that he developed the basic characters as well as a story synopsis for the first issue penciller Jack Kirby to follow.", "Lee noted the involvement of both Kirby and Publisher Martin Goodman prior to preparing his synopsis: \"After kicking it around with Martin and Jack for a while I decided to call our quaint quartet the Fantastic Four.", "I wrote a detailed first synopsis for Jack to follow and the rest is history.\"", "Kirby turned in his penciled art pages to Lee, who added dialogue and captions.", "This approach to creating comics, which became known as the \"Marvel Method\", worked so well that Lee and Kirby used it from then on, and the Marvel Method became standard for the company within a year.Kirby recalled events somewhat differently.", "In a 1970 Fanzine interview he confirmed Lee's involvement in the creation of the Fantastic Four but took credit for the main characters and ideas, stating \"It was my idea.", "It was my idea to do it the way it was; my idea to develop it the way it was.", "I'm not saying Stan had nothing to do with it.", "Of course he did.", "We talked things out.\"", "Years later, when specifically challenged with Lee's version of events in a 1990 interview, Kirby responded: \"I would say that's an outright lie\", although the interviewer, Gary Groth, notes that this statement needs to be viewed with caution.", "Kirby claims he came up with the idea for the Fantastic Four in Marvel's offices, and that Lee merely added the dialogue after the story was pencilled.", "Kirby also sought to establish, more credibly and on numerous occasions, that the visual elements of the strip were his conceptions.", "He regularly pointed to a team he created for rival publisher DC Comics in the 1950s, the Challengers of the Unknown.", "\"If you notice the uniforms, they're the same...", "I always give them a skintight uniform with a belt... the Challengers and the FF have a minimum of decoration.", "And of course, the Thing's skin is a kind of decoration, breaking up the monotony of the blue uniform.\"", "It is important to note, however, that the Fantastic Four wore civilian garb instead of uniforms, which were only introduced (along with the Baxter Building Headquarters) in the third issue of the series following readership feedback.", "The original submitted design was also modified to include the iconic chest insignia of a \"4\" within a circle that was designed by Lee.Given the conflicting statements, outside commentators have found it hard to ascertain who created the Fantastic Four.", "A typed synopsis by Lee for the introductory segment of the first Fantastic Four issue exists and outlines the characters and their origins, with various minor differences to the published version.", "However Earl Wells, writing in ''The Comics Journal'', points out that its existence does not assert its place in the creation: \"We have no way of knowing of whether Lee wrote the synopsis after a discussion with Kirby in which Kirby supplied most of the ideas\".It is also notable that the Fantastic Four's first adventure in 1961 depicts a team of four adventurers (three men and a woman) led by a Professor travelling to the Earth’s centre and encountering giant monsters while contending with a human protagonist who is also from the surface world.", "Although neither Lee nor Kirby ever mentioned the 1959 film ''Journey to the Center of the Earth'' as a direct inspiration, publisher Martin Goodman was well known for following popular entertainment trends to attract sales in his comics line.Comics historian R. C. Harvey believes the Fantastic Four was a continuation of the work Kirby previously did, and so \"more likely Kirby's creations than Lee's\".", "But Harvey notes that the Marvel Method of collaboration allowed each man to claim credit, and that Lee's dialogue added to the direction the team took.", "Wells argues that Lee's contributions set the framework within which Kirby worked, and this made Lee \"more responsible\".", "Comics historian Mark Evanier, a studio assistant to Jack Kirby in the 1970s, says that the considered opinion of Lee and Kirby's contemporaries was \"that ''Fantastic Four'' was created by Stan and Jack.", "No further division of credit seemed appropriate.", "\"===1961–1970s===The release of ''The Fantastic Four'' #1 (Nov. 1961) was an unexpected success.", "Lee had felt ready to leave the comics field at the time, but the positive response to ''Fantastic Four'' persuaded him to stay on.", "The title began to receive fan mail and Lee started printing the letters in a letter column with issue #3.Also with the third issue, Lee created the hyperbolic slogan \"The Greatest Comic Magazine in the World\" With the following issue, the slogan was changed to \"The World's Greatest Comic Magazine!\"", "and became a fixture on the issue covers into the 1990s, and on numerous covers in the 2000s.Issue #4 (May 1962) reintroduced Namor the Sub-Mariner, an aquatic antihero who was a star character of Marvel's earliest iteration, Timely Comics, during the late 1930s and 1940s period that historians and fans call the Golden Age of Comics.", "Issue #5 (July 1962) introduced the team's most frequent nemesis, Doctor Doom.", "These earliest issues were published bimonthly.", "With issue #16 (July 1963), the cover title dropped its ''The'' and became simply ''Fantastic Four''.While the early stories were complete narratives, the frequent appearances of these two antagonists, Doom and Namor, in subsequent issues indicated the creation of a long narrative by Lee and Kirby that extended over months.", "According to comics historian Les Daniels, \"only narratives that ran to several issues would be able to contain their increasingly complex ideas\".", "During its creators' lengthy run, the series produced many acclaimed storylines and characters that have become central to Marvel, including the hidden race of alien-human genetic experiments, the Inhumans; the Black Panther, an African king who would be mainstream comics' first black superhero; the rival alien races the Kree and the shapeshifting Skrulls; Him, who would become Adam Warlock; the Negative Zone and unstable molecules.", "The story frequently cited as Lee and Kirby's finest achievement is the three-part \"Galactus Trilogy\" that began in ''Fantastic Four'' #48 (March 1966), chronicling the arrival of Galactus, a cosmic giant who wanted to devour the planet, and his herald, the Silver Surfer.", "''Fantastic Four'' #48 was chosen as #24 in the 100 Greatest Marvels of All Time poll of Marvel's readers in 2001.Editor Robert Greenberger wrote in his introduction to the story that, \"As the fourth year of the Fantastic Four came to a close, Stan Lee and Jack Kirby seemed to be only warming up.", "In retrospect, it was perhaps the most fertile period of any monthly title during the Marvel Age.\"", "Daniels noted that \"the mystical and metaphysical elements that took over the saga were perfectly suited to the tastes of young readers in the 1960s\", and Lee soon discovered that the story was a favorite on college campuses.", "The ''Fantastic Four Annual'' was used to spotlight several key events.", "The Sub-Mariner was crowned king of Atlantis in the first annual (1963).", "The following year's annual revealed the origin story of Doctor Doom.", "''Fantastic Four Annual'' #3 (1965) presented the wedding of Reed Richards and Sue Storm.", "Lee and Kirby reintroduced the original Human Torch in ''Fantastic Four Annual'' #4 (1966) and had him battle Johnny Storm.", "Sue Richards' pregnancy was announced in ''Fantastic Four Annual'' #5 (1967), and the Richards' son, Franklin Richards was born in ''Fantastic Four Annual'' #6 (1968) in a story which introduced Annihilus as well.Marvel filed for a trademark for \"Fantastic Four\" in 1967 and the United States Patent and Trademark Office issued the registration in 1970.Kirby left Marvel in mid-1970, having drawn the first 102 issues plus an unfinished issue, partially published in ''Fantastic Four'' #108, with alterations, and later completed and published as ''Fantastic Four: The Lost Adventure'' (April 2008), ''Fantastic Four'' continued with Lee, Roy Thomas, Gerry Conway and Marv Wolfman as its consecutive regular writers, working with artists such as John Romita Sr., John Buscema, Rich Buckler and George Pérez, with longtime inker Joe Sinnott adding some visual continuity.", "Jim Steranko also contributed some covers during this time.", "A short-lived series starring the team, ''Giant-Size Super-Stars'', began in May 1974 and changed its title to ''Giant-Size Fantastic Four'' with issue #2.The fourth issue introduced Jamie Madrox, a character who later became part of the X-Men.", "''Giant-Size Fantastic Four'' was canceled with issue #6 (Oct. 1975).", "Roy Thomas and George Pérez crafted a metafictional story for ''Fantastic Four'' #176 (Nov. 1976) in which the Impossible Man visited the offices of Marvel Comics and met numerous comics creators.", "Marv Wolfman and Keith Pollard crafted a multi-issue storyline involving the son of Doctor Doom which culminated in issue #200 (Nov. 1978).", "John Byrne joined the title with issue #209 (Aug. 1979), doing pencil breakdowns for Sinnott to finish.", "He and Wolfman introduced a new herald for Galactus named Terrax the Tamer in #211 (Oct. 1979).===1980s and 1990s===Bill Mantlo briefly followed Wolfman as writer of the series and wrote a crossover with ''Peter Parker, The Spectacular Spider-Man'' #42 (May 1980).", "Byrne wrote and drew a giant-sized Fantastic Four promotional comic for Coca-Cola, which was rejected by Coca-Cola as being too violent and published as ''Fantastic Four'' #220–221 (July–Aug.", "1980) instead.", "Writer Doug Moench and penciller Bill Sienkiewicz then took over for 10 issues.", "With issue #232 (July 1981), the aptly titled \"Back to the Basics\", Byrne began his run as writer, penciller and inker, the last under the pseudonym Bjorn Heyn for this issue only.Byrne revitalized the slumping title with his run.", "Byrne was slated to write with Sienkiewicz providing the art however, Sienkiewicz left to do ''Moon Knight'', and Byrne subsequently became writer, artist, and inker.", "Various editors were assigned to the comic; eventually Bob Budiansky became the regular editor.", "Byrne told Jim Shooter that he could not work with Budiansky, although they ultimately continued to work together.", "In 2006, Byrne said \"that's my paranoia.", "I look back and I think that was Shooter trying to force me off the book\".", "Byrne left following issue #293 (Aug. 1986) in the middle of a story arc, explaining he could not recapture the fun he had previously had on the series.", "One of Byrne's changes was making the Invisible Girl into the Invisible Woman: assertive and confident.", "During this period, fans came to recognize that she was quite powerful, whereas previously, she had been primarily seen as a superpowered mother and wife in the tradition of television moms like those played by Donna Reed and Florence Henderson.Byrne staked new directions in the characters' personal lives, having the married Sue Storm and Reed Richards suffer a miscarriage and the Thing quitting the Fantastic Four, with She-Hulk being recruited as his long-term replacement.", "He also re-emphasized the family dynamic which he felt the series had drifted away from after the Lee/Kirby run, commenting that, \"''Family''—and not ''dysfunctional family''—is the central, key element to the FF.", "It is an absolutely vital dynamic between the characters.\"", "emphases in originalByrne was followed by a quick succession of writers: Roger Stern, Tom DeFalco, and Roy Thomas.", "Steve Englehart took over as writer for issues 304–332 (except #320).", "The title had been struggling, so Englehart decided to make radical changes.", "He felt the title had become stale with the normal makeup of Reed, Sue, Ben, and Johnny, so in issue #308 Reed and Sue retired and were replaced with the Thing's new girlfriend, Sharon Ventura, and Johnny Storm's former love, Crystal.", "The changes increased readership through issue #321.At this point, Marvel made decisions about another Englehart comic, ''West Coast Avengers'', that he disagreed with, and in protest he changed his byline to S.F.X.", "Englehart (S.F.X.", "is the abbreviation for Simple Sound Effects).", "In issue #326, Englehart was told to bring Reed and Sue back and undo the other changes he had made.", "This caused Englehart to take his name entirely off the book.", "He used the pseudonym John Harkness, which he had created years before for work he didn't want to be associated with.", "According to Englehart, the run from #326 through his last issue, #332, was \"one of the most painful stretches of his career.\"", "Writer-artist Walt Simonson took over as writer with #334 (December 1989), and three issues later began pencilling and inking as well.", "With brief inking exceptions, two fill-in issues, and a three-issue stint drawn by Arthur Adams, Simonson remained in all three positions through #354 (July 1991).Simonson, who had been writing the team comic ''The Avengers'', had gotten approval for Reed and Sue to join that team after Engelhart had written them out of ''Fantastic Four''.", "Yet by ''The Avengers'' #300, where they were scheduled to join the team, Simonson was told the characters were returning to ''Fantastic Four''.", "This led to Simonson quitting ''The Avengers'' after that issue.", "Shortly afterward, he was offered the job of writing ''Fantastic Four''.", "Having already prepared a number of stories involving the Avengers with Reed and Sue in the lineup, he then rewrote these for ''Fantastic Four''.", "Simonson later recalled that working on ''Fantastic Four'' allowed him the latitude to use original Avengers members Thor and Iron Man, which he had been precluded from using in ''The Avengers''.After another fill-in, the regular team of writer and Marvel editor-in-chief Tom DeFalco, penciller Paul Ryan and inker Dan Bulanadi took over, with Ryan self-inking beginning with #360 (Jan. 1992).", "That team, with the very occasional different inker, continued for years through #414 (July 1996).", "DeFalco nullified the Storm-Masters marriage by retconning that the alien Skrull Empire had kidnapped the real Masters and replaced her with a spy named Lyja.", "Once discovered, Lyja, who herself had fallen for Storm, helped the Fantastic Four rescue Masters.", "Ventura departed after being further mutated by Doctor Doom.", "Although some fans were not pleased with DeFalco's run on ''Fantastic Four'', calling him \"The Great Satan\", the title's sales rose steadily over the period.Other key developments included Franklin Richards being sent into the future and returning as a teenager; the return of Reed's time-traveling father, Nathaniel, who is revealed to be the father of time-travelling villain Kang the Conqueror and Reed's apparent death at the hands of a seemingly mortally wounded Doctor Doom.", "It would be two years before DeFalco resurrected the two characters, revealing that their \"deaths\" were orchestrated by the supervillain Hyperstorm.The ongoing series was canceled with issue #416 (Sept. 1996) and relaunched with vol.", "2 #1 (Nov. 1996) as part of the multi-series \"Heroes Reborn\" crossover story arc.", "The yearlong volume retold the team's first adventures in a more contemporary style, and set in a parallel universe.", "Following the end of that experiment, ''Fantastic Four'' was relaunched with vol.", "3 #1 (Jan. 1998).", "Initially by the team of writer Scott Lobdell and penciller Alan Davis, it went after three issues to writer Chris Claremont (co-writing with Lobdell for #4–5) and penciller Salvador Larroca; this team enjoyed a long run through issue #32 (Aug. 2000).===2000s===Following the run of Claremont, Lobdell and Larroca, Carlos Pacheco took over as penciller and co-writer, first with Rafael Marín, then with Marín and Jeph Loeb.", "This series began using dual numbering, as if the original ''Fantastic Four'' series had continued unbroken, with issue #42 / #471 (June 2001).", "At the time, the Marvel Comics series begun in the 1960s, such as ''Thor'' and ''The Amazing Spider-Man'', were given such dual numbering on the front cover, with the present-day volume's numbering alongside the numbering from the original series.", "After issue #70 / #499 (Aug. 2003), the title reverted to its original vol.", "1 numbering with issue #500 (Sept. 2003).Karl Kesel succeeded Loeb as co-writer with issue #51 / #480 (March 2002), and after a few issues with temporary teams, Mark Waid took over as writer with #60 / 489 (October 2002) with artist Mike Wieringo with Marvel releasing a promotional variant edition of their otherwise $2.25 debut issue at the price of nine cents US.", "Pencillers Mark Buckingham, Casey Jones, and Howard Porter variously contributed through issue #524 (May 2005), with a handful of issues by other teams also during this time.", "Writer J. Michael Straczynski and penciller Mike McKone did issues #527–541 (July 2005 – Nov. 2006), with Dwayne McDuffie taking over as writer the following issue, and Paul Pelletier succeeding McKone beginning with #544 (May 2007).As a result of the events of the \"Civil War\" company-crossover storyline, the Black Panther and Storm temporarily replaced Reed and Susan Richards on the team.", "During that period, the Fantastic Four also appeared in ''Black Panther'', written by Reginald Hudlin and pencilled primarily by Francis Portela.", "Beginning with issue #554 (April 2008), writer Mark Millar and penciller Bryan Hitch began what Marvel announced as a sixteen-issue run.", "Following the summer 2008 crossover storyline, \"Secret Invasion\", and the 2009 aftermath \"Dark Reign\", chronicling the U.S. government's assigning of the Nation's security functions to the seemingly reformed supervillain Norman Osborn, the Fantastic Four starred in a five-issue miniseries, ''Dark Reign: Fantastic Four'' (May–Sept.", "2009), written by Jonathan Hickman, with art by Sean Chen.", "Hickman took over as the series regular writer as of issue #570 with Dale Eaglesham and later Steve Epting on art.===2010s===In the storyline \"Three\", which concluded in ''Fantastic Four'' #587 (cover date March 2011, published January 26, 2011), the Human Torch appears to die stopping a horde of monsters from the other-dimensional Negative Zone.", "The series ended with the following issue, #588, and relaunched in March 2011 as simply ''FF''.", "The relaunch saw the team assume a new name, the Future Foundation, adopt new black-and-white costumes, and accept longtime ally Spider-Man as a member.", "In October 2011, with the publication of ''FF'' #11 (cover-dated Dec. 2011), the ''Fantastic Four'' series reached its 599th issue.In November 2011, to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the Fantastic Four and of Marvel Comics, the company published the 100-page ''Fantastic Four'' #600 (cover-dated Jan. 2012), which returned the title to its original numbering and featured the return of the Human Torch.", "It revealed the fate of the character of Johnny Storm after issue #587, showing that while he did in fact die, he was resurrected to fight as a gladiator for the entertainment of Annihilus.", "Storm later formed a resistance force called Light Brigade and defeated Annihilus.Although it was launched as a continuation of the ''Fantastic Four'' title, ''FF'' continues publication as a separate series.", "Starting with issue #12, the title focuses upon the youthful members of the Future Foundation, including Franklin and Valeria Richards.In the graphic novel ''Fantastic Four: Season One'', the Fantastic Four is given an updated origin story set in the present day instead of the 1960s.", "The hardcover compilation debuted at number four on ''The New York Times'' Best Seller list for graphic novels.As part of Marvel NOW!", "''Fantastic Four'' ended with #611, ending Jonathan Hickman's long run on ''FF'' titles, and the title was relaunched in November 2012 with the creative team of writer Matt Fraction and artist Mark Bagley.", "In the new title with its numbering starting at #1, the entire Fantastic Four family explore space together, with the hidden intent for Reed Richards to discover why his powers are fading.Writer James Robinson and artist Leonard Kirk launched a new ''Fantastic Four'' series in February 2014 (cover dated April 2014).Robinson later confirmed that ''Fantastic Four'' would be cancelled in 2015 with issue #645, saying that \"The book is reverting to its original numbers, and the book is going away for a while.", "I'm moving towards the end of ''Fantastic Four''.", "I just want to reassure people that you will not leave this book with a bad taste in your mouth.\"", "In the aftermath of the \"Secret Wars\" storyline, the Thing is working with the Guardians of the Galaxy and the Human Torch is acting as an ambassador with the Inhumans.", "With Franklin's powers restored and Reed having absorbed the power of the Beyonders from Doom, the Richards family is working on travelling through and reconstructing the multiverse, but Peter Parker has purchased the Baxter Building to keep it \"safe\" until the team is ready to come back together.A new volume for the Fantastic Four was released in August 2018, written by Dan Slott, as part of Marvel's Fresh Start event.", "The first issue of the new series was met with strong sales, and a positive critical reaction.", "When the Future Foundation is threatened by the Griever at the End of All Things, Mister Fantastic plays on her ego to convince her to provide him with equipment that will allow him to summon his teammates.", "When Human Torch and Thing are reunited with Mister Fantastic and Invisible Woman, the other superheroes that were part of the Fantastic Four at some point in their lives also arrived, including, unexpectedly, X-Men's Iceman.", "With the gathered heroes assisted the Fantastic Four into causing so much damage to the Griever's equipment, she is forced to retreat in her final telepod or be trapped in that universe.", "This left the heroes to salvage components from the broken ship to create their own teleport system to return to their universe.", "The Fantastic Four and their extended family returned to Earth where they find that Liberteens members Ms. America, 2-D, Hope, and Iceberg have come together as the Fantastix with Ms. America taking the codename of Ms. Fantastix.", "Following the staged bank robbery that the Wrecking Crew committed and their involvement of being hired to humiliate the Fantastix in public, the Fantastic Four gave the Fantastix their blessing to continue using the Baxter Building while the FF operate in a house on Yancy Street with a dimensionally-transcendental interior.In the storyline ''Point of Origin'', the Fantastic Four entrust Alicia, H.E.R.B.I.E., Franklin and Valeria to protect Earth while they begin their mission to learn a further origin of the cosmic radiation that granted them their powers in the first place, piloting a new space ship called Marvel-2.While in the middle of a space adventure to find the origin, the Fantastic Four are attacked by a group who believed themselves to be the superheroes of Planet Spyre, the Unparalleled.", "Reed and Sue are separated from the Thing, Human Torch is revealed to be the soulmate of the Unparalleled member named Sky, and they learn that the Unparalleled's leader and the Overseer of Planet Spyre, Revos, was responsible for the cosmic rays that struck the team on their original trip, as he wanted to stop them coming to his planet.", "Revos subsequently mutated his people to \"prepare for their return\" before trying to eradicate the mutates who are unable to retain their original forms in the same manner as the Thing, accusing the mutates of being \"villains and imperfects\"; as a result, through his own paranoia and xenophobia, the Overseer himself is responsible for the fateful creation of the Fantastic Four and mutated his entire race to face a non-existent threat.", "Revos challenges Mr.", "Fantastic to a fight over their differences, until it is settled and they finally made peace.", "As the Fantastic Four are about to depart Spyre after helping its citizens clean up the Planet (as well as Reed providing the mutates with a variation of the temporary 'cure' he has created for Ben), Skye join them to learn about Earth and every unseen galaxy.", "When the incoming Kree-Skrull Empyre occur at the same time as teen heroes are being outlawed, the original Fantastic Four went to space with Avengers to stop this Empyre, leaving Franklin and Valeria being backed by Spider-Man and Wolverine to defend Earth.===2020s===In August 2022, Marvel announced that writer Ryan North and artist Iban Coello would launch a new volume of Fantastic Four in November of that year after Slott had concluded his run on the title with issue #46." ], [ "Spin-offs", "Ancillary titles and features spin off from the flagship series include the 1970s quarterly ''Giant-Size Fantastic Four'' and the 1990s ''Fantastic Four Unlimited'' and ''Fantastic Four Unplugged''; ''Fantastic Force'', an 18-issue spinoff (November 1994 – April 1996) featuring a young adult Franklin Richards, from a different timeline, as Psi-Lord.", "A 12-issue series ''Fantastic Four: The World's Greatest Comics Magazine'' ran in 2001, paying homage to Stan Lee and Jack Kirby's legendary run.", "A spinoff title ''Marvel Knights 4'' (April 2004 – August 2006) was written by Roberto Aguirre-Sacasa and initially illustrated by Steve McNiven in his first Marvel work.", "There have also been numerous limited series featuring the group.In 1996, Marvel launched the series ''Fantastic Four 2099,'' part of the company's Marvel 2099 imprint which explored an alternate future of the Marvel Universe.", "The four protagonists inexplicably find themselves in 2099, with the world believing them to be clones of the original members of the Fantastic Four.", "The series ran for 8 issues (Jan. – Aug. 1996), serving as a companion to ''Doom 2099''—an original Marvel 2099 title featuring an individual claiming to be the original Victor von Doom.", "In 2021, the series was brought back for a single issue.In 2004, Marvel launched ''Ultimate Fantastic Four''.", "As part of the company's Ultimate Marvel imprint, the series re-imagined the team as young adults.", "It ran for 60 issues (Feb. 2004 – Feb. 2009).", "The issues were repackaged into four-issue graphic novel volumes.", "The characters continued to appear in other Ultimate Marvel franchises, including ''Ultimatum''.", "Ultimate Reed Richards became a mainstay of both the Earth-1610 and Earth-616 continuities as the villain the Maker.", "In 2008, they also launched ''Marvel Adventures: Fantastic Four'', an out-of-continuity series aimed at younger readers.Although it was launched by Marvel as a continuation of the Fantastic Four title in 2011, ''FF'' continued publication as a separate series after the regular series resumed in 2012.From issues #12, the title focused on the youthful members of the Future Foundation, including Franklin and Valeria Richards.", "A second volume was launched as part of Marvel NOW!", "by Matt Fraction and Mike Allred depicting a substitute Fantastic Four team starring Scott Lang, Medusa, She-Hulk and Ms. Thing.===Solo series=======The Human Torch solo====The Human Torch was given a solo strip in ''Strange Tales'' in 1962 to bolster the title's sales.", "The series began in ''Strange Tales'' #101 (October 1962), in 12- to 14-page stories plotted by Lee and initially scripted by his brother Larry Lieber, and drawn by penciller Kirby and inker Dick Ayers.Here, Johnny was seen living with his older sister, Susan, in fictional Glenview, Long Island, New York, where he continued high school and, with youthful naiveté, attempted to maintain a \"secret identity\".", "In ''Strange Tales'' #106 (March 1963), Johnny discovered that his friends and neighbors knew of his dual identity all along from Fantastic Four news reports, but were humoring him.", "Supporting characters included Johnny's girlfriend, Doris Evans, usually in consternation as Johnny cheerfully flew off to battle bad guys.", "She was seen again in a 1973 issue of ''Fantastic Four'', having become a heavyset but cheerful wife and mother.", "Ayers took over the penciling after ten issues, later followed by original Golden Age Human Torch creator Carl Burgos and others.", "The Fantastic Four made occasional cameo appearances, and the Thing became a co-star with issue #123 (Aug. 1964).The Human Torch shared the split book ''Strange Tales'' with fellow feature Doctor Strange for the majority of its run, before being replaced in issue #135 (August 1965) by Nick Fury, Agent of S.H.I.E.L.D.", "The Silver Age stories were republished in 1974, along with some Golden Age Human Torch stories, in a short-lived ongoing ''Human Torch'' series.A later ongoing solo series in Marvel's manga-influenced Tsunami imprint, ''Human Torch'', ran 12 issues (June 2003 – June 2004), by writer Karl Kesel and penciler Skottie Young.", "The series was followed by the five-issue limited series ''Spider-Man/Human Torch'' (March–July 2005), an untold tales team-up arc spanning the course of their friendship.====The Thing solo====The Thing appeared in two team-up issues of ''Marvel Feature'' (#11–12, September–November 1973).", "Following their success, he was given his own regular team-up title ''Marvel Two-in-One'', co-starring with Marvel heroes not only in the present day but occasionally in other time periods (fighting alongside the World War II-era Liberty Legion in #20 and the 1930s hero Doc Savage in #21, for example) and in alternate realities.", "The series ran 100 issues (January 1974 – June 1983), with seven summer annuals (1976–1982) and was immediately followed by the solo title ''The Thing'' #1–36 (July 1983 – June 1986).", "Another ongoing solo series, also titled ''The Thing'', ran eight issues (January–August 2006).A six issue miniseries written by Walter Mosely, entitled ''The Thing'', was released in November 2021.====Invisible Woman solo====In April 2019, Marvel Comics announced that it would publish ''Invisible Woman'', a five-issue miniseries written by Mark Waid and drawn by artist Mattia De Lulis.", "This was Sue Storm's first solo title.", "Adam Hughes drew the cover for all five issues." ], [ "Characters {{Anchor\|The team}}", "The Fantastic Four is formed after four civilian astronauts are exposed to cosmic rays during an unauthorized outer space test flight in an experimental rocket ship designed by Dr. Reed Richards.", "Pilot Ben Grimm and crew-members Susan Storm and her brother Johnny Storm survive an emergency crash-landing in a field on Earth.", "Upon exiting the rocket, the four discover they have developed incredible superpowers and decide to use these powers to help others.In the first issue the crew talks about Reed Richards' rocketship flying to the stars.", "Stan Lee's original synopsis described the crew's plan to fly to Mars, but Lee later shortly afterward wrote that due to \"the rate the Communists are progressing in space, maybe we better make this a flight to the STARS, instead of just to Mars, because by the time this mag goes on sale, the Russians may have already MADE a flight to Mars!", "\"In a significant departure from preceding superhero conventions, the Fantastic Four make no effort to maintain secret identities or, until issue #3, to wear superhero costumes, instead maintaining a public profile and enjoying celebrity status for scientific and heroic contributions to society.", "At the same time, they are often prone to arguing and even fighting with one another.", "Despite their bickering, the Fantastic Four consistently prove themselves to be \"a cohesive and formidable team in times of crisis.", "\"While there have been a number of lineup changes to the group, the four characters who debuted in ''Fantastic Four'' #1 remain the core and most frequent lineup.", "They consist of:* '''Mister Fantastic''' (Reed Richards) - A scientific genius, can stretch, twist and re-shape his body to inhuman proportions.", "Mr.", "Fantastic serves as the father figure of the group, and is \"appropriately pragmatic, authoritative, and dull\".", "Richards blames himself for the failed space mission, particularly because of how the event transformed pilot Ben Grimm.", "Stan Lee said the stretch powers were inspired by DC's Plastic Man, which had no equivalent in Marvel.", "* '''Invisible Girl/Invisible Woman''' (Susan Storm) - Reed Richards' girlfriend (and eventual wife) has the ability to bend and manipulate light to render herself and others invisible.", "Stan Lee did not want Sue to have superstrength, \"to be Wonder Woman and punch people\", so eventually he came to invisibility, inspired by works such as ''The Invisible Man''.", "She later develops the ability to generate invisible force fields, which she uses for a variety of defensive and offensive effects.", "* '''Human Torch''' (Johnny Storm) - Sue Storm's younger brother, possesses the ability to control fire, allowing him to project fire from his body, as well as the power to fly.", "This character was loosely based on a Human Torch character published by Marvel's predecessor Timely Comics in the 1940s, an android that could ignite itself.", "Lee said that when he conceptualized the character, \"I thought it was a shame that we didn't have The Human Torch anymore, and this was a good chance to bring him back\".", "Unlike the teen sidekicks that preceded him, the Human Torch in the early stories was \"a typical adolescent — brash, rebellious, and affectionately obnoxious.\"", "Johnny Storm was killed in the 2011 storyline \"Three\", before being brought back and rejoining the reformed Fantastic Four.", "* '''Thing''' (Ben Grimm) - Reed Richards' college roommate and best friend, has been transformed into a monstrous, orange, rock-like humanoid possessing high levels of superhuman strength and durability.", "The Thing is often filled with anger, self-loathing and self-pity over his new existence.", "He serves as \"an uncle figure, a long-term friend of the family with a gruff Brooklyn manner, short temper, and caustic sense of humor\".", "In the original synopsis Lee gave to Kirby, The Thing was intended as \"the heavy\", but over the years, the character has become \"the most lovable group member: honest, direct and free of pretension\".", "Lee said his original pitch to Kirby stated that The Thing was \"someone who turned into a monster\" and is bitter because unlike the other three he cannot change back to a normal appearance.The Fantastic Four has had several headquarters, most notably the Baxter Building, located at 42nd Street and Madison Avenue in New York City.", "The Baxter Building was replaced by Four Freedoms Plaza at the same location after its destruction at the hands of Kristoff Vernard, adopted son of the team's seminal foe Doctor Doom (prior to the completion of Four Freedoms Plaza, the team took up temporary residence at Avengers Mansion).", "Pier 4, a waterfront warehouse, served as a temporary headquarters after Four Freedoms Plaza was destroyed by the ostensible superhero team the Thunderbolts shortly after the revelation that they were actually the supervillain team the Masters of Evil in disguise.", "Pier 4 was eventually destroyed during a battle with the longtime Fantastic Four supervillain Diablo, after which the team received a new Baxter Building, courtesy of one of team leader Reed Richards' former professors, Noah Baxter.", "This second Baxter Building was constructed in Earth's orbit and teleported into the vacant lot formerly occupied by the original.", "After their brief hiatus creating universes after the Secret Wars event, they took residence on 4 Yancy Street before moving back into the newly rebuilt Baxter Building." ], [ "Supporting characters", "===Allies and supporting characters===A number of characters are closely affiliated with the team, share complex personal histories with one or more of its members but have never actually held an official membership.", "Some of these characters include, but are not limited to: Namor the Sub-Mariner (previously an antagonist), Alicia Masters, Lyja the Lazerfist, H.E.R.B.I.E., Kristoff Vernard (Doctor Doom's former protégé), Wyatt Wingfoot, Sue and Johnny's father Franklin Storm, the receptionist android Roberta, governess Agatha Harkness, and Reed and Sue's children Franklin Richards and Valeria Richards.Several allies of the Fantastic Four have served as temporary members of the team, including Crystal, Medusa, Power Man (Luke Cage), Nova (Frankie Raye), She-Hulk, Ms. Marvel (Sharon Ventura), Ant-Man (Scott Lang), Namorita, Storm, and the Black Panther.", "A temporary lineup from ''Fantastic Four'' #347–349 (December 1990 – February 1991) consisted of the Hulk (in his \"Joe Fixit\" persona), Spider-Man, Wolverine, and Ghost Rider.Other notable characters who have been involved with the Fantastic Four include Alyssa Moy, Caledonia (Alysande Stuart of Earth-9809), Fantastic Force, the Inhumans (particularly the royal family members Black Bolt, Crystal, Medusa, Gorgon, Karnak, Triton, and Lockjaw), Reed's father Nathaniel Richards, the Silver Surfer (previously an antagonist), Thundra, postal worker Willie Lumpkin, Baxter Building landlord Walter Collins, the Thing's rivals the Yancy Street Gang and Uatu the Watcher.Author Christopher Knowles states that Kirby's work on creations such as the Inhumans and the Black Panther served as \"a showcase of some of the most radical concepts in the history of the medium\"." ], [ "Antagonists", "Writers and artists over many years have created a variety of characters to challenge the Fantastic Four.", "Knowles states that Kirby helped to create \"an army of villains whose rage and destructive power had never been seen before,\" and \"whose primary impulse is to smash the world.\"", "Some of the team's oldest and most frequent enemies have involved such foes as the Mole Man, the Skrulls, Namor the Sub-Mariner, Doctor Doom, the Puppet Master, Kang the Conqueror/Rama-Tut/Immortus, Blastaar, the Frightful Four, Annihilus, Galactus, and Klaw.", "Other prominent antagonists of the Fantastic Four have included the Wizard, the Impossible Man, the Red Ghost and the Super-Apes, the Mad Thinker, the Super-Skrull, the Molecule Man, Diablo, Dragon Man, Psycho-Man, Ronan the Accuser, Salem's Seven, Terrax the Tamer, Terminus, Hyperstorm, and Lucia von Bardas." ], [ "Fantastic Four Incorporated", "'''Fantastic Four Incorporated''', also known as '''Fantastic Enterprises''', is a fictional organization appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics.", "It was founded by Reed Richards to license use of Richard's patents and funded the Fantastic Four's operation and their source of income.", "Staff are:Susan Richards (Invisible Woman) - CEO of Fantastic Four Inc.Johnny Storm (Human Torch) - made COO by Susan to give him some work ethic.", "Christi Stoger - with Ethan Crane, tried to frame Johnny Storm for a screw-up to get themselves promotedEthan Crane - with Christi Stoger, tried to frame Johnny Storm for a screw-up to get themselves promotedJian Feeta - Johnny's Personal AssistantBethany Palmer - assisted out of abusive relationship with ex-husband, Jeff, by the Invisible WomanJed Schultz - informed Reed about the embezzlement of their fundsMargaret Kofpulski" ], [ "Cultural impact and legacy", "=== Critical reception ===Abraham Riesman of ''Vulture'' included the Fantastic Four in their \"12 Teams That Defined Superhero Storytelling\" list.", "Laura Bradley of ''Vanity Fair'' included the Fantastic Four in their \"Stan Lee’s Most Iconic Characters\" list.", "''CBR.com'' ranked the Fantastic Four 1st in their \"10 Most Fashionable Teams In Marvel Comics\" list, 3rd in their \"Every Marvel Superhero Team\" list, and 5th in their \"Marvel: The 10 Strongest Superhero Teams\" list.", "Brooke Wright of ''MovieWeb'' ranked the Fantastic Four 2nd in their \"Most Famous Superhero Families\" list.", "Jason Serafino of ''Complex'' ranked the Fantastic Four 3rd in their \"10 Best Superhero Teams In Comics\" list.", "Michael Doran of ''Newsarama'' ranked the Fantastic Four 4th in their \"Best superhero teams of all time\" list.", "Geoff Boucher of ''Deadline'' ranked the Fantastic Four 9th in their \"Stan Lee’s Legacy: Ranking The Hollywood Heroes Co-Created By The Marvel Comics Icon\" list.", "Chris Isaac of ''Screen Rant'' ranked the Fantastic Four 15th in their \"15 Best Superhero Teams Of All Time\" list.=== Impact ===The Fantastic Four's characterization was initially different from all other superheroes at the time.", "One major difference is that they do not conceal their identities, leading the public to be both suspicious and in awe of them.", "Also, they frequently argued and disagreed with each other, hindering their work as a team.", "Described as \"heroes with hangups\" by Stan Lee, the Thing has a temper, and the Human Torch resents being a child among adults.", "Mr.", "Fantastic blames himself for the Thing's transformation.", "Social scientist Bradford W. Wright describes the team as a \"volatile mix of human emotions and personalities.\"", "In spite of their disagreements, they ultimately function well as a team.The first issue of ''The Fantastic Four'' proved a success, igniting a new direction for superhero comics and soon influencing many other superhero comics.", "Readers grew fond of Ben's grumpiness, Johnny's tendency to annoy others and Reed and Sue's spats.", "Stan Lee was surprised at the reaction to the first issue, leading him to stay in the comics field despite previous plans to leave.", "Comics historian Stephen Krensky said that \"Lee's natural dialogue and flawed characters appealed to 1960s kids looking to 'get real.", "'\"==== Sales ====As of 2005, more than 150 million ''Fantastic Four'' comic books have been sold.", "In 2022, the first issue of ''The Fantastic Four'' was sold for 1.5 million dollars at an auction." ], [ "In other media", "There have been four ''The Fantastic Four'' animated series and three released feature films.", "The Fantastic Four also guest-starred in the \"Secret Wars\" story arc of the 1990s ''Spider-Man'' animated series, and the Thing guest-starred (with a small cameo from the other Fantastic Four members) in the \"Fantastic Fortitude\" episode of the 1996 ''The Incredible Hulk'' series.", "The Fantastic Four also appeared in the 2010 series ''The Avengers: Earth's Mightiest Heroes''.There was a short-lived radio show in 1975 that adapted early Lee/Kirby stories and is notable for casting a pre-''Saturday Night Live'' Bill Murray as the Human Torch.", "Also in the cast were Bob Maxwell as Reed Richards, Cynthia Adler as Sue Storm, Jim Pappas as Ben Grimm and Jerry Terheyden as Doctor Doom.", "Other Marvel characters featured in the series included Ant-Man, Prince Namor, Nick Fury and the Hulk.", "Stan Lee narrated the series and the scripts were taken almost verbatim from the comic books.", "The radio show was packaged into five-minute segments, with five segments comprising a complete adventure.", "The team appeared on the Power Records album ''Fantastic Four: \"The Way It Began\"'' book and record set, an audio dramatization of ''Fantastic Four'' #126.===Television===The Fantastic Four has been the subject of four animated television series.", "The first, ''Fantastic Four'', produced by Hanna-Barbera, ran 20 episodes on ABC from September 9, 1967 to September 21, 1968.The second ''Fantastic Four'' series, produced by DePatie-Freleng, ran 13 episodes from September 9, 1978, to December 16, 1978; this series features a H.E.R.B.I.E.", "Unit in place of the Human Torch.In 1979, the Thing was featured as half of the Saturday morning cartoon ''Fred and Barney Meet the Thing''.", "The character of the Thing received a radical make-over for the series.", "The title character for this program was Benjy Grimm, a teenage boy who possessed a pair of magic Thing-rings which could transform him into the Thing when he put them together and said \"Thing-rings, do your thing!\"", "The other members of the Fantastic Four do not appear in the series, nor do the animated ''The Flintstones'' stars Fred Flintstone and Barney Rubble, despite the title of the program.The third ''Fantastic Four'' was broadcast as part of ''The Marvel Action Hour'' umbrella, with introductions by Stan Lee.", "This series ran 26 episodes from September 24, 1994 to February 24, 1996.The fourth series, ''Fantastic Four: World's Greatest Heroes'', debuted on September 2, 2006, on Cartoon Network and ran for 26 episodes.Different Fantastic Four members appear briefly and with little or no dialogue and are mentioned various times throughout the first season of ''The Avengers: Earth's Mightiest Heroes''.", "Their most prominent appearances are in the episode \"The Private War of Doctor Doom\", in which the Avengers team up with the Fantastic Four to battle the titular supervillain, and in the final episode of season two, in which the groups team up to battle Galactus.", "The Thing becomes a member of the New Avengers in the episode \"New Avengers\".The Fantastic Four make several appearances in ''Super Hero Squad Show'', such as the episodes \"If this Be My Thanos\" and \"Last Exit Before Doomsday\".The Fantastic Four appear in the ''Hulk and the Agents of S.M.A.S.H.''", "episode \"Monster No More\", where the Agents of S.M.A.S.H.", "assist them in thwarting the Tribbitite invasion.===Film===A film adaptation of the characters, ''The Fantastic Four'', was completed in 1994 by producer Roger Corman and starred Alex Hyde-White as Reed Richards/Mr.", "Fantastic, Rebecca Staab as Sue Storm-Richards/Invisible Woman, Jay Underwood as Johnny Storm/Human Torch, Michael Bailey Smith as Ben Grimm and Carl Ciarfalio as The Thing and Joseph Culp as Victor von Doom/Doctor Doom.", "The film was made to allow Constantin Film to keep the film rights to the characters, and therefore was not publicly released, though it has since been made available through bootleg video distributors.", "According to producer Bernd Eichinger, Avi Arad had Marvel purchase the film for a few million dollars.In 2005, the second film adaptation, ''Fantastic Four'' directed by Tim Story, was released by 20th Century Fox.", "Despite mixed reviews from critics, it earned US$155 million in North America and $330 million worldwide.", "The sequel, ''Fantastic Four: Rise of the Silver Surfer'', directed by Story and written by Don Payne, was released in 2007.Despite mixed-to-negative reviews, the sequel earned $132 million in North America and a total of $330.6 million worldwide.", "Both films feature Ioan Gruffudd as Reed Richards / Mr.", "Fantastic, Jessica Alba as Susan Storm / Invisible Woman, Chris Evans as Johnny Storm / Human Torch, Michael Chiklis as Ben Grimm / The Thing, and Julian McMahon as Victor Von Doom / Dr. Doom.", "Stan Lee makes cameo appearances as the mailman Willie Lumpkin in the first film and as himself in the second film.A reboot directed by Josh Trank (also titled ''Fantastic Four'', but stylized as ''Fant4stic'') was released on August 7, 2015.The film stars Miles Teller as Reed Richards, Kate Mara as Sue Storm, Michael B. Jordan as Johnny Storm, Jamie Bell as Ben Grimm and Toby Kebbell as Doctor Doom.", "It is based on ''Ultimate Fantastic Four''.", "It earned poor reviews and box office results.", "On March 20, 2019, due to the acquisition of 21st Century Fox by Disney, the film rights of ''Fantastic Four'' reverted to Marvel Studios.In July 2019 at the San Diego Comic-Con, producer and head of Marvel Studios Kevin Feige, announced that a Fantastic Four film set within the Marvel Cinematic Universe is in development.", "In December 2020, it was announced Jon Watts will direct the film, but he left the project for personal reasons in April 2022.On September 10, 2022 at the D23 Expo, Kevin Feige revealed director Matt Shakman would be taking over the film, with a release date of November 8, 2024.On September 21, 2022, Jeff Kaplan and Ian Springer were announced to be writers for the film.", "By March 2023, Josh Friedman was hired to rewrite the script.", "In February 2024, Pedro Pascal, Vanessa Kirby, Joseph Quinn and Ebon Moss-Bachrach were officially announced as Reed Richards, Sue Storm, Johnny Storm and Ben Grimm.===Video games===In 1985, the Fantastic Four starred in ''Questprobe #3 The Fantastic Four'', an adventure game from Adventure International for the Atari 8-bit series.", "In 1997, the group starred in the ''Fantastic Four'' video game.", "The team appeared in the ''Spider-Man: The Animated Series'' video game, based on the 1990s Spider-Man animated series, for the Super NES and Sega Genesis.", "The Thing and the Human Torch appeared in the 2005 game ''Marvel Nemesis: Rise of the Imperfects''.All of the Fantastic Four appear as playable characters in the game ''Marvel: Ultimate Alliance'' with Doctor Doom being the main enemy.", "The members of the Fantastic Four are also featured in ''Marvel: Ultimate Alliance 2'', although the team is separated over the course of the game, with Mister Fantastic being 'locked' into the Pro-Registration side of the game's storyline and the Thing briefly becoming unavailable to the player - just as he left America in protest of the war - until he returns to assist in preventing civilian casualties during the conflict.", "The Fantastic Four also appear in ''Marvel Ultimate Alliance 3: The Black Order'' this time as playable DLC (downloadable content) alongside additional members of Marvel Knights and the X-Men.The Human Torch has an appearance in a mini-game where the player races against him in all versions of ''Ultimate Spider-Man'', except on the Game Boy Advance platform.", "The Fantastic Four star in tie-in videogames based on the 2005 film ''Fantastic Four'', and its sequel.", "The Fantastic Four are also playable characters in ''Marvel Heroes'', and ''Lego Marvel Super Heroes''.The Fantastic Four starred in their own virtual pinball game Fantastic Four for ''Pinball FX 2'' released by Zen Studios." ], [ "See also", "* ''Maximum Fantastic Four''" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "" ], [ "External links", " * * * Archive of FFPlaza.com Database from the original page" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Filtration" ], [ "Introduction", "Diagram of simple filtration: oversize particles in the '''feed''' cannot pass through the lattice structure of the filter, while fluid and small particles pass through, becoming '''filtrate'''.Alix Cains'''Filtration''' is a physical separation process that separates solid matter and fluid from a mixture using a ''filter medium'' that has a complex structure through which only the fluid can pass.", "Solid particles that cannot pass through the filter medium are described as ''oversize'' and the fluid that passes through is called the ''filtrate''.", "Oversize particles may form a filter cake on top of the filter and may also block the filter lattice, preventing the fluid phase from crossing the filter, known as ''blinding''.", "The size of the largest particles that can successfully pass through a filter is called the effective ''pore size'' of that filter.", "The separation of solid and fluid is imperfect; solids will be contaminated with some fluid and filtrate will contain fine particles (depending on the pore size, filter thickness and biological activity).", "Filtration occurs both in nature and in engineered systems; there are biological, geological, and industrial forms.Filtration is also used to describe biological and physical systems that not only separate solids from a fluid stream but also remove chemical species and biological organisms by entrainment, phagocytosis, adsorption and absorption.", "Examples include slow sand filters and trickling filters.", "It is also used as a general term for macrophage in which organisms use a variety of means to filter small food particles from their environment.", "Examples range from the microscopic ''Vorticella'' up to the basking shark, one of the largest fishes, and the baleen whales, all of which are described as filter feeders." ], [ "Physical processes", "* Filtration is used to separate particles and fluid in a suspension, where the fluid can be a liquid, a gas or a supercritical fluid.", "Depending on the application, either one or both of the components may be isolated.", "* Filtration, as a physical operation enables materials of different chemical compositions to be separated.", "A solvent is chosen which dissolves one component, while not dissolving the other.", "By dissolving the mixture in the chosen solvent, one component will go into the solution and pass through the filter, while the other will be retained.", "* Filtration is widely used in chemical engineering.", "It may be combined with other unit operations to process the feed stream, as in the biofilter, which is a combined filter and biological digestion device.", "* Filtration differs from sieving, where separation occurs at a single perforated layer (a sieve).", "In sieving, particles that are too big to pass through the holes of the sieve are retained (see particle size distribution).", "In filtration, a multilayer lattice retains those particles that are unable to follow the tortuous channels of the filter.", "Oversize particles may form a cake layer on top of the filter and may also block the filter lattice, preventing the fluid phase from crossing the filter (blinding).", "Commercially, the term filter is applied to membranes where the separation lattice is so thin that the surface becomes the main zone of particle separation, even though these products might be described as sieves.", "* Filtration differs from adsorption, where separation relies on surface charge.", "Some adsorption devices containing activated charcoal and ion-exchange resin are commercially called filters, although filtration is not their principal mechanical function.", "* Filtration differs from removal of magnetic contaminants from fluids with magnets (typically lubrication oil, coolants and fuel oils) because there is no filter medium.", "Commercial devices called \"magnetic filters\" are sold, but the name reflects their use, not their mode of operation.", "* In biological filters, oversize particulates are trapped and ingested and the resulting metabolites may be released.", "For example, in animals (including humans), renal filtration removes waste from the blood, and in water treatment and sewage treatment, undesirable constituents are removed by adsorption into a biological film grown on or in the filter medium, as in slow sand filtration.===Methods===There are many different methods of filtration; all aim to attain the separation of substances.", "Separation is achieved by some form of interaction between the substance or objects to be removed and the filter.", "The substance that is to pass through the filter must be a fluid, i.e.", "a liquid or gas.", "Methods of filtration vary depending on the location of the targeted material, i.e.", "whether it is dissolved in the fluid phase or suspended as a solid.Hot filtration, solution contained in the Erlenmeyer flask is heated on a hot plate to prevent re-crystallization of solids in the flask itselfThere are several laboratory filtration techniques depending on the desired outcome namely, hot, cold and vacuum filtration.", "Some of the major purposes of obtaining the desired outcome are, for the removal of impurities from a mixture or, for the isolation of solids from a mixture.Hot filtration for the separation of solids from a hot solution'''Hot filtration''' method is mainly used to separate solids from a hot solution.", "This is done to prevent crystal formation in the filter funnel and other apparatus that come in contact with the solution.", "As a result, the apparatus and the solution used are heated to prevent the rapid decrease in temperature which in turn, would lead to the crystallisation of the solids in the funnel and hinder the filtration process.One of the most important measures to prevent the formation of crystals in the funnel and to undergo effective hot filtration is the use stemless filter funnel.", "Due to the absence of a stem in the filter funnel, there is a decrease in the surface area of contact between the solution and the stem of the filter funnel, hence preventing re-crystallization of solid in the funnel, and adversely affecting the filtration process.Cold filtration, the ice bath is used to cool down the temperature of the solution before undergoing the filtration process'''Cold filtration''' method is the use of an ice bath to rapidly cool the solution to be crystallized rather than leaving it to cool slowly in the room atmosphere.", "This technique results in the formation of very small crystals as opposed to getting large crystals by cooling the solution at room temperature.", "'''Vacuum filtration''' technique is mostly preferred for small batches of solution to dry small crystals quickly.", "This method requires a Büchner funnel, filter paper of a smaller diameter than the funnel, Büchner flask, and rubber tubing to connect to a vacuum source.", "'''Centrifugal filtration''' is carried out by rapidly rotating the substance to be filtered.", "The more dense material is separated from the less dense matter by the horizontal rotation.", "'''Gravity filtration''' is the process of pouring the mixture from a higher location to a lower one.", "It is frequently accomplished via simple filtration, which involves placing filter paper in a glass funnel with the liquid passing through by gravity while the insoluble solid particles are caught by the filter paper.", "Filter cones, fluted filters, or filtering pipets can all be employed, depending on the amount of the substance at hand.===Filtering force===Only when a driving force is supplied will the fluid to be filtered be able to flow through the filter media.", "Gravity, centrifugation, applying pressure to the fluid above the filter, applying a vacuum below the filter, or a combination of these factors may all contribute to this force.", "In both straightforward laboratory filtrations and massive sand-bed filters, gravitational force alone may be utilized.", "Centrifuges with a bowl holding a porous filter media can be thought of as filters in which a centrifugal force several times stronger than gravity replaces gravitational force.", "A partial vacuum is typically provided to the container below the filter media when laboratory filtration is challenging to speed up the filtering process.", "Depending on the type of filter being used, the majority of industrial filtration operations employ pressure or vacuum to speed up filtering and reduce the amount of equipment needed.===Filter media===Filter media are the materials used to do the separation of materials.Two main types of filter media are employed in laboratories: ''surface filters'', which are solid sieves that trap the solid particles, with or without the aid of filter paper (e.g.", "Büchner funnel, belt filter, rotary vacuum-drum filter, cross-flow filters, screen filter), and ''depth filters'', a bed of granular material which retains the solid particles as they pass (e.g.", "sand filter).", "The surface filter type allows the solid particles, i.e.", "the residue, to be collected intact; the depth filter does not permit this.", "However, the depth filter is less prone to clogging due to the greater surface area where the particles can be trapped.", "Also, when the solid particles are very fine, it is often cheaper and easier to discard the contaminated granules than to clean the solid sieve.Filter media can be cleaned by rinsing with solvents or detergents or backwashing.", "Alternatively, in engineering applications, such as swimming pool water treatment plants, they may be cleaned by backwashing.", "Self-cleaning screen filters utilize point-of-suction backwashing to clean the screen without interrupting system flow.====Achieving flow through the filter====Fluids flow through a filter due to a pressure difference—fluid flows from the high-pressure side to the low-pressure side of the filter.", "The simplest method to achieve this is by gravity which can be seen in the coffeemaker example.", "In the laboratory, pressure in the form of compressed air on the feed side (or vacuum on the filtrate side) may be applied to make the filtration process faster, though this may lead to clogging or the passage of fine particles.", "Alternatively, the liquid may flow through the filter by the force exerted by a pump, a method commonly used in industry when a reduced filtration time is important.", "In this case, the filter need not be mounted vertically.===Filter aid===Certain filter aids may be used to aid filtration.", "These are often incompressible diatomaceous earth, or kieselguhr, which is composed primarily of silica.", "Also used are wood cellulose and other inert porous solids such as the cheaper and safer perlite.", "Activated carbon is often used in industrial applications that require changes in the filtrate's properties, such as altering colour or odour.These filter aids can be used in two different ways.", "They can be used as a precoat before the slurry is filtered.", "This will prevent gelatinous-type solids from plugging the filter medium and also give a clearer filtrate.", "They can also be added to the slurry before filtration.", "This increases the porosity of the cake and reduces the resistance of the cake during filtration.", "In a rotary filter, the filter aid may be applied as a precoat; subsequently, thin slices of this layer are sliced off with the cake.The use of filter aids is usually limited to cases where the cake is discarded or where the precipitate can be chemically separated from the filter.===Alternatives===Filtration is a more efficient method for the separation of mixtures than decantation but is much more time-consuming.", "If very small amounts of solution are involved, most of the solution may be soaked up by the filter medium.An alternative to filtration is centrifugation.", "Instead of filtering the mixture of solid and liquid particles, the mixture is centrifuged to force the (usually) denser solid to the bottom, where it often forms a firm cake.", "The liquid above can then be decanted.", "This method is especially useful for separating solids that do not filter well, such as gelatinous or fine particles.", "These solids can clog or pass through the filter, respectively." ], [ "Biological filtration", "Biological filtration may take place inside an organism, or the biological component may be grown on a medium in the material being filtered.", "Removal of solids, emulsified components, organic chemicals and ions may be achieved by ingestion and digestion, adsorption or absorption.", "Because of the complexity of biological interactions, especially in multi-organism communities, it is often not possible to determine which processes are achieving the filtration result.", "At the molecular level, it may often be by individual catalytic enzyme actions within an individual organism.", "The waste products of some organisms may subsequently broken down by other organisms to extract as much energy as possible and in so doing reduce complex organic molecules to very simple inorganic species such as water, carbon dioxide and nitrogen.===Excretion===Inside mammals reptiles and birds, the kidneys function by renal filtration in which the glomerulus selectively removes undesirable constituents such as urea, followed by selective reabsorption of many substances essential for the body to maintain homeostasis.", "The complete process is termed excretion.Similar but often less complex solutions are deployed in all animals even the protozoa where the contractile vacuole provides a similar function.===Biofilms===Biofilms are often complex communities of bacteria, phages, yeasts and often more complex organisms including protozoa, rotifers and annelids which form dynamic and complex, frequently gelatinous films on wet substrates.", "Such biofilms coat the rocks of most rivers and the sea and they provide the key filtration capability of the Schmutzdecke on the surface of slow sand filters and the film on the filter media of trickling filters which are used to create potable water and treat sewage respectively.An example of a biofilm is a biological slime, which may be found in lakes, rivers, rocks, etc.", "The utilization of single- or dual-species biofilms is a novel technology since natural biofilms are sluggishly developing.", "The use of biofilms in the biofiltration process allows for the attachment of desirable biomass and critical nutrients to immobilized support.", "So that water may be reused for various processes, advances in biofiltration methods assist in removing significant volumes of effluents from the wastewater.Systems for biologically treating wastewater are crucial for enhancing both human health and water quality.", "Biofilm technology, the formation of biofilms on various filter media, and other factors have an impact on the growth structure and function of these biofilms.", "To conduct a thorough investigation of the composition, diversity, and dynamics of biofilms, it also takes on a variety of traditional and contemporary molecular approaches.===Filter feeders===Filter feeders are organisms that obtain their food by filtering their, generally aquatic, environment.", "Many of the protozoa are filter feeders using a range of adaptations including rigid spikes of protoplasm held in the water flow as in the suctoria to various arrangements of beating cillia to direct particles to the mouth including organisms such as ''Vorticella'' which have a complex ring of cilia which create a vortex in the flow drafting particles into the oral cavity.", "Similar feeding techniques are used by the Rotifera and the Ectoprocta.", "Many aquatic arthropods are filter feeders.", "Some use rhythmical beating of abdominal limbs to create a water current to the mouth whilst the hairs on the legs trap any particle.", "Others such as some caddis flies spin fine webs in the water flow to trap particles." ], [ "Applications and examples", "Filter flask (suction flask, with sintered glass filter containing sample).", "Note the almost colourless filtrate in the receiver flask.Many filtration processes include more than one filtration mechanism, and particulates are often removed from the fluid first to prevent clogging of downstream elements.Particulate filtration includes:* The coffee filter to separate the coffee infusion from the grounds.", "* HEPA filters in air conditioning to remove particles from air.", "* Belt filters to extract precious metals in mining.", "* Vertical plate filter such as those used in Merrill–Crowe process.", "* Nutsche filter is typically used in pharmaceutical applications or batch processes that need to capture solids.", "* Furnaces use filtration to prevent the furnace elements from fouling with particulates.", "* Pneumatic conveying system often employs filtration to stop or slow the flow of material that is transported, through the use of a baghouse.", "* In the laboratory, a Büchner funnel is often used, with a filter paper serving as the porous barrier.", "* Air filters are commonly used to remove airborne particulate matter in building ventilation systems, combustion engines, and industrial processes.", "* Oil filter in automobiles, often as a canister or cartridge.", "* Aquarium filterAdsorption filtration removes contaminants by adsorption of the contaminant by the filter medium.", "This requires intimate contact between the filter medium and the filtrate, and takes time for diffusion to bring the contaminant into direct contact with the medium while passing through it, referred to as ''''.", "Slower flow also reduces pressure drop across the filter.", "Applications include:* Carbon dioxide removal from breathing gas in rebreathers and life-support systems using scrubber filters,* Activated carbon filters to remove volatile hydrocarbons, odours, and other contaminants from recirculated breathing gas in closed habitats.Combined applications include:Small stationary Bauer HP breathing air compressor installation showing water separator (centre), and two high-pressure product filter housings (gold anodised) to produce oxygen compatible breathing air for diving gas mixtures.", "* Compressed breathing air production, where the air passes through a particulate filter before entering the compressor, which removes particles likely to damage the compressor, followed by droplet separation after post-compression cooling and final product adsorption filtration to remove gaseous hydrocarbons contaminants and excessive water vapour.", "In some cases prefilters using adsorption media are used to control carbon dioxide levels, pressure swing adsorption may be used to increase oxygen fraction, and where the risk of carbon monoxide contamination exists, hopcalite catalytic converters may be included in the filtration media of the product.", "All these processes are broadly referred to as aspects of the filtration of the product.", "* Potable water treatment using biofilm filtration in slow sand filters.", "* Wastewater treatment using biofilm filtration using trickling filters." ], [ "See also", "* * * * * * * * " ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " Filtration modelling (constant rate and pressure)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Follies" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Follies''''' is a musical with music and lyrics by Stephen Sondheim and a book by James Goldman.The plot takes place in a crumbling Broadway theater, now scheduled for demolition, previously home to a musical revue (based on the ''Ziegfeld Follies'').", "The evening follows a reunion of the Weismann Girls who performed during the interwar period.", "Several of the former showgirls perform their old numbers, often accompanied by the ghosts of their younger selves.", "The score offers a pastiche of 1920s and 1930s musical styles, evoking a nostalgic tone.The original Broadway production, directed by Harold Prince and Michael Bennett, with choreography by Bennett, opened April 4, 1971.The musical was nominated for 11 Tony Awards and won seven.", "The original production, among the most costly on Broadway, ran for over 500 performances but ultimately lost its entire investment.", "The musical has had a number of major revivals, and several of its songs have become standards, including \"Broadway Baby\", \"I'm Still Here\", \"Too Many Mornings\", \"Could I Leave You?", "\", and \"Losing My Mind\"." ], [ "Background", "After the failure of ''Do I Hear a Waltz?''", "(1965), for which he had written the lyrics to Richard Rodgers's music, Sondheim decided that he would henceforth work only on projects where he could write both the music and lyrics himself.", "He asked author and playwright James Goldman to join him as bookwriter for a new musical.", "Inspired by a ''New York Times'' article about a gathering of former Ziegfeld Girls, they decided upon a story about ex-showgirls.Originally titled ''The Girls Upstairs'', the musical was to be produced by David Merrick and Leland Hayward in late 1967, but the plans ultimately fell through, and Stuart Ostrow became the producer, with Joseph Hardy as director.", "These plans also did not work out, and finally Harold Prince, who had worked previously with Sondheim, became the producer and director.", "He had agreed to work on ''The Girls Upstairs'' if Sondheim agreed to work on ''Company''; Michael Bennett, the young choreographer of ''Company'', was also brought onto the project.", "It was Prince who changed the title to ''Follies''; he was \"intrigued by the psychology of a reunion of old chorus dancers and loved the play on the word 'follies." ], [ "Plot", "In 1971, on the soon-to-be-demolished stage of the Weismann Theatre, a reunion is being held to honor the Weismann's ''Follies'' shows past and the beautiful chorus girls who performed there every year between the two world wars.", "The once resplendent theater is now little but planks and scaffolding (\"Prologue\"/\"Overture\").", "As the ghosts of the young showgirls slowly drift through the theater, a majordomo enters with his entourage of waiters and waitresses.", "They pass through the spectral showgirls without seeing them.Sally Durant Plummer, \"blond, petite, sweet-faced\" and at 49 \"still remarkably like the girl she was thirty years ago\", a former Weismann girl, is the first guest to arrive, and her ghostly youthful counterpart moves towards her.", "Phyllis Rogers Stone, a stylish and elegant woman, arrives with her husband Ben, a renowned philanthropist and politician.", "As their younger counterparts approach them, Phyllis comments to Ben about their past.", "He feigns a lack of interest; there is an underlying tension in their relationship.", "As more guests arrive, Sally's husband, Buddy, enters.", "He is a salesman, in his early 50s, appealing and lively, whose smiles cover inner disappointment.Finally, Weismann enters to greet his guests.", "Roscoe, the old master of ceremonies, introduces the former showgirls (\"Beautiful Girls\").", "Former Weismann performers at the reunion include Max and Stella Deems, who lost their radio jobs and became store owners in Miami; Solange La Fitte, a coquette, who is vibrant and flirtatious even at 66; Hattie Walker, who has outlived five younger husbands; Vincent and Vanessa, former dancers who now own an Arthur Murray franchise; Heidi Schiller, for whom Franz Lehár once wrote a waltz (\"or was it Oscar Straus?\"", "Facts never interest her; what matters is the song!", "); and Carlotta Campion, a film star who has embraced life and benefited from every experience.As the guests reminisce, the stories of Ben, Phyllis, Buddy, and Sally unfold.", "Phyllis and Sally were roommates while in the Follies, and Ben and Buddy were best friends at school in New York.", "When Sally sees Ben, her former lover, she greets him self-consciously (\"Don't Look at Me\").", "Buddy and Phyllis join their spouses and the foursome reminisces about the old days of their courtship and the theater, their memories vividly coming to life in the apparitions of their young counterparts (\"Waiting For The Girls Upstairs\").", "Each of the four is shaken at the realization of how life has changed them.", "Elsewhere, Willy Wheeler (portly, in his sixties) cartwheels for a photographer.", "Emily and Theodore Whitman, ex-vaudevillians in their seventies, perform an old routine (\"The Rain on the Roof\").", "Solange proves she is still fashionable at what she claims is 66 (\"Ah, Paris!", "\"), and Hattie Walker performs her old showstopping number (\"Broadway Baby\").Buddy warns Phyllis that Sally is still in love with Ben, and she is shaken by how the past threatens to repeat itself.", "Sally is awed by Ben's apparently glamorous life, but Ben wonders if he made the right choices and considers how things might have been (\"The Road You Didn't Take\").", "Sally tells Ben how her days have been spent with Buddy, trying to convince him (and herself) (\"In Buddy's Eyes\").", "However, it is clear that Sally is still in love with Ben – even though their affair ended badly when Ben decided to marry Phyllis.", "She shakes loose from the memory and begins to dance with Ben, who is touched by the memory of the Sally he once cast aside.Phyllis interrupts this tender moment and has a biting encounter with Sally.", "Before she has a chance to really let loose, they are both called on to participate in another performance – Stella Deems gets Sally, Phyllis, Emily, Hattie, and some others to perform an old number (\"Who's That Woman?", "\"), as they are mirrored by their younger selves.", "Afterward, Phyllis and Ben angrily discuss their lives and relationship, which has become numb and emotionless.", "Sally is bitter, having never been happy with Buddy, although he has always adored her.", "She accuses him of having affairs while he is on the road, and he admits he has a steady girlfriend, Margie, in another town, but always returns home.", "Carlotta amuses a throng of admirers with a tale of how her dramatic solo was cut from the Follies because the audience found it humorous, transforming it as she sings it into an anthem-like toast to her own hard-won survival (\"I'm Still Here\").Ben confides to Sally that his life is empty.", "She yearns for him to hold her, but young Sally slips between them and the three move together (\"Too Many Mornings\").", "Ben, caught in the passion of memories, kisses Sally as Buddy watches from the shadows.", "Sally thinks this is a sign that the two will finally get married, and Ben is about to protest until Sally interrupts him with a kiss and runs off to gather her things, thinking that the two will leave together.", "Buddy leaves the shadows furious, and fantasizes about the girl he should have married, Margie, who loves him and makes him feel like \"a somebody\", but bitterly concludes he does not love her back (\"The Right Girl\").", "He tells Sally that he's done, but she is lost in a fantasy world and tells him that Ben has asked her to marry him.", "Buddy tells her she must be either crazy or drunk, but he's already supported Sally through rehab clinics and mental hospitals and cannot take any more.", "Ben drunkenly propositions Carlotta, with whom he once had a fling, but she has a young lover and coolly turns him down.", "Heidi Schiller, joined by her younger counterpart, performs \"One More Kiss\", her aged voice a stark contrast to the sparkling coloratura of her younger self.", "Phyllis kisses a waiter and confesses to him that she had always wanted a son.", "She then tells Ben that their marriage can't continue the way it has been.", "Ben replies by saying that he wants a divorce, and Phyllis assumes the request is due to his love for Sally.", "Ben denies this, but still wants Phyllis out of his life.", "Angry and hurt, Phyllis considers whether to grant his request (\"Could I Leave You?", "\").Phyllis begins wondering at her younger self, who worked so hard to become the socialite that Ben needed.", "Ben yells at his younger self for not appreciating all the work that Phyllis did.", "Both Buddys enter to confront the Bens about how they stole Sally.", "Sally and her younger self enter and Ben firmly tells Sally that he never loved her.", "All the voices begin speaking and yelling at each other.", "Suddenly, at the peak of madness and confusion, the couples are engulfed by their follies, which transform the rundown theater into a fantastical \"Loveland\", an extravaganza even more grand and opulent than the gaudiest Weismann confection: \"the place where lovers are always young and beautiful, and everyone lives only for love\".", "Sally, Phyllis, Ben, and Buddy show their \"real and emotional lives\" in \"a sort of group nervous breakdown\".What follows is a series of musical numbers performed by the principal characters, each exploring their biggest desires.", "The two younger couples sing in a counterpoint of their hopes for the future (\"You're Gonna Love Tomorrow/Love Will See Us Through\").", "Buddy then appears, dressed in \"plaid baggy pants, garish jacket, and a shiny derby hat\", and performs a high-energy vaudeville routine depicting how he is caught between his love for Sally and Margie's love for him (\"The God-Why-Don't-You-Love-Me Blues\").", "Sally appears next, dressed as a torch singer, singing of her passion for Ben from the past - and her obsession with him now (\"Losing My Mind\").", "In a jazzy dance number, accompanied by a squadron of chorus boys, Phyllis reflects on the two sides of her personality, one naive and passionate and the other jaded and sophisticated and her desire to combine them (\"The Story of Lucy and Jessie\").", "Resplendent in top hat and tails, Ben begins to offer his devil-may-care philosophy (\"Live, Laugh, Love\"), but stumbles and anxiously calls to the conductor for the lyrics, as he frantically tries to keep going.", "Ben becomes frenzied, while the dancing ensemble continues as if nothing was wrong.", "Amidst a deafening discord, Ben screams at all the figures from his past and collapses as he cries out for Phyllis.", "\"Loveland\" has dissolved back into the reality of the crumbling and half-demolished theater; dawn is approaching.", "Ben admits to Phyllis his admiration for her, and Phyllis shushes him and helps Ben regain his dignity before they leave.", "After exiting, Buddy escorts the emotionally devastated Sally back to their hotel with the promise to work things out later.", "Their ghostly younger selves appear, watching them go.", "The younger Ben and Buddy softly call to their \"girls upstairs\", and the Follies end." ], [ "Songs", "Source: ''Follies'' score* \"Prologue\" – Orchestra* \"Overture\" – Orchestra* \"Beautiful Girls\" – Roscoe and Company* \"Don't Look at Me\" – Sally and Ben* \"Waiting for the Girls Upstairs\" – Ben, Sally, Phyllis and Buddy, Young Ben, Young Sally, Young Phyllis and Young Buddy* \"Montage\" (\"Rain on the Roof\"/\"Ah, Paris!", "\"/\"\") – Emily, Theodore, Solange, and Hattie* \"The Road You Didn't Take\" – Ben* \"Bolero d'Amour\" – Danced by Vincent and Vanessa ≠≠* \"In Buddy's Eyes\" – Sally* \"Who's That Woman?\"", "– Stella and Company* \"I'm Still Here\" – Carlotta* \"Too Many Mornings\" – Ben and Sally* \"The Right Girl\" – Buddy* \"One More Kiss\" – Heidi and Young Heidi* \"Could I Leave You?\"", "– Phyllis* \"Loveland\" – Company* \"You're Gonna Love Tomorrow\" / \"Love Will See Us Through\" – Young Ben, Young Sally, Young Phyllis and Young Buddy* \"The God-Why-Don't-You-Love-Me Blues\" – Buddy, \"Margie\", \"Sally\"* \"Losing My Mind\" – Sally* \"The Story of Lucy and Jessie\" – Phyllis and backup male dancers ≠* \"Live, Laugh, Love\" – Ben and Company* \"Chaos\" – Ben and Company* \"Finale\" – Young Buddy and Young Ben≠ Some productions substitute \"Ah, but Underneath\" when the actress portraying Phyllis is not primarily a dancer.≠≠ Omitted from some productionsNote: This is the song list from the original Broadway production in 1971.Variations are discussed in Versions.Songs cut before the Broadway premiere include \"All Things Bright and Beautiful\" (used in the prologue), \"Can That Boy Foxtrot!", "\", \"Who Could Be Blue?", "\", \"Little White House\", \"It Wasn't Meant to Happen\", \"Pleasant Little Kingdom\", \"That Old Piano Roll Rag\", \"The World's Full of Girls\", \"Bring On The Girls\" and \"Uptown Downtown\".", "The musical numbers \"Ah, but Underneath\" (replacing \"The Story of Lucy and Jessie\"), \"Country House\", \"Make the Most of Your Music\" (replacing \"Live, Laugh, Love\"), \"Social Dancing\" and a new version of \"Loveland\" have been incorporated into various productions." ], [ "Analysis", "Hal Prince said: \"''Follies'' examines obsessive behavior, neurosis and self-indulgence more microscopically than anything I know of.\"", "Bernadette Peters quoted Sondheim on the character of \"Sally\": \"He said early on that Sally is off-balance, to put it mildly.", "He thinks she's very neurotic, and she is very neurotic, so he said to me 'Congratulations.", "She's crazy.", "Martin Gottfried wrote: \"The concept behind ''Follies'' is theatre nostalgia, representing the rose-colored glasses through which we face the fact of age ... the show is conceived in ghostliness.", "At its very start, ghosts of Follies showgirls stalk the stage, mythic giants in winged, feathered, black and white opulence.", "Similarly, ghosts of the Twenties shows slip through the evening as the characters try desperately to regain their youth through re-creations of their performances and inane theatre sentiments of their past.", "\"Joanne Gordon, author and chair and artistic director, Theatre, at California State University, Long Beach, wrote \"''Follies'' is in part an affectionate look at the American musical theatre between the two World Wars and provides Sondheim with an opportunity to use the traditional conventions of the genre to reveal the hollowness and falsity of his characters' dreams and illusions.", "The emotional high generated by the reunion of the Follies girls ultimately gives way to anger, disappointment, and weary resignation to reality.\"", "\"''Follies'' contains two scores: the Follies pastiche numbers and the book numbers.\"", "Some of the Follies numbers imitate the style of particular composers of the early 20th century: \"Losing My Mind\" is in the style of a George Gershwin ballad \"The Man I Love\".", "Sondheim noted that the song \"The God-Why-Don't-You-Love-Me Blues\" is \"another generic pastiche: vaudeville music for chases and low comics, but with a patter lyric ...", "I tried to give it the sardonic knowingness of Lorenz Hart or Frank Loesser.", "\"\"Loveland\", the final musical sequence, (that \"consumed the last half-hour of the original\" production) is akin to an imaginary 1941 Ziegfeld Follies sequence, with Sally, Phyllis, Ben and Buddy performing \"like comics and torch singers from a Broadway of yore.\"", "\"Loveland\" features a string of vaudeville-style numbers, reflecting the leading characters' emotional problems, before returning to the theater for the end of the reunion party.", "The four characters are \"whisked into a dream show in which each acts out his or her own principal 'folly." ], [ "Versions", "Goldman continued to revise the book of the musical right up to his death, which occurred shortly before the 1998 Paper Mill Playhouse production.", "Sondheim, too, has added and removed songs that he judged to be problematic in various productions.", "Ted Chapin, who worked on the original 1971 production and wrote a book about the process in 2003, explains: \"Today, ''Follies'' is rarely performed twice in exactly the same version.", "James Goldman's widow made the observation that the show has morphed throughout its entire life ...", "The London production had new songs and dialogue.", "The Paper Mill Playhouse production used some elements from London but stayed close to the original.", "The 2001 Roundabout Broadway revival, the first major production following Goldman's death in 1998, was again a combination of previous versions.", "\"Major changes were made for the original production in London, which attempted to establish a lighter tone and favored a happier ending than the original Broadway production.", "According to Joanne Gordon, \"When ''Follies'' opened in London ... it had an entirely different, and significantly more optimistic, tone.", "Goldman's revised book offered some small improvements over the original.", "\"According to Sondheim, producer Cameron Mackintosh asked for changes for the 1987 London production.", "\"I was reluctantly happy to comply, my only serious balk being at his request that I cut \"The Road You Didn't Take\" ...", "I saw no reason not to try new things, knowing we could always revert to the original (which we eventually did).", "The net result was four new songs ... For reasons which I've forgotten, I rewrote \"Loveland\" for the London production.", "There were only four showgirls in this version, and each one carried a shepherd's crook with a letter of the alphabet on it.", "\"The musical was written in one act, and the original director, Prince, did not want an intermission, while the co-director, Bennett, wanted two acts.", "It originally was performed in one act.", "The 1987 West End, 2005 Barrington Stage Company, the 2001 Broadway revival and Kennedy Center 2011 productions were performed in two acts.", "However, the August 23, 2011 Broadway preview performance was performed without an intermission.", "By the time the 2011 Broadway revival opened, it was performed with an intermission in two acts.", "The 2017 National Theatre production was performed without an interval, along with largely returning to the 1971 book.", "As with previous productions, however, the production's book was unique to this iteration as well." ], [ "Productions", "===1971 original Broadway===''Follies'' had its pre-Broadway tryout at the Colonial Theatre, Boston, from February 20 through March 20, 1971.Model of set design by Boris Aronson''Follies'' premiered on Broadway on April 4, 1971, at the Winter Garden Theatre.", "It was directed by Harold Prince and Michael Bennett, with choreography by Bennett, scenic design by Boris Aronson, costumes by Florence Klotz, and lighting by Tharon Musser.", "It starred Alexis Smith (Phyllis), John McMartin (Ben), Dorothy Collins (Sally), Gene Nelson (Buddy), along with several veterans of the Broadway and vaudeville stage.", "The supporting role of Carlotta was created by Yvonne De Carlo and usually is given to a well-known veteran performer who can belt out a song.", "Other notable performers in the original productions were Fifi D'Orsay as Solange LaFitte, Justine Johnston as Heidi Schiller, Mary McCarty as Stella Deems, Arnold Moss as Dimitri Weismann, Ethel Shutta as Hattie Walker, and Marcie Stringer and Charles Welch as Emily and Theodore Whitman.The show closed on July 1, 1972, after 522 performances and 12 previews.", "According to ''Variety'', the production was a \"total financial failure, with a cumulative loss of $792,000.\"", "Prince planned to present the musical on the West Coast and then on a national tour.", "However, the show did not do well in its Los Angeles engagement and plans for a tour ended.Frank Rich, for many years the chief drama critic for ''The New York Times'', had first garnered attention, while an undergraduate at Harvard University, with a lengthy essay for the ''Harvard Crimson'' about the show, which he had seen during its pre-Broadway run in Boston.", "He predicted that the show eventually would achieve recognition as a Broadway classic.", "Rich later wrote that audiences at the original production were baffled and restless.For commercial reasons, the cast album was cut from two LPs to one early in production.", "Most songs were therefore heavily abridged and several were left entirely unrecorded.", "According to Craig Zadan, \"It's generally felt that ...", "Prince made a mistake by giving the recording rights of ''Follies'' to Capitol Records, which in order to squeeze the unusually long score onto one disc, mutilated the songs by condensing some and omitting others.\"", "Chapin confirms this: \"Alas ... final word came from Capitol that they would not go for two records ... Dick Jones now had to propose cuts throughout the score in consultation with Steve.\"", "\"One More Kiss\" was omitted from the final release but was restored for CD release.", "Chapin relates that \"there was one song that Dick Jones producer of the cast album didn't want to include on the album but which Steve Sondheim most definitely did.", "The song was \"One More Kiss\", and the compromise was that if there was time, it would be recorded, even if Jones couldn't promise it would end up on the album.", "(It did get recorded but didn't make its way onto the album until the CD reissue years later.", ")\"===1972 Los Angeles===The musical was produced at The Muny, St. Louis, Missouri in July 1972 and then transferred to the Shubert Theatre, Century City, California, running from July 22, 1972, through October 1, 1972.It was directed by Prince and starred Dorothy Collins (Sally; replaced by Janet Blair), Alexis Smith (Phyllis), John McMartin (Ben; replaced by Edward Winter), Gene Nelson (Buddy), and Yvonne De Carlo (Carlotta) reprising their original roles.", "The production was the premiere attraction at the newly constructed 1,800-seat theater, which, coincidentally, was itself razed thirty years later (in 2002, in order to build a new office building), thus mirroring the ''Follies'' plot line upon which the musical is based.===1985 Wythenshawe and Lincoln Center===A full production ran at the Forum Theatre, Wythenshawe, England, from April 30, 1985, directed by Howard Lloyd-Lewis, design by Chris Kinman, costumes by Charles Cusick-Smith, lighting by Tim Wratten, musical direction by Simon Lowe, and choreographed by Paul Kerryson.", "The cast included Mary Millar (Sally Durant Plummer), Liz Izen (Young Sally), Meg Johnson (Stella Deems), Les Want (Max Deems), Betty Benfield (Heidi Schiller), Joseph Powell (Roscoe), Chili Bouchier (Hattie Walker), Shirley Greenwood (Emily Whitman), Bryan Burdon (Theodore Whitman), Monica Dell (Solange LaFitte), Jeannie Harris (Carlotta Campion), Josephine Blake (Phyllis Rogers Stone), Kevin Colson (Ben), Debbie Snook (Young Phyllis), Stephen Hale (Young Ben), Bill Bradley (Buddy Plummer), Paul Burton (Young Buddy), David Scase (Dimitri Weismann), Mitch Sebastian (Young Vincent), Kim Ismay (Young Vanessa), Lorraine Croft (Young Stella), and Meryl Richardson (Young Heidi).A staged concert at Avery Fisher Hall, Lincoln Center, was performed on September 6 and 7, 1985.The concert starred Barbara Cook (Sally), George Hearn (Ben), Mandy Patinkin (Buddy), and Lee Remick (Phyllis), and featured Carol Burnett (Carlotta), Betty Comden (Emily), Adolph Green (Theodore), Liliane Montevecchi (Solange LaFitte), Elaine Stritch (Hattie Walker), Phyllis Newman (Stella Deems), Jim Walton (Young Buddy), Howard McGillin (Young Ben), Liz Callaway (Young Sally), Daisy Prince (Young Phyllis), Andre Gregory (Dmitri), Arthur Rubin (Roscoe), and Licia Albanese (Heidi Schiller).", "Rich, in his review, noted that \"As performed at Avery Fisher Hall, the score emerged as an original whole, in which the 'modern' music and mock vintage tunes constantly comment on each other, much as the script's action unfolds simultaneously in 1971 (the year of the reunion) and 1941 (the year the Follies disbanded).", "\"Among the reasons the concert was staged was to provide an opportunity to record the entire score.", "The resulting album was more complete than the original cast album.", "However, director Herbert Ross took some liberties in adapting the book and score for the concert format—dance music was changed, songs were given false endings, the new dialogue was spoken, reprises were added, and Patinkin was allowed to sing \"The God-Why-Don't-You-Love-Me Blues\" as a solo instead of a trio with two chorus girls.", "Portions of the concert were seen by audiences worldwide in the televised documentary about the making of the concert, also released on videotape and DVD, of'' 'Follies' in Concert''.===1987 West End===The musical played in the West End at the Shaftesbury Theatre on July 21, 1987, and closed on February 4, 1989, after 644 performances.", "The producer was Cameron Mackintosh, the direction was by Mike Ockrent, with choreography by Bob Avian and design by Maria Björnson.", "The cast featured Diana Rigg (Phyllis), Daniel Massey (Ben), Julia McKenzie (Sally), David Healy (Buddy), Lynda Baron, Leonard Sachs, Maria Charles, Pearl Carr & Teddy Johnson.", "Dolores Gray was praised as Carlotta, continuing to perform after breaking her ankle, although in a reduced version of the part.", "During the run, Eartha Kitt replaced Gray, sparking somewhat of a comeback (she went on to perform her own one-woman show at The Shaftesbury Theatre to sell-out houses for three weeks from March 18, 1989, after ''Follies'' closed).", "Other cast replacements included Millicent Martin as Phyllis.", "Julia McKenzie returned to the production for the final four performances.The book \"was extensively reworked by James Goldman, with Sondheim's cooperation and also given an intermission.\"", "The producer Cameron Mackintosh did not like \"that there was no change in the characters from beginning to end ...", "In the London production ... the characters come to understand each other.\"", "Sondheim \"did not think the London script was as good as the original.\"", "However, he thought that it was \"wonderful\" that, at the end of the first act, \"the principal characters recognized their younger selves and were able to acknowledge them throughout the last thirty minutes of the piece.\"", "Sondheim wrote four new songs: \"Country House\" (replacing \"The Road You Didn't Take\"), \"Loveland\" (replacing the song of the same title), \"Ah, But Underneath\" (replacing \"The Story of Lucy and Jessie\", for the non-dancer Diana Rigg), and \"Make the Most of Your Music\" (replacing \"Live, Laugh, Love\").Critics who had seen the production in New York (such as Frank Rich) found it substantially more \"upbeat\" and lacking in the atmosphere it had originally possessed.", "According to the Associated Press (AP) reviewer, \"A revised version of the Broadway hit ''Follies'' received a standing ovation from its opening-night audience and raves from British critics, who stated the show was worth a 16-year wait.\"", "The AP quoted Michael Coveney of the ''Financial Times'', who wrote: \"''Follies'' is a great deal more than a camp love-in for old burlesque buffs and Sondheim aficionados.\"", "In ''The New York Times'', the critic Francis X. Clines wrote: \"The initial critics' reviews ranged from unqualified raves to some doubts whether the reworked book of James Goldman is up to the inventiveness of Sondheim's songs.", "'A truly fantastic evening,' ''The Financial Times'' concluded, while the London ''Daily News'' stated 'The musical is inspired,' and ''The Times'' described the evening as 'a wonderful idea for a show which has failed to grow into a story.", "''The Times'' critic Irving Wardle stated \"It is not much of a story, and whatever possibilities it may have had in theory are scuppered by James Goldman's book ... a blend of lifeless small-talk, bitching and dreadful gags\".", "Clines further commented: \"In part, the show is a tribute to musical stage history, in which the 57-year-old Mr Sondheim is steeped, for he first learned song writing at the knee of Oscar Hammerstein II and became the acknowledged master songwriter who bridged past musical stage romance into the modern musical era of irony and neurosis.", "''Follies'' is a blend of both, and the new production is rounded out with production numbers celebrating love's simple hope for young lovers, its extravagant fantasies for Ziegfeld aficionados, and its fresh lesson for the graying principals.", "\"This production was also recorded on two CDs and was the first full recording.", "''Follies'' was voted ninth in a BBC Radio 2 listener poll of the UK's \"Nation's Number One Essential Musicals\".===U.S.", "regional productions===Michigan Opera Theatre (MOT) was the first major American opera company to present ''Follies'' as part of their main stage repertoire, running from October 21, 1988, through November 6.The MOT production starred Nancy Dussault (Sally), John-Charles Kelly (Buddy), Juliet Prowse (Phyllis) and Ron Raines (Ben), Edie Adams (Carlotta), Thelma Lee (Hattie), and Dennis Grimaldi (Vincent).A production also ran from March to April 1995 at the Theatre Under the Stars, Houston, Texas, and in April to May 1995 at the 5th Avenue Theatre, Seattle with Constance Towers (Phyllis), Judy Kaye (Sally), Edie Adams, Denise Darcel, Virginia Mayo, Maxene Andrews (Hattie), and Karen Morrow (Carlotta).", "The 1998 Paper Mill Playhouse production (Millburn, New Jersey) was directed by Robert Johanson with choreography by Jerry Mitchell and starred Donna McKechnie (Sally), Dee Hoty (Phyllis), Laurence Guittard (Ben), Tony Roberts (Buddy), Kaye Ballard (Hattie ), Eddie Bracken (Weismann), and Ann Miller (Carlotta).", "Phyllis Newman and Liliane Montevecchi reprised the roles they played in the Lincoln Center production.", "\"Ah, but Underneath\" was substituted for \"The Story of Lucy and Jessie\" in order to accommodate non-dancer Hoty.", "This production received a full-length recording on two CDs, including not only the entire score as originally written but a lengthy appendix of songs cut from the original production in tryouts.", "The production was mounted with the intention of bringing it to Broadway with the same cast, but despite rave reviews the revival was nixed by book writer James Goldman's wife Barbara, who controlled her husband's interests in the musical.", "Barbara Goldman reportedly wanted a different production to be mounted by Roundabout, leading to the eventual 2001 Broadway revival with a different team and cast.Julianne Boyd directed a fully staged version of ''Follies'' in 2005 by the Barrington Stage Company (Massachusetts) in June–July 2005.The principal cast included Kim Crosby (Sally), Leslie Denniston (Phyllis), Jeff McCarthy (Ben), Lara Teeter (Buddy), Joy Franz (Solange), Marni Nixon (Heidi), and Donna McKechnie (Carlotta).", "Stephen Sondheim attended one of the performances.===1996 and 1998 concerts===;Dublin concertThe Dublin Concert was held in May 1996 at the National Concert Hall.", "Directed by Michael Scott, the cast included Lorna Luft, Millicent Martin, Mary Millar, Dave Willetts, Trevor Jones Bryan Smyth, Alex Sharpe, Christine Scarry, Aidan Conway and Enda Markey.", ";London concertA concert was held at Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, London, on December 8, 1996, and broadcast on BBC Radio 2 on February 15, 1997.The cast starred Julia McKenzie (Sally), Donna McKechnie (Phyllis), Denis Quilley (Ben) and Ron Moody (Buddy).", "This show recreated the original Broadway score.", ";Sydney concert''Follies'' was performed in concert at the Sydney Opera House with the Sydney Symphony Orchestra in February 1998 as the highlight of the Sydney Gay and Lesbian Mardi Gras and had three performances.", "It was directed and staged by Stephen Lloyd Helper and produced by Helper and Alistair Thomson for Mardi Gras.", "It starred Toni Lamond (Sally), Jill Perryman(Carlotta), Judi Connelli (Phyllis), Terence Donovan (Ben), Nancye Hayes (Hattie), Glenn Butcher (Buddy), Ron Haddrick (Dimitri), Susan Johnston (Heidi), and Leonie Page, Maree Johnson, Mitchell Butel, Maureen Howard.", "The Sydney Symphony was conducted by Maestro Tommy Tycho.", "It followed a similar presentation at the 1995 Melbourne Festival of Arts with a different cast and orchestra.===2001 Broadway revival===A Broadway revival opened at the Belasco Theatre on April 5, 2001, and closed on July 14, 2001, after 117 performances and 32 previews.", "This Roundabout Theatre limited engagement had been expected to close on September 30, 2001.Directed by Matthew Warchus with choreography by Kathleen Marshall, it starred Blythe Danner (Phyllis), Judith Ivey (Sally), Treat Williams (Buddy), Gregory Harrison (Ben), Marge Champion, Polly Bergen (Carlotta), Joan Roberts (Laurey from the original Broadway production of ''Oklahoma!", "''; later replaced by Marni Nixon), Larry Raiken (Roscoe) and an assortment of famous names from the past.", "Former MGM and onetime Broadway star Betty Garrett, best known to younger audiences for her television work, played Hattie.", "It was significantly stripped down (earlier productions had featured extravagant sets and costumes) and was not a success critically.According to an article in ''The Hollywood Reporter'', \"almost every performance of the show played to a full house, more often than not to standing-room-only.", "Tickets always were tough to come by.", "The reason the final curtain came down Saturday was that being a production by the Roundabout Theatre Company – a subscription-based 'not-for-profit' theater company – it was presented under special Equity terms, with its actors paid a minimal fee.", "To extend the show, it would have been necessary to negotiate new contracts with the entire company ... because of the Belasco's limited seating, it wasn't deemed financially feasible to do so.", "\"Theater writer and historian John Kenrick wrote \"the bad news is that this ''Follies'' is a dramatic and conceptual failure.", "The good news is that it also features some of the most exciting musical moments Broadway has seen in several seasons.", "Since you don't get those moments from the production, the book or the leads, that leaves the featured ensemble, and in ''Follies'' that amounts to a small army ... Marge Champion and Donald Saddler are endearing as the old hoofers ...", "I dare you not to fall in love with Betty Garrett's understated \"Broadway Baby\" – you just want to pick her up and hug her.", "Polly Bergen stops everything cold with \"I'm Still Here\", bringing a rare degree of introspection to a song that is too often a mere belt-fest ...", "The emotional highpoint comes when Joan Roberts sings 'One More Kiss'.", "\"===2002 London revival===A production was mounted at London's Royal Festival Hall in a limited engagement.", "After previews from August 3, 2002, it opened officially on August 6, and closed on August 31, 2002.Paul Kerryson - who had choreographed the UK premiere in 1984 - directed, and the cast starred David Durham as Ben, Kathryn Evans as Sally, Louise Gold as Phyllis, Julia Goss as Heidi and Henry Goodman as Buddy.", "Variety singer and performer Joan Savage sang \"Broadway Baby\".", "This production conducted by Julian Kelly featured the original Broadway score.===2002 Los Angeles===''Follies'' was part of L.A.'s Reprise series, and it was housed at the Wadsworth Theatre, presented as a staged concert, running from June 15 to 23, 2002.The production was directed by Arthur Allan Seidelman, set design by Ray Klausen, lighting design by Tom Ruzika, costumes by Randy Gardell, sound design by Philip G. Allen, choreography by Kay Cole, musical director Gerald Sternbach.The production starred Bob Gunton (Ben), Warren Berlinger (Dimitri Weismann), Patty Duke (Phyllis), Vikki Carr (Sally), Harry Groener (Buddy), Carole Cook (Hattie), Carol Lawrence (Vanessa), Ken Page (Roscoe), Liz Torres (Stella), Amanda McBroom (Solange), Grover Dale (Vincent), Donna McKechnie (Carlotta), Carole Swarbrick (Christine), Stella Stevens (Dee Dee), Mary Jo Catlett (Emily), Justine Johnston (Heidi), Jean Louisa Kelly (Young Sally), Austin Miller (Young Buddy), Tia Riebling (Young Phyllis), Kevin Earley (Young Ben), Abby Feldman (Young Stella), Barbara Chiofalo (Young Heidi), Trevor Brackney (Young Vincent), Melissa Driscoll (Young Vanessa), Stephen Reed (Kevin), and Billy Barnes (Theodore).", "Hal Linden originally was going to play Ben, but left because he was cast in the Broadway revival of ''Cabaret'' as Herr Schultz.", "Tom Bosley originally was cast as Dimitri Weismann.===2003 Ann Arbor===A concert production at the Michigan Theater in January 2003 reunited the four principal young ghosts of the original Broadway cast: Kurt Peterson, Harvey Evans, Virginia Sandifur, and Marti Rolph.", "Having originated the young ghosts over 30 years prior, the actors portrayed the older versions of their Broadway roles.", "Donna McKechnie enjoyed top billing as Carlotta.===2007 New York City Center Encores!===New York City Center's Encores!", "\"Great American Musicals in Concert\" series featured ''Follies'' as its 40th production for six performances in February 2007 in a sold out semi-staged concert.", "The cast starred Donna Murphy (Phyllis), Victoria Clark (Sally), Victor Garber (Ben) and Michael McGrath (Buddy).", "Christine Baranski played Carlotta, and Lucine Amara sang Heidi.", "The cast included Anne Rogers, Jo Anne Worley and Philip Bosco.", "The director and choreographer was Casey Nicholaw.", "This production used the original text, and the \"Loveland\" lyrics performed in the 1987 London production.===2011 Kennedy Center and Broadway===The Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts production at the Eisenhower Theater started previews on May 7, 2011, with an official opening on May 21, and closed on June 19, 2011.The cast starred Bernadette Peters as Sally, Jan Maxwell as Phyllis, Elaine Paige as Carlotta, Linda Lavin as Hattie, Ron Raines as Ben and Danny Burstein as Buddy.", "The production was directed by Eric Schaeffer, with choreography by Warren Carlyle, costumes by Gregg Barnes, set by Derek McLane and lighting by Natasha Katz.", "Also featured were Rosalind Elias as Heidi, Régine as Solange, Susan Watson as Emily, and Terri White as Stella.", "The budget was reported to be $7.3 million.", "The production played to 95% capacity.Reviews were mixed, with Ben Brantley of ''The New York Times'' writing \"It wasn't until the second act that I fell in love all over again with ''Follies''\".", "Peter Marks of ''The Washington Post'' wrote that the revival \"takes an audience halfway to paradise.\"", "He praised a \"broodingly luminous Jan Maxwell\" and Burstein's \"hapless onetime stage-door Johnny\", as well as \"the show's final 20 minutes, when we ascend with the main characters into an ironic vaudeville dreamscape of assorted neuroses - the most intoxicating articulation of the musical's 'Loveland' sequence that I've ever seen.\"", "''Variety'' gave a very favorable review to the \"lavish and entirely satisfying production\", saying that Schaeffer directs \"in methodical fashion, building progressively to a crescendo exactly as Sondheim does with so many of his stirring melodies.", "Several show-stopping routines are provided by choreographer Warren Carlyle.\"", "Terry Teachout of the ''Wall Street Journal'' noted that \"One of the signal achievements of this ''Follies'' is that it succeeds in untangling each and every strand of the show's knotty plot ... Mr. Schaeffer is clearly unafraid of the darkness of ''Follies'', so much so that the first act is bitter enough to sting.", "Yet he and Warren Carlyle ... just as clearly revel in the richness of the knowing pastiche songs with which Mr. Sondheim evokes the popular music of the prerock era.", "\"The production transferred to Broadway at the Marquis Theatre in a limited engagement starting previews on August 7, 2011, with the official opening on September 12, and closing on January 22, 2012, after 151 performances and 38 previews.", "The four principal performers reprised their roles, as well as Paige as Carlotta.", "Jayne Houdyshell as Hattie, Mary Beth Peil as Solange LaFitte, and Don Correia as Theodore joined the Broadway cast.", "A two-disc cast album of this production was recorded by PS Classics and was released on November 29, 2011.Brantley reviewed the Broadway revival for ''The New York Times'', writing: \"Somewhere along the road from Washington to Broadway, the Kennedy Center production of ''Follies'' picked up a pulse ...", "I am happy to report that since then, Ms Peters has connected with her inner frump, Mr. Raines has found the brittle skeleton within his solid flesh, and Ms. Maxwell and Mr. Burstein have only improved.", "Two new additions to the cast, Jayne Houdyshell and Mary Beth Peil, are terrific.", "This production has taken on the glint of crystalline sharpness.\"", "The production's run was extended, and its grosses exceeded expectations, but it did not recoup its investment.The Broadway production won the Drama League Award, Distinguished Production of a Musical Revival for 2011-2012 and the Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Revival of a Musical, Outstanding Actor in a Musical (Burstein) and Outstanding Costume Design (Barnes).", "Out of seven Tony Award nominations, including Best Revival of a Musical, it won only one, for Barnes' costumes.===2012 Los Angeles===The 2011 Broadway and Kennedy Center production transferred to the Ahmanson Theatre, Los Angeles, California, in a limited engagement, from May 3, 2012, through June 9.The majority of the Broadway cast reprised their roles, with the exception of Bernadette Peters, who had prior concert commitments and was replaced by Victoria Clark in the role of Sally, a role she had played previously in New York.", "Other new cast members included Carol Neblett as Heidi, Sammy Williams as Theodore and Obba Babatunde as Max.===2013 Toulon Opera House (France)===For its first production in France, ''Follies'' was presented at the Toulon Opera House in March 2013.This English-language production, using the full original orchestration, was directed by Olivier Bénézech and conducted by David Charles Abell.", "The cast featured Charlotte Page (Sally), Liz Robertson (Phyllis), Graham Bickley (Ben), Jérôme Pradon (Buddy), Nicole Croisille (Carlotta), Julia Sutton (Hattie) and Fra Fee (Young Buddy).=== 2016 Australian concert version ===A concert version at the Melbourne Recital Centre, staged with a full 23-piece orchestra and Australian actors Philip Quast (Ben), David Hobson (Buddy), Lisa McCune (Sally), Anne Wood (Phyllis), Rowan Witt (Young Buddy), Sophie Wright (Young Sally), Nancy Hayes (Hattie), Debra Byrne (Carlotta), and Queenie van de Zandt (Stella).", "The production was directed by Tyran Parke and produced by StoreyBoard Entertainment.=== 2017 London revival ===A London revival was performed in the Olivier Theatre at the National Theatre (August 22 until November 4, 2017 - later extended to January 3, 2018, as extensions are common practice at the National Theatre).", "The production was directed by Dominic Cooke, choreographed by Bill Deamer and starred Peter Forbes as Buddy, Imelda Staunton as Sally, Janie Dee as Phyllis, Philip Quast as Ben and Tracie Bennett as Carlotta.", "This production notably goes back to the original plan of a one-act performance.", "The production was broadcast live to cinemas worldwide on November 16 through the National Theatre Live program.The production returned to the Olivier Theatre on February 14, 2019, playing until May 11.Janie Dee and Peter Forbes returned as Phyllis and Buddy, while Joanna Riding and Alexander Hanson replaced Staunton and Quast as Sally and Ben.", "Bennett also reprised her Olivier-nominated performance.", "A recording of the National Theatre production was released on January 18, 2019.The 2017 production was nominated for 10 Laurence Olivier Awards and won 2 for Best Musical Revival and Best Costume Design (by Vicki Mortimer)." ], [ "Characters and original cast", "The characters and original cast: Character Broadway (1971) Lincoln Center(1985) London(1987) Paper Mill Playhouse(1998) Broadway Revival(2001) London Revival(2002) City Center Encores!", "(2007) Broadway Revival(2011) Royal Albert Hall(2015) Australian Concert(2016)London Revival(2017)London Revival(2019) Sally Durant Plummer Dorothy Collins Barbara Cook Julia McKenzie Donna McKechnie Judith Ivey Kathryn Evans Victoria Clark Bernadette Peters Ruthie Henshall Lisa McCune Imelda Staunton Joanna Riding Benjamin Stone John McMartin George Hearn Daniel Massey Laurence Guittard Gregory Harrison David Durham Victor Garber Ron Raines Alexander Hanson Philip Quast Alexander Hanson Phyllis Rogers Stone Alexis Smith Lee Remick Diana Rigg Dee Hoty Blythe Danner Louise Gold Donna Murphy Jan Maxwell Christine Baranski Anne Wood Janie Dee Buddy Plummer Gene Nelson Mandy Patinkin David Healy Tony Roberts Treat Williams Henry Goodman Michael McGrath Danny Burstein Peter Polycarpou David Hobson Peter Forbes Young Sally Marti Rolph Liz Callaway Deborah Poplett Danette Holden Lauren Ward Emma Clifford Katie Klaus Lora Lee Gayer Amy Ellen RichardsonSophie Wright Alex Young Gemma Sutton Young Ben Kurt Peterson Howard McGillin Simon Green Michael Gruber Richard Roland Hugh Maynard Colin Donnell Nick Verina Alistair Brammer Lachlan Graham Adam Rhys-Charles Ian McIntosh Young Phyllis Virginia Sandifur Daisy Prince Gillian Bevan Meredith Patterson Erin Dilly Kerry Jay Jenny Powers Kirsten Scott Laura Pitt-Pulford Jenni Little Zizi Strallen Christine Tucker Young Buddy Harvey EvansJim Walton Evan Pappas Billy Hartung Joey Sorge Matthew Cammelle Curtis Holbrook Christian Delcroix Jos Slovick Rowan Witt Fred Haig Henry Hepple Carlotta Campion Yvonne De Carlo Carol Burnett Dolores Gray Ann Miller Polly Bergen Diane Langton Christine Baranski Elaine Paige Betty Buckley Debra Byrne Tracie Bennett Stella Deems Mary McCarty Phyllis Newman Lynda Baron Phyllis Newman Carol Woods Shezwae Powell Joanne Worley Terri White Anita Dobson Queenie van de Zandt Dawn Hope Heidi Schiller Justine Johnston Licia Albanese Adele Leigh Carol Skarimbas Joan Roberts Julia Goss Lucine Amara Rosalind Elias Charlotte Page Cheryl Barker Josephine Barstow Felicity Lott/Josephine Barstow Hattie Walker Ethel Shutta Elaine Stritch Margaret Courtenay Kaye Ballard Betty Garrett Joan Savage Mimi Hines Jayne Houdyshell Lorna Luft Nancye Hayes Di Botcher Claire Moore Dimitri Weismann Arnold Moss Andre Gregory Leonard Sachs Eddie Bracken Louis Zorich Russell Dixon Philip Bosco David Sabin Alistair McGowan Robert Grubb Gary Raymond" ], [ "Critical response", "In the foreword to \"Everything Was Possible\", Frank Rich wrote: \"From the start, critics have been divided about ''Follies'', passionately pro or con but rarely on the fence ... Is it really a great musical, or merely the greatest of all cult musicals?\"", "(Chapin, p. xi) Ted Chapin wrote, \"Taken as a whole, the collection of reviews ''Follies'' received was as rangy as possible.\"", "(Chapin, p. 300) In his ''The New York Times'' review of the original Broadway production, Clive Barnes wrote: \"it is stylish, innovative, it has some of the best lyrics I have ever encountered, and above all it is a serious attempt to deal with the musical form.\"", "Barnes also called the story shallow and Sondheim's words a joy \"even when his music sends shivers of indifference up your spine.", "\"Walter Kerr wrote in ''The New York Times'' about the original production: \"''Follies'' is intermissionless and exhausting, an extravaganza that becomes so tedious ... because its extravaganzas have nothing to do with its pebble of a plot.\"", "On the other hand, Martin Gottfried wrote: \"''Follies'' is truly awesome and, if it is not consistently good, it is always great.", "\"''Time'' magazine wrote about the original Broadway production: \"At its worst moments, ''Follies'' is mannered and pretentious, overreaching for Significance.", "At its best moments—and there are many—it is the most imaginative and original new musical that Broadway has seen in years.", "\"Frank Rich, in reviewing the 1985 concert in ''The New York Times'', wrote: \"Friday's performance made the case that this Broadway musical ... can take its place among our musical theater's very finest achievements.\"", "Ben Brantley, reviewing the 1998 Paper Mill Playhouse production in ''The New York Times'', concluded that it was a \"fine, heartfelt production, which confirms ''Follies'' as a landmark musical and a work of art ...\".The ''Time'' reviewer wrote of the 2001 Broadway revival: \"Even in its more modest incarnation, ''Follies'' has, no question, the best score on Broadway.\"", "He noted, though, that \"I'm sorry the cast was reduced from 52 to 38, the orchestra from 26 players to 14 ... To appreciate the revival, you must buy into James Goldman's book, which is peddling a panoramically bleak take on marriage.\"", "Finally, he wrote: \"But ''Follies'' never makes fun of the honorable musical tradition to which it belongs.", "The show and the score have a double vision: simultaneously squinting at the messes people make of their lives and wide-eyed at the lingering grace and lift of the music they want to hear.", "Sondheim's songs aren't parodies or deconstructions; they are evocations that recognize the power of a love song.", "In 1971 or 2001, ''Follies'' validates the legend that a Broadway show can be an event worth dressing up for.", "\"Brantley, reviewing the 2007 Encores!", "concert for ''The New York Times'', wrote: \"I have never felt the splendid sadness of ''Follies'' as acutely as I did watching the emotionally transparent concert production ... At almost any moment, to look at the faces of any of the principal performers ... is to be aware of people both bewitched and wounded by the contemplation of who they used to be.", "When they sing, in voices layered with ambivalence and anger and longing, it is clear that it is their past selves whom they are serenading.\"" ], [ "Recordings", "There have been six recordings of ''Follies'' released: the original 1971 Broadway cast album; ''Follies in Concert'', Avery Fisher Hall (1985); the original London production (1987); the Paper Mill Playhouse (1998); the 2011 Broadway revival; and the 2017 London revival.", "The original cast album has always been controversial, because significant portions of the score were cut to fit onto one LP.", "However, as Kritzerland Records head Bruce Kimmel wrote in his liner notes to Kritzerland's remixed version of the album, \"What it did have made it something that, despite the frustrations, meant it would never be bettered – the original cast.", "\"The cast recording of the 2011 Broadway revival, by PS Classics, was released officially on November 29, 2011, and was in pre-sale before the store release.", "PS Classics co-founder Tommy Krasker stated \"We've never had the kind of reaction that we've had for ''Follies''.", "Not only has it already outsold every other album at our website, but the steady stream of emails from customers has been amazing.\"", "This recording includes \"extended segments of the show's dialogue\".", "The theatermania.com reviewer wrote that \"The result is an album that, more so than any of the other existing recordings, allows listeners to re-experience the heartbreaking collision of past and present that's at the core of the piece.\"", "The recording of the 2011 revival was nominated for a Grammy Award in the Musical Theater Album category.", "The 2017 London revival cast was recorded after the production closed in January 2018, and was released in early 2019." ], [ "Film adaptation", "In January 2015, it was reported that Rob Marshall signed on to direct, with Meryl Streep rumored to star.", "Tony Award-winning playwright and Academy Award-nominated screenwriter John Logan has expressed interest in writing the adaptation.In November 2019, it was announced that Dominic Cooke will adapt the screenplay as well as direct, following the successful 2017 National Theatre revival in London, which returned in 2019 due to popular demand." ], [ "Awards and nominations", "===Original Broadway production=== Year Award Category Nominee Result 1971 Drama Desk Award Outstanding Choreography Michael Bennett Outstanding Lyrics Stephen Sondheim Outstanding Music Outstanding Costume Design Florence Klotz Outstanding Set Design Boris Aronson Outstanding Performance Alexis Smith Outstanding Director Harold Prince and Michael Bennett New York Drama Critics' Circle Best Musical 1972 Tony Award Best Musical Best Book of a Musical James Goldman Best Performance by a Leading Actress in a Musical Alexis Smith Dorothy Collins Best Performance by a Featured Actor in a Musical Gene Nelson Best Original Score Stephen Sondheim Best Direction of a Musical Harold Prince and Michael Bennett Best Choreography Michael Bennett Best Scenic Design Boris Aronson Best Costume Design Florence Klotz Best Lighting Design Tharon Musser ===Original London production=== Year Award Category Nominee Result 1987 Laurence Olivier Award Musical of the Year Actress of the Year in a Musical Julia McKenzie ===2001 Broadway revival=== Year Award Category Nominee Result 2001 Drama Desk Award Outstanding Revival of a Musical Outstanding Featured Actress in a Musical Polly Bergen Outstanding Orchestrations Jonathan Tunick Tony Award Best Revival of a Musical Best Performance by a Leading Actress in a Musical Blythe Danner Best Performance by a Featured Actress in a Musical Polly Bergen Best Costume Design Theoni V. Aldredge Best Orchestrations Jonathan Tunick ===2011 Broadway revival=== Year Award Category Nominee Result 2012 Tony Award Best Revival of a Musical Best Performance by a Leading Actor in a Musical Danny Burstein Ron Raines Best Performance by a Leading Actress in a Musical Jan Maxwell Best Performance by a Featured Actress in a Musical Jayne Houdyshell Best Costume Design Gregg Barnes Best Lighting Design Natasha Katz Best Sound Design Kai Harada Drama Desk Award Outstanding Revival of a Musical Outstanding Actor in a Musical Danny Burstein Outstanding Actress in a Musical Jan Maxwell Bernadette Peters Outstanding Featured Actress in a Musical Elaine Paige Outstanding Director of a Musical Eric Schaeffer Outstanding Choreography Warren Carlyle Outstanding Set Design Derek McLane Outstanding Costume Design Gregg Barnes Outstanding Sound Design Kai Harada Grammy Award Best Musical Theater Album === 2017 London revival === Year Award Category Nominee Result 2017Critics' Circle Theatre AwardBest DirectorDominic CookeBest DesignerVicki Mortimer Evening Standard Theatre AwardBest Musical Best Musical Performance Janie Dee Best Director Dominic Cooke 2018Laurence Olivier AwardBest Musical Revival Best Actress in a Musical Janie Dee Imelda Staunton Best Actress in a Supporting Role in a Musical Tracie Bennett Best Director Dominic Cooke Best Theatre Choreographer Bill Deamer Best Set DesignVicki Mortimer Best Costume Design Best Lighting Design Paule Constable Outstanding Achievement in Music The orchestra, Nicholas Skilbeck and Nigel Lilley" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Chapin, Ted (2003).", "''Everything Was Possible: The Birth of the Musical Follies''.", "New York, New York: Alfred A. Knopf.", "* Secrest, Meryle (1998).", "''Stephen Sondheim: A Life''.", "Dell Publishing, Alfred A. Knopf (reprint).", "* Sondheim, Stephen and Goldman, James (2001).", "''Follies''.", "New York, New York: Theatre Communications Group.", "Sondheim, Stephen (2010).", "''Finishing the Hat''.", "Alfred A. Knopf." ], [ "Further reading", " Prince, Harold (1974).", "''Contradictions: Notes on Twenty-six Years in the Theatre''.", "Dodd, Mead.", "* Ilson, Carol (2004).", "''Harold Prince: A Director's Journey'', Limelight Editions.", "* Mandelbaum, Ken (1990).", "''A Chorus Line and the Musicals of Michael Bennett''.", "St. Martins Press." ], [ "External links", "* * ''Follies'' on The Stephen Sondheim Reference Guide* * '' Follies'' at the Music Theatre International website" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Functional linguistics" ], [ "Introduction", "A Systemic functional grammar analysis of the clause 'we love this man'.", "The subject 'we' is analysed as being a ''thing'' (cf.", "noun) within a single-word nominal group representing the ''senser''.", "The verb 'love' is analysed as representing a mental process.", "The pronoun 'this' is a deictic determiner, and the noun 'man' is a thing.", "These form a second nominal group representing a ''phenomenon'', which is the object of the clause.", "The senser, the process, and the phenomenon are equal constituents within the clause.\|490x490px'''Functional linguistics''' is an approach to the study of language characterized by taking systematically into account the speaker's and the hearer's side, and the communicative needs of the speaker and of the given language community.", "Linguistic functionalism spawned in the 1920s to 1930s from Ferdinand de Saussure's systematic structuralist approach to language (1916).Functionalism sees functionality of language and its elements to be the key to understanding linguistic processes and structures.", "Functional theories of language propose that since language is fundamentally a tool, it is reasonable to assume that its structures are best analyzed and understood with reference to the functions they carry out.", "These include the tasks of conveying meaning and contextual information.Functional theories of grammar belong to structural and, broadly, humanistic linguistics, considering language as being created by the community, and linguistics as relating to systems theory.", "Functional theories take into account the context where linguistic elements are used and study the way they are instrumentally useful or functional in the given environment.", "This means that pragmatics is given an explanatory role, along with semantics.", "The formal relations between linguistic elements are assumed to be functionally-motivated.", "Functionalism is sometimes contrasted with formalism, but this does not exclude functional theories from creating grammatical descriptions that are ''generative'' in the sense of formulating rules that distinguish grammatical or well-formed elements from ungrammatical elements.Simon Dik characterizes the functional approach as follows:Functional theories of grammar can be divided on the basis of geographical origin or base (though it simplifies many aspects): European functionalist theories include Functional (discourse) grammar and Systemic functional grammar (among others), while American functionalist theories include Role and reference grammar and West Coast functionalism.", "Since the 1970s, studies by American functional linguists in languages other than English from Asia, Africa, Australia and the Americas (like Mandarin Chinese and Japanese), led to insights about the interaction of form and function, and the discovery of functional motivations for grammatical phenomena, which apply also to the English language." ], [ "History", "===1920s to 1970s: early developments===The establishment of functional linguistics follows from a shift from structural to functional explanation in 1920s sociology.", "Prague, at the crossroads of western European structuralism and Russian formalism, became an important centre for functional linguistics.The shift was related to the organic analogy exploited by Émile Durkheim and Ferdinand de Saussure.", "Saussure had argued in his ''Course in General Linguistics'' that the 'organism' of language should be studied anatomically, and not in respect with its environment, to avoid the false conclusions made by August Schleicher and other social Darwinists.", "The post-Saussurean functionalist movement sought ways to account for the 'adaptation' of language to its environment while still remaining strictly anti-Darwinian.Russian émigrés Roman Jakobson and Nikolai Trubetzkoy disseminated insights of Russian grammarians in Prague, but also the evolutionary theory of Lev Berg, arguing for teleology of language change.", "As Berg's theory failed to gain popularity outside the Soviet Union, the organic aspect of functionalism diminished, and Jakobson adopted a standard model of functional explanation from Ernst Nagel's philosophy of science.", "It is, then, the same mode of explanation as in biology and social sciences; but it became emphasised that the word 'adaptation' is not to be understood in linguistics in the same meaning as in biology.Work on functionalist linguistics by the Prague school resumed in the 1950s after a hiatus caused by World War II and Stalinism.", "In North America, Joseph Greenberg published his 1963 seminal paper on language universals that not only revived the field of linguistic typology, but also the approach of seeking functional explanations for typological patterns.", "Greenberg's approach has been highly influential for the movement of North American functionalism that formed from the early 1970s, which has since been characterized by a profound interest in typology.", "Greenberg's paper was influenced by the Prague School and in particular it was written in response to Jakobson's call for an 'implicational typology'.", "While North American functionalism was initially influenced by the functionalism of the Prague school, such influence has been later discontinued.===1980s onward: name controversy===The term 'functionalism' or 'functional linguistics' became controversial in the 1980s with the rise of a new wave of evolutionary linguistics.", "Johanna Nichols argued that the meaning of 'functionalism' had changed, and the terms formalism and functionalism should be taken as referring to generative grammar, and the emergent linguistics of Paul Hopper and Sandra Thompson, respectively; and that the term ''structuralism'' should be reserved for frameworks derived from the Prague linguistic circle.", "William Croft argued subsequently that it is a fact to be agreed by all linguists that form does not follow from function.", "He proposed that functionalism should be understood as autonomous linguistics, opposing the idea that language arises functionally from the need to express meaning:\"The notion of autonomy emerges from an undeniable fact of all languages, 'the curious lack of accord ... between form and function'\"Croft explains that, until the 1970s, functionalism related to semantics and pragmatics, or the 'semiotic function'.", "But around 1980s the notion of function changed from semiotics to \"external function\", proposing a neo-Darwinian view of language change as based on natural selection.", "Croft proposes that 'structuralism' and 'formalism' should both be taken as referring to generative grammar; and 'functionalism' to usage-based and cognitive linguistics; while neither André Martinet, Systemic functional linguistics nor Functional discourse grammar properly represents any of the three concepts.The situation was further complicated by the arrival of evolutionary psychological thinking in linguistics, with Steven Pinker, Ray Jackendoff and others hypothesising that the human language faculty, or universal grammar, could have developed through normal evolutionary processes, thus defending an adaptational explanation of the origin and evolution of the language faculty.", "This brought about a functionalism versus formalism debate, with Frederick Newmeyer arguing that the evolutionary psychological approach to linguistics should also be considered functionalist.The terms functionalism and functional linguistics nonetheless continue to be used by the Prague linguistic circle and its derivatives, including SILF, Danish functional school, Systemic functional linguistics and Functional discourse grammar; and the American framework Role and reference grammar which sees itself as the midway between formal and functional linguistics." ], [ "Functional analysis", "Since the earliest work of the Prague School, language was conceived as a ''functional system'', where term ''system'' references back to De Saussure structuralist approach.", "The term function seems to have been introduced by Vilém Mathesius, possibly influenced from works in sociology.", "Functional analysis is the examination of how linguistic elements function on different layers of linguistic structure, and how the levels interact with each other.", "Functions exist on all levels of grammar, even in phonology, where the phoneme has the function of distinguishing between lexical material.", "* Syntactic functions: (e.g.", "Subject and Object), defining different perspectives in the presentation of a linguistic expression.", "* Semantic functions: (Agent, Patient, Recipient, etc.", "), describing the role of participants in states of affairs or actions expressed.", "* Pragmatic functions: (Theme and Rheme, Topic and Focus, Predicate), defining the informational status of constituents, determined by the pragmatic context of the verbal interaction." ], [ "Functional explanation", "In the functional mode of explanation, a linguistic structure is explained with an appeal to its function.", "Functional linguistics takes as its starting point the notion that communication is the primary purpose of language.", "Therefore, general phonological, morphosyntactic and semantic phenomena are thought of as being motivated by the needs of people to communicate successfully with each other.", "Thus, the perspective is taken that the organisation of language reflects its use value.Many prominent functionalist approaches, like Role and reference grammar and Functional discourse grammar, are also typologically oriented, that is they aim their analysis cross-linguistically, rather than only to a single language like English (as it's typical of formalist/generativism approaches).===Economy===The concept of economy is metaphorically transferred from a social or economical context to a linguistic level.", "It is considered as a regulating force in language maintenance.", "Controlling the impact of language change or internal and external conflicts of the system, the economy principle means that systemic coherence is maintained without increasing energy cost.", "This is why all human languages, no matter how different they are, have high functional value as based on a compromise between the competing motivations of speaker-easiness (simplicity or ''inertia'') versus hearer-easiness (clarity or ''energeia'').The principle of economy was elaborated by the French structural–functional linguist André Martinet.", "Martinet's concept is similar to Zipf's principle of least effort; although the idea had been discussed by various linguists in the late 19th and early 20th century.", "The functionalist concept of economy is not to be confused with economy in generative grammar.===Information structure=== Some key adaptations of functional explanation are found in the study of information structure.", "Based on earlier linguists' work, Prague Circle linguists Vilém Mathesius, Jan Firbas and others elaborated the concept of theme–rheme relations (topic and comment) to study pragmatic concepts such as sentence focus, and givenness of information, to successfully explain word-order variation.", "The method has been used widely in linguistics to uncover word-order patterns in the languages of the world.", "Its importance, however, is limited to within-language variation, with no apparent explanation of cross-linguistic word order tendencies.===Functional principles===Several principles from pragmatics have been proposed as functional explanations of linguistic structures, often in a typological perspective.", "Theme first: languages prefer placing the theme before the rheme; and the subject typically carries the role of the theme; therefore, most languages have subject before object in their basic word order.", "Animate first: similarly, since subjects are more likely to be animate, they are more likely to precede the object.", "Given before new: already established information comes before new information.", "First things first: more important or more urgent information comes before other information.", "Lightness: light (short) constituents are ordered before heavy (long) constituents.", "Uniformity: word-order choices are generalised.", "For example, languages tend to have either prepositions or postpositions; and not both equally.", "Functional load: elements within a linguistic sub-system are made distinct to avoid confusion.", "Orientation: role-indicating particles including adpositions and subordinators are oriented to their semantic head." ], [ "Frameworks", "There are several distinct grammatical frameworks that employ a functional approach.", "The structuralist functionalism of the Prague school was the earliest functionalist framework developed in the 1920s.", "André Martinet's Functional Syntax, with two major books, ''A functional view of language'' (1962) and ''Studies in Functional Syntax'' (1975).", "Martinet is one of the most famous French linguists and can be regarded as the father of French functionalism.", "Founded by Martinet and his colleagues, SILF (''Société internationale de linguistique fonctionnelle'') is an international organisation of functional linguistics which operates mainly in French.", "Simon Dik's Functional Grammar, originally developed in the 1970s and 80s, has been influential and inspired many other functional theories.", "It has been developed into Functional Discourse Grammar by the linguist Kees Hengeveld.", "Michael Halliday's systemic functional grammar (SFG) argues that the explanation of how language works \"needed to be grounded in a functional analysis, since language had evolved in the process of carrying out certain critical functions as human beings interacted with their ... 'eco-social' environment\".", "Halliday draws on the work of Bühler and Malinowski, as well as his doctoral supervisor J.R. Firth.", "Notably, Halliday's former student Robin Fawcett has developed a version of SFG called the \"Cardiff Grammar\" which is distinct from the \"Sydney Grammar\" as developed by the later Halliday and his colleagues in Australia.", "The link between Firthian and Hallidayan linguistics and the philosophy of Alfred North Whitehead also deserves a mention.", "Role and reference grammar, developed by Robert Van Valin employs functional analytical framework with a somewhat formal mode of description.", "In RRG, the description of a sentence in a particular language is formulated in terms of its semantic structure and communicative functions, as well as the grammatical procedures used to express these meanings.", "Danish functional grammar combines Saussurean/Hjelmslevian structuralism with a focus on pragmatics and discourse.", "Interactional linguistics, based on Conversation Analysis, considers linguistic structures as related to the functions of e.g.", "action and turn-taking in interaction.", "Construction grammar is a family of different theories some of which may be considered functional, such as Croft's Radical construction grammar." ], [ "See also", "* Theory of language* Functional grammar (disambiguation)* Thematic relation* Morphosyntactic alignment* Linguistic typology" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Van Valin Jr, R. D. (2003) ''Functional linguistics'', ch.", "13 in '' The handbook of linguistics'', pp.", "319–336." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Fick's laws of diffusion" ], [ "Introduction", "Molecular diffusion from a microscopic and macroscopic point of view.", "Initially, there are solute molecules on the left side of a barrier (purple line) and none on the right.", "The barrier is removed, and the solute diffuses to fill the whole container.", "'''Top''': A single molecule moves around randomly.", "'''Middle''': With more molecules, there is a clear trend where the solute fills the container more and more uniformly.", "'''Bottom''': With an enormous number of solute molecules, randomness becomes undetectable: The solute appears to move smoothly and systematically from high-concentration areas to low-concentration areas.", "This smooth flow is described by Fick's laws.", "'''Fick's laws of diffusion''' describe diffusion and were first posited by Adolf Fick in 1855 on the basis of largely experimental results.", "They can be used to solve for the diffusion coefficient, .", "Fick's first law can be used to derive his second law which in turn is identical to the diffusion equation.A diffusion process that obeys Fick's laws is called normal or Fickian diffusion; otherwise, it is called anomalous diffusion or non-Fickian diffusion." ], [ "History", "In 1855, physiologist Adolf Fick first reported his now well-known laws governing the transport of mass through diffusive means.", "Fick's work was inspired by the earlier experiments of Thomas Graham, which fell short of proposing the fundamental laws for which Fick would become famous.", "Fick's law is analogous to the relationships discovered at the same epoch by other eminent scientists: Darcy's law (hydraulic flow), Ohm's law (charge transport), and Fourier's Law (heat transport).Fick's experiments (modeled on Graham's) dealt with measuring the concentrations and fluxes of salt, diffusing between two reservoirs through tubes of water.", "It is notable that Fick's work primarily concerned diffusion in fluids, because at the time, diffusion in solids was not considered generally possible.", "Today, Fick's Laws form the core of our understanding of diffusion in solids, liquids, and gases (in the absence of bulk fluid motion in the latter two cases).", "When a diffusion process does ''not'' follow Fick's laws (which happens in cases of diffusion through porous media and diffusion of swelling penetrants, among others), it is referred to as ''non-Fickian''." ], [ "Fick's first law", "'''Fick's first law''' relates the diffusive flux to the gradient of the concentration.", "It postulates that the flux goes from regions of high concentration to regions of low concentration, with a magnitude that is proportional to the concentration gradient (spatial derivative), or in simplistic terms the concept that a solute will move from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration across a concentration gradient.", "In one (spatial) dimension, the law can be written in various forms, where the most common form (see) is in a molar basis:: where* is the '''diffusion flux''', of which the dimension is the amount of substance per unit area per unit time.", "measures the amount of substance that will flow through a unit area during a unit time interval.", "* is the '''diffusion coefficient''' or '''diffusivity'''.", "Its dimension is area per unit time.", "* is the '''concentration gradient'''* (for ideal mixtures) is the concentration, with a dimension of amount of substance per unit volume.", "* is position, the dimension of which is length.", "is proportional to the squared velocity of the diffusing particles, which depends on the temperature, viscosity of the fluid and the size of the particles according to the Stokes–Einstein relation.", "In dilute aqueous solutions the diffusion coefficients of most ions are similar and have values that at room temperature are in the range of .", "For biological molecules the diffusion coefficients normally range from 10−10 to 10−11 m2/s.In two or more dimensions we must use , the del or gradient operator, which generalises the first derivative, obtaining: where denotes the diffusion flux vector.The driving force for the one-dimensional diffusion is the quantity , which for ideal mixtures is the concentration gradient.=== Variations of the first law ===Another form for the first law is to write it with the primary variable as mass fraction (, given for example in kg/kg), then the equation changes to:: where* the index denotes the th species,* is the '''diffusion flux vector''' of the th species (for example in mol/m2-s),* is the molar mass of the th species, and* is the mixture density (for example in kg/m3).The is outside the gradient operator.", "This is because:: where is the partial density of the th species.Beyond this, in chemical systems other than ideal solutions or mixtures, the driving force for diffusion of each species is the gradient of chemical potential of this species.", "Then Fick's first law (one-dimensional case) can be written: where* the index denotes the th species* is the concentration (mol/m3)* is the universal gas constant (J/K/mol)* is the absolute temperature (K)* is the chemical potential (J/mol).The driving force of Fick's law can be expressed as a fugacity difference:: Fugacity has Pa units.", "is a partial pressure of component in a vapor or liquid phase.", "At vapor liquid equilibrium the evaporation flux is zero because .=== Derivation of Fick's first law for gases ===Four versions of Fick's law for binary gas mixtures are given below.", "These assume: thermal diffusion is negligible; the body force per unit mass is the same on both species; and either pressure is constant or both species have the same molar mass.", "Under these conditions, Ref.", "shows in detail how the diffusion equation from the kinetic theory of gases reduces to this version of Fick's law:where is the diffusion velocity of species .", "In terms of species flux this isIf, additionally, , this reduces to the most common form of Fick's law,If (instead of or in addition to ) both species have the same molar mass, Fick's law becomeswhere is the mole fraction of species ." ], [ "Fick's second law", "'''Fick's second law''' predicts how diffusion causes the concentration to change with respect to time.", "It is a partial differential equation which in one dimension reads:: where* is the concentration in dimensions of , example mol/m3; is a function that depends on location and time * is time, example s* is the diffusion coefficient in dimensions of , example m2/s* is the position, example mIn two or more dimensions we must use the Laplacian , which generalises the second derivative, obtaining the equation: Fick's second law has the same mathematical form as the Heat equation and its fundamental solution is the same as the Heat kernel, except switching thermal conductivity with diffusion coefficient :=== Derivation of Fick's second law ===Fick's second law can be derived from Fick's first law and the mass conservation in absence of any chemical reactions:: Assuming the diffusion coefficient to be a constant, one can exchange the orders of the differentiation and multiply by the constant::and, thus, receive the form of the Fick's equations as was stated above.For the case of diffusion in two or more dimensions Fick's second law becomes: which is analogous to the heat equation.If the diffusion coefficient is not a constant, but depends upon the coordinate or concentration, Fick's second law yields: An important example is the case where is at a steady state, i.e.", "the concentration does not change by time, so that the left part of the above equation is identically zero.", "In one dimension with constant , the solution for the concentration will be a linear change of concentrations along .", "In two or more dimensions we obtain: which is Laplace's equation, the solutions to which are referred to by mathematicians as harmonic functions." ], [ "Example solutions and generalization", "Fick's second law is a special case of the convection–diffusion equation in which there is no advective flux and no net volumetric source.", "It can be derived from the continuity equation:: where is the total flux and is a net volumetric source for .", "The only source of flux in this situation is assumed to be ''diffusive flux'':: Plugging the definition of diffusive flux to the continuity equation and assuming there is no source (), we arrive at Fick's second law:: If flux were the result of both diffusive flux and advective flux, the convection–diffusion equation is the result.=== Example solution 1: constant concentration source and diffusion length ===A simple case of diffusion with time in one dimension (taken as the -axis) from a boundary located at position , where the concentration is maintained at a value is: where is the complementary error function.", "This is the case when corrosive gases diffuse through the oxidative layer towards the metal surface (if we assume that concentration of gases in the environment is constant and the diffusion space – that is, the corrosion product layer – is ''semi-infinite'', starting at 0 at the surface and spreading infinitely deep in the material).", "If, in its turn, the diffusion space is ''infinite'' (lasting both through the layer with , and that with , ), then the solution is amended only with coefficient in front of (as the diffusion now occurs in both directions).", "This case is valid when some solution with concentration is put in contact with a layer of pure solvent.", "(Bokstein, 2005) The length is called the ''diffusion length'' and provides a measure of how far the concentration has propagated in the -direction by diffusion in time (Bird, 1976).As a quick approximation of the error function, the first two terms of the Taylor series can be used:: If is time-dependent, the diffusion length becomes: This idea is useful for estimating a diffusion length over a heating and cooling cycle, where varies with temperature.=== Example solution 2: Brownian particle and mean squared displacement ===Another simple case of diffusion is the Brownian motion of one particle.", "The particle's Mean squared displacement from its original position is:where is the dimension of the particle's Brownian motion.", "For example, the diffusion of a molecule across a cell membrane 8 nm thick is 1-D diffusion because of the spherical symmetry; However, the diffusion of a molecule from the membrane to the center of a eukaryotic cell is a 3-D diffusion.", "For a cylindrical cactus, the diffusion from photosynthetic cells on its surface to its center (the axis of its cylindrical symmetry) is a 2-D diffusion.The square root of MSD, , is often used as a characterization of how far has the particle moved after time has elapsed.", "The MSD is symmetrically distributed over the 1D, 2D, and 3D space.", "Thus, the probability distribution of the magnitude of MSD in 1D is Gaussian and 3D is a Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution.=== Generalizations ===* In ''non-homogeneous media'', the diffusion coefficient varies in space, .", "This dependence does not affect Fick's first law but the second law changes: * In ''anisotropic media'', the diffusion coefficient depends on the direction.", "It is a symmetric tensor .", "Fick's first law changes to it is the product of a tensor and a vector: For the diffusion equation this formula gives The symmetric matrix of diffusion coefficients should be positive definite.", "It is needed to make the right hand side operator elliptic.", "* For ''inhomogeneous anisotropic media'' these two forms of the diffusion equation should be combined in * The approach based on Einstein's mobility and Teorell formula gives the following generalization of Fick's equation for the ''multicomponent diffusion'' of the perfect components: where are concentrations of the components and is the matrix of coefficients.", "Here, indices and are related to the various components and not to the space coordinates.The Chapman–Enskog formulae for diffusion in gases include exactly the same terms.", "These physical models of diffusion are different from the test models which are valid for very small deviations from the uniform equilibrium.", "Earlier, such terms were introduced in the Maxwell–Stefan diffusion equation.For anisotropic multicomponent diffusion coefficients one needs a rank-four tensor, for example , where refer to the components and correspond to the space coordinates." ], [ "Applications", "Equations based on Fick's law have been commonly used to model transport processes in foods, neurons, biopolymers, pharmaceuticals, porous soils, population dynamics, nuclear materials, plasma physics, and semiconductor doping processes.", "The theory of voltammetric methods is based on solutions of Fick's equation.", "On the other hand, in some cases a \"Fickian (another common approximation of the transport equation is that of the diffusion theory)\" description is inadequate.", "For example, in polymer science and food science a more general approach is required to describe transport of components in materials undergoing a glass transition.", "One more general framework is the Maxwell–Stefan diffusion equationsof multi-component mass transfer, from which Fick's law can be obtained as a limiting case, when the mixture is extremely dilute and every chemical species is interacting only with the bulk mixture and not with other species.", "To account for the presence of multiple species in a non-dilute mixture, several variations of the Maxwell–Stefan equations are used.", "See also non-diagonal coupled transport processes (Onsager relationship).", "=== Fick's flow in liquids ===When two miscible liquids are brought into contact, and diffusion takes place, the macroscopic (or average) concentration evolves following Fick's law.", "On a mesoscopic scale, that is, between the macroscopic scale described by Fick's law and molecular scale, where molecular random walks take place, fluctuations cannot be neglected.", "Such situations can be successfully modeled with Landau-Lifshitz fluctuating hydrodynamics.", "In this theoretical framework, diffusion is due to fluctuations whose dimensions range from the molecular scale to the macroscopic scale.In particular, fluctuating hydrodynamic equations include a Fick's flow term, with a given diffusion coefficient, along with hydrodynamics equations and stochastic terms describing fluctuations.", "When calculating the fluctuations with a perturbative approach, the zero order approximation is Fick's law.", "The first order gives the fluctuations, and it comes out that fluctuations contribute to diffusion.", "This represents somehow a tautology, since the phenomena described by a lower order approximation is the result of a higher approximation: this problem is solved only by renormalizing the fluctuating hydrodynamics equations.=== Sorption rate and collision frequency of diluted solute ===Scheme of molecular diffusion in the solution.", "Orange dots are solute molecules, solvent molecules are not drawn, black arrow is an example random walk trajectory, and the red curve is the diffusive Gaussian broadening probability function from the Fick's law of diffusion.:Fig.", "9The adsorption or absorption rate of a dilute solute to a surface or interface in a (gas or liquid) solution can be calculated using Fick's laws of diffusion.", "The accumulated number of molecules adsorbed on the surface is expressed by the Langmuir-Schaefer equation at the short-time limit by integrating the diffusion flux equation over time:: * is number of molecules in unit # molecules adsorbed during the time .", "* is the surface area (m2).", "* is the number concentration of the adsorber molecules in the bulk solution (#/m3).", "* is diffusion coefficient of the adsorber (m2/s).", "* is elapsed time (s).The equation is named after American chemists Irving Langmuir and Vincent Schaefer.The Langmuir–Schaefer equation can be extended to the Ward–Tordai Equation to account for the \"back-diffusion\" of rejected molecules from the surface: : where is the bulk concentration, is the sub-surface concentration (which is a function of time depending on the reaction model of the adsorption), and is a dummy variable.", "Monte Carlo simulations show that these two equations work to predict the adsorption rate of systems that form predictable concentration gradients near the surface but have troubles for systems without or with unpredictable concentration gradients, such as typical biosensing systems or when flow and convection are significant.", "A brief history of the theories on diffusive adsorption.", "A brief history of diffusive adsorption is shown in the right figure.", "A noticeable challenge of understanding the diffusive adsorption at the single-molecule level is the fractal nature of diffusion.", "Most computer simulations pick a time step for diffusion which ignores the fact that there are self-similar finer diffusion events (fractal) within each step.", "Simulating the fractal diffusion shows that a factor of two corrections should be introduced for the result of a fixed time-step adsorption simulation, bringing it to be consistent with the above two equations.A more problematic result of the above equations is they predict the lower limit of adsorption under ideal situations but is very difficult to predict the actual adsorption rates.", "The equations are derived at the long-time-limit condition when a stable concentration gradient has been formed near the surface.", "But real adsorption is often done much faster than this infinite time limit, i.e., the concentration gradient, decay of concentration at the sub-surface, is only partially formed before the surface has been saturated, thus the adsorption rate measured is almost always faster than the equations have predicted for low or none energy barrier adsorption (unless there is a significant adsorption energy barrier that slows down the absorption significantly), for example, thousands to millions time faster in the self-assembly of monolayers at the water-air or water-substrate interfaces.", "As such, it is necessary to calculate the evolution of the concentration gradient near the surface and find out a proper time to stop the imagined infinite evolution for practical applications.", "While it is hard to predict when to stop but it is reasonably easy to calculate the shortest time that matters, the critical time when the first nearest neighbor from the substrate surface feels the building-up of the concentration gradient.", "This yields the upper limit of the adsorption rate under an ideal situation when there are no other factors than diffusion that affect the absorber dynamics:: * is the adsorption rate assuming under adsorption energy barrier-free situation, in unit #/s.", "* is the area of the surface of interest on an \"infinite and flat\" substrate (m2).", "* is the concentration of the absorber molecule in the bulk solution (#/m3).", "* is the diffusion constant of the absorber in the solution (m2/s).", "* Dimensional analysis of these units is satisfied.This equation can be used to predict the initial adsorption rate of any system; It can be used to predict the steady-state adsorption rate of a typical biosensing system when the binding site is just a very small fraction of the substrate surface and a near-surface concentration gradient is never formed; It can also be used to predict the adsorption rate of molecules on the surface when there is a significant flow to push the concentration gradient very shallowly in the sub-surface.In the ultrashort time limit, in the order of the diffusion time ''a''2/''D'', where ''a'' is the particle radius, the diffusion is described by the Langevin equation.", "At a longer time, the Langevin equation merges into the Stokes–Einstein equation.", "The latter is appropriate for the condition of the diluted solution, where long-range diffusion is considered.", "According to the fluctuation-dissipation theorem based on the Langevin equation in the long-time limit and when the particle is significantly denser than the surrounding fluid, the time-dependent diffusion constant is:: where (all in SI units)* ''k''B is the Boltzmann constant* ''T'' is the absolute temperature* ''μ'' is the mobility of the particle in the fluid or gas, which can be calculated using the Einstein relation (kinetic theory)* ''m'' is the mass of the particle* ''t'' is time.For a single molecule such as organic molecules or biomolecules (e.g.", "proteins) in water, the exponential term is negligible due to the small product of ''mμ'' in the picosecond region.When the area of interest is the size of a molecule (specifically, a ''long cylindrical molecule'' such as DNA), the adsorption rate equation represents the collision frequency of two molecules in a diluted solution, with one molecule a specific side and the other no steric dependence, i.e., a molecule (random orientation) hit one side of the other.", "The diffusion constant need to be updated to the relative diffusion constant between two diffusing molecules.", "This estimation is especially useful in studying the interaction between a small molecule and a larger molecule such as a protein.", "The effective diffusion constant is dominated by the smaller one whose diffusion constant can be used instead.The above hitting rate equation is also useful to predict the kinetics of molecular self-assembly on a surface.", "Molecules are randomly oriented in the bulk solution.", "Assuming 1/6 of the molecules has the right orientation to the surface binding sites, i.e.", "1/2 of the z-direction in x, y, z three dimensions, thus the concentration of interest is just 1/6 of the bulk concentration.", "Put this value into the equation one should be able to calculate the theoretical adsorption kinetic curve using the Langmuir adsorption model.", "In a more rigid picture, 1/6 can be replaced by the steric factor of the binding geometry.Comparing collision theory and diffusive collision theory.The bimolecular collision frequency related to many reactions including protein coagulation/aggregation is initially described by Smoluchowski coagulation equation proposed by Marian Smoluchowski in a seminal 1916 publication, derived from Brownian motion and Fick's laws of diffusion.", "Under an idealized reaction condition for A + B → product in a diluted solution, Smoluchovski suggested that the molecular flux at the infinite time limit can be calculated from Fick's laws of diffusion yielding a fixed/stable concentration gradient from the target molecule, e.g.", "B is the target molecule holding fixed relatively, and A is the moving molecule that creates a concentration gradient near the target molecule B due to the coagulation reaction between A and B. Smoluchowski calculated the collision frequency between A and B in the solution with unit #/s/m3:: where,* is the radius of the collision* is the relative diffusion constant between A and B (m2/s)* and are number concentrations of A and B respectively (#/m3).The reaction order of this bimolecular reaction is 2 which is the analogy to the result from collision theory by replacing the moving speed of the molecule with diffusive flux.", "In the collision theory, the traveling time between A and B is proportional to the distance which is a similar relationship for the diffusion case if the flux is fixed.However, under a practical condition, the concentration gradient near the target molecule is evolving over time with the molecular flux evolving as well, and on average the flux is much bigger than the infinite time limit flux Smoluchowski has proposed.", "Thus, this Smoluchowski frequency represents the lower limit of the real collision frequency.", "In 2022, Chen calculates the upper limit of the collision frequency between A and B in a solution assuming the bulk concentration of the moving molecule is fixed after the first nearest neighbor of the target molecule.", "Thus the concentration gradient evolution stops at the first nearest neighbor layer given a stop-time to calculate the actual flux.", "He named this the critical time and derive the diffusive collision frequency in unit #/s/m3:: where,* is the area of the cross-section of the collision (m2).", "* is the relative diffusion constant between A and B (m2/s).", "* and are number concentrations of A and B respectively (#/m3).This equation assumes the upper limit of a diffusive collision frequency between A and B is when the first neighbor layer starts to feel the evolution of the concentration gradient, whose reaction order is instead of 2.Both the Smoluchowski equation and the JChen equation satisfy dimensional checks with SI units.", "But the former is dependent on the radius and the latter is on the area of the collision sphere.", "The actual reaction order for a bimolecular unit reaction could be between 2 and , which makes sense because the diffusive collision time is squarely dependent on the distance between the two molecules.=== Biological perspective ===The first law gives rise to the following formula:: in which* is the permeability, an experimentally determined membrane \"conductance\" for a given gas at a given temperature.", "* is the difference in concentration of the gas across the membrane for the direction of flow (from to ).Fick's first law is also important in radiation transfer equations.", "However, in this context, it becomes inaccurate when the diffusion constant is low and the radiation becomes limited by the speed of light rather than by the resistance of the material the radiation is flowing through.", "In this situation, one can use a flux limiter.The exchange rate of a gas across a fluid membrane can be determined by using this law together with Graham's law.Under the condition of a diluted solution when diffusion takes control, the membrane permeability mentioned in the above section can be theoretically calculated for the solute using the equation mentioned in the last section (use with particular care because the equation is derived for dense solutes, while biological molecules are not denser than water):: where* is the total area of the pores on the membrane (unit m2).", "* transmembrane efficiency (unitless), which can be calculated from the stochastic theory of chromatography.", "* ''D'' is the diffusion constant of the solute unit m2⋅s−1.", "* ''t'' is time unit s.* ''c''2, ''c''1 concentration should use unit mol m−3, so flux unit becomes mol s−1.The flux is decay over the square root of time because a concentration gradient builds up near the membrane over time under ideal conditions.", "When there is flow and convection, the flux can be significantly different than the equation predicts and show an effective time t with a fixed value, which makes the flux stable instead of decay over time.", "A critical time has been estimated under idealized flow conditions when there is no gradient formed.", "This strategy is adopted in biology such as blood circulation.=== Semiconductor fabrication applications ===The semiconductor is a collective term for a series of devices.", "It mainly includes three categories：two-terminal devices, three-terminal devices, and four-terminal devices.", "The combination of the semiconductors is called an integrated circuit.", "The relationship between Fick's law and semiconductors: the principle of the semiconductor is transferring chemicals or dopants from a layer to a layer.", "Fick's law can be used to control and predict the diffusion by knowing how much the concentration of the dopants or chemicals move per meter and second through mathematics.", "Therefore, different types and levels of semiconductors can be fabricated.Integrated circuit fabrication technologies, model processes like CVD, thermal oxidation, wet oxidation, doping, etc.", "use diffusion equations obtained from Fick's law.==== CVD method of fabricate semiconductor ====The wafer is a kind of semiconductor whose silicon substrate is coated with a layer of CVD-created polymer chain and films.", "This film contains n-type and p-type dopants and takes responsibility for dopant conductions.", "The principle of CVD relies on the gas phase and gas-solid chemical reaction to create thin films.", "The viscous flow regime of CVD is driven by a pressure gradient.", "CVD also includes a diffusion component distinct from the surface diffusion of adatoms.", "In CVD, reactants and products must also diffuse through a boundary layer of stagnant gas that exists next to the substrate.", "The total number of steps required for CVD film growth are gas phase diffusion of reactants through the boundary layer, adsorption and surface diffusion of adatoms, reactions on the substrate, and gas phase diffusion of products away through the boundary layer.The velocity profile for gas flow is:where* is the thickness* is the Reynolds number* is the length of the subtrate* at any surface* is viscosity* is density.Integrated the from to , it gives the average thickness:To keep the reaction balanced, reactants must diffuse through the stagnant boundary layer to reach the substrate.", "So a thin boundary layer is desirable.", "According to the equations, increasing vo would result in more wasted reactants.", "The reactants will not reach the substrate uniformly if the flow becomes turbulent.", "Another option is to switch to a new carrier gas with lower viscosity or density.", "The Fick's first law describes diffusion through the boundary layer.", "As a function of pressure (''P'') and temperature (''T'') in a gas, diffusion is determined.where* is the standard pressure* is the standard temperature* is the standard diffusitivity.The equation tells that increasing the temperature or decreasing the pressure can increase the diffusivity.Fick's first law predicts the flux of the reactants to the substrate and product away from the substrate:where* is the thickness * is the first reactant's concentration.In ideal gas law , the concentration of the gas is expressed by partial pressure.where* is the gas constant* is the partial pressure gradient.As a result, Fick's first law tells us we can use a partial pressure gradient to control the diffusivity and control the growth of thin films of semiconductors.In many realistic situations, the simple Fick's law is not an adequate formulation for the semiconductor problem.", "It only applies to certain conditions, for example, given the semiconductor boundary conditions: constant source concentration diffusion, limited source concentration, or moving boundary diffusion (where junction depth keeps moving into the substrate).==== Invalidity of Fickian diffusion ====It is important to note that, even though Fickian diffusion has been used to model diffusion processes in semiconductor manufacturing (including CVD reactors) in early days, it often fails to validate the diffusion in advanced semiconductor nodes (< 90 nm).", "This mostly stems from the inability of Fickian diffusion to model diffusion processes accurately at molecular level and smaller.", "In advanced semiconductor manufacturing, it is important to understand the movement at atomic scales, which is failed by continuum diffusion.", "Today, most semiconductor manufacturers use random walk to study and model diffusion processes.", "This allows us to study the effects of diffusion in a discrete manner to understand the movement of individual atoms, molecules, plasma etc.", "In such a process, the movements of diffusing species (atoms, molecules, plasma etc.)", "are treated as a discrete entity, following a random walk through the CVD reactor, boundary layer, material structures etc.", "Sometimes, the movements might follow a biased-random walk depending on the processing conditions.", "Statistical analysis is done to understand variation/stochasticity arising from the random walk of the species, which in-turn affects the overall process and electrical variations.=== Food production and cooking ===The formulation of Fick's first law can explain a variety of complex phenomena in the context of food and cooking: Diffusion of molecules such as ethylene promotes plant growth and ripening, salt and sugar molecules promotes meat brining and marinating, and water molecules promote dehydration.", "Fick's first law can also be used to predict the changing moisture profiles across a spaghetti noodle as it hydrates during cooking.", "These phenomena are all about the spontaneous movement of particles of solutes driven by the concentration gradient.", "In different situations, there is different diffusivity which is a constant.By controlling the concentration gradient, the cooking time, shape of the food, and salting can be controlled." ], [ "See also", "* Advection* Churchill–Bernstein equation* Diffusion* False diffusion* Gas exchange* Mass flux* Maxwell–Stefan diffusion* Nernst–Planck equation* Osmosis" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * – reprinted in " ], [ "External links", " Fick's equations, Boltzmann's transformation, etc.", "(with figures and animations)* Fick's Second Law on OpenStax" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Far East" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Far East''' is the geographical region that encompasses the easternmost portion of the Asian continent, including East, North and Southeast Asia.", "South Asia is sometimes also included in the definition of the term.The term first came into use in European geopolitical discourse in the 15th century, particularly the British, denoting the Far East as the \"farthest\" of the three \"Easts\", beyond the Near East and the Middle East.", "Likewise, during the Qing dynasty of the 19th and early 20th centuries, the term \"Tàixī ()\" – i.e., anything further west than the Arab world – was used to refer to the Western countries.", "Since the mid-20th century, the term has mostly gone out of use for the region in international mass media outlets due to its perceived eurocentric connotations.", "North Asia is sometimes excluded due to cultural and ethnic differences." ], [ "Popularization", "Among Western Europeans, prior to the colonial era, ''Far East'' referred to anything further east than the Middle East.", "In the 16th century, King John III of Portugal called India a \"rich and interesting country in the Far East ().\"", "The term was popularized during the period of the British Empire as a blanket term for lands to the east of British India.In pre-World War I European geopolitics, ''Near East'' referred to the relatively nearby lands of the Ottoman Empire, ''Middle East'' denoted north-western Southern Asian region and Central Asia, and the ''Far East'' meant countries along the western Pacific Ocean and eastern Indian Ocean.", "Many European languages have analogous terms, such as the French (''''), Spanish (''''), Portuguese (''''), Italian (''''), German (''''), Polish (''''), Norwegian ('''') and Dutch ('''')." ], [ "Cultural and geographic meaning", "Significantly, the term evokes cultural as well as geographic separation; the ''Far East'' is not just geographically distant, but also culturally exotic.", "It never refers, for instance, to the culturally Western nations of Australia and New Zealand, which lie even farther to the east of Europe than East Asia itself.", "This combination of cultural and geographic subjectivity was well illustrated in 1939 by Robert Menzies, a Prime Minister of Australia.", "Reflecting on his country's geopolitical situation with the onset of war, Menzies commented that: \"The problems of the Pacific are different.", "What Great Britain calls the Far East is to us the near north.", "\"''Far East'', in its usual sense, is comparable to terms such as the ''Orient'' (Latin for \"East\"), ''Eastern world'', or simply ''the East'', all of which may refer, broadly, to East and South-East Asia in general.", "Occasionally, albeit more in the past, the Russian Far East and South Asia have been deemed to be part of the Far East.Commenting on such terms, John K. Fairbank and Edwin O. Reischauer (both professors of East Asian Studies at Harvard University) wrote, in ''East Asia: The Great Tradition'':Today, the term remains in the names of some longstanding institutions, including the Far Eastern Federal University in Vladivostok, Far Eastern University in Manila, the Far East University in South Korea, and ''Far East'', the periodical magazine of the Missionary Society of St. Columban.", "Furthermore, the United States and United Kingdom have historically incorporated ''Far East'' in the names of several military units and commands in the region, such as the British Royal Navy's Far East Fleet, for instance." ], [ "Territories and regions conventionally included in the Far East", "<!--" ], [ "Cities" ], [ "See also", "* Asia-Pacific* East Asia* East Asian cultural sphere* East–West dichotomy* Far West, a term for Europe* Four Asian Tigers – Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea and Taiwan* Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, Japanese idea from the 1930s–1940s* Inner Asia* List of Mongol states* North Asia Russian Far East Siberia** Ural (region)* Northeast Asia* Orient* Pacific Asia, a region highly coterminous with the Far East* South Asia* Southeast Asia* Tropical Asia* Turkic migration'''Organizations'''* ASEAN+3* Comprehensive Economic Partnership for East Asia* East Asian Community* Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership * Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Burghart, Sabine, Denis Park, and Liudmila Zakharova.", "\"The DPRK's economic exchanges with Russia and the EU since 2000: an analysis of institutional effects and the case of the Russian Far East.\"", "''Asia Europe Journal'' 18.3 (2020): 281–303.on North Korea* Clyde, Paul Hibbert, and Burton F. Beers.", "''The Far East: A History of Western Impacts and Eastern Responses, 1830–1975'' (1975).", "online* Crofts, Alfred.", "''A history of the Far East'' (1958) online* Fairbank, John K., Edwin Reischauer, and Albert M. Craig.", "''East Asia: The great tradition'' and ''East Asia: The modern transformation'' (1960) 2 vol 1960 online, famous textbook.", "* Green, Michael.", "''By More Than Providence: Grand Strategy and American Power in the Asia Pacific Since 1783'' (2019) excerpt* Iriye, Akira.", "''After Imperialism; The Search for a New Order in the Far East 1921–1931.''", "(1965).", "* Keay, John.", "''Empire's End: A History of the Far East from High Colonialism to Hong Kong'' (Scribner, 1997).", "online* Louis, Wm Roger.", "\"The road to Singapore: British imperialism in the Far East, 1932–42.\"", "in ''The fascist challenge and the policy of appeasement'' (Routledge, 2021) pp.", "352–388.", "* Macnair, Harley F. & Donald Lach.", "''Modern Far Eastern International Relations.''", "(2nd ed 1955) 1950 edition online free, 780pp; focus on 1900–1950.", "* Norman, Henry.", "''The Peoples and Politics of the Far East: Travels and studies in the British, French, Spanish and Portuguese colonies, Siberia, China, Japan, Korea, Siam and Malaya'' (1904) online* Paine, S. C. M. ''The Wars for Asia, 1911–1949'' (2014) excerpt* Ring, George C. ''Religions of the Far East: Their History to the Present Day'' (Kessinger Publishing, 2006).", "* Solomon, Richard H., and Masataka Kosaka, eds.", "''The Soviet Far East military buildup: nuclear dilemmas and Asian security'' (Routledge, 2021).", "* Stephan, John J.", "''The Russian Far East'' (Stanford University Press, 2022).", "* Vinacke, Harold M. ''A History of the Far East in Modern Times'' (1964) online free* Vogel, Ezra.", "''China and Japan: Facing History'' (2019) excerpt* Woodcock, George.", "''The British in the Far East'' (1969) online." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Fawlty Towers" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Fawlty Towers''''' is a British television sitcom written by John Cleese and Connie Booth, originally broadcast on BBC Two in 1975 and 1979.Two series of six episodes each were made.", "The show was ranked first on a list of the 100 Greatest British Television Programmes drawn up by the British Film Institute in 2000 and, in 2019, it was named the greatest ever British TV sitcom by a panel of comedy experts compiled by the ''Radio Times''.The series is set in Fawlty Towers, a fictional hotel in the English seaside town of Torquay in Devon.", "The plots centre on the tense, rude and put-upon owner Basil Fawlty (Cleese), his bossy wife Sybil (Prunella Scales), the sensible chambermaid Polly (Booth) who often is the peacemaker and voice of reason, and the hapless and English-challenged Spanish waiter Manuel (Andrew Sachs).", "They show their attempts to run the hotel amidst farcical situations and an array of demanding and eccentric guests and tradespeople.", "The idea of the show came from Cleese after he stayed at the Gleneagles Hotel in Torquay, Devon, in 1970 (along with the rest of the Monty Python troupe), where he encountered the eccentric hotel owner Donald Sinclair.", "Stuffy and snobbish, Sinclair treated guests as though they were a hindrance to his running of the hotel (a waitress who worked for him stated \"it was as if he didn't want the guests to be there\").", "Sinclair was the inspiration for Cleese's character Basil Fawlty.In 1976 and 1980, ''Fawlty Towers'' won the British Academy Television Award for Best Scripted Comedy.", "In 1980, Cleese received the British Academy Television Award for Best Entertainment Performance, and, in a 2001 poll conducted by Channel 4, Basil Fawlty was ranked second on their list of the 100 Greatest TV Characters.", "The popularity of ''Fawlty Towers'' has endured, and it is often re-broadcast.", "The BBC profile for the series states that \"the British sitcom by which all other British sitcoms must be judged, ''Fawlty Towers'' withstands multiple viewings, is eminently quotable ('don't mention the war') and stands up to this day as a jewel in the BBC's comedy crown.", "\"A sequel series starring Cleese and his daughter Camilla is in development as of February 2023.Cleese subsequently confirmed to GB News that the sequel series, unlike the original series, would not be broadcast on the BBC." ], [ "Origins", "Gleneagles Hotel, Torquay in 2009.Cleese stayed at the hotel with the Monty Python team in 1970, and was inspired to write the series by the eccentric behaviour of the hotel's owner Donald Sinclair.In May 1970, the Monty Python comedy group stayed at the now demolished Gleneagles Hotel in Torquay, Devon while filming on location in Paignton.", "John Cleese was fascinated with the behaviour of the owner, Donald Sinclair, later describing him as \"the rudest man I've ever come across in my life\".", "Among such behaviour by Sinclair was his criticism of Terry Gilliam's \"too American\" table etiquette and tossing Eric Idle's briefcase out of a window \"in case it contained a bomb\".", "Asked why anyone would want to bomb the hotel, Sinclair replied, \"We've had a lot of staff problems\".", "Michael Palin states Sinclair \"seemed to view us as a colossal inconvenience\".", "Rosemary Harrison, a waitress at the Gleneagles under Sinclair, described him as \"bonkers\" and lacking in hospitality, deeming him wholly unsuitable for a hotel proprietor.", "\"It was as if he didn't want the guests to be there.\"", "Cleese and his then-wife Connie Booth stayed on at the hotel after filming, furthering their research of its owner.", "Demolished in 2015, the building was replaced by a new retirement home named Sachs Lodge in memory of Andrew Sachs who played Manuel in the sitcom and who died in 2016.Cleese was a writer on the 1970s British TV sitcom ''Doctor in the House'' for London Weekend Television.", "An early prototype of the character that became known as Basil Fawlty was developed in an episode (\"No Ill Feeling\") of the third ''Doctor'' series (titled ''Doctor at Large'').", "In this edition, the main character checks into a small-town hotel, his very presence seemingly winding up the aggressive and incompetent manager (played by Timothy Bateson) with a domineering wife.", "The show was broadcast on 30 May 1971.Cleese said in 2008 that the first ''Fawlty Towers'' script he and Booth wrote was rejected by the BBC.", "At a 30th anniversary event honouring the show, Cleese said,Cleese was paid £6,000 for 43 weeks of work and supplemented his income by appearing in television advertisements.", "He states, \"I have to thank the advertising industry for making this possible.", "Connie and I used to spend six weeks writing each episode and we didn't make a lot of money out of it.", "If it hadn't been for the commercials I wouldn't have been able to afford to spend so much time on the script.\"" ], [ "Production", "Although the series is set in Torquay, no part of it was shot in South West England.", "For the exterior filming, the Wooburn Grange Country Club in Bourne End, Buckinghamshire was used instead of a hotel.", "In several episodes of the series (notably \"The Kipper and the Corpse\", \"The Anniversary\", and \"Basil the Rat\"), the entrance gate at the bottom of the drive states the real name of the location.", "This listed building later served for a short time as a nightclub named \"Basil's\" after the series ended, before being destroyed by a fire in March 1991.The remnants of the building were demolished and a housing estate was built on the site.", "Few traces of the original site exist today.Other location filming was done mostly around Harrow: firstly the 'damn good thrashing' scene in \"Gourmet Night\" in which Basil loses his temper and attacks his broken-down car with a tree branch.", "It was filmed at the T-junction of Lapstone Gardens and Mentmore Close ().", "Secondly the episode \"The Germans\", the opening shot is of Northwick Park Hospital.", "Thirdly \"Gourmet Night\"'s exterior of André's restaurant was at Preston Road ().", "It is now a Chinese and Indian restaurant called Wings, next to a launderette.Both Cleese and Booth were keen on every script being perfect, and some episodes took four months and required as many as ten drafts until they were satisfied.Cleese said one of the reasons the series worked so well was the quality of the scripts and the care taken over the editing.", "He told a TV interviewer that while the average BBC half-hour comedy script had 65 pages, the ones for Fawlty Towers had between 135 and 140 pages.", "\"We literally did twice as many camera cuts - average shows got 200, we used to have 400.So there was an enormous amount in there.", "The other thing is that they were very well constructed,\" he said.", "Once an episode was in the can, the editing process started.", "\"We did anything between 20 and 25 hours editing each show.", "Almost every minute you see up on the screen, we spent one hour editing and it was only by doing that you could just tighten it up, just tighten it there and take out a line of dialogue, sometimes take out a repetition, they'll then lose two lines of dialogue there.", "That's what really got the pace on it.", "\"The theme music was composed by Dennis Wilson.", "It was recorded by the highly respected Aeolian Quartet, who were asked by director John Davis to perform the piece badly, although in the end they did not." ], [ "Plot directions and examples", "The series focuses on the exploits and misadventures of short-fused hotelier Basil Fawlty and his acerbic wife Sybil, as well as their employees: waiter Manuel, Polly Sherman, and, in the second series, chef Terry.", "The episodes typically revolve around Basil's efforts to \"raise the tone\" of his hotel and his increasing frustration at numerous complications and mistakes, both his own and those of others, which prevent him from doing so.Much of the humour comes from Basil's overly aggressive manner, engaging in angry but witty arguments with guests, staff and, in particular, Sybil, whom he addresses (in a faux-romantic way) with insults such as \"that golfing puff adder\", \"my little piranha fish\" and \"my little nest of vipers\".", "Despite this, Basil frequently feels intimidated, Sybil being able to cow him at any time, usually with a short, sharp cry of \"Basil!\"", "At the end of some episodes, Basil succeeds in annoying (or at least bemusing) the guests and frequently gets his comeuppance.The plots occasionally are intricate and always farcical, involving coincidences, misunderstandings, cross-purposes and meetings both missed and accidental.", "The innuendo of the bedroom farce is sometimes present (often to the disgust of the socially conservative Basil) but it is his eccentricity, not his lust, that drives the plots.", "The events test to the breaking point what little patience Basil has, sometimes causing him to have a near breakdown by the end of the episode.The guests at the hotel typically are comic foils to Basil's anger and outbursts.", "Guest characters in each episode provide different characteristics (working class, promiscuous, foreign) that he cannot stand.", "Requests both reasonable and impossible test his temper.", "Even the afflicted annoy him, for example in the episode \"Communication Problems\", revolving around the havoc caused by the frequent misunderstandings between the staff and the hard-of-hearing Mrs. Richards.", "Near the end, Basil pretends to faint just at the mention of her name.", "This episode is typical of the show's careful weaving of humorous situations through comedy cross-talk.", "The show also uses mild black humour at times, notably when Basil is forced to hide a dead body and in his comments about Sybil (\"Did you ever see that film, ''How to Murder Your Wife''?", "... Awfully good.", "I saw it six times.\")", "and to Mrs Richards, (\"May I suggest that you consider moving to a hotel closer to the sea?", "Or preferably in it.", "\").Basil's physical outbursts are primarily directed at Manuel, an emotional but largely innocent Spaniard whose confused English vocabulary causes him to make elementary mistakes.", "At times, Basil beats Manuel with a frying pan and smacks his forehead with a spoon.", "The violence towards Manuel caused rare negative criticism of the show.", "Sybil and Polly, on the other hand, are more patient and understanding towards Manuel; everyone's usual excuse to guests for his behaviour is, \"He's from Barcelona\"; Manuel even once used the excuse for himself.Basil longs for a touch of class, sometimes playing recordings of classical music.", "In the first episode he is playing music by Brahms when Sybil remarks, after pestering him asking to do different tasks: \"You could have them both done by now if you hadn't spent the whole morning skulking in there listening to that racket.\"", "Basil replies, with exasperation, \"Racket??", "That's Brahms!", "Brahms' Third Racket!\"", "Basil often displays blatant snobbishness as he attempts to climb the social ladder, frequently expressing disdain for the \"riff-raff\", \"cretins\" and \"yobbos\" that he believes regularly populate his hotel.", "His desperation is readily apparent as he makes increasingly hopeless manoeuvres and painful faux pas in trying to curry favour with those he perceives as having superior social status.", "Yet he finds himself forced to serve those individuals that are \"beneath\" him.", "As such, Basil's efforts tend to be counter-productive, with guests leaving the hotel in disgust and his marriage (and sanity) stretching to breaking point." ], [ "Characters", "===Basil Fawlty===Cast of ''Fawlty Towers'', left to right: ''(front)'' Prunella Scales (Sybil Fawlty), Connie Booth (Polly) and Andrew Sachs (Manuel); ''(back)'' John Cleese (Basil Fawlty)Basil Fawlty, played by John Cleese, is a cynical and snobbish misanthrope who is desperate to belong to a higher social class.", "He sees a successful hotel as a means of achieving this, yet his job forces him to be polite to people he despises.He is intimidated by his wife Sybil Fawlty.", "He yearns to stand up to her, but his plans frequently conflict with her demands.", "She is often verbally abusive (describing him as \"an ageing, brilliantined stick insect\") but although he towers over her, he often finds himself on the receiving end of her temper, verbally and physically (as in \"The Builders\"), and it is only on one occasion when Sybil mistakenly believes he is stalking an attractive Australian guest that he finally snaps and stands up to her.Basil usually turns to Manuel or Polly to help him with his schemes, while trying his best to keep Sybil from discovering them.", "However, Basil occasionally laments the time when there was passion in their relationship, now seemingly lost.", "Also, it appears he still does care for her and remains loyal to her, and actively resists the flirtations of a French guest in one episode.", "The penultimate episode, \"The Anniversary\", is about his efforts to put together a surprise anniversary party involving their closest friends.", "Things go wrong as Basil pretends the anniversary date does not remind him of anything though he pretends to have a stab at it by reeling off a list of random anniversaries, starting with the Battle of Agincourt, for which he receives a slap from Sybil, who becomes increasingly frustrated and angry.", "He continues guessing even after Sybil is out of earshot, and mentions other anniversaries (none of which happened on 17 April), including the Battle of Trafalgar and Yom Kippur, just to enhance the surprise.", "Sybil believes he really has forgotten, and leaves in a huff.", "In an interview in the DVD box set, Cleese claims this episode deliberately takes a slightly different tone from the others, fleshing out their otherwise inexplicable status as a couple.In keeping with the lack of explanation about the marriage, not much is revealed of the characters' back-stories.", "It is known that Basil served in the British Army and saw action in the Korean War, possibly as part of his National Service.", "(John Cleese himself was only 13 when the Korean War ended, making the character of Basil at least five or six years older than he.)", "Basil exaggerates this period of his life, proclaiming to strangers, \"I killed four men.\"", "To this Sybil jokes that \"He was in the Catering Corps.", "He used to poison them.\"", "Basil is often seen wearing regimental and old-boy style ties, perhaps spuriously, one of which is in the colours of the Army Catering Corps.", "He also claims to have sustained a shrapnel injury to his leg; it tends to flare up at suspiciously convenient times.", "The only person towards whom Basil consistently exhibits tolerance and good manners is the old and senile Major Gowen, a veteran of one of the world wars (which one is never specified, though he once mentions to Mrs Peignoir that he was in France in 1918) who permanently resides at the hotel.", "When interacting with Manuel, Basil displays a rudimentary knowledge of Spanish (Basil states that he \"learned classical Spanish, not the strange dialect he Manuel seems to have picked up\"); this knowledge is also ridiculed, as in the first episode in which a guest, whom Basil has immediately dismissed as working-class, communicates fluently with Manuel in Spanish after Basil is unable to do so.Cleese described Basil as thinking that \"he could run a first-rate hotel if he didn't have all the guests getting in the way\" and as being \"an absolutely awful human being\" but says that in comedy if an awful person makes people laugh they unaccountably feel affectionate towards him.", "Indeed, he is not entirely unsympathetic.", "The \"Hotel Inspectors\" and \"Gourmet Night\" episodes feature guests who are shown to be deeply annoying, with constant and unreasonable demands.", "In \"Gourmet Night\" the chef gets drunk and is unable to cook dinner, leaving Basil to scramble in an attempt to salvage the evening.", "Much of the time, Basil is an unfortunate victim of circumstance.===Sybil Fawlty===Sybil Fawlty, played by Prunella Scales, is Basil's wife.", "Energetic and petite, she prefers a working wardrobe of tight skirt-suits in shiny fabrics and sports a tower of permed hair augmented with hairpieces and wigs necessitating the use of overnight curlers.", "She often is a more effective manager of the hotel, making sure Basil gets certain jobs done or stays out of the way when she is handling difficult guests.", "Typically when Basil is on the verge of a meltdown due to a crisis (usually of his own making), it is Sybil who steps in to clear up the mess and bring some sense to the situation.", "Despite this, she rarely participates directly in the running of the hotel.", "During busy check-in sessions or meal times, while everyone else is busy working, Sybil is frequently talking on the phone to one of her friends with her phrase \"Oohhh, I knoooooooow\" or chatting to customers.", "She has a distinctive conversational tone and braying laugh, which Basil compares to \"someone machine-gunning a seal\".", "Being his wife, she is the only regular character who refers to Basil by his first name.", "When she barks his name at him, he flinchingly freezes in his tracks.Basil refers to her by a number of epithets, occasionally to her face, including \"that golfing puff-adder\", \"the dragon\", \"toxic midget\", \"the sabre-toothed tart\", \"my little kommandant\", \"my little piranha fish\", \"my little nest of vipers\" and \"you rancorous, coiffured old sow\".", "Despite these nasty nicknames, Basil is terrified of her.", "The 1979 episode \"The Psychiatrist\" contains the only time he loses patience and snaps at her (Basil: \"Shut up, I'm fed up.\"", "Sybil: \"Oh, you've done it now.", "\").Prunella Scales speculated in an interview for ''The Complete Fawlty Towers'' DVD box set that Sybil married Basil because his origins were of a higher social class than hers.===Polly Sherman===Polly Sherman, played by Connie Booth, is a waitress and general assistant at the hotel with artistic aspirations.", "She is the most competent of the staff and the voice of sanity during chaotic moments, but is frequently embroiled in ridiculous masquerades as she loyally attempts to aid Basil in trying to cover up a mistake or keep something from Sybil.In \"The Anniversary\" she snaps and refuses to help Basil out when he wants her to impersonate Sybil in the semi-darkness of her bedroom in front of the Fawltys' friends, Basil having dug himself into a hole by claiming Sybil was ill instead of admitting she had stormed out earlier in annoyance with him.", "Polly finally agrees, but only on condition that Basil lends her money to purchase a car, which he has previously refused to do.Polly generally is good-natured but sometimes shows her frustration, and has odd moments of malice.", "In \"The Kipper and the Corpse\", the pampered Shih Tzu dog of an elderly guest bites Polly and Manuel.", "As revenge, Polly laces the dog's sausages with black pepper and Tabasco sauce (\"bangers à la bang\"), making it ill and eventually killing it.Despite her part-time employment (during meal times), Polly frequently is saddled with many other duties, including as manager in \"The Germans\" when Sybil and Basil are incapacitated.", "In the first series, Polly is said to be an art student who, according to Basil, has spent three years at college.", "In \"Gourmet Night\", she is seen drawing a sketch (presumably of Manuel), which everyone but Basil immediately recognises and she sells it to the chef for 50p.", "Polly is not referred to as a student in the second series, although in both series she is shown to have a flair for languages, displaying ability in both Spanish and German.", "In \"The Germans\", Basil alludes to Polly's polyglot inclination by saying that she does her work \"while learning two Oriental languages\".", "Like Manuel, she has a room of her own at the hotel.===Manuel===Manuel, a waiter played by Andrew Sachs, is a well-meaning but disorganised and confused Spaniard from Barcelona with a poor grasp of the English language and customs.", "He is verbally and physically abused by his boss.", "When told what to do, he often responds, \"¿Qué?\"", "(\"What?\").", "Manuel's character is used to demonstrate Basil's instinctive lack of sensitivity and tolerance.", "Every episode involves Basil becoming enraged at Manuel's confusion at his boss's bizarre demands and even basic requests.", "Manuel is afraid of Fawlty's quick temper and violent assaults, yet often expresses his appreciation for being given employment.", "He is relentlessly enthusiastic and is proud of what little English he knows.During the series, Sachs was seriously injured twice.", "Cleese describes using a real metal pan to knock Manuel unconscious in \"The Wedding Party\", although he would have preferred to use a rubber one.", "The original producer and director, John Howard Davies, said that he made Basil use a metal one and that he was responsible for most of the violence on the show, which he felt was essential to the type of comical farce they were creating.", "Later, when Sachs's clothes were treated to give off smoke after he escaped the burning kitchen in \"The Germans\", the corrosive chemicals ate through them and gave Sachs severe burns.Manuel's exaggerated Spanish accent is part of the humour of the show.", "In fact, Sachs's original language was German; he emigrated to Britain as a child.The character's nationality was switched to Italian (and the name to Paolo) for the Spanish dub of the show, while in Catalonia and France, Manuel is a Mexican.===Other regular characters and themes===* Terry Hughes, played by Brian Hall, is the hotel chef throughout the second series.", "A sly, somewhat shifty Cockney, he is nonetheless a competent chef (\"I 'ave been to catering school!\").", "His cooking methods are occasionally somewhat casual, which frustrates and worries the neurotic Basil.", "He used to work in Dorchester (not at The Dorchester, as a guest wrongly infers).", "In \"The Anniversary\" Terry and Manuel come to blows since Terry doesn't like anyone else cooking in his kitchen, so he proceeds to sabotage the paella Manuel is making for Sybil, leading to fisticuffs at the end of the episode.", "Cleese himself told Hall to portray Terry as if he were on the run from the police.", "* Major Gowen, played by Ballard Berkeley, is a slightly senile, amiable old soldier who is a permanent resident of the hotel.", "He is one of the few guests whom Basil seems to like.", "This is because he has the establishment status that Basil craves.", "He usually wears the Royal Artillery jagged-striped tie, and once mentions to Mrs. Peignoir being in France in 1918.He often is introduced as their \"oldest resident\" and in the episode \"Waldorf Salad\" Basil reveals that the Major has lived there for seven years.", "He enjoys talking about the world outside, especially the cricket scores and workers' strikes (the frequent strikes at British Leyland during the time of the series' original transmission were often mentioned), and is always on the lookout for the newspaper.", "In the episode \"The Germans\" he shows he has trouble forgiving the Germans because of the wars.", "The best he can say is that German women make good card players.", "In the same episode, he also demonstrates his outdated racial attitudes when he comments about the ethnic difference between \"wogs\" and \"niggers\".", "Despite his good intentions, the Major can cause Basil's plans to go awry, notably in the episode \"Communication Problems\" in which Basil tries his best to keep secret from Sybil the money he won in a bet.", "* Miss Tibbs and Miss Gatsby, played by Gilly Flower and Renee Roberts, are the other two permanent residents.", "Seemingly inseparable, these sweet-natured, dotty spinsters appear to have taken a fancy to Basil, feeling that they need to take care of him.", "In response, Basil vacillates between superficial charm and blunt rudeness during his conversations with them.", "* Audrey is Sybil's lifelong best friend, and is mostly acknowledged during gossipy telephone calls.", "Talking with her is a refuge for Sybil.", "When times get tough for Audrey, who has a dysfunctional relationship with her husband George, Sybil will offer solutions and guidance, often resulting in the catchphrase \"Ohhh, I knowwww...\" when she tries to commiserate with Audrey's problems.", "In Audrey's one on-screen appearance, in \"The Anniversary\", she is played by actress Christine Shaw.", "Basil tells Major Gowen that he thinks she is a \"dreadful woman\".", "* A running gag throughout the two series is the rearranged letters of the \"Fawlty Towers\" hotel sign which is shown at the beginning of every episode except \"The Germans\", when a hospital exterior is used as an establishing shot.", "In series one, the letters slowly fall from the sign due to lack of maintenance.", "In series two, the letters are re-arranged into a series of deliberate anagrams.", "The paperboy, though rarely seen, is revealed at the beginning of \"The Psychiatrist\" to be the prankster who rearranges the letters on the sign to sometimes crude phrases.", "* Terence Conoley appears in two episodes as entirely different characters.", "In \"A Touch of Class\" he plays Mr. Wareing, and in \"Waldorf Salad\" he portrays Mr. Johnston." ], [ "Episodes", "BBC studio recording ticket for the second episode, \"The Builders\"The first episode of ''Fawlty Towers'' was recorded as a pilot on 24 December 1974, the rest of the series being recorded later in 1975.It was then originally broadcast on 19 September.", "The 12th and final episode was first shown on 25 October 1979.The first series was directed by John Howard Davies, the second by Bob Spiers.", "Both had their premieres on BBC Two.When originally transmitted, the individual episodes had no on-screen titles.", "The ones in common currency were first used for the VHS release of the series in the 1980s.", "There were working titles, such as \"USA\" for \"Waldorf Salad\", \"Death\" for \"The Kipper and the Corpse\" and \"Rat\" for \"Basil the Rat\", which have been printed in some programme guides.", "In addition, some of the early BBC audio releases of episodes on vinyl and cassette included other variations, such as \"Mrs. Richards\" and \"The Rat\" for \"Communication Problems\" and \"Basil the Rat\" respectively.In 2022, a “lost” scene cut from the episode “The Anniversary” (that went unfilmed) was uncovered as part of a script copy, featuring Basil climbing out his bedroom window to avoid sex with a drunken Sybil, who had wanted to make up.It has long been rumoured that a 13th episode of the series was written and filmed, but never progressed further than a rough cut.", "Lars Holger Holm, author of the book ''Fawlty Towers: A Worshipper's Companion,'' has made detailed claims about the episode's content, but he provides no concrete evidence of its existence.On the subject of whether more episodes would be produced, Cleese said (in an interview for the complete DVD box set, which was republished in the book ''Fawlty Towers Fully Booked'') that he once had the genesis of a feature-length special—possibly sometime during the mid-1990s.", "The plot, never fleshed out beyond his initial idea, would have revolved around the chaos that a now-retired Basil typically caused as he and Sybil flew to Barcelona to visit their former employee Manuel and his family.", "Of the idea, Cleese said:We had an idea for a plot which I loved.", "Basil was finally invited to Spain to meet Manuel's family.", "He gets to Heathrow and then spends about 14 frustrating hours waiting for the flight.", "Finally, on the plane, a terrorist pulls a gun and tries to hijack the thing.", "Basil is so angry he overcomes the terrorist, and when the pilot says, \"We have to fly back to Heathrow\" Basil says, \"No, fly us to Spain or I'll shoot you.\"", "He arrives in Spain, is immediately arrested, and spends the entire holiday in a Spanish jail.", "He is released just in time to go back on the plane with Sybil.It was very funny, but I couldn't do it at the time.", "Making \"Fawlty Towers\" work at 90 minutes was a very difficult proposition.", "You can build up the comedy for 30 minutes, but at that length there has to be a trough and another peak.", "It doesn't interest me.", "I don't want to do it.Cleese also may have been reluctant because of Connie Booth's unwillingness to be involved.", "She had practically retreated from public life after the show finished (and had been initially unwilling to collaborate on a second series, which explains the four-year gap between productions).The decision by Cleese and Booth to quit before a third series has often been lauded as it ensured the show's successful status would not be weakened with later, lower-quality work.", "Subsequently, it has inspired the makers of other shows to do likewise.", "Ricky Gervais and Stephen Merchant refused to make a third series of either ''The Office'' or ''Extras'', citing ''Fawlty Towers' '' short lifespan.", "Rik Mayall, Ben Elton and Lise Mayer, the writers behind ''The Young Ones'', which also ran for only two series (each with six episodes), used this explanation as well.", "Victoria Wood also indicated this influenced her decision to limit ''dinnerladies'' to 16 episodes over two series.The origins, background and eventual cancellation of the series were later humorously referenced in 1987's ''The Secret Policeman's Third Ball'' in a sketch in which Hugh Laurie and Stephen Fry present Cleese—whom they comically misname \"Jim Cleese\"—with a Dick Emery Lifetime Achievement Award (\"Silver Dick\") for his contributions to comedy, then launch into a comical series of questions regarding the show, including Cleese's marriage and divorce from Booth, innocently ridiculing Cleese and reducing him to tears, to a point at which he gets on his knees and crawls off the stage while crying.===Series overview======Series 1 (1975)======Series 2 (1979)===The second series was transmitted three-and-a-half years later, with the first episode being broadcast on 19 February 1979.Due to an industrial dispute at the BBC, which resulted in a strike, the final episode was not completed until well after the others, being finally shown as a one-off instalment on 25 October 1979.The cancelled episode on 19 March was replaced with a repeat of \"Gourmet Night\" from series 1.In the second series the anagrams were created by Ian McClane, Bob Spier's assistant floor manager.", "However, the only one which is actually a true anagram for the hotel's name is \"Flowery Twats\", created for \"The Anniversary\"" ], [ "Reception", "===Critical reaction===At first, the series was not held in particularly high esteem.", "''The Daily Mirror'''s review of the show in 1975 had the headline \"Long John Short On Jokes\".", "One critic of the show was Richard Ingrams, then television reviewer for ''The Spectator'', who wrote a caustic piece condemning the programme.", "Cleese got his revenge by naming one of the guests in the second series \"Mr. Ingrams\", who is caught in his room with a blow-up doll.", "Eventually, though, as the series began to gain popularity, critical acclaim followed.", "Clive James writing in ''The Observer'' said the second episode had him \"retching with laughter.", "\"On Rotten Tomatoes, Fawlty Towers has an aggregate score of 100% based on 13 critic reviews.", "The website's consensus reads: \"''Fawlty Towers'' looms large over British comedy with John Cleese's impeccably hapless performance and an endless array of exuberant slapstick—making for a supremely stimulating chuckler.", "\"In an interview for the \"TV Characters\" edition of Channel 4's \"talking heads\" strand 100 Greatest (in which Basil placed second, between Homer Simpson and Edmund Blackadder), TV critic A.", "A. Gill theorised that the initially muted response may have been caused by Cleese seemingly ditching his label as a comic revolutionary—earned through his years with Monty Python—to do something more traditional.In a list of the 100 Greatest British Television Programmes drawn up by the British Film Institute in 2000, voted for by industry professionals, ''Fawlty Towers'' was placed first.", "It was also voted fifth in the \"Britain's Best Sitcom\" poll in 2004, and second only to ''Frasier'' in The Ultimate Sitcom poll of comedy writers in January 2006.Basil Fawlty came top of the ''Britain's Funniest Comedy Character'' poll, held by Five on 14 May 2006.In 1997, \"The Germans\" was ranked No.", "12 on TV Guide's 100 Greatest Episodes of All Time.", "Named in ''Empire'' magazine's 2016 list of the greatest TV shows of all time, the entry states,===Awards and accolades===Three British Academy Television Awards (BAFTAs) were awarded to people for their involvement with the series.", "Both of the series were awarded the BAFTA in the category Best Scripted Comedy, the first being won by John Howard Davies in 1976, and the second by Douglas Argent and Bob Spiers in 1980.In 1980, Cleese received the BAFTA for Best Entertainment Performance.In a list drawn up by the British Film Institute in 2000, voted by industry professionals, ''Fawlty Towers'' was named the best British television series of all time.===Legacy===Waxwork of hapless waiter Manuel at Madame Tussauds, LondonJohn Lennon was a fan of the show.", "He said in 1980: \"I love ''Fawlty Towers''.", "I'd like to be in that.", "It's the greatest show I've seen in years... what a masterpiece, a beautiful thing.\"", "Kate Bush stated, \"I still think ''Fawlty Towers'' is the best sitcom ever.\"", "Filmmaker Martin Scorsese has remarked he is a great fan of ''Fawlty Towers'' and named \"The Germans\" as his favourite episode.", "He described the scene with Basil impersonating Hitler as \"so tasteless, it's hilarious\"." ], [ "Remakes, adaptations and reunions", "Three attempted remakes of ''Fawlty Towers'' were started for the American market, with two making it into production.", "The first, ''Chateau Snavely'', starring Harvey Korman and Betty White, was produced by ABC for a pilot in 1978, but the transfer from coastal hotel to highway motel proved too much and the series was never produced.", "The second, also by ABC, was ''Amanda's'', starring Bea Arthur, notable for switching the sexes of its Basil and Sybil equivalents.", "It also failed to attract a major audience and was dropped after ten episodes had been aired, despite 13 completed episodes.", "A third remake, called ''Payne'' (produced by and starring John Larroquette), aired in 1999, but was cancelled shortly after.", "Nine episodes were produced of which eight aired on American television (though the complete run was broadcast overseas).", "A German pilot was made in 2001, named ''Zum letzten Kliff'' (To the last cliff), but further episodes were unmade after its first series.Popular American sitcoms ''3rd Rock from the Sun'' and ''Cheers'' (in both of which Cleese made guest appearances) have cited ''Fawlty Towers'' as an inspiration, especially regarding its depiction of a dysfunctional workplace \"family\".", "Arthur Mathews and Graham Linehan have cited ''Fawlty'' as a major influence on their sitcom ''Father Ted''.", "''Guest House'' on Pakistan's PTV also resembled the series.Several of the characters have made other appearances, as spinoffs or in small cameo roles.", "In 1981, in character as Manuel, Sachs recorded his own version of the Joe Dolce cod-Italian song \"Shaddap You Face\" (with the B-side \"Waiter, There's a Spanish Flea in My Soup\") but the record was not released because Dolce took out an injunction: he was about to issue his version in Britain.", "Sachs also portrayed a Manuel-like character in a series of British TV advertisements for life insurance.", "Gilly Flower and Renee Roberts, who played elderly ladies Miss Tibbs and Miss Gatsby in the series, reprised their roles in a 1983 episode of ''Only Fools and Horses''.", "In 2006, Cleese played Basil for the first time in 27 years, for an unofficial England 2006 World Cup song, \"Don't Mention the World Cup\", taking its name from the phrase, \"Don't mention the war,\" which Basil used in the episode \"The Germans\".", "In 2007, Cleese and Sachs reprised their roles for a six-episode corporate business video for the Norwegian oil company Statoil.", "In the video, Fawlty is running a restaurant called \"Basil's Brasserie\" while Manuel owns a Michelin-starred restaurant in London.In November 2007, Scales returned to Sybil in a series of sketches for the BBC's annual ''Children in Need'' charity telethon.", "The character was seen taking over the management of the eponymous hotel from the BBC drama series ''Hotel Babylon'', interacting with characters from that programme as well as other 1970s sitcom characters.", "The character of Sybil was used by Cleese's permission.", "In 2007, the Los Angeles Film School produced seven episodes of ''Fawlty Tower Oxnard'', starring Robert Romanus as Basil.At a 2009 reunion event for the Gold channel as ''Fawlty Towers: Re-Opened'', Cleese said that the cast would never make another episode of the series because they are \"too old and tired\" and expectations would be too high.In 2016, Cleese reprised his role as Basil in a series of TV adverts for High Street optician chain Specsavers.", "The same year, Cleese and Booth reunited to create and co-write the official theatrical adaptation of ''Fawlty Towers'', which premiered in Melbourne at the Comedy Theatre.", "It was critically well received, subsequently embarking on a successful tour of Australia.", "Cleese was intimately involved in the creation of the stage version from the beginning, including casting.", "He visited Australia to promote, as well as oversee its success.", "Melbourne was chosen to premiere the adaptation due to the series' enduring popularity in Australia, and also as it had become a popular international test market for large-scale theatrical productions in recent years, having recently been the city where the revised ''Love Never Dies'' and the new ''King Kong'' also premiered.", "Cleese also noted he did not believe the London press would give the adaptation fair, unbiased reviews, so he deliberately chose to premiere it elsewhere.", "On 2 February 2024, it was announced that the 2016 stage show based on ''Fawlty Towers'' would launch at London's Apollo Theatre later that year.A sequel series was announced in February 2023, written by and starring Cleese and his daughter Camilla.", "The show is under development at Castle Rock Entertainment, with Matthew George, Rob Reiner, Michele Reiner and Derrick Rossi as executive producers.", "The premise sees Basil (Cleese) trying to operate Fawlty Towers with help from his long-lost daughter (to be played by Camilla) and adjusting to the modern world.", "Cleese said in a July 2023 interview that his daughter had only \"half an idea\" for the series, and that the production company had been too hasty in announcing the revival.", "Cleese said that the series would \"probably\" be set in the Caribbean." ], [ "Overseas", "In 1977 and 1978 alone, the original TV show was sold to 45 stations in 17 countries and was the BBC's best-selling overseas programme for that year.", "''Fawlty Towers'' became a huge success in almost all countries in which it aired.", "Although it initially was a flop in Spain, largely because of the portrayal of the Spanish waiter Manuel, it was successfully resold with the Manuel character's nationality changed to Italian except in Spain's Catalan region where Manuel was Mexican.", "To show how badly it translated, Clive James picked up a clip containing Manuel's \"¿Qué?\"", "phrase to show on ''Clive James on Television'' in 1982.The series also briefly was broadcast in Italy in the 1990s on the satellite channel Canal Jimmy, in the original English with Italian subtitles.In Australia, the show originally was broadcast on ABC Television, the first series in 1976 and the second series in 1980.The show then was sold to the Seven Network where it has been repeated numerous times." ], [ "Home media and merchandise", "===Audio releases===Four albums were released by BBC Records on vinyl LP and cassette.", "These consisted of the original television soundtracks, and from the second album onwards had additional voice-over from Sachs (in character as Manuel) describing scenes which relied on visual humour.The first album, simply titled ''Fawlty Towers'', was released in 1979 and contained audio from \"Communication Problems\" (as \"Mrs Richards\") and \"Hotel Inspectors\".", "The second album, ''Second Sitting'', was released in 1981 and contained audio from \"Basil the Rat\" (as \"The Rat\") and \"The Builders\".", "Both of these first two albums reached the Top 30 of the UK Albums Chart.", "''At Your Service'' was released in 1982, and contained audio from \"The Kipper and the Corpse\" (as \"Death\") and \"The Germans\" (as \"Fire Drill\").", "Finally, ''A La Carte'' was released in 1983, and contained audio from \"Waldorf Salad\" (as \"The Americans\") and \"Gourmet Night\".The albums were re-released as double-cassette packs under the titles ''Fawlty Towers 1'' and ''Fawlty Towers 2'' in 1988.The remaining four episodes did not get an audio-only release until 1994 on audio cassette as ''Fawlty Towers 3''.The first CD release of the audio versions was in a box set in 2003, titled ''Fawlty Towers—The Collector's Edition'', which included spoken introductions to each episode by Cleese, and an interview with Scales and Sachs.The four vinyl records were reissued in a limited edition box set, along with the remaining four episodes on vinyl for the first time, for Record Store Day in 2021.===Home media===''Fawlty Towers'' was originally released by BBC Video in 1984, with three episodes on each of four tapes.", "Each was edited with the credits from all three episodes put at the end of the tape.", "A LaserDisc containing all episodes spliced together as a continuous episode was released in the U.S. on 23 June 1993.It was re-released in 1994, unedited but digitally remastered.", "It also was re-released in 1997 with a special interview with Cleese.", "''Fawlty Towers—The Complete Series'' was released on DVD on 16 October 2001, available in regions 1, 2 and 4.A \"Collector's Edition\" is available in region 2.The original DVD contained a slightly edited version of \"The Kipper and the Corpse\", in which Basil's line \"Is it your legs?\"", "(said to Mr Lehman when asking why he wants breakfast in bed) is missing.", "This line was restored in subsequent remasters.Series one was released on UMD Video for PSP.", "In July 2009, BBC America announced a DVD reissue, released on 20 October 2009.Titled ''Fawlty Towers Remastered: Special Edition'', contains commentary by Cleese on every episode as well as remastered video and audio.", "All episodes are available as streamed video-on-demand via Britbox, Netflix and Amazon Prime Video.", "Additionally, both series are available for download on iTunes.", "In 2021 all episodes were made available on the BBC iPlayer.===Computer game===A ''Fawlty Towers'' game was released on PC in 2000 and featured a number of interactive games, desktop-customizing content, and clips from the show.===Books===The original scripts were released in a hardback book by Methuen, ''The Complete Fawlty Towers'', in 1988." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Apter, Michael J.", "(1982), first published online in 2004.", "\"Fawlty Towers: A Reversal Theory Analysis of A Popular Television Comedy Series\".", "''The Journal of Popular Culture'' (Blackwell Publishing) '''16''' (3): 128–138.", "* Bright, Morris; Robert Ross (2001).", "''Fawlty Towers: Fully Booked''.", "London: BBC Books.", ".", "* Cleese, John; Connie Booth (1988).", "''The Complete Fawlty Towers''.", "London: Methuen.", ".", "* Dalla Costa, Dario (2004).", "''The Complexities of Farce: With a Case Study on Fawlty Towers ''.", "Unpublished Master's thesis, University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia.", "Retrieved from http://research-repository.uwa.edu.au/files/3238761/Costa_Dario_Dalla_2004.pdf* Holm, Lars Holger (2004).", "''Fawlty Towers: A Worshipper's Companion''.", "London: Leo Publishing.", ".", "" ], [ "External links", " * * * ''Fawlty Towers'' at the British Film Institute* * ''Fawlty Towers'' at the MBC's Encyclopedia of Television* * * ''Fawlty Towers'' - All Episodes edited together at Internet Archive* ''Fawlty Towers'' Guest Characters" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "False friend" ], [ "Introduction", "In linguistics, a '''false friend''' is a word in a different language that looks or sounds similar to a word in a given language, but differs significantly in meaning.", "Examples of false friends include English ''embarrassed'' and Spanish ''embarazada'' 'pregnant'; English ''parents'' versus Portuguese ''parentes'' and Italian ''parenti'' (both meaning 'relatives'); English ''demand'' and French ''demander'' 'ask'; and English ''gift'', German ''Gift'' 'poison', and Norwegian ''gift'' 'married'.The term was introduced by a French book, ''Les faux amis: ou, Les trahisons du vocabulaire anglais'' (''False friends, or, the betrayals of English vocabulary''), published in 1928.As well as producing completely false friends, the use of loanwords often results in the use of a word in a restricted context, which may then develop new meanings not found in the original language.", "For example, ''angst'' means 'fear' in a general sense (as well as 'anxiety') in German, but when it was borrowed into English in the context of psychology, its meaning was restricted to a particular type of fear described as \"a neurotic feeling of anxiety and depression\".", "Also, ''gymnasium'' meant both 'a place of education' and 'a place for exercise' in Latin, but its meaning became restricted to the former in German and to the latter in English, making the expressions into false friends in those languages as well as in Ancient Greek, where it started out as 'a place for naked exercise'." ], [ "Definition and origin", "False friends are bilingual homophones or bilingual homographs, i.e., words in two or more languages that look similar (''homographs'') or sound similar (''homophones''), but differ significantly in meaning.The origin of the term is as a shortened version of the expression \"false friend of a translator\", the English translation of a French expression () introduced by Maxime Kœssler and Jules Derocquigny in their 1928 book, with a sequel, ''Autres Mots anglais perfides''." ], [ "Causes", "From the etymological point of view, false friends can be created in several ways.=== Shared etymology ===An example of a West Slavic shared etymology; in Czech and Slovak ''čerstvé pečivo'' means 'fresh bread', whereas in Polish ''czerstwe pieczywo'' means 'stale bread', while in Ukrainian ''черстве печиво (čerstve pečyvo)'' means 'hardened cookie (bakery)', while in Russian ''chyorstvy'' means \"stale\" againIf language A borrowed a word from language B, or both borrowed the word from a third language or inherited it from a common ancestor, and later the word shifted in meaning or acquired additional meanings in at least one of these languages, a native speaker of one language will face a false friend when learning the other.", "Sometimes, presumably both senses were present in the common ancestor language, but the cognate words got different restricted senses in Language A and Language B.====In loanwords====''Actual'', which in English is usually a synonym of ''real'', has a different meaning in other European languages, in which it means 'current' or 'up-to-date', and has the logical derivative as a verb, meaning 'to make current' or 'to update'.", "''Actualise'' (or 'actualize') in English means 'to make a reality of'.The Italian word ''confetti'' 'sugared almonds' has acquired a new meaning in English, French and Dutch; in Italian, the corresponding word is ''coriandoli''.English and Spanish, both of which have borrowed from Ancient Greek and Latin, have multiple false friends, such as:+EnglishSpanish translationSpanishEnglish translationactually''en realidad''actualmente''currently''advertisement''publicidad''advertencia''warning''bizarre''extraño''bizarro''brave''English and Japanese also have diverse false friends, many of them being ''wasei-eigo'' and ''gairaigo'' words.====In native words====The word ''friend'' itself has cognates in the other Germanic languages; but the Scandinavian ones (like Swedish ''frände'', Danish ''frænde'') predominantly mean 'relative'.", "The original Proto-Germanic word meant simply 'someone whom one cares for' and could therefore refer to both a friend and a relative, but lost various degrees of the 'friend' sense in Scandinavian languages, while it mostly lost the sense of 'relative' in English (the plural ''friends'' is still, rarely, used for \"kinsfolk\", as in the Scottish proverb ''Friends agree best at a distance'', quoted in 1721).The Estonian and Finnish languages are closely related, which gives rise to false friends such as swapped forms for south and south-west: Estonian Finnish English ''lõuna'' ''etelä'' south ''edel'' ''lounas'' south-westOr Estonian ''vaimu'' 'spirit; ghost' and Finnish ''vaimo'' 'wife'; or Estonian ''huvitav'' 'interesting' and Finnish ''huvittava'' 'amusing'.A high level of lexical similarity exists between German and Dutch, but shifts in meaning of words with a shared etymology have in some instances resulted in 'bi-directional false friends':+GermanDutchEnglish''See''''meer''mere (lake)''Meer''''zee''sea+GermanDutchEnglish''mögen''''houden van''like, love''dürfen''''mogen''be allowed to''wagen''''durven''dareThe meanings could diverge significantly.", "Proto-Malayo-Polynesian word ''qayam'' \"domesticated animal\" gave way to Malay/Indonesian ''ayam'' 'chicken', Cebuano ''ayam'' 'dog', and Gaddang ''ayam'' 'pig'.=== Homonyms ===In Swedish, the word ''rolig'' means 'fun': ''ett roligt skämt'' 'a funny joke', while in the closely related languages Danish and Norwegian it means 'calm' (as in \"he was calm despite all the commotion around him\").", "However, the Swedish original meaning of 'calm' is retained in some related words such as ''ro'' 'calmness', and ''orolig'' 'worrisome, anxious', literally 'un-calm'.", "The Danish and Norwegian word ''semester'' means term (as in school term), but the Swedish word ''semester'' means holiday.", "The Danish word ''frokost'' means lunch, the Norwegian word ''frokost'' and Swedish word ''frukost'' means breakfast.=== Pseudo-anglicisms ===Pseudo-anglicisms are new words formed from English morphemes independently from an analogous English construct and with a different intended meaning.Japanese is replete with pseudo-anglicisms, known as ''wasei-eigo'' 'Japan-made English'." ], [ "Semantic change", "In bilingual situations, false friends often result in a semantic change—a real new meaning that is then commonly used in a language.", "For example, the Portuguese ''humoroso'' 'capricious' changed its meaning in American Portuguese to 'humorous', owing to the English surface-cognate ''humorous''.The American Italian ''fattoria'' lost its original meaning, \"farm\", in favor of \"factory\", owing to the phonetically similar surface-cognate English ''factory'' (cf.", "Standard Italian ''fabbrica'', 'factory').", "Instead of the original ''fattoria'', the phonetic adaptation American Italian ''farma'' became the new signifier for \"farm\" (Weinreich 1963: 49; see \"one-to-one correlation between signifiers and referents\").Due to the closeness between Italian ''terra rossa'' 'red soil' and Portuguese ''terra roxa'' 'purple soil', Italian farmers in Brazil used ''terra roxa'' to describe a type of soil similar to the red Mediterranean soil.", "The actual Portuguese word for \"red\" is ''vermelha''.", "Nevertheless, ''terra roxa'' and ''terra vermelha'' are still used interchangeably in Brazilian agriculture.This phenomenon is analyzed by Ghil'ad Zuckermann as \"(incestuous) phono-semantic matching\"." ], [ "See also", " Auto-antonym* Equivalence in language translation* Etymological fallacy* False cognate* False etymology* Folk etymology* Linguistic interference (language transfer)* List of Chinese–Japanese false friends* Swenglish" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* wikt:Category:False cognates and false friends on Wiktionary* An online hypertext bibliography on false friends * Spanish/English false friends* French/English false friends* Italian/English false friends* English/Russian false friends* English/Dutch false friends* LanguageTool support for false friends according to rules in this format.", "* Die Deutschen und ihr Englisch.", "The devil lies in the detail (tagesspiegel.de, 2015)* Der DEnglische Patient – Kolumne von Peter Littger (Manager Magazin, 2016)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "False cognate" ], [ "Introduction", "'''False cognates''' are pairs of words that seem to be cognates because of similar sounds and meaning, but have different etymologies; they can be within the same language or from different languages, even within the same family.", "For example, the English word ''dog'' and the Mbabaram word ''dog'' have exactly the same meaning and very similar pronunciations, but by complete coincidence.", "Likewise, English ''much'' and Spanish ''mucho'' came by their similar meanings via completely different Proto-Indo-European roots, and same for English ''have'' and Spanish ''haber''.", "This is different from false friends, which are similar-sounding words with different meanings, and may or may not be cognates.", "Even though false cognates lack a common root, there may still be an indirect connection between them (for example by phono-semantic matching or folk etymology)." ], [ "Phenomenon", "The term \"false cognate\" is sometimes misused to refer to false friends, but the two phenomena are distinct.", "False friends occur when two words in different languages or dialects look similar, but have different meanings.", "While some false friends are also false cognates, many are genuine cognates (see False friends § Causes).", "For example, English ''pretend'' and French ''prétendre'' are false friends, but not false cognates, as they have the same origin." ], [ "\"Mama and papa\" type", "The basic kinship terms mama and papa comprise a special case of false cognates." ], [ "Examples", "''Note: Some etymologies may be simplified to avoid overly long descriptions''.===Within English=== Term 1 Etymology 1 Term 2 Etymology 2 '''day''' OE ''dæġ'' << PGmc ''dagaz''<< PIE ''dʰeǵʰ-'' '''diary''' Latin ''diārium'' << ''dies'' (\"day\")<< Proto-Italic ''djēm'' << PIE dyḗws (\"heaven\") '''island''' OE ''īġland'' << PGmc ''awjōlandą''or ea + land '''isle''' Latin ''insula''=== Between English and other languages === English term English etymology Foreign term Foreign etymology '''bad''' Possibly from OE '' bæddel'' (\"hermaphrodite, effeminate man\")<< PGmc ''bad-'' (\"defile\") Persian '''''', ''bad'' Middle Iranian ''vat''<< PIE ''wed(h)-'' '''better''' OE ''betera'' Persian '''''', ''behtar'' and Hindustani descendants '''cinder'''OE ''sinder''<< PGmc ''sendra-'' \"slag\"<< PIE ''sendhro-'' \"coagulating fluid\"French ''cendre'' (\"ash\")Latin ''cinerem''<< PIE ''ken-'' (\"to arise, begin\") '''dog''' OE ''docga'' or ''dogga'' Mbabaram '''''dog''''' (\"dog\") Proto-Pama-Nyungan ''gudaga'' '''day''' OE ''dæġ'' << PGmc ''dagaz'' << PIE ''dʰeǵʰ-'' Latin '''''dies''''' (\"day\") and descendants Proto-Italic ''djēm'' << PIE dyḗws (\"heaven\") '''hollow''' OE ''holh'' << PGmc ''holhwo-'' Lake Miwok '''''hóllu''''' '''much''' OE ''myċel'' << PGmc ''mikilaz'' << PIE ''meǵa-'' (\"big, stout, great\") Spanish '''''mucho''''' (\"much\") Latin ''multus'' (many)<< PIE ''ml̥tos'' (\"crumbled\") '''desert''' Latin ''dēserō'' (\"to abandon\") << ultimately PIE ''seh₁-'' (\"to sow\") Ancient Egyptian '''''Deshret''''' (refers to the land not flooded by the Nile) from ''dšr'' (red) '''saint''' Latin ''sanctus''<< PIE ''seh₂k-'' (\"to sanctify\") via French Sanskrit '''''sant''''' and descendants ''sat'' (\"truth, reality, essence\")=== Between other languages === Term 1 Etymology 1 Term 2 Etymology 2 French '''''feu''''' (\"fire\") Latin ''focus'' German '''''Feuer''''' (\"fire\")PGmc '''''fōr''''' ~ '''''fun-'''''<< PIE ''péh₂wr̥'' French '''''nuque''''' ('nape') Hungarian ''nyak'' ('neck') German '''''haben''''' ('to have') PG ''habjaną''<< PIE ''keh₂p-'' (\"to grasp\") Latin '''''habere''''' (\"to have\") and descendants PIE ''gʰeh₁bʰ-'' (\"to grab, to take\") Swedish '''''göl''''' (\"pool\") PG ''guljō'' Salar '''''göl''''' (\"pool\") Proto-Turkic ''kȫl'' (\"lake\") German '''''Erdbeere''''' ('strawberry') ''Erd'' ('earth') + ''Beere'' ('berry') Hungarian '''''epér''''' ('strawberry') German '''''Haus''''' ('house') Hungarian '''''ház''''' ('house') Hungarian '''''nő''''' ('woman') Mandarin Chinese '''女''' (''nü̆'') ('woman') Inuktitut '''ᖃᔭᖅ''' (''kayak'') Proto-Eskimo ''qyaq'' Turkish '''''kayık''''' Old Turkic kayguk << Proto-Turkic kay- (\"to slide, to turn\") Mayaimi '''Mayaimi''' (''Big water'') Hebrew '''מים''' mayim (\"water\") Japanese '''''' ''arigatō'' (\"thank you\") Clipping of 有難う御座います \"arigatō gozaimasu\" (\"(I) am thankful\") << 有難く \"arigataku\"<< 有難い \"arigatai\" (\"thankful, appreciated\") << Old Japanese 有難斯 \"arigatasi\" (\"difficult to be\") Portuguese '''''obrigado''''' (\"thank you\") Literally \"obliged\" << Latin ''obligātus'' Indonesian '''''tanah''''' (\"ground\") Proto-Austronesian ''tanaq'' Aleut '''''tanax̂''''' (\"ground\") Proto-Eskimo ''luna'' (\"earth\")" ], [ "False cognates used in the coinage of new words", "The coincidental similarity between false cognates can sometimes be used in the creation of new words (neologization).", "For example, the Hebrew word '''''' ''dal'' (\"poor\") (which is a false cognate of the phono-semantically similar English word ''dull'') is used in the new Israeli Hebrew expression אין רגע דל ''en rega dal'' (literally \"There is no '''poor''' moment\") as a phono-semantic matching for the English expression ''Never a '''dull''' moment''.Similarly, the Hebrew word דיבוב ''dibúv'' (\"speech, inducing someone to speak\"), which is a false cognate of (and thus etymologically unrelated to) the phono-semantically similar English word ''dubbing'', is then used in the Israeli phono-semantic matching for ''dubbing''.", "The result is that in today's Israel, דיבוב ''dibúv'' means \"dubbing\"." ], [ "See also", "* Areal feature* Convergent evolution* Equivalence* Etymological fallacy* False etymology* False friend* Linguistic interference (language transfer)* Pseudoscientific language comparison* Semantic change* ''Sprachbund''" ], [ "References" ], [ "Works cited", "*" ], [ "Further reading", " Rubén Morán (2011), 'Cognate Linguistics', Kindle Edition, Amazon.", "* Geoff Parkes and Alan Cornell (1992), 'NTC's Dictionary of German False Cognates', National Textbook Company, NTC Publishing Group.", "* " ], [ "External links", " Cognates.org *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Fundamental analysis" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Fundamental analysis''', in accounting and finance, is the analysis of a business's financial statements (usually to analyze the business's assets, liabilities, and earnings); health; and competitors and markets.", "It also considers the overall state of the economy and factors including interest rates, production, earnings, employment, GDP, housing, manufacturing and management.", "There are two basic approaches that can be used: bottom up analysis and top down analysis.", "These terms are used to distinguish such analysis from other types of investment analysis, such as quantitative and technical.Fundamental analysis is performed on historical and present data, but with the goal of making financial forecasts.", "There are several possible objectives: * to conduct a company stock valuation and predict its probable price evolution;* to make a projection on its business performance;* to evaluate its management and make internal business decisions and/or to calculate its credit risk;* to find out the intrinsic value of the share." ], [ "The two analytical models", "There are two basic methodologies investors rely upon when the objective of the analysis is to determine what stock to buy and at what price:#Fundamental analysis.", "Analysts maintain that markets may incorrectly price a security in the short run but the \"correct\" price will eventually be reached.", "Profits can be made by purchasing or selling the wrongly priced security and then waiting for the market to recognize its \"mistake\" and reprice the security.#Technical analysis.", "Analysts look at trends and price levels and believe that trend changes confirm sentiment changes.", "Recognizable price chart patterns may be found due to investors' emotional responses to price movements.", "Technical analysts mainly evaluate historical trends and ranges to predict future price movement.Investors can use one or both of these complementary methods for stock picking.", "For example, many fundamental investors use technical indicators for deciding entry and exit points.", "Similarly, a large proportion of technical investors use fundamental indicators to limit their pool of possible stocks to \"good\" companies.The choice of stock analysis is determined by the investor's belief in the different paradigms for \"how the stock market works\".", "For explanations of these paradigms, see the discussions at efficient-market hypothesis, random walk hypothesis, capital asset pricing model, Fed model, market-based valuation, and behavioral finance.Fundamental analysis includes:#Economic analysis#Industry analysis#Company analysisThe intrinsic value of the shares is determined based upon these three analyses.", "It is this value that is considered the true value of the share.", "If the intrinsic value is higher than the market price, buying the share is recommended.", "If it is equal to market price, it is recommended to hold the share; and if it is less than the market price, then one should sell the shares." ], [ "Use by different portfolio styles", "Investors may also use fundamental analysis within different portfolio management styles.", "Buy and hold investors believe that latching on to good businesses allows the investor's asset to grow with the business.", "Fundamental analysis lets them find \"good\" companies, so they lower their risk and the probability of wipe-out.", "Value investors restrict their attention to under-valued companies, believing that \"it's hard to fall out of a ditch\".", "The values they follow come from fundamental analysis.", "Managers may use fundamental analysis to correctly value \"good\" and \"bad\" companies.", "Managers may also consider the economic cycle in determining whether conditions are \"right\" to buy fundamentally suitable companies.", "Contrarian investors hold that \"in the short run, the market is a voting machine, not a weighing machine\".", "Fundamental analysis allows an investor to make his or her own decision on value, while ignoring the opinions of the market.", "Managers may use fundamental analysis to determine future growth rates for buying high priced growth stocks.", "Managers may include fundamental factors along with technical factors in computer models (quantitative analysis)." ], [ "Top-down and bottom-up approaches", "Investors using fundamental analysis can use either a top-down or bottom-up approach.", "The top-down investor starts their analysis with global economics, including both international and national economic indicators.", "These may include GDP growth rates, inflation, interest rates, exchange rates, productivity, and energy prices.", "They subsequently narrow their search to regional/ industry analysis of total sales, price levels, the effects of competing products, foreign competition, and entry or exit from the industry.", "Only then do they refine their search to the best business in the area being studied.", "The bottom-up investor starts with specific businesses, regardless of their industry/region, and proceeds in reverse of the top-down approach." ], [ "Procedures", "The analysis of a business's health starts with a financial statement analysis that includes financial ratios.", "It looks at dividends paid, operating cash flow, new equity issues and capital financing.", "The earnings estimates and growth rate projections published widely by Thomson Reuters and others can be considered either \"fundamental\" (they are facts) or \"technical\" (they are investor sentiment) based on perception of their validity.Determined growth rates (of income and cash) and risk levels (to determine the discount rate) are used in various valuation models.", "The foremost is the discounted cash flow model, which calculates the present value of the future:dividends received by the investor, along with the eventual sale price; (Gordon model)earnings of the company;or cash flows of the company.The simple model commonly used is the P/E ratio (price-to-earnings ratio).", "Implicit in this model of a perpetual annuity (time value of money) is that the inverse, or the E/P rate, is the discount rate appropriate to the risk of the business.", "Usage of the P/E ratio has the disadvantage that it ignores future earnings growth.Because the future growth of the free cash flow and earnings of a company drive the fair value of the company, the PEG ratio is more meaningful than the P/E ratio.", "The PEG ratio incorporates the growth estimates for future earnings, e.g.", "of the EBIT.", "Its validity depends on the length of time analysts believe the growth will continue and on the reasonableness of future estimates compared to earnings growth in the past years (oftentimes the last seven years).", "IGAR models can be used to impute expected changes in growth from current P/E and historical growth rates for the stocks relative to a comparison index.The amount of debt a company possesses is also a major consideration in determining its financial leverage and its health.", "This is meaningful because a company can reach higher earnings (and this way a higher return on equity and higher P/E ratio) simply by increasing the amount of net debt.", "This can be quickly assessed using the debt-to-equity ratio, the current ratio (current assets/current liabilities) and the return on capital employed (ROCE).", "The ROCE is the ratio of EBIT divided by the \"capital employed\", i.e.", "all the current and non-current assets less the operating liabilities, which is the real capital of the company no matter if it is financed by equity or debt." ], [ "Criticisms", "Economists such as Burton Malkiel suggest that neither fundamental analysis nor technical analysis is useful in outperforming the markets." ], [ "See also", "* Stock valuation* Lists of valuation topics* Security analysis* Piotroski F-score* Stock selection criterion* John Burr Williams#Theory* Mosaic theory* Chepakovich valuation model* Financial forecast" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* MIT Financial-Management course notes* Fundamental Analysis Works" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Frasier" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Frasier''''' () is an American television sitcom that was broadcast on NBC for 11 seasons.", "It aired from September 16, 1993, to May 13, 2004.The program was created and produced by David Angell, Peter Casey, and David Lee (as Grub Street Productions), in association with Grammnet (2004) and Paramount Network Television.The series was created as a spin-off of the sitcom ''Cheers''.", "It continues the story of psychiatrist Frasier Crane (Kelsey Grammer), who returns to his hometown, Seattle, as a radio show host.", "He reconnects with his father, Martin (John Mahoney), a retired police officer, and his younger brother, Niles (David Hyde Pierce), a fellow psychiatrist.", "Included in the series cast were Peri Gilpin as Frasier's producer Roz Doyle, and Jane Leeves as Daphne Moon, Martin's live-in caregiver.", "Dan Butler's role as Bob \"Bulldog\" Briscoe, a sports talk show host on Frasier's station, was later upgraded from a recurring to main character.", "''Frasier'' received critical acclaim, with the series and the cast winning thirty-seven Primetime Emmy Awards, a record at the time for a scripted series.", "It also won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Comedy Series for five consecutive years.", "''Frasier'' is also the name of the revival spin-off series that premiered on Paramount+ on October 12, 2023." ], [ "Overview", "Psychiatrist Frasier Crane (Grammer) returns to his hometown of Seattle, Washington, following the end of his marriage and life in Boston (as seen in ''Cheers'').", "His plans for a new life as a single man are challenged when he is obliged to take in his father, Martin (Mahoney), a retired Seattle Police Department detective who has mobility problems after being shot in the line of duty during a robbery.After reluctantly taking his father in, Frasier and Martin conduct a series of interviews to hire a physical therapist and caregiver for his father.", "Martin, much to Frasier's dismay, is particularly keen on hiring a British caregiver as a live-in, and after a short squabble, the two agree to hire Daphne Moon (Leeves) for the position.", "Much of the series focuses on Frasier adjusting to living with his father, with whom he has little in common, and his constant annoyances with Martin's dog, Eddie.", "Frasier frequently spends time with his younger brother, Niles (Pierce), a fellow psychiatrist, who becomes attracted to Daphne and eventually marries her.Frasier hosts ''The Dr. Frasier Crane Show'', a call-in psychiatry show on talk radio station, KACL.", "Though they share few commonalities, Frasier's producer, Roz Doyle (Gilpin) becomes his friend in the series.", "She is depicted as both direct and sarcastic.", "Her somewhat superficial relationships with men are a frequent topic of conversation until she becomes pregnant with her daughter, Alice.", "Roz and Frasier share a professional respect and a wry sense of humor, and over time, the two become close friends.", "Frasier, along with the other characters in the series, often visits the local coffee shop, Café Nervosa, making it a frequent setting.The Crane brothers, who have expensive tastes, intellectual interests, and high opinions of themselves, frequently clash with their father, Martin.", "The close relationship between the brothers is often tense, and their sibling rivalry intermittently results in chaos.", "For two psychiatrists who make a living solving other people's problems, however, they are often inept at dealing with each other's hangups.", "Other recurring themes in the series include Niles's relationship with his unseen first wife, Maris (whom he later divorces), Frasier's relationship with his ex-wife, Lilith, who resides in Boston with their son, Frederick, Frasier's search for love, Martin's new life after retirement, and the various attempts by the two brothers to gain acceptance into Seattle society." ], [ "Characters", "===Main===Grammer, Hyde Pierce and Mahoney in character in an advertisement for alt=* Kelsey Grammer as Frasier Crane, a radio psychiatrist.", "He is fussy, uptight, cultured, and sometimes arrogant.", "Having grown up with an educated mother and an \"average Joe\" father, Frasier epitomizes an upper-class sophistication, yet is still sympathetic to working-class culture.", "After returning to Seattle, he begins embracing his more privileged background and develops a more selfish and aloof manner, possibly due to rekindling his relationship with his younger brother, Niles Crane.", "Despite his haughty demeanor, however, Frasier has a strong sense of ethics.", "* Jane Leeves as Daphne Moon (later Crane), is an English immigrant from Manchester; a physiotherapist and live-in aid hired by Frasier to help his father.", "Daphne's eccentric, working-class background and self-professed psychic abilities (which often end up being correct) frequently lead to Daphne's comical non-sequiturs about her unusual family, which is a sharp contrast to the Cranes' incredulity.", "In spite of their different upbringings, Niles falls for her instantly.", "Niles's obsession with Daphne and her obliviousness to this is developed throughout the earlier seasons of the series.", "* David Hyde Pierce as Niles Crane, Frasier's younger brother.", "He is a psychiatrist in private practice.", "Educated, coldhearted, and more arrogant than Frasier, Niles's snobby, anxious qualities provide a foil for Frasier's own issues.", "Despite his aforementioned qualities, he is brave, caring, and well-meaning, which, to his loved ones, more than makes up for his eccentricities and quirks.", "Niles is very close to his older brother, though their fiercely competitive natures often provide the audience with much humor throughout the series.", "Like Frasier, Niles has a deep appreciation and respect for the arts, music, and pursuits that are seen as intellectual and prefers these activities over most sports, though he excels in squash and croquet.", "Niles is severely mysophobic, often given to wiping his hands after human contact, and is even depicted wiping down chairs in public places before sitting on them.", "* Peri Gilpin as Roz Doyle, the producer of Frasier's radio show.", "A native of Bloomer, Wisconsin, Roz, one of two single women in the series, is depicted as a sharp contrast to Daphne.", "Throughout the show, Roz's search for love and liberal approach to dating is the subject of many witty remarks, particularly from Niles.", "In the middle of series' run, Roz becomes pregnant with her first child, Alice, and the show addresses some of the challenges of being a single mother, including Roz having to borrow money from her boss, and the personal and professional strain that places on their relationship.", "* John Mahoney as Martin Crane, Frasier and Niles's father, is an outspoken and laid-back Seattle police detective who was forced to retire after sustaining a gunshot wound to his hip.", "Because this injury renders him incapable of living alone, upon Frasier's return to Seattle, Martin is forced to accept Frasier's invitation to live with him.", "Though he and his sons share few commonalities, the relationship between the three men strengthens throughout the series.", "Martin's relationship with his Jack Russell terrier, Eddie, and his pea-green tartan- and twill-upholstered recliner are a perpetual source of distress for Frasier.", "He is also known for his fondness for beer (specifically that for Ballantine).", "* Moose and Enzo as Eddie, Martin's pet dog.", "Eddie annoys Frasier in many ways, especially by staring at him for long periods.", "Even so, Frasier occasionally shows kindness to Eddie by petting him, taking him for a walk, or giving him edible treats.", "* Dan Butler as Bob \"Bulldog\" Briscoe (main seasons 4–6; recurring season 1; special appearance seasons 2–3; special guest seasons 7, 9, 10 & 11), the womanizing, misogynistic host of \"Bob 'Bulldog' Briscoe and the Gonzo Sports Show\", which follows Frasier's time slot at KACL.===Recurring===* Harriet Sansom Harris as Bebe Glazer (seasons 1–5, 7, 9–11), Frasier's flirtatious and duplicitous agent.", "Described by Niles as \"Lady Macbeth without the sincerity\", she will use any method to get her or her clients the best deal.", "* Patrick Kerr as Noel Shempsky (seasons 6–11; guest seasons 1 & 3–5), KACL technical assistant and avid ''Star Trek'' aficionado who speaks fluent Klingon and constantly harasses Roz.", "* Edward Hibbert as Gil Chesterton (seasons 2–8 & 10–11; guest season 1), KACL's posh, camp restaurant critic, his arguably \"effeminate\" nature is the source of many gay innuendos on the show, despite him revealing early in the series that he is married to a woman who is a car mechanic by trade.", "* Marsha Mason as Sherry Dempsey (seasons 4–5), Martin's flamboyant girlfriend, whose tastes and opinions are often a cause of antagonism and arguments with the rest of the family.", "* Tom McGowan as Kenny Daly (seasons 7–11; guest seasons 5–6), KACL's station manager* Millicent Martin as Gertrude Moon (seasons 9–10; guest seasons 7, 11), Daphne's mother* Brian Klugman as Kirby Gardner (season 9; guest season 8), a part-timer at KACL and the son of Frasier's former classmate* Ashley Thomas as Alice Doyle (seasons 10–11; co-star season 9), Roz's daughter* Felicity Huffman as Julia Wilcox (seasons 10–11), host of a financial news segment, whose personality leads to frequent clashes with others at KACL* Wendie Malick as Ronee Lawrence (season 11), Frasier and Niles's childhood babysitter who, after a chance meeting, becomes Martin's girlfriend===Notes===The main cast remained unchanged for all 11 years.", "When the series ended in 2004, Grammer had portrayed the character of Frasier Crane for a total of 20 years, including his nine seasons on ''Cheers'' plus a one-time performance as the character on the series ''Wings'', which earned Grammer an Emmy nomination.", "At the time, he tied James Arness' portrayal of Matt Dillon on ''Gunsmoke'' for the longest-running character on American primetime television.", "The record has since been surpassed in animation by the voice cast of ''The Simpsons'', and in live action by Richard Belzer's portrayal of John Munch and Mariska Hargitay's portrayal of Olivia Benson (both on ''Law & Order: Special Victims Unit'', among several other series).", "Grammer was briefly the highest-paid television actor in the United States for his portrayal of Frasier, while Jane Leeves was the highest-paid British actress.In addition to those of the ensemble, additional story lines included characters from Frasier's former incarnation on ''Cheers'', such as his ex-wife Lilith Sternin, played by Bebe Neuwirth, and their son, Frederick, played by Trevor Einhorn.=== Guest stars ===Throughout the series, numerous guest stars appeared such as:* René Auberjonois * Christine Baranski* Kristin Chenoweth * Patricia Clarkson * Gary Cole* Kim Coles* Robbie Coltrane* Jennifer Coolidge* Elvis Costello * Brian Cox* Alan Cumming * Zooey Deschanel * Illeana Douglas * Griffin Dunne* Aaron Eckhart* Katie Finneran* Victor Garber* Ana Gasteyer * Tony Goldwyn* Richard E. Grant* Luis Guzman * John Hannah* Teri Hatcher* Bob Hoskins * Derek Jacobi* Allison Janney * James Earl Jones* Jane Kaczmarek* Michael Keaton * Nathan Lane* Anthony LaPaglia* Piper Laurie * Laura Linney* Patti LuPone* Virginia Madsen* Patrick Macnee* John C. McGinley* Dr. Phil McGraw * S. Epatha Merkerson * Laurie Metcalf * Brian Stokes Mitchell* Donald O'Connor* Estelle Parsons * Rosie Perez* Robert Picardo * Teri Polo * Mercedes Ruehl* Eva Marie Saint* Tony Shalhoub* Marian Seldes * Jean Smart* Brent Spiner* Patrick Stewart * David Ogden Stiers * Jennifer Tilly * Jeanne Tripplehorn * Sela Ward * Rita Wilson* Bellamy Young ''' ''Cheers'' co-stars who returned'''* Bebe Neuwirth* Shelly Long* Ted Danson* Woody Harrelson* Rhea Perlman* John Ratzenberger* George Wendt=== Reunions ===Grammer had been the voice of Sideshow Bob on ''The Simpsons'' since 1990.In a 1997 episode (while ''Frasier'' was still in production), the character's brother, Cecil Terwilliger, was introduced, played by Pierce, as per the reference in the episode title, \"Brother from Another Series\".", "The episode contained numerous ''Frasier'' references, including a ''Frasier''-style version of ''The Simpsons'' theme for a transition and its iconic title card for the same thing.", "Pierce returned as Cecil for the second time (the first since ''Frasier'' had concluded) alongside Grammer in the 2007 episode \"Funeral for a Fiend\".", "The episode introduced the brothers' father, Dr. Robert Terwilliger, who was portrayed by Mahoney.Cast reunions also occurred on four episodes of ''Hot in Cleveland'', which featured Leeves in the main cast along with Wendie Malick (who played Martin's girlfriend towards the end of ''Frasier'').", "In the season-two episode \"Unseparated at Birth\" and season-three episode \"Funeral Crashers,\" Mahoney guest-starred as a waiter smitten with Betty White's character.", "Gilpin appeared in the episode \"I Love Lucci (Part 1)\", and Tom McGowan (who played Kenny Daly) appeared in \"Love Thy Neighbor\" as a casting director.", "''Hot in Cleveland'' was created and produced by Suzanne Martin, who wrote multiple episodes of ''Frasier''." ], [ "Production", "=== Creation ===During the eighth season of ''Cheers'', Grammer made a deal with former ''Cheers'' producers David Angell, Peter Casey and David Lee (who were moving on to produce ''Wings'') that they would do a new series together once ''Cheers'' ended.", "Once it became clear during the 10th season that the 11th would be the last, the group began working on their next series together.Grammer did not originally want to continue playing Frasier Crane, and Angell, Casey and Lee did not want the new show to be compared to ''Cheers'', which they had worked on before ''Wings''.", "The three proposed that the actor play a wealthy, Malcolm Forbes-like paraplegic publisher who operated his business from his apartment.", "The main show featured a \"street-smart\" Hispanic live-in nurse who would clash with the main character.", "While Grammer liked the concept, Paramount Television disliked it, and suggested that the best route would be to spin off the Frasier Crane character.", "Grammer ultimately agreed to star in a ''Cheers'' spin-off, but the producers set the new show as far from Boston as possible to prevent NBC from demanding that other characters from the old show make guest appearances on the new show during its first season.", "After first choosing Denver, Angell, Casey, and Lee changed the location to Seattle after Colorado passed a law that prevented municipalities from enacting antidiscrimination laws protecting gay, lesbian, or bisexual people.The creators did not want Frasier in private practice, which would make the show resemble ''The Bob Newhart Show''.", "From an unused idea they had for a ''Cheers'' episode, they conceived the concept of the psychiatrist working in a radio station surrounded by \"wacky, yet loveable\" characters.", "After realizing that such a setting was reminiscent of ''WKRP in Cincinnati'', the creators decided to emphasize Frasier's home life, which ''Cheers'' had rarely explored.", "Lee considered his own experience with \"the relationship between an aging father and the grown-up son he never understood\" and thought it would be a good theme for ''Frasier''.", "Although Frasier had mentioned on ''Cheers'' (in two episodes) that his father, a research scientist, had died, Angell, Casey and Lee did not realize this was the case, as they were not working on ''Cheers'' during the season those two episodes were filmed.", "The creative team was already well into the development process when Grammer pointed out the discontinuity; they decided to overlook it, initially retconning the character's backstory.", "In a second-season episode, the discrepancy was resolved, as Frasier revealed he had lied to the ''Cheers'' gang about his father.One element of the original concept that was carried over was the live-in health-care provider for Frasier's father.", "Grammer points out that very little of the Frasier Crane of ''Cheers'' carried over to ''Frasier'', as his family history was changed (though this was later adjusted); the setting, his job and even the character himself changed from the ''Cheers'' predecessor, having to be more grounded as the central character of the show so the other supporting characters could be more eccentric.=== Casting ===Martin Crane was based on creator Casey's father, who spent 34 years with the San Francisco Police Department.", "The creators suggested to NBC that they would like to cast someone like Mahoney, to which NBC told them if they could get Mahoney, they could hire him without auditions.", "Both Grammer and the producers contacted Mahoney, with the producers flying to Chicago to show Mahoney the pilot script over dinner.", "Upon reading it, Mahoney accepted.", "Grammer, who had lost his father as a child, and the childless Mahoney immediately built a close father-son relationship.In discussing Martin's nurse, Warren Littlefield of NBC suggested she be English instead of Hispanic, and suggested Leeves for the role.", "Grammer was initially reluctant, as he thought the casting made the show resemble ''Nanny and the Professor'', but approved Leeves after a meeting and read-through with her.", "Mahoney and Leeves quickly bonded over their shared English heritage; Mahoney was originally from Manchester, the hometown of Leeves's character.The character of Niles was not part of the original concept for the show.", "Frasier had told his bar friends on ''Cheers'' that he was an only child; however, Sheila Guthrie, the assistant casting director on ''Wings'', brought the producers a photo of Pierce (whom she knew from his work on ''The Powers That Be'') and noted his resemblance to Grammer when he first appeared on ''Cheers''.", "She recommended him should they ever want Frasier to have a brother.", "The creators were \"blown away\" both by his resemblance to Grammer and by his acting ability.", "They decided to ignore Frasier's statement on ''Cheers'' and created the role for Pierce.", "Pierce accepted the role before realizing he had not read a script.", "Once he was given a script, he was initially concerned that his character was essentially a duplicate of Frasier, thinking that it would not work.", "The first table reading of the pilot script was notable because the producers had never heard either Pierce or Mahoney read lines, as they were cast without auditions.The only main role that required an audition was Roz Doyle, who was named in memory of a producer of ''Wings''.", "The producers auditioned around 300 actresses, with no particular direction in mind.", "Women of all ethnicities were considered.", "Lisa Kudrow was originally cast in the role, but during rehearsals, the producers decided they needed someone who could appear more assertive in her job and take control over Frasier at KACL, and Kudrow did not fit that role.", "The creators quickly hired Gilpin, their second choice.The original focus of the series was intended to be the relationship between Frasier and Martin, and it was the focus of most of the first-season episodes.", "Once the show began airing, Niles became a breakout character, and more focus was added to the brothers' relationship, and other plots centering on Niles, starting in the second season.", "The producers initially did not want to make Niles's wife Maris an unseen character because they did not want to draw parallels to Vera, Norm's wife on ''Cheers''.", "They originally intended that she would appear after several episodes, but were enjoying writing excuses for her absence so much that they eventually decided she would remain unseen, and after the increasingly eccentric characteristics ascribed to her, they concluded that no real actress would be able to portray her anyway.=== Sets and settings ===Frasier's apartment was designed to be ultra-modern in an eclectic style (as Frasier himself points out in the pilot).", "One of the show's signature elements that it became well known for was the apartment's design which included elements such as a slightly split-level design, doors with triangular wooden inlay features, numerous pieces of well-known high-end furniture (such as a replica of Coco Chanel's sofa, and both Eames Lounge Chair and Wassily Chair) and a notable view from the terrace which was frequently complimented by visitors.", "The main set consisted of the open-concept living area with a sitting/TV space and dining area on the lower level and a piano exit to the terrace on the rear upper level.", "The set also included the kitchen through an open archway.", "A small section of the building corridor and elevator doors was built, as was a powder room near the front entrance.", "Two corridors off the living area ostensibly led to the apartment's three bedrooms.", "Sets for each of these rooms were built as separate sets on an as-needed basis.No building or apartment in Seattle really has the view from Frasier's residence.", "It was created so the Space Needle, the most iconic landmark of Seattle, would appear more prominently.", "According to the season-one DVD bonus features, the photograph used on the set was taken from atop a cliff, possibly the ledge at Kerry Park, a frequent photography location.", "Despite this, ''Frasier'' has been said to have contributed to the emergence of an upscale urban lifestyle in 1990s Seattle, with buyers seeking properties in locations resembling that depicted in the show, in search of \"that cosmopolitan feel of Frasier\".Another of the primary sets was the radio studio at KACL from which Frasier broadcasts his show.", "The studio itself consists of two rooms: the broadcast booth and the control room.", "A section of the corridor outside of the booth was also built (visible through the windows at the back of the studio) and could be shot from the side to view the corridor itself.", "The set was designed based on ABC's then-brand-new radio studios in Los Angeles which the production designer visited.", "Technical elements such as the microphones were regularly updated to conform with the latest technology.", "Although the studio set lacked a \"front\" wall (the fourth wall), one was built for occasional use in episodes with certain moments shot from behind the broadcast desk, rather than in front of it as usual.The producers wanted to have a gathering place outside of home and work where the characters could meet.", "After a trip to Seattle, and seeing the many burgeoning coffee shops, the production designer suggested to producers that they use a coffee shop.", "Unlike many of the relatively modern coffee shop designs prevalent in Seattle, the production designer opted for a more warm and inviting style that would appear more established and traditional.", "Stools were specifically omitted to avoid any similarity to the bar on ''Cheers''.", "Several Los Angeles coffee shops were used for reference.", "A bookcase was added on the back wall, suggesting patrons could grab a book and read while they enjoyed their coffee.", "The show used three versions of the interior set depending on how much space other sets for each episode required.", "If space for the full set was not available, a smaller version that omitted the tables closest to the audience could be used.", "If space for that set was lacking, a small section of the back of the cafe at the top of the steps could be set up under the audience bleachers.", "A set was also used on occasion for the exterior patio.=== Filming ===The cast had an unusual amount of freedom to suggest changes to the script.", "Grammer used an acting method he called \"requisite disrespect\" and did not rehearse with the others, instead learning and rehearsing his lines once just before filming each scene in front of a live studio audience.", "Although effective, the system often caused panic among guest stars.In 1996, Grammer's recurrent alcoholism led to a car accident.", "The cast and crew performed an intervention that persuaded him to enter the Betty Ford Center, delaying production for a month.Only one episode, \"The 1000th Show\", was filmed in Seattle.", "As with ''Cheers'', most episodes were filmed on Stage 25, Paramount Studios, or at various locations in and around Los Angeles.=== Celebrity voice cameos ===The KACL callers' lines were read by anonymous voice-over actors during filming in front of a live audience, and during post-production, the lines were replaced by celebrities, who actually phoned in their parts without having to come into the studio.", "The end credits of season finales show greyscale headshots of celebrities who had \"called in\" that season.", "Celebrities providing voices as callers include Gillian Anderson, Kevin Bacon, Halle Berry, Mel Brooks, Cindy Crawford, Billy Crystal, Phil Donahue, David Duchovny, Hilary Duff, Olympia Dukakis, Carrie Fisher, Jodie Foster, Art Garfunkel, Macaulay Culkin, Elijah Wood, Linda Hamilton, Daryl Hannah, Ron Howard, Eric Idle, Stephen King, Jay Leno, Laura Linney, John Lithgow, Yo-Yo Ma, William H. Macy, Henry Mancini, Reba McEntire, Helen Mirren, Mary Tyler Moore, Estelle Parsons, Rosie Perez, Freddie Prinze Jr., Christopher Reeve, Carly Simon, Gary Sinise, Mary Steenburgen, Ben Stiller, Marlo Thomas, Rob Reiner, Carl Reiner, Lily Tomlin, and Eddie Van Halen.Some \"callers\" also guest-starred, such as Parsons, Perez and Linney (who played Frasier's final love interest in the last season).=== Credits ===The show's theme song, \"Tossed Salads and Scrambled Eggs,\" is sung by Grammer and is played over the closing credits of each episode.", "Composer Bruce Miller, who had also composed for ''Wings'', was asked to avoid explicitly mentioning any subjects related to the show such as radio or psychiatry.", "After Miller finished the music, lyricist Darryl Phinnesse suggested the title as they were things that were, like Frasier Crane's patients, \"mixed up\".", "The lyrics indirectly refer to Crane's radio show; \"I hear the blues a-callin',\" for example, refers to troubled listeners who call the show.", "Grammer recorded several variations of the final spoken line of the theme, which were rotated for each of the episodes.", "Other than season finales, a short, silent scene, often revisiting a small subplot aside from the central story of the episode, appears with the credits and song, which the actors performed without written dialogue based on the scriptwriter's suggestion.The title card at the start of each episode shows a white line being drawn in the shape of the Seattle skyline on a black background above the show's title.", "In most episodes, once the skyline and title appear, the skyline is augmented in some way, such as windows lighting up or a helicopter lifting off.", "The color of the title text changed for each season (respectively: blue, red, turquoise, purple, gold, brown, yellow, green, orange, metallic silver, and metallic gold).", "Over the title card, one of about 25 brief musical cues evoking the closing theme is played.=== Revival ===On February 24, 2021, a revival series was greenlit for exclusive debut on Paramount+.", "The series premiered on October 12, 2023.Described as a \"third act\" and another spin-off, Grammer said he \"gleefully\" anticipated \"sharing the next chapter in the continuing journey of Dr. Frasier Crane\" as he had \"spent over 20 years\" of his \"creative life on the Paramount lot\".", "In October 2022, Paramount+ officially gave the series a season order of 10 episodes.", "In January 2023, Jack Cutmore-Scott joined the cast as Freddy Crane.", "It was also reported that English actor Nicholas Lyndhurst would be joining the cast.", "Anders Keith and Jess Salgueiro were later cast as Niles and Daphne's son and Freddy's roommate, respectively.", "In February, Toks Olagundoye was cast as Olivia." ], [ "Relationship to ''Cheers''", "With the exception of Rebecca Howe (Kirstie Alley), all the surviving main regular cast members of ''Cheers'' made appearances on ''Frasier''.", "Lilith Sternin (Bebe Neuwirth) was the only one to become a recurring character, appearing in a total of twelve episodes.In the eighth-season ''Cheers'' episode \"Two Girls for Every Boyd,\" Frasier tells Sam Malone (played by Ted Danson) that his father, a research scientist, had died.", "In the ''Frasier'' season-two episode \"The Show Where Sam Shows Up,\" when Sam meets Martin, Frasier explains that at the time, he was angry after an argument with his father on the phone; however, in \"The Show Where Woody Shows Up,\" when meeting Martin, Woody says he remembers hearing about him.In the ninth-season episode of ''Frasier'', 2002's Cheerful Goodbyes\", Frasier returns to Boston to give a speech, and Niles, Daphne, and Martin come along to see the city.", "Frasier runs into Cliff Clavin (played by John Ratzenberger) at the airport and learns that Cliff is retiring and moving to Florida.", "Frasier and company attend Cliff's retirement party, where Frasier reunites with the rest of the gang from ''Cheers'' (minus Sam, Woody, Diane and Rebecca), including bar regular Norm Peterson (played by George Wendt), waitress Carla Tortelli (played by Rhea Perlman), barflies Paul Krapence (played by Paul Willson) and Phil (played by Philip Perlman), and Cliff's old post-office nemesis Walt Twitchell (played by Raye Birk).In the 11th-season episode of ''Frasier'', \"Caught in the Act,\" Frasier's married ex-wife, children's entertainer Nanny G, comes to town and invites him backstage for a rendezvous.", "Nanny G appeared on the ''Cheers'' episode \"One Hugs, The Other Doesn't\" (1992) and was portrayed by Emma Thompson.", "In this episode of ''Frasier'', she is portrayed by Laurie Metcalf.", "A younger version of the character (this time played by Dina Waters) appears in the second episode of season 9 of ''Frasier'', \"Don Juan in Hell: Part 2,\" along with Neuwirth and Shelley Long reprising their roles of Lilith and Diane Chambers, respectively.", "In this episode, Rita Wilson also reprises her role as Frasier's mother, Hester, which she briefly debuted in the season 7 premiere, \"Momma Mia;\" in \"Don Juan in Hell: Part 2,\" Diane also references the season 3 episode of ''Cheers'', \"Diane Meets Mom,\" in which Hester (then portrayed by Nancy Marchand) threatens Diane's life.", "Diane (again portrayed by Long) plays a central role in \"The Show Where Diane Comes Back\" (season 3, episode 14) and had a brief cameo in the season 2 episode \"Adventures in Paradise: Part 2\".Some cast members of ''Frasier'' had appeared previously in minor roles on ''Cheers''.", "In the episode \"Do Not Forsake Me, O' My Postman\" (1992), John Mahoney played Sy Flembeck, an over-the-hill jingle writer hired by Rebecca to write a jingle for the bar.", "In it, Grammer and Mahoney exchanged a few lines.", "Peri Gilpin appeared in a ''Cheers'' episode titled \"Woody Gets an Election\" playing a reporter who interviews Woody when he runs for office.The set of ''Frasier'' was built over the set of ''Cheers'' on the same stage after it had finished filming." ], [ "Reception", "=== Critical reaction ===''Frasier'' is one of the most critically acclaimed comedy series of all time and one of the most successful spin-off series in television history.", "Critics and commentators have broadly held the show in high regard.Caroline Frost said that the series overall showed a high level of wit but noted that many critics felt that the marriage of Daphne and Niles in season ten had removed much of the show's comic tension.", "Ken Tucker felt that their marriage made the series seem desperate for storylines, while Robert Bianco felt that it was symptomatic of a show that had begun to dip in quality after so much time on the air.", "Kelsey Grammer acknowledged the creative lull, saying that over the course of two later seasons, the show \"took itself too seriously\".", "Commentators acknowledged that there was an improvement following the return of the writers Christopher Lloyd and Joe Keenan, although not necessarily to its earlier high standards.Writing about the first season, John O'Connor described ''Frasier'' as being a relatively unoriginal concept, but said that it was generally a \"splendid act,\" while Tucker thought that the second season benefited greatly from a mix of \"high and low humor\".", "Tucker's comment is referring to what Grammer described as a rule of the series that the show should not play down to its audience.", "Kevin Cherry believes that ''Frasier'' was able to stay fresh by not making any contemporary commentary, therefore allowing the show to be politically and socially neutral.", "Other commentators, such as Haydn Bush disagree, believing the success of ''Frasier'' can be attributed to the comedic timing and the rapport between the characters.", "Joseph J. Darowski and Kate Darowski praise the overall message of the series, which across eleven seasons sees several lonely, broken individuals develop warm, caring relationships.", "While individual episodes vary in quality, the series as a whole carries with it a definitive theme and evolution from pilot to finale.", "''The Economist'' devoted an article to the 25th anniversary of the show's premiere stating, \"it is clear that audiences still demand the sort of intelligent and heartfelt comedy that ''Frasier'' provided.", "\"In spite of the criticisms of the later seasons, these critics were unanimous in praising at least the early seasons, with varied commentary on the series' demise ranging from believing, like Bianco, that the show had run its course to those like Dana Stevens, who bemoaned the end of ''Frasier'' as the \"end of situation comedy for adults\".", "Critics compared the farcical elements of the series, especially in later seasons, to the older sitcom ''Three's Company''.", "NBC News contributor Wendell Wittler described the moments of misunderstanding as \"inspired by the classic comedy of manners as were the frequent deflations of Frasier’s pomposity\".In 2017, 13 years after the show ended, ''Frasier'' was said to have experienced a \"renaissance\" on Netflix and \"achieved a second life as one of the streaming service's most soothing offerings\".=== Awards ===The series won a total of 37 Primetime Emmy Awards during its 11-year run, breaking the record long held by CBS' ''The Mary Tyler Moore Show'' (29).", "It held the record until 2016 when ''Game of Thrones'' won 38.Grammer and Pierce each won four, including one each for the fifth and eleventh seasons.", "The series is tied with ABC's ''Modern Family'' for the most consecutive wins for Outstanding Comedy Series, winning five from 1994 to 1998.Grammer has been Emmy-nominated for playing Frasier Crane on ''Cheers'' and ''Frasier'', as well as a 1992 crossover appearance on ''Wings'', making him the only performer to be nominated for playing the same role on three different shows.", "The first year Grammer did not receive an Emmy nomination for ''Frasier'' was in 2003 for the 10th season.", "However, Pierce was nominated every year of the show's run, breaking the record for nominations in his category, with his eighth nomination in 2001; he was nominated a further three times after this.In 1994, the episode \"The Matchmaker\" was ranked number 43 on ''TV Guide''s 100 Greatest Episodes of All Time.", "In 2000, the series was named the greatest international programme of all time by a panel of 1,600 industry experts for the British Film Institute as part of BFI TV 100.In 2002, ''Frasier'' was ranked number 34 on ''TV Guide''s 50 Greatest TV Shows of All Time.", "In a 2006 poll taken by Channel 4 of professionals in the sitcom industry, ''Frasier'' was voted the best sitcom of all time.", "In 2013, the Writers Guild of America ranked it #23 on their list of the 101 Best Written TV Series.=== Fanbase and cultural impact ===''Frasier'' began airing in off-network syndication in March 2006.It is available on Cozi TV, Hallmark Channel, Amazon Prime Video, Hulu, Paramount+, Showtime, SkyShowtime, Peacock and Crave in select countries.", "Netflix stopped offering the show in 2020.The show's popularity has resulted in several fan sites, podcasts, and publications.", "Podcasts that look primarily at the show include ''Talk Salad and Scrambled Eggs'' with Kevin Smith and Matt Mira and ''Frasierphiles.", "''A soundtrack to the series was released in 2001.==== Books ====* ''Cafe Nervosa: The Connoisseur's Cookbook,'' claimed to be authored by Frasier and Niles Crane and published while the show was still in production.", "* ''Frasier: A Cultural History'' by Joseph J. Darowski and Kate Darowski, published by Rowman & Littlfield in 2017 as part of their ''Cultural History of Television'' series, analyzes the show and offers insights into onscreen stories and behind-the-scenes efforts to shape it.", "* ''Frasier: The Official Companion to the Award-Winning Paramount Television Comedy'' by Jefferson Graham offers a behind-the-scenes look at the series and several collections of scripts.", "* ''My Life as a Dog'', published as an autobiography of Moose, the dog who played Eddie in the first several seasons." ], [ "Merchandising", "=== Home media ===Paramount Home Entertainment (through CBS DVD starting in 2006) released all 11 seasons of ''Frasier'' on DVD in Region 1, 2 and 4.A 44-disc package containing the entire 11 seasons was also released.On April 7, 2015, CBS DVD released ''Frasier: The Complete Series'' on DVD in Region 1.On November 8, 2022, Paramount Pictures released ''Frasier: The Complete Series'' on Blu-ray as a box set, containing 33 Blu-ray Discs with some extra's and behind the scenes.Paramount+ now has all Frasier's eleven seasons in high definition to better conform with the 2022 blu-ray set of the series.", "This is the only streamer to do it in high definition; other streamers where the series resides, such as Hulu, have the early season episodes still in their standard definition 4:3 aspect ratio as they originally aired.+DVD releases of ''Frasier'' DVD Name Ep # Release dates Region 1 Region 2 Region 4 The Complete 1st Season 24 May 20, 2003 November 24, 2003 January 13, 2004 The Complete 2nd Season January 6, 2004 June 7, 2004 June 3, 2004 The Complete 3rd Season May 25, 2004 September 6, 2004 September 10, 2004 The Complete 4th Season February 1, 2005 July 18, 2005 July 20, 2005 The Complete 5th Season June 7, 2005 November 27, 2006 January 11, 2007 The Complete 6th Season September 13, 2005 May 14, 2007 May 3, 2007 The Complete 7th Season November 15, 2005 July 9, 2007 July 12, 2007 The Complete 8th Season June 13, 2006 February 4, 2008 February 14, 2008 The Complete 9th Season May 15, 2007 April 28, 2008 July 31, 2008 The Complete 10th Season December 11, 2007 July 28, 2008 November 6, 2008 The Complete 11th & Final Season November 16, 2004 September 15, 2008 January 15, 2009 The Complete Series 264 April 7, 2015 October 6, 2008 July 30, 2009 Christmas Episodes 8 October 10, 2017 The first four seasons were also released on VHS along with a series of 'Best Of' tapes.", "These tapes consisted of four episodes taken from seasons 1–4.+VHS releases of ''Frasier'' Video name Release date''The Best of Frasier 1 – From Boston to Seattle'' 1999''The Best of Frasier 2 – Crane Vs. Crane'' 1999''The Best of Frasier 3 – Serial Dater'' 1999''The Best of Frasier 4 – Like Father Like Sons'' 1999''The Best of Frasier 5 – Brotherly Love'' 1999''The Best of Frasier 6 – Love Is in the Air'' 1999''The Best of Frasier Box Set'' 1999''The Complete 1st Season'' July 16, 2001''The Complete 2nd Season'' December 3, 2001''Season 3 – Part 1'' May 6, 2002''Season 3 – Part 2'' July 1, 2002''Season 4 – Part 1'' October 14, 2002''Season 4 – Part 2'' November 18, 2002One ''Frasier'' CD was released featuring a number of songs taken from the show: ''Tossed Salads & Scrambled Eggs'' was released on October 24, 2000.=== Books ===Several books about ''Frasier'' have been released, including:+''Frasier'' books Title Publisher ISBN''The Best of Frasier'' Channel 4 Books ''Cafe Nervosa: The Connoisseur's Cookbook'' Oxmoor House ''Frasier'' Pocket Books ''The Frasier Scripts'' Newmarket Press ''Goodnight Seattle'' Virgin Books ''Goodnight Seattle II'' Virgin Books ''What's Your \"Frasier\" IQ: 501 Questions and Answers for Fans'' Carol Publishing ''The Very Best of Frasier'' Channel 4 Books ''Frasier: A Cultural History (The Cultural History of Television)'' Rowman & Littlefield" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * " ], [ "External links", " *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Fantasy Games Unlimited" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Fantasy Games Unlimited''' ('''FGU''') is a publishing house for tabletop and role-playing games.", "The company has no in-house design teams and relies on submitted material from outside talent." ], [ "History", "Founded in the summer of 1975 in Jericho, New York by Scott Bizar, the company's first publications were the wargames ''Gladiators'' and ''Royal Armies of the Hyborean Age''.", "Upon the appearance and popularity of ''Dungeons & Dragons'' from TSR, the company turned its attentions to role-playing games, seeking and producing systems from amateurs and freelancers, paying them 10% of the gross receipts.", "FGU also copyrighted their games in the name of the designer so that the designer would receive any additional royalties for licensed figurines and other uses.", "Rather than focusing on one line and supporting it with supplements, FGU produced a stream of new games.", "Because of the disparate authors, the rules systems were incompatible.", "FGU Incorporated published dozens of role-playing games.Fantasy Games Unlimited won the All Time Best Ancient Medieval Rules for 1979 H.G.", "Wells Award at Origins 1980 for ''Chivalry & Sorcery''.In 1991, Fantasy Games Unlimited Inc. was dissolved as a New York corporation.", "Bizar continues to publish in Arizona as a sole proprietorship called Fantasy Games Unlimited.A new FGU website appeared in July 2006 offering the company's back catalog.", "It said that new products would be \"coming soon\".", "New ''Aftermath!''", "products appeared in 2008.By 2010, much of the company's back catalog was available.", "At that time, FGU sought submissions for new adventures for their existing titles, primarily ''Aftermath!, Space Opera, and Villains and Vigilantes''." ], [ "Publications", "* ''Aftermath!", "''* ''Archworld'' (1977)* ''Bireme & Galley'' (1978) * ''Blue Light Manual''* ''Broadsword''* ''Bunnies & Burrows''* ''Bushido''* ''Castle Plans''* ''Chivalry & Sorcery'' (1st & 2nd editions)* ''Citadel''* ''Daredevils''* ''Diadem''* ''Down Styphon!", "''* ''Fire, Hack & Run''* ''Flash Gordon & the Warriors of Mongo''* ''Flashing Blades''* ''Frederick the Great''* ''Freedom Fighters''* ''Galactic Conquest''* ''Gangster!", "''* ''Gladiators''* ''Land of the Rising Sun''* ''Lands of Adventure''* ''Legion''* ''Lords & Wizards''* ''Madame Guillotine''* ''Merc''* ''Mercenary''* ''Middle Sea''* ''Odysseus''* ''Oregon Trail''* ''Other Suns''* ''Pieces of Eight''* ''Privateers & Gentlemen''* ''Psi World''* ''Royal Armies of the Hyborean Age''* ''Skull and Crossbones: Roleplay on the Spanish Main''* ''Space Marines''* ''Space Opera''* ''Star Explorer''* ''Starship: The Game of Space Contact''* ''Starships & Spacemen'' (now owned by Goblinoid Games)* ''Swordbearer''* ''The Blue-Light Manual''* ''Towers for Tyrants''* ''Tyrannosaurus wrecks''* ''Villains and Vigilantes''* ''War of the Ring''* ''War of the Sky Cities''* ''Wargaming magazine''* ''Wild West''* ''Year of the Phoenix''" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * Mirror of the old official FGU site* Interview with Scott Bizar" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Functional decomposition" ], [ "Introduction", "In engineering, '''functional decomposition''' is the process of resolving a functional relationship into its constituent parts in such a way that the original function can be reconstructed (i.e., recomposed) from those parts.This process of decomposition may be undertaken to gain insight into the identity of the constituent components, which may reflect individual physical processes of interest.", "Also, functional decomposition may result in a compressed representation of the global function, a task which is feasible only when the constituent processes possess a certain level of ''modularity'' (i.e., independence or non-interaction).", "between the components are critical to the function of the collection.", "All interactions may not be , but possibly deduced through repetitive , synthesis, validation and verification of composite behavior." ], [ "Motivation for decomposition", "Causal influences on West Side Highway traffic.", "Weather and GW Bridge traffic ''screen off'' other influencesDecomposition of a function into non-interacting components generally permits more economical representations of the function.", "Intuitively, this reduction in representation size is achieved simply because each variable depends only on a subset of the other variables.", "Thus, variable only depends directly on variable , rather than depending on the ''entire set'' of variables.", "We would say that variable ''screens off'' variable from the rest of the world.", "Practical examples of this phenomenon surround us.", "Consider the particular case of \"northbound traffic on the West Side Highway.\"", "Let us assume this variable () takes on three possible values of {\"moving slow\", \"moving deadly slow\", \"not moving at all\"}.", "Now, let's say the variable depends on two other variables, \"weather\" with values of {\"sun\", \"rain\", \"snow\"}, and \"GW Bridge traffic\" with values {\"10mph\", \"5mph\", \"1mph\"}.", "The point here is that while there are certainly many secondary variables that affect the weather variable (e.g., low pressure system over Canada, butterfly flapping in Japan, etc.)", "and the Bridge traffic variable (e.g., an accident on I-95, presidential motorcade, etc.)", "all these other secondary variables are not directly relevant to the West Side Highway traffic.", "All we need (hypothetically) in order to predict the West Side Highway traffic is the weather and the GW Bridge traffic, because these two variables ''screen off'' West Side Highway traffic from all other potential influences.", "That is, all other influences act ''through'' them." ], [ "Applications", "Practical applications of functional decomposition are found in Bayesian networks, structural equation modeling, linear systems, and database systems.===Knowledge representation===Processes related to functional decomposition are prevalent throughout the fields of knowledge representation and machine learning.", "Hierarchical model induction techniques such as Logic circuit minimization, decision trees, grammatical inference, hierarchical clustering, and quadtree decomposition are all examples of function decomposition.", "A review of other applications and function decomposition can be found in , which also presents methods based on information theory and graph theory.Many statistical inference methods can be thought of as implementing a function decomposition process in the presence of noise; that is, where functional dependencies are only expected to hold ''approximately''.", "Among such models are mixture models and the recently popular methods referred to as \"causal decompositions\" or Bayesian networks.===Database theory===See database normalization.===Machine learning===In practical scientific applications, it is almost never possible to achieve perfect functional decomposition because of the incredible complexity of the systems under study.", "This complexity is manifested in the presence of \"noise,\" which is just a designation for all the unwanted and untraceable influences on our observations.However, while perfect functional decomposition is usually impossible, the spirit lives on in a large number of statistical methods that are equipped to deal with noisy systems.", "When a natural or artificial system is intrinsically hierarchical, the joint distribution on system variables should provide evidence of this hierarchical structure.", "The task of an observer who seeks to understand the system is then to infer the hierarchical structure from observations of these variables.", "This is the notion behind the hierarchical decomposition of a joint distribution, the attempt to recover something of the intrinsic hierarchical structure which generated that joint distribution.As an example, Bayesian network methods attempt to decompose a joint distribution along its causal fault lines, thus \"cutting nature at its seams\".", "The essential motivation behind these methods is again that within most systems (natural or artificial), relatively few components/events interact with one another directly on equal footing .", "Rather, one observes pockets of dense connections (direct interactions) among small subsets of components, but only loose connections between these densely connected subsets.", "There is thus a notion of \"causal proximity\" in physical systems under which variables naturally precipitate into small clusters.", "Identifying these clusters and using them to represent the joint provides the basis for great efficiency of storage (relative to the full joint distribution) as well as for potent inference algorithms.===Software architecture===Functional Decomposition is a design method intending to produce a non-implementation, architectural description of a computer program.", "The software architect first establishes a series of functions and types that accomplishes the main processing problem of the computer program, decomposes each to reveal common functions and types, and finally derives Modules from this activity.===Signal processing===Functional decomposition is used in the analysis of many signal processing systems, such as LTI systems.", "The input signal to an LTI system can be expressed as a function, .", "Then can be decomposed into a linear combination of other functions, called component signals:::Here, are the component signals.", "Note that are constants.", "This decomposition aids in analysis, because now the output of the system can be expressed in terms of the components of the input.", "If we let represent the effect of the system, then the output signal is , which can be expressed as:::::In other words, the system can be seen as acting separately on each of the components of the input signal.", "Commonly used examples of this type of decomposition are the Fourier series and the Fourier transform.===Systems engineering ===Functional decomposition in systems engineering refers to the process of defining a system in functional terms, then defining lower-level functions and sequencing relationships from these higher level systems functions.", "The basic idea is to try to divide a system in such a way that each block of a block diagram can be described without an \"and\" or \"or\" in the description.This exercise forces each part of the system to have a pure function.", "When a system is designed as pure functions, they can be reused, or replaced.", "A usual side effect is that the interfaces between blocks become simple and generic.", "Since the interfaces usually become simple, it is easier to replace a pure function with a related, similar function.For example, say that one needs to make a stereo system.", "One might functionally decompose this into speakers, amplifier, a tape deck and a front panel.", "Later, when a different model needs an audio CD, it can probably fit the same interfaces." ], [ "See also", "Bayesian networksCurryingDatabase normalizationFunction compositionInductive inferenceKnowledge representation" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * * * ** ....", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Franz Boas" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Franz Uri Boas''' (July 9, 1858 – December 21, 1942) was a German-American anthropologist and a pioneer of modern anthropology who has been called the \"Father of American Anthropology\".", "His work is associated with the movements known as historical particularism and cultural relativism.Studying in Germany, Boas was awarded a doctorate in 1881 in physics while also studying geography.", "He then participated in a geographical expedition to northern Canada, where he became fascinated with the culture and language of the Baffin Island Inuit.", "He went on to do field work with the indigenous cultures and languages of the Pacific Northwest.", "In 1887 he emigrated to the United States, where he first worked as a museum curator at the Smithsonian, and in 1899 became a professor of anthropology at Columbia University, where he remained for the rest of his career.", "Through his students, many of whom went on to found anthropology departments and research programmes inspired by their mentor, Boas profoundly influenced the development of American anthropology.", "Among his many significant students were A. L. Kroeber, Alexander Goldenweiser, Ruth Benedict, Edward Sapir, Margaret Mead, Zora Neale Hurston, and Gilberto Freyre.Boas was one of the most prominent opponents of the then-popular ideologies of scientific racism, the idea that race is a biological concept and that human behavior is best understood through the typology of biological characteristics.", "In a series of groundbreaking studies of skeletal anatomy, he showed that cranial shape and size was highly malleable depending on environmental factors such as health and nutrition, in contrast to the claims by racial anthropologists of the day that held head shape to be a stable racial trait.", "Boas also worked to demonstrate that differences in human behavior are not primarily determined by innate biological dispositions but are largely the result of cultural differences acquired through social learning.", "In this way, Boas introduced culture as the primary concept for describing differences in behavior between human groups, and as the central analytical concept of anthropology.Among Boas's main contributions to anthropological thought was his rejection of the then-popular evolutionary approaches to the study of culture, which saw all societies progressing through a set of hierarchic technological and cultural stages, with Western European culture at the summit.", "Boas argued that culture developed historically through the interactions of groups of people and the diffusion of ideas and that consequently there was no process towards continuously \"higher\" cultural forms.", "This insight led Boas to reject the \"stage\"-based organization of ethnological museums, instead preferring to order items on display based on the affinity and proximity of the cultural groups in question.Boas also introduced the idea of cultural relativism, which holds that cultures cannot be objectively ranked as higher or lower, or better or more correct, but that all humans see the world through the lens of their own culture, and judge it according to their own culturally acquired norms.", "For Boas, the object of anthropology was to understand the way in which culture conditioned people to understand and interact with the world in different ways and to do this it was necessary to gain an understanding of the language and cultural practices of the people studied.", "By uniting the disciplines of archaeology, the study of material culture and history, and physical anthropology, the study of variation in human anatomy, with ethnology, the study of cultural variation of customs, and descriptive linguistics, the study of unwritten indigenous languages, Boas created the four-field subdivision of anthropology which became prominent in American anthropology in the 20th century." ], [ "Early life and education", "Franz Boas was born on July 9, 1858, in Minden, Westphalia, the son of Sophie Meyer and Feibes Uri Boas.", "Although his grandparents were observant Jews, his parents embraced Enlightenment values, including their assimilation into modern German society.", "Boas's parents were educated, well-to-do, and liberal; they did not like dogma of any kind.", "An important early influence was the avuncular Abraham Jacobi, his mother's brother-in-law and a friend of Karl Marx, who was to advise him throughout Boas's career.", "Due to this, Boas was granted the independence to think for himself and pursue his own interests.", "Early in life, he displayed a penchant for both nature and natural sciences.", "Boas vocally opposed antisemitism and refused to convert to Christianity, but he did not identify himself as a Jew.", "This is disputed however by Ruth Bunzel, a protégée of Boas, who called him \"the essential protestant; he valued autonomy above all things.\"", "According to his biographer, \"He was an 'ethnic' German, preserving and promoting German culture and values in America.\"", "In an autobiographical sketch, Boas wrote:The background of my early thinking was a German home in which the ideals of the revolution of 1848 were a living force.", "My father, liberal, but not active in public affairs; my mother, idealistic, with a lively interest in public matters; the founder about 1854 of the kindergarten in my hometown, devoted to science.", "My parents had broken through the shackles of dogma.", "My father had retained an emotional affection for the ceremonial of his parental home, without allowing it to influence his intellectual freedom.From kindergarten on, Boas was educated in natural history, a subject he enjoyed.", "In gymnasium, he was most proud of his research on the geographic distribution of plants.Boas's dissertation: ''Beiträge zur Erkenntniss der Farbe des Wassers''When he started his university studies, Boas first attended Heidelberg University for a semester followed by four terms at Bonn University, studying physics, geography, and mathematics at these schools.", "In 1879, he hoped to transfer to Berlin University to study physics under Hermann von Helmholtz, but ended up transferring to the University of Kiel instead due to family reasons.", "At Kiel, Boas had wanted to focus on the mathematical topic of C.F.", "Gauss's law of the normal distribution of errors for his dissertation, but he ultimately had to settle for a topic chosen for him by his doctoral advisor, physicist Gustav Karsten, on the optical properties of water.", "Boas completed his dissertation entitled ''Contributions to the Perception of the Color of Water,'' which examined the absorption, reflection, and polarization of light in water, and was awarded a PhD in physics in 1881.While at Bonn, Boas had attended geography classes taught by the geographer Theobald Fischer and the two established a friendship, with the coursework and friendship continuing after both relocated to Kiel at the same time.", "Fischer, a student of Carl Ritter, rekindled Boas's interest in geography and ultimately had more influence on him than did Karsten, and thus some biographers view Boas as more of a geographer than a physicist at this stage.", "In addition to the major in physics, Adams, citing Kroeber, states that \"in accordance with German tradition at the time... he also had to defend six minor theses\", and Boas likely completed a minor in geography, which would explain why Fischer was one of Boas's degree examiners.", "Because of this close relationship between Fischer and Boas, some biographers have gone so far as to incorrectly state that Boas \"followed\" Fischer to Kiel, and that Boas received a PhD in geography with Fischer as his doctoral advisor.", "For his part, Boas self-identified as a geographer by the time he completed his doctorate, prompting his sister, Toni, to write in 1883, \"After long years of infidelity, my brother was re-conquered by geography, the first love of his boyhood.", "\"In his dissertation research, Boas's methodology included investigating how different intensities of light created different colors when interacting with different types of water; however, he encountered difficulty in being able to objectively perceive slight differences in the color of water, and as a result became intrigued by this problem of perception and its influence on quantitative measurements.", "Boas, due to tone deafness, would later encounter difficulties also in studying tonal languages such as Laguna.", "Boas had already been interested in Kantian philosophy since taking a course on aesthetics with Kuno Fischer at Heidelberg.", "These factors led Boas to consider pursuing research in psychophysics, which explores the relationship between the psychological and the physical, after completing his doctorate, but he had no training in psychology.", "Boas did publish six articles on psychophysics during his year of military service (1882–1883), but ultimately he decided to focus on geography, primarily so he could receive sponsorship for his planned Baffin Island expedition." ], [ "Post-graduate studies", "Boas took up geography as a way to explore his growing interest in the relationship between subjective experience and the objective world.", "At the time, German geographers were divided over the causes of cultural variation.", "Many argued that the physical environment was the principal determining factor, but others (notably Friedrich Ratzel) argued that the diffusion of ideas through human migration is more important.", "In 1883, encouraged by Theobald Fischer, Boas went to Baffin Island to conduct geographic research on the impact of the physical environment on native Inuit migrations.", "The first of many ethnographic field trips, Boas culled his notes to write his first monograph titled ''The Central Eskimo'', which was published in 1888 in the 6th Annual Report from the Bureau of American Ethnology.", "Boas lived and worked closely with the Inuit on Baffin Island, and he developed an abiding interest in the way people lived.In the perpetual darkness of the Arctic winter, Boas reported, he and his traveling companion became lost and were forced to keep sledding for twenty-six hours through ice, soft snow, and temperatures that dropped below −46 °C.", "The following day, Boas penciled in his diary,Boas went on to explain in the same entry that \"all service, therefore, which a man can perform for humanity must serve to promote truth.\"", "Before his departure, his father had insisted he be accompanied by one of the family's servants, Wilhelm Weike who cooked for him and kept a journal of the expedition.", "Boas was nonetheless forced to depend on various Inuit groups for everything from directions and food to shelter and companionship.", "It was a difficult year filled with tremendous hardships that included frequent bouts of disease, mistrust, pestilence, and danger.", "Boas successfully searched for areas not yet surveyed and found unique ethnographic objects, but the long winter and the lonely treks across perilous terrain forced him to search his soul to find a direction for his life as a scientist and a citizen.Boas's interest in indigenous communities grew as he worked at the Royal Ethnological Museum in Berlin, where he was introduced to members of the Nuxalk Nation of British Columbia, which sparked a lifelong relationship with the First Nations of the Pacific Northwest.He returned to Berlin to complete his studies.", "In 1886, Boas defended (with Helmholtz's support) his habilitation thesis, ''Baffin Land'', and was named in geography.While on Baffin Island he began to develop his interest in studying non-Western cultures (resulting in his book, ''The Central Eskimo'', published in 1888).", "In 1885, Boas went to work with physical anthropologist Rudolf Virchow and ethnologist Adolf Bastian at the Royal Ethnological Museum in Berlin.", "Boas had studied anatomy with Virchow two years earlier while preparing for the Baffin Island expedition.", "At the time, Virchow was involved in a vociferous debate over evolution with his former student, Ernst Haeckel.", "Haeckel had abandoned his medical practice to study comparative anatomy after reading Charles Darwin's ''The Origin of Species'', and vigorously promoted Darwin's ideas in Germany.", "However, like most other natural scientists prior to the rediscovery of Mendelian genetics in 1900 and the development of the modern synthesis, Virchow felt that Darwin's theories were weak because they lacked a theory of cellular mutability.", "Accordingly, Virchow favored Lamarckian models of evolution.", "This debate resonated with debates among geographers.", "Lamarckians believed that environmental forces could precipitate rapid and enduring changes in organisms that had no inherited source; thus, Lamarckians and environmental determinists often found themselves on the same side of debates.But Boas worked more closely with Bastian, who was noted for his antipathy to environmental determinism.", "Instead, he argued for the \"psychic unity of mankind\", a belief that all humans had the same intellectual capacity, and that all cultures were based on the same basic mental principles.", "Variations in custom and belief, he argued, were the products of historical accidents.", "This view resonated with Boas's experiences on Baffin Island and drew him towards anthropology.While at the Royal Ethnological Museum Boas became interested in the Native Americans in the Pacific Northwest, and after defending his habilitation thesis, he left for a three-month trip to British Columbia via New York.", "In January 1887, he was offered a job as assistant editor of the journal ''Science''.", "Alienated by growing antisemitism and nationalism as well as the very limited academic opportunities for a geographer in Germany, Boas decided to stay in the United States.", "Possibly he received additional motivation for this decision from his romance with Marie Krackowizer, whom he married in the same year.", "With a family underway and under financial stress, Boas also resorted to pilfering bones and skulls from native burial sites to sell to museums.Aside from his editorial work at ''Science'', Boas secured an appointment as ''docent'' in anthropology at Clark University, in 1888.Boas was concerned about university president G. Stanley Hall's interference in his research, yet in 1889 he was appointed as the head of a newly created department of anthropology at Clark University.", "In the early 1890s, he went on a series of expeditions which were referred to as the Morris K. Jesup Expedition.", "The primary goal of these expeditions was to illuminate Asiatic-American relations.", "In 1892 Boas, along with another member of the Clark faculty, resigned in protest of the alleged infringement by Hall on academic freedom." ], [ "World's Columbian Exposition", "Anthropologist Frederic Ward Putnam, director and curator of the Peabody Museum at Harvard University, who had been appointed as head of the Department of Ethnology and Archeology for the Chicago Fair in 1892, chose Boas as his first assistant at Chicago to prepare for the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition or Chicago World's Fair, the 400th anniversary of Christopher Columbus's arrival in the Americas.", "Boas had a chance to apply his approach to exhibits.", "Boas directed a team of about one hundred assistants, mandated to create anthropology and ethnology exhibits on the Indians of North America and South America that were living at the time Christopher Columbus arrived in America while searching for India.", "Putnam intended the World's Columbian Exposition to be a celebration of Columbus' voyage.", "Putnam argued that showing late nineteenth century Inuit and First Nations (then called Eskimo and Indians) \"in their natural conditions of life\" would provide a contrast and celebrate the four centuries of Western accomplishments since 1493.Franz Boas traveled north to gather ethnographic material for the Exposition.", "Boas had intended public science in creating exhibitions for the Exposition where visitors to the Midway could learn about other cultures.", "Boas arranged for fourteen Kwakwaka'wakw aboriginals from British Columbia to come and reside in a mock Kwakwaka'wakw village, where they could perform their daily tasks in context.", "Inuit were there with 12-foot-long whips made of sealskin, wearing sealskin clothing and showing how adept they were in sealskin kayaks.", "His experience with the Exposition provided the first of a series of shocks to Franz Boas's faith in public anthropology.", "The visitors were not there to be educated.", "By 1916, Boas had come to recognize with a certain resignation that \"the number of people in our country who are willing and able to enter into the modes of thought of other nations is altogether too small ...", "The American who is cognizant only of his own standpoint sets himself up as arbiter of the world.", "\"After the exposition, the ethnographic material collected formed the basis of the newly created Field Museum in Chicago with Boas as the curator of anthropology.", "He worked there until 1894, when he was replaced (against his will) by BAE archeologist William Henry Holmes.In 1896, Boas was appointed Assistant Curator of Ethnology and Somatology of the American Museum of Natural History under Putnam.", "In 1897, he organized the Jesup North Pacific Expedition, a five-year-long field-study of the nations of the Pacific Northwest, whose ancestors had migrated across the Bering Strait from Siberia.", "He attempted to organize exhibits along contextual, rather than evolutionary, lines.", "He also developed a research program in line with his curatorial goals: describing his instructions to his students in terms of widening contexts of interpretation within a society, he explained that \"... they get the specimens; they get explanations of the specimens; they get connected texts that partly refer to the specimens and partly to abstract things concerning the people; and they get grammatical information\".", "These widening contexts of interpretation were abstracted into one context, the context in which the specimens, or assemblages of specimens, would be displayed: \"... we want a collection arranged according to tribes, in order to teach the particular style of each group\".", "His approach, however, brought him into conflict with the President of the Museum, Morris Jesup, and its director, Hermon Bumpus.", "By 1900 Boas had begun to retreat from American museum anthropology as a tool of education or reform (Hinsley 1992: 361).", "He resigned in 1905, never to work for a museum again." ], [ "Late 19th century debates", "===Science versus history===Some scholars, like Boas's student Alfred Kroeber, believed that Boas used his research in physics as a model for his work in anthropology.", "Many others, however—including Boas's student Alexander Lesser, and later researchers such as Marian W. Smith, Herbert S. Lewis, and Matti Bunzl—have pointed out that Boas explicitly rejected physics in favor of history as a model for his anthropological research.This distinction between science and history has its origins in 19th-century German academe, which distinguished between ''Naturwissenschaften'' (the sciences) and ''Geisteswissenschaften'' (the humanities), or between ''Gesetzwissenschaften'' (the law - giving sciences) and ''Geschichtswissenschaften'' (history).", "Generally, ''Naturwissenschaften'' and ''Gesetzwissenschaften'' refer to the study of phenomena that are governed by objective natural laws, while the latter terms in the two oppositions refer to those phenomena that have to mean only in terms of human perception or experience.In 1884, Kantian philosopher Wilhelm Windelband coined the terms nomothetic and idiographic to describe these two divergent approaches.", "He observed that most scientists employ some mix of both, but in differing proportions; he considered physics a perfect example of a nomothetic science, and history, an idiographic science.", "Moreover, he argued that each approach has its origin in one of the two \"interests\" of reason Kant had identified in the ''Critique of Judgement''—one \"generalizing\", the other \"specifying\".", "(Winkelband's student Heinrich Rickert elaborated on this distinction in ''The Limits of Concept Formation in Natural Science : A Logical Introduction to the Historical Sciences''; Boas's students Alfred Kroeber and Edward Sapir relied extensively on this work in defining their own approach to anthropology.", ")Although Kant considered these two interests of reason to be objective and universal, the distinction between the natural and human sciences was institutionalized in Germany, through the organization of scholarly research and teaching, following the Enlightenment.", "In Germany, the Enlightenment was dominated by Kant himself, who sought to establish principles based on universal rationality.", "In reaction to Kant, German scholars such as Johann Gottfried Herder (an influence to Boas) argued that human creativity, which necessarily takes unpredictable and highly diverse forms, is as important as human rationality.", "In 1795, the great linguist and philosopher Wilhelm von Humboldt called for an anthropology that would synthesize Kant's and Herder's interests.", "Humboldt founded the University of Berlin in 1809, and his work in geography, history, and psychology provided the milieu in which Boas's intellectual orientation matured.Historians working in the Humboldtian tradition developed ideas that would become central in Boasian anthropology.", "Leopold von Ranke defined the task of the historian as \"merely to show as it actually was\", which is a cornerstone of Boas's empiricism.", "Wilhelm Dilthey emphasized the centrality of \"understanding\" to human knowledge, and that the lived experience of a historian could provide a basis for an empathic understanding of the situation of a historical actor.", "For Boas, both values were well-expressed in a quote from Goethe: \"A single action or event is interesting, not because it is explainable, but because it is true.", "\"The influence of these ideas on Boas is apparent in his 1887 essay, \"The Study of Geography\", in which he distinguished between physical science, which seeks to discover the laws governing phenomena, and historical science, which seeks a thorough understanding of phenomena on their own terms.", "Boas argued that geography is and must be historical in this sense.", "In 1887, after his Baffin Island expedition, Boas wrote \"The Principles of Ethnological Classification\", in which he developed this argument in application to anthropology:This formulation echoes Ratzel's focus on historical processes of human migration and culture contact and Bastian's rejection of environmental determinism.", "It also emphasizes culture as a context (\"surroundings\"), and the importance of history.", "These are the hallmarks of Boasian anthropology (which Marvin Harris would later call \"historical particularism\"), would guide Boas's research over the next decade, as well as his instructions to future students.", "(See Lewis 2001b for an alternative view to Harris'.", ")Although context and history were essential elements to Boas's understanding of anthropology as ''Geisteswissenschaften'' and ''Geschichtswissenschaften'', there is one essential element that Boasian anthropology shares with ''Naturwissenschaften'': empiricism.", "In 1949, Boas's student Alfred Kroeber summed up the three principles of empiricism that define Boasian anthropology as a science:# The method of science is, to begin with, questions, not with answers, least of all with value judgments.# Science is a dispassionate inquiry and therefore cannot take over outright any ideologies \"already formulated in everyday life\" since these are themselves inevitably traditional and normally tinged with emotional prejudice.# Sweeping all-or-none, black-and-white judgments are characteristic of categorical attitudes and have no place in science, whose very nature is inferential and judicious.===Orthogenetic versus Darwinian evolution===An illustration from ''Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature'' (1863) by Thomas Henry Huxley, which became emblematic of the now-discredited idea of evolution as linear progress.One of the greatest accomplishments of Boas and his students was their critique of theories of physical, social, and cultural evolution current at that time.", "This critique is central to Boas's work in museums, as well as his work in all four fields of anthropology.", "As historian George Stocking noted, however, Boas's main project was to distinguish between biological and cultural heredity, and to focus on the cultural processes that he believed had the greatest influence over social life.", "In fact, Boas supported Darwinian theory, although he did not assume that it automatically applied to cultural and historical phenomena (and indeed was a lifelong opponent of 19th-century theories of cultural evolution, such as those of Lewis H. Morgan and Edward Burnett Tylor).", "The notion of evolution that the Boasians ridiculed and rejected was the then dominant belief in orthogenesis—a determinate or teleological process of evolution in which change occurs progressively regardless of natural selection.", "Boas rejected the prevalent theories of social evolution developed by Edward Burnett Tylor, Lewis Henry Morgan, and Herbert Spencer not because he rejected the notion of \"evolution\" per se, but because he rejected orthogenetic notions of evolution in favor of Darwinian evolution.The difference between these prevailing theories of cultural evolution and Darwinian theory cannot be overstated: the orthogeneticists argued that all societies progress through the same stages in the same sequence.", "Thus, although the Inuit with whom Boas worked at Baffin Island, and the Germans with whom he studied as a graduate student, were contemporaries of one another, evolutionists argued that the Inuit were at an earlier stage in their evolution, and Germans at a later stage.Boasians argued that virtually every claim made by cultural evolutionists was contradicted by the data, or reflected a profound misinterpretation of the data.", "As Boas's student Robert Lowie remarked, \"Contrary to some misleading statements on the subject, there have been no responsible opponents of evolution as 'scientifically proved', though there has been determined hostility to an evolutionary metaphysics that falsifies the established facts\".", "In an unpublished lecture, Boas characterized his debt to Darwin thus:Although the idea does not appear quite definitely expressed in Darwin's discussion of the development of mental powers, it seems quite clear that his main object has been to express his conviction that the mental faculties developed essentially without a purposive end, but they originated as variations, and were continued by natural selection.", "This idea was also brought out very clearly by Wallace, who emphasized that apparently reasonable activities of man might very well have developed without an actual application of reasoning.Thus, Boas suggested that what appear to be patterns or structures in a culture were not a product of conscious design, but rather the outcome of diverse mechanisms that produce cultural variation (such as diffusion and independent invention), shaped by the social environment in which people live and act.", "Boas concluded his lecture by acknowledging the importance of Darwin's work: \"I hope I may have succeeded in presenting to you, however imperfectly, the currents of thought due to the work of the immortal Darwin which have helped to make anthropology what it is at the present time.\"" ], [ "Clash With Maurice Fishberg, Joseph Jacobs and Ellsworth Huntington", "During Maurice Fishberg's time as a medical examiner he recorded skull and nose measurements of Jewish immigrants through which he originally asserted a genetic difference between Jews and non-Jews to describe them as another race along with Joseph Jacobs.", "However his theories were largely discredited by Franz Boas through the application of the scientific method.", "Opposed to the narrow or vertically arranged studies which Maurice Fishberg conducted which completely ignored the Jewish ethnicity ie culture, religion, and even family in the case of adoptions Franz Boas looked at all of those factors as well as across multiple generations and in multiple geographic locations to determine there to be no discernable genetic difference between Jews and non-Jews.", "This combined with the growth of what Max J. Kholer called Hitlerism or later Nazism in Germany resulted in a national summit where Franz Boas who had legally and scientifically been determined to be the factually correct opinion on the genetics of the Jewish people presided as guest of honor as Maurice Fishberg along with Ellsworth Huntington discredited their prior works before The Judaens and the Jewish Academy of Sciences on March 4, 1934 to emphatically state that there is no genetic difference between Jew and non-Jew nor and superior race.", "Later this discussion was distributed by Congregation B'nai B'rith in Cincinnati, Ohio." ], [ "Early career: museum studies", "In the late 19th century anthropology in the United States was dominated by the Bureau of American Ethnology, directed by John Wesley Powell, a geologist who favored Lewis Henry Morgan's theory of cultural evolution.", "The BAE was housed at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, and the Smithsonian's curator for ethnology, Otis T. Mason, shared Powell's commitment to cultural evolution.", "(The Peabody Museum at Harvard University was an important, though lesser, center of anthropological research).", "\"Franz Boas posing for figure in US Natural History Museum exhibit entitled \"Hamats'a coming out of secret room\" 1895 or before.", "Courtesy of National Anthropology Archives.", "(Kwakiutl culture)It was while working on museum collections and exhibitions that Boas formulated his basic approach to culture, which led him to break with museums and seek to establish anthropology as an academic discipline.During this period Boas made five more trips to the Pacific Northwest.", "His continuing field research led him to think of culture as a local context for human action.", "His emphasis on local context and history led him to oppose the dominant model at the time, cultural evolution.Boas initially broke with evolutionary theory over the issue of kinship.", "Lewis Henry Morgan had argued that all human societies move from an initial form of matrilineal organization to patrilineal organization.", "First Nations groups on the northern coast of British Columbia, like the Tsimshian, and Tlingit, were organized into matrilineal clans.", "First Nations on the southern coast, like the Nootka and the Salish, however, were organized into patrilineal groups.", "Boas focused on the Kwakiutl, who lived between the two clusters.", "The Kwakiutl seemed to have a mix of features.", "Prior to marriage, a man would assume his wife's father's name and crest.", "His children took on these names and crests as well, although his sons would lose them when they got married.", "Names and crests thus stayed in the mother's line.", "At first, Boas—like Morgan before him—suggested that the Kwakiutl had been matrilineal like their neighbors to the north, but that they were beginning to evolve patrilineal groups.", "In 1897, however, he repudiated himself, and argued that the Kwakiutl were changing from a prior patrilineal organization to a matrilineal one, as they learned about matrilineal principles from their northern neighbors.Boas's rejection of Morgan's theories led him, in an 1887 article, to challenge Mason's principles of museum display.", "At stake, however, were more basic issues of causality and classification.", "The evolutionary approach to material culture led museum curators to organize objects on display according to function or level of technological development.", "Curators assumed that changes in the forms of artifacts reflect some natural process of progressive evolution.", "Boas, however, felt that the form an artifact took reflected the circumstances under which it was produced and used.", "Arguing that \"though like causes have like effects like effects have not like causes\", Boas realized that even artifacts that were similar in form might have developed in very different contexts, for different reasons.", "Mason's museum displays, organized along evolutionary lines, mistakenly juxtapose like effects; those organized along contextual lines would reveal like causes.===Minik Wallace===In his capacity as Assistant Curator at the American Museum of Natural History, Franz Boas requested that Arctic explorer Robert E. Peary bring one Inuk from Greenland to New York.", "Peary obliged and brought six Inuit to New York in 1897 who lived in the basement of the American Museum of Natural History.", "Four of them died from tuberculosis within a year of arriving in New York, one returned to Greenland, and a young boy, Minik Wallace, remained living in the museum.", "Boas staged a funeral for the father of the boy and had the remains dissected and placed in the museum.", "Boas has been widely critiqued for his role in bringing the Inuit to New York and his disinterest in them once they had served their purpose at the museum." ], [ "Later career: academic anthropology", "Columbia University library in 1903Boas was appointed a lecturer in physical anthropology at Columbia University in 1896, and promoted to professor of anthropology in 1899.However, the various anthropologists teaching at Columbia had been assigned to different departments.", "When Boas left the Museum of Natural History, he negotiated with Columbia University to consolidate the various professors into one department, of which Boas would take charge.", "Boas's program at Columbia was the first Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) program in anthropology in America.During this time Boas played a key role in organizing the American Anthropological Association (AAA) as an umbrella organization for the emerging field.", "Boas originally wanted the AAA to be limited to professional anthropologists, but William John McGee (another geologist who had joined the BAE under Powell's leadership) argued that the organization should have an open membership.", "McGee's position prevailed and he was elected the organization's first president in 1902; Boas was elected a vice-president, along with Putnam, Powell, and Holmes.At both Columbia and the AAA, Boas encouraged the \"four-field\" concept of anthropology; he personally contributed to physical anthropology, linguistics, archaeology, as well as cultural anthropology.", "His work in these fields was pioneering: in physical anthropology he led scholars away from static taxonomical classifications of race, to an emphasis on human biology and evolution; in linguistics he broke through the limitations of classic philology and established some of the central problems in modern linguistics and cognitive anthropology; in cultural anthropology he (along with the Polish-English anthropologist Bronisław Malinowski) established the contextualist approach to culture, cultural relativism, and the participant observation method of fieldwork.The four-field approach understood not merely as bringing together different kinds of anthropologists into one department, but as reconceiving anthropology through the integration of different objects of anthropological research into one overarching object, was one of Boas's fundamental contributions to the discipline, and came to characterize American anthropology against that ofEngland, France, or Germany.", "This approach defines as its object the human species as a totality.", "This focus did not lead Boas to seek to reduce all forms of humanity and human activity to some lowest common denominator; rather, he understood the essence of the human species to be the tremendous variation in human form and activity (an approach that parallels Charles Darwin's approach to species in general).In his 1907 essay, \"Anthropology\", Boas identified two basic questions for anthropologists: \"Why are the tribes and nations of the world different, and how have the present differences developed?\".", "Amplifying these questions, he explained the object of anthropological study thus:We do not discuss the anatomical, physiological, and mental characteristics of a man considered as an individual; but we are interested in the diversity of these traits in groups of men found in different geographical areas and in different social classes.", "It is our task to inquire into the causes that have brought about the observed differentiation and to investigate the sequence of events that have led to the establishment of the multifarious forms of human life.", "In other words, we are interested in the anatomical and mental characteristics of men living under the same biological, geographical, and social environment, and as determined by their past.These questions signal a marked break from then-current ideas about human diversity, which assumed that some people have a history, evident in a historical (or written) record, while other people, lacking writing, also lack history.", "For some, this distinction between two different kinds of societies explained the difference between history, sociology, economics and other disciplines that focus on people with writing, and anthropology, which was supposed to focus on people without writing.", "Boas rejected this distinction between kinds of societies, and this division of labor in the academy.", "He understood all societies to have a history, and all societies to be proper objects of the anthropological society.", "In order to approach literate and non-literate societies the same way, he emphasized the importance of studying human history through the analysis of other things besides written texts.", "Thus, in his 1904 article, \"The History of Anthropology\", Boas wrote thatThe historical development of the work of anthropologists seems to single out clearly a domain of knowledge that heretofore has not been treated by any other science.", "It is the biological history of mankind in all its varieties; linguistics applied to people without written languages; the ethnology of people without historical records; and prehistoric archeology.Historians and social theorists in the 18th and 19th centuries had speculated as to the causes of this differentiation, but Boas dismissed these theories, especially the dominant theories of social evolution and cultural evolution as speculative.", "He endeavored to establish a discipline that would base its claims on a rigorous empirical study.One of Boas's most important books, ''The Mind of Primitive Man'' (1911), integrated his theories concerning the history and development of cultures and established a program that would dominate American anthropology for the next fifteen years.", "In this study, he established that in any given population, biology, language, material, and symbolic culture, are autonomous; that each is an equally important dimension of human nature, but that no one of these dimensions is reducible to another.", "In other words, he established that culture does not depend on any independent variables.", "He emphasized that the biological, linguistic, and cultural traits of any group of people are the product of historical developments involving both cultural and non-cultural forces.", "He established that cultural plurality is a fundamental feature of humankind and that the specific cultural environment structures much individual behavior.Boas also presented himself as a role model for the citizen-scientist, who understand that even were the truth pursued as its own end, all knowledge has moral consequences.", "''The Mind of Primitive Man'' ends with an appeal to humanism:I hope the discussions outlined in these pages have shown that the data of anthropology teach us a greater tolerance of forms of civilization different from our own, that we should learn to look on foreign races with greater sympathy and with a conviction that, as all races have contributed in the past to cultural progress in one way or another, so they will be capable of advancing the interests of mankind if we are only willing to give them a fair opportunity.===Physical anthropology===Boas's work in physical anthropology brought together his interest in Darwinian evolution with his interest in migration as a cause of change.", "His most important research in this field was his study of changes in the body from among children of immigrants in New York.", "Other researchers had already noted differences in height, cranial measurements, and other physical features between Americans and people from different parts of Europe.", "Many used these differences to argue that there is an innate biological difference between races.", "Boas's primary interest—in symbolic and material culture and in language—was the study of processes of change; he therefore set out to determine whether bodily forms are also subject to processes of change.", "Boas studied 17,821 people, divided into seven ethno-national groups.", "Boas found that average measures of the cranial size of immigrants were significantly different from members of these groups who were born in the United States.", "Moreover, he discovered that average measures of the cranial size of children born within ten years of their mothers' arrival were significantly different from those of children born more than ten years after their mothers' arrival.", "Boas did not deny that physical features such as height or cranial size were inherited; he did, however, argue that the environment has an influence on these features, which is expressed through change over time.", "This work was central to his influential argument that differences between races were not immutable.", "Boas observed:The head form, which has always been one of the most stable and permanent characteristics of human races, undergoes far-reaching changes due to the transfer of European races to American soil.", "The East European Hebrew, who has a round head, becomes more long-headed; the South Italian, who in Italy has an exceedingly long head, becomes more short-headed; so that both approach a uniform type in this country, so far as the head is concerned.These findings were radical at the time and continue to be debated.", "In 2002, the anthropologists Corey S. Sparks and Richard L. Jantz claimed that differences between children born to the same parents in Europe and America were very small and insignificant and that there was no detectable effect of exposure to the American environment on the cranial index in children.", "They argued that their results contradicted Boas's original findings and demonstrated that they may no longer be used to support arguments of plasticity in cranial morphology.", "However, Jonathan Marks—a well-known physical anthropologist and former president of the General Anthropology section of the American Anthropological Association—has remarked that this revisionist study of Boas's work \"has the ring of desperation to it (if not obfuscation), and has been quickly rebutted by more mainstream biological anthropology\".", "In 2003 anthropologists Clarence C. Gravlee, H. Russell Bernard, and William R. Leonard reanalyzed Boas's data and concluded that most of Boas's original findings were correct.", "Moreover, they applied new statistical, computer-assisted methods to Boas's data and discovered more evidence for cranial plasticity.", "In a later publication, Gravlee, Bernard and Leonard reviewed Sparks and Jantz's analysis.", "They argue that Sparks and Jantz misrepresented Boas's claims and that Sparks's and Jantz's data actually support Boas.", "For example, they point out that Sparks and Jantz look at changes in cranial size in relation to how long an individual has been in the United States in order to test the influence of the environment.", "Boas, however, looked at changes in cranial size in relation to how long the mother had been in the United States.", "They argue that Boas's method is more useful because the prenatal environment is a crucial developmental factor.A further publication by Jantz based on Gravlee et al.", "claims that Boas had cherry picked two groups of immigrants (Sicilians and Hebrews) which had varied most towards the same mean, and discarded other groups which had varied in the opposite direction.", "He commented, \"Using the recent reanalysis by Gravlee et al.", "(2003), we can observe in Figure 2 that the maximum difference in the cranial index due to immigration (in Hebrews) is much smaller than the maximum ethnic difference, between Sicilians and Bohemians.", "It shows that long-headed parents produce long headed offspring and vice versa.", "To make the argument that children of immigrants converge onto an \"American type\" required Boas to use the two groups that changed the most.", "\"Although some sociobiologists and evolutionary psychologists have suggested that Boas was opposed to Darwinian evolution, Boas, in fact, was a committed proponent of Darwinian evolutionary thought.", "In 1888, he declared that \"the development of ethnology is largely due to the general recognition of the principle of biological evolution\".", "Since Boas's times, physical anthropologists have established that the human capacity for culture is a product of human evolution.", "In fact, Boas's research on changes in body form played an important role in the rise of Darwinian theory.", "Boas was trained at a time when biologists had no understanding of genetics; Mendelian genetics became widely known only after 1900.Prior to that time biologists relied on the measurement of physical traits as empirical data for any theory of evolution.", "Boas's biometric studies led him to question the use of this method and kind of data.", "In a speech to anthropologists in Berlin in 1912, Boas argued that at best such statistics could only raise biological questions, and not answer them.", "It was in this context that anthropologists began turning to genetics as a basis for any understanding of biological variation.===Linguistics===Boas also contributed greatly to the foundation of linguistics as a science in the United States.", "He published many descriptive studies of Native American languages, wrote on theoretical difficulties in classifying languages, and laid out a research program for studying the relations between language and culture which his students such as Edward Sapir, Paul Rivet, and Alfred Kroeber followed.His 1889 article \"On Alternating Sounds\", however, made a singular contribution to the methodology of both linguistics and cultural anthropology.", "It is a response to a paper presented in 1888 by Daniel Garrison Brinton, at the time a professor of American linguistics and archaeology at the University of Pennsylvania.", "Brinton observed that in the spoken languages of many Native Americans, certain sounds regularly alternated.", "Brinton argued that this pervasive inconsistency was a sign of linguistic and evolutionary inferiority.Boas had heard similar phonetic shifts during his research in Baffin Island and in the Pacific Northwest.", "Nevertheless, he argued that \"alternating sounds\" is not at all a feature of Native American languages—indeed, he argued, they do not really exist.", "Rather than take alternating sounds as objective proof of different stages in cultural evolution, Boas considered them in terms of his longstanding interest in the subjective perception of objective physical phenomena.", "He also considered his earlier critique of evolutionary museum displays.", "There, he pointed out that two things (artifacts of material culture) that appear to be similar may, in fact, be quite different.", "In this article, he raises the possibility that two things (sounds) that appear to be different may, in fact, be the same.In short, he shifted attention to the ''perception'' of different sounds.", "Boas begins by raising an empirical question: when people describe one sound in different ways, is it because they cannot perceive the difference, or might there be another reason?", "He immediately establishes that he is not concerned with cases involving perceptual deficit—the aural equivalent of color-blindness.", "He points out that the question of people who describe one sound in different ways is comparable to that of people who describe different sounds in one way.", "This is crucial for research in descriptive linguistics: when studying a new language, how are we to note the pronunciation of different words?", "(in this point, Boas anticipates and lays the groundwork for the distinction between phonemics and phonetics.)", "People may pronounce a word in a variety of ways and still recognize that they are using the same word.", "The issue, then, is not \"that such sensations are not recognized in their individuality\" (in other words, people recognize differences in pronunciations); rather, it is that sounds \"are classified according to their similarity\" (in other words, that people classify a variety of perceived sounds into one category).", "A comparable visual example would involve words for colors.", "The English word ''green'' can be used to refer to a variety of shades, hues, and tints.", "But there are some languages that have no word for ''green''.", "In such cases, people might classify what we would call ''green'' as either ''yellow'' or ''blue''.", "This is not an example of color-blindness—people can perceive differences in color, but they categorize similar colors in a different way than English speakers.Boas applied these principles to his studies of Inuit languages.", "Researchers have reported a variety of spellings for a given word.", "In the past, researchers have interpreted this data in a number of ways—it could indicate local variations in the pronunciation of a word, or it could indicate different dialects.", "Boas argues an alternative explanation: that the difference is not in how Inuit pronounce the word, but rather in how English-speaking scholars perceive the pronunciation of the word.", "It is not that English speakers are physically incapable of perceiving the sound in question; rather, the phonetic system of English cannot accommodate the perceived sound.Although Boas was making a very specific contribution to the methods of descriptive linguistics, his ultimate point is far reaching: observer bias need not be personal, it can be cultural.", "In other words, the perceptual categories of Western researchers may systematically cause a Westerner to misperceive or to fail to perceive entirely a meaningful element in another culture.", "As in his critique of Otis Mason's museum displays, Boas demonstrated that what appeared to be evidence of cultural evolution was really the consequence of unscientific methods and a reflection of Westerners' beliefs about their own cultural superiority.", "This point provides the methodological foundation for Boas's cultural relativism: elements of a culture are meaningful in that culture's terms, even if they may be meaningless (or take on a radically different meaning) in another culture.===Cultural anthropology===Drawing of a Kwakiutl mask from Boas's ''The Social Organization and the Secret Societies of the Kwakiutl Indians'' (1897).", "Wooden skulls hang from below the mask, which represents one of the cannibal bird helpers of Bakbakwalinooksiwey.The essence of Boas's approach to ethnography is found in his early essay on \"The Study of Geography\".", "There he argued for an approach thatWhen Boas's student Ruth Benedict gave her presidential address to the American Anthropological Association in 1947, she reminded anthropologists of the importance of this idiographic stance by quoting literary critic A. C. Bradley: \"We watch 'what is', seeing that so it happened and must have happened\".This orientation led Boas to promote a cultural anthropology characterized by a strong commitment to* Empiricism (with a resulting skepticism of attempts to formulate \"scientific laws\" of culture)* A notion of culture as fluid and dynamic* Ethnographic fieldwork, in which the anthropologist resides for an extended period among the people being researched, conducts research in the native language, and collaborates with native researchers, as a method of collecting data, and* Cultural relativism as a methodological tool while conducting fieldwork, and as a heuristic tool while analyzing data.Boas argued that in order to understand \"what is\"—in cultural anthropology, the specific cultural traits (behaviors, beliefs, and symbols)—one had to examine them in their local context.", "He also understood that as people migrate from one place to another, and as the cultural context changes over time, the elements of a culture, and their meanings, will change, which led him to emphasize the importance of local histories for an analysis of cultures.Although other anthropologists at the time, such as Bronisław Malinowski and Alfred Reginald Radcliffe-Brown focused on the study of societies, which they understood to be clearly bounded, Boas's attention to history, which reveals the extent to which traits diffuse from one place to another, led him to view cultural boundaries as multiple and overlapping, and as highly permeable.", "Thus, Boas's student Robert Lowie once described culture as a thing of \"shreds and patches\".", "Boas and his students understood that as people try to make sense of their world they seek to integrate its disparate elements, with the result that different cultures could be characterized as having different configurations or patterns.", "But Boasians also understood that such integration was always in tensions with diffusion, and any appearance of a stable configuration is contingent (see Bashkow 2004: 445).During Boas's lifetime, as today, many Westerners saw a fundamental difference between modern societies, which are characterized by dynamism and individualism, and traditional societies, which are stable and homogeneous.", "Boas's empirical field research, however, led him to argue against this comparison.", "For example, his 1903 essay, \"Decorative Designs of Alaskan Needlecases: A History of Conventional Designs, Based on Materials in a U.S. Museum\", provides another example of how Boas made broad theoretical claims based on a detailed analysis of empirical data.", "After establishing formal similarities among the needlecases, Boas shows how certain formal features provide a vocabulary out of which individual artisans could create variations in design.", "Thus, his emphasis on culture as a context for meaningful action made him sensitive to individual variation within a society (William Henry Holmes suggested a similar point in an 1886 paper, \"Origin and development of form and ornament in ceramic art\", although unlike Boas he did not develop the ethnographic and theoretical implications).A painting by Wilhelm Kuhnert illustrates the 1894 potlatch ceremony at Tsaxis, titled \"The Walas'axa\".", "Painting printed as Plate 36 in the classic Kwakiutl study ''The Social Organization and the Secret Societies of the Kwakiutl Indians'', written by Boas (1897).In a programmatic essay in 1920, \"The Methods of Ethnology\", Boas argued that instead of \"the systematic enumeration of standardized beliefs and customs of a tribe\", anthropology needs to document \"the way in which the individual reacts to his whole social environment, and to the difference of opinion and of mode of action that occur in primitive society and which are the causes of far-reaching changes\".", "Boas argued that attention to individual agency reveals that \"the activities of the individual are determined to a great extent by his social environment, but in turn, his own activities influence the society in which he lives and may bring about modifications in a form\".", "Consequently, Boas thought of culture as fundamentally dynamic: \"As soon as these methods are applied, primitive society loses the appearance of absolute stability ... All cultural forms rather appear in a constant state of flux ...\" (see Lewis 2001b)Having argued against the relevance of the distinction between literate and non-literate societies as a way of defining anthropology's object of study, Boas argued that non-literate and literate societies should be analyzed in the same way.", "Nineteenth-century historians had been applying the techniques of philology to reconstruct the histories of, and relationships between, literate societies.", "In order to apply these methods to non-literate societies, Boas argued that the task of fieldworkers is to produce and collect texts in non-literate societies.", "This took the form not only of compiling lexicons and grammars of the local language, but of recording myths, folktales, beliefs about social relationships and institutions, and even recipes for local cuisine.", "In order to do this, Boas relied heavily on the collaboration of literate native ethnographers (among the Kwakiutl, most often George Hunt), and he urged his students to consider such people valuable partners, inferior in their standing in Western society, but superior in their understanding of their own culture.", "(see Bunzl 2004: 438–439)Using these methods, Boas published another article in 1920, in which he revisited his earlier research on Kwakiutl kinship.", "In the late 1890s, Boas had tried to reconstruct transformation in the organization of Kwakiutl clans, by comparing them to the organization of clans in other societies neighboring the Kwakiutl to the north and south.", "Now, however, he argued against translating the Kwakiutl principle of kin groups into an English word.", "Instead of trying to fit the Kwakiutl into some larger model, he tried to understand their beliefs and practices in their own terms.", "For example, whereas he had earlier translated the Kwakiutl word ''numaym'' as \"clan\", he now argued that the word is best understood as referring to a bundle of privileges, for which there is no English word.", "Men secured claims to these privileges through their parents or wives, and there were a variety of ways these privileges could be acquired, used, and transmitted from one generation to the next.", "As in his work on alternating sounds, Boas had come to realize that different ethnological interpretations of Kwakiutl kinship were the result of the limitations of Western categories.", "As in his work on Alaskan needlecases, he now saw variation among Kwakiutl practices as the result of the play between social norms and individual creativity.Before his death in 1942, he appointed Helen Codere to edit and publish his manuscripts about the culture of the Kwakiutl people." ], [ "Franz Boas and folklore", "Franz Boas was an immensely influential figure throughout the development of folklore as a discipline.", "At first glance, it might seem that his only concern was for the discipline of anthropology—after all, he fought for most of his life to keep folklore as a part of anthropology.", "Yet Boas was motivated by his desire to see both anthropology and folklore become more professional and well-respected.", "Boas was afraid that if folklore was allowed to become its own discipline the standards for folklore scholarship would be lowered.", "This, combined with the scholarships of \"amateurs\", would lead folklore to be completely discredited, Boas believed.In order to further professionalize folklore, Boas introduced the strict scientific methods which he learned in college to the discipline.", "Boas championed the use of exhaustive research, fieldwork, and strict scientific guidelines in folklore scholarship.", "Boas believed that a true theory could only be formed from thorough research and that even once you had a theory it should be treated as a \"work in progress\" unless it could be proved beyond doubt.", "This rigid scientific methodology was eventually accepted as one of the major tenets of folklore scholarship, and Boas's methods remain in use even today.", "Boas also nurtured many budding folklorists during his time as a professor, and some of his students are counted among the most notable minds in folklore scholarship.Boas was passionate about the collection of folklore and believed that the similarity of folktales amongst different folk groups was due to dissemination.", "Boas strove to prove this theory, and his efforts produced a method for breaking a folktale into parts and then analyzing these parts.", "His creation of \"catch-words\" allowed for categorization of these parts, and the ability to analyze them in relation to other similar tales.", "Boas also fought to prove that not all cultures progressed along the same path, and that non-European cultures, in particular, were not primitive, but different.Boas remained active in the development and scholarship of folklore throughout his life.", "He became the editor of the ''Journal of American Folklore'' in 1908, regularly wrote and published articles on folklore (often in the ''Journal of American Folklore'').", "He helped to elect Louise Pound as president of the American Folklore Society in 1925." ], [ "Scientist as activist", "Boas was known for passionately defending what he believed to be right.", "During his lifetime (and often through his work), Boas combated racism, berated anthropologists and folklorists who used their work as a cover for espionage, worked to protect German and Austrian scientists who fled the Nazi regime, and openly protested Hitlerism.Many social scientists in other disciplines often agonize over the legitimacy of their work as \"science\" and consequently emphasize the importance of detachment, objectivity, abstraction, and quantifiability in their work.", "Perhaps because Boas, like other early anthropologists, was originally trained in the natural sciences, he and his students never expressed such anxiety.", "Moreover, he did not believe that detachment, objectivity, and quantifiability was required to make anthropology scientific.", "Since the object of study of anthropologists is different from the object of study of physicists, he assumed that anthropologists would have to employ different methods and different criteria for evaluating their research.", "Thus, Boas used statistical studies to demonstrate the extent to which variation in data is context-dependent, and argued that the context-dependent nature of human variation rendered many abstractions and generalizations that had been passing as scientific understandings of humankind (especially theories of social evolution popular at the time) in fact unscientific.", "His understanding of ethnographic fieldwork began with the fact that the objects of ethnographic study (e.g., the Inuit of Baffin Island) were not just objects, but subjects, and his research called attention to their creativity and agency.", "More importantly, he viewed the Inuit as his teachers, thus reversing the typical hierarchical relationship between scientist and object of study.This emphasis on the relationship between anthropologists and those they study—the point that, while astronomers and stars; chemists and elements; botanists and plants are fundamentally different, anthropologists and those they study are equally human—implied that anthropologists themselves could be objects of anthropological study.", "Although Boas did not pursue this reversal systematically, his article on alternating sounds illustrates his awareness that scientists should not be confident about their objectivity, because they too see the world through the prism of their culture.This emphasis also led Boas to conclude that anthropologists have an obligation to speak out on social issues.", "Boas was especially concerned with racial inequality, which his research had indicated is not biological in origin, but rather social.", "Boas is credited as the first scientist to publish the idea that all people—including white and African Americans—are equal.", "He often emphasized his abhorrence of racism, and used his work to show that there was no scientific basis for such a bias.", "An early example of this concern is evident in his 1906 commencement address to Atlanta University, at the invitation of W. E. B.", "Du Bois.", "Boas began by remarking that \"If you did accept the view that the present weakness of the American Negro, his uncontrollable emotions, his lack of energy, are racially inherent, your work would still be noble one\".", "He then went on, however, to argue against this view.", "To the claim that European and Asian civilizations are, at the time, more advanced than African societies, Boas objected that against the total history of humankind, the past two thousand years is but a brief span.", "Moreover, although the technological advances of our early ancestors (such as taming fire and inventing stone tools) might seem insignificant when compared to the invention of the steam engine or control over electricity, we should consider that they might actually be even greater accomplishments.", "Boas then went on to catalogue advances in Africa, such as smelting iron, cultivating millet, and domesticating chickens and cattle, that occurred in Africa well before they spread to Europe and Asia (evidence now suggests that chickens were first domesticated in Asia; the original domestication of cattle is under debate).", "He then described the activities of African kings, diplomats, merchants, and artists as evidence of cultural achievement.", "From this, he concluded, any social inferiority of Negroes in the United States cannot be explained by their African origins:If therefore, it is claimed that your race is doomed to economic inferiority, you may confidently look to the home of your ancestors and say, that you have set out to recover for the colored people the strength that was their own before they set foot on the shores of this continent.", "You may say that you go to work with bright hopes and that you will not be discouraged by the slowness of your progress; for you have to recover not only what has been lost in transplanting the Negro race from its native soil to this continent, but you must reach higher levels than your ancestors ever had attained.Boas proceeds to discuss the arguments for the inferiority of the \"Negro race\", and calls attention to the fact that they were brought to the Americas through force.", "For Boas, this is just one example of the many times conquest or colonialism has brought different peoples into an unequal relation, and he mentions \"the conquest of England by the Normans, the Teutonic invasion of Italy, and the Manchu conquest of China\" as resulting in similar conditions.", "But the best example, for Boas, of this phenomenon is that of the Jews in Europe:Even now there lingers in the consciousness of the old, sharper divisions which the ages had not been able to efface, and which is strong enough to find—not only here and there—expression as antipathy to the Jewish type.", "In France, that let down the barriers more than a hundred years ago, the feeling of antipathy is still strong enough to sustain an anti-Jewish political party.Boas's closing advice is that African Americans should not look to whites for approval or encouragement because people in power usually take a very long time to learn to sympathize with people out of power.", "\"Remember that in every single case in history the process of adaptation has been one of exceeding slowness.", "Do not look for the impossible, but do not let your path deviate from the quiet and steadfast insistence on full opportunities for your powers.", "\"Despite Boas's caveat about the intractability of white prejudice, he also considered it the scientist's responsibility to argue against white myths of racial purity and racial superiority and to use the evidence of his research to fight racism.", "At the time, Boas had no idea that speaking at Atlanta University would put him at odds with a different prominent Black figure, Booker T. Washington.", "Du Bois and Washington had different views on the means of uplifting Black Americans.", "By supporting Du Bois, Boas lost Washington's support and any chance of funding from his college, Carnegie Mellon University.Boas was also critical of one nation imposing its power over others.", "In 1916, Boas wrote a letter to ''The New York Times'' which was published under the headline, \"Why German-Americans Blame America\".", "Although Boas did begin the letter by protesting bitter attacks against German Americans at the time of the war in Europe, most of his letter was a critique of American nationalism.", "\"In my youth, I had been taught in school and at home not only to love the good of my own country, but also to seek to understand and to respect the individualities of other nations.", "For this reason, one-sided nationalism, that is so often found nowadays, is to be unendurable.\"", "He writes of his love for American ideals of freedom, and of his growing discomfort with American beliefs about its own superiority over others.I have always been of the opinion that we have no right to impose our ideals upon other nations, no matter how strange it may seem to us that they enjoy the kind of life they lead, how slow they may be in utilizing the resources of their countries, or how much opposed their ideas may be to ours ... Our intolerant attitude is most pronounced in regard to what we like to call \"our free institutions.\"", "Modern democracy was no doubt the most wholesome and needed reaction against the abuses of absolutism and of a selfish, often corrupt, bureaucracy.", "That the wishes and thoughts of the people should find expression, and that the form of government should conform to these wishes is an axiom that has pervaded the whole Western world, and that is even taking root in the Far East.", "It is a quite different question, however, in how far the particular machinery of democratic government is identical with democratic institutions ... To claim as we often do, that our solution is the only democratic and the ideal one is a one-sided expression of Americanism.", "I see no reason why we should not allow the Germans, Austrians, and Russians, or whoever else it may be, to solve their problems in their own ways, instead of demanding that they bestow upon themselves the benefactions of our regime.Although Boas felt that scientists have a responsibility to speak out on social and political problems, he was appalled that they might involve themselves in disingenuous and deceitful ways.", "Thus, in 1919, when he discovered that four anthropologists, in the course of their research in other countries, were serving as spies for the American government, he wrote an angry letter to ''The Nation''.", "It is perhaps in this letter that he most clearly expresses his understanding of his commitment to science:A soldier whose business is murder as a fine art, a diplomat whose calling is based on deception and secretiveness, a politician whose very life consists in compromises with his conscience, a businessman whose aim is personal profit within the limits allowed by a lenient law—such may be excused if they set patriotic deception above common everyday decency and perform services as spies.", "They merely accept the code of morality to which modern society still conforms.", "Not so the scientist.", "The very essence of his life is the service of truth.", "We all know scientists who in private life do not come up to the standard of truthfulness, but who, nevertheless, would not consciously falsify the results of their researches.", "It is bad enough if we have to put up with these because they reveal a lack of strength of character that is liable to distort the results of their work.", "A person, however, who uses science as a cover for political spying, who demeans himself to pose before a foreign government as an investigator and asks for assistance in his alleged researches in order to carry on, under this cloak, his political machinations, prostitutes science in an unpardonable way and forfeits the right to be classed as a scientist.Although Boas did not name the spies in question, he was referring to a group led by Sylvanus G. Morley, who was affiliated with Harvard University's Peabody Museum.", "While conducting research in Mexico, Morley and his colleagues looked for evidence of German submarine bases, and collected intelligence on Mexican political figures and German immigrants in Mexico.Boas's stance against spying took place in the context of his struggle to establish a new model for academic anthropology at Columbia University.", "Previously, American anthropology was based at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington and the Peabody Museum at Harvard, and these anthropologists competed with Boas's students for control over the American Anthropological Association (and its flagship publication ''American Anthropologist'').", "When the National Academy of Sciences established the National Research Council in 1916 as a means by which scientists could assist the United States government to prepare for entry into the war in Europe, competition between the two groups intensified.", "Boas's rival, W. H. Holmes (who had gotten the job of Director at the Field Museum for which Boas had been passed over 26 years earlier), was appointed to head the NRC; Morley was a protégé of Holmes's.When Boas's letter was published, Holmes wrote to a friend complaining about \"the Prussian control of anthropology in this country\" and the need to end Boas's \"Hun regime\".", "Reaction of Holmes and his allies was influenced by anti-German and probably also by anti-Jewish sentiment.", "The Anthropological Society of Washington passed a resolution condemning Boas's letter for unjustly criticizing President Wilson; attacking the principles of American democracy; and endangering anthropologists abroad, who would now be suspected of being spies (a charge that was especially insulting, given that his concerns about this very issue were what had prompted Boas to write his letter in the first place).", "This resolution was passed on to the American Anthropological Association (AAA) and the National Research Council.", "Members of the American Anthropological Association (among whom Boas was a founding member in 1902), meeting at the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology at Harvard (with which Morley, Lothrop, and Spinden were affiliated), voted by 20 to 10 to censure Boas.", "As a result, Boas resigned as the AAA's representative to the NRC, although he remained an active member of the AAA.", "The AAA's censure of Boas was not rescinded until 2005.Boas continued to speak out against racism and for intellectual freedom.", "When the Nazi Party in Germany denounced \"Jewish Science\" (which included not only Boasian Anthropology but Freudian psychoanalysis and Einsteinian physics), Boas responded with a public statement signed by over 8,000 other scientists, declaring that there is only one science, to which race and religion are irrelevant.", "After World War I, Boas created the Emergency Society for German and Austrian Science.", "This organization was originally dedicated to fostering friendly relations between American and German and Austrian scientists and for providing research funding to German scientists who had been adversely affected by the war, and to help scientists who had been interned.", "With the rise of Nazi Germany, Boas assisted German scientists in fleeing the Nazi regime.", "Boas helped these scientists not only to escape but to secure positions once they arrived.", "Additionally, Boas addressed an open letter to Paul von Hindenburg in protest against Hitlerism.", "He also wrote an article in ''The American Mercury'' arguing that there were no differences between Aryans and non-Aryans and the German government should not base its policies on such a false premise.Boas, and his students such as Melville J. Herskovits, opposed the racist pseudoscience developed at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute of Anthropology, Human Heredity, and Eugenics under its director Eugen Fischer: \"Melville J. Herskovits (one of Franz Boas's students) pointed out that the health problems and social prejudices encountered by these children (Rhineland Bastards) and their parents explained what Germans viewed as racial inferiority was not due to racial heredity.", "This \"... provoked polemic invective against the latter Boas from Fischer.", "\"The views of Mr. Boas are in part quite ingenious, but in the field of heredity Mr. Boas is by no means competent\" even though \"a great number of research projects at the KWI-A which had picked up on Boas's studies about immigrants in New York had confirmed his findings—including the study by Walter Dornfeldt about Eastern European Jews in Berlin.", "Fischer resorted to polemic simply because he had no arguments to counter the Boasians' critique.\"" ], [ "Students and influence", "Franz Boas died suddenly at the Columbia University Faculty Club on December 21, 1942, in the arms of Claude Lévi-Strauss.", "By that time he had become one of the most influential and respected scientists of his generation.Between 1901 and 1911, Columbia University produced seven PhDs in anthropology.", "Although by today's standards this is a very small number, at the time it was sufficient to establish Boas's Anthropology Department at Columbia as the preeminent anthropology program in the country.", "Moreover, many of Boas's students went on to establish anthropology programs at other major universities.Boas's first doctoral student at Columbia was Alfred L. Kroeber (1901), who, along with fellow Boas student Robert Lowie (1908), started the anthropology program at the University of California, Berkeley.", "He also trained William Jones (1904), one of the first Native American Indian anthropologists (the Fox nation) who was killed while conducting research in the Philippines in 1909, and Albert B. Lewis (1907).", "Boas also trained a number of other students who were influential in the development of academic anthropology: Frank Speck (1908) who trained with Boas but received his PhD from the University of Pennsylvania and immediately proceeded to found the anthropology department there; Edward Sapir (1909) and Fay-Cooper Cole (1914) who developed the anthropology program at the University of Chicago; Alexander Goldenweiser (1910), who, with Elsie Clews Parsons (who received her doctorate in sociology from Columbia in 1899, but then studied ethnology with Boas), started the anthropology program at the New School for Social Research; Leslie Spier (1920) who started the anthropology program at the University of Washington together with his wife Erna Gunther, also one of Boas's students, and Melville Herskovits (1923) who started the anthropology program at Northwestern University.", "He also trained John R. Swanton (who studied with Boas at Columbia for two years before receiving his doctorate from Harvard in 1900), Paul Radin (1911), Ruth Benedict (1923), Gladys Reichard (1925) who had begun teaching at Barnard College in 1921 and was later promoted to the rank of professor, Ruth Bunzel (1929), Alexander Lesser (1929), Margaret Mead (1929), and Gene Weltfish (who defended her dissertation in 1929, although she did not officially graduate until 1950 when Columbia reduced the expenses required to graduate), E. Adamson Hoebel (1934), Jules Henry (1935), George Herzog (1938),and Ashley Montagu (1938).His students at Columbia also included Mexican anthropologist Manuel Gamio, who earned his Master of Arts degree after studying with Boas from 1909 to 1911, and became the founding director of Mexico's Bureau of Anthropology in 1917; Clark Wissler, who received his doctorate in psychology from Columbia University in 1901, but proceeded to study anthropology with Boas before turning to research Native Americans; Esther Schiff, later Goldfrank, worked with Boas in the summers of 1920 to 1922 to conduct research among the Cochiti and Laguna Pueblo Indians in New Mexico; Gilberto Freyre, who shaped the concept of \"racial democracy\" in Brazil; Viola Garfield, who carried forth Boas's Tsimshian work; Frederica de Laguna, who worked on the Inuit and the Tlingit; anthropologist, folklorist and novelist Zora Neale Hurston, who graduated from Barnard College, the women's college associated with Columbia, in 1928, and who studied African American and Afro-Caribbean folklore, and Ella Cara Deloria, who worked closely with Boas on the linguistics of Native American languages.Boas and his students were also an influence on Claude Lévi-Strauss, who interacted with Boas and the Boasians during his stay in New York in the 1940s.Several of Boas's students went on to serve as editors of the American Anthropological Association's flagship journal, ''American Anthropologist'': John R. Swanton (1911, 1921–1923), Robert Lowie (1924–1933), Leslie Spier (1934–1938), and Melville Herskovits (1950–1952).", "Edward Sapir's student John Alden Mason was editor from 1945 to 1949, and Alfred Kroeber and Robert Lowie's student, Walter Goldschmidt, was editor from 1956 to 1959.His last student Marian Smith was President of the American Anthropological Association and the honorary secretary of the Royal Anthropological Institute in London.Most of Boas's students shared his concern for careful, historical reconstruction, and his antipathy towards speculative, evolutionary models.", "Moreover, Boas encouraged his students, by example, to criticize themselves as much as others.", "For example, Boas originally defended the cephalic index (systematic variations in head form) as a method for describing hereditary traits, but came to reject his earlier research after further study; he similarly came to criticize his own early work in Kwakiutl (Pacific Northwest) language and mythology.Encouraged by this drive to self-criticism, as well as the Boasian commitment to learn from one's informants and to let the findings of one's research shape one's agenda, Boas's students quickly diverged from his own research agenda.", "Several of his students soon attempted to develop theories of the grand sort that Boas typically rejected.", "Kroeber called his colleagues' attention to Sigmund Freud and the potential of a union between cultural anthropology and psychoanalysis.", "Ruth Benedict developed theories of \"culture and personality\" and \"national cultures\", and Kroeber's student, Julian Steward developed theories of \"cultural ecology\" and \"multilineal evolution\"." ], [ "Legacy", "Nevertheless, Boas has had an enduring influence on anthropology.", "Virtually all anthropologists today accept Boas's commitment to empiricism and his methodological cultural relativism.", "Moreover, virtually all cultural anthropologists today share Boas's commitment to field research involving extended residence, learning the local language, and developing social relationships with informants.", "Finally, anthropologists continue to honor his critique of racial ideologies.", "In his 1963 book, ''Race: The History of an Idea in America'', Thomas Gossett wrote that \"It is possible that Boas did more to combat race prejudice than any other person in history.\"" ], [ "Leadership roles and honors", "* 1887—Accepted a position as Assistant Editor of Science in New York.", "* 1889—Appointed as the head of a newly created department of anthropology.", "His adjunct was L.", "Farrand.", "* 1896—Became assistant curator at the American Museum of Natural History, under F. W. Putnam.", "This was combined with a lecturing position at Columbia University.", "* 1900—Elected to the National Academy of Sciences in April.", "* 1901—Appointed Honorary Philologist of Bureau of American Ethnology.", "1903—Elected to the American Philosophical Society.", " 1908—Became editor of ''The Journal of American Folklore''.", "* 1908—Elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society.", "* 1910—Helped create the International School of American Archeology and Ethnology in Mexico.", "* 1910—Elected president of the New York Academy of Sciences.", "* 1913—Became founding editor of Columbia University Contributions to Anthropology (Columbia University Press)* 1917—Founded the ''International Journal of American Linguistics''.", "* 1917—Edited the Publications of the American Ethnological Society.", "* 1931—Elected president of the American Association for the Advancement of Science.", "* 1936—Became \"emeritus in residence\" at Columbia University in 1936.Became \"emeritus\" in 1938." ], [ "Works", "* Boas n.d. \"The relation of Darwin to anthropology\", notes for a lecture; Boas papers (B/B61.5) American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia.", "Published online by Herbert Lewis 2001b.", "* Smithsonian Research Online.", "* Smithsonian Research Online.", "* AMNH Digital Repository.", "* AMNH Digital Repository.", "* AMNH Digital Repository.", "* AMNH Digital Repository.", "* AMNH Digital Repository.", "* AMNH Digital Repository.", "* AMNH Digital Repository.", "* AMNH Digital Repository.", "* Boas, Franz (1906).", "''The Measurement of Differences Between Variable Quantities''.", "New York: The Science Press.", "( Online version at the Internet Archive)* AMNH Digital Repository.", "* Boas, Franz.", "(1911). ''", "Handbook of American Indian languages'' (Vol.", "1).", "Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 40.Washington: Government Print Office (Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology).", "* Boas, Franz (1911).", "''The Mind of Primitive Man''.", "( Online version of the 1938 revised edition at the Internet Archive)* Boas, Franz (1912).", "\"Changes in the Bodily Form of Descendants of Immigrants\".", "''American Anthropologist'', Vol.", "14, No.", "3, July–Sept 1912.Boas* * Boas, Franz (1914).", "\"Mythology and folk-tales of the North American Indians\".", "''Journal of American Folklore'', Vol.", "27, No.", "106, Oct.-Dec. pp. 374–410.", "* * Classics in Washington History: Native Americans.", "* Boas, Franz (1922).", "\"Report on an Anthropometric Investigation of the Population of the United States\".", "''Journal of the American Statistical Association'', June 1922.", "* Boas, Franz (1927).", "\"The Eruption of Deciduous Teeth Among Hebrew Infants\".", "''The Journal of Dental Research'', Vol.", "vii, No.", "3, September 1927.", "* Boas, Franz (1927).", "''Primitive Art''.", "* Boas, Franz (1928).", "''Anthropology and Modern Life'' (2004 ed.)", "( Online version of the 1962 edition at the Internet Archive)* Boas, Franz (1935).", "\"The Tempo of Growth of Fraternities\".", "''Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences'', Vol.", "21, No.", "7, pp.", "413–418, July 1935.", "* Boas, Franz (1940).", "''Race, Language, and Culture'' * (D.C. Heath, 1938)* Boas, Franz (1945).", "''Race and Democratic Society'', New York, Augustin.", "* Stocking, George W. Jr., ed.", "1974 ''A Franz Boas Reader: The Shaping of American Anthropology, 1883–1911'' * Boas, Franz, edited by Helen Codere (1966), ''Kwakiutl Ethnography'', Chicago, Chicago University Press.", "* Boas, Franz (2006).", "''Indian Myths & Legends from the North Pacific Coast of America: A Translation of Franz Boas' 1895 Edition of Indianische Sagen von der Nord-Pacifischen Küste-Amerikas''.", "Vancouver, BC: Talonbooks." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Appiah, Kwame Anthony, \"The Defender of Differences\" (review of Rosemary Lévy Zumwalt, ''Franz Boas: The Emergence of the Anthropologist'', University of Nebraska Press, 2019, 417 pp.", "; Charles King, ''Gods of the Upper Air: How a Circle of Renegade Anthropologists Reinvented Race, Sex, and Gender in the Twentieth Century'', Doubleday, 2019, 431 pp.", "; Mark Anderson, ''From Boas to Black Power: Racism, Liberalism, and American Anthropology'', Stanford University Press, 262 pp), ''The New York Review of Books'', vol.", "LXVII, no.", "9 (28 May 2020), pp.", "17–19.Appiah writes: \"Boas was skeptical... about doctrines of racial superiority.", "He had, more slowly, become a skeptic of social evolutionism: the notion that peoples progress through stages (in one crude formulation, from savagery to barbarism to civilization)... 'My whole outlook', Boas later wrote in a credo, 'is determined by the question: how can we recognize the shackles that tradition has laid upon us?'\"", "(p. 18.", ")* * * * * Boas, Norman F.", "2004.", "''Franz Boas 1858–1942: An Illustrated Biography'' * * Cole, Douglas 1999.", "''Franz Boas: The Early Years, 1858–1906''.", "* Darnell, Regna 1998.", "''And Along Came Boas: Continuity and Revolution in Americanist Anthropology''.", "* Evans, Brad 2006.", "\"Where Was Boas During the Renaissance in Harlem?", "Diffusion, Race, and the Culture Paradigm in the History of Anthropology.\"", ".", "* * * * Kuper, Adam.", "1988.", "''The Invention of Primitive Society: Transformations of an Illusion'' * Lesser, Alexander 1981.", "\"Franz Boas\" in Sydel Silverman, ed.", "''Totems and Teachers: Perspectives on the History of Anthropology'' * * Lewis, Herbert 2001b.", "\"Boas, Darwin, Science and Anthropology\" in ''Current Anthropology'' 42(3): 381–406 (On line version contains transcription of Boas's 1909 lecture on Darwin.", ")* * * Lowie, Robert H. \"Franz Boas (1858–1942).\"", "The Journal of American Folklore: Franz Boas Memorial Number.", "Vol.", "57, No.", "223.January–March 1944.Pages 59–64.The American Folklore Society.", "JSTOR.", "Print.", "Franz Boas (1858–1942).", "* Lowie, Robert H. \"Bibliography of Franz Boas in Folklore.\"", "The Journal of American Folklore: Franz Boas Memorial Number.", "Vol.", "57, No.", "223.January–March 1944.Pages 65–69.The American Folklore Society.", "JSTOR.", "Print.", "Bibliography of Franz Boas in Folklore.", "* Maud, Ralph.", "2000.", "''Transmission Difficulties: Franz Boas and Tsimshian Mythology''.", "Vancouver, BC: Talonbooks.", "* * * * Stocking, George W. Jr.", "1968.", "''Race, Culture, and Evolution: Essays in the History of Anthropology'' * Stocking, George W. Jr., ed.", "1996.", "''Volksgeist as Method and Ethic: Essays on Boasian Ethnography and the German Anthropological Tradition'' * Williams, Vernon J. Jr.", "1996.''", "Rethinking Race: Franz Boas and His Contemporaries''.", "Lexington: University Press of Kentucky.", "* * Zumwalt, Rosemary Lévy.", "American Folklore Scholarship: A Dialogue of Dissent.", "Ed.", "Alan Dundes.", "Bloomington and Indianapolis; Indiana University Press, 1988.Print.", "* Zumwalt, Rosemary Lévy.", "2019.", "''Franz Boas: The Emergence of the Anthropologist.''", "Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press online review* Zumwalt, Rosemary Lévy.", "''Franz Boas: Shaping Anthropology and Fostering Social Justice.''", "Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2022.648 pages.", ".", "Online review" ], [ "External links", "* * * * Division of Anthropology, American Museum of Natural History – Objects and Photographs from Jesup North Pacific Expedition 1897–1902 (section ''Collections Online'', option ''Collections Highlights'').", "* Franz Boas at Minden, Westphalia* Franz Boas Papers at the American Philosophical Society* Recordings made by Franz Boas during his field research can be found at the Archives of Traditional Music at Indiana University * National Academy of Sciences Biographical Memoir* Genius at Work: How Franz Boas Created the Field of Cultural Anthropology By Charles King, Columbia Magazine, Winter 2019-20" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Franz Bopp" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Franz Bopp''' (; 14 September 1791 – 23 October 1867) was a German linguist known for extensive and pioneering comparative work on Indo-European languages." ], [ "Early life", "Bopp was born in Mainz, but the political disarray in the Republic of Mainz caused his parents' move to Aschaffenburg, the second seat of the Archbishop of Mainz.", "There he received a liberal education at the Lyceum and Karl Joseph Hieronymus Windischmann drew his attention to the languages and literature of the East.", "(Windischmann, along with Georg Friedrich Creuzer, Joseph Görres, and the brothers Schlegel, expressed great enthusiasm for Indian wisdom and philosophy.)", "Moreover, Karl Wilhelm Friedrich von Schlegel's book, ''Über die Sprache und Weisheit der Indier'' (''On the Speech and Wisdom of the Indians'', Heidelberg, 1808), had just begun to exert a powerful influence on the minds of German philosophers and historians, and stimulated Bopp's interest in the sacred language of the Hindus." ], [ "Career", "In 1812, he went to Paris at the expense of the Bavarian government, with a view to devoting himself vigorously to the study of Sanskrit.", "There he enjoyed the society of such eminent men as Antoine-Léonard de Chézy (his primary instructor), Silvestre de Sacy, Louis Mathieu Langlès, and, above all Alexander Hamilton (1762–1824), cousin of the American statesman of the same name , who had acquired an acquaintance with Sanskrit when in India and had brought out, along with Langlès, a descriptive catalogue of the Sanskrit manuscripts of the Imperial Library.In the library, Bopp had access not only to the rich collection of Sanskrit manuscripts (mostly brought from India by Jean François Pons in the early 18th century), but also to the Sanskrit books that had been issued from the Calcutta and Serampore presses.", "He spent five years of laborious study, almost living in the libraries of Paris and unmoved by the turmoils that agitated the world around him, including Napoleon's escape, the Waterloo campaign and the Restoration.The first paper from his years of study in Paris appeared in Frankfurt am Main in 1816, under the title of ''Über das Konjugationssystem der Sanskritsprache in Vergleichung mit jenem der griechischen, lateinischen, persischen und germanischen Sprache (On the Conjugation System of Sanskrit in comparison with that of Greek, Latin, Persian and Germanic)'', to which Windischmann contributed a preface.", "In this first book, Bopp entered at once the path on which he would focus the philological researches of his whole subsequent life.", "His task was not to point out the similarity of Sanskrit with Persian, Greek, Latin or German, for previous scholars had long established that, but he aimed to trace the postulated common origin of the languages' grammatical forms, of their inflections from composition.", "This was something no predecessor had attempted.", "By a historical analysis of those forms, as applied to the verb, he furnished the first trustworthy materials for a history of the languages compared.After a brief sojourn in Germany, Bopp travelled to London where he made the acquaintance of Sir Charles Wilkins and Henry Thomas Colebrooke.", "He also became friends with Wilhelm von Humboldt, the Prussian ambassador at the Court of St. James's, to whom he taught Sanskrit.", "He brought out, in the ''Annals of Oriental Literature'' (London, 1820), an essay entitled \"Analytical Comparison of the Sanskrit, Greek, Latin and Teutonic Languages\" in which he extended to all parts of grammar what he had done in his first book for the verb alone.", "He had previously published a critical edition, with a Latin translation and notes, of the story of Nala and Damayanti (London, 1819), the most beautiful episode of the ''Mahabharata''.", "Other episodes of the ''Mahabharata'', ''Indralokâgama'', and three others (Berlin, 1824); ''Diluvium'', and three others (Berlin, 1829); a new edition of Nala (Berlin, 1832) followed in due course, all of which, with August Wilhelm von Schlegel's edition of the ''Bhagavad Gita'' (1823), proved excellent aids in initiating the early student into the reading of Sanskrit texts.", "On the publication, in Calcutta, of the whole ''Mahabharata'', Bopp discontinued editing Sanskrit texts and confined himself thenceforth exclusively to grammatical investigations.After a short residence at Göttingen, Bopp gained, on the recommendation of Humboldt, appointment to the chair of Sanskrit and comparative grammar at the University of Berlin in 1821, which he occupied for the rest of his life.", "He also became a member of the Royal Prussian Academy the following year.In 1827, he published his ''Ausführliches Lehrgebäude der Sanskritsprache'' (''Detailed System of the Sanskrit Language''), on which he had worked since 1821.Bopp started work on a new edition in Latin, for the following year, completed in 1832; a shorter grammar appeared in 1834.At the same time he compiled a ''Sanskrit and Latin Glossary'' (1830), in which, more especially in the second and third editions (1847 and 1868–71), he also took account of the cognate languages.", "His chief activity, however, centered on the elaboration of his ''Comparative Grammar'', which appeared in six parts at considerable intervals (Berlin, 1833, 1835, 1842, 1847, 1849, 1852), under the title ''Vergleichende Grammatik des Sanskrit, Zend, Griechischen, Lateinischen, Litthauischen, Altslawischen, Gotischen und Deutschen'' (''Comparative Grammar of Sanskrit, Zend Avestan, Greek, Latin, Lithuanian, Old Slavonic, Gothic and German'').How carefully Bopp matured this work emerges from the series of monographs printed in the ''Transactions of the Berlin Academy'' (1824–1831), which preceded it.", "They bear the general title ''Vergleichende Zergliederung des Sanskrits und der mit ihm verwandten Sprachen (Comparative Analysis of Sanskrit and its related Languages)''.", "Two other essays (on the ''Numerals'', 1835) followed the publication of the first part of the ''Comparative Grammar''.", "Old Slavonian began to take its stand among the languages compared from the second part onwards.", "E. B. Eastwick translated the work into English in 1845.A second German edition, thoroughly revised (1856–1861), also covered Old Armenian.In his ''Comparative Grammar'' Bopp set himself a threefold task:#to give a description of the original grammatical structure of the languages as deduced from their inter-comparison.#to trace their phonetic laws.#to investigate the origin of their grammatical forms.The first and second points remained dependent upon the third.", "As Bopp based his research on the best available sources and incorporated every new item of information that came to light, his work continued to widen and deepen in the making, as can be witnessed from his monographs on the vowel system in the Teutonic languages (1836), on the Celtic languages (1839), on the Old Prussian (1853) and Albanian languages (''Über das Albanesische in seinen verwandtschaftlichen Beziehungen'', Vienna, 1854), on the accent in Sanskrit and Greek (1854), on the relationship of the Malayo-Polynesian to the Indo-European languages (1840), and on the Caucasian languages (1846).", "In the last two, the impetus of his genius led him on a wrong track.", "He is the first philologist to prove Albanian as a separate branch of Indo-European.", "Bopp was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1855 and an international member of the American Philosophical Society in 1863." ], [ "Criticism", "Critics have charged Bopp with neglecting the study of the native Sanskrit grammars, but in those early days of Sanskrit studies, the great libraries of Europe did not hold the requisite materials; if they had, those materials would have demanded his full attention for years, and such grammars as those of Charles Wilkins and Henry Thomas Colebrooke, from which Bopp derived his grammatical knowledge, had all used native grammars as a basis.", "The further charge that Bopp, in his ''Comparative Grammar'', gave undue prominence to Sanskrit is disproved by his own words; for, as early as 1820, he gave it as his opinion that frequently, the cognate languages serve to elucidate grammatical forms lost in Sanskrit (''Annals of Or.", "Lit.''", "i.", "3), which he further developed in all his subsequent writings.The ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' (11th edition of 1911) assesses Bopp and his work as follows:English scholar Russell Martineau, who had studied under Bopp, gave the following tribute:Martineau also wrote:" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* ===Attribution=== " ], [ "External links", "Franz Bopp, \"A Comparative Grammar, Volume 1\", 1885, at the Internet Archive." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Full Metal Jacket" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Full Metal Jacket''''' is a 1987 war drama film directed and produced by Stanley Kubrick, who also co-wrote the screenplay with Michael Herr and Gustav Hasford.", "The film is based on Hasford's 1979 novel ''The Short-Timers'' and stars Matthew Modine, R. Lee Ermey, Vincent D'Onofrio, and Adam Baldwin.The storyline follows a platoon of U.S. Marines through their boot camp training in Marine Corps Recruit Depot Parris Island, South Carolina, primarily focusing in the first half of the film on privates J.T.", "Davis and Leonard Lawrence, nicknamed \"Joker\" and \"Pyle\", who struggle under their abusive drill instructor Gunnery Sergeant Hartman.", "The second half portrays the experiences of Joker and other Marines in the Vietnamese cities of Da Nang and Huế during the Tet Offensive of the Vietnam War.", "The film's title refers to the full metal jacket bullet used by military servicemen.Warner Bros. released ''Full Metal Jacket'' in the United States on June 26, 1987.It was the last of Kubrick's films to be released during his lifetime.", "The film received critical acclaim, grossed $120 million against a budget of $16 million, and was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay for Kubrick, Herr, and Hasford.", "In 2001, the American Film Institute placed the film at number 95 in its poll titled \"AFI's 100 Years...100 Thrills\"." ], [ "Plot", "During the Vietnam War, a group of recruits arrive at the United States Marine Corps training facility at Parris Island.", "Drill instructor Gunnery Sergeant Hartman uses harsh methods to train them for combat.", "Among the recruits is the overweight and dim-witted Leonard Lawrence, whom Hartman nicknames \"Gomer Pyle\", and the wisecracking J.T.", "Davis, who receives the name \"Joker\" after interrupting Hartman's introductory speech with an impression of John Wayne.During boot camp, Hartman names Joker as squad leader and puts him in charge of helping Pyle improve.", "One evening while doing a hygiene inspection, Hartman notices that Pyle's footlocker is unlocked.", "As he inspects it for signs of theft, he discovers a jelly doughnut inside, blames the platoon for Pyle's infractions, and adopts a collective punishment policy in which any infraction committed by Pyle will earn a punishment for everyone else in the platoon.", "The next night, the recruits haze Pyle with a blanket party, in which Joker reluctantly participates.", "Following this, Pyle appears to reinvent himself as a model recruit, showing particular expertise in marksmanship.", "This pleases Hartman but worries Joker, who believes Pyle may be suffering a mental breakdown after seeing Pyle talking to his rifle.", "The recruits graduate, but the night before they leave Parris Island, Joker, who is on fire watch duty, discovers Pyle in the barracks latrine loading his service rifle with live ammunition, executing drill commands, and loudly reciting the Rifleman's Creed.", "Hartman is awoken by the commotion and attempts to intervene, but Pyle shoots and kills him before committing suicide, leaving Joker horrified.By January 1968, Joker is a sergeant and is based in Da Nang for the newspaper ''Stars and Stripes'' alongside his colleague Private First Class Rafterman, a combat photographer.", "The Tet Offensive begins and Joker's base is attacked, but holds.", "The following morning, Joker and Rafterman are sent to Phu Bai where Joker searches for and reunites with Sergeant \"Cowboy\", a friend he met at Parris Island.", "During the Battle of Huế, a booby trap kills the squad leader, Sgt.", "Crazy Earl, leaving Cowboy in command.", "Becoming lost in the city, the squad is ambushed by a Viet Cong sniper who kills two members.", "As the squad moves in on the sniper's location, Cowboy is killed.Assuming command, squad machine gunner \"Animal Mother\" leads an attack on the sniper.", "Joker locates her first, but his M16 rifle jams, alerting the sniper to his presence.", "As the sniper opens fire, she is revealed to be a teenage girl.", "Rafterman shoots her, wounding her mortally.", "As the squad converges on the sniper, she begs for death, leading to an argument over whether or not to kill her.", "Animal Mother agrees to a mercy killing but only if Joker does it; after some hesitation, Joker shoots her.", "Later, as night falls, the Marines return to camp singing the \"Mickey Mouse March\".", "A narration of Joker's thoughts conveys that, despite being \"in a world of shit\", he is glad to be alive and no longer afraid." ], [ "Cast", "* Matthew Modine as Private/Sergeant J. T. \"Joker\" Davis, a wise-cracking young Marine.", "On set, Modine kept a diary that in 2005 was adapted into a book and in 2013 into an interactive app.", "* Adam Baldwin as Sergeant \"Animal Mother\", a combat-hungry machine gunner who takes pride in killing enemy soldiers.", "Arnold Schwarzenegger was first considered for the role but turned it down in favor of a part in ''The Running Man''.", "* Vincent D'Onofrio as Private Leonard \"Gomer Pyle\" Lawrence, an overweight, slow-minded recruit who is the subject of Hartman's mockery.", "D'Onofrio heard from Modine of the auditions for the film.", "D'Onofrio recorded his audition using a rented video camera and was dressed in army fatigues.", "According to Kubrick, Pyle was \"the hardest part to cast in the whole movie\"; Modine suggested D'Onofrio to Kubrick, so he cast him in the part.", "D'Onofrio was required to gain .", "* Lee Ermey as Gunnery Sergeant Hartman, a harsh, foul-mouthed and ruthless senior drill instructor.", "Ermey used his actual experience as a U.S. Marine drill instructor in the Vietnam War to ad lib much of his dialogue.", "* Dorian Harewood as Corporal \"Eightball\", a member of the squad and Animal Mother's friend.", "* Arliss Howard as Private/Sergeant \"Cowboy\" Evans, a friend of Joker and a member of the Lusthog Squad.", "* Kevyn Major Howard as Private First Class \"Rafterman\", a combat photographer.", "* Ed O'Ross as First Lieutenant Walter J.", "\"Touchdown\" Schinoski, the Lusthog Squad's platoon leader.", "* John Terry as First Lieutenant Lockhart, the editor of ''Stars and Stripes''.", "* Kieron Jecchinis (credited as Keiron Jecchinis) as Sergeant \"Crazy Earl\", the first Lusthog Squad leader.", "* Bruce Boa as a POG Colonel who dresses down Joker for wearing a peace symbol on his lapel.", "* Kirk Taylor as \"Payback\"* John Stafford as \"Doc Jay\", a Navy hospital corpsman providing medical support for the squad.", "* Tim Colceri as Doorgunner, a ruthless and sadistic helicopter door gunner who suggests Joker and Rafterman write a story about him.", "Colceri, a former Marine, was originally slated to play Hartman, a role that went to Ermey.", "Kubrick gave Colceri this smaller part as a consolation.", "* Ian Tyler as Lieutenant Cleves, an officer present at the uncovering of a mass grave.", "* Gary Landon Mills as Donlon, a squad member who works as a radio operator.", "* Sal Lopez as \"T.H.E.", "Rock\"* Papillon Soo Soo as a Da Nang prostitute* Ngoc Le as the Viet Cong sniper* Peter Edmund as Private \"Snowball\" Brown, a recruit in Hartman's platoon." ], [ "Production", "===Development===In early 1980, Kubrick contacted Michael Herr, author of the Vietnam War memoir ''Dispatches'' (1977), to discuss work on a film about the Holocaust but Kubrick discarded that idea in favor of a film about the Vietnam War.", "Herr and Kubrick met in England; Kubrick told Herr he wanted to make a war film but had yet to find a story to adapt.", "Kubrick discovered Gustav Hasford's novel ''The Short-Timers'' (1979) while reading the ''Kirkus Review''.", "Herr received the novel in bound galleys and thought it a masterpiece.", "In 1982, Kubrick read the novel twice; he concluded it is \"a unique, absolutely wonderful book\" and decided to adapt it for his next film.", "According to Kubrick, he was drawn to the book's dialogue, which he found \"almost poetic in its carved-out, stark quality\".", "In 1983, Kubrick began researching for the film; he watched archival footage and documentaries, read Vietnamese newspapers on microfilm from the Library of Congress, and studied hundreds of photographs from the era.", "Initially, Herr was not interested in revisiting his Vietnam War experiences, and Kubrick spent three years persuading him to participate, describing the discussions as \"a single phone call lasting three years, with interruptions\".In 1985, Kubrick contacted Hasford and invited him to join the team; he talked to Hasford by telephone three to four times a week for hours at a time.", "Kubrick had already written a detailed treatment of the novel, and Kubrick and Herr met at Kubrick's home every day, breaking the treatment into scenes.", "Herr then wrote the first draft of the film script.", "Kubrick worried the audience might misread the book's title as a reference to people who did only half a day's work and changed it to ''Full Metal Jacket'' after coming across the phrase in a gun catalogue.", "After the first draft was complete, Kubrick telephoned his orders to Hasford and Herr, who mailed their submissions to him.", "Kubrick read and edited Hasford's and Herr's submissions, and the team repeated the process.", "Neither Hasford nor Herr knew how much each had contributed to the screenplay, which led to a dispute over the final credits.", "Hasford said, \"We were like guys on an assembly line in the car factory.", "I was putting on one widget and Michael was putting on another widget and Stanley was the only one who knew that this was going to end up being a car\".", "Herr said Kubrick was not interested in making an anti-war film but \"he wanted to show what war is like\".At some point, Kubrick wanted to meet Hasford in person, but Herr advised against this, describing ''The Short-Timers'' author as a \"scary man, a big, haunted marine\", and did not believe Hasford and Kubrick would \"get on\".", "Kubrick, however, insisted on the meeting, which occurred at Kubrick's house in England.", "The meeting went poorly; Kubrick privately told Herr, \"I can't deal with this man\", and Hasford did not meet with Kubrick again.===Casting===Through Warner Bros., Kubrick advertised a casting search in the United States and Canada; he used videotape to audition actors and received over 3,000 submissions.", "Kubrick's staff screened the tapes, leaving 800 of them for him to review.Former U.S. Marine drill instructor Ermey was originally hired as a technical advisor.", "Ermey asked Kubrick if he could audition for the role of Hartman.", "Kubrick, who had seen Ermey's portrayal of drill instructor Staff Sergeant Loyce in ''The Boys in Company C'' (1978), told Ermey he was not vicious enough to play the character.", "Ermey improvised insulting dialogue against a group of Royal Marines who were being considered for the part of background Marines, to demonstrate his ability to play the character and to show how a drill instructor breaks down individuality in new recruits.", "Upon viewing the videotape of these sessions, Kubrick gave Ermey the role, realizing he \"was a genius for this part\".", "Kubrick incorporated the 250-page transcript of Ermey's rants into the script.", "Ermey's experience as a drill instructor during the Vietnam War proved invaluable; Kubrick estimated Ermey wrote 50% of his character's dialogue, particularly the insults.While Ermey practiced his lines in a rehearsal room, Kubrick's assistant Leon Vitali would throw tennis balls and oranges at him, which Ermey had to catch and throw back as quickly as possible while saying his lines as fast as he could.", "Any hesitation, slowing down, slip, or missed line would necessitate starting over.", "Twenty error-free runs were required.", "\"He was my drill instructor\", Ermey said of Vitali.Eight months of negotiations to cast Anthony Michael Hall as Private Joker were unsuccessful.", "Val Kilmer was also considered for the role, and Bruce Willis turned down a role due to filming commitments of his television series ''Moonlighting''.", "Kubrick called Ed Harris on the phone to offer him the role of Gunnery Sergeant Hartman, but Harris declined it, a decision which he later called \"foolish\".", "Robert De Niro was also considered for the role, though Kubrick eventually felt that the audience would \"feel cheated\" if De Niro's character were killed off in the first hour.", "Bill McKinney was also considered for the part, however Kubrick professed an irrational fear of the actor.", "McKinney was known for his role as a rural psychopath in 1972's ''Deliverance,'' most memorably in a passage that Kubrick described as \"the most terrifying scene ever put on film.\"", "McKinney was about to fly from Los Angeles to London to audition for Kubrick and the producers when he received a message at the airport informing him that his audition had been cancelled.", "The director John Boorman, who had made ''Deliverance,'' later said McKinney was paid in full despite Kubrick being too afraid to face him.", "Denzel Washington showed interest in the film but Kubrick did not send him a script.===Filming===Principal photography began on August 27, 1985, and wrapped on August 8, 1986.Scenes were filmed in Cambridgeshire, the Norfolk Broads, in eastern London at Millennium Mills and Beckton Gas Works in Newham, and in the Isle of Dogs.", "Kubrick hired Anton Furst as the production designer after being impressed by his work on ''The Company of Wolves'' (1984).", "Bassingbourn Barracks, a former Royal Air Force station and then British Army base, was used as the Parris Island Marine boot camp.", "A British Army rifle range near Barton, Cambridge, was used for the scene in which Hartman congratulates Private Pyle for his shooting skills.", "Kubrick and Furst worked from still photographs of Huế taken in 1968; Kubrick found an area owned by British Gas that closely resembled it and was scheduled to be demolished.", "The disused Beckton Gas Works, a few miles from central London, was filmed to depict Huế after attacks.", "Kubrick had buildings blown up, and the film's art director used a wrecking ball to knock specific holes in some buildings for two months.", "Kubrick had a plastic replica jungle flown in from California but once he saw it dismissed the idea, saying; \"I don't like it.", "Get rid of it.\"", "The open country scenes were filmed at marshland in Cliffe-at-Hoo and along the River Thames; locations were supplemented with 200 imported Spanish palm trees and 100,000 plastic tropical plants from Hong Kong.Kubrick acquired four M41 tanks from a Belgian army colonel who was an admirer.", "Westland Wessex helicopters, which have a much longer and less-rounded nose than that of the Vietnam era H-34, were painted Marine green to represent Marine Corps Sikorsky H-34 Choctaw helicopters.", "Kubrick obtained a selection of rifles, M79 grenade launchers, and M60 machine guns from a licensed weapons dealer.Modine described the filming as difficult; Beckton Gas Works was a toxic environment for the film crew, being contaminated with asbestos and hundreds of other chemicals.", "During the boot camp sequence of the film, Modine and the other recruits underwent Marine Corps training, during which Ermey yelled at them for 10 hours a day while filming the Parris Island scenes.", "To ensure the actors' reactions to Ermey's lines were as authentic and fresh as possible, Ermey and the recruits did not rehearse together.", "For film continuity, each recruit had his head shaved once a week.Modine fought with Kubrick about whether he should leave the set to be with his pregnant wife in the delivery room.", "Modine threatened to cut himself and get sent to the hospital himself in order for Kubrick to back down.", "He also nearly came blows with D'Onofrio during filming the boot camp scenes after he taunted him laughing with the film's extras between takes.While filming, Ermey had a car accident and broke several ribs, making him unavailable for four and a half months.During Cowboy's death scene, a building that resembles the alien monolith in Kubrick's ''2001: A Space Odyssey'' (1968) is visible.", "Kubrick described this as an \"extraordinary accident\".During filming, Hasford contemplated taking legal action over the writing credits.", "Originally, the filmmakers intended Hasford to receive an \"additional dialogue\" credit but he fought for and eventually received full credit.", "Hasford and two friends visited the set dressed as extras but was mistaken by a crew member for Herr.", "Hasford identified himself as the writer of the source material.Kubrick's daughter Vivian, who appears uncredited as a news camera operator, shadowed the filming of ''Full Metal Jacket''.", "She filmed 18 hours of behind-the-scenes footage for a potential \"making-of\" documentary that went unmade.", "Sections of her work can be seen in the documentary ''Stanley Kubrick's Boxes'' (2008)." ], [ "Themes", "Helmet prop from the filmMichael Pursell's essay \"''Full Metal Jacket'': The Unravelling of Patriarchy\" (1988) was an early, in-depth consideration of the film's two-part structure and its criticism of masculinity, saying the film shows \"war and pornography as facets of the same system\".Most reviews have focused on military brainwashing themes in the boot camp section of the film while seeing the content in the film's latter half as more confusing and disjointed.", "Rita Kempley of ''The Washington Post'' wrote, \"it's as if they borrowed bits of every war movie to make this eclectic finale\".", "Roger Ebert saw in the film an attempt to tell a story of individual characters and the war's effects on them.", "According to Ebert, the result is a shapeless film that feels \"more like a book of short stories than a novel\".", "Julian Rice, in his book ''Kubrick's Hope'' (2008), saw the second part of the film as a continuation of Joker's psychic journey in his attempt to understand human evil.Tony Lucia, in his 1987 review of ''Full Metal Jacket'' for the ''Reading Eagle'', examined the themes of Kubrick's career, suggesting \"the unifying element may be the ordinary man dwarfed by situations too vast and imposing to handle\".", "Lucia refers to the \"military mentality\" in this film and also said the theme covers \"a man testing himself against his own limitations\", and concluded: \"''Full Metal Jacket'' is the latest chapter in an ongoing movie which is not merely a comment on our time or a time past, but on something that reaches beyond\".British critic Gilbert Adair wrote, \"Kubrick's approach to language has always been reductive and uncompromisingly deterministic in nature.", "He appears to view it as the exclusive product of environmental conditioning, only very marginally influenced by concepts of subjectivity and interiority, by all the whims, shades and modulations of personal expression\".Michael Herr wrote of his work on the screenplay, \"The substance was single-minded, the old and always serious problem of how you put into a film or a book the living, behaving presence of what Jung called The Shadow, the most accessible of archetypes, and the easiest to experience ... War is the ultimate field of Shadow-activity, where all of its other activities lead you.", "As they expressed it in Vietnam, 'Yea, though I walk through the Valley of the Shadow of Death, I will fear no Evil, for I the Evil'.\"" ], [ "Music", "Kubrick's daughter Vivian, under the alias \"Abigail Mead\", wrote the film's score.", "According to an interview in the January 1988 issue of ''Keyboard'', the film was scored mostly with a Series III edition Fairlight CMI synthesizer and a Synclavier.", "For the period music, Kubrick went through ''Billboard'' list of Top 100 Hits for each year from 1962 to 1968 and tried many songs but found \"sometimes the dynamic range of the music was too great, and we couldn't work in dialogue\".", "* Johnnie Wright – \"Hello Vietnam\"* The Dixie Cups – \"Chapel of Love\"* Sam the Sham & The Pharaohs – \"Wooly Bully\"* Chris Kenner – \"I Like It Like That\"* Nancy Sinatra – \"These Boots Are Made for Walkin'\"* The Trashmen – \"Surfin' Bird\"* Goldman Band – \"Marines' Hymn\"* The Rolling Stones – \"Paint It Black\"A single titled \"Full Metal Jacket (I Wanna Be Your Drill Instructor)\", credited to Mead and Nigel Goulding, was released to promote the film and incorporates Ermey's drill cadences from the film.", "The single reached Number 1 in Ireland, Number 2 in the UK, Number 4 in both the Netherlands and the Flanders region of Belgium, Number 8 in West Germany, Number 11 in Sweden, and Number 29 in New Zealand." ], [ "Release", "===Box office===''Full Metal Jacket'' received a limited release on June 26, 1987, in 215 theaters.", "During its opening weekend, it accrued $2.2 million, an average of $10,313 per theater, ranking it the number 10 film for the weekend June 26–28.It took a further $2 million for a total of $5.7 million before being widely released in 881 theaters on July 10, 1987.The weekend of July 10–12 saw the film gross $6.1 million, an average of $6,901 per theater, and rank as the second-highest-grossing film.", "Over the next four weeks the film opened in a further 194 theaters to its widest release of 1,075 theaters; it closed two weeks later with a total gross of $46.4 million, making it the twenty-third-highest-grossing film of 1987., the film had grossed $120 million worldwide.===Home media===The home media release history of ''Full Metal Jacket'' is summarized in the following table.", "Minor cuts to the 1h 57m theatrical version were made to comply with the censor boards overseeing the various territories in which the film was released.", "For technical reasons the PAL mastering standard speeds up playback by around 4% compared with NTSC, leading to slightly shorter runtimes (around 1h 52m) in releases mastered for territories other than the US and Japan.+TerritoryTitleReleasedPublisherAspect RatioCutRuntimeCommentariesMixResolutionMasterMediumUSA#3000082901 September 22, 2020Warner Home Video1.78:1Theatrical1h 56mnone5.1, mono (192 kbps)2160p4KBlu-ray#3000082360 September 22, 20205.1#3000083363September 22, 20201080pUKSeptember 22, 20202160pUSA#118627May 7, 20131.85:11080p2KOctober 16, 20121.78:1480iDVD#201341October 16, 20121.78:11080pBlu-ray#400002309August 7, 20121.78:11h 57m#5000099235May 23, 20111h 52m#80931October 28, 20071.78:1HD-DVD#118627October 23, 20071.78:11h 56mBlu-ray#11611620071.85:11h 57m480iDVDUK#Z1 809311.78:11080pHD-DVD#Z1 Y186262007Germany#Z1 Y186261h 57mUSA#116311May 15, 20071.33:11h 56m480iDVDSweden#Z11 809311.78:11080pHD-DVD#Z11 Y186261h 57mNorway#Z12 Y186261h 57mGermany#Z5 809311h 56mFrance#Z7 809312006USASeptember 5, 20061.77:11h 57m1080pBlu-rayJapan#WBHA-80931November 3, 20061.78:11h 57m1080pHD-DVDUSA#11826May 16, 2006November 6, 20011.33:1480iDVDJune 12, 20011.85:1#2115420011.33:11h 56mmono240 linesNTSCVHSJune 29, 2001mono480iDVDFrance#11760131995mono425 linesPALLaserDiscUK#PES 117601993240 linesNTSCVHSUSA#1176019911h 57m425 linesLaserDiscFinland#WES 117601991Fazer Musiikki1h 52m576 linesPALVHSUSA#117601990Warner Home Video1h 57m425 linesNTSCLaserDiscJapan#NJL-11760July 25, 1989#VHP4701219891h 56m320 linesVHDUSA#117601988240 linesVHSJapan#NJV 116601987Australia#PEV 1176019871h 55m576 linesPALUSA1987240 linesNTSCVHSThe 2020 4K UHD release uses a new HDR remastered native 2160p that was transferred from the original 35mm negative, which was supervised by Kubrick's personal assistant Leon Vitali.", "It contains the remixed audio and, for the first time since the original DVD release, the theatrical mono mix.", "The release was a critical success; publications praised its image and audio quality, calling the former exceptionally good and faithful to the original theatrical release, and Kubrick's vision while noting the lack of new extras and bonus content.", "A collector's edition box set of this 4K UHD version was released with different cover art, a replica theatrical poster of the film, a letter from director Stanley Kubrick, and a booklet about the film's production among other extras." ], [ "Critical reception", "R. Lee Ermey (pictured) was praised by critics for his performance as Hartman, leading him to win the Boston Society of Film Critics Award for Best Supporting Actor.Review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes retrospectively collected reviews to give the film a score of 90% based on reviews from 84 critics and an average rating of 8.3/10.The summary states; \"Intense, tightly constructed, and darkly comic at times, Stanley Kubrick's ''Full Metal Jacket'' may not boast the most original of themes, but it is exceedingly effective at communicating them\".", "Another aggregator, Metacritic, gave it a score of 76 out of 100 based on 19 reviews, which indicates a \"generally favorable\" response.", "Reviewers generally reacted favorably to the cast—Ermey in particular— and the film's first act about recruit training.", "Several reviews, however, were critical of the latter part of the film, which is set in Vietnam, and what was considered a \"muddled\" moral message in the finale.Richard Corliss of ''Time'' called the film a \"technical knockout\", praising \"the dialogue's wild, desperate wit; the daring in choosing a desultory skirmish to make a point about war's pointlessness\", and \"the fine, large performances of almost every actor\", saying Ermey and D'Onofrio would receive Oscar nominations.", "Corliss appreciated \"the Olympian elegance and precision of Kubrick's filmmaking\".", "''Empire''s Ian Nathan awarded the film three stars out of five, saying it is \"inconsistent\" and describing it as \"both powerful and frustratingly unengaged\".", "Nathan said after the opening act, which focuses on the recruit training, the film becomes \"bereft of purpose\"; nevertheless, he summarized his review by calling it a \"hardy Kubrickian effort that warms on you with repeated viewings\" and praised Ermey's \"staggering performance\".", "Vincent Canby of ''The New York Times'' called the film \"harrowing, beautiful and characteristically eccentric\".", "Canby echoed praise for Ermey, calling him \"the film's stunning surprise ... he's so good—so obsessed—that you might think he wrote his own lines\".", "Canby said D'Onofrio's performance should be admired and described Modine as \"one of the best, most adaptable young film actors of his generation\", and concluded ''Full Metal Jacket'' is \"a film of immense and very rare imagination\".Jim Hall, writing for Film4 in 2010, awarded the film five stars out of five and added to the praise for Ermey, saying his \"performance as the foul-mouthed Hartman is justly celebrated and it's difficult to imagine the film working anything like as effectively without him\".", "The review preferred the opening training segment to the later Vietnam sequence, calling it \"far more striking than the second and longer section\".", "Hall commented the film ends abruptly but felt \"it demonstrates just how clear and precise the director's vision could be when he resisted a fatal tendency for indulgence\".", "Hall concluded; \"''Full Metal Jacket'' ranks with ''Dr.", "Strangelove'' as one of Kubrick's very best\".", "Jonathan Rosenbaum of the ''Chicago Reader'' called it \"Elliptical, full of subtle inner rhymes ... and profoundly moving, this is the most tightly crafted Kubrick film since ''Dr.", "Strangelove'', as well as the most horrific\".", "''Variety'' called the film an \"intense, schematic, superbly made\" drama that is \"loaded with vivid, outrageously vulgar military vernacular that contributes heavily to the film's power\" but said it never develops \"a particularly strong narrative\".", "The cast performances were all labeled \"exceptional\"; Modine was singled out as \"embodying both what it takes to survive in the war and a certain omniscience\".", "Gilbert Adair, writing for ''Full Metal Jacket'', commented; \"Kubrick's approach to language has always been of a reductive and uncompromisingly deterministic nature.", "He appears to view it as the exclusive product of environmental conditioning, only very marginally influenced by concepts of subjectivity and interiority, by all whims, shades and modulations of personal expression\".", "''Chicago Sun-Times'' critic Roger Ebert called ''Full Metal Jacket'' \"strangely shapeless\" and awarded it two and a half stars out of four.", "Ebert called it \"one of the best-looking war movies ever made on sets and stage\" but said this was not enough to compete with the \"awesome reality of ''Platoon'', ''Apocalypse Now'' and ''The Deer Hunter''\".", "Ebert criticized the film's Vietnam-set second act, saying the \"movie disintegrates into a series of self-contained set pieces, none of them quite satisfying\" and concluded the film's message is \"too little and too late\", having been done by other Vietnam War films.", "Ebert praised Ermey and D'Onofrio, saying \"these are the two best performances in the movie, which never recovers after they leave the scene\".", "Ebert's review angered Gene Siskel on their television show ''At The Movies''; he criticized Ebert for liking ''Benji the Hunted'' more than ''Full Metal Jacket''.", "''Time Out London'' disliked the film, saying \"Kubrick's direction is as steely cold and manipulative as the régime it depicts\", and that the characters are underdeveloped, adding \"we never really get to know, let alone care about, the hapless recruits on view\".Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of \"B+\" on an A+ to F scale.British television channel Channel 4 voted ''Full Metal Jacket'' fifth on its list of the greatest war films ever made.", "In 2008, ''Empire'' placed the film at number 457 on its list of \"The 500 Greatest Movies of All Time\".", "In 2010, ''The Guardian'' ranked it 19th on its list of the \"25 best action and war films of all time\".", "The film is ranked 95 on the American Film Institute's 100 Years... 100 Thrills list, which was published in 2001.===Accolades===Between 1987 and 1989, ''Full Metal Jacket'' was nominated for 11 awards, including an Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay, two BAFTA Awards for Best Sound and Best Special Effects, and a Golden Globe for Best Supporting Actor for Ermey.", "It won five awards, including three from overseas; Best Foreign Language Film from the Japanese Academy, Best Producer from the Academy of Italian Cinema, Director of the Year at the London Critics Circle Film Awards, and Best Director and Best Supporting Actor at the Boston Society of Film Critics Awards for Kubrick and Ermey respectively.", "Of the five awards it won, four were awarded to Kubrick and the other was given to Ermey.", "Year Award Category Recipient Result Ref.", "1987 BAFTA Awards Best Sound Nigel Galt, Edward Tise and Andy Nelson Best Special Effects John Evans 1988 60th Academy Awards Best Adapted Screenplay Stanley Kubrick, Michael Herr and Gustav Hasford Boston Society of Film Critics Awards Best Director Stanley Kubrick Best Supporting Actor R. Lee Ermey David di Donatello Awards Best Producer – Foreign film Stanley Kubrick Golden Globes Best Performance by an Actor in a Supporting Role in a Motion Picture R. Lee Ermey London Critics Circle Film Awards Director of the Year Stanley Kubrick Writers Guild of America Best Adapted Screenplay Stanley Kubrick, Michael Herr, Gustav Hasford 1989 Kinema Junpo Awards Best Foreign Language Film Director Stanley Kubrick Awards of the Japanese Academy Best Foreign Language Film Stanley Kubrick" ], [ "Differences between novel and screenplay", "Film scholar Greg Jenkins has analyzed the adaptation of the novel as a screenplay.", "The novel is in three parts and the film greatly expands the relatively brief first section about the boot camp on Parris Island and essentially discards Part III.", "This gives the film a twofold structure, telling two largely independent stories that are connected by the same characters.", "Jenkins said this structure is a development of concepts Kubrick originally discussed in the 1960s, when he talked about wanting to explode the usual conventions of narrative structure.Sergeant Hartman, who is renamed from the book's Gerheim, has an expanded role in the film.", "Private Pyle's incompetence is presented as weighing negatively on the rest of the platoon; unlike those in the novel, he is the only under-performing recruit.", "The film omits Gerheim's disclosure he thinks Pyle might be mentally unstable—a \"Section 8\"—to the other troops; instead, Joker questions Pyle's mental state.", "In contrast, Hartman praises Pyle, saying he is \"born again hard\".", "Jenkins says that portraying Hartman as having a warmer social relationship with the troops would have upset the balance of the film, which depends on the spectacle of ordinary soldiers coming to grips with Hartman as a force of nature who embodies a killer culture.Some scenes in the book were removed from the screenplay or conflated with others.", "For example, Cowboy's introduction of the \"Lusthog Squad\" was markedly shortened and supplemented with material from other sections of the book.", "Although the book's third section was largely omitted, elements from it were inserted into other parts of the film.", "For instance, the climactic episode with the sniper is a conflation of two sections of Parts II and III of the book.", "According to Jenkins, the film presents this passage more dramatically but in less gruesome detail than the novel.The film often has a more tragic tone than the book, which relies on callous humor.", "In the film, Joker remains a model of humane thinking, as evidenced by his moral struggle in the sniper scene and elsewhere.", "Joker works to overcome his own meekness rather than compete with other Marines.", "The film omits Joker's eventual domination over Animal Mother shown in the book.The film also omits Rafterman's death; according to Jenkins, this allows viewers to reflect on Rafterman's personal growth and speculate on his future growth after the war." ], [ "In popular culture", "The line \"Me so horny.", "Me love you long time\", which is uttered by the Da Nang street prostitute to Joker, became a catchphrase in popular culture and was sampled by rap artists 2 Live Crew in their 1989 hit \"Me So Horny\" and by Sir Mix-A-Lot in \"Baby Got Back\" (1992)." ], [ "See also", "* ''Paths of Glory''* Project 100,000* Vietnam War in film* Battle of Huế" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * " ], [ "Further reading", " " ], [ "External links", " * * * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Flirting" ], [ "Introduction", "A poster by Henri Gerbault depicting flirting between a man and a woman'''Flirting''' or '''coquetry''' is a social and sexual behavior involving body language, or spoken or written communication.", "It is used to suggest interest in a deeper relationship with another person and for amusement.A person might flirt with another by speaking or behaving in such a way that suggests their desire to increase intimacy in their current relationship with that person.", "The approach may include communicating a sense of playfulness, irony, or by using double entendres.", "A study in body language: Haynes King's ''Jealousy and Flirtation''Laurel (played by Marilyn Monroe) flirting with Dr. Fulton (played by Cary Grant) in the film ''Monkey Business'' (1952)" ], [ "Etymology", "The origin of the word \"flirt\" is unknown.", "The ''Oxford English Dictionary'' (first edition) associates the verb form—first used in 1580—with the intransitive \"flit\" and the noun form—ca 1590—with the transitive \"flick\".Flirt has been attributed to the French conter fleurette, which has fallen out of common use.", "The French word \"fleurette\" (small flower) was used in the 16th century in some sonnets and texts.", "While this term is now seen as outdated, this expression is still used in French, often mockingly, however the English gallicism, \"to flirt''\"'' is in the common vernacular and has now become an anglicism." ], [ "Historical context", "During World War II, anthropologist Margaret Mead was working in Britain for the British Ministry of Information and later for the U.S. Office of War Information, delivering speeches and writing articles to help the American soldiers better understand the British civilians, and vice versa.", "She observed in the flirtations between the American soldiers and British women a pattern of misunderstandings regarding who is supposed to take which initiative.", "She wrote of the Americans, \"The boy learns to make advances and rely upon the girl to repulse them whenever they are inappropriate to the state of feeling between the pair\", as contrasted to the British, where \"the girl is reared to depend upon a slight barrier of chilliness... which the boys learn to respect, and for the rest to rely upon the men to approach or advance, as warranted by the situation.\"", "When flirting with each other, British women could interpret an American soldier's gregariousness as something more intimate or serious than he had intended.Communications theorist Paul Watzlawick researched courtship behaviors between English women and North American servicemen in late- to post-WWII, finding common misunderstandings of intent.", "The simple act of kissing during the 'wrong stage' of the courtship often led both parties to believe the other was being too forward, too soon." ], [ "Purpose", "A woman flirts with a soldier by tickling him with a feather.People flirt for a variety of reasons.", "According to social anthropologist Kate Fox, there are two main types of flirting: flirting just for fun, and flirting with further intent.In a 2014 review, sociologist David Henningsen identified six main motivations for flirting: sex, relational development, exploration, fun, self-esteem, and as a means to an end.", "Henningsen found that many flirting interactions involve more than one of these motives.", "There also appear to be gender differences in flirting motivation.=== Courtship ===Many people flirt as a courtship initiation method, with the aim of engaging in a sexual relationship with another person.", "In this sense, flirting plays a role in the mate-selection process.", "The person flirting will send out signals of sexual availability to another, and expects to see the interest returned in order to continue flirting.", "Flirting can involve non-verbal signs, such as an exchange of glances, hand-touching, and hair-touching; or verbal signs, such as chatting, giving flattering comments, and exchanging telephone numbers in order to initiate further contact.Many studies have confirmed that sex is a motivation for flirting.", "Additionally, Messman and colleagues' study provided support for this hypothesis; it demonstrated that, the more one was physically attracted to a person, the higher the chances one would flirt with them.=== Misinterpretation and consequences ===Flirting with the goal of signaling interest appears as a puzzling phenomenon when considering that flirting is often performed very subtly.", "In fact, evidence shows that people are often mistaken in how they interpret flirting behaviors.", "Logically, if the main purpose of flirting is to signal interest to the other person, then the signaling would be done clearly and explicitly.", "A possible explanation for the ambiguous nature of human flirting lies in the costs associated with courtship signals.", "Indeed, according to Gersick and colleagues, signaling interest can be costly as it can lead to the disturbance of the nature of a relationship.", "Third parties can impose costs on individuals expressing sexual interest.", "Expressing sexual interest to somebody else's romantic partner is a highly punishable act.", "This often leads to jealousy from the person's partner which can trigger anger and (possible) physical punishment, especially in men.", "Third parties can also impose costs through the act of eavesdropping.", "These can lead to damage to one's reputation leading to possible social, economic and legal costs.The costs associated with interest signaling are magnified in the case of humans when compared to the animal world, as the existence of language means information can circulate much faster.", "For instance, in the case of eavesdropping, the information overheard by the eavesdropper can be spread to very large social networks, thereby magnifying the social costs.=== Other motivations ===Another reason people engage in flirting is to consolidate or maintain a romantic relationship with their partner.", "They will engage in flirting behaviors to promote the flourishing of their relationship with their partner.", "People will also flirt with the goal of 'exploring'.", "In this sense, the aim is not necessarily to express sexual or romantic interest but simply to assess whether the other might be interested in them before making any decision about what they would want from that individual.Henningsen and Fox also demonstrated that flirting can sometimes be employed just for fun.", "For instance, studies have shown that flirting in the workplace was used mostly for fun purposes.Another motive that drives flirting is developing one's own self-esteem by encouraging reciprocation.=== Gender differences in motivations ===Certain types of flirting seem to vary by gender.", "Henningsen and colleagues' study demonstrated that flirting with sexual intent was found to be more prominent amongst men while flirting for relationship development purposes was more often employed by women.", "Additionally, Henningsen found that women may engage in what he calls \"practice flirting,\" that is, using the behavior to evaluate potential partners.In evolutionary biology, the parental investment theory states that females are more selective and males are more competitive, therefore predicting that flirting as courtship initiation will be more commonly used by males.", "The theory also predicts that females provide more resources to their offspring, which causes them to invest in a mate that can contribute to their offspring's survival." ], [ "Cultural variations", "Flirting behavior varies culture to culture due to different modes of social etiquette, such as how closely people should stand, how long to hold eye contact, how much touching is appropriate and so forth.", "Nonetheless, some behaviors may be more universal.", "Ethologist Irenäus Eibl-Eibesfeldt discovered women from different continents (Africa and North America) behave similarly in some ways when flirting, such as nonchalantly breaking their gaze and smiling after first staring for a prolonged period of time.", "''The Flirtation'' by Eugene de Blaas.", "A study of body language: a man flirtingIn \"contact cultures,\" such as those in the Mediterranean or Latin America, closer proximity is common, compared with cultures such as those in Britain or Northern Europe.", "The variation in social norms may lead to different interpretations of what is considered to be flirting.Japanese courtesans had another form of flirting, emphasizing non-verbal relationships by hiding the lips and showing the eyes, as depicted in much Shunga art, the most popular print media at the time, until the late 19th century.The fan was extensively used as a means of communication and therefore a way of flirting from the 16th century onwards in some European societies, especially England and Spain.", "A whole sign language was developed with the use of the fan, and even etiquette books and magazines were published.", "Charles Francis Badini created the Original Fanology or Ladies' Conversation Fan, which was published by William Cock in London in 1797.The use of the fan was not limited to women, as men also carried fans and learned how to convey messages with them.", "For instance, placing the fan near the heart meant \"I love you\", while opening a fan wide meant \"Wait for me\".In Spain, where the use of fans (called \"abanicos\") is still very popular today, ladies used them to communicate with suitors or prospective suitors without attracting the notice of their families or chaperons.", "This use was highly popular during the 19th and early 20th centuries.In Japan, flirting in the street or public places is known as ''nanpa''." ], [ "See also", "* Anti-Flirt Club* Making out* Public display of affection* Wingman (social)" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Franklin J. Schaffner" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Franklin James Schaffner''' (May 30, 1920July 2, 1989) was an American film, television, and stage director.", "He won the Academy Award for Best Director for ''Patton'' (1970), and is known for the films ''Planet of the Apes'' (1968), ''Nicholas and Alexandra'' (1971), ''Papillon'' (1973), and ''The Boys from Brazil'' (1978).", "He served as president of the Directors Guild of America between 1987 and 1989." ], [ "Early life", "(from far left) Stanley O'Toole, Gregory Peck and Franklin J. Schaffner outside Franklin & Marshall College after accepting an honorary degree in 1977Schaffner was born in Tokyo, Japan, the son of American missionaries Sarah Horting (née Swords) and Paul Franklin Schaffner, and was raised in Japan.The Schaffners returned to the United States and settled in Lancaster, Pennsylvania when Franklin Schaffner was 5 years old.", "Franklin Schaffner attended J.P. McCaskey High School, where he appeared as Mr. Darcy in the school's production of ''Pride and Prejudice''.", "In 1938, he graduated as valedictorian of McCaskey High School's first graduating class.Schaffner graduated from Franklin & Marshall College (F&M) in Lancaster.", "As a student, Schaffner was active in the drama program at F&M's Green Room Theatre, where he appeared in eleven plays and served as president of the Green Room Club.", "He then studied law at Columbia University in New York City, but his education was interrupted by service with the U.S. Navy in World War II during which he served with amphibious forces in Europe and North Africa.", "In the latter stages of the war, he was sent to the Pacific Far East to serve with the Office of Strategic Services." ], [ "Television career", "Schaffner returned to the United States after the war.", "He worked for a world peace organization, then as an assistant director for the documentary film series ''The March of Time''.", "He became a director in the news and public affairs department of CBS television, where his jobs including covering sports, beauty pageants and public-service programs.In 1950 he directed \"The Traitor\", the first episode of ''Ford Theatre''.", "He also did adaptations of ''Alice in Wonderland'' and ''Treasure Island''.He directed \"Thunder on Sycamore Street\" by Reginald Rose for ''Studio One''.", "He and Rose reunited on ''Twelve Angry Men'' which won Schaffner an Emmy for Best Director.The following year Schaffner earned another Emmy for his work on the 1955 TV adaptation of the Broadway play ''The Caine Mutiny Court-Martial'', shown on the anthology series ''Ford Star Jubilee''.Schaffner became one of three regular directors on the ''Kaiser Aluminium Hour''; the others were George Roy Hill and Fielder Cook.", "He was also a regular director on ''Playhouse 90''.He was the original director on the series, ''The Defenders'', created by Rose.", "Schaffner's work earned him another Emmy.In 1960, he directed Allen Drury's stage play ''Advise and Consent''.", "This earned him the Best Director recognition in the Variety Critics Poll.In the realm of network television, Schaffner also received widespread critical acclaim in 1962 for his groundbreaking collaboration with the First Lady of the United States Jacqueline Kennedy and CBS television's Musical Director Alfredo Antonini in the production of ''A Tour of the White House with Mrs. John F. Kennedy'', a television special broadcast to over 80 million viewers worldwide.Schaffner's contributions in this production earned him a nomination in 1963 by the Directors Guild of America, for its award in the category of Outstanding Directorial Achievement in Television." ], [ "Feature films", "===Early films===In January 1960 Schaffner signed a multi picture deal with Columbia Pictures.In May 1961 he signed to make ''A Summer Place'' at 20th Century Fox with Fabian and Dolores Hart.", "The film was not made.", "Schaffner directed ''The Good Years'' (1962) for TV with Henry Fonda and Lucille Ball.", "Other TV work included ''The Great American Robbery''.Instead Schaffner's first motion picture was ''The Stripper'' (1963), made at Fox from a play by William Inge, starring Richard Beymer and Joanne Woodward.", "The film was well-received critically, but not a commercial success.He continued to work for TV including ''The Legend of Lylah Clare''.Schaffner later made ''The Best Man'' (1964) based on a play by Gore Vidal and ''The War Lord'' (1965), based on a play by Leslie Stevens, with Charlton Heston.", "In a 1966 interview he said \"as you mature you learn that the story is the most important thing.\"", "He announced various films for Columbia - ''The Day Lincoln Was Shot'', ''The Whistle Blows for Victory'' and ''The Green Beret'' - but they were not made.He went to Britain to make ''The Double Man'' (1967) with Yul Brynner, a film Schaffner admitted he did for the money.===Peak===Schaffner had a huge critical and commercial hit in ''Planet of the Apes'' (1968) starring Heston at 20th Century Fox.In December 1968 Schaffner signed a non-exclusive three-picture deal with Columbia.His next film was for 20th Century Fox, however: ''Patton'' (1970), a biopic of General Patton starring George C. Scott.", "It was a major success for which Schaffner won the Academy Award for Best Director and the Directors Guild of America Award for Best Director.He made ''Nicholas and Alexandra'' (1971) for producer Sam Spiegel.", "It was an expensive box-office failure.", "Schaffner followed it with ''Papillon'' (1973) a $14 million epic with Steve McQueen and Dustin Hoffman that was a considerable financial success.", "In 1971 he said his films \"are almost always about people who are out of their time and place.", "\"Schaffner intended to follow ''Papillon'' with ''Dynasty of Western Outlaws'', about outlaws over the years in Missouri from a script by John Gay, and an adaptation of ''The French Lieutenant's Woman''.", "He ended up making neither: ''Dynasty'' was never made, and ''French Lieutenant'' was made a decade later by another director.Schaffner reunited with George C. Scott in ''Islands in the Stream'' (1977), based on the novel by Ernest Hemingway.", "He then did ''The Boys from Brazil'' (1978) based on a novel by Ira Levin with Gregory Peck.===Later work===His later films included ''Sphinx'' (1981), a $10 million thriller about Egypt based on a novel by Robin Cook and produced by Stanley O'Toole, who had made ''Boys from Brazil'' with Schaffner.", "It was a commercial and critical failure, as was ''Yes, Giorgio'' (1982), a musical comedy starring Luciano Pavarotti.Schaffner's last films were the critically well-received ''Lionheart'' (1987) and ''Welcome Home'' (1989).Schaffner was president of the Directors Guild of America from 1987 until his death in 1989." ], [ "Frequent collaborators", "Jerry Goldsmith composed the music for seven of his films: ''The Stripper'', ''Planet of the Apes'', ''Patton'', ''Papillon'', ''Islands in the Stream'', ''The Boys from Brazil'' and ''Lionheart''.", "Four of them were nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Score.Schaffner twice worked with actors Charlton Heston and Maurice Evans (''The War Lord''; ''Planet of the Apes''), George C. Scott (''Patton''; ''Islands in the Stream'') and Laurence Olivier (''Nicholas and Alexandra''; ''The Boys from Brazil'')." ], [ "Personal life", "Schaffner married Helen Jean Gilchrist in 1948.The couple had two children, Jennie and Kate.", "She died in 2007.Schaffner died on July 2, 1989, at the age of 69.He was released 10 days before his death from a hospital where he was being treated for lung cancer." ], [ "Critical perception", "Screenwriter William Goldman identified Schaffner in 1981 as being one of the three best directors (then living) at handling \"scope\" (a gift for screen epics) in films.", "The other two were David Lean and Richard Attenborough." ], [ "Legacy", "In 1991, Schaffner's widow, Jean Schaffner, established the Franklin J. Schaffner Alumni Medal (colloquially known as the Franklin J. Schaffner Award), which is awarded by the American Film Institute at its annual ceremony to an alumnus of either the AFI Conservatory or the AFI Conservatory Directing Workshop for Women who best embodies the qualities of the late director: talent, taste, dedication and commitment to quality filmmaking.", "Notable recipients include David Lynch, Amy Heckerling, Terence Malick, Darren Aronofsky, Patty Jenkins and Paul Schrader, among others.The Directors Guild of America also began presenting a Franklin J. Schaffner Achievement Award to associate directors or stage managers in 1991.The moving image collection of Franklin J. Schaffner is held at the Academy Film Archive.In May 2020, the mayor of Lancaster, Pennsylvania, proclaimed Franklin Schaffner Week (May 23–30, 2020) to mark the centennial of his birth." ], [ "Filmography", "=== Film === Year Title Academy Awards Golden Globe Awards BAFTA AwardsNotes Noms.", "Wins Noms.", "Wins Noms.", "Wins1952''The Wings of the Dove''1963''The Stripper''11964''The Best Man''121965''The War Lord''1967''The Double Man''1968''Planet of the Apes''211970''Patton''107212Also producer1971''Nicholas and Alexandra''62331973''Papillon''11Also producer1976''Islands in the Stream''11978''The Boys from Brazil''311981''Sphinx''Also executive producer1982''Yes, Giorgio''111987''Lionheart''1989''Welcome Home''Posthumous releaseTotal261010150=== Television === Year Title Emmy Awards Golden Globe AwardsNotes Noms.", "Wins Noms.", "Wins1948-51''The Ford Theatre Hour''22 episodes1949''Wesley''13 episodes1949-56''Studio One''125110 episodes1951''Tales of Tomorrow''5 episodes1953-59''Person to Person''6248 episodes1955''The Best of Broadway''11 episode1955-56''Ford Star Jubilee''432 episodes1956-57''The Kaiser Aluminum Hour''16 episodes1957''Producers' Showcase''1371 episode1957-60''Playhouse 90''3413119 episodes1959''Startime''511 episode1961''Cry Vengeance!", "''Television film1961-62''The Defenders''814216 episodes1962''The Good Years''Television film''A Tour of the White House with Mrs. John F. Kennedy''Documentary special1962-64''The DuPont Show of the Week''810 episodes1964''Ambassador at Large''Television film1966''One-Eyed Jacks Are Wild''1967''ABC Stage 67''421 episodeTotal964522" ], [ "Awards and nominations", " Year Award/Association Category Work Episode Result1955Primetime Emmy AwardBest Direction''Studio One''\"Twelve Angry Men\"1956''Ford Star Jubilee''\"The Caine Mutiny Court-Martial\"Best Television Adaptation1961Directors Guild of America AwardOutstanding Directorial Achievement in Television''Playhouse 90''\"The Cruel Day\"1962Primetime Emmy AwardOutstanding Directorial Achievement in Drama''The Defenders''Various1963Directors Guild of America AwardOutstanding Directorial Achievement in Television''A Tour of the White House with Mrs. John F. Kennedy''1964Karlovy Vary International Film FestivalCrystal Globe''The Best Man''Special Jury Prize1971Academy AwardsBest Director''Patton''Golden Globe AwardsBest DirectorDirectors Guild of America AwardDirectorial Achievement in Motion Pictures1979Saturn AwardsBest Director''The Boys from Brazil''2008Jules Verne AwardLégendaire Award''Planet of the Apes''" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "False etymology" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''false etymology''' ('''fake etymology''' or '''pseudo-etymology''') is a false theory about the origin or derivation of a specific word or phrase.", "When a false etymology becomes a popular belief in a cultural/linguistic community, it is a folk etymology (or popular etymology).", "Nevertheless, folk/popular etymology may also refer to the process by which a word or phrase is changed because of a popular false etymology.", "To disambiguate the usage of the term \"folk/popular etymology\", Ghil'ad Zuckermann proposes a clear-cut distinction between the derivational-only popular etymology (DOPE) and the generative popular etymology (GPE): the DOPE refers to a popular false etymology involving no neologization, and the GPE refers to neologization generated by a popular false etymology.Such etymologies often have the feel of urban legends and can be more colorful and fanciful than the typical etymologies found in dictionaries, often involving stories of unusual practices in particular subcultures (e.g.", "Oxford students from non-noble families being supposedly forced to write ''sine nobilitate'' by their name, soon abbreviated to ''s.nob.", "'', hence the word ''snob'').", "Many recent examples are \"backronyms\" (acronyms made up to explain a term), such as ''posh'' for \"port outward, starboard homeward\"." ], [ "Source and influence", "Erroneous etymologies can exist for many reasons.", "Some are reasonable interpretations of the evidence that happen to be false.", "For a given word there may often have been many serious attempts by scholars to propose etymologies based on the best information available at the time, and these can be later modified or rejected as linguistic scholarship advances.", "The results of medieval etymology, for example, were plausible given the insights available at the time, but have often been rejected by modern linguists.", "The etymologies of humanist scholars in the early modern period began to produce more reliable results, but many of their hypotheses have also been superseded.Other false etymologies are the result of specious and untrustworthy claims made by individuals, such as the unfounded claims made by Daniel Cassidy that hundreds of common English words such as ''baloney'', ''grumble'', and ''bunkum'' derive from the Irish language.Some etymologies are part of urban legends, and seem to respond to a general taste for the surprising, counter-intuitive and even scandalous.", "One common example has to do with the phrase ''rule of thumb'', meaning \"a rough guideline\".", "An urban legend has it that the phrase refers to an old English law under which a man could legally beat his wife with a stick no thicker than his thumb.In the United States, some of these scandalous legends have had to do with racism and slavery; common words such as ''picnic'', ''buck'', and ''crowbar'' have been alleged to stem from derogatory terms or racist practices.", "The \"discovery\" of these alleged etymologies is often believed by those who circulate them to draw attention to racist attitudes embedded in ordinary discourse.", "On one occasion, the use of the word ''niggardly'' led to the resignation of a US public official because it sounded similar to the unrelated word ''nigger''." ], [ "See also", "List of common false etymologies of English wordsBack-formationBackronymBongo-Bongo (linguistics)Chinese word for \"crisis\"EggcornEtymological fallacyFalse cognateFalse friendJust-so storyLinguistic interferenceOKPhonesthemePhono-semantic matchingPseudoscientific language comparisonSemantic change" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Richard Lederer, ''Spook Etymology on the Internet''* Popular Fallacies – the Nonsense Nine" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Finch" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''true finches''' are small to medium-sized passerine birds in the family '''Fringillidae'''.", "Finches generally have stout conical bills adapted for eating seeds and nuts and often have colourful plumage.", "They occupy a great range of habitats where they are usually resident and do not migrate.", "They have a worldwide native distribution except for Australia and the polar regions.", "The family Fringillidae contains more than two hundred species divided into fifty genera.", "It includes the canaries, siskins, redpolls, serins, grosbeaks and euphonias, as well as the morphologically divergent Hawaiian honeycreepers.Many birds in other families are also commonly called \"finches\".", "These groups include the estrildid finches (Estrildidae) of the Old World tropics and Australia; some members of the Old World bunting family (Emberizidae) and the New World sparrow family (Passerellidae); and the Darwin's finches of the Galapagos islands, now considered members of the tanager family (Thraupidae).Finches and canaries were used in the UK, US and Canada in the coal mining industry to detect carbon monoxide from the eighteenth to twentieth century.", "This practice ceased in the UK in 1986." ], [ "Systematics and taxonomy", "The name Fringillidae for the finch family was introduced in 1819 by the English zoologist William Elford Leach in a guide to the contents of the British Museum.", "The taxonomy of the family, in particular the cardueline finches, has a long and complicated history.", "The study of the relationship between the taxa has been confounded by the recurrence of similar morphologies due to the convergence of species occupying similar niches.", "In 1968 the American ornithologist Raymond Andrew Paynter, Jr. wrote:Limits of the genera and relationships among the species are less understood – and subject to more controversy – in the carduelines than in any other species of passerines, with the possible exception of the estrildines waxbills.Beginning around 1990 a series of phylogenetic studies based on mitochondrial and nuclear DNA sequences resulted in substantial revisions in the taxonomy.", "Several groups of birds that had previously been assigned to other families were found to be related to the finches.", "The Neotropical ''Euphonia'' and the ''Chlorophonia'' were formerly placed in the tanager family Thraupidae due to their similar appearance but analysis of mitochondrial DNA sequences revealed that both genera were more closely related to the finches.", "They are now placed in a separate subfamily Euphoniinae within the Fringillidae.", "The Hawaiian honeycreepers were at one time placed in their own family, Drepanididae but were found to be closely related to the ''Carpodacus'' rosefinches and are now placed within the Carduelinae subfamily.", "The three largest genera, ''Carpodacus'', ''Carduelis'' and ''Serinus'' were found to be polyphyletic.", "Each was split into monophyletic genera.", "The American rosefinches were moved from ''Carpodacus'' to ''Haemorhous''.", "''Carduelis'' was split by moving the greenfinches to ''Chloris'' and a large clade into ''Spinus'' leaving just three species in the original genus.", "Thirty seven species were moved from ''Serinus'' to ''Crithagra'' leaving eight species in the original genus.", "Today the family Fringillidae is divided into three subfamilies, the Fringillinae containing a single genus with the chaffinches, the Carduelinae containing 183 species divided into 49 genera, and the Euphoniinae containing the ''Euphonia'' and the ''Chlorophonia''.Euphonias, like this thick-billed euphonia, were once treated as tanagers instead of finches.Although Przewalski's \"rosefinch\" (''Urocynchramus pylzowi'') has ten primary flight feathers rather than the nine primaries of other finches, it was sometimes classified in the Carduelinae.", "It is now assigned to a distinct family, Urocynchramidae, monotypic as to genus and species, and with no particularly close relatives among the Passeroidea.===Fossil record===Fossil remains of true finches are rare, and those that are known can mostly be assigned to extant genera at least.", "Like the other Passeroidea families, the true finches seem to be of roughly Middle Miocene origin, around 20 to 10 million years ago (Ma).", "An unidentifable finch fossil from the Messinian age, around 12 to 7.3 million years ago (Ma) during the Late Miocene subepoch, has been found at Polgárdi in Hungary." ], [ "Description", "The smallest \"classical\" true finches are the Andean siskin (''Spinus spinescens'') at as little as 9.5 cm (3.8 in) and the lesser goldfinch (''Spinus psaltria'') at as little as .", "The largest species is probably the collared grosbeak (''Mycerobas affinis'') at up to and , although larger lengths, to in the pine grosbeak (''Pinicola enucleator''), and weights, to in the evening grosbeak (''Hesperiphona vespertina''), have been recorded in species which are slightly smaller on average.", "They typically have strong, stubby beaks, which in some species can be quite large; however, Hawaiian honeycreepers are famous for the wide range of bill shapes and sizes brought about by adaptive radiation.", "All true finches have 9 primary remiges and 12 rectrices.", "The basic plumage colour is brownish, sometimes greenish; many have considerable amounts of black, while white plumage is generally absent except as wing-bars or other signalling marks.", "Bright yellow and red carotenoid pigments are commonplace in this family, and thus blue structural colours are rather rare, as the yellow pigments turn the blue color into green.", "Many, but by no means all true finches have strong sexual dichromatism, the females typically lacking the bright carotenoid markings of males." ], [ "Distribution and habitat", "American goldfinch (''Spinus tristis'') male (left) and female (right) in Johnston County, North Carolina, USAThe finches have a near-global distribution, being found across the Americas, Eurasia and Africa, as well as some island groups such as the Hawaiian islands.", "They are absent from Australasia, Antarctica, the Southern Pacific and the islands of the Indian Ocean, although some European species have been widely introduced in Australia and New Zealand.Finches are typically inhabitants of well-wooded areas, but some can be found on mountains or even in deserts." ], [ "Behaviour", "The finches are primarily granivorous, but euphoniines include considerable amounts of arthropods and berries in their diet, and Hawaiian honeycreepers evolved to utilize a wide range of food sources, including nectar.", "The diet of Fringillidae nestlings includes a varying amount of small arthropods.", "True finches have a bouncing flight like most small passerines, alternating bouts of flapping with gliding on closed wings.", "Most sing well and several are commonly seen cagebirds; foremost among these is the domesticated canary (''Serinus canaria domestica'').", "The nests are basket-shaped and usually built in trees, more rarely in bushes, between rocks or on similar substrate." ], [ "List of genera", "The family Fringillidae contains 235 species divided into 50 genera and three subfamilies.", "The subfamily Carduelinae includes 18 extinct Hawaiian honeycreepers and the extinct Bonin grosbeak.", "See List of Fringillidae species for further details.", "'''Subfamily Fringillinae'''* ''Fringilla'' – 5 species of chaffinch, 2 species of blue chaffinch, and the brambling'''Subfamily Carduelinae'''* ''Mycerobas'' – 4 Palearctic grosbeaks* ''Coccothraustes'' – 3 species* ''Eophona'' – 2 oriental grosbeaks, the Chinese and the Japanese grosbeak* ''Pinicola'' – pine grosbeak* ''Pyrrhula'' – 8 bullfinch species* ''Rhodopechys'' – 2 species, the Asian crimson-winged finch and the African crimson-winged finch* ''Bucanetes'' – trumpeter and the Mongolian finch* ''Agraphospiza'' – Blanford's rosefinch* ''Callacanthis'' – spectacled finch* ''Pyrrhoplectes'' – golden-naped finch* ''Procarduelis'' – dark-breasted rosefinch* ''Leucosticte'' – 6 species of mountain and rosy finches* ''Carpodacus'' – 28 Palearctic rosefinch species* Hawaiian honeycreeper group (tribe Drepanidini)''Melamprosops'' – contains a single extinct species, the po'ouli ''Paroreomyza'' – 3 species, the Oahu alauahio, the Maui alauahio and the extinct kakawahie ''Oreomystis'' – akikiki ''Telespiza'' – 4 species, the Laysan finch, the Nihoa finch, and 2 prehistoric species ''Loxioides'' – 2 species, the palila and a prehistoric species ''Rhodacanthis'' – 2 recently extinct species, the lesser and the greater koa finch, and 2 prehistoric species ''Chloridops'' – extinct species, the Kona grosbeak ''Psittirostra'' – ou ''Dysmorodrepanis'' – extinct species, the Lanai hookbill ''Drepanis'' – 2 extinct species, the Hawaii mamo and the black mamo, and the extant iiwi ''Ciridops'' – single recently extinct species, the Ula-ai-hawane, and 3 prehistoric species ''Palmeria'' – contains a single species, the akohekohe ''Himatione'' – 2 species, the apapane and the extinct Laysan honeycreeper ''Viridonia'' – single extinct species, the greater amakihi ''Akialoa'' – 4 recently extinct species, and 2 prehistoric species ''Hemignathus'' – 4 species, only one of which is extant ''Pseudonestor'' – Maui parrotbill ''Magumma'' – anianiau ''Loxops'' – 5 species, of which one is extinct ''Chlorodrepanis'' – 3 species, the Hawaii, Oahu and Kauai amakihi* ''Haemorhous'' – 3 North America rosefinches* ''Chloris'' – 6 greenfinches* ''Rhodospiza'' – desert finch* ''Rhynchostruthus'' – 3 golden-winged grosbeaks* ''Linurgus'' – oriole finch* ''Crithagra'' – 37 species of canaries, serins and siskins from Africa and the Arabian Peninsula* ''Linaria'' – 4 species including the twite and three linnets* ''Acanthis'' – 3 redpolls* ''Loxia'' – 6 crossbills* ''Chrysocorythus'' – 2 species* ''Carduelis'' – 3 species including the European goldfinch* ''Serinus'' – 8 species including the European serin* ''Spinus'' – 20 species including the North American goldfinches and the Eurasian siskin'''Subfamily Euphoniinae'''* ''Euphonia'' – 27 species all with euphonia in their English name* ''Chlorophonia'' – 5 species all with chlorophonia in their English name" ], [ "Gallery", "File:Coccothraustes coccothraustes 1 (Marek Szczepanek).jpg\|Hawfinch (''Coccothraustes coccothraustes''), one of the Holarctic grosbeaksFile:Cassin's Finch (male).jpg\|Cassin's finch (''Haemorhous cassinii''), an American rosefinchFile:Carpodacus roseus.jpg\|Pallas' rosefinch (''Carpodacus roseus''), a true rosefinchFile:PINTASSILGO ( Carduelis magellanica ).jpg\|Hooded siskin (''Spinus magellanicus'')File:Vestiaria coccinea -Hawaii -adult-8 (4).jpg\|ʻIʻiwi (''Drepanis coccinea''), a Hawaiian honeycreeperFile:Euphonia violacea-2.jpg\|Male violaceous euphonia (''Euphonia violacea'')File:Carduelis carduelis close up.jpg\|European goldfinch (''Carduelis carduelis'')File:Chloris chloris.jpg\|European greenfinch (''Chloris chloris'')File:Pinzón azul de Gran Canaria (macho), M. A. Peña.jpg\|Gran Canaria blue chaffinch (''Fringilla polatzeki'')File:Teidefink.jpg\|Tenerife blue chaffinch (''Fringilla teydea'')File:Euphonia elegantissima.jpg\|Elegant euphonia (''Chlorophonia elegantissima'')File:Desert Finch - Uzbekistan S4E7626-2 (23039952955).jpg\|Desert finch (''Rhodospiza obsoleta'')File:Pine Grosbeak (Pinicola enucleator) (13667564073).jpg\|Pine grosbeak (''Pinicola enucleator'') File:Hesperiphona vespertina CT3.jpg\|Evening grosbeak (''Hesperiphona vespertina'')File:Chloris spinoides.jpg\|Yellow-breasted greenfinch (''Chloris spinoides'')File:Serinus flaviventris 2013 03 09.jpg\|Yellow canary (''Crithagra flaviventris'')File:Streaky Seedeater, Ngorongoro Crater (8495906768).jpg\|Streaky seedeater (''Crithagra striolata'')File:Fringilla coelebs moreletti.png\|Azores chaffinch (''Fringilla coelebs moreletti'')" ], [ "See also", "The Finch Society of Australia" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", " Clement, Peter; Harris, Alan & Davis, John (1993): ''Finches and Sparrows: an identification guide''.", "Christopher Helm, London.", "**** Newton, Ian (1973): ''Finches'' (New Naturalist series).", "Taplinger Publishing." ], [ "External links", "* Internet Bird Collection.com: Finch videos, photos, and sounds* National Finch and Softbill Society website — ''organization promoting finch breeding''.", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Facilitated diffusion" ], [ "Introduction", "Facilitated diffusion in cell membrane, showing ion channels and carrier proteins'''Facilitated diffusion''' (also known as '''facilitated transport''' or '''passive-mediated transport''') is the process of spontaneous passive transport (as opposed to active transport) of molecules or ions across a biological membrane via specific transmembrane integral proteins.", "Being passive, facilitated transport does not directly require chemical energy from ATP hydrolysis in the transport step itself; rather, molecules and ions move down their concentration gradient reflecting its diffusive nature.Insoluble molecules diffusing through an integral protein.Facilitated diffusion differs from simple diffusion in several ways: # The transport relies on molecular binding between the cargo and the membrane-embedded channel or carrier protein.# The rate of facilitated diffusion is saturable with respect to the concentration difference between the two phases; unlike free diffusion which is linear in the concentration difference.# The temperature dependence of facilitated transport is substantially different due to the presence of an activated binding event, as compared to free diffusion where the dependence on temperature is mild.3D rendering of facilitated diffusionPolar molecules and large ions dissolved in water cannot diffuse freely across the plasma membrane due to the hydrophobic nature of the fatty acid tails of the phospholipids that comprise the lipid bilayer.", "Only small, non-polar molecules, such as oxygen and carbon dioxide, can diffuse easily across the membrane.", "Hence, small polar molecules are transported by proteins in the form of transmembrane channels.", "These channels are gated, meaning that they open and close, and thus deregulate the flow of ions or small polar molecules across membranes, sometimes against the osmotic gradient.", "Larger molecules are transported by transmembrane carrier proteins, such as permeases, that change their conformation as the molecules are carried across (e.g.", "glucose or amino acids).", "Non-polar molecules, such as retinol or lipids, are poorly soluble in water.", "They are transported through aqueous compartments of cells or through extracellular space by water-soluble carriers (e.g.", "retinol binding protein).", "The metabolites are not altered because no energy is required for facilitated diffusion.", "Only permease changes its shape in order to transport metabolites.", "The form of transport through a cell membrane in which a metabolite is modified is called group translocation transportation.Glucose, sodium ions, and chloride ions are just a few examples of molecules and ions that must efficiently cross the plasma membrane but to which the lipid bilayer of the membrane is virtually impermeable.", "Their transport must therefore be \"facilitated\" by proteins that span the membrane and provide an alternative route or bypass mechanism.", "Some examples of proteins that mediate this process are glucose transporters, organic cation transport proteins, urea transporter, monocarboxylate transporter 8 and monocarboxylate transporter 10." ], [ "In vivo model of facilitated diffusion", "Many physical and biochemical processes are regulated by diffusion.", "Facilitated diffusion is one form of diffusion and it is important in several metabolic processes.", "Facilitated diffusion is the main mechanism behind the binding of Transcription Factors (TFs) to designated target sites on the DNA molecule.", "The in vitro model, which is a very well known method of facilitated diffusion, that takes place outside of a living cell, explains the 3-dimensional pattern of diffusion in the cytosol and the 1-dimensional diffusion along the DNA contour.", "After carrying out extensive research on processes occurring out of the cell, this mechanism was generally accepted but there was a need to verify that this mechanism could take place in vivo or inside of living cells.", "Bauer & Metzler (2013) therefore carried out an experiment using a bacterial genome in which they investigated the average time for TF – DNA binding to occur.", "After analyzing the process for the time it takes for TF's to diffuse across the contour and cytoplasm of the bacteria's DNA, it was concluded that in vitro and in vivo are similar in that the association and dissociation rates of TF's to and from the DNA are similar in both.", "Also, on the DNA contour, the motion is slower and target sites are easy to localize while in the cytoplasm, the motion is faster but the TF's are not sensitive to their targets and so binding is restricted.===Intracellular facilitated diffusion===Single-molecule imaging is an imaging technique which provides an ideal resolution necessary for the study of the Transcription factor binding mechanism in living cells.", "In prokaryotic bacteria cells such as ''E.", "coli'', facilitated diffusion is required in order for regulatory proteins to locate and bind to target sites on DNA base pairs.", "There are 2 main steps involved: the protein binds to a non-specific site on the DNA and then it diffuses along the DNA chain until it locates a target site, a process referred to as sliding.", "According to Brackley et al.", "(2013), during the process of protein sliding, the protein searches the entire length of the DNA chain using 3-D and 1-D diffusion patterns.", "During 3-D diffusion, the high incidence of Crowder proteins creates an osmotic pressure which brings searcher proteins (e.g.", "Lac Repressor) closer to the DNA to increase their attraction and enable them to bind, as well as steric effect which exclude the Crowder proteins from this region (Lac operator region).", "Blocker proteins participate in 1-D diffusion only i.e.", "bind to and diffuse along the DNA contour and not in the cytosol." ], [ "Facilitated diffusion of proteins on Chromatin", "The in vivo model mentioned above clearly explains 3-D and 1-D diffusion along the DNA strand and the binding of proteins to target sites on the chain.", "Just like prokaryotic cells, in eukaryotes, facilitated diffusion occurs in the nucleoplasm on chromatin filaments, accounted for by the switching dynamics of a protein when it is either bound to a chromatin thread or when freely diffusing in the nucleoplasm.", "In addition, given that the chromatin molecule is fragmented, its fractal properties need to be considered.", "After calculating the search time for a target protein, alternating between the 3-D and 1-D diffusion phases on the chromatin fractal structure, it was deduced that facilitated diffusion in eukaryotes precipitates the searching process and minimizes the searching time by increasing the DNA-protein affinity." ], [ "For oxygen", "The oxygen affinity with hemoglobin on red blood cell surfaces enhances this bonding ability.", "In a system of facilitated diffusion of oxygen, there is a tight relationship between the ligand which is oxygen and the carrier which is either hemoglobin or myoglobin.", "This mechanism of facilitated diffusion of oxygen by hemoglobin or myoglobin was discovered and initiated by Wittenberg and Scholander.", "They carried out experiments to test for the steady-state of diffusion of oxygen at various pressures.", "Oxygen-facilitated diffusion occurs in a homogeneous environment where oxygen pressure can be relatively controlled.", "For oxygen diffusion to occur, there must be a full saturation pressure (more) on one side of the membrane and full reduced pressure (less) on the other side of the membrane i.e.", "one side of the membrane must be of higher concentration.", "During facilitated diffusion, hemoglobin increases the rate of constant diffusion of oxygen and facilitated diffusion occurs when oxyhemoglobin molecule is randomly displaced.===For carbon monoxide===Facilitated diffusion of carbon monoxide is similar to that of oxygen.", "Carbon monoxide also combines with hemoglobin and myoglobin, but carbon monoxide has a dissociation velocity that 100 times less than that of oxygen.", "Its affinity for myoglobin is 40 times higher and 250 times higher for hemoglobin, compared to oxygen." ], [ "For glucose", "Since glucose is a large molecule, its diffusion across a membrane is difficult.", "Hence, it diffuses across membranes through facilitated diffusion, down the concentration gradient.", "The carrier protein at the membrane binds to the glucose and alters its shape such that it can easily to be transported.", "Movement of glucose into the cell could be rapid or slow depending on the number of membrane-spanning protein.", "It is transported against the concentration gradient by a dependent glucose symporter which provides a driving force to other glucose molecules in the cells.", "Facilitated diffusion helps in the release of accumulated glucose into the extracellular space adjacent to the blood capillary." ], [ "See also", "* Transmembrane channels* Major facilitator superfamily" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Facilitated Diffusion - Description and Animation* Facilitated Diffusion- Definition and Supplement" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle''' is an American twin-engine, all-weather tactical fighter aircraft designed by McDonnell Douglas (now part of Boeing).", "Following reviews of proposals, the United States Air Force (USAF) selected McDonnell Douglas's design in 1969 to meet the service's need for a dedicated air superiority fighter.", "The Eagle first flew in July 1972, and entered service in 1976.It is among the most successful modern fighters, with over 100 victories and no losses in aerial combat, with the majority of the kills by the Israeli Air Force.The Eagle has been exported to many countries including Israel, Japan, and Saudi Arabia.", "Although the F-15 was originally envisioned as a pure air-superiority aircraft, its design included a secondary ground-attack capability that was largely unused.", "It proved flexible enough that an improved all-weather strike derivative, the F-15E Strike Eagle, was later developed, entered service in 1989 and has been exported to several nations.", "Several additional F-15 variants have been produced.The USAF had planned to replace all of its air superiority F-15s with the F-22 Raptor by the 2010s, but the severely reduced F-22 procurement forced the service to operate some F-15C/Ds until the 2026 and replace them with newly built F-15EX Eagle II in order to retain adequate number of air superiority fighters.", "The F-15E Strike Eagle is expected to continue operating in the USAF into the 2030s.", "The F-15 is in service with numerous countries, with production of enhanced variants ongoing." ], [ "Development", "===Early studies===Test facility craftsman Jack Culpepper adjusts a model of the F-15 Eagle before it undergoes aerodynamic testing in the mid-1970s in the 4-foot transonic wind tunnel at Arnold Air Force Base, TennesseeThe F-15 can trace its origins to the early Vietnam War, when the U.S. Air Force and U.S. Navy fought each other over future tactical aircraft.", "Defense Secretary Robert McNamara was pressing for both services to use as many common aircraft as possible, even if performance compromises were involved.", "As part of this policy, the USAF and Navy had embarked on the TFX (F-111) program, aiming to deliver a medium-range interdiction aircraft for the Air Force that would also serve as a long-range interceptor aircraft for the Navy.In January 1965, Secretary McNamara asked the Air Force to consider a new low-cost tactical fighter design for short-range roles and close air support to replace several types like the F-100 Super Sabre and various light bombers then in service.", "Several existing designs could fill this role; the Navy favored the Douglas A-4 Skyhawk and LTV A-7 Corsair II, which were pure attack aircraft, while the Air Force was more interested in the Northrop F-5 fighter with a secondary attack capability.", "The A-4 and A-7 were more capable in the attack role, while the F-5 less so, but could defend itself.", "If the Air Force chose a pure attack design, maintaining air superiority would be a priority for a new airframe.", "The next month, a report on light tactical aircraft suggested the Air Force purchase the F-5 or A-7, and consider a new higher-performance aircraft to ensure its air superiority.", "This point was reinforced after the loss of two Republic F-105 Thunderchief aircraft to obsolete MiG-17s attacking the Thanh Hóa Bridge on 4 April 1965.In April 1965, Harold Brown, at that time director of the Department of Defense Research and Engineering, stated the favored position was to consider the F-5 and begin studies of an \"F-X\".", "These early studies envisioned a production run of 800 to 1,000 aircraft and stressed maneuverability over speed; it also stated that the aircraft would not be considered without some level of ground-attack capability.", "On 1 August, General Gabriel Disosway took command of Tactical Air Command and reiterated calls for the F-X, but lowered the required performance from Mach 3.0 to 2.5 to lower costs.An official requirements document for an air superiority fighter was finalized in October 1965, and sent out as a request for proposals to 13 companies on 8 December.", "Meanwhile, the Air Force chose the A-7 over the F-5 for the support role on 5 November 1965, giving further impetus for an air superiority design as the A-7 lacked any credible air-to-air capability.Eight companies responded with proposals.", "Following a downselect, four companies were asked to provide further developments.", "In total, they developed some 500 design concepts.", "Typical designs featured variable-sweep wings, weight over , included a top speed of Mach 2.7 and a thrust-to-weight ratio of 0.75.When the proposals were studied in July 1966, the aircraft were roughly the size and weight of the TFX F-111, and like that aircraft, were designs that could not be considered an air-superiority fighter.===Smaller, lighter===alt=Jet aircraft with distinctive orange markings banking left over desert, with landing gears extendedThrough this period, studies of combat over Vietnam were producing worrying results.", "Theory had stressed long-range combat using missiles and optimized aircraft for this role.", "The result was highly loaded aircraft with large radar and excellent speed, but limited maneuverability and often lacking a gun.", "The canonical example was the McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II, used by the USAF, USN, and U.S. Marine Corps to provide air superiority over Vietnam, the only fighter with enough power, range, and maneuverability to be given the primary task of dealing with the threat of Soviet fighters while flying with visual engagement rules.In practice, due to policy and practical reasons, aircraft were closing to visual range and maneuvering, placing the larger US aircraft at a disadvantage to the much less expensive day fighters such as the MiG-21.Missiles proved to be much less reliable than predicted, especially at close range.", "Although improved training and the introduction of the M61 Vulcan cannon on the F-4 did much to address the disparity, these early outcomes led to considerable re-evaluation of the 1963 Project Forecast doctrine.", "This led to John Boyd's energy–maneuverability theory, which stressed that extra power and maneuverability were key aspects of a successful fighter design and these were more important than outright speed.", "Through tireless championing of the concepts and good timing with the \"failure\" of the initial F-X project, the \"fighter mafia\" pressed for a lightweight day fighter that could be built and operated in large numbers to ensure air superiority.", "In early 1967, they proposed that the ideal design had a thrust-to-weight ratio near 1:1, a maximum speed further reduced to Mach 2.3, a weight of , and a wing loading of .By this time, the Navy had decided the F-111 would not meet their requirements and began the development of a new dedicated fighter design, the VFAX program.", "In May 1966, McNamara again asked the forces to study the designs and see whether the VFAX would meet the Air Force's F-X needs.", "The resulting studies took 18 months and concluded that the desired features were too different; the Navy stressed loiter time and mission flexibility, while the Air Force was now looking primarily for maneuverability.===Focus on air superiority===In 1967, the Soviet Union revealed the Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-25 at the Domodedovo airfield near Moscow.", "The MiG-25 was designed as a high-speed, high-altitude interceptor aircraft, and made many performance tradeoffs to excel in this role.", "Among these was the requirement for very high speed, over Mach 2.8, which demanded the use of stainless steel instead of aluminum for many parts of the aircraft.", "The added weight demanded a much larger wing to allow the aircraft to operate at the required high altitudes.", "However, to observers, it appeared outwardly similar to the very large F-X studies, an aircraft with high speed and a large wing offering high maneuverability, leading to serious concerns throughout the Department of Defense and the various arms that the US was being outclassed.", "The MiG-23 was likewise a subject of concern, and it was generally believed to be a better aircraft than the F-4.The F-X would outclass the MiG-23, but now the MiG-25 appeared to be superior in speed, ceiling, and endurance to all existing US fighters, even the F-X.", "Thus, an effort to improve the F-X followed.Both Headquarters USAF and TAC continued to call for a multipurpose aircraft, while both Disosway and Air Chief of Staff Bruce K. Holloway pressed for a pure air-superiority design that would be able to meet the expected performance of the MiG-25.During the same period, the Navy had ended its VFAX program and instead accepted a proposal from Grumman for a smaller and more maneuverable design known as VFX, later becoming the Grumman F-14 Tomcat.", "VFX was considerably closer to the evolving F-X requirements.", "The Air Force in-fighting was eventually ended by the worry that the Navy's VFAX would be forced on them; in May 1968, it was stated that \"We finally decided – and I hope there is no one who still disagrees – that this aircraft is going to be an air superiority fighter\".F-15A alt=Cockpit of jet fighter with circular dials and gauges: A control stick protrude from between where the pilot's legs would be.In September 1968, a request for proposals was released to major aerospace companies.", "These requirements called for single-seat fighter having a maximum take-off weight of for the air-to-air role with a maximum speed of Mach 2.5 and a thrust-to-weight ratio of nearly 1:1 at mission weight.", "It also called for a twin-engined arrangement, as this was believed to respond to throttle changes more rapidly and might offer commonality with the Navy's VFX program.", "However, details of the avionics were left largely undefined, as whether to build a larger aircraft with a powerful radar that could detect the enemy at longer ranges was not clear, or alternatively a smaller aircraft that would make detecting it more difficult for the enemy.Four companies submitted proposals, with the Air Force eliminating General Dynamics and awarding contracts to Fairchild Republic, North American Rockwell, and McDonnell Douglas for the definition phase in December 1968.The companies submitted technical proposals by June 1969.The Air Force announced the selection of McDonnell Douglas on 23 December 1969.The winning design resembled the twin-tailed F-14, but with fixed wings; both designs were based on configurations studied in wind-tunnel testing by NASA.An early USAF F-15AThe Eagle's initial versions were the F-15 single-seat variant and TF-15 twin-seat variant.", "(After the F-15C was first flown, the designations were changed to \"F-15A\" and \"F-15B\").", "These versions would be powered by new Pratt & Whitney F100 engines to achieve a combat thrust-to-weight ratio in excess of 1:1.A proposed 25-mm Ford-Philco GAU-7 cannon with caseless ammunition suffered development problems.", "It was dropped in favor of the standard M61 Vulcan gun.", "The F-15 used conformal carriage of four Sparrow missiles like the Phantom.", "The fixed wing was put onto a flat, wide fuselage that also provided an effective lifting surface.", "The airframe was designed with a 4,000 hour service life, although this was later increased through testing and extension modifications to 8,000 hours and some would fly beyond that.", "The first F-15A flight was made on 27 July 1972, with the first flight of the two-seat F-15B following in July 1973.The F-15 has a \"look-down/shoot-down\" radar that can distinguish low-flying moving targets from ground clutter.", "It would use computer technology with new controls and displays to lower pilot workload and require only one pilot to save weight.", "Unlike the F-14 or F-4, the F-15 has only a single canopy frame with clear vision forward.", "The USAF introduced the F-15 as \"the first dedicated USAF air-superiority fighter since the North American F-86 Sabre\".The F-15 was favored by customers such as the Israel and Japan air arms.", "Criticism from the fighter mafia that the F-15 was too large to be a dedicated dogfighter and too expensive to procure in large numbers, led to the Lightweight Fighter (LWF) program, which led to the USAF General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon and the middle-weight Navy McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet.===Further development===The single-seat F-15C and two-seat F-15D models entered production in 1978 and conducted their first flights in February and June of that year.", "These models were fitted with the Production Eagle Package (PEP 2000), which included of additional internal fuel, provisions for exterior conformal fuel tanks (CFT), and an increased maximum takeoff weight up to .", "The increased takeoff weight allows internal fuel, a full weapons load, conformal fuel tanks, and three external fuel tanks to be carried.", "The APG-63 radar uses a programmable signal processor (PSP), enabling the radar to be reprogrammable for additional purposes such as the addition of new armaments and equipment.", "The PSP was the first of its kind in the world, and the upgraded APG-63 radar was the first radar to use it.", "Other improvements included strengthened landing gear, a new digital central computer, and an overload warning system, which allows the pilot to fly up to 9 g at all weights.The F-15 Multistage Improvement Program (MSIP) was initiated in February 1983 with the first production MSIP F-15C produced in 1985.Improvements included an upgraded central computer; a Programmable Armament Control Set, allowing for advanced versions of the AIM-7, AIM-9, and AIM-120A missiles; and an expanded Tactical Electronic Warfare System that provides improvements to the ALR-56C radar warning receiver and ALQ-135 countermeasure set.", "The final 43 F-15Cs included the Hughes APG-70 radar developed for the F-15E (see below); these are sometimes referred as Enhanced Eagles.", "Earlier MSIP F-15Cs with the APG-63 were upgraded to the APG-63(V)1 to improve maintainability and to perform similar to the APG-70.Existing F-15s were retrofitted with these improvements.", "Also beginning in 1985, F-15C and D models were equipped with the improved P&W F100-PW-220 engine and digital engine controls, providing quicker throttle response, reduced wear, and lower fuel consumption.", "Starting in 1997, original F100-PW-100 engines were upgraded to a similar configuration with the designation F100-PW-220E starting.", "In 2000, the APG-63(V)2 active electronically scanned array (AESA) radar was retrofitted to 18 U.S. Air Force F-15C aircraft.", "The ZAP (Zone Acquisition Program) missile launch envelope has been integrated into the operational flight program system of all U.S. F-15 aircraft, providing dynamic launch zone and launch acceptability region information for missiles to the pilot by display cues in real-time.speed brake deployed and CFTs fittedIn 1979, McDonnell Douglas and F-15 radar manufacturer, Hughes, teamed to privately develop a strike fighter version of the F-15.This version competed in the Air Force's Dual-Role Fighter competition starting in 1982.The F-15E strike variant was selected for production over General Dynamics' competing F-16XL in 1984; it is a two-seat, dual-role, totally integrated fighter for all-weather, air-to-air, and deep interdiction missions.", "The rear cockpit is upgraded to include four multipurpose cathode ray tube displays for aircraft systems and weapons management.", "The digital, triple-redundant Lear Siegler aircraft flight control system permits coupled automatic terrain following, enhanced by a ring-laser gyro inertial navigation system.", "For low-altitude, high-speed penetration and precision attack on tactical targets at night or in adverse weather, the F-15E carries a high-resolution APG-70 radar and LANTIRN pods to provide thermography.", "The F-15E would be developed into the F-15 Advanced Eagle family, which features fly-by-wire controls; the Advanced Eagle is currently the basis of all current F-15 production.AN/APG-63(V)3Beginning in 2006, with the threat of curtailed F-22 procurement, USAF planned to modernize 179 F-15Cs in order to maintain fighter fleet size by retrofitting the AN/APG-63(V)3 AESA radar and updated cockpit displays; the first upgraded aircraft was delivered in October 2010.A significant number of F-15s were equipped with the Joint Helmet Mounted Cueing System.", "Lockheed Martin developed an infrared search and track (IRST) sensor system for tactical fighters such the F-15C, eventually resulting in the AN/ASG-34(V)1 Legion IRST pod; the AN/AAQ-33 Sniper XR pod was also integrated as a makeshift interim IRST solution.", "A follow-on upgrade called the Eagle Passive/Active Warning Survivability System (EPAWSS) was planned.", "Boeing was selected in October 2015 to serve as prime contractor for the EPAWSS, with BAE Systems selected as a subcontractor.", "The EPAWSS is an all-digital system with advanced electronic countermeasures, radar warning, and increased chaff and flare capabilities in a smaller footprint than the 1980s-era Tactical Electronic Warfare System.", "More than 400 F-15Cs and F-15Es were planned to have the system installed.In September 2015, Boeing unveiled its 2040C Eagle upgrade (also called \"Golden Eagle\"), designed to keep the F-15 relevant through 2040.Seen as a necessity because of the low numbers of F-22s procured, the upgrade builds upon the company's F-15SE Silent Eagle concept with low-observable features.", "Most improvements focus on lethality including quad-pack munitions racks to double its missile load to 16, conformal fuel tanks for extended range, \"Talon HATE\" communications pod to communicate with fifth-generation fighters, the APG-63(V)3 AESA radar, long-range Legion IRST pod, and EPAWSS electronic warfare suite.", "The 2040C upgrade for the F-15C/D was not pursued, owing to the airframes' age that made it not economically sustainable, but some of the components such as EPAWSS were continued for F-15E upgrades as well as new-build F-15EX Eagle II, an Advanced Eagle variant." ], [ "Design", "===Overview===Variable geometry engine air intake ramps with internal Pitot tubes and automatic control for constant optimal airflow to engines.", "Above: open intake, aligned ramp.", "Below: closed intake, inclined rampalt=Gray jet fighter taking off at steep angle of attack, with full afterburner, as evident by hot gas ejected from its enginesVideo showing the F-15's maneuverability in simulated dogfightingThe F-15 has an all-metal semi-monocoque fuselage with a large-cantilever, shoulder-mounted wing.", "The wing planform of the F-15 suggests a modified cropped delta shape with a leading-edge sweepback angle of 45°.", "Ailerons and a simple high-lift flap are located on the trailing edge.", "No leading-edge maneuvering flaps are used.", "This complication was avoided by the combination of low wing loading and fixed leading-edge conical camber that varies with spanwise position along the wing.", "Airfoil thickness ratios vary from 6% at the root to 3% at the tip.", "The empennage is of metal and composite construction, with twin aluminum/composite material honeycomb structure vertical stabilizers with boron-composite skin, resulting in an exceptionally thin tailplane and rudders.", "Composite horizontal all-moving tails outboard of the vertical stabilizers move independently to provide roll control in some flight maneuvers.", "The F-15 has a spine-mounted air brake and retractable tricycle landing gear.", "It is powered by two Pratt & Whitney F100 axial compressor turbofan engines with afterburners, mounted side by side in the fuselage and fed by rectangular inlets with variable intake ramps.", "The cockpit is mounted high in the forward fuselage with a one-piece windscreen and large canopy for increased visibility and a 360° field of view for the pilot.", "The airframe began to incorporate advanced superplastically formed titanium components in the 1980s.The F-15's maneuverability is derived from low wing loading (weight to wing area ratio) with a high thrust-to-weight ratio, enabling the aircraft to turn tightly without losing airspeed.", "The F-15 can climb to in around 60 seconds.", "At certain speeds, the dynamic thrust output of the dual engines is greater than the aircraft's combat weight and drag, so it has the ability to accelerate vertically.", "The weapons and flight-control systems are designed so that one person can safely and effectively perform air-to-air combat.", "The A and C models are single-seat variants; these were the main air-superiority versions produced.", "B and D models add a second seat behind the pilot for training.", "E models use the second seat for a weapon systems officer.", "Visibly, the F-15 has a unique feature ''vis-à-vis'' other modern fighter aircraft; it does not have the distinctive \"turkey feather\" aerodynamic exhaust petals covering its engine nozzles.", "Following problems during development of its exhaust petal design, including dislodgment during flight, the decision was made to remove them, resulting in a 3% aerodynamic drag increase.The F-15 was shown to be capable of controlled flight with only one wing after an Israeli F-15D suffered a mid-air collision with an A-4 Skyhawk that removed most of the right-wing, in the 1983 Negev mid-air collision.", "While the A-4 was instantly disintegrated with the pilot being automatically ejected, the F-15 was sent into an uncontrollable roll.", "Through the application of full afterburner as well as a landing at twice the normal speed, pilot Zivi Nedivi managed to land successfully at Ramon Airbase.", "Subsequent wind-tunnel tests on a one-wing model confirmed that controllable flight was only possible within a very limited speed range of +/- 20 knots and angle of attack variation of +/- 20 degrees.", "The event resulted in research into damage adaptive technology and a system called \"Intelligent Flight Control System\".===Avionics===AN/APG-63 radarA multimission avionics system includes a head-up display (HUD), advanced radar, AN/ASN-109 inertial guidance system, flight instruments, ultra high frequency communications, and tactical air navigation system and instrument landing system receivers.", "It also has an internally mounted, tactical electronic warfare system, Identification friend or foe system, an electronic countermeasures suite, and a central digital computer.The HUD projects all essential flight information gathered by the integrated avionics system.", "This display, visible in any light condition, provides the pilot information necessary to track and destroy an enemy aircraft without having to look down at cockpit instruments.The F-15's versatile APG-63 and 70 pulse-Doppler radar systems can look up at high-flying targets and look-down/shoot-down at low-flying targets without being confused by ground clutter.", "These radars can detect and track aircraft and small high-speed targets at distances beyond visual range down to close range, and at altitudes down to treetop level.", "The APG-63 has a basic range of .", "The radar feeds target information into the central computer for effective weapons delivery.", "For close-in dogfights, the radar automatically acquires enemy aircraft, and this information is projected on the head-up display.", "The F-15's electronic warfare system provides both threat warning (radar warning receiver) and automatic countermeasures against selected threats.The improved APG-63(V)2 and (V)3 active electronically scanned array (AESA) radar upgrade included most of the hardware from the APG-63(V)1, but added an AESA to provide increased pilot situation awareness.", "The AESA radar has an exceptionally agile beam, providing nearly instantaneous track updates and enhanced multitarget tracking capability.", "The APG-63(V)2 and (V)3 are compatible with current F-15C weapon loads and enable pilots to take full advantage of AIM-120 AMRAAM capabilities, simultaneously guiding multiple missiles to several targets widely spaced in azimuth, elevation, or range.===Weaponry and external stores===M61 Vulcan mounted on the side of right engine intakeA variety of air-to-air weaponry can be carried by the F-15.An automated weapon system enables the pilot to release weapons effectively and safely, using the head-up display and the avionics and weapons controls located on the engine throttles or control stick.", "When the pilot changes from one weapon system to another, visual guidance for the selected weapon automatically appears on the head-up display.The Eagle can be armed with combinations of four different air-to-air weapons: AIM-7F/M Sparrow missiles or AIM-120 AMRAAM advanced medium-range air-to-air missiles on its lower fuselage corners, AIM-9L/M Sidewinder or AIM-120 AMRAAM missiles on two pylons under the wings, and an internal M61 Vulcan Gatling gun in the right wing root.F-15C underside with external storesLow-drag conformal fuel tanks (CFTs), initially called Fuel And Sensor Tactical (FAST) packs, were developed for the F-15C and D models.", "They can be attached to the sides of the engine air intakes under each wing and are designed to the same load factors and airspeed limits as the basic aircraft.", "These tanks slightly degrade performance by increasing aerodynamic drag and cannot be jettisoned in-flight.", "However, they cause less drag than conventional external tanks.", "Each conformal tank can hold 750 U.S. gallons (2,840 L) of fuel.", "These CFTs increase range and reduce the need for in-flight refueling.", "All external stations for munitions remain available with the tanks in use.", "Moreover, Sparrow or AMRAAM missiles can be attached to the corners of the CFTs.", "The USAF 57th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron based at NAS Keflavik, Iceland, was the only C-model squadron to use CFTs on a regular basis due to its extended operations over the North Atlantic.", "With the closure of the 57 FIS, the F-15E is the only variant to carry them on a routine basis.", "CFTs have also been sold to Israel and Saudi Arabia." ], [ "Operational history", "===Introduction and early service===Israeli Air Force F-15C Baz Meshupar (Upgraded Baz) with four kill marks of Syrian warplanesThe largest operator of the F-15 is the United States Air Force.", "The first Eagle, an F-15B, was delivered on 13 November 1974.In January 1976, the first Eagle destined for a combat squadron, the 555th TFS, was delivered.", "These initial aircraft carried the Hughes Aircraft (now Raytheon) APG-63 radar.The first kill by an F-15 was scored by Israeli Air Force (IAF) ace Moshe Melnik in 1979.During IAF raids against Palestinian factions in Lebanon in 1979–1981, F-15As reportedly downed 13 Syrian MiG-21s and two Syrian MiG-25s.", "Israeli F-15As and Bs participated as escorts in Operation Opera, an air strike on an Iraqi nuclear reactor.", "In the 1982 Lebanon War, Israeli F-15s were credited with 41 Syrian aircraft destroyed (23 MiG-21s and 17 MiG-23s, and one Aérospatiale SA.342L Gazelle helicopter).", "During Operation Mole Cricket 19, Israeli F-15s and F-16s together shot down 82 Syrian fighters (MiG-21s, MiG-23s, and MiG-23Ms) without losses.Israel was the only operator to use and develop the air-to-ground abilities of the air-superiority F-15 variants, doing so because the fighter's range was well beyond other combat aircraft in the Israeli inventory in the 1980s.", "The first known use of F-15s for a strike mission was during Operation Wooden Leg on 1 October 1985, with six F-15Ds attacking PLO Headquarters in Tunis with one GBU-15 guided bombs per aircraft and two F-15Cs restriking the ruins with six Mk-82 unguided bombs each.", "This was one of the few times air-superiority F-15s (A/B/C/D models) were used in tactical strike missions.", "Israeli air-superiority F-15 variants have since been extensively upgraded to carry a wider range of air-to-ground armaments, including JDAM GPS-guided bombs and Popeye missile.Royal Saudi Air Force F-15C pilots reportedly shot down two Iranian Air Force F-4E Phantom IIs in a skirmish on 5 June 1984.====Anti-satellite trials====ASM-135 ASAT test launch from F-15A ''76-0084'' in 1985The ASM-135 missile was designed to be a standoff antisatellite (ASAT) weapon, with the F-15 acting as a first stage.", "The Soviet Union could correlate a U.S. rocket launch with a spy satellite loss, but an F-15 carrying an ASAT would blend in among hundreds of F-15 flights.", "From January 1984 to September 1986, two F-15As were used as launch platforms for the ASAT missile.", "The F-15As were modified to carry one ASM-135 on the centerline station with extra equipment within a special centerline pylon.", "The launch aircraft executed a Mach 1.22, 3.8 g climb at 65° to release the ASAT missile at an altitude of .", "The flight computer was updated to control the zoom-climb and missile release.The third test flight involved a retired P78-1 solar observatory satellite in a orbit, which was destroyed by kinetic energy.", "The pilot, USAF Major Wilbert D. \"Doug\" Pearson, became the only pilot to destroy a satellite.", "The ASAT program involved five test launches.", "The program was officially terminated in 1988.===Gulf War and aftermath===The USAF began deploying F-15C, D, and E model aircraft to the Persian Gulf region in August 1990 for Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm.", "During the Gulf War, the F-15 accounted for 36 of the 39 air-to-air victories by U.S. Air Force against Iraqi forces.", "Iraq has confirmed the loss of 23 of its aircraft in air-to-air combat.", "The F-15C and D fighters were used in the air-superiority role, while F-15E Strike Eagles were used in air-to-ground attacks mainly at night, hunting modified Scud missile launchers and artillery sites using the LANTIRN system.", "According to the USAF, its F-15Cs had 34 confirmed kills of Iraqi aircraft during the 1991 Gulf War, most of them by missile fire: five Mikoyan MiG-29s, two MiG-25s, eight MiG-23s, two MiG-21s, two Sukhoi Su-25s, four Sukhoi Su-22s, one Sukhoi Su-7, six Dassault Mirage F1s, one Ilyushin Il-76 cargo aircraft, one Pilatus PC-9 trainer, and two Mil Mi-8 helicopters.", "According to NHHC, F-15s could also shoot down a friendly F-14 Tomcat.", "In addition, the F-15E achieved its first-ever air-to-air kill on 14 February 1991, destroying an Iraqi Mi-24 \"Hind\" helicopter with a GBU-10 laser-guided bomb.", "Air superiority was achieved in the first three days of the conflict; many of the later kills were reportedly of Iraqi aircraft fleeing to Iran, rather than engaging American aircraft.", "Two F-15Es were lost to ground fire, and another was damaged on the ground by a Scud strike on King Abdulaziz Air Base.On 11 November 1990, a Royal Saudi Air Force (RSAF) pilot defected to Sudan with an F-15C fighter during Operation Desert Shield.", "Saudi Arabia paid US$40 million (~$ in ) for return of the aircraft three months later.", "RSAF F-15s shot down two Iraqi Mirage F1s during the Operation Desert storm.", "One Saudi Arabian F-15C was lost to a crash during the Persian Gulf War in 1991.The IQAF claimed this fighter was part of two USAF F-15Cs that engaged two Iraqi MiG-25PDs, and was hit by an R-40 missile before crashing.Operation Desert Shield.They have since been deployed to support Operation Southern Watch, the patrolling of the Iraqi no-fly zones in Southern Iraq; Operation Provide Comfort in Turkey; in support of NATO operations in Bosnia, and recent air expeditionary force deployments.", "In 1994, two U.S. Army Sikorsky UH-60 Black Hawks were mistakenly downed by USAF F-15Cs in northern Iraq in a friendly-fire incident.", "USAF F-15Cs shot down four Yugoslav MiG-29s using AIM-120 and AIM-7 Radar guided missiles during NATO's 1999 intervention in Kosovo, Operation Allied Force.===Structural defects===All F-15s were grounded by the USAF after a Missouri Air National Guard F-15C came apart in flight and crashed on 2 November 2007.The newer F-15E fleet was later cleared for continued operations.", "The USAF reported on 28 November 2007 that a critical location in the upper longerons on the F-15C was the failure's suspected cause, causing the fuselage forward of the air intakes, including the cockpit and radome, to separate from the airframe.F-15A through D-model aircraft were grounded until the location received detailed inspections and repairs as needed.", "The grounding of F-15s received media attention as it began to place strains on the nation's air-defense efforts.", "The grounding forced some states to rely on their neighboring states' fighters for air-defense protection, and Alaska to depend on Canadian Forces' fighter support.On 8 January 2008, the USAF Air Combat Command (ACC) cleared a portion of its older F-15 fleet for return to flying status.", "It also recommended a limited return to flight for units worldwide using the affected models.", "The accident review board report, which was released on 10 January 2008, stated that analysis of the F-15C wreckage determined that the longeron did not meet drawing specifications, which led to fatigue cracks and finally a catastrophic failure of the remaining support structures and breakup of the aircraft in flight.", "In a report released on 10 January 2008, nine other F-15s were identified to have similar problems in the longeron.", "As a result, General John D. W. Corley stated, \"the long-term future of the F-15 is in question\".", "On 15 February 2008, ACC cleared all its grounded F-15A/B/C/D fighters for flight pending inspections, engineering reviews, and any needed repairs.", "ACC also recommended release of other U.S. F-15A/B/C/Ds.===Later service===A USAF F-15C flying over Fresno, California, 2013The F-15 had a combined air-to-air combat record of 104 kills to no losses .", "The F-15's air superiority versions, the A/B/C/D models, have not suffered any losses to enemy action.", "Over half of F-15 kills have been achieved by Israeli Air Force pilots.On 16 September 2009, the last F-15A, an Oregon Air National Guard aircraft, was retired, marking the end of service for the F-15A and F-15B models in the United States.", "With the retirement of those early models, the F-15C and D models continued operational service to supplement the new F-22 Raptor in frontline US service.", "Because the F-22 procurement was curtailed to just 187 operational aircraft, the USAF had to extend F-15C/D operations well beyond its planned retirement date in order to maintain adequate numbers of air superiority fighters; in 2007, the USAF planned to keep 179 F-15C/Ds along with 224 F-15Es in service beyond 2025.During the 2010s, USAF F-15C/Ds were regularly based overseas with the Pacific Air Forces at Kadena AB in Japan and with the U.S. Air Forces in Europe at RAF Lakenheath in the United Kingdom.", "Other regular USAF F-15s are operated by ACC as adversary/aggressor platforms at Nellis AFB, Nevada, and by Air Force Materiel Command in test and evaluation roles at Edwards AFB, California, and Eglin AFB, Florida.", "All remaining combat-coded F-15C/Ds are operated by the Air National Guard.USAF F-15E arrives for the 2014 Royal International Air Tattoo, UKTo keep the F-15C/D viable, the fleet saw a series of upgrades, with 179 aircraft receiving the AN/APG-63(V)3 AESA radar starting in 2010 along with eventual addition of IRST pods and cockpit enhancements.", "However, problems with the aging fleet meant the F-15C faced cuts or retirement in the USAF's FY 2015 budget in response to sequestration.", "By the mid 2010s, the aging F-15C/D fleet was no longer economically sustainable to the 2030s as hoped, and the USAF chose to forgo the more comprehensive F-15 2040C upgrade proposed by Boeing; in April 2017, USAF officials announced plans to retire the F-15C/D in the mid-2020s and press other aircraft such as F-16s into roles occupied by the F-15 while exploring options to recapitalize its fighter fleet.In late 2018 and early 2019, following a series of DoD Cost Analysis and Program Evaluation (CAPE) Office studies on affordably recapitalizing the fighter fleet, the Pentagon in its FY 2020 budget requested new-build F-15EXs — an advanced variant based on the export F-15QA then in production — to replace the F-15Cs and supplement the F-22s to maintain fighter fleet size, with planned total procurement of 144 aircraft.", "This allowed USAF to use the existing export production line to quickly bring fighters into operational service, as restarting the F-22 line was considered cost-prohibitive.", "In 2022, it was announced the USAF plan to retire their fleet of F-15C/Ds by 2026, while the F-15Es would retire in the 2030s.===Yemen Civil War===During the Yemeni Civil War (2015–present), Houthis have used R-27T missiles modified to serve as surface-to-air missiles.", "A video released on 7 January 2018 also shows a modified R-27T hitting a Saudi F-15 on a forward-looking infrared camera.", "Houthi sources claim to have downed the F-15, although this has been disputed, as the missile apparently proximity detonated, though the F-15 continued to fly in its trajectory seemingly unaffected.", "Rebels later released footage showing an aircraft wreck, but serial numbers on the wreckage suggested the aircraft was a Panavia Tornado, also operated by Saudi forces.", "On 8 January, the Saudi admitted the loss of an aircraft but due to technical reasons.On 21 March 2018, Houthi rebels released a video where they hit and possibly shot down a Saudi F-15 in Saada province.", "In the video a R-27T air-to-air missile adapted for surface-to-air use was launched and appeared to hit a jet.", "As in the video of the previous similar hit recorded on 8 January, the target, while clearly hit, did not appear to be downed.", "Saudi forces confirmed the hit, while saying the jet landed at a Saudi base.", "Saudi official sources confirmed the incident, reporting that it happened at 3:48 pm local time after a surface-to-air defense missile was launched at the fighter jet from inside Saada airport.After the Houthi attack on Saudi oil infrastructure on 14 September 2019, Saudi Arabia tasked F-15 fighters armed with missiles to intercept low flying drones, difficult to intercept with ground-based high altitude missile systems like the MIM-104 Patriot with several drones being downed since then.", "On 2 July 2020, a Saudi F-15 shot down two Houthi Shahed 129 drones above Yemen.", "On 7 March 2021, during a Houthi attack at several Saudi oil installations, Saudi F-15s shot down several attacking drones using heatseeking AIM-9 Sidewinder missiles, with video evidence showing at least two Samad-3 UAVs and one Qasef-2K downed.", "On 30 March 2021, a video made by Saudi border guards showed a Saudi F-15 shooting down a Houthi Quasef-2K drone with an AIM-120 AMRAAM fired at short range." ], [ "Variants", "===Basic models===USAF F-15C fires an alt=Gray jet aircraft flying above missile following firing of the weapon.F-15E cockpit from an aerial refueling tanker.", ";F-15A:Single-seat all-weather air-superiority fighter version, 384 built in 1972–1979;F-15B:Two-seat training version, formerly designated ''TF-15A'', 61 built in 1972–1979;F-15C:Improved single-seat all-weather air-superiority fighter version, 483 built in 1979–1985.The last 43 F-15Cs were upgraded with AN/APG-70 radar and later the AN/APG-63(V)1 radar.", ";F-15D:Two-seat training version, 92 built in 1979–1985.", ";F-15J:Single-seat all-weather air-superiority fighter version for the Japan Air Self-Defense Force 139 built under license in Japan by Mitsubishi Heavy Industries in 1981–1997, two built in St.", "Louis.", ";F-15DJ:Two-seat training version for the Japan Air Self-Defense Force.", "12 built in St. Louis, and 25 built under license in Japan by Mitsubishi in the period 1981–1997.", ";F-15N Sea Eagle:The F-15N was a carrier-capable variant proposed in the early 1970s to the U.S. Navy as an alternative to the heavier and, at the time, considered to be \"riskier\" technology program, the Grumman F-14 Tomcat.", "It did not have a long-range radar or the long-range missiles used by the F-14.The F-15N-PHX was another proposed naval version capable of carrying the AIM-54 Phoenix missile, but with an enhanced version of the AN/APG-63 radar on the F-15A.", "These featured folding wingtips, reinforced landing gear and a stronger tailhook for shipboard operation.", ";F-15 2040C:Proposed upgrade to the F-15C, allowing it to supplement the F-22 in the air superiority role.", "The 2040C concept is an evolution of the Silent Eagle proposed to South Korea and Israel, with some low-observable improvements but mostly a focus on the latest air capabilities and lethality.", "Proposal includes infra-red search and track, doubling the number of weapon stations, with quad racks for a maximum of 16 air-to-air missiles, Eagle Passive/Active Warning Survivability System (EPAWSS), conformal fuel tanks, upgraded APG-63(V)3 AESA radar and a \"Talon HATE\" communications pod allowing data transfer with the F-22.This upgrade program was not pursued due to the age of the existing airframes, but some of the upgrades were applied to the new-build F-15EX.===Strike Eagle derivatives===;F-15E Strike Eagle:Two-seat all-weather multirole strike version, fitted with conformal fuel tanks.", "It was developed into the F-15I, F-15S, F-15K, F-15SG, and is the basis of the F-15 Advanced Eagle family.", "Over 400 F-15E and derivative variants produced since 1985.;F-15 Advanced Eagle:Further development of the F-15E with revised wing structure and digital fly-by-wire and is the basis for the F-15SA, F-15QA, F-15EX, and other variants.", "Current production baseline.", ";F-15SE Silent Eagle:A proposed F-15E variant from March 2009 with a reduced radar cross-section via changes such as replacing conformal fuel tanks with conformal weapons bays and canting the twin vertical tails 15 degrees outward, which would reduce their radar signature while providing a slight boost to lift to help offset the loss of conformal fuel tanks.===Prototypes===F-15A 71–0280, the first prototypeTwelve prototypes were built and used for trials by the F-15 Joint Test Force at Edwards Air Force Base using McDonnell Douglas and United States Air Force personnel.", "Most prototypes were later used by NASA for trials and experiments.", ";F-15A-1, AF Serial No.", "71-0280:Was the first F-15 to fly on 11 July 1972 from Edwards Air Force Base, it was used as a trial aircraft for exploring the flight envelope, general handling and testing the carriage of external stores.", ";F-15A-1, AF Ser.", "No.", "71-0281:The second prototype first flew on 26 September 1972 and was used to test the F100 engine.", ";F-15A-2, AF Ser.", "No.", "71-0282:First flew on 4 November 1972 and was used to test the APG-63 radar and avionics.", ";F-15A-2, AF Ser.", "No.", "71-0283:First flew on 13 January 1973 and was used as a structural test aircraft, it was the first aircraft to have the smaller wingtips to clear a severe buffet problem found on earlier aircraft.", ";F-15A-2, AF Ser.", "No.", "71-0284:First flew on 7 March 1973 it was used for armament development and was the first aircraft fitted with an internal cannon.", ";F-15A-3, AF Ser.", "No.", "71-0285:First flew on 23 May 1973 and was used to test the missile fire control system and other avionics.", ";F-15A-3, AF Ser.", "No.", "71-0286:First flew on 14 June 1973 and was used for armament trials and testing external fuel stores.", ";F-15A-4, AF Ser.", "No.", "71-0287:First flew on 25 August 1973 and was used for spin recovery, angle of attack and fuel system testing, it was fitted with an anti-spin recovery parachute.", "The aircraft was loaned to NASA from 1976 for engine development trials.", ";F-15A-4, AF Ser.", "No.", "71-0288:First flew on 20 October 1973 and was used to test integrated aircraft and engine performance, it was later used by McDonnell Douglas as a test aircraft in the 1990s.", ";F-15A-4, AF Ser.", "No.", "71-0289:First flew on 30 January 1974 and was used for trials on the radar, avionics and electronic warfare systems.", ";F-15B-1, AF Ser.", "No.", "71-0290:The first two-seat prototype originally designated the TF-15A, it first flew on 7 July 1973.;F-15B-2, AF Ser.", "No.", "71-0291:First flew on 18 October 1973 as a TF-15A and used as a test and demonstration aircraft.", "In 1976 it made an overseas sales tour painted in markings to celebrate the bicentenary of the United States.", "Also used as the development aircraft for the F-15E as well as the first F-15 to use Conformal Fuel Tanks.===Research and test===NASA F-15B Research Testbed, aircraft No.", "836 (AF Ser.", "No.", "74-0141).", "Note the Quiet Spike adaption to reduce and control sonic booms;F-15 Streak Eagle (AF Ser.", "No.72-0119):An unpainted F-15A stripped of most avionics demonstrated the fighter's acceleration capabilities.", "The aircraft broke eight time-to-climb world records between 16 January and 1 February 1975 at Grand Forks AFB, ND.", "It was delivered to the National Museum of the United States Air Force in December 1980.Undergoing restoration in 2023 to be put on display in 2024.;F-15 STOL/MTD (AF Ser.", "No.", "71-0290):The first F-15B was converted into a short takeoff and landing, maneuver technology demonstrator aircraft.", "In the late 1980s it received canard flight surfaces in addition to its usual horizontal tail, along with square thrust-vectoring nozzles.", "It was used as a short-takeoff/maneuver-technology demonstrator (S/MTD).", ";F-15 ACTIVE (AF Ser.", "No.", "71-0290):The F-15 S/MTD was later converted into an advanced flight control technology research aircraft with thrust vectoring nozzles.", ";F-15 IFCS (AF Ser.", "No.", "71-0290):The F-15 ACTIVE was then converted into an intelligent flight control systems research aircraft.", "F-15B 71-0290 was the oldest F-15 still flying when retired in January 2009.;F-15 MANX:Concept name for a tailless variant of the F-15 ACTIVE, but the NASA ACTIVE experimental aircraft was never modified to be tailless.", ";F-15 Flight Research Facility (AF Ser.", "No.", "71-0281 and AF Ser.", "No.", "71-0287):Two F-15A aircraft were acquired in 1976 for use by NASA's Dryden Flight Research Center for numerous experiments such as: Highly Integrated Digital Electronic Control (HiDEC), Adaptive Engine Control System (ADECS), Self-Repairing and Self-Diagnostic Flight Control System (SRFCS) and Propulsion Controlled Aircraft System (PCA).", "71-0281, the second flight-test F-15A, was returned to the Air Force and became a static display at Langley AFB in 1983.;F-15B Research Testbed (AF Ser.", "No.", "74-0141):Acquired in 1993, it was an F-15B modified and used by NASA's Dryden Flight Research Center for flight tests." ], [ "Operators", "F-15E Strike Eagle in red.", "Operators of both versions in dark blue.This article only covers the F-15A, B, C, D, and related variants.", "For the operators of other F-15E-based variants, like the F-15E, F-15I, F-15S, F-15K, F-15SG, or F-15EX, see McDonnell Douglas F-15E Strike Eagle.Two Israeli Air Force F-15I Ra'am from the 69th Squadron;* Israeli Air Force has operated F-15s since 1977.The IAF has 84 F-15A/B/C/D/I aircraft in service as of 2022.Japan Air Self-Defense Force F-15DJ and F-15J of the 306th TFS;* Japan Air Self-Defense Force operates 155 Mitsubishi F-15J and 44 F-15DJ fighters produced under license by Mitsubishi Heavy Industries.", ";* Royal Saudi Air Force has 232 F-15C/D/S/SA fighters in operation as of 2024.;* United States Air Force operates 168 F-15C and 18 F-15D total aircraft as of mid-2022.", "* NASA currently operates one F-15B #836 as a test bed for a variety of flight research experiments and two F-15D, #884 and #897, for research support and pilot proficiency.", "NASA in the past used an F-15B #835 to test Highly Integrated Digital Engine Control system (HIDEC) at Edwards AFB in 1988." ], [ "Notable accidents", "Two F-15s over the coast of OregonA total of 175 F-15s have been lost to non-combat causes as of June 2016.However, the F-15 aircraft is very reliable with only 1 loss per 50,000 flight hours.", "* On 1 May 1983, an Israeli Air Force F-15D collided mid-air with an A-4 Skyhawk during a training flight, causing the F-15's right wing to shear off almost completely.", "Despite the damage, the pilot was able to reach a nearby airbase and land safely – albeit at twice the normal landing speed.", "The aircraft was subsequently repaired and saw further combat action.", "* On 26 March 2001, two US Air Force F-15Cs crashed near the summit of Ben Macdui in the Cairngorms during a low flying training exercise over the Scottish Highlands.", "Both Lieutenant Colonel Kenneth John Hyvonen and Captain Kirk Jones died in the accident, which resulted in a court martial for an RAF air traffic controller, who was later found not guilty.", "* On 2 November 2007, a 27-year-old F-15C (AF Ser.", "No.", "80-0034) of the 131st Fighter Wing, Missouri Air National Guard, crashed following an in-flight breakup due to structural failure during combat training near St. Louis, Missouri.", "The pilot, Major Stephen W. Stilwell, ejected but suffered serious injuries.", "On 3 November 2007, all non-mission critical F-15s were grounded pending the crash investigation's outcome.", "By 13 November 2007, over 1,100 F-15s were grounded worldwide after Israel, Japan and Saudi Arabia grounded their aircraft as well.", "F-15Es were cleared on 15 November 2007 pending individual inspections.", "On 8 January 2008, the USAF cleared 60 percent of the F-15A/B/C/D fleet to fly.", "On 10 January 2008, the accident review board released its report, which attributed the crash to the longeron not meeting specifications.", "On 15 February 2008, the Air Force cleared all F-15s for flight, pending inspections and any needed repairs.", "In March 2008, Stilwell filed a lawsuit against Boeing which was later dismissed in April 2009." ], [ "Specifications (F-15C)", "Schematic diagram of F-15FAST PACK fuel tanks on the trailersDiagram of the F-15A Eagle's weapon loadout" ], [ "Aircraft on display", "Although the F-15 continues to be in use, a number of older USAF and IAF models have been retired, with several placed on outdoor display or in museums.===Germany==='''F-15A'''* 74-0085 – Spangdahlem AB* 74-0109 – Auto Technik Museum, Speyer===Netherlands==='''F-15A'''* 74-0083 (marked as 77–0132) – Nationaal Militair Museum, Kamp Zeist, former Camp New Amsterdam AB.", "Aircraft was based at Camp New Amsterdam and left as a gift when the base was closed in 1995.===Japan==='''F-15A'''* 74-0088 – Kadena AB===Israel==='''F-15A'''* 73-0098 – Israeli Air Museum, Hatzerim* 73-0107 – gate guard at Tel Nof AB===Saudi Arabia==='''F-15B'''* 71-0291 - painted in false Saudi markings as '1315' at Royal Saudi Air Force Museum===United Kingdom===F-15A 76–0020 at the American Air Museum, Imperial War Museum Duxford'''F-15A'''* 74-0131 – Wings of Liberty Memorial Park, RAF Lakenheath* 76-0020 – American Air Museum, Duxford===United States===Museum of Aviation, Robins AFB====F-15A====* 71-0280 – 37th Training Wing HQ Parade Ground, Kelly Field (formerly Kelly AFB), San Antonio, Texas* 71-0281 – Tactical Air Command Memorial Park, Joint Base Langley-Eustis, Hampton, Virginia* 71-0283 – Defense Supply Center Richmond, Richmond, Virginia* 71-0285 – Boeing Avionic Antenna Laboratory, St. Charles, Missouri* 71-0286 – A GF-15A; Saint Louis Science Center, St. Louis, Missouri, in storage.", "Previously on display at Octave Chanute Aerospace Museum, Rantoul, Illinois* 72-0119 \"Streak Eagle\" – at the National Museum of the United States Air Force, Wright-Patterson AFB, Dayton, Ohio* 73-0085 – Museum of Aviation, Robins AFB, Warner Robins, Georgia* 73-0086 – Louisiana Military Museum, Jackson Barracks, New Orleans, Louisiana* 73-0099 – Robins AFB, Warner Robins, Georgia* 74-0081 – Elmendorf AFB, Alaska* 74-0084 – Alaska Aviation Heritage Museum, Anchorage, Alaska* 74-0095 – Tyndall AFB, Panama City, Florida This aircraft was flipped and severely damaged by Hurricane Michael in October 2018.", "* 74-0114 – Mountain Home AFB, Idaho* 74-0117 – Langley AFB, Virginia* 74-0118 – Pima Air & Space Museum, Tucson, Arizona* 74-0119 – Castle Air Museum, Atwater, California* 74-0124 – Air Force Armament Museum, Eglin AFB, Florida* 75-0026 – National Warplane Museum, Elmira Corning Regional Airport, New York* 75-0033 – Eglin Parkway entrance to 33d Fighter Wing complex, Eglin AFB, Florida* 75-0045 – USS Alabama Battleship Memorial Park, Mobile, Alabama* 76-0008 – March Field Air Museum at March ARB, Riverside, California* 76-0009 – Kingsley Field Air National Guard Base, Klamath Falls, Oregon* 76-0012 – Air Heritage Aviation Museum, Beaver County Airport, Beaver Falls, Pennsylvania* 76-0014 – Evergreen Aviation Museum, McMinnville, Oregon* 76-0018 – Hickam Field, Joint Base Pearl Harbor–Hickam, Oahu, Hawaii* 76-0024 – Peterson Air and Space Museum, Peterson AFB, Colorado* 76-0027 – National Museum of the United States Air Force, Wright-Patterson AFB, Dayton, Ohio* 76-0037 – Holloman AFB, New Mexico* 76-0040 – Otis ANGB, Cape Cod, Massachusetts* 76-0042 - United States Air Force Academy, Colorado Springs, Colorado* 76-0048 – McChord Air Museum, McChord AFB, Washington* 76-0057 - Nellis Air Force Base, Las Vegas, Nevada.", "Aircraft previously bore \"Vegas Strong\" paint scheme to honor victims of Oct 1, 2017 shooting.", "* 76-0063 – Pacific Aviation Museum, Ford Island, Joint Base Pearl Harbor–Hickam, Hawaii* 76-0066 – Portland Air National Guard Base, Oregon* 76-0067 – Dyess Air Force Base, Linear Air Park display area on base* 76-0076 (marked as 33rd Fighter Wing F-15C 85–0125) – roadside park, DeBary, Florida* 76-0080 – Jacksonville Air National Guard Base, Florida* 76-0088 – 131st Bomb Wing Heritage Park, Whiteman AFB, Missouri* 76-0108 – Lackland AFB/Kelly Field Annex, Texas* 76-0110 – gate guard, Mountain Home AFB, Idaho* 77-0068 – Arnold AFB, Manchester, Tennessee* 77-0084 – 412th Test Wing at Edwards Air Force Base, California and Nellis Air Force Base, Nevada* 77-0090 – Hill Aerospace Museum, Hill AFB, Utah* 77-0102 – Pacific Coast Air Museum, Charles M. Schulz-Sonoma County Airport, Santa Rosa, California.", "One of two Massachusetts Air National Guard 102d Fighter Wing aircraft scrambled in first response to terrorist air attacks on 11 September 2001* 77-0146 – Veterans Park, Callaway, Florida* 77-0150 – Yanks Air Museum, Chino, California====F-15B====* 73-0108 – Luke AFB, Arizona* 73-0114 – Air Force Flight Test Center Museum, Edwards AFB, California* 75-0084 – Russell Military Museum, Russell, Illinois* 77-0154 - Sheppard Air Force Base, Witchita Falls, Texas* 77-0159 - Volk Field Air National Guard Base, Camp Douglas, Wisconsin* 77-0161 – Seymour Johnson AFB, Goldsboro, North Carolina====F-15C====* 79-0022 – Pueblo Weisbrod Aircraft Museum, Pueblo, Colorado Credited with a MiG-23 kill during Operation Desert Storm while flown by Donald Watros.", "It is painted in the colors of the 22nd Fighter Squadron deployed from Bitburg AB, Germany to Incirlik AB, Turkey.", "* 79-0078 – Museum of Aviation, Robins AFB, Warner Robins, Georgia Currently stored at the museum awaiting restoration and display.", "Credited with two MiG-21 kills during Operation Desert Storm while flown by Thomas Dietz, while on deployment with 53rd Fighter Squadron to Al Kharj AB, Saudi Arabia from Bitburg AB, Germany* 80-0014 – Chico Air Museum, Chico, California; transported from Langley AFB, Virginia* 86-0156 - National Museum of the United States Air Force - On display in the Cold War Gallery.", "This aircraft scored two MiG-29 kills of the Yugoslavia Air Force during Operation Allied Force flown by Captain Jeff \"Claw\" Hwang of the 493rd Fighter Squadron, 48th Fighter Wing based at RAF Lakenheath, UK." ], [ "Notable appearances in media", "The F-15 was the subject of the IMAX movie ''Fighter Pilot: Operation Red Flag'', about the RED FLAG exercises.", "In Tom Clancy's nonfiction book, ''Fighter Wing: A Guided Tour of an Air Force Combat Wing'' (1995), a detailed analysis of the Air Force's premier fighter aircraft, the F-15 Eagle and its capabilities are showcased.The F-15 has also been a popular subject as a toy, and a fictional likeness of an aircraft similar to the F-15 has been used in cartoons, books, video games, animated television series, and animated films." ], [ "See also" ], [ "References", "===Notes======Citations======Bibliography===* Aloni, Shlomo.", "''Israeli F-15 Eagle Units in Combat'' (Osprey Combat Aircraft #67).", "Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing Limited, 2006..* Bowman, Martin W. ''US Military Aircraft''.", "London: Bison Books, 1980..* Davies, Steve.", "''Boeing F-15E Strike Eagle, All-Weather Attack Aircraft''.", "London: Airlife Publishing, Ltd., 2003..* Davies, Steve.", "''Combat Legend, F-15 Eagle and Strike Eagle''.", "London: Airlife Publishing, Ltd., 2002..* Davies, Steve.", "''F-15C/E Eagle Units of operation Iraqi Freedom'' (Osprey Combat Aircraft #47).", "Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing Limited, 2004..* Davies, Steve and Doug Dildy.", "''F-15 Eagle Engaged, The World's Most Successful Jet Fighter''.", "Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing Limited, 2007..* Eden, Paul and Soph Moeng, eds.", "''The Complete Encyclopedia of World Aircraft''.", "London: Amber Books Ltd., 2002..* Gething, Michael J.", "''F-15 Eagle'' (Modern Fighting Aircraft).", "New York: Arco, 1983..* Green, William and Gordon Swanborough.", "''The Complete Book of Fighters''.", "New York: Barnes & Noble Inc., 1988..* Gunston, Bill.", "''American Warplanes''.", "New York: Crescent Books.", "1986..* Huenecke, Klaus.''", "Modern Combat Aircraft Design''.", "Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1987..* Jenkins, Dennis R. ''F/A-18 Hornet: A Navy Success Story''.", "New York: McGraw-Hill, 2000, pp. 1–8..", "* Jenkins, Dennis R. ''McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle, Supreme Heavy-Weight Fighter''.", "Hinckley, UK: Midland Publishing, 1998..* Lambert, Mark, ed.", "''Jane's All the World's Aircraft 1993–94''.", "Alexandria, Virginia: Jane's Information Group Inc., 1993..* * Scutts, Jerry.", "''Supersonic Aircraft of USAF''.", "New York: Mallard Press, 1989..* Spick, Mike, ed.", "''The Great Book of Modern Warplanes''.", "St. Paul, Minnesota: MBI, 2000.." ], [ "Further reading", "* Braybrook, Roy.", "''F-15 Eagle''.", "London: Osprey Aerospace, 1991..* Crickmore, Paul.", "''McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle'' (Classic Warplanes series).", "New York: Smithmark Books, 1992..* Drendel, Lou.", "''Eagle'' (Modern Military Aircraft Series).", "Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications, 1985..* Drendel, Lou and Don Carson.''", "F-15 Eagle in action''.", "Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications, 1976..* Fitzsimons, Bernard.", "''Modern Fighting Aircraft, F-15 Eagle''.", "London: Salamander Books Ltd., 1983..* Gething, Michael J. and Paul Crickmore.", "''F-15'' (Combat Aircraft series).", "New York: Crescent Books, 1992..* Kinzey, Bert.", "''The F-15 Eagle in Detail & Scale'' (Part 1, Series II).", "El Paso, Texas: Detail & Scale, Inc., 1978..* Rininger, Tyson V. ''F-15 Eagle at War''.", "Minneapolis, Minnesota: Zenith Press, 2009.." ], [ "External links", "* F-15 Eagle USAF Fact Sheet* F-15 Eagle history page on Boeing.com* McDonnell Douglas F-15A, and F-15C on USAF National Museum web site* F-15 Eagle in service with Israel* The McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle page" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Grumman F-14 Tomcat" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Grumman F-14 Tomcat''' is an American carrier-capable supersonic, twin-engine, two-seat, twin-tail, all-weather-capable variable-sweep wing fighter aircraft.", "The Tomcat was developed for the United States Navy's Naval Fighter Experimental (VFX) program after the collapse of the General Dynamics-Grumman F-111B project.", "A large and well-equipped fighter, the F-14 was the first of the American Teen Series fighters, which were designed incorporating air combat experience against MiG fighters during the Vietnam War.The F-14 first flew on 21 December 1970 and made its first deployment in 1974 with the U.S. Navy aboard , replacing the McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II.", "The F-14 served as the U.S. Navy's primary maritime air superiority fighter, fleet defense interceptor, and tactical aerial reconnaissance platform into the 2000s.", "The Low Altitude Navigation and Targeting Infrared for Night (LANTIRN) pod system was added in the 1990s and the Tomcat began performing precision ground-attack missions.The Tomcat was retired by U.S. Navy on 22 September 2006, supplanted by the Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet.", "Several retired F-14s have been put on display across the US.Having been exported to Pahlavi Iran under the Western-aligned Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi in 1976, F-14s were used as land-based interceptors by the Imperial Iranian Air Force.", "Following the Iranian Revolution in 1979, the Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force used them during the Iran–Iraq War.", "Iran claimed their F-14s shot down at least 160 Iraqi aircraft during the war (only 55 of these confirmed, according to historian Tom Cooper), while 16 Tomcats were lost, including seven losses to accidents.", "As of 2022, the F-14 remains in service with Iran's air force, though in low numbers of combat-ready aircraft due to a lack of spare parts." ], [ "Development", "===Background===The F-111B was designed to fulfill the carrier-based interceptor role, but had weight and performance problems, and was not suited to the types of aerial combat that were predominant over Vietnam.Beginning in the late 1950s, the U.S. Navy sought a long-range, high-endurance interceptor to defend its carrier battle groups against long-range anti-ship missiles launched from the jet bombers and submarines of the Soviet Union.", "They outlined the idea of a Fleet Air Defense (FAD) aircraft with a more powerful radar and longer range missiles than the F-4 Phantom II to intercept both enemy bombers and missiles at very long range.", "Studies into this concept led to the Douglas F6D Missileer project of 1959, but this large subsonic aircraft would have limited ability to evade supersonic fighters or defend itself once it fired its missiles, and the project was cancelled in December 1961.The Navy still sought long-range defensive aircraft, but with higher performance than the Missileer.", "The Navy was directed to participate in the Tactical Fighter Experimental (TFX) program with the U.S. Air Force (USAF) by Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara, who favored versatile aircraft that could be shared by both services, reducing procurement and development costs.", "To this end, he had already directed the USAF to buy the F-4 Phantom II—which was developed for the Navy and could serve both as a fighter-bomber and an interceptor aircraft—instead of buying more F-105 Thunderchief and F-106 Delta Dart aircraft to fill each respective role.The TFX had adequate speed, range and payload for the FAD role, but was designed primarily as a fighter-bomber and interdictor that lacked the maneuverability and overall performance that the Navy expected.", "The Navy strenuously opposed the TFX as it feared compromises necessary for the Air Force's need for a low-level attack aircraft would adversely impact the aircraft's performance as a fighter.", "Their concerns were overridden, and the project went ahead as the F-111B.", "Lacking recent experience in naval fighters, the F-111's main contractor, General Dynamics, partnered with Grumman to provide the experience needed to develop a naval version.", "Weight and performance issues plagued the program, and with the F-111B in distress, Grumman began studying improvements and alternatives.", "In 1966, the Navy awarded Grumman a contract to begin studying advanced fighter designs.", "Grumman narrowed down these designs to its 303 design.The name \"Tomcat\" was partially chosen to pay tribute to Admiral Thomas F. Connolly, as the nickname \"Tom's Cat\" had already been widely used within the program during development to reflect Connolly's involvement, and now the moniker was adapted into an official name in line with the Grumman tradition of giving its fighter aircraft feline names.", "Changing it to ''Tomcat'' associated the aircraft with the previous Grumman aircraft Wildcat, Hellcat, Tigercat, and Bearcat propeller fighters along with the Panther, Cougar, and Tiger jet fighters.", "Other names considered were ''Alley Cat'' (considered inappropriate due to sexual connotations) and ''Seacat''.===VFX===Through this same period, experience in Vietnam against the more agile MiG fighters demonstrated that the Phantom lacked the maneuverability needed to win in any engagement.", "This led to the VFAX program to study new fighter aircraft that would either replace or supplant the Phantom in the fighter and ground-attack roles while the TFX worked the long-range interception role.", "Grumman continued work on its 303 design and offered it to the Navy in 1967, which led to fighter studies by the Navy.", "The company continued to refine the design into 1968.Around this time, Vice Admiral Thomas F. Connolly, Deputy Chief of Naval Operations for Air Warfare, flew the developmental F-111A variant on a flight and discovered that it had difficulty going supersonic and had poor carrier landing characteristics.", "He later testified before Congress about his concerns against the official Navy position and, in May 1968, Congress stopped funding for the F-111B, allowing the Navy to pursue an answer tailored to its requirements.Free to choose their solution to the FAD requirement, VFAX ended in favor of a new design that would combine the two roles.", "In July 1968, the Naval Air Systems Command (NAVAIR) issued a request for proposals (RFP) for the Naval Fighter Experimental (VFX) program.", "VFX called for a tandem two-seat, twin-engine air-to-air fighter with a maximum speed of Mach 2.2.It would also have a built-in 20 mm M61 Vulcan cannon and a secondary close air support role.", "The VFX's air-to-air missiles would be either six AIM-54 Phoenix or a combination of six AIM-7 Sparrow and four AIM-9 Sidewinder missiles.", "Bids were received from General Dynamics, Grumman, Ling-Temco-Vought, McDonnell Douglas, and North American Rockwell; four bids incorporated variable-geometry wings.===F-14===Grumman's VFX entry was designed around the TF30 engine, AWG-9 radar and AIM-54 missile intended for the F-111B; this eventually became the F-14A.McDonnell Douglas and Grumman were selected as finalists in December 1968.Grumman was selected for the contract award in January 1969.Grumman's design reused the TF30 engines from the F-111B, though the Navy planned on replacing them with the Pratt & Whitney F401-400 engines under development for the Navy, along with the related Pratt & Whitney F100 for the USAF.", "Though lighter than the F-111B, it was still the largest and heaviest U.S. fighter to fly from an aircraft carrier, a consequence of the requirement to carry the large AWG-9 radar and AIM-54 Phoenix missiles (from the F-111B) and an internal fuel load of .Upon winning the contract for the F-14, Grumman greatly expanded its Calverton, Long Island, New York facility for evaluating the aircraft.", "Much of the testing, including the first of many compressor stalls and multiple ejections, took place over Long Island Sound.", "To save time and avoid cancellation by the new presidential administration, the Navy skipped the prototype phase and jumped directly to full-scale development; the Air Force took a similar approach with its McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle.", "The F-14 first flew on 21 December 1970, just 22 months after Grumman was awarded the contract.", "The fighter reached initial operational capability (IOC) in 1973.The United States Marine Corps was initially interested in the F-14 as an F-4 Phantom II replacement, going so far as to send officers to Fighter Squadron One Twenty-Four (VF-124) to train as instructors.", "The Marine Corps pulled out of any procurement when the development of the stores' management system for ground attack munitions was not pursued.", "An air-to-ground capability was not developed until the 1990s.Firing trials involved launches against simulated targets of various types, from cruise missiles to high-flying bombers.", "AIM-54 Phoenix missile testing from the F-14 began in April 1972.The longest single Phoenix launch was successful against a target at a range of in April 1973.Another unusual test was made on 22 November 1973, when six missiles were fired within 38 seconds at Mach 0.78 and ; four scored direct hits, one broke the lock and missed, and one was declared \"no test\" after the radar signature augmentation in the target drone (which increased the apparent radar signature of the tiny drone to the size of a MiG-21) failed, causing the missile to break track.", "This gave a tested success rate of 80% since effectively only 5 missiles were tested.", "This was the most expensive single test of air-to-air missiles ever performed at that time.===Improvements and changes===Throughout production, the F-14 underwent significant upgrades in missile armament, especially with the move to full solid-state electronics, primarily allowing for better Electronic counter-countermeasures (ECCM) and more space for the rocket motor.", "The AIM-54A Phoenix active-radar air-to-air missile was upgraded with the AIM-54B (1983, limited use) and AIM-54C (1986) versions.", "The initial AIM-7E-4 Sparrow semi-active radar homing was upgraded to the AIM-7F in 1976, and the M variant in 1982.The heat-seeking missile armament was upgraded from the AIM-9J/H to the joint Air Force/Navy missile, the AIM-9L in 1979, and then the AIM-9M in 1982.The Tactical Airborne Reconnaissance Pod System (TARPS) was developed in the late 1970s for the F-14.Approximately 65 F-14As and all F-14Ds were modified to carry the pod.", "TARPS was primarily controlled by the Radar Intercept Officer (RIO) via an extra display for observing reconnaissance data.", "The \"TARPS Digital (TARPS-DI)\" was a 1996 upgrade featuring a digital camera.", "The digital camera was further updated beginning in 1998 with the \"TARPS Completely Digital (TARPS-CD)\" configuration that also provided real-time transmission of imagery.In 1984, plans were announced to replace the existing TF-30 engines of the Tomcat with General Electric F110-GE-400 turbofans.", "An initial, interim, version just replaced the TF-30 with the new engine, retaining the original avionics.", "These aircraft were designated F-14A+, which was changed to F-14B in May 1991.38 F-14A+s were newly built, with a further 43 converted from F-14As.", "The F-14D variant was developed at the same time; it included the F110 engines with newer digital avionics systems such as a glass cockpit and compatibility with the Link 16 secure datalink.", "The Digital Flight Control System (DFCS) notably improved the F-14's handling qualities when flying at a high angle of attack or in air combat maneuvering.VFA-143 \"Pukin Dogs\" F-14B (in the foreground) and F/A-18E Super Hornet in 2005While the F-14 had been developed as a lightweight alternative to the F-111B, the F-14 was still the heaviest and most expensive fighter of its time.", "VFAX was revived in the 1970s as a lower cost solution to replacing the Navy and Marine Corps' fleets of F-4s, and A-7s.", "VFAX was directed to review the fighters in the USAF Light Weight Fighter competition, which led to the development of the F/A-18 Hornet as roughly a midsize fighter and attack aircraft.", "In 1994, Congress rejected Grumman proposals to the Navy to upgrade the Tomcat beyond the D model (such as the Super Tomcat 21, the cheaper QuickStrike version, and the more advanced Attack Super Tomcat 21).===Ground attack upgrades===An F-14D launching an AIM-7 Sparrow; a GBU-10 Paveway II is also carried.In the 1990s, with the pending retirement of the Grumman A-6 Intruder, the F-14 air-to-ground program was resurrected.", "Trials with live bombs had been carried out in the 1980s; the F-14 was cleared to use basic iron bombs in 1992.During Operation Desert Storm of the Gulf War, most air-to-ground missions were left to LTV A-7 Corsair II, A-6 Intruder and McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet squadrons, while the F-14s focused on air defense operations.", "Following Desert Storm, F-14As and F-14Bs underwent upgrades to avionics and cockpit displays to enable the use of precision munitions, enhance defensive systems, and apply structural improvements.", "The new avionics were comparable with the F-14D; these upgraded aircraft were designated F-14A (Upgrade) and F-14B (Upgrade) respectively.By 1994, Grumman and the Navy were proposing ambitious plans for Tomcat upgrades to plug the gap between the retirement of the A-6 and the F/A-18E/F Super Hornet entering service.", "However, the upgrades would have taken too long to implement to meet the gap, and were priced in the billions.", "The U.S. Congress considered this too expensive for an interim solution.", "A quick, inexpensive upgrade using the Low Altitude Navigation and Targeting Infrared for Night (LANTIRN) targeting pod was devised.", "The LANTIRN pod provided the F-14 with a forward-looking infrared (FLIR) camera for night operations and a laser target designator to direct laser-guided bombs (LGB).", "Although LANTIRN is traditionally a two-pod system, an AN/AAQ-13 navigation pod with terrain-following radar and a wide-angle FLIR, along with an AN/AAQ-14 targeting pod with a steerable FLIR and a laser target designator, the decision was made to only use the targeting pod.", "The Tomcat's LANTIRN pod was altered and improved over the baseline configuration, such as a Global Positioning System/Inertial Navigation System (GPS/INS) capability to allow an F-14 to accurately locate itself.", "The pod was carried on the right wing glove pylon.An F-14D(R) from VF-213 flying over Iraq on the last Tomcat deployment with a LANTIRN pod on the starboard wing glove station and a laser-guided bomb underneath the fuselage\|alt=Pale gray jet aircraft flying over water towards right, perpendicular to the camera.", "Horizon located two-thirds down the photo.", "Sky made up of two shades, dark blue covers the top, blending with a lighter shade until it is almost white above horizonThe LANTIRN pod did not require changes to the F-14's own system software, but the pod was designed to operate on a MIL-STD-1553B bus not present on the F-14A or B. Consequently, Martin Marietta specially developed an interface card for LANTIRN.", "The Radar Intercept Officer (RIO) would receive pod imagery on a 10-inch Programmable Tactical Information Display (PTID) or another Multi-Function Display in the F-14 rear cockpit and guided LGBs using a new hand controller installed on the right side console.", "Initially, the hand controller replaced the RIO's TARPS control panel, meaning a Tomcat configured for LANTIRN could not carry TARPS and the reverse, but eventually a workaround was later developed to allow a Tomcat to carry LANTIRN or TARPS as needed.An upgraded LANTIRN named \"LANTIRN 40K\" for operations up to was introduced in 2001, followed by Tomcat Tactical Targeting (T3) and Fast Tactical Imagery (FTI), to provide precise target coordinate determination and ability to transmit images in-flight.", "Tomcats also added the ability to carry the GBU-38 Joint Direct Attack Munition (JDAM) in 2003, giving it the option of a variety of LGB and GPS-guided weapons.", "Some F-14Ds were upgraded in 2005 with a ROVER III Full Motion Video (FMV) downlink, a system that transmits real-time images from the aircraft's sensors to the laptop of a forward air controller (FAC) on the ground.===Production termination===Although the F-14D was to be the definitive version of the Tomcat, not all fleet units received the D variant.", "In 1989, Secretary of Defense Dick Cheney refused to approve the purchase of any more F-14D model aircraft, stopping production after 37 F-14Ds had been built, although 18 more were produced by conversion of F-14As, giving a total of 55 F-14Ds.", "An upgrade to the F-14D's computer software to allow AIM-120 AMRAAM missile capability was planned but was later terminated to free up funding for LANTIRN integration.", "While upgrades kept the F-14 competitive with other teen series fighters, Cheney stated that the F-14 was 1960s technology.", "Despite an appeal from the Secretary of the Navy for at least 132 F-14Ds and some aggressive proposals from Grumman for a replacement, Cheney planned to replace the F-14 with a fighter that was not manufactured by Grumman.", "According to Cheney, the F-14 was a \"jobs program\", and when the F-14 was canceled, an estimated 80,000 jobs of Grumman employees, subcontractors, or support personnel were affected.", "Cheney's cancellation of the F-14D and A-6F was controversial and contributed heavily to Grumman's decline and resulting acquisition by Northrop Corporation to form Northrop Grumman." ], [ "Design", "alt=Flight demonstration video of an F-14The F-14 Tomcat was designed as both an air superiority fighter and a long-range naval interceptor, which enabled it to both serve as escort attack aircraft when armed with Sparrow missiles and fleet air defense loitering interceptor role when armed with Phoenix missiles.", "The F-14 was designed with a two-seat cockpit with a bubble canopy which affords all-around visibility aiding aircrew in air-to-air combat.", "It features variable geometry wings that swing automatically during flight.", "For high-speed intercept, they are swept back and they swing forward for lower speed flight.", "It was designed to improve on the F-4 Phantom's air combat performance in most respects.The F-14's fuselage and wings allow it to climb faster than the F-4, while the \"twin-tail\" empennage (dual vertical stabilizers with ventral fins on the engine nacelles) offers better stability.", "The F-14 is equipped with an internal 20 mm M61 Vulcan rotary cannon mounted on the left side (unlike the Phantom, which was not equipped with an internal gun in the US Navy), and can carry AIM-54 Phoenix, AIM-7 Sparrow, and AIM-9 Sidewinder anti-aircraft missiles.", "The twin engines are housed in widely spaced nacelles.", "The flat area of the fuselage between the nacelles is used to contain fuel and avionics systems, such as the wing-sweep mechanism and flight controls, as well as weaponry since the wings are not used for carrying ordnance.", "By itself, the fuselage provides approximately 40 to 60 percent of the F-14's aerodynamic lifting surface depending on the wing sweep position.", "The lifting body characteristics of the fuselage allowed one F-14 to safely land after suffering a mid-air collision that sheared off more than half of the plane's right wing in 1991.The landing gear is very robust, in order to withstand catapult launches (takeoffs) and recoveries (landings) needed for carrier operations.", "It comprises a double nosewheel and widely spaced single main wheels.", "There are no hardpoints on the sweeping parts of the wings, and so all the armament is fitted on the belly between the air intake ramps and on pylons under the wing gloves.", "Internal fuel capacity is : in each wing, in a series of tanks aft of the cockpit, and a further in two feeder tanks.", "It can carry two external drop tanks under the engine intake ramps.", "There is also an air-to-air refueling probe, which folds into the starboard nose.===Variable-geometry wings and aerodynamic design===F-14 Tomcat with wings in asymmetric sweep during testing for this possible in-flight malfunctionThe F-14's wing sweep can be varied between 20° and 68° in flight, and can be automatically controlled by its Central Air Data Computer (CADC), which maintains wing sweep at the optimum lift-to-drag ratio as the Mach number varies; pilots can manually override the system if desired.", "When parked, the wings can be \"overswept\" to 75° to overlap the horizontal stabilizers to save deck space aboard carriers.", "In an emergency, the F-14 can land with the wings fully swept to 68°, although this presents a significant safety hazard due to greatly increased stall speed.", "Such an aircraft would typically be diverted from an aircraft carrier to a land base if an incident did occur.", "The F-14 has flown safely with an asymmetrical wing-sweep during testing, and was deemed able to land aboard a carrier if needed in an emergency.The wing pivot points are significantly spaced far apart.", "This has two benefits.", "The first is that weaponry can be fitted on a pylon on the fixed wing glove, liberating the wings from having swiveling pylons fitted, a feature which had proven to add significant drag on the F-111B.", "Since less of the total lifting area is variable, the center of lift moves less as the wings move, reducing trim drag at high speed.", "When the wing is swept back, its thickness-to-chord ratio decreases, which allows the aircraft to satisfy the Mach 2.4 top speed required by the U.S. Navy.", "The body of the aircraft contributes significantly to overall lift and so the Tomcat possesses a lower wing loading than its wing area would suggest.", "When carrying four Phoenix missiles or other heavy stores between the engines this advantage is lost and maneuverability is reduced in those configurations.alt=Rear view of stationary aircraftAilerons are not fitted, with roll control being provided by wing-mounted spoilers at low speed (which are disabled if the sweep angle exceeds 57°), and by differential operation of the all-moving tailerons at high speed.", "Full-span slats and flaps are used to increase lift both for landing and combat, with slats being set at 17° for landing and 7° for combat, while flaps are set at 35° for landing and 10° for combat.", "An air bag fills up the space occupied by the swept-back wing when the wing is in the forward position and a flexible fairing on top of the wing smooths out the shape transition between the fuselage and top wing area.", "The twin tail layout helps in maneuvers at high angle of attack (AoA) while reducing the height of the aircraft to fit within the limited roof clearance of hangars aboard aircraft carriers.The wings have a two-spar structure with integral fuel tanks.", "Around 25% of the structure is made of titanium, including the wing box, wing pivots, and upper and lower wing skins; this is a light, rigid, and strong material.", "Electron beam welding was used in the construction of the titanium parts.", "The F-14 was designed for maneuver loads of 7.5 g, but this was usually limited to 6.5 g in the fleet to extend the aircraft's service life.Two triangular shaped retractable surfaces, called glove vanes, were originally mounted in the forward part of the wing glove, and could be automatically extended by the flight control system at high Mach numbers.", "They were used to generate additional lift (force) ahead of the aircraft's center of gravity, thus helping to compensate for mach tuck at supersonic speeds.", "Automatically deployed at above Mach 1.4, they allowed the F-14 to pull 7.5 g at Mach 2 and could be manually extended with wings swept full aft.", "They were later disabled, however, owing to their additional weight and complexity.", "The air brakes consist of top-and-bottom extendable surfaces at the rearmost portion of the fuselage, between the engine nacelles.", "The bottom surface is split into left and right halves; the tailhook hangs between the two-halves, an arrangement sometimes called the \"castor tail\".===Engines===The F-14A was initially equipped with two Pratt & Whitney TF30-P-412A (or JTF10A) augmented turbofan engines, each rated at 20,900 lb (93 kN) of static uninstalled thrust, which enabled the aircraft to attain a maximum speed of Mach 2.34.The F-14 would normally fly at a cruising speed for reduced fuel consumption, which was important for conducting lengthy patrol missions.", "The rectangular air inlets for the engines were equipped with movable ramps and bleed doors to meet the different airflow requirements of the engine from take-off to maximum supersonic speed.", "Variable nozzles were also fitted to the engine's exhaust.", "Late production F-14A had the improved TF30-P-414A engines.", "The Navy had originally planned to replace the TF30 with the Pratt & Whitney F401, the naval variant of the F-15's F100 engine, but this plan was ultimately canceled due to costs and reliability problems.An F-14D prepares to refuel with probe extended.The performance of the TF30 engine became an object of criticism.", "John Lehman, Secretary of the Navy in the 1980s, told the U.S. Congress that the TF30/F-14 combination was \"probably the worst engine/airframe mismatch we have had in years\" and that the TF30 was \"a terrible engine\"; 28% of all F-14 accidents were attributed to the engine.", "A high frequency of turbine blade failures led to the reinforcement of the entire engine bay to limit damage from such failures.", "The engines also had proved to be extremely susceptible to compressor stalls especially at high AoA and during rapid throttle transients or above , which could easily result in loss of control, severe yaw oscillations, and could lead to an unrecoverable flat spin.", "At specific altitudes, exhaust produced by missile launches could cause an engine compressor stall.", "This led to the development of a bleed system that temporarily blocks the frontal intake ramp and reduces engine power during missile launch.The upgraded F-14A+, later redesignated F-14B, and F-14D were equipped with the General Electric F110-GE-400.The F110 provided a significant increase in thrust, with a static uninstalled thrust of ; installed thrust is with afterburner at sea level, which rose to at Mach 0.9.The increased thrust gave the Tomcat a better than 1:1 thrust-to-weight ratio at low fuel quantities, and the rate of climb was increased by 61%.", "The basic engine thrust without afterburner was powerful enough for carrier launches.", "While this did result in fuel savings, the main reason not to use afterburner during carrier launches was that if an engine failed the F110's thrust in full afterburner would produce a yawing moment too abruptly for the pilot to correct.", "Thus the launch of an F-14B or F-14D with afterburner was rare, while the F-14A required full afterburner unless very lightly loaded.", "The F110 was also more efficient, allowing the Tomcat to cruise comfortably above , which increased its range and survivability as well as endurance for time on station.", "In the overland attack role, this gave the F-14B and F-14D 60% more striking range or one-third more time on station.", "The F-14B arrived in time to participate in Desert Storm.With the TF30, the F-14's overall thrust-to-weight ratio at maximum takeoff weight is around 0.56, considerably less than the F-15A's ratio of 0.85; when fitted with the F110 engine, an improved thrust-to-weight ratio of 0.73 at maximum weight and 0.88 at normal takeoff weight was achieved.", "Despite having large differences in static thrust, the TF30-equipped F-14A and the F110-equipped F-14B and F-14D were rated at the same top speed.In 1996, two F110-equipped Tomcat crashed after an afterburner failure.", "In the second crash, lighting the afterburner damaged the afterburner can's lining and led to an explosion.", "The Navy prohibited the use of afterburner on the F-14A+/B/D below 10,000 feet until GE could redesign the afterburners, a process that took over a year to complete.===Avionics and flight controls===The cockpit has two seats, arranged in tandem, outfitted with Martin-Baker GRU-7A rocket-propelled ejection seats, rated from zero altitude and zero airspeed up to 450 knots.", "The canopy is spacious, and fitted with four mirrors to effectively provide all-round visibility.", "Only the pilot has flight controls; the flight instruments themselves are of a hybrid analog-digital nature.", "The cockpit also features a head-up display (HUD) to show primarily navigational information; several other avionics systems such as communications and direction-finders are integrated into the AWG-9 radar's display.", "A feature of the F-14 is its Central Air Data Computer (CADC), designed by Garrett AiResearch, that forms the onboard integrated flight control system.", "It uses a MOSFET-based Large-Scale Integration chipset.F-14 with landing gear deployedThe aircraft's large nose contains a two-person crew and several bulky avionics systems.", "The main element is the Hughes AN/AWG-9 X band radar; the antenna is a -wide planar array, and has integrated Identification friend or foe antennas.", "The AWG-9 has several search and tracking modes, such as Track while scan (TWS), Range-While-Search (RWS), Pulse-Doppler Single-Target Track (PDSTT), and Jam Angle Track (JAT); a maximum of 24 targets can be tracked simultaneously, and six can be engaged in TWS mode up to around .", "Cruise missiles are also possible targets with the AWG-9, which can lock onto and track small objects even at low altitude when in Pulse-Doppler mode.", "For the F-14D, the AWG-9 was replaced by the upgraded APG-71 radar.", "The Joint Tactical Information Distribution System (JTIDS)/Link 16 for data communications was added later on.The F-14 also features electronic countermeasures (ECM) and radar warning receiver (RWR) systems, chaff/flare dispensers, fighter-to-fighter data link, and a precise inertial navigation system.", "The early navigation system was inertial-based; point-of-origin coordinates were programmed into a navigation computer and gyroscopes would track the aircraft's every motion to calculate distance and direction from that starting point.", "Global Positioning System later was integrated to provide more precise navigation and redundancy in case either system failed.", "The chaff/flare dispensers are located on the underside of the fuselage and on the tail.", "The F-14 was initially equipped with the AN/ALR-45/50 RWR system, while later production aircraft were equipped with the AN/ALR-67; the RWR system consists of several antennas on the aircraft's fuselage, which can roughly calculate both direction and distance of enemy radar users; it can also differentiate between search radar, tracking radar, and missile-homing radar.Featured in the sensor suite was the AN/ALR-23, an infrared search and track (IRST) sensor using indium antimonide detectors, mounted under the nose; however the system was unreliable and was replaced by an optical system, Northrop's AAX-1, also designated TCS (TV Camera Set).", "The AAX-1 helps pilots visually identify and track aircraft, .", "The radar and the AAX-1 are linked, allowing the one detector to follow the direction of the other.", "A dual infrared/optical detection system was adopted on the later F-14D, with the new AN/AAS-42 IRST and the TCS placed side-by-side.===Armament===F-14 Tomcat carrying an AIM-120 AMRAAM during a 1982 testThe F-14 was designed to combat highly maneuverable aircraft as well as the Soviet anti-ship cruise missile and bomber (Tupolev Tu-16, Tupolev Tu-22, Tupolev Tu-22M) threats.", "The Tomcat was to be a platform for the AIM-54 Phoenix, but unlike the canceled F-111B, it could also engage medium- and short-range threats with other weapons.", "The F-14 is an air superiority fighter, not just a long-range interceptor aircraft.", "Over of stores can be carried for combat missions on several hardpoints under the fuselage and under the wing gloves.", "Commonly, this means a maximum of four Phoenixes or Sparrows on the belly stations, two Phoenixes/Sparrows on the wing hardpoints, and two Sidewinders on the wing glove hardpoints.", "The F-14 is also fitted with an internal 20 mm M61 Vulcan rotary cannon.", "The Tomcat could also support MK-80 - MK-84 GBUs on its hardpoints.", "While in this configuration it was known to pilots as a \"Bombcat\".Operationally, the capability to hold up to six Phoenix missiles was never used, although early testing was conducted; there was never a threat requirement to engage six hostile targets simultaneously and the load was too heavy to safely recover aboard an aircraft carrier in the event that the missiles were not fired.", "During the height of Cold War operations in the late 1970s and 1980s, the typical weapon loadout on carrier-deployed F-14s was usually two AIM-54 Phoenixes, augmented by two AIM-9 Sidewinders, three AIM-7 Sparrows, a full loadout of 20 mm ammunition and two drop tanks.", "The Phoenix missile was used twice in combat by the U.S. Navy, both over Iraq in 1999, but the missiles did not score any kills.", "According to retired RIO Dave Baranek, the first two launch failures, on January 5, 1999, occurred when two F-14D Super Tomcats, carrying AIM-54Cs, fired two Phoenix missiles at a pair of MiG-23 jets.", "The missiles' rocket motors did not ignite because they were improperly armed prior to launch from the carrier.", "However, as two F/A-18s chased the two MiG-23s, one MiG-23 ran out of fuel and crashed, killing the pilot.", "The US Navy did not claim a kill, but Captain James T. Knight, commander of CVW-11, said \"Screw him...a kill is a kill.\"", "On September 14, 1999, an F-14D assigned to CVW-2 aboard the USS Constellation fired an AIM-54C missile at a MiG-23 at very long range.", "The MiG-23 quickly turned and fled, and was able to outrun the missile.", "Lieutenant Commander Coby \"Coach\" Loessberg, the Super Tomcat's pilot, commented afterward that had the Tomcat been closer to the center of the envelope, at optimal speed and altitude, a kill would have been more likely.Two Iranian Tomcats equipped with multiple missiles, , in the midst of a project to adapt I-Hawk surface-to-air missiles for F-14sIran made use of the Phoenix system, claiming dozens of kills with it during the 1980–1988 Iran–Iraq War.", "Due to the shortage of air-to-air missiles as a result of sanctions, Iran tried to use other missiles on the Tomcat.", "It attempted to integrate the Russian R-27R \"Alamo\" BVR missile, but was apparently unsuccessful.", "In 1985, Iran started Project Sky Hawk, attempting to adapt I-Hawk surface-to-air missiles, which Iran had in its inventory, for F-14s.", "The modified missiles were successfully tested in 1986 and one or two were used in combat, but the project was abandoned due to guidance problems." ], [ "Operational history", "===United States===VF-84 Jolly Rogers, in a 1970s color scheme, circa 1978The F-14 began replacing the F-4 Phantom II in U.S. Navy service starting in September 1974 with squadrons VF-1 \"Wolfpack\" and VF-2 \"Bounty Hunters\" aboard and participated in the American withdrawal from Saigon.", "The F-14 had its first kills in U.S. Navy service on 19 August 1981 over the Gulf of Sidra in what is known as the Gulf of Sidra incident.", "In that engagement, two F-14s from VF-41 Black Aces were engaged by two Libyan Su-22 \"Fitters\".", "The F-14s evaded the Libyan missile and returned fire, downing both Libyan aircraft with AIM-9L Sidewinders.", "U.S. Navy F-14s once again were pitted against Libyan aircraft on 4 January 1989, when two F-14s from VF-32 shot down two Libyan MiG-23 \"Floggers\" over the Gulf of Sidra in a second Gulf of Sidra incident.Its first sustained combat use was as a photo reconnaissance platform.", "The Tomcat was selected to inherit the reconnaissance mission upon the departure of the dedicated North American RA-5C Vigilante and Vought RF-8G Crusaders from the fleet.", "A large pod called the Tactical Airborne Reconnaissance Pod System (TARPS) was developed and fielded on the Tomcat in 1981.With the retirement of the last RF-8G Crusaders in 1982, TARPS F-14s became the U.S. Navy's primary tactical reconnaissance system.", "One of two Tomcat squadrons per airwing was designated as a TARPS unit and received 3 TARPS capable aircraft.An F-14A from VF-114 intercepting a Soviet Tu-95RT \"Bear-D\" maritime reconnaissance aircraftWhile the Tomcat was being used by Iran in combat against Iraq in its intended air superiority mission in the early 1980s, the U.S. Navy found itself flying regular daily combat missions over Lebanon to photograph activity in the Bekaa Valley.", "At the time, the Tomcat had been thought too large and vulnerable to be used over land, but the need for imagery was so great that Tomcat aircrews developed high-speed medium altitude tactics to deal with considerable AAA and SA-7 SAM threat in the Bekaa area.", "The first exposure of a Navy Tomcat to an SA-2 missile was over Somalia in April 1983 when a local battery was unaware of two Tomcats scheduled for a TARPS mission in a prelude to an upcoming international exercise in the vicinity of Berbera.", "An SA-2 was fired at the second Tomcat while conducting mapping profile at max conserve setting.", "The Tomcat aircrews spotted the missile launch and dove for the deck thereby evading it without damage.", "The unexpected demand for combat TARPS laid the way for high altitude sensors such as the KA-93 Long Range Optics (LOROP) to be rapidly procured for the Tomcat as well as an Expanded Chaff Adapter (ECA) to be incorporated in an AIM-54 Phoenix Rail.", "Commercial \"fuzz buster\" type radar detectors were also procured and mounted in pairs in the forward cockpit as a stop gap solution to detect SAM radars such as the SA-6.The ultimate solution was an upgrade to the ALR-67 then being developed, but it would not be ready until the advent of the F-14A+ later in the 1980s.An F-14A of VF-32 during Operation Desert Storm with a KC-135 Stratotanker and two EA-6B Prowlers in the background \|alt=Portrait photography of four aircraft overflying orange desert and almost-flat terrain; horizon is blurred.", "Leading is black aircraft, followed by two single-engine jet aircraft, the one closer to camera being refueled by leading jet via a stiff hose connecting the two.", "Closest jet to camera is pale gray, has two engines and vertical fins, flying with wings unswept.The participation of the F-14 in the 1991 Operation Desert Storm consisted of Combat Air Patrol (CAP) over the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf and overland missions consisting of strike escort and reconnaissance.", "Until the waning days of Desert Storm, in-country air superiority was tasked to USAF F-15 Eagles due to the way the Air Tasking Orders (ATO) delegated primary overland CAP stations to the F-15.The governing Rules of Engagement (ROE) also dictated a strict Identification Friend or Foe (IFF) requirement when employing Beyond Visual Range weapons such as the AIM-7 Sparrow and particularly the AIM-54 Phoenix.", "This hampered the Tomcat from using its most powerful weapon.", "Furthermore, the powerful emissions from the AWG-9 radar are detectable at great range with a radar warning receiver.", "Iraqi fighters routinely retreated as soon as the Tomcats \"lit them up\" with the AWG-9.The U.S. Navy suffered its only F-14 loss from enemy action on 21 January 1991 when BuNo 161430, an F-14A upgraded to an F-14A+, from VF-103 was shot down by an SA-2 surface-to-air missile while on an escort mission near Al Asad airbase in Iraq.", "Both crew members survived ejection with the pilot being rescued by USAF Special Operation Forces and the RIO being captured by Iraqi troops as a POW until the end of the war.", "An aircraft from VF-1 also achieved the F-14's final kill in US service, a Mi-8 \"Hip\" helicopter, with an AIM-9 Sidewinder.Navy F-14D flying over the skies of Afghanistan on a precision bombing mission in November 2001In 1995, F-14s from VF-14 and VF-41 participated in Operation Deliberate Force as well as Operation Allied Force in 1999, and in 1998, VF-32 and VF-213 participated in Operation Desert Fox.", "On 15 February 2001, the Joint Direct Attack Munition or JDAM was added to the Tomcat's arsenal.", "On 7 October 2001, F-14s would lead some of the first strikes into Afghanistan marking the start of Operation Enduring Freedom and the first F-14 drop of a JDAM occurred on 11 March 2002.F-14s from VF-2, VF-31, VF-32, VF-154, and VF-213 would also participate in Operation Iraqi Freedom.", "The F-14Ds of VF-2, VF-31, and VF-213 obtained JDAM capability in March 2003.On 10 December 2005, the F-14Ds of VF-31 and VF-213 were upgraded with a ROVER III downlink for transmitting images to a ground Forward Air Controller (FAC).", "The Navy decided to retire the F-14 with the F/A-18E/F Super Hornet filling the roles of fleet defense and strike formerly filled by the F-14.The last F-14 launch from a carrier, USS ''Theodore Roosevelt'', on 28 July 2006The last American F-14 combat mission was completed on 8 February 2006, when a pair of Tomcats landed aboard after one dropped a bomb over Iraq.", "During their final deployment with ''Theodore Roosevelt'', VF-31 and VF-213 collectively completed 1,163 combat sorties totaling 6,876 flight hours, and dropped of ordnance during reconnaissance, surveillance, and close air support missions in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom.", "USS ''Theodore Roosevelt'' launched an F-14D, of VF-31, for the last time on 28 July 2006; piloted by Lt. Blake Coleman and Lt. Cmdr Dave Lauderbaugh as RIO.", "The last two F-14 squadrons, the VF-31 Tomcatters and the VF-213 Black Lions conducted their last fly-in at Naval Air Station Oceana on 10 March 2006.The official final flight retirement ceremony was on 22 September 2006 at Naval Air Station Oceana and was flown by Lt. Cmdr.", "Chris Richard and Lt. Mike Petronis as RIO in a backup F-14 after the primary aircraft experienced mechanical problems.", "The actual last flight of an F-14 in U.S. service took place 4 October 2006, when an F-14D of VF-31 was ferried from NAS Oceana to Republic Airport on Long Island, New York.", "The remaining intact F-14 aircraft in the U.S. were flown to and stored at the 309th Aerospace Maintenance and Regeneration Group \"Boneyard\", at Davis-Monthan Air Force Base, Arizona; in 2007 the U.S. Navy announced plans to shred the remaining F-14s to prevent any components from being acquired by Iran.", "In August 2009, the 309th AMARG stated that the last aircraft were taken to HVF West, Tucson, Arizona for shredding.", "At that time only 11 F-14s remained in desert storage.===Iran===Although attempts had been made to sell the Tomcat to the air forces of Canada, Germany, and Japan, the Imperial Iranian Air Force (IIAF) would ultimately be the sole foreign customer for the Tomcat.", "During the reign of the last Shah of Iran, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, in the early 1970s, the IIAF was searching for an advanced fighter, specifically one capable of intercepting Soviet MiG-25 reconnaissance flights.", "After a visit of U.S. President Richard Nixon to Pahlavi Iran in 1972, during which Iran was offered the latest in American military technology, the IIAF selected and initiated acquisition of the F-14 Tomcat, but offered McDonnell Douglas the chance to demonstrate its F-15 Eagle.", "The US Navy and Grumman Corporation arranged competitive demonstrations of the Eagle and the Tomcat at Andrews AFB for the Shah and high-ranking officers, and in January 1974 Iran placed an order for 30 F-14s and 424 AIM-54 Phoenix missiles, initiating Project ''Persian King'', worth US$300 million.", "A few months later, this order was increased to a total of 80 Tomcats and 714 Phoenix missiles as well as spare parts and replacement engines for 10 years, complete armament package, and support infrastructure (including construction of the Khatami Air Base near Isfahan).The first F-14 arrived in January 1976, modified only by the removal of classified avionics components, but fitted with the TF-30-414 engines.", "The following year 12 more were delivered.", "Meanwhile, training of the first groups of Iranian crews by the U.S. Navy was underway in the US; one of these conducted a successful shoot-down with a Phoenix missile of a target drone flying at .Following the overthrow of the Shah in 1979, the air force was renamed the Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force (IRIAF) and the post-revolution Interim Government of Iran canceled most Western arms orders.", "In 1980, an Iranian F-14 shot down an Iraqi Mil Mi-25 helicopter for its first air-to-air kill during the Iran–Iraq War (1980–1988).", "According to research by Tom Cooper, Iranian F-14s scored at least 50 air-to-air victories in the first six months of the war against Iraqi MiG-21s, MiG-23s and some Su-20s/22s.", "During the same period, only one Iranian F-14 suffered damage after being hit by debris from a nearby MiG-21 that exploded.Iranian Tomcats were originally used as an early-warning platform assisting other less-sophisticated aircraft with targeting and defense.", "They were also crucial to the defense of areas deemed vital by the Iranian government, such as oil terminals on Kharg Island and industrial infrastructure in the capital Tehran.", "Many of these patrols had the support of Boeing 707-3J9C in-flight refueling tankers.", "As fighting escalated between 1982 and 1986, the F-14s gradually became more involved in the battle.", "They performed well, but their primary role was to intimidate the Iraqi Air Force and avoid heavy engagement to protect the fleet's numbers.", "Their presence was often enough to drive away opposing Iraqi fighters.", "The precision and effectiveness of the Tomcat's AWG-9 weapons system and AIM-54A Phoenix long-range air-to-air missiles enabled the F-14 to maintain air superiority.", "In December 1980, an Iraqi MiG-21bis accounted for the only confirmed kill of an F-14 by that type of aircraft.", "On 11 August 1984, a MiG-23ML shot down an F-14A using an R-60 missile.", "On 2 September 1986, a MiG-23ML using an R-24T missile mistakenly shot down an F-14 that was defecting to Iraq.", "On 17 January 1987, another Iranian F-14A was shot down; according to some sources it was shot down by a MiG-23ML.", "According to the latest data, the F-14A, which was shot down on 17 January, was destroyed by an R-40 missile fired by an Iraqi MiG-25PDS (pilot Captain Adnan Sae’ed), and the MiG-23 pilot did not claim any victory.Iranian F-14 pilots standing in front of an Imperial Iranian Air Force F-14Iraq also obtained Mirage F.1EQ fighters from France in 1981, armed with Super530F and Magic Mk.2 air-to-air missiles.", "The Mirage F.1 fighters were eventually responsible for four confirmed F-14 kills.", "The IRIAF attempted to keep 60 F-14s operational throughout the war, but reports indicate this number was reduced to 30 by 1986 with only half fully mission-capable.Based on research by Tom Cooper and Farzad Bishop, Iran claimed their F-14s shot down at least 160 Iraqi aircraft during the Iran–Iraq War, including 58 MiG-23s (15 of these are confirmed according to Cooper), 33 Mirage F1s, 23 MiG-21s, 23 Su-20s/22s, nine MiG-25s (one of these are confirmed according to Iraqi sources), five Tu-22s, two MiG-27s, one Mil Mi-24, one Dassault Mirage 5, one B-6D, one Aérospatiale Super Frelon, and two unidentified aircraft.", "Despite the circumstances the F-14s and their crews faced during the war against Iraq – lacking support from AWACS, AEW aircraft, and Ground Control Intercept (GCI) – the F-14 proved to be successful in combat.", "It achieved this in the midst of a confrontation with an enemy that was constantly upgrading its capabilities and receiving support from three major countries – France, the US, and the USSR.", "Part of the success is attributed to the resilient Iranian economy and IRIAF personnel.While Iraq's army claimed it shot down more than 70 F-14s, the Foreign Broadcast Information System in Washington DC estimated that Iran lost 12 to 16 F-14s during the war.", "Cooper writes three F-14s were shot down by Iraqi pilots and four by Iranian surface-to-air missiles (SAM).", "Two more Tomcats were lost in unknown circumstances during the battle, and seven crashed due to technical failure or accidents.", "During the war, the Iranian Air Force F-14s suffered ten confirmed losses, one lost due to engine stall, one in unknown conditions, two by Iranian HAWK SAMs, two by MIG-23s and four were shot down by Mirage F-1s.", "There are also unconfirmed reports of the downing of 10 more Tomcats.On 31 August 1986, an Iranian F-14A armed with at least one AIM-54A missile defected to Iraq.", "Then again on 2 September 1986 another Iranian F-14A defected to Iraq.", "In addition, one or more of Iran's F-14A was delivered to the Soviet Union in exchange for technical assistance; at least one of its crew defected to the Soviet Union.On 24 July 2002, an Iranian F-14A confronted two Azerbaijani MiG-25s that were threatening an Iranian P-3F, securing a radar lock on one of the MiGs, which then turned away, during tensions over attempts by Azerbaijan to survey for oil in Iranian waters in the Caspian Sea.Iran had an estimated 44 F-14s in 2009 according to Combat Aircraft.", "''Aviation Week'' estimated it had 19 operational F-14s in January 2013, and FlightGlobal estimated that 28 were in service in 2014.Formation flight of Iranian Tomcats, 2008Following the US Navy's retirement of its Tomcats in 2006, Iran sought to purchase spare parts for its aircraft.", "In January 2007, the U.S. Department of Defense announced that sales of spare F-14 parts would be suspended over concerns of the parts ending up in Iran.", "In July 2007, the remaining American F-14s were shredded to ensure that any parts could not be acquired.", "Despite these measures, Iran managed to significantly increase its stocks of spare parts, increasing the number of airworthy Tomcats, although as it did not manage to obtain spare parts for the aircraft's weapon systems, the number of combat ready Tomcats was still low (seven in 2008).", "In 2010, Iran requested that the U.S. deliver the 80th F-14 that it had purchased in 1974 but never received due to the Islamic Revolution.", "In October 2010, an Iranian Air Force commander claimed that the country overhauls and optimizes different types of military aircraft, mentioning their Air Force has installed Iran-made radar systems on the F-14.In 2012, the Iranian Air Force's Mehrabad Overhaul Center delivered an F-14 with upgraded weapon systems with locally sourced components, designated F-14AM.", "Shortages of Phoenix missiles led to attempts to integrate the Russian R-27 semi-active radar-guided missile, but these proved unsuccessful.", "An alternative was the use of modified MIM-23 Hawk missiles to replace the Tomcat's Phoenixes and Sparrows, but as the Tomcat could only carry two Hawks, this project was also abandoned, and the Fakour-90 missile, which used the guidance system of the Hawk packaged into the airframe of the Phoenix, launched.", "Pre-production Fakour-90s were delivered in 2017, and a production order for 100 missiles (now designated AIM-23B) was placed in 2018, intending to replace the F-14s AIM-7E Sparrow missiles.On 26 January 2012, an Iranian F-14 crashed three minutes after takeoff.", "Both crew members were killed.In November 2015, Iranian F-14s were reported flying escort for Russian Tu-95, Tu-160 and Tu-22M bombers on air strikes in Syria against the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant.On 14 May 2019, an Iranian F-14 crashed during landing at Isfahan-Shahid Beheshti Airport.", "Both crew members ejected and survived.===Notable F-14 crew members===The following is a list of notable airmen who have flown the F-14 throughout its service history.====Iran====Iranian ace Jalil Zandi is credited with shooting down eleven Iraqi aircraft during the Iran–Iraq War, making him the highest-scoring F-14 pilot.", "* Assadollah Adeli – IRIAF ace pilot credited with five aerial victories.", "* Fereidoun Ali-Mazandarani – IRIAF ace pilot with an estimated 9 to 11 victories.", "* Fazlollah Javidnia – IRIAF ace pilot with 11 confirmed and 2 probably victories.", "* Jalil Zandi – IRIAF ace pilot and highest-scoring F-14 pilot.", "Credited with eleven confirmed kills during the Iran-Iraq War.====United States====USS ''America'' in 1988* Scott Altman – former NASA astronaut and commander of Space Shuttle missions STS-109 (2002) and STS-125 (2009).", "Altman deployed twice on the USS ''Carl Vinson'' as an F-14 pilot of VF-51 from 1984 to 1987 and worked as a test pilot for F-14 test programs, including the first deployment of the F-14D variant in 1992, before being selected for the NASA astronaut program.", "He also participated in the filming of ''Top Gun'' as a stunt pilot, most notably the tower flyby stunt.", "* Walter E. Carter Jr. – retired Navy vice admiral, 62nd superintendent of the U.S.", "Naval Academy, and current president of the Ohio State University.", "Carter accumulated 6,150 flight hours and 2,016 carrier-arrested landings as a RIO on the F-4, F-14, and F/A-18.He transitioned to the F-14 in 1986 through VF-124 in NAS Miramar while simultaneously taking instructor duty and subsequently deployed with VF-21 on the USS ''Independence'' during the Gulf War.", "He later assumed command of VF-14 in 1998 and led the squadron in the completion of 550 combat missions during Operation Allied Force.", "* Donnie Cochran – first African-American member of the Blue Angels flight demonstration squadron.", "Cochran made two deployments on the USS ''Enterprise'' as an F-14 pilot with VF-213.He later assumed command of VF-1 from 1991 until its disestablishment in 1993 and VF-111 from 1993 to 1994.", "* Joe F. Edwards Jr. – former NASA astronaut.", "Edwards was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross for landing a heavily damaged F-14 on the USS ''Dwight D. Eisenhower'' in 1991.", "* Kara Hultgreen – one of the first female carrier-based Naval aviators.", "Hultgreen deployed with VF-213 on the USS ''Abraham Lincoln'' and tragically became the first female fighter pilot in the U.S. military to die in a crash when her F-14 crashed into the sea on approach to the ''Lincoln'' in 1994.", "* James W. Huston – ''New York Times'' best-selling author.", "Huston flew as a RIO in many of the F-14 flight sequences in the 1980 movie ''The Final Countdown'' while touring with VF-84 on the USS ''Nimitz''.", "* Scott Kelly – former astronaut who commanded Expeditions 26, 45, and 46 of the International Space Station (ISS) and Space Shuttle mission STS-118 (2007).", "Kelly trained on the F-14 with VF-101 and deployed with VF-143 on the USS ''Dwight D. Eisenhower'' upon completion of his training in September 1990.He also proposed a digital flight control system designed to prevent accidents similar to that of Kara Hultgreen's.", "* Carey Lohrenz – one of the first fully qualified female naval aviators to fly the F-14.Lohrenz deployed with VF-213 on the USS ''Abraham Lincoln'' in the mid-1990s before resigning from the Navy in 1999 and beginning a career as a leadership expert and professional speaker.", "* Dale \"Snort\" Snodgrass – \"highest time Tomcat pilot\" with more than 4,800 hours and 1,200 carrier landings with the type.", "* Robert \"Rat\" Willard – former commander of the U.S. Pacific Fleet.", "As a Navy pilot, Willard frequently flew F-14s while deployed to the Western Pacific Ocean and North Arabian Sea before heading to the Navy Fighter Weapons School (TOPGUN) and serving as the operations officer and executive officer.", "He also worked on the movie ''Top Gun'' as an aerial coordinator and later assumed command of VF-51, the squadron that provided F-14s for the movie, in the late 1980s.", "* James A. Winnefeld Jr. – current chair of the President's Intelligence Advisory Board.", "During his Navy career, Winnefeld deployed on the USS ''Constellation'' with VF-24 and the USS ''Ranger'' with VF-1 in the 1980s before becoming the commanding officer (CO) of VF-211." ], [ "Variants", "A total of 712 F-14s were built from 1969 to 1991.F-14 assembly and test flights were performed at Grumman's plant in Calverton on Long Island, New York.", "Grumman facility at nearby Bethpage, New York was directly involved in F-14 manufacturing and was home to its engineers.", "The airframes were partially assembled in Bethpage and then shipped to Calverton for final assembly.", "Various tests were also performed at the Bethpage Plant.", "Around 34 F-14s have been lost over thirty years of service.===F-14A===The F-14A was the initial two-seat, twin-engine, all-weather interceptor fighter variant for the U.S. Navy.", "It first flew on 21 December 1970.The first 12 F-14As were prototype versions (sometimes called YF-14As).", "Modifications late in its service life added precision strike munitions to its armament.", "The U.S. Navy received 478 F-14A aircraft and 79 were received by Iran.", "The final 102 F-14As were delivered with improved Pratt & Whitney TF30-P-414A engines.", "Additionally, an 80th F-14A was manufactured for Iran, but was delivered to the U.S. Navy.Throughout its production run, the F-14A underwent numerous changes which were divided into blocks labelled in multiples of 5:F-14A-60 (BuNo 158612 - 158619), F-14A-65 (BuNo 158620 - 158637), F-14A-70 (BuNo 158978 - 159006), F-14A-75 (BuNo 159007 - 159025) – early beaver tail with dielectric fairings, IRST chin pod with ALQ-100 antenna, 7-holed gun ventF-14A-75/80 (BuNo 159421 - 159429), F-14A-80 (BuNo 159430 - 159468) – dielectric fairings removed from beaver tailF-14A-85 (BuNo BuNo 159588 - 159637) – AN/ARC-159 UHF radio replaced AN/ARC-51A radio, 2-holed gun vent first installed during construction of airframe BuNos.", "159612 - 159615F-14A-90 (BuNo 159825 - 159874), F-14A-95 (BuNo 160379 - 160414) – small angle of attack probe added to nose radome, automated maneuvering flapsF-14A-100 (BuNo 160652 - 160696), F-14A-105 (BuNo 160887 - 160937) – slip clutch and coupler installation added to the flap/slat system, fuel system improvements, improved AN/AWG-9, anti-corrosion measures (i.e.", "seals, baffles, drain plugs)F-14A-110 (BuNo 161138 - 161168), F-14A-115 (BuNo 161270 - 161299) – AN/ALQ antenna added to the beaver tail and above and below wing glovesF-14A-120 (BuNo 161416 - 161445), F-14A-125 (BuNo 161597 - 161626), F-14A-130 (BuNo 161850 - 161873), F-14A-135 (BuNo 162588 - 162611) – ECM blisters under glove vanes and on the tip of the beavertailF-14A-140 (BuNo 162688 - 162711) – TCS chin pod with ALQ-100 antenna===F-14B===alt=The F-14 received its first of many major upgrades in March 1987 with the F-14A Plus (or F-14A+).", "The F-14A's TF30 engine was replaced with the improved F110-GE-400 engine.", "The F-14A+ also received the state-of-the-art ALR-67 Radar Homing and Warning (RHAW) system.", "Many of the avionics components, as well as the AWG-9 radar, were retained.", "The F-14A+ was later redesignated F-14B on 1 May 1991.A total of 38 new aircraft were manufactured and 43 F-14A were upgraded into B variants.", "In the late 1990s, 81 F-14Bs were upgraded to extend airframe life and improve offensive and defensive avionics systems.", "The modified aircraft became known as ''F-14B (Upgrade)''.===F-14D===An upgraded F-14D(R) Tomcat with the ROVER transmit antenna circled with USS ''Theodore Roosevelt'' in the background \|alt= The final variant of the F-14 was the F-14D Super Tomcat, first delivered in 1991.As with the F-14B, the F-14D was equipped with the F110-GE-400 engines.", "It also included newer digital avionics systems including a glass cockpit and replaced the AWG-9 with the newer AN/APG-71 radar.", "Other systems included the Airborne Self Protection Jammer (ASPJ), Joint Tactical Information Distribution System (JTIDS), SJU-17(V) Naval Aircrew Common Ejection Seats (NACES), and Infrared search and track (IRST).", "A total of 37 new aircraft were completed, and 18 F-14A models were upgraded to D-models, designated F-14D(R) for a rebuild.", "Starting in 2005, some F-14Ds received the ROVER III upgrade.===Projected variants===A prototype F-14B test aircraft with F401 engines installedWhen the F-14 was still in development, Grumman had planned an upgrade path for the Tomcat's propulsion and avionics.", "The first ''F-14B'' was to be an improved version of the F-14A with more powerful \"Advanced Technology Engine\" Pratt & Whitney F401 turbofans; the F-14B prototype equipped with the F401 first flew in 1973.The ''F-14C'' was a projected variant of this initial F-14B with advanced multi-mission avionics.", "Grumman also offered an interceptor version of the F-14B in response to the U.S. Air Force's Improved Manned Interceptor Program as one of the contenders to replace the Convair F-106 Delta Dart as an Aerospace Defense Command interceptor in the 1970s.", "The F-14 ADC interceptor variant was to be armed with a GAU-7/A 25mm caseless cannon and powered by F100 turbofans.", "The F-14B program was terminated in April 1974.The actual F-14B and D upgrades that went into service did somewhat follow the initially projected ''B'' and ''C'' upgrade path in practice, although it was much more delayed and with fewer airframes.alt=In the early 1990s, Grumman proposed a few improved ''Super Tomcat'' versions.", "The first was the ''Quickstrike'', which would have been an F-14D with navigational and targeting pods, additional attach points for weapons, and added ground attack capabilities to its radar, turning the Tomcat into a multirole strike fighter.", "The Quickstrike was to fill the role of the A-6 Intruder after it was retired.", "This was not considered enough of an improvement by Congress, so the company shifted to the ''Super Tomcat 21'' (ST-21) proposed design.", "The ST-21 was a proposed lower-cost alternative to the Navy Advanced Tactical Fighter (NATF), and would mostly have the same shape and body as the Tomcat, and an upgraded AN/APG-71 radar.", "The improved General Electric F110-GE-429 engines were to provide a supercruise speed of Mach 1.3 and featured thrust vectoring nozzles.", "The version would have reshaped leading-edge gloves, increased fuel capacity and modified control surfaces for improved takeoffs and lower landing approach speed.", "The ''Attack Super Tomcat 21'' (AST-21) version was the last proposed Super Tomcat design and was meant to be a more attack-oriented version of the ST-21 with possibly an active electronically scanned array (AESA) radar from the canceled A-12 attack aircraft.", "The (A)ST-21 was to be able to be rebuilt from existing F-14 airframes.The last \"Tomcat\" variant was the ''ASF-14'' (Advanced Strike Fighter-14), Grumman's replacement for the NATF concept.", "By all accounts, it would not be even remotely related to the previous Tomcats save in appearance, incorporating the new technology and design know-how from the Advanced Tactical Fighter (ATF) and Advanced Tactical Aircraft (ATA) programs.", "The ASF-14 would have been a new-build aircraft with considerably greater development costs; however, its projected capabilities were not that much better than that of the (A)ST-21 variants.", "In the end, the proposed Super Tomcat variants were considered to be too costly and also faced stiff political opposition from the Secretary of Defense Dick Cheney.", "The Navy decided to pursue the cheaper F/A-18E/F Super Hornet to fill the fighter-attack or strike fighter role." ], [ "Operators", "F-14 Tomcat operators as of 2014 (former operators in red)Mehrabad, IranF-14A Tomcat of NFWS (TOPGUN) NAS Miramar c. 1993Front view of an F-14A at Yokota Air Base, Tokyo, Japan, 2003USS ''Hornet'' Museum in Alameda, California, 2009;* Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force 72nd TFS: F-14A, 1979–1985 73rd TFS: F-14A, 1979–1985 81st TFS: F-14A, 1979–present 82nd TFS: F-14A, 1979–present** 83rd TFS: F-14A, renamed former 62nd TFS===Former operators===;* Imperial Iranian Air Force 72nd TFS: F-14A, 1976–1979 73rd TFS: F-14A, 1977–1979 81st TFS: F-14A, 1977–1979 82nd TFS: F-14A, 1978–1979** 83rd Tomcat Flight School: F-14A, 1978–1979;* United States Navy operated F-14 from 1974 to 2006 Navy Fighter Weapons School (TOPGUN) (Merged with Strike University (Strike U) to form Naval Strike and Air Warfare Center (NSAWC) 1996)* VF-126 Bandits (Disestablished 1 April 1994) VF-1 Wolfpack (Disestablished 30 September 1993) VF-2 Bounty Hunters (Pacific Fleet through 1996, Atlantic Fleet 1996–2003, Pacific Fleet 2003–present; redesignated VFA-2 with F/A-18F, 1 July 2003) VF-11 Red Rippers (Redesignated to VFA-11 with F/A-18F, May 2005) VF-14 Tophatters (Redesignated VFA-14 with F/A-18E, 1 December 2001, and transferred to Pacific Fleet, 2002) VF-21 Freelancers (Disestablished 31 January 1996) VF-24 Fighting Renegades (Disestablished 20 August 1996) VF-31 Tomcatters (Redesignated VFA-31 with F/A-18E, October 2006) VF-32 Swordsmen (Redesignated VFA-32 with F/A-18F, 1 October 2005) VF-33 Starfighters (Disestablished 1 October 1993) VF-41 Black Aces (Redesignated VFA-41 with F/A-18F, 1 December 2001) VF-51 Screaming Eagles (Disestablished 31 March 1995) VF-74 Bedevilers (Disestablished 30 April 1994) VF-84 Jolly Rogers (Disestablished 1 October 1995; squadron heritage and nickname transferred to VF-103) VF-102 Diamondbacks (Redesignated VFA-102 with F/A-18F, 1 May 2002, and transferred to Pacific Fleet) VF-103 Sluggers/Jolly Rogers (Redesignated VFA-103 with F/A-18F, 1 May 2005) VF-111 Sundowners (Disestablished 31 March 1995; squadron heritage and nickname adopted by VFC-111) VF-114 Aardvarks (Disestablished 30 April 1993) VF-142 Ghostriders (Disestablished 30 April 1995) VF-143 Pukin' Dogs (Redesignated VFA-143 with F/A-18E, early 2005) VF-154 Black Knights (Redesignated VFA-154 with F/A-18F, 1 October 2003) VF-191 Satan's Kittens (Disestablished 30 April 1988) VF-194 Red Lightnings (Disestablished 30 April 1988) VF-211 Fighting Checkmates (Pacific Fleet through 1996, then transferred to Atlantic Fleet; redesignated VFA-211 with F/A-18F, 1 October 2004) VF-213 Black Lions (Pacific Fleet through 1996, then transferred to Atlantic Fleet; redesignated VFA-213 with F/A-18F, May 2006)* Naval Air Systems Command Test and Evaluation Squadrons VX-4 Evaluators (Disestablished 30 September 1994 and merged into VX-5 to form VX-9) VX-9 Vampires (Currently operates F/A-18C/D/E/F, EA-18G, F-35C, EA-6B, AV-8B, AH-1 and UH-1) VX-23 Salty Dogs (Currently operates F/A-18A+/B/C/D/E/F, EA-6B, EA-18G, F-35C and T-45) VX-30 Bloodhounds (Currently operates P-3, C-130, S-3)* Fleet Replacement Squadrons VF-101 Grim Reapers; Atlantic Fleet, then sole single-site, F-14 FRS (Disestablished 15 September 2005; squadron heritage and nickname adopted by VFA-101, an F-35C Fleet Replacement Squadron established in May 2012.VFA-101 itself would be disestablished 23 May 2019) VF-124 Gunfighters; Pacific Fleet F-14 FRS**(Disestablished 30 September 1994) Naval Air Force Reserve Squadrons VF-201 Hunters (Redesignated VFA-201 and reequipped with F/A-18A+ on 1 January 1999; disestablished 30 June 2007) VF-202 Superheats (Disestablished 31 December 1994) VF-301 Devil's Disciples (Disestablished 11 September 1994) VF-302 Stallions (Disestablished 11 September 1994)* Naval Air Force Reserve Squadron Augmentation Units (SAUs) VF-1285 Fighting Fubijars (Disestablished September 1994); augmented VF-301 and VF-302 VF-1485 Americans (Disestablished September 1994); augmented VF-124** VF-1486 Fighting Hobos (Disestablished September 2005); augmented VF-101* NASA operated a single F-14 #834 at Dryden Flight Research Center in 1986 and 1987 in a program known as the Variable-Sweep Transition Flight Experiment (VSTFE).", "This program explored laminar flow on variable sweep aircraft at high subsonic speeds." ], [ "Aircraft on display", "An F-14A on display at Grumman Memorial Park in New YorkF-14A BuNo 160661 on display at the U.S. Space and Rocket Center's Aviation Challenge facility in Huntsville, Alabama, 2009YF-14A at the Cradle of Aviation Museum F-14D at the Intrepid Sea-Air-Space Museum F-14A of VF-84 \"Jolly Rogers\" at the Museum of Flight Notable F-14s preserved at museums and military installations include:;'''Bureau Number (BuNo) – Model – Location – Significance''';F-14A157982 – Cradle of Aviation Museum, Garden City, New York; Prototype No.", "3 Nonstructural demonstration testbed157984 – National Naval Aviation Museum, Naval Air Station Pensacola, Florida.", "Fifth F-14 manufactured and one of the prototypes used in flight testing.", "Mounted on pedestal at entrance to museum.", "157988 – NAS Oceana Air Park, Virginia157990 – March Field Air Museum, Riverside, California.", "Eleventh F-14 manufactured and one of the prototypes used in carrier suitability testing.", "158617 – Veterans of Foreign Wars (VFW) Post 7293, Whitehall, Pennsylvania158623 – Naval Base Ventura County, NAS Point Mugu, California; pedestal mount at Front Gate Airpark.", "158627 – Hickory Aviation Museum, Hickory, NC.", "158978 – USS Midway Museum, San Diego, California158985 – Yanks Air Museum, Chino, California158998 – Air Victory Museum, Lumberton, New Jersey158999 – Naval Air Station Joint Reserve Base Fort Worth (former Carswell AFB), Fort Worth, Texas159025 – Patriot's Point Naval and Maritime Museum, Charleston, South Carolina159445 – Naval Station Norfolk (former Naval Air Station Norfolk) East Gate Airpark, Virginia159448 – Naval Inventory Control Point, Pennsylvania159455 – NAS Patuxent River, Lexington Park, Maryland; a former VX-23 flight test squadron aircraft.", "159620 – NAF El Centro, California159626 – Naval Strike and Air Warfare Center, Naval Air Station Fallon, Nevada159631 – San Diego Aerospace Museum, San Diego, California Used in ''Top Gun: Maverick''.", "159829 – Wings Over the Rockies Air and Space Museum, former Lowry AFB, Denver, Colorado.", "From VF-211, later used for aircraft maintenance training by Naval Air Reserve Center Denver at Buckley AFB.", "159830 – Western Museum of Flight, Torrance, California159848 – Tillamook Air Museum, Tillamook, Oregon159853 – Defense Supply Center Richmond, Richmond, Virginia160382 – Museum of Flight, Tukwila, Washington.", "VF-84 \"Jolly Rogers\" AJ202.Stationed on the USS ''Nimitz''.", "This aircraft, as well as several other F-14As from the famous \"Jolly Rogers\" squadron, appear in the 1980 film ''The Final Countdown'', which was filmed on board the USS ''Nimitz''.", "On loan from the National Museum of Naval Aviation at Pensacola, Florida.", "160386 – Recruit Training Command, Naval Station Great Lakes, Chicago, IllinoisF-14 Tomcat at the Texas Air Museum in Slaton, Texas 160391 – Texas Air Museum, Slaton, Texas, on loan from the National Naval Aviation Museum, appeared in the films ''The Final Countdown'' and ''Executive Decision''160395 – Air Zoo, Kalamazoo, Michigan160401 – Fleet Area Control and Surveillance Facility Virginia Capes (FACSFAC VACAPES), Naval Air Station Oceana, Virginia160402 - NAS Oceana Virginia Beach.", "160403 – American Airpower Heritage Museum, Midland, Texas.", "It is one of the aircraft involved in 1981 Gulf of Sidra incident.", "160411 – Empire State Aerosciences Museum, Glenville, New York160658 – NAES Lakehurst, New Jersey160661 – U.S. Space and Rocket Center's Aviation Challenge facility in Huntsville, Alabama160666 – Western Aerospace Museum, Oakland, California.", "Originally delivered to VF-111 in 1978, subsequently reassigned to NAVAIR test duties, permanently modified for development of follow-on avionics and weapons systems.", "160684 – Pima Air and Space Museum, adjacent to Davis-Monthan AFB, Tucson, Arizona.", "Repainted in its original markings as \"NL 211\" of VF-111 aboard USS KITTY HAWK (CV-63), as this particular aircraft appeared in its initial operational squadron service, c.", "1978–1981.", "160694 – USS ''Lexington'' Museum, Corpus Christi, Texas.", "Former VF-51 aircraft used in the making of ''Top Gun''.", "Currently painted in fictitious markings from the movie.", "Aircraft is on loan from the National Museum of Naval Aviation at NAS Pensacola, Florida.", "160889 – Pacific Coast Air Museum at Charles M. Schulz Sonoma County Airport, Santa Rosa, California160898 – Palm Springs Air Museum, Palm Springs, California.", "160902 – Grumman Memorial Park, Calverton, New York160903 – Mid-America Air Museum, Liberal Mid-America Regional Airport, Liberal, Kansas.", "160909 – Aviation History & Technology Center, Marietta, Georgia160914 – Willmar Municipal Airport, Wilmar, Minnesota 160925 – Eisenhower Park, WaKeeney, Kansas161134 – Valiant Air Command Warbird Museum, Space Coast Regional Airport, Titusville, Florida161598 – Tulsa Air and Space Museum, Tulsa, Oklahoma.", "It has VF-41 \"Black Aces\" markings.", "161605 – Wings of Eagles Discovery Center/National Warplane Museum, Horseheads, New York161615 – Combat Air Museum, Topeka, Kansas161620 – Selfridge Military Air Museum, Selfridge Air National Guard Base, Mount Clemens, Michigan161860 – Aviation Museum of Kentucky162591 – United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland; transferred from Quonset Air Museum, North Kingstown, Rhode Island162592 – Ronald Reagan Presidential Library, Simi Valley, California162595 – Naval Test Wing Atlantic, Naval Air Station Patuxent River, Maryland162607 – Yanks Air Museum, Chino Airport, Chino, California.", "Partial cockpit section painted in fictitious markings from ''Top Gun'' movie.", "162608 – Southern Museum of Flight, Birmingham, Alabama162689 – , USS Hornet Museum, former Naval Air Station Alameda, Alameda, California162694 – MAPS Air Museum, North Canton, Ohio162710 – National Naval Aviation Museum, Naval Air Station Pensacola, Florida;F-14B161422 – Naval Air Station Wildwood Aviation Museum161426 – DeLand Naval Air Station Museum, Florida162912 – Grissom Air Museum, Grissom Air Reserve Base (former Grissom AFB), Indiana162916 – Veterans of Foreign Wars (VFW) Post 8896 – Richard R. Gross Post, East Berlin, Pennsylvania162926 – New England Air Museum, Windsor Locks, Connecticut162911 – Estrella Warbird Museum, Paso Robles, California;F-14D(R)159600 – Fort Worth Aviation Museum, Fort Worth, Texas.", "On loan from the National Naval Aviation Museum, Pensacola, Florida.", "Nicknamed \"Christine\", it was the longest-serving F-14 Tomcat in U.S. Navy.", "Remanufactured from F-14A to F-14D(R) configuration, it was originally built in 1976 and made the final combat deployment/cruise of the F-14 in 2006.", "159610 – Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum, Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center, Chantilly, Virginia.", "This F-14 was one of those involved in the second Gulf of Sidra incident.", "159619 – Florida Air Museum at Sun 'n Fun, Lakeland Linder International Airport, Lakeland, Florida.", "161159 – National Naval Aviation Museum, Naval Air Station Pensacola, Florida.", "Completed the last combat flight and the last combat carrier arrested landing (trap) by a U.S. Navy F-14.", "161163 – Prairie Aviation Museum, Bloomington, Illinois.", "Depot Level Conversion performed September 1991.Retired as MODEX 205 of Fighter Squadron 213 (VF-213), Black Lions.", "161166 – Carolinas Aviation Museum, Charlotte, North Carolina;F-14D157986 – , Intrepid Sea-Air-Space Museum, Manhattan, New York.", "7th Tomcat built, retained as research and development airframe.", "163893 – main gate, Arnold Engineering and Development Center, Arnold AFB, Tennessee163897 – Aerospace Museum of California, McClellan Airfield (former McClellan AFB and current Coast Guard Air Station Sacramento), Sacramento, California.", "163902 – Hickory Aviation Museum at Hickory Regional Airport, Hickory, North Carolina.", "VF-31 Tomcatters aircraft Modex number 107; flew the F-14 retirement ceremony with LCDR Chris Richard and LT Mike Petronis at the controls.", "163904 – Pacific Aviation Museum, Ford Island, Joint Base Pearl Harbor–Hickam, Hawaii164342 – Wings Over Miami, Miami, Florida.", "164343 – Evergreen Aviation Museum, McMinnville, Oregon164346 – Museum of Flight, Rome, Georgia.", "On loan from National Museum of Naval Aviation, Pensacola, Florida.", "Last Tomcat to operationally trap aboard a U.S. Navy aircraft carrier.", "164350 – Joe Davies Heritage Airpark at Palmdale Plant 42, Palmdale, California164601 – Castle Air Museum at former Castle AFB, Atwater, California164603 – Cradle of Aviation Museum, Garden City, New York.", "Felix 101 from VF-31 is the last Tomcat to fly in U.S. Navy service.", "Final flight was from NAS Oceana, Virginia to the American Airpower Museum at Republic Airport Long Island, New York on 4 October 2006 where it was displayed for a year and a half before being moved to Grumman Plant 25, and then to the Cradle of Aviation Museum after the Grumman facility was sold.", "164604 – NAS Oceana Memorial Park, Naval Air Station Oceana, Virginia.", "Last F-14 manufactured, assigned to VX-4, later VX-9, at Naval Air Station Point Mugu, California during its operational service and used the callsign \"Vandy 1\".", ";NF-14D161623 – Patuxent River Naval Air Museum, Naval Air Station Patuxent River, Lexington Park, Maryland.", "It is a former VX-23 flight test squadron aircraft." ], [ "Specifications (F-14D)", "Grumman F-14 Tomcat drawingsF-14A of VF 111 \"Sundowners\" (USS ''Carl Vinson'')F-14B from the VF-211 Fighting Checkmates carrying six AIM-54 Phoenix missilesIntrepid Museum display showing Sidewinder (upper), Sparrow (middle) and Phoenix (bottom) missiles" ], [ "Tomcat logo", "Tomcat logoThe Tomcat logo design came when Grumman's Director of Presentation Services, Dick Milligan, and one of his artists, Grumman employee Jim Rodriguez, were asked for a logo by Grumman's Director of Business Development and former Blue Angels No.", "5 pilot, Norm Gandia.", "Per Rodriguez, \"He asked me to draw a lifelike Tomcat wearing boxing gloves and trunks sporting a six-shooter on his left side, where the guns are located on the F-14, along with two tails.\"", "The cat was drawn up after a tabby cat was sourced, used for photographs, and named \"Tom\".", "The logo has gone through many variations, including one for the then–Imperial Iranian Air Force F-14, called \"Ali-cat.\"", "The accompanying slogan, \"Anytime Baby!\"", "was developed by Norm Gandia as a challenge to the U.S. Air Force's McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle." ], [ "Notable appearances in media", "F-14A Tomcats of Fighter Squadrons VF-51 \"Screaming Eagles\" and VF-111 \"Sundowners\".", "The squadrons provided F-14s for filming aerial sequences in the movie ''Top Gun''.The Grumman F-14 Tomcat was central to the 1986 film ''Top Gun''.", "The aviation-themed film was such a success in creating interest in naval aviation that the US Navy, which assisted with the film, set up recruitment desks outside some theaters.", "Producers paid the US Navy as reimbursement for flight time of aircraft in the film with an F-14 billed at per flight hour.", "The F-14 Tomcat was also featured in its 2022 sequel.", "Two F-14As of VF-84 from USS ''Nimitz'' were featured in the 1980 film ''The Final Countdown'', with four from the squadron in the 1996 release ''Executive Decision''.", "Multiple F-14s are featured in the 2008 documentary ''Speed & Angels'', featuring the story of two young Navy officers working to achieve their dream of becoming F-14 fighter pilots.", "The F-14 served as an inspiration for various fictional aircraft, most notably the ''Macross'' franchise's VF-1 Valkyrie and the Skystriker XP-14F from the ''G.I.", "Joe: A Real American Hero'' toyline.", "Actual F-14s were featured in the first episode of ''Macross Zero'', the OVA prequel to ''Super Dimension Fortress Macross'' (adapted as ''Robotech'' in the US)." ], [ "See also" ], [ "References", "===Notes======Citations======Bibliography=== Bishop, Farzad and Tom Cooper.", "''Iranian F-14 Tomcat Units (Osprey Combat Aircraft #49)''.", "Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing Limited, 2004..* Crosby, Francis.", "''Fighter Aircraft''.", "London: Lorenz Books, 2002..* Donald, David.", "''Warplanes of the Fleet''.", "London: AIRtime Publishing Inc., 2004..* Dorr, Robert F. \"F-14 Tomcat: Fleet Defender\".", "''World Air Power Journal'', Volume 7, Autumn/Winter 1991, pp.", "42–99.London: Aerospace Publishing.", ".", "* Drendel, Lou.", "''F-14 Tomcat in Action''.", "Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications, 1977..* Eden, Paul.", "''The Encyclopedia of Modern Military Aircraft''.", "London: Amber Books, 2004..* Eshel, D. ''Grumman F-14 Tomcat'' (War Data No.", "15).", "Hod Hasharon, Israel: Eshel-Dramit Ltd., 1982.", "* Gillcrest, Paul T.", "''Tomcat!", ": The Grumman F-14 Story ''.", "Atglen, Pennsylvania: Schiffer Publishing, Ltd.", "1994.", "* Gunston, Bill and Mike Spick.", "''Modern Air Combat''.", "New York: Crescent Books, 1983..* Holmes, Tony.", "''US Navy F-14 Tomcat Units of Operation Iraqi Freedom (Osprey Combat Aircraft #52)''.", "Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing Limited, 2005..* Holmes, Tony.", "''F-14 Tomcat Units of Operation Enduring Freedom (Osprey Combat Aircraft #70)''.", "Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing Limited, 2008..* Jenkins, Dennis R. ''Grumman F-14 Tomcat: Leading US Navy Fleet Fighter''.", "London: Aerofax, 1997..* Lake, Jon.", "\"Grumman F-14 Tomcat Variant Briefing\".", "''World Air Power Journal'', Volume 19, Winter 1994.pp.", "114–141.London: Aerospace Publishing.", ".", ".", "* Lake, Jon.", "\"Focus Aircraft: Northrop Grumman F-14 Tomcat: US Navy Today\".", "''International Air Power Review'', Volume 3, 2002.Norwalk: Connecticut: AIRtime Publishing.", ".", ".", "* Marrett, George.", "\"Flight of the Phoenix.\"", "''Airpower,'' Volume 36, No.", "7, July 2006.", "* Razoux, Pierre.", "''The Iran-Iraq War''.", "Harvard University Press, 2015..* Razoux, Pierre.", "''Le siècle des As (1915-1988): Une autre histoire de l'aviation'' .", "Place des éditeurs, 2019..* Sgarlato, Nico.", "\"F-14 Tomcat\" .", "''Aereonautica & Difesa magazine'' Edizioni Monografie SRL., December 1988.", "* Spick, Mike.", "''F-14 Tomcat, Modern Fighting Aircraft, Volume 8''.", "New York: Arco Publishing, 1985..* Spick, Mike.", "\"F-14 Tomcat\".", "''The Great Book of Modern Warplanes''.", "St. Paul, Minnesota: MBI Publishing Company, 2000..* Stevenson, J.P. ''Grumman F-14'', Vol.", "25.New York: Tab Books, 1975..* Taghvaee, Babak.", "\"New Claws for the Persian Cats\".", "''Air International'', Vol.", "95, No.", "3, September 2018.pp. 58–63..", "* Taghvaee, Babak.", "\"Persian cats of war\".", "''Air International'', Vol.", "100, No.", "3, March 2021.pp. 34–41..", "* Thomason, Tommy.", "''Grumman Navy F-111B Swing Wing'' (Navy Fighters No.", "41).", "Simi Valley, California: Steve Ginter, 1998..* Wilson, Stewart.", "''Combat Aircraft since 1945''.", "Fyshwick, Australia: Aerospace Publications, 2000.." ], [ "External links", "* F-14 U.S. Navy fact file (Archive) and F-14 U.S. Navy history page* F-14 page on NASA Langley siteJoe Baugher's Website on Grumman F-14 Tomcat, recorded 7 February 2006." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lockheed F-117 Nighthawk" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Lockheed F-117 Nighthawk''' is a retired American single-seat, subsonic twin-engine stealth attack aircraft developed by Lockheed's secretive Skunk Works division and operated by the United States Air Force (USAF).", "It was the first operational aircraft to be designed with stealth technology.Work on what would become the F-117 was commenced in the 1970s as a means of countering increasingly sophisticated Soviet surface-to-air missiles (SAMs).", "During 1976, the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) issued Lockheed with a contract to produce the ''Have Blue'' technology demonstrator, the test data from which validated the concept.", "On 1 November 1978, it was decided to proceed with the F-117 development program.", "A total of five prototypes would be produced; the first of which performed its maiden flight during 1981 at Groom Lake, Nevada.", "The first production F-117 was delivered in 1982, and its initial operating capability was achieved in October 1983.All aircraft were initially based at Tonopah Test Range Airport, Nevada.The aircraft's faceted shape (made from two-dimensional flat surfaces) heavily contributes to its relatively low radar cross-section of about .", "To minimize its infrared signature, it has a non-circular tail pipe that mixes hot exhaust with cool ambient air and lacks afterburners; it is also restricted to subsonic speeds as breaking the sound barrier would produce an obvious sonic boom that would increase both its acoustic and infrared footprints.", "While its performance in air combat maneuvering was less than that of most contemporary fighters, it was strictly an attack aircraft despite being commonly referred to as the \"Stealth Fighter\".", "For this reason, it is equipped with integrated sophisticated digital navigation and attack systems, targeting being achieved via a thermal imaging infrared system and a laser rangefinder/laser designator.", "It is aerodynamically unstable in all three aircraft principal axes and thus requires constant flight corrections via a fly-by-wire (FBW) flight system to maintain controlled flight.Even years following its entry to service, the F-117 was a black project, its existence being denied by USAF officials.", "On 10 November 1988, the F-117 was publicly acknowledged for the first time.", "Its first combat mission was flown during the United States invasion of Panama in 1989.The last of 59 production F-117s were delivered on 3 July 1990.The F-117 was widely publicized for its role in the Gulf War of 1991, having flown approximately 1,300 sorties and scored direct hits on what the US called 1,600 high-value targets in Iraq.", "F-117s also participated in the conflict in Yugoslavia, during which one was shot down by a surface-to-air missile (SAM) in 1999.It was also active during Operation Enduring Freedom in 2001 and Operation Iraqi Freedom in 2003.The USAF retired the F-117 in April 2008, primarily due to the fielding of the F-22 Raptor.", "Despite the type's official retirement, a portion of the fleet has been kept in airworthy condition, and F-117s have been observed flying since 2009." ], [ "Development", "=== Background and ''Have Blue'' ===In 1936, Robert Watson Watt, a British engineer who invented radar, noted that measures to reduce an object's radar cross-section (RCS) could be used to evade radar detection.", "In 1964, Pyotr Ufimtsev, a Soviet mathematician, published a seminal paper titled ''Method of Edge Waves in the Physical Theory of Diffraction'' in the journal of the Moscow Institute for Radio Engineering, in which he showed that the strength of the radar return from an object is related to its edge configuration, not its size.", "Ufimtsev was extending theoretical work published by the German physicist Arnold Sommerfeld.", "Ufimtsev demonstrated that he could calculate the RCS across a wing's surface and along its edge.", "The obvious and logical conclusion was that even a large aircraft could reduce its radar signature by exploiting this principle.", "However, the resulting design would make the aircraft aerodynamically unstable, and the state of computer technology in the early 1960s could not provide the kinds of flight computers which would later allow aircraft such as the F-117 and B-2 Spirit to stay airborne.", "By the 1970s, when Lockheed analyst Denys Overholser found Ufimtsev's paper, computers and software had advanced significantly, and the stage was set for the development of a stealth airplane.alt=Aircraft parked inside an open hangarThe F-117 was born after the Vietnam War, where increasingly sophisticated Soviet surface-to-air missiles (SAMs) had downed heavy bombers.", "The heavy losses inflicted by Soviet-made SAMs upon the Israeli Air Force in the 1973 Yom Kippur war also contributed to a 1974 Defense Science Board assessment that in case of a conflict in Central Europe, air defenses would likely prevent NATO air strikes on targets in Eastern Europe.It was a black project, an ultra-secret program for much of its life; very few people in the Pentagon knew the program even existed.", "The project began in 1975 with a model called the \"Hopeless Diamond\" (a wordplay on the Hope Diamond because of its appearance).", "The following year, the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) issued Lockheed Skunk Works a contract to build and test two Stealth Strike Fighters, under the code name \"''Have Blue''\".", "These subscale aircraft incorporated jet engines of the Northrop T-38A, fly-by-wire systems of the F-16, landing gear of the A-10, and environmental systems of the C-130.By bringing together existing technology and components, Lockheed built two demonstrators under budget, at $35 million for both aircraft, and in record time.", "Undersecretary of Defense for Research and Engineering William J. Perry was instrumental in shepherding the project.The maiden flight of the demonstrators occurred on 1 December 1977.Although both aircraft crashed during the demonstration program, test data gathered proved positive.", "The success of ''Have Blue'' led the government to increase funding for stealth technology.", "Much of that increase was allocated towards the production of an operational stealth aircraft, the Lockheed F-117, under the program code name \"''Senior Trend''\".=== ''Senior Trend'' ===The decision to produce the F-117 was made on 1 November 1978, and a contract was awarded to Lockheed Advanced Development Projects, popularly known as the Skunk Works, in Burbank, California.", "The program was led by Ben Rich, with Alan Brown as manager of the project.", "Rich called on Bill Schroeder, a Lockheed mathematician, and Overholser, a mathematician and Radar Specialist, to exploit Ufimtsev's work.", "The three designed a computer program called \"Echo\", which made it possible to design an airplane with flat panels, called facets, which were arranged so as to scatter over 99% of a radar's signal energy \"painting\" the aircraft.The first YF-117A, serial number ''79-10780'', made its maiden flight from Groom Lake (\"Area 51\"), Nevada, on 18 June 1981, only 31 months after the full-scale development decision.", "The first production F-117A was delivered in 1982, and operational capability was achieved in October 1983.The 4450th Tactical Group stationed at Nellis Air Force Base, Nevada, were tasked with the operational development of the early F-117, and between 1981 (prior to the arrival of the first models) and 1989 they used LTV A-7 Corsair IIs for training, to bring all pilots to a common flight training baseline and later as chase planes for F-117A tests.The F-117 was secret for much of the 1980s.", "Many news articles discussed what they called an \"F-19\" stealth fighter, and the Testor Corporation produced a very inaccurate scale model.", "When an F-117 crashed in Sequoia National Forest in July 1986, killing the pilot and starting a fire, the USAF established restricted airspace.", "Armed guards prohibited entry, including firefighters, and a helicopter gunship circled the site.", "All F-117 debris was replaced with remains of a F-101A Voodoo crash stored at Area 51.When another fatal crash in October 1987 occurred inside Nellis, the military again provided little information to the press.The USAF denied the existence of the aircraft until 10 November 1988, when Assistant Secretary of Defense J. Daniel Howard displayed a grainy photograph at a Pentagon press conference, disproving the many inaccurate rumors about the shape of the \"F-19\".", "After the announcement, pilots could fly the F-117 during daytime and no longer needed to be associated with the A-7, flying the T-38 supersonic trainer for travel and training instead.", "In April 1990, two F-117s flew to Nellis, arriving during daylight and publicly displayed to a crowd of tens of thousands.F-117 flight demonstrationFive Full Scale Development (FSD) aircraft were built, designated \"YF-117A\".", "The last of 59 production F-117s were delivered on 3 July 1990.As the USAF has stated, \"Streamlined management by Aeronautical Systems Center, Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio, combined breakthrough stealth technology with concurrent development and production to rapidly field the aircraft...", "The F-117A program demonstrates that a stealth aircraft can be designed for reliability and maintainability.", "\"=== Designation ===The operational aircraft was officially designated \"F-117A\".", "Most modern U.S. military aircraft use post-1962 designations in which the designation \"F\" is usually an air-to-air fighter, \"B\" is usually a bomber, \"A\" is usually a ground-attack aircraft, etc.", "(Examples include the F-15, the B-2 and the A-6.)", "The F-117 is primarily an attack aircraft, so its \"F\" designation is inconsistent with the Department of Defense system.", "This is an inconsistency that has been repeatedly employed by the USAF with several of its attack aircraft since the late 1950s, including the Republic F-105 Thunderchief and General Dynamics F-111 Aardvark.", "A televised documentary quoted project manager Alan Brown as saying that Robert J. Dixon, a four-star USAF general who was the head of Tactical Air Command, felt that the top-notch USAF fighter pilots required to fly the new aircraft were more easily attracted to an aircraft with an \"F\" designation for fighter, as opposed to a bomber (\"B\") or attack (\"A\") designation.The designation \"F-117\" seems to indicate that it was given an official designation prior to the 1962 U.S. Tri-Service Aircraft Designation System and could be considered numerically to be a part of the earlier \"Century series\" of fighters.", "The assumption prior to the revealing of the aircraft to the public was that it would likely receive the F-19 designation as that number had not been used.", "However, there were no other aircraft to receive a \"100\" series number following the F-111.Soviet fighters obtained by the U.S. via various means under the Constant Peg program were given F-series numbers for their evaluation by U.S. pilots, and with the advent of the Teen Series fighters, most often Century Series designations.As with other exotic military aircraft types flying in the southern Nevada area, such as captured fighters, an arbitrary radio call of \"117\" was assigned.", "This same radio call had been used by the enigmatic 4477th Test and Evaluation Squadron, also known as the \"Red Hats\" or \"Red Eagles\", that often had flown expatriated MiG jet fighters in the area, but there was no relationship to the call and the formal F-19 designation then being considered by the USAF.", "Apparently, use of the \"117\" radio call became commonplace and when Lockheed released its first flight manual (i.e., the USAF \"dash one\" manual for the aircraft), F-117A was the designation printed on the cover." ], [ "Design", "alt=Closeup view of the nose of a black jet, emphasizing the many angled-surfacesWhen the USAF first approached Lockheed with the stealth concept, Skunk Works Director Kelly Johnson proposed a rounded design.", "He believed smoothly blended shapes offered the best combination of speed and stealth.", "However, his assistant, Ben Rich, showed that faceted-angle surfaces would provide a significant reduction in radar signature, and the necessary aerodynamic control could be provided with computer units.", "A May 1975 Skunk Works report, \"Progress Report No.", "2, High Stealth Conceptual Studies\", showed the rounded concept that was rejected in favor of the flat-sided approach.", "The resulting unusual design surprised and puzzled experienced pilots; a Royal Air Force (RAF) pilot who flew it as an exchange officer stated that when he first saw a photograph of the still-secret F-117, he \"promptly giggled and thought to himself 'this clearly can't fly.The single-seat F-117 is powered by two non-afterburning General Electric F404 turbofan engines.", "They were extensively modified to suit a stealthy aircraft, such as to have a cooler operational temperature, and somewhat resembled a turbojet instead.", "The engine was redesigned to produce a minimum of mass thrust, which eased the task of designing a suitable inlet and nozzle.", "To obscure the engine from enemy radar, a conductive metal mesh grill was installed upon in the intake while the exhaust gases were intentionally mixed with cool air to lower the thermal signature as well.The aircraft is air refuelable and features a V-tail.", "The maximum speed is at high altitude, the max rate of climb is per minute, and service ceiling is .", "The cockpit was quite spacious, with ergonomic displays and controls, but the field of view was somewhat obstructed with a large blind spot to the rear.", "The aircraft itself is approximately the size of an F-15 Eagle.=== Avionics ===Early stealth aircraft were designed with a focus on minimal radar cross-section (RCS) rather than aerodynamic performance, as such, the F-117 is aerodynamically unstable in all three aircraft principal axes and require constant flight corrections from a fly-by-wire (FBW) flight system to maintain controlled flight.", "It is equipped with quadruple-redundant fly-by-wire flight controls.", "To lower development costs, the avionics, fly-by-wire systems, and other systems and parts were derived from the General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon, Boeing B-52 Stratofortress, McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet, and McDonnell Douglas F-15E Strike Eagle.", "The parts were originally described as spares in budgets for these aircraft, to keep the F-117 project secret.alt=Lockheed YF-117A cockpit at the National Museum of the United States Air Force, Dayton, Ohio, USAThe aircraft is equipped with sophisticated navigation and attack systems integrated into a digital avionics suite.", "It navigates primarily by GPS and high-accuracy inertial navigation.", "Missions are coordinated by an automated planning system that can automatically perform all aspects of an attack mission, including weapons release.", "Targets are acquired by a thermal imaging infrared system, paired with a laser rangefinder/laser designator that finds the range and designates targets for laser-guided bombs.", "The F-117's split internal bay can carry of ordnance.", "Typical weapons are a pair of GBU-10, GBU-12, or GBU-27 laser-guided bombs, two BLU-109 penetration bombs, or two Joint Direct Attack Munitions (JDAM) GPS/INS guided stand-off bombs.=== Stealth ===The F-117 has a radar cross-section (RCS) of about .", "Among the penalties for stealth are lower engine thrust due to losses in the inlet and outlet, a very low wing aspect ratio, and a high sweep angle (50°) needed to deflect incoming radar waves to the sides.", "With these design considerations and no afterburner, the F-117 is limited to subsonic speeds.", "Additionally, to maintain its low observability, the F-117 was not equipped with radar; not only would an active radar be detectable through its emissions, but an inactive radar antenna would also act as a reflector of radar energy.", "Whether it carries any radar detection equipment remained classified as of 2008.Its faceted shape (made from two-dimensional flat surfaces) resulted from the limitations of the 1970s-era computer technology used to calculate its RCS.", "Later supercomputers made it possible for subsequent aircraft like the B-2 bomber to use curved surfaces while maintaining stealth, through the use of far more computational resources to perform the additional calculations.", "The radar-absorbent flat sheets covering the F-117 weighed almost one ton, and were held in place by glue, with the gaps between the sheets filled with a kind of putty material called \"butter\".An exhaust plume contributes a significant infrared signature.", "The F-117 reduces IR signature with a non-circular tail pipe (a slit shape) to minimize the exhaust cross-section and maximize the mixing of hot exhaust with cool ambient air.", "The F-117 lacks afterburners, because the hot exhaust would increase the infrared signature, and breaking the sound barrier would produce an obvious sonic boom, as well as surface heating of the aircraft skin which also increases the infrared footprint.", "As a result, its performance in air combat maneuvering required in a dogfight would never match that of a dedicated fighter aircraft; this was unimportant in the case of the F-117 since it was a dedicated attack aircraft.Passive (multistatic) radar, bistatic radar and especially multistatic radar systems detect some stealth aircraft better than conventional monostatic radars, since first-generation stealth technology (such as the F-117) reflects energy away from the transmitter's line of sight, effectively increasing the radar cross section (RCS) in other directions, which the passive radars monitor." ], [ "Operational history", "GBU-27 laser-guided bombsDuring the program's early years, from 1984 to mid-1992, the F-117 fleet was based at Tonopah Test Range Airport, Nevada, where it served under the 4450th Tactical Group.", "Because the F-117 was classified during this time, the unit was officially located at Nellis Air Force Base, Nevada, and equipped with A-7 Corsair II aircraft.", "All military personnel were permanently assigned to Nellis AFB, and most personnel and their families lived in Las Vegas.", "This required commercial air and trucking to transport personnel between Las Vegas and Tonopah each week.", "The 4450th was absorbed by the 37th Tactical Fighter Wing in 1989.In 1992, the entire fleet was transferred to Holloman Air Force Base, New Mexico, under the command of the 49th Fighter Wing.", "This move also eliminated the Key Air and American Trans Air contract flights to Tonopah, which flew 22,000 passenger trips on 300 flights from Nellis to Tonopah per month.The F-117 reached initial operating capability status in 1983.The Nighthawk's pilots called themselves \"Bandits\".", "Each of the 558 Air Force pilots who have flown the F-117 has a Bandit number, such as \"Bandit 52\", that indicates the sequential order of their first flight in the F-117.Pilots told friends and families that they flew the Northrop F-5 in aggressor squadrons against Tactical Air Command.The F-117 has been used several times in war.", "Its first mission was during the United States invasion of Panama in 1989.During that invasion, two F-117s dropped two bombs on Rio Hato airfield.During the Gulf War in 1991, the F-117 flew approximately 1,300 sorties and scored direct hits on what the U.S. called 1,600 high-value targets in Iraq over 6,905 flight hours.", "Leaflet drops on Iraqi forces displayed the F-117 destroying ground targets and warned \"Escape now and save yourselves\".", "Only 229 Coalition tactical aircraft could drop and designate laser-guided bombs of which 36 F-117s represented 15.7%, and only the USAF had the I-2000 bombs intended for hardened targets.", "So the F-117 represented 32% of all coalition aircraft that could deliver such bombs.", "Notably, F-117s were involved in the Amiriyah shelter bombing, killing at least 408 civilians.Early claims of the F-117's effectiveness were later found to be overstated.", "Initial reports of F-117s hitting 80% of their targets were later scaled back to \"41–60%\".", "On the first night, they failed to hit 40% of their assigned air-defense targets, including the Air Defense Operations Center in Baghdad, and 8 such targets remained functional out of 10 that could be assessed.", "In their Desert Storm white paper, the USAF stated that \"the F-117 was the only airplane that the planners dared risk over downtown Baghdad\" and that this area was particularly well defended.", "(Dozens of F-16s were routinely tasked to attack Baghdad in the first few days of the war.)", "In fact, most of the air defenses were on the outskirts of the city and many other aircraft hit targets in the downtown area, with minimal casualties when they attacked at night like the F-117; they avoided the optically aimed anti-aircraft cannon and infrared SAMs which were the biggest threat to Coalition aircraft.The aircraft was operated in secret from Tonopah for almost a decade, but after the Gulf War the aircraft moved to Holloman in 1992—however, its integration with the USAF's non-stealth \"iron jets\" occurred slowly.", "As one senior F-117 pilot later said: Because of ongoing secrecy others continued to see the aircraft as \"none of their business, a stand-alone system\".", "The F-117 and the men and women of the 49th Fighter Wing were deployed to Southwest Asia on multiple occasions.", "On their first deployment, with the aid of aerial refueling, pilots flew non-stop from Holloman to Kuwait, a flight of approximately 18.5 hours.=== Combat over Yugoslavia ===Canopy of F-117 shot down in Serbia in March 1999 at the Museum of Aviation in BelgradeOne F-117 (AF ser.", "no.", "82-0806) was lost to enemy action.", "It was downed during an Operation Allied Force mission against the Army of Yugoslavia on 27 March 1999.The aircraft was acquired by a fire control radar at a distance of and an altitude of .", "SA-3s were then launched by a Yugoslav version of the Soviet Isayev S-125 \"Neva\" (NATO name SA-3 \"Goa\") anti-aircraft missile system.", "Acquisition was possible due the open weapons bay being more visible to radar.", "The launcher was run by the 3rd Battalion of the 250th Air Defence Missile Brigade under the command of Colonel Zoltán Dani.After the explosion, the aircraft became uncontrollable, forcing the pilot to eject.", "The pilot was recovered six hours later by a United States Air Force Pararescue team.", "The stealth technology from the downed F-117 has reportedly been studied by Russia, and possibly China as well.", "The U.S. did not attempt to destroy the wreckage; senior Pentagon officials claimed that its technology was already dated and no longer important to protect.American sources state that a second F-117 was targeted and damaged during the campaign, allegedly on 30 April 1999.The aircraft returned to Spangdahlem Air Base, but it supposedly never flew again.", "The USAF continued using the F-117 during Operation Allied Force.=== Later service and retirement ===A pair of F-117A NighthawksThe F-117 was later used in the Operation Enduring Freedom in 2001 and Operation Iraqi Freedom in 2003.It was only operated by the USAF.The loss in Serbia caused the USAF to create a subsection of their existing weapons school to improve tactics.", "More training was done with other units, and the F-117 began to participate in Red Flag exercises.", "Though advanced for its time, the F-117's stealthy faceted airframe required a large amount of maintenance and was eventually superseded by streamlined shapes produced with computer-aided design.", "Other weapon systems began to take on the F-117's roles, such as the F-22 Raptor gaining the ability to drop guided bombs.", "By 2005, the aircraft was used only for certain missions, such as if a pilot needed to verify that the correct target had been hit, or when minimal collateral damage was vital.The USAF had once planned to retire the F-117 in 2011, but Program Budget Decision 720 (PBD 720), dated 28 December 2005, proposed retiring it by October 2008 to free up an estimated $1.07 billion to buy more F-22s.", "PBD 720 called for 10 F-117s to be retired in FY2007 and the remaining 42 in FY2008, stating that other USAF planes and missiles could stealthily deliver precision ordnance, including the B-2 Spirit, F-22 and JASSM.", "The planned introduction of the multi-role F-35 Lightning II also contributed to the retirement decision.In late 2006, the USAF closed the F-117 formal training unit (FTU), and announced the retirement of the F-117.The first six aircraft to be retired took their last flight on 12 March 2007 after a ceremony at Holloman AFB to commemorate the aircraft's career.", "Brigadier General David L. Goldfein, commander of the 49th Fighter Wing, said at the ceremony, \"With the launch of these great aircraft today, the circle comes to a close—their service to our nation's defense fulfilled, their mission accomplished and a job well done.", "We send them today to their final resting place—a home they are intimately familiar with—their first, and only, home outside of Holloman.", "\"United States flag theme on their bellies fly off from their last refueling by the Ohio Air National Guard's 121st Air Refueling WingUnlike most other USAF aircraft that are retired to Davis-Monthan AFB for scrapping, or dispersal to museums, most of the F-117s were placed in \"Type 1000\" storage in their original hangars at the Tonopah Test Range Airport.", "At Tonopah, their wings were removed and the aircraft are stored in their original climate-controlled hangars.", "The decommissioning occurred in eight phases, with the operational aircraft retired to Tonopah in seven waves from 13 March 2007 until the last wave's arrival on 22 April 2008.Four aircraft were kept flying beyond April by the 410th Flight Test Squadron at Palmdale for flight test.", "By August, two were remaining.", "The last F-117 (AF Serial No.", "86-0831) left Palmdale to fly to Tonopah on 11 August 2008.With the last aircraft retired, the 410th was inactivated in a ceremony on 1 August 2008.Five aircraft were placed in museums, including the first four YF-117As and some remains of the F-117 shot down over Serbia.", "Through 2009, one F-117 had been scrapped; AF Serial No.", "79-0784 was scrapped at the Palmdale test facility on 26 April 2008.It was the last F-117 at Palmdale and was scrapped to test an effective method for destroying F-117 airframes.Congress had ordered that all F-117s from 30 September 2006 onwards were to be maintained \"in a condition that would allow recall of that aircraft to future service\" as part of the 2007 National Defense Authorization Act.", "By April 2016, lawmakers appeared ready to \"remove the requirement that certain F-117 aircraft be maintained in a condition that would allow recall of those aircraft to future service\", which would move them from storage to the aerospace maintenance and regeneration yard in Arizona to be scavenged for hard-to-find parts, or completely disassembled.", "On 11 September 2017, it was reported that in accordance with the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2017, signed into law on 23 December 2016, \"the Air Force will remove four F-117s every year to fully divest them—a process known as demilitarizing aircraft\".=== Post-retirement sightings ===Although officially retired, the F-117 fleet remained intact as of 2009, with photos showing the aircraft carefully mothballed.", "As of 2016, the retired fleet comprised over 50 airframes, with some of the aircraft being flown periodically.", "F-117s were spotted flying periodically from 2014 to 2019.In March 2019, it was reported that four F-117s had been secretly deployed to the Middle East in 2016 and that one had to make an emergency landing at Ali Al Salem (OKAS), Kuwait sometime late that year.In February 2019, an F-117 was observed flying through the R-2508 Special Use Airspace Complex in the vicinity of Edwards Air Force Base, escorted by two F-16 Fighting Falcons that may have been providing top cover.", "Closer photographs of the aircraft revealed that the tail code had been scrubbed in an attempt to remove the paint.", "The partially-intact code identified it as a former aircraft of the 49th Operations Group.", "An F-117 was also photographed in 2019 carrying unit markings previously unassociated with the aircraft—a band on the tail bearing the name ''Dark Knights'', suggesting either an official or unofficial squadron is maintaining the Nighthawks.", "In July 2019, one Nighthawk in a hybrid aggressor paint scheme was spotted flying above Death Valley, trailing behind a KC-135R Stratotanker.F-117 Nighthawk during Northern Edge 23-1 at Joint Base Elmendorf-Richardson, Alaska, May 2023In March 2020, a spectator recorded an F-117 flying through the \"Star Wars Canyon\" in Death Valley, California.", "On 20 May 2020, two more F-117s were sighted in a common aerial refueling area of Southern California trailing a NKC-135R Stratotanker from Edwards AFB, California.", "In October 2020, at least two F-117s arrived at MCAS Miramar, featuring a tail code of ''TR'' which the Nighthawks based at Tonopah Range had previously used.On 13 September 2021, a pair of F-117s landed at Fresno Yosemite International Airport in California.", "They were scheduled to train with the California Air National Guard F-15C/D Eagles of the 144th Fighter Wing over the next few days.", "One aircraft had red letters on its tail, and the other had white letters.", "One of the two was observed to not be fitted with radar reflectors.", "That year USAF published photographs on DVIDS, the first acknowledgement by the service that the aircraft continued to fly after its official retirement.F-117s trailing a KC-135, October 2023In January 2022, two F-117s were observed in flight in the Saline Military Operating Area.", "One had portions of its exterior covered in a \"mirror-like coating\" believed to be an experimental treatment to reduce the aircraft's infrared signature.", "In September the Air Force Test Center published a Request for Information for a F-117 support contract at Tonopah, indicating that USAF wants to keep flying it until 2034.The service is using the aircraft in aggressor squadron and cruise missile training, and research and development.", "USAF has also slowed the retirement of its current inventory of about 45 F-117s to two to three units a year.On 21 April 2023, two F-117s were sighted flying low (roughly 200 ft AGL) through the Sidewinder Low Level Training Route in the R-2508 Special Use Airspace Complex.", "The Nighthawks were photographed and videoed flying low through a canyon in Sequoia National Forest by an aviation photographer who posted the video and images to Instagram.In May 2023, an F-117 participated in exercise Savannah Sentry at the Air Dominance Center in Savannah, Georgia.", "It was a joint exercise with both active USAF and Air National Guard units.", "In a video documenting the exercise, an off-screen crew member stated that there are approximately 48 flyable F-117s in USAF inventory.", "They stated that the F-117 is sometimes used in aggressor-type training roles and was brought to Savannah Sentry to participate in an \"unclassified capacity.", "\"On 26 July 2023, one F-117 was spotted flying high apparently as part of an aerial refuelling exercise, as reported in a Twitter post.", "A trio was temporarily based at the Duluth International Airport later that year as part of the training exercise Northern Lightning.On 3 October 2023, two F-117s were spotted flying in formation with a KC-135 over southern California, as described in a post on social media website Reddit.On 1 February 2024, two F-117s were seen at testing range R-2508 in the Mojave Desert." ], [ "Variants", "=== F-117N \"Seahawk\" ===The United States Navy tested the F-117 in 1984 but determined it was unsuitable for carrier use.", "In the early 1990s, Lockheed proposed an upgraded carrier-capable F-117 variant dubbed the \"Seahawk\" to the Navy as an alternative to the canceled A/F-X program.", "The unsolicited proposal was received poorly by the Department of Defense, which lacked interest in the single mission capabilities on offer, particularly as it would take money away from the Joint Advanced Strike Technology program, which evolved into the Joint Strike Fighter.", "The F-117N would have differed from the land-based F-117 in several ways, such as the use of \"elevators, a bubble canopy, a less sharply swept wing and reconfigured tail\".", "It would also be re-engined with General Electric F414 turbofans in place of the General Electric F404s.", "The aircraft would be optionally fitted with hardpoints, allowing for an additional of payload, and a new ground-attack radar with air-to-air capability.", "In that role, the F-117N could carry AIM-120 AMRAAM air-to-air missiles.=== F-117B ===After being rebuffed by the Navy, Lockheed submitted an updated proposal that included afterburning capability and a larger emphasis on the F-117N as a multi-mission aircraft, rather than just an attack aircraft.", "To boost interest, Lockheed also proposed an ''F-117B'' land-based variant that shared most of the F-117N capabilities.", "This variant was proposed to the USAF and RAF.", "Two RAF pilots formally evaluated the aircraft in 1986 as a reward for British help with the American bombing of Libya that year.", "RAF exchange officers began flying the F-117 in 1987, but the British declined an offer during the Reagan administration to purchase the aircraft.", "This renewed F-117N proposal was also known as the ''A/F-117X''.", "Neither the F-117N nor the F-117B were ordered." ], [ "Operators", "Langley AFB, Virginia, prior to being deployed to Saudi Arabia for Operation Desert Shield ;United States* United States Air Force 4450th Tactical Group – Tonopah Test Range, Nevada* 4450th Tactical Squadron (1981–1989)* 4451st Tactical Squadron (1981–1989)* 4453rd Test and Evaluation Squadron (1985–1989) 37th Tactical Fighter Wing/Fighter Wing – Tonopah Test Range* 415th Tactical Fighter Squadron (1989–1992)* 416th Tactical Fighter Squadron (1989–1992)* 417th Tactical Fighter Training Squadron (1989–1992) 49th Fighter Wing – Holloman AFB, New Mexico* 7th Fighter Squadron (1992–2006)* 8th Fighter Squadron (1992–2008)* 9th Fighter Squadron (1993–2008) 412th Test Wing – Edwards AFB, California* 410th Flight Test Squadron (1993–2008)" ], [ "Aircraft on display", "=== United States ===79-10781 ''Scorpion 2'' at the National Museum of the United States Air Force;YF-117A* 79-10780 ''Scorpion 1'' – on pedestal display on Nellis Boulevard, at the entrance to Nellis Air Force Base, Nevada ().", "It was put in place on 16 May 1992, the first F-117 to be made a gate guardian.", "* 79-10781 ''Scorpion 2'' – National Museum of the United States Air Force at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base outside Dayton, Ohio.", "It was delivered to the museum on 17 July 1991.", "* 79-10782 ''Scorpion 3'' – Holloman Air Force Base, New Mexico.", "It was repainted to resemble the first F-117A used to drop weapons in combat.", "This aircraft was used for acoustics and navigation system testing.", "While wearing a flag painted on its bottom surface, this aircraft revealed the type's existence to high-ranking officials at Groom Lake on 14 December 1983, the first semi-public unveiling of the aircraft.", "It was placed on display at Holloman AFB on 5 April 2008.", "* 79-10783 ''Scorpion 4'' – It had been previously on display at the Blackbird Airpark Museum at Air Force Plant 42, Palmdale, California.", "In June 2012, ''Scorpion 4'' was transported from Blackbird Airpark to Edwards AFB for restoration work; it is planned for the aircraft to be displayed at the Air Force Flight Test Museum.", ";F-117A* 80-0785 – Pole-mounted outside the Skunk Works facility at United States Air Force Plant 42 in Palmdale, California.", "Hybrid airframe comprising the wreckage of 80–0785, the first production F-117A, and static test articles 778 and 779.It is fixed to a pedestal and serves as a monument.", "* 81-0794 ''Delta Dawn'' - Museum of Aviation (Warner Robins); aircraft arrived at the museum on 18 May 2023; it is to be partially restored and put on display.", "* 82-0799 ''Midnight Rider'' – Hill Aerospace Museum; Aircraft arrived at the museum on 5 August 2020; it is to be prepared and painted for display.", "* 82-0803 ''Unexpected Guest'' – Displayed outside the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library in Simi Valley, California.", "It was fixed to a pedestal and became a monument.", "* 84-0810 ''Dark Angel'' – On 13 November 2022 it was reported on social media that the airframe was being delivered from Tonopah Test Range to the Pima Air & Space Museum.", "* 85-0813 ''The Toxic Avenger'' – Delivered to Castle Air Museum in Atwater, California on 29 July 2022 for restoration and then display.", "Restoration is expected to take about a year and cost around $75,000.", "85-0816 ''Lone Wolf'' - Evergreen Aviation & Space Museum, McMinnville, Oregon, undergoing restoration.", "It was the first F-117 to see combat.", " 85-0817 ''Shaba'' – Arrived at the Kalamazoo Air Zoo on 11 December 2020.Restoration completed and put on display July 2022.", "* 85-0819 ''Raven Beauty'' – Scheduled to be transported to the Stafford Air & Space Museum in early 2020 for preservation.", "* 84-0827 – Stripped fuselage listed as \"scrap\" on a government surplus website in early 2020.Fate unknown.", "* 85-0831 – Located at the Strategic Air Command & Aerospace Museum in Ashland, Nebraska, where it is scheduled for restoration and display.", "It served as a test aircraft at Air Force Plant 42 in Palmdale, California from 1987 to 2008.", "* 85-0833 ''Black Devil'' – Unveiled at Palm Springs Air Museum on 3 October 2020.Now on display following a period of restoration.=== Serbia ===;F-117A* 82-0806 ''Something Wicked'' – shot down over Serbia; the remains are displayed at the Museum of Aviation in Belgrade close to Belgrade Nikola Tesla Airport." ], [ "Nicknames", "The aircraft's official name is \"Night Hawk\", with the alternative form \"Nighthawk\" also used.As it prioritized stealth over aerodynamics, it earned the nickname \"Wobblin' Goblin\" due to its alleged instability at low speeds.", "However, F-117 pilots have stated the nickname is undeserved.", "\"Wobblin' (or Wobbly) Goblin\" is likely a holdover from the early ''Have Blue'' / ''Senior Trend'' (FSD) days of the project when instability was a problem.", "In the USAF, \"Goblin\" (without wobbly) persists as a nickname because of the aircraft's appearance.", "During Operation Desert Storm, Saudis dubbed the aircraft \"Shaba\", which is Arabic for \"Ghost\".", "Some pilots also called the airplane the \"Stinkbug\".During the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia in 1999 it picked up the nickname \"Invisible\" (Serbian Cyrillic \"Невидљиви\", Latin \"Nevidljivi\").", "The name became ironic after it was shot down over Serbian airspace near Buđanovci, leading to the phrase \"we didn't know it was invisible\"." ], [ "Specifications (F-117A)", "Schematic diagram and size comparison of Lockheed F-117A" ], [ "Notable appearances in media", "The Omaha Nighthawks professional American football team used the F-117 Nighthawk as its logo." ], [ "See also" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Bibliography ===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * === Further reading ===* * * * * * " ], [ "External links", " Lockheed F-117A Nighthawk.", "National Museum of the United States Air Force* The 49th Fighter Wing at Holloman Air Force Base* F-117A.com – The \"Black Jet\" website (a comprehensive site)* F-117 article and Stealth article on Centennial of Flight web site* F-117A Nighthawk page on AirAttack.com* F-117A Nighthawk page on FAS.org * The Advent, Evolution, and New Horizons of United States Stealth Aircraft* \"The Secrets of Stealth\" on Discovery Military Channel* Austrian Radar Plots on acig.org* Google Maps directory of all surviving F-117s on public display* Austrian article about interception of F-117" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Vought F4U Corsair" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Vought F4U Corsair''' is an American fighter aircraft that saw service primarily in World War II and the Korean War.", "Designed and initially manufactured by Chance Vought, the Corsair was soon in great demand; additional production contracts were given to Goodyear, whose Corsairs were designated '''FG''', and Brewster, designated '''F3A'''.The Corsair was designed and operated as a carrier-based aircraft, and entered service in large numbers with the U.S. Navy in late 1944 and early 1945.It quickly became one of the most capable carrier-based fighter-bombers of World War II.", "Some Japanese pilots regarded it as the most formidable American fighter of World War II and its naval aviators achieved an 11:1 kill ratio.", "Early problems with carrier landings and logistics led to it being eclipsed as the dominant carrier-based fighter by the Grumman F6F Hellcat, powered by the same Double Wasp engine first flown on the Corsair's initial prototype in 1940.Instead, the Corsair's early deployment was to land-based squadrons of the U.S. Marine Corps and U.S. Navy.The Corsair served almost exclusively as a fighter-bomber throughout the Korean War and during the French colonial wars in Indochina and Algeria.", "In addition to its use by the U.S. and British, the Corsair was also used by the Royal New Zealand Air Force, French Naval Aviation, and other air forces until the 1960s.From the first prototype delivery to the U.S. Navy in 1940, to final delivery in 1953 to the French, 12,571 F4U Corsairs were manufactured in 16 separate models.", "Its 1942–1953 production run was the longest of any U.S. piston-engined fighter." ], [ "Development", "In February 1938, the U.S. Navy Bureau of Aeronautics published two requests for proposal for twin-engined and single-engined fighters.", "For the single-engined fighter, the Navy requested the maximum obtainable speed, and a minimum stalling speed not higher than .", "A range of was specified.", "The fighter had to carry four guns, or three with increased ammunition.", "Provision had to be made for antiaircraft bombs to be carried in the wing.", "These small bombs would, according to thinking in the 1930s, be dropped on enemy aircraft formations.The XF4U-1 prototype in 1940/41, showing its more forward cockpit locationIn June 1938, the U.S. Navy signed a contract with Vought for a prototype bearing the factory designation '''V-166B''', the XF4U-1, BuNo 1443.The Corsair design team was led by Rex Beisel.", "After mock-up inspection in February 1939, construction of the XF4U-1 powered by an XR-2800-4 prototype of the Pratt & Whitney R-2800 Double Wasp twin-row, 18-cylinder radial engine, rated at went ahead quickly, as the very first airframe ever designed from the start to have a Double Wasp engine fitted for flight.", "When the prototype was completed, it had the biggest and most powerful engine, largest propeller, and probably the largest wing on any naval fighter to date.", "The first flight of the XF4U-1 was made on 29 May 1940, with Lyman A. Bullard, Jr. at the controls.", "The maiden flight proceeded normally until a hurried landing was made when the elevator trim tabs failed because of flutter.On 1 October 1940, the XF4U-1 became the first single-engined U.S. fighter to fly faster than by flying at an average ground speed of from Stratford to Hartford.", "The USAAC's twin engine Lockheed P-38 Lightning had flown over 400 mph in January–February 1939.The XF4U-1 also had an excellent rate of climb, although testing revealed some requirements would have to be rewritten.", "In full-power dive tests, speeds up to were achieved, but not without damage to the control surfaces and access panels, and in one case, an engine failure.", "The spin recovery standards also had to be relaxed, as recovery from the required two-turn spin proved impossible without resorting to an antispin chute.", "The problems clearly meant delays in getting the design into production.Reports coming back from the war in Europe indicated an armament of two synchronized engine cowling-mount machine guns, and two machine guns (one in each outer wing panel) was insufficient.", "The U.S. Navy's November 1940 production proposals specified heavier armament.", "The increased armament comprised three .50 caliber machine guns mounted in each wing panel.", "This improvement greatly increased the ability of the Corsair to shoot down enemy aircraft.Formal U.S. Navy acceptance trials for the XF4U-1 began in February 1941.The Navy entered into a letter of intent on 3 March 1941, received Vought's production proposal on 2 April, and awarded Vought a contract for 584 F4U-1 fighters, which were given the name \"Corsair\" – inherited from the firm's late-1920s Vought O2U naval biplane scout, which first bore the name – on 30 June of the same year.", "The first production F4U-1 performed its initial flight a year later, on 24 June 1942.It was a remarkable achievement for Vought; compared to land-based counterparts, carrier aircraft are \"overbuilt\" and heavier, to withstand the extreme stress of deck landings." ], [ "Design", " Pratt & Whitney R-2800-8 in a Goodyear FG-1 Corsair===Engine considerations===The F4U incorporated the largest engine available at the time, the 18-cylinder Pratt & Whitney R-2800 Double Wasp radial.", "To extract as much power as possible, a relatively large Hamilton Standard Hydromatic three-blade propeller of was used.===Landing gear and wings===Landing gear on an F4U-4 Corsair.To accommodate a folding wing, the designers considered retracting the main landing gear rearward, but for the chord of wing that was chosen, making the landing gear struts long enough to provide ground clearance for the large propeller was difficult.", "Their solution was an inverted gull wing, which considerably shortened the required length of the struts.", "The anhedral of the wing's inboard section also permitted the wing and fuselage to meet at the optimum angle for minimizing drag, without using wing-root fairings.", "The bent wing was heavier and more difficult to construct, however, offsetting these benefits.The Corsair's aerodynamics were an advance over those of contemporary naval fighters.", "The F4U was the first U.S. Navy aircraft to feature landing gear that retracted into a fully enclosed wheel well.", "The landing gear oleo struts—each with its own strut door enclosing it when retracted—rotated through 90° during retraction, with the wheel atop the lower end of the strut when retracted.", "A pair of rectangular doors enclosed each wheel well, leaving a streamlined wing.", "This swiveling, aft-retracting landing gear design was common to the Curtiss P-40 (and its predecessor, the P-36), as adopted for the F4U Corsair's main gear and its erstwhile Pacific War counterpart, the Grumman F6F Hellcat.", "The oil coolers were mounted in the heavily anhedraled inboard section of the wings, alongside the supercharger air intakes, and used openings in the leading edges of the wings, rather than protruding scoops.", "The large fuselage panels were made of aluminum and were attached to the frames with the newly developed technique of spot welding, thus mostly eliminating the use of rivets.", "While employing this new technology, the Corsair was also the last American-produced fighter aircraft to feature fabric as the skinning for the top and bottom of each outer wing, aft of the main spar and armament bays, and for the ailerons, elevators, and rudder.", "The elevators were also constructed from plywood.", "The Corsair, even with its streamlining and high-speed abilities, could fly slowly enough for carrier landings with full flap deployment of 50°.===Technical issues===In part because of its advances in technology and a top speed greater than existing Navy aircraft, numerous technical problems had to be solved before the Corsair entered service.", "Carrier suitability was a major development issue, prompting changes to the main landing gear, tail wheel, and tailhook.", "Early F4U-1s had difficulty recovering from developed spins, since the inverted gull wing's shape interfered with elevator authority.", "It was also found that the Corsair's left wing could stall and drop rapidly and without warning during slow carrier landings.", "In addition, if the throttle were suddenly advanced (for example, during an aborted landing) the left wing could stall and drop so quickly that the fighter could flip over with the rapid increase in power.", "These potentially lethal characteristics were later solved through the addition of a small, -long stall strip to the leading edge of the outer right wing, just outboard of the gun ports.", "This allowed the right wing to stall at the same time as the left.An early F4U-1 showing the \"birdcage\" canopy with rearwards production cockpit location.Other problems were encountered during early carrier trials.", "The combination of an aft cockpit and the Corsair's long nose made landings hazardous for newly trained pilots because of the lack of visibility due to said features.", "During landing approaches, it was found that oil from the opened hydraulically-powered cowl flaps could spatter onto the windscreen, severely reducing visibility, and the undercarriage oleo struts had bad rebound characteristics on landing, allowing the aircraft to bounce down the carrier deck.", "The first problem was solved by locking the top cowl flaps in front of the windscreen down permanently, then replacing them with a fixed panel.", "The undercarriage bounce took more time to solve, but eventually a \"bleed valve\" incorporated in the legs allowed the hydraulic pressure to be released gradually as the aircraft landed.", "The Corsair was not considered fit for carrier use until the wing stall problems and the deck bounce could be solved.Meanwhile, the more docile and simpler-to-build F6F Hellcat had begun entering service in its intended carrier-based use.", "The Navy wanted to standardize on one type of carrier fighter, and the Hellcat, while slower than the Corsair, was considered simpler to land on a carrier by an inexperienced pilot and proved to be successful almost immediately after introduction.", "The Navy's decision to choose the Hellcat meant that the Corsair was released to the U.S. Marine Corps.", "With no initial requirement for carrier landings, the Marine Corps deployed the Corsair to devastating effect from land bases.", "Corsair deployment aboard U.S. carriers was delayed until late 1944, by which time the last of the carrier landing problems, relating to the Corsair's long nose, had been tackled by the British.===Design modifications===Production F4U-1s featured several major modifications from the XF4U-1.A change of armament to six wing-mounted M2 Browning machine guns (three in each outer wing panel) and their ammunition (400 rounds for the inner pair, 375 rounds for the outer) meant the location of the wing fuel tanks had to be changed.", "In order to keep the fuel tank close to the center of gravity, the only available position was in the forward fuselage, ahead of the cockpit.", "Accordingly, as a self-sealing fuel tank replaced the fuselage mounted armament, the cockpit had to be moved back by and the fuselage lengthened.", "Later on, different variants of the F4U were given different armaments.", "While most Corsair variants had the standard armament of six .50 caliber M2 Browning machine guns, some models (like the F4U-1C) were equipped with four 20 millimeter M2 cannons for its main weapon.", "While these cannons were more powerful than the standard machine guns, they were not favored over the standard loadout.", "Only 200 models of this particular Corsair model were produced, out of the total 12,571.Other variants were capable of carrying mission specific weapons such as rockets and bombs.", "The F4U was able to carry up to a total of eight rockets, or four under each wing.", "It was able to carry up to four thousand pounds of explosive ordnance.", "This helped the Corsair take on a fighter bomber role, giving it a more versatile role as a ground support aircraft as well as a fighter.", "In addition, of armor plate was installed, along with a bullet-proof windscreen which was set internally, behind the curved Plexiglas windscreen.", "The canopy could be jettisoned in an emergency, and half-elliptical planform transparent panels, much like those of certain models of the Curtiss P-40, were inset into the sides of the fuselage's turtledeck structure behind the pilot's headrest, providing the pilot with a limited rear view over his shoulders.", "A rectangular Plexiglas panel was inset into the lower center section to allow the pilot to see directly beneath the aircraft and assist with deck landings.", "The engine used was the more powerful R-2800-8 (B series) Double Wasp which produced .", "On the wings the flaps were changed to a NACA slotted type and the ailerons were increased in span to increase the roll rate, with a consequent reduction in flap span.", "IFF transponder equipment was fitted in the rear fuselage.", "These changes increased the Corsair's weight by several hundred pounds.===Performance===The performance of the Corsair was superior to most of its contemporaries.", "The F4U-1 was considerably faster than the Grumman F6F Hellcat and only slower than the Republic P-47 Thunderbolt.", "All three were powered by the R-2800.But whereas the P-47 achieved its highest speed at with the help of an intercooled turbocharger, the F4U-1 reached its maximum speed at using a mechanically supercharged engine." ], [ "Operational history", "===World War II=======U.S.", "service=========Navy testing and release to the U.S. Marine Corps=====The U.S. Navy received its first production F4U-1 on 31 July 1942, though getting it into service proved difficult.", "The framed \"birdcage\" style canopy provided inadequate visibility for deck taxiing, and the long \"hose nose\" and nose-up attitude of the Corsair made it difficult to see straight ahead.", "The enormous torque of the Double Wasp engine also made it a handful for inexperienced pilots if they were forced to bolter.", "Early Navy pilots called the F4U the \"hog\", \"hosenose\", or \"bent-wing widow maker\".Carrier qualification trials on the training carrier USS ''Wolverine'' and escort carriers USS ''Core'' and USS ''Charger'' in 1942 found that, despite visibility issues and control sensitivity, the Corsair was \"...an excellent carrier type and very easy to land aboard.", "It is no different than any other airplane.\"", "Two Navy units, VF-12 (October 1942) and later VF-17 (April 1943) were equipped with the F4U.", "By April 1943, VF-12 had successfully completed deck landing qualification.At the time, the U.S. Navy also had the Grumman F6F Hellcat, which did not have the performance of the F4U, but was a better deck landing aircraft.", "The Corsair was declared \"ready for combat\" at the end of 1942, though qualified to operate only from land bases until the last of the carrier qualification issues were worked out.", "VF-17 went aboard the in late 1943, and the Chief of Naval Operations wanted to equip four air groups with Corsairs by the end of 1943.The Commander, Air Forces, Pacific had a different opinion, stating that \"In order to simplify spares problems and also to insure flexibility in carrier operations present practice in the Pacific is to assign all Corsairs to Marines and to equip FightRons fighter squadrons on medium and light carriers with Hellcats.\"", "VF-12 soon abandoned its aircraft to the Marines.", "VF-17 kept its Corsairs, but was removed from its carrier, USS ''Bunker Hill'', due to perceived difficulties in supplying parts at sea.The Marines needed a better fighter than the F4F Wildcat.", "For them, it was not as important that the F4U could be recovered aboard a carrier, as they usually flew from land bases.", "Growing pains aside, Marine Corps squadrons readily took to the radical new fighter.=====Marine Corps combat=====Gregory \"Pappy\" Boyington, the commander of VMF-214, Vella Lavella end of 1943Early F4U-1s of VF-17From February 1943 onward, the F4U operated from Guadalcanal and ultimately other bases in the Solomon Islands.", "A dozen USMC F4U-1s of VMF-124, commanded by Major William E. Gise, arrived at Henderson Field (code name \"Cactus\") on 12 February.", "The first recorded combat engagement was on 14 February 1943, when Corsairs of VMF-124 under Major Gise assisted P-40s and P-38s in escorting a formation of Consolidated B-24 Liberators on a raid against a Japanese aerodrome at Kahili.", "Japanese fighters contested the raid and the Americans got the worst of it, with four P-38s, two P-40s, two Corsairs, and two Liberators lost.", "No more than four Japanese Zeros were destroyed.", "A Corsair was responsible for one of the kills, albeit due to a midair collision.", "The fiasco was referred to as the \"Saint Valentine's Day Massacre\".", "Despite the debut, the Marines quickly learned how to make better use of the aircraft and started demonstrating its superiority over Japanese fighters.", "By May, the Corsair units were getting the upper hand, and VMF-124 had produced the first Corsair ace, Second Lieutenant Kenneth A. Walsh, who would rack up a total of 21 kills during the war.", "He remembered:VMF-113 was activated on 1 January 1943 at Marine Corps Air Station El Toro as part of Marine Base Defense Air Group 41.They were soon given their full complement of 24 F4U Corsairs.", "On 26 March 1944, while escorting four B-25 bombers on a raid over Ponape, they recorded their first enemy kills, downing eight Japanese aircraft.", "In April of that year, VMF-113 was tasked with providing air support for the landings at Ujelang.", "Since the assault was unopposed, the squadron quickly returned to striking Japanese targets in the Marshall Islands for the remainder of 1944.Corsairs were flown by the \"Black Sheep\" Squadron (VMF-214, led by Marine Major Gregory \"Pappy\" Boyington) in an area of the Solomon Islands called \"The Slot\".", "Boyington was credited with 22 kills in F4Us (of 28 total, including six in an AVG P-40, although his score with the AVG has been disputed).", "Other noted Corsair pilots of the period included VMF-124's Kenneth Walsh, James E. Swett, Archie Donahue, and Bill \"Casey\" Case; VMF-215's Robert M. Hanson and Donald Aldrich; and VF-17's Tommy Blackburn, Roger Hedrick, and Ira Kepford.", "Nightfighter versions equipped Navy and Marine units afloat and ashore.One particularly unusual kill was scored by Marine Lieutenant R. R. Klingman of VMF-312 (the \"Checkerboards\") over Okinawa.", "Klingman was in pursuit of a Japanese twin-engine aircraft at high altitude when his guns jammed due to the gun lubrication thickening from the extreme cold.", "He flew up and chopped off the enemy's tail with the big propeller of the Corsair.", "Despite missing off the end of his propeller blades, he managed to land safely after this aerial ramming attack.", "He was awarded the Navy Cross.At war's end, Corsairs were ashore on Okinawa, combating the ''kamikaze'', and also were flying from fleet and escort carriers.", "VMF-312, VMF-323, VMF-224, and a handful of others met with success in the Battle of Okinawa.=====Field modifications for land-based Corsairs=====Since Corsairs were being operated from shore bases, while still awaiting approval for U.S. carrier operations, 965 FG-1As were built as \"land planes\" without their hydraulic wing folding mechanisms, hoping to improve performance by reducing aircraft weight, with the added benefit of minimizing complexity.", "(These Corsairs’ wings could still be manually folded.", ")A second option was to remove the folding mechanism in the field using a kit, which could be done for Vought and Brewster Corsairs as well.", "On 6 December 1943, the Bureau of Aeronautics issued guidance on weight-reduction measures for the F4U-1, FG-1, and F3A.", "Corsair squadrons operating from land bases were authorized to remove catapult hooks, arresting hooks, and associated equipment, which eliminated 48 pounds of unnecessary weight.", "While there are no data to indicate to what extent these modifications were incorporated, there are numerous photos in evidence of Corsairs, of various manufacturers and models, on islands in the Pacific without tailhooks installed.A Corsair fires its rockets at a Japanese stronghold on Okinawa=====Fighter-bomber=====Corsairs also served well as fighter-bombers in the Central Pacific and the Philippines.", "By early 1944, Marine pilots were beginning to exploit the type's considerable capabilities in the close-support role in amphibious landings.", "Charles Lindbergh flew Corsairs with the Marines as a civilian technical advisor for United Aircraft Corporation in order to determine how best to increase the Corsair's payload and range in the attack role and to help evaluate future viability of single- versus twin-engine fighter design for Vought.", "Lindbergh managed to get the F4U into the air with of bombs, with a bomb on the centerline and a bomb under each wing.", "In the course of such experiments, he performed strikes on Japanese positions during the battle for the Marshall Islands.By the beginning of 1945, the Corsair was a full-blown \"mudfighter\", performing strikes with high-explosive bombs, napalm tanks, and HVARs.", "It proved versatile, able to operate everything from Bat glide bombs to Tiny Tim rockets.", "The aircraft was a prominent participant in the fighting for the Palaus, Iwo Jima and Okinawa.=====Navy service=====In November 1943, while operating as a shore-based unit in the Solomon Islands, VF-17 reinstalled the tail hooks so its F4Us could land and refuel while providing top cover over the task force participating in the carrier raid on Rabaul.", "The squadron's pilots landed, refueled, and took off from their former home, ''Bunker Hill'' and on 11 November 1943.Twelve USMC F4U-1s arrived at Henderson Field (Guadalcanal) on 12 February 1943.The U.S. Navy did not get into combat with the type until September 1943.The work done by the Royal Navy's FAA meant those models qualified the type for U.S. carrier operations first.", "The U.S. Navy finally accepted the F4U for shipboard operations in April 1944, after the longer oleo strut was fitted, which eliminated the tendency to bounce.", "The first US Corsair unit to be based effectively on a carrier was the pioneer USMC squadron VMF-124, which joined ''Essex'' in December 1944.They were accompanied by VMF-213.The increasing need for fighter protection against ''kamikaze'' attacks resulted in more Corsair units being moved to carriers.=====Sortie, kill and loss figures=====U.S.", "figures compiled at the end of the war indicate that the F4U and FG flew 64,051 operational sorties for the U.S. Marines and U.S. Navy through the conflict (44% of total fighter sorties), with only 9,581 sorties (15%) flown from carrier decks.", "F4U and FG pilots claimed 2,140 air combat victories against 189 losses to enemy aircraft, for an overall kill ratio of over 11:1.While this gave the Corsair the lowest loss rate of any fighter of the Pacific War, this was due in part to operational circumstances; it primarily faced air-to-air combat in the Solomon Islands and Rabaul campaigns (as well as at Leyte and for kamikaze interception), but as operations shifted north and its mission shifted to ground attack the aircraft saw less exposure to enemy aircraft, while other fighter types were exposed to more air combat.", "Against the best Japanese opponents, the aircraft claimed a 12:1 kill ratio against the Mitsubishi A6M Zero and 6:1 against the Nakajima Ki-84, Kawanishi N1K-J, and Mitsubishi J2M combined during the last year of the war.", "The Corsair bore the brunt of U.S. fighter-bomber missions, delivering of bombs during the war (70% of total bombs dropped by U.S. fighters during the war).Corsair losses in World War II were as follows:* Aerial combat: 189* Enemy ground and shipboard anti-aircraft fire: 349* Operational losses during combat missions: 230* Operational losses during non-combat flights: 692* Destroyed aboard ships or on the ground: 164====Royal Navy=========Enhancement for carrier suitability=====FAA Corsair Is at NAS Quonset Point, 1943.In the early days of World War II, Royal Navy fighter requirements had been based on cumbersome two-seat designs, such as the fighter/dive-bomber Blackburn Skua (and its turreted derivative the Blackburn Roc) and the fighter/reconnaissance Fairey Fulmar, since it was expected that they would encounter only long-range bombers or flying boats and that navigation over featureless seas required the assistance of a radio operator/navigator.", "The Royal Navy hurriedly adopted higher-performance single-seat aircraft such as the Hawker Sea Hurricane and the less robust Supermarine Seafire alongside, but neither aircraft had sufficient range to operate at a distance from a carrier task force.", "The Corsair was welcomed as a more robust and versatile alternative.In November 1943, the Royal Navy received its first batch of 95 Vought F4U-1s, which were given the designation \"Corsair Mark I\".", "The first squadrons were assembled and trained on the U.S. East Coast and then shipped across the Atlantic.", "The Royal Navy put the Corsair into carrier operations immediately.", "They found its landing characteristics dangerous, suffering a number of fatal crashes, but considered the Corsair to be the best option they had.In Royal Navy service, because of the limited hangar deck height in several classes of British carrier, many Corsairs had their outer wings \"clipped\" by to clear the deckhead.", "The change in span brought about the added benefit of improving the sink rate, reducing the F4U's propensity to \"float\" in the final stages of landing.The Royal Navy developed a number of modifications to the Corsair that made carrier landings more practical.", "Among these were a bulged canopy (similar to the Malcolm Hood), raising the pilot's seat , and wiring shut the cowl flaps across the top of the engine compartment, diverting oil and hydraulic fluid spray around the sides of the fuselage.", "The curved approach used with the Seafire was also adopted for landing Corsairs, ensuring the flight deck was kept in sight as long as possible.=====Deployment=====The Royal Navy initially received 95 \"birdcage\" F4U-1s from Vought which were designated Corsair Mk I in Fleet Air Arm service.", "Next from Vought came 510 \"blown-canopy\" F4U-1A/-1Ds, which were designated Corsair Mk II (the final 150 equivalent to the F4U-1D, but not separately designated in British use).", "430 Brewster Corsairs (334 F3A-1 and 96 F3A-1D), more than half of Brewster's total production, were delivered to Britain as the Corsair Mk III.", "857 Goodyear Corsairs (400 FG-1/-1A and 457 FG-1D) were delivered and designated Corsair Mk IV.", "The Mk IIs and Mk IVs were the only versions to be used in combat.The Royal Navy cleared the F4U for carrier operations well before the U.S. Navy and showed that the Corsair Mk II could be operated with reasonable success even from escort carriers.", "It was not without problems; one was excessive wear of the arrester wires, due both to the weight of the Corsair and the understandable tendency of the pilots to stay well above the stalling speed.", "A total of 2,012 Corsairs were supplied to the United Kingdom.Fleet Air Arm (FAA) units were created and equipped in the United States, at Quonset Point or Brunswick and then shipped to war theaters aboard escort carriers.", "The first FAA Corsair unit was 1830 NAS, created on the first of June 1943, and soon operating from .", "At the end of the war, 18 FAA squadrons were operating the Corsair.", "British Corsairs served both in Europe and in the Pacific.", "The first, and also most important, European operations were the series of attacks (Operation Tungsten) in April, July, and August 1944 on the , for which Corsairs from and provided fighter cover.", "It appears the Corsairs did not encounter aerial opposition on these raids.From April 1944, Corsairs from the British Pacific Fleet took part in several major air raids in South East Asia beginning with Operation Cockpit, an attack on Japanese targets at Sabang island, in the Dutch East Indies.In July and August 1945, Corsair naval squadrons 1834, 1836, 1841, and 1842 took part in a series of strikes on the Japanese mainland, near Tokyo.", "These squadrons operated from ''Victorious'' and ''Formidable.''", "On 9 August 1945, days before the end of the war, Corsairs from ''Formidable'' attacked Shiogama harbor on the northeast coast of Japan.", "Royal Canadian Navy Volunteer Reserve pilot, Lieutenant Robert Hampton Gray, of 1841 Squadron was hit by flak but pressed home his attack on the Japanese destroyer escort ''Amakusa'', sinking it with a bomb but crashing into the sea.", "He was posthumously awarded Canada's last Victoria Cross, becoming the second fighter pilot of the war to earn a Victoria Cross as well as the final Canadian casualty of World War II.", "1831 NAS Corsair aboard , off Rabaul, 1945, with added \"bars\" based on their 28 June 1943 adoption by the U.S. NavyFAA Corsairs originally fought in a camouflage scheme with a Dark Slate Grey/Extra Dark Sea Grey disruptive pattern on top and Sky undersides, but were later painted overall dark blue.", "As it had become imperative for all Allied aircraft in the Pacific Theater of World War II to abandon all use of any \"red devices\" in their national insignia — to prevent any chance of misidentification with Japanese military aircraft, all of which bore the circular, all-red ''Hinomaru'' insignia (nicknamed a \"meatball\" by Allied aircrew) that is still in use to this day, the United States removed all areas of red color (specifically removing the red center to the roundel) and removed any sort of national fin/rudder markings, which at that time had seven horizontal red stripes, from the American national aircraft insignia scheme by 6 May 1942.The British did likewise, starting with a simple paintover with white paint, of their \"Type C\" roundel's red center, at about the time the U.S. Navy removed the red-center from their roundel.", "Later, a shade of slate gray center color replaced the white color on the earlier roundel.", "When the Americans starting using the added white bars to either side of their blue/white star roundel on 28 June 1943; SEAC British Corsairs, most all of which still used the earlier blue/white Type C roundel with the red center removed, added similar white bars to either side of their blue-white roundels to emulate the Americans.In all, out of 18 carrier-based squadrons, eight saw combat, flying intensive ground attack/interdiction operations and claiming 47.5 aircraft shot down.At the end of World War II, under the terms of the Lend-Lease agreement, the aircraft had to be paid for or to be returned to the U.S. As the UK did not have the means to pay for them, the Royal Navy Corsairs were pushed overboard into the sea in Moreton Bay off Brisbane, Australia.====Royal New Zealand Air Force====Equipped with obsolete Curtiss P-40s, Royal New Zealand Air Force (RNZAF) squadrons in the South Pacific performed impressively, in particular in the air-to-air role.", "The American government accordingly decided to give New Zealand early access to the Corsair, especially as it was not initially being used from carriers.", "Some 424 Corsairs equipped 13 RNZAF squadrons, including No.", "14 Squadron RNZAF and No.", "15 Squadron RNZAF, replacing Douglas SBD Dauntlesses as well as P-40s.", "Most of the F4U-1s were assembled by Unit 60 with a further batch assembled and flown at RNZAF Station Hobsonville.", "In total there were 336 F4U-1s and 41 F4U-1Ds used by the RNZAF during the Second World War.", "Sixty FG-1Ds arrived late in the war.RNZAF Corsairs with a Royal Australian Air Force CAC Boomerang on Bougainville, 1945.The first deliveries of lend-lease Corsairs began in March 1944 with the arrival of 30 F4U-1s at the RNZAF Base Depot Workshops (Unit 60) on the island of Espiritu Santo in the New Hebrides.", "From April, these workshops became responsible for assembling all Corsairs for the RNZAF units operating the aircraft in the South West Pacific; and a Test and Despatch flight was set up to test the aircraft after assembly.", "By June 1944, 100 Corsairs had been assembled and test flown.", "The first squadrons to use the Corsair were 20 and 21 Squadrons on Espiritu Santo, operational in May 1944.The organization of the RNZAF in the Pacific and New Zealand meant that only the pilots and a small staff belonged to each squadron (the maximum strength on a squadron was 27 pilots): squadrons were assigned to several Servicing Units (SUs, composed of 5–6 officers, 57 NCOs, 212 airmen) which carried out aircraft maintenance and operated from fixed locations: hence F4U-1 ''NZ5313'' was first used by 20 Squadron/1 SU on Guadalcanal in May 1944; 20 Squadron was then relocated to 2 SU on Bougainville in November.", "In all there were ten front line SUs plus another three based in New Zealand.", "Because each of the SUs painted its aircraft with distinctive markings and the aircraft themselves could be repainted in several different color schemes, the RNZAF Corsairs were far less uniform in appearance than their American and FAA contemporaries.", "By late 1944, the F4U had equipped all ten Pacific-based fighter squadrons of the RNZAF.By the time the Corsairs arrived, there were very few Japanese aircraft left in New Zealand's allocated sectors of the Southern Pacific, and despite the RNZAF squadrons extending their operations to more northern islands, they were primarily used for close support of American, Australian, and New Zealand soldiers fighting the Japanese.", "At the end of 1945, all Corsair squadrons but one (No.", "14) were disbanded.", "That last squadron was based in Japan, until the Corsair was retired from service in 1947.No.", "14 Squadron was given new FG-1Ds and in March 1946 transferred to Iwakuni, Japan as part of the British Commonwealth Occupation Force.", "Only one airworthy example of the 437 aircraft procured survives: FG-1D ''NZ5648''/''ZK-COR'', owned by the Old Stick and Rudder Company at Masterton, New Zealand.====Captured Corsairs====On 18 July 1944, a British Corsair (serial ''JT404'') of 1841 Naval Air Squadron, was involved in anti-submarine patrol from HMS ''Formidable'' as it returned to Scapa Flow after the Operation Mascot attack on the German battleship ''Tirpitz''.", "It flew in company with a Fairey Barracuda.", "Due to technical problems the Corsair made an emergency landing in a field on Hamarøy north of Bodø, Norway.", "The pilot, Lt Mattholie, was taken prisoner and the aircraft captured undamaged.", "Luftwaffe interrogators failed to get the pilot to explain how to fold the wings so as to transport the aircraft to Narvik.", "The Corsair was ferried by boat for further investigation.", "Later the Corsair was taken to Germany and listed as one of the captured enemy aircraft (''Beuteflugzeug'') based at ''Erprobungsstelle Rechlin'', the central German military aviation test facility and the equivalent of the Royal Aircraft Establishment, for 1944 under repair.", "This was probably the only Corsair captured by the Germans.In 1945, U.S. forces captured an F4U Corsair near the Kasumigaura flight school.", "The Japanese had repaired it, covering damaged parts on the wing with fabric and using spare parts from crashed F4Us.", "It seems Japan captured two force-landed Corsairs fairly late in the war and may have even tested one in flight.===Korean War===A United States Navy F4U-5NL Corsair equipped with the air intercept radar (right wing) and a 154-gallon drop tank in the Geneseo Airshow, on 9 July 2006During the Korean War, the Corsair was used mostly in the close-support role.", "The '''AU-1''' Corsair was developed from the F4U-5 and was a ground-attack version which normally operated at low altitudes: as a consequence the Pratt & Whitney R-2800-83W engine used a single-stage, manually controlled supercharger, rather than the two-stage automatic supercharger of the -5.The versions of the Corsair used in Korea from 1950 to 1953 were the AU-1, F4U-4B, -4P, and -5N and -5NL.", "There were dogfights between F4Us and Soviet-built Yakovlev Yak-9 fighters early in the war, but when the enemy introduced the Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15, the Corsair was outmatched.", "On 10 September 1952, a MiG-15 made the mistake of getting into a turning contest with a Corsair piloted by Marine Captain Jesse G. Folmar, with Folmar shooting the MiG down with his four 20 mm cannon.", "In turn, four MiG-15s shot down Folmar minutes later; Folmar bailed out and was quickly rescued with little injury.F4U-5N and -5NL Corsair night fighters were used to attack enemy supply lines, including truck convoys and trains, as well as interdicting night attack aircraft such as the Polikarpov Po-2 \"Bedcheck Charlies\", which were used to harass United Nations forces at night.", "The F4Us often operated with the help of C-47 'flare ships' which dropped hundreds of 1,000,000 candlepower magnesium flares to illuminate the targets.", "For many operations detachments of U.S. Navy F4U-5Ns were posted to shore bases.", "The leader of one such unit, Lieutenant Guy Bordelon of VC-3 Det D (Detachment D), off , became the Navy's only ace in the war, in addition to being the only American ace in Korea that used a piston engined aircraft.", "Bordelon, nicknamed \"Lucky Pierre\", was credited with three Lavochkin La-9s or La-11s and two Yakovlev Yak-18s between 29 June and 16/17 July 1952.Navy and Marine Corsairs were credited with a total of 12 enemy aircraft.More generally, Corsairs performed attacks with cannons, napalm tanks, various iron bombs, and unguided rockets.", "The 5 inch HVAR was a reliable standby; sturdy Soviet-built armor proved resistant to the HVAR's punch, which led to a new shaped charge antitank warhead being developed.", "The result was called the \"Anti-Tank Aircraft Rocket (ATAR).\"", "The \"Tiny Tim\" was also used in combat, with two under the belly.Lieutenant Thomas J. Hudner, Jr., flying an F4U-4 of VF-32 off , was awarded the Medal of Honor for crash landing his Corsair in an attempt to rescue his squadron mate, Ensign Jesse L. Brown, whose aircraft had been forced down by antiaircraft fire near Changjin.", "Brown, who did not survive the incident, was the U.S. Navy's first African American naval aviator.===Aéronavale===Early F4U-7 Corsair in flight in black and white with the former flashes of the French Naval Aviation After the war, the French Navy had an urgent requirement for a powerful carrier-borne close-air support aircraft to operate from the French Navy's four aircraft carriers that it acquired in the late 1940s (Two former U.S. Navy and two Royal Navy carriers were transferred).", "Secondhand US Navy Douglas SBD Dauntless dive-bombers of Flotille 3F and 4F were used to attack enemy targets and support ground forces in the First Indochina War.", "Former US Grumman F6F-5 Hellcats and Curtiss SB2C Helldivers were also used for close air support.", "A new and more capable aircraft was needed.====First Indochina War====The last production Corsair was the '''F4U-7'', which was built specifically for the French naval air arm, the Aéronavale.", "The XF4U-7 prototype did its test flight on 2 July 1952 with a total of 94 F4U-7s built for the French Navy's ''Aéronavale'' (79 in 1952, 15 in 1953), with the last of the batch, the final Corsair built, rolled out on 31 January 1953.The F4U-7s were actually purchased by the U.S. Navy and passed on to the Aéronavale through the U.S. Military Assistance Program (MAP).", "The French Navy used its F4U-7s during the second half of the First Indochina War in the 1950s (12.F, 14.F, 15.F Flotillas), where they were supplemented by at least 25 ex-USMC AU-1s passed on to the French in 1954, after the end of the Korean War.On 15 January 1953, Flotille 14F, based at Karouba Air Base near Bizerte in Tunisia, became the first Aéronavale unit to receive the F4U-7 Corsair.", "Flotille 14F pilots arrived at Da Nang, Vietnam on 17 April 1954, but without their aircraft.", "The next day, the carrier USS ''Saipan'' delivered 25 war-weary ground attack ex-USMC AU-1 Corsairs (flown by VMA-212 at the end of the Korean War) to Tourane Air Base.", "During three months operating over Vietnam (including in support of the Battle of Dien Bien Phu), the Corsairs flew 959 combat sorties totaling 1,335 flight hours.", "They dropped some 700 tons of bombs and fired more than 300 rockets and 70,000 20 mm rounds.", "Six aircraft were damaged and two shot down by Viet Minh.In September 1954, F4U-7 Corsairs were loaded aboard and brought back to France in November.", "The surviving Ex-USMC AU-1s were taken to the Philippines and returned to the U.S. Navy.", "In 1956, Flotille 15F returned to South Vietnam, equipped with F4U-7 Corsairs.====Suez Crisis====The 14.F and 15.F Flotillas also took part in the Anglo-French-Israeli seizure of the Suez Canal in October 1956, code-named Operation Musketeer.", "The Corsairs were painted with yellow and black recognition stripes for this operation.", "They were tasked with destroying Egyptian Navy ships at Alexandria but the presence of U.S. Navy ships prevented the successful completion of the mission.", "On 3 November 16 F4U-7s attacked airfields in the Delta, with one Corsair shot down by anti-aircraft fire.", "Two more Corsairs were damaged when landing back on the carriers.", "The Corsairs engaged in Operation Musketeer dropped a total of 25 tons of bombs, and fired more than 500 rockets and 16,000 20mm rounds.====Algerian War====As soon as they disembarked from the carriers that took part in Operation Musketeer, at the end of 1956, all three Corsair Flotillas moved to Telergma and Oran airfields in Algeria from where they provided CAS and helicopter escort.", "They were joined by the new \"Flottille 17F\", established at Hyères in April 1958.French F4U-7 Corsairs (with some borrowed AU-1s) of the 12F, 14F, 15F, and 17F Flotillas conducted missions during the Algerian War between 1955 and 1962.Between February and March 1958, several strikes and CAS missions were launched from , the only carrier involved in the Algeria War.Former Argentine F4U-5NL in Aeronavale 14.F flotilla colors in 2006====Tunisia====France recognized Tunisian independence and sovereignty in 1956 but continued to station military forces at Bizerte and planned to extend the airbase.", "In 1961, Tunisia asked France to evacuate the base.", "Tunisia imposed a blockade on the base on 17 July, hoping to force its evacuation.", "This resulted in a battle between militiamen and the French military which lasted three days.", "French paratroopers, escorted by Corsairs of the 12F and 17F Flotillas, were dropped to reinforce the base and the Aéronavale launched air strikes on Tunisian troops and vehicles between 19–21 July, carrying out more than 150 sorties.", "Three Corsairs were damaged by ground fire.====French experiments====In early 1959, the ''Aéronavale'' experimented with the Vietnam War-era SS.11 wire-guided anti-tank missile on F4U-7 Corsairs.", "The 12.F pilots trained for this experimental program were required to manually pilot the missile at approximatively two kilometers from the target on low altitude with a joystick using the right hand while keeping track of a flare on its tail, and piloting the aircraft using the left hand; an exercise that could be very tricky in a single-seat aircraft under combat conditions.", "Despite reportedly effective results during the tests, this armament was not used with Corsairs during the ongoing Algerian War.The ''Aéronavale'' used 163 Corsairs (94 F4U-7s and 69 AU-1s), the last of them used by the Cuers-based 14.F Flotilla were out of service by September 1964, with some surviving for museum display or as civilian warbirds.", "By the early 1960s, two new modern aircraft carriers, and , had entered service with the French Navy and with them a new generation of jet-powered combat aircraft.===\"Football War\"===Honduran Air Force Vought F4U-5NL No.", "FAH-609 Corsair flown by Cap.", "Fernando Soto when he shot down three Salvadoran Air Force planes.Corsairs flew their final combat missions in 1969 during the \"Football War\" between Honduras and El Salvador, in service with both air forces.", "The conflict was allegedly triggered, though not really caused, by a disagreement over a soccer (association football) match.", "Captain Fernando Soto of the Honduran Air Force shot down three Salvadoran Air Force aircraft on 17 July 1969.In the morning he shot down a Cavalier Mustang, killing the pilot.", "In the afternoon, he shot down two FG-1s; the pilot of the second aircraft may have bailed out, but the third exploded in the air, killing the pilot.", "These combats were the last ones among propeller-driven aircraft in the world and also making Soto the only pilot credited with three kills in an American continental war.", "El Salvador did not shoot down any Honduran aircraft.", "At the outset of the Football War, El Salvador enlisted the assistance of several American pilots with P-51 and F4U experience.", "Bob Love (a Korean war ace), Chuck Lyford, Ben Hall, and Lynn Garrison are believed to have flown combat missions, but it has never been confirmed.", "Lynn Garrison had purchased F4U-7 133693 from the French MAAG office when he retired from French naval service in 1964.It was registered N693M and was later destroyed in a 1987 crash in San Diego, California.===Legacy===The Corsair entered service in 1942.Although designed as a carrier fighter, initial operation from carrier decks proved to be troublesome.", "Its low-speed handling was tricky due to the left wing stalling before the right wing.", "This factor, together with poor visibility over the long nose (leading to one of its nicknames, \"The Hose Nose\"), made landing a Corsair on a carrier a difficult task.", "For these reasons, most Corsairs initially went to Marine Corps squadrons which operated off land-based runways, with some early Goodyear-built examples (designated '''FG-1A''') being built with fixed wings.", "The USMC aviators welcomed the Corsair with open arms as its performance was far superior to the contemporary Brewster F2A Buffalo and Grumman F4F-3 and -4 Wildcat.Moreover, the Corsair was able to outperform the primary Japanese fighter, the A6M Zero.", "While the Zero could outturn the F4U at low speed, the Corsair was faster and could outclimb and outdive the A6M.This performance advantage, combined with the ability to take severe punishment, meant a pilot could place an enemy aircraft in the killing zone of the F4U's six .50 (12.7 mm) M2 Browning machine guns and keep him there long enough to inflict major damage.", "The 2,300 rounds carried by the Corsair gave just under 30 seconds of fire from each gun.Corsair on display at the National Air and Space Museum, Steven F. Udvar-Hazy CenterBeginning in 1943, the Fleet Air Arm also received Corsairs and flew them successfully from Royal Navy carriers in combat with the British Pacific Fleet and in Norway.", "These were clipped-wing Corsairs, the wingtips shortened to clear the lower overhead height of RN carriers.", "FAA also developed a curving landing approach to overcome the F4U's deficiencies.Underside of a CorsairInfantrymen nicknamed the Corsair \"The Sweetheart of the Marianas\" and \"The Angel of Okinawa\" for its roles in these campaigns.", "Among Navy and Marine aviators, the aircraft was nicknamed \"Ensign Eliminator\" and \"Bent-Wing Eliminator\" because it required many more hours of flight training to master than other Navy carrier-borne aircraft.", "It was also called simply \"U-bird\" or \"Bent Wing Bird\".", "Although Allied World War II sources frequently make the claim that the Japanese called the Corsair the \"Whistling Death\", Japanese sources do not support this, and it was mainly known as the Sikorsky.The Corsair has been named the official aircraft of Connecticut due to its multiple connections to Connecticut businesses including airframe manufacturer Vought-Sikorsky Aircraft, engine manufacturer Pratt & Whitney and propeller manufacturer Hamilton Standard." ], [ "Variants", "An early F4U-1 in flight.During World War II, Corsair production expanded beyond Vought to include Brewster and Goodyear models.", "Allied forces flying the aircraft in World War II included the Fleet Air Arm and the Royal New Zealand Air Force.", "Eventually, more than 12,500 F4Us would be built, comprising 16 separate variants.", "'''F4U-1''' (called '''Corsair Mk I''' by the Fleet Air Arm):The first production version of the Corsair with the distinctive \"birdcage\" canopy and low seating position.", "The differences over the XF4U-1 were as follows:* Six Browning AN/M2 machine guns were fitted in the outer wing panels, displacing fuel tanks.", "* An enlarged fuel tank was fitted ahead of the cockpit, in place of the fuselage armament.", "The cockpit was moved back by .", "* The fuselage was lengthened by .", "* The more powerful R-2800-8 Double Wasp was fitted.", "* of armor plate was fitted to the cockpit and a thick bullet-resistant glass panel was fitted behind the curved windscreen.", "* IFF transponder equipment was fitted.", "* Curved transparent panels were incorporated into the fuselage behind the pilot's headrest.", "* The flaps were changed from deflector type to NACA slotted.", "* The span of the ailerons was increased while that of the flaps was decreased.", "* One auxiliary fuel cell (not a self-sealing type) was installed in each wing leading edge, just outboard of the guns.The Royal Navy's Fleet Air Arm received 95 Vought F4U-1s.", "These were all early \"birdcage\" Corsairs.", "Vought also built a single F4U-1 two-seat trainer; the Navy showed no interest.", "'''F4U-1A''' (called '''Corsair Mk II''' by the Fleet Air Arm):An F4U-1A in Fleet Air Arm serviceMid-to-late production Corsairs incorporated a new, taller, wider canopy with only two frames — very close to what the Malcolm hood did for British fighter aircraft — along with a simplified windscreen; the new canopy design allowed the semi-elliptical turtledeck \"flank\" windows to be omitted.", "The designation F4U-1A to differentiate these Corsairs from earlier \"birdcage\" variants was allowed to be used internally by manufacturers.", "The pilot's seat was raised which, combined with the new canopy and a lengthening of the tailwheel strut, allowed the pilot better visibility over the long nose.", "In addition to these changes, the bombing window under the cockpit was omitted.", "These Corsairs introduced a -long stall strip just outboard of the gun ports on the right wing leading edge and improved undercarriage oleo struts which eliminated bouncing on landing, making these the first truly \"carrier capable\" F4Us.Three hundred and sixty F4U-1As were delivered to the Fleet Air Arm.", "In British service, they were modified with \"clipped\" wings ( was cut off each wingtip) for use on British aircraft carriers, although the Royal Navy had been successfully operating the Corsair Mk I since 1 June 1943 when 1830 Naval Air Squadron was commissioned and assigned to HMS ''Illustrious''.", "F4U-1s in many USMC squadrons had their arrester hooks removed.", "Additionally, an experimental R-2800-8W engine with water injection was fitted on one of the late F4U-1As.", "After satisfactory results, many F4U-1As were fitted with the new powerplant.", "The aircraft carried in the main fuel tank, located in front of the cockpit, as well as an unarmored, non-self-sealing fuel tank in each wing.", "This version of the Corsair was the first to be able to carry a drop tank under the center-section.", "With drop tanks fitted, the fighter had a maximum ferry range of just over .A F3A-1 in a dive'''F3A-1''' and '''F3A-1D''' (called '''Corsair Mk III''' by the Fleet Air Arm):This was the designation for Brewster-built F4U-1.Labor troubles delayed production, and the Navy ordered the company's contract terminated; they folded soon after.", "Poor quality wing fittings meant that these aircraft were red-lined for speed and prohibited from aerobatics after several lost their wings.", "None of the Brewster-built Corsairs reached front line units.", "430 Brewster Corsairs (334 F3A-1 and 96 F3A-1D), more than half of Brewster's total production, were delivered to the Fleet Air Arm.", "'''FG-1A''' and '''FG-1D''' (called '''Corsair Mk IV''' by the Fleet Air Arm):This was the designation for Corsairs that were license-built by Goodyear, to the same specifications as Vought's Corsairs.", "The first Goodyear built FG-1 flew in February 1943 and Goodyear began delivery of FG-1 Corsairs in April 1943.The company continued production until the end of the war and delivered 4,007 FG-1 series Corsairs, including sixty FG-1Ds to the RNZAF and 857 (400 FG-1 and FG-1A, and 457 FG-1D) to the Royal Navy as Corsair Mk IVs.", "'''F4U-1B''': This was an unofficial post-war designation used to identify F4U-1s modified for Fleet Air Arm use.", "'''F4U-1C''':The prototype F4U-1C, appeared in August 1943 and was based on an F4U-1.A total of 200 of this variant were built from July to November 1944; all were based on the F4U-1D and were built in parallel with that variant.", "Intended for ground-attack as well as fighter missions, the F4U-1C was similar to the F4U-1D but its six machine guns were replaced by four AN/M2 cannons with 231 rounds of ammunition per gun.", "The F4U-1C was introduced to combat during 1945, most notably in the Okinawa campaign.", "The firepower of 20 mm was highly appreciated.", "It was believed that the 20 mm cannon was more effective for all types of combat work than the .50 caliber machine gun.", "However, despite the superior firepower, many navy pilots preferred .50 caliber machine guns in air combat due to jam and freezing problems of the 20mm cannons.", "These problems were reduced as the ordnance crews gained experience until the performance of the guns compared favorably with the .50 caliber, but freezing problems remained at until gun heaters were installed.A Goodyear-built FG-1D, with the later single-piece \"blown\" canopy used by the F4U-1D.", "'''F4U-1D''' (called '''Corsair Mk II''' by the Fleet Air Arm):This variant was introduced in April 1944, and was built in parallel with the F4U-1C.", "It had the new R-2800-8W Double Wasp engine equipped with water injection.", "This change gave the aircraft up to more power, which, in turn, increased performance.", "Speed was increased from to .", "Due to the U.S. Navy's need for fighter-bombers, it had a payload of rockets (double the -1A's) carried on permanent launching rails, as well as twin pylons for bombs or drop tanks.", "These modifications caused extra drag, but the additional fuel carried by the two drop tanks would still allow the aircraft to fly relatively long missions despite heavy, un-aerodynamic loads.", "A single piece \"blown\" clear-view canopy was adopted as standard equipment for the -1D model, and all later F4U production aircraft.", "150 F4U-1D were delivered to the Fleet Air Arm.", "'''F4U-1P''': A rare photo reconnaissance variant.F4U-2s aboard .", "The radome on the right outer wing is just visible.", "'''XF4U-2''': Special night fighter variant, equipped with two auxiliary fuel tanks.", "'''F4U-2''': Experimental conversion of the F4U-1 Corsair into a carrier-borne nightfighter, armed with five machine guns (the outboard, right gun was deleted), and fitted with Airborne Intercept (AI) radar set in a radome placed outboard on the starboard wing.", "Since Vought was preoccupied with more important projects, only 32 were converted from existing F4U-1s by the Naval Aircraft Factory and another two by front line units.The type saw combat with VF(N)-101 aboard and USS ''Intrepid'' in early 1944, VF(N)-75 in the Solomon Islands, and VMF(N)-532 on Tarawa.An XF4U-3 in 1946.", "'''XF4U-3''': Experimental aircraft built to hold different engines in order to test the Corsair's performance with a variety of power plants.", "This variant never entered service.", "Goodyear also contributed a number of airframes, designated '''FG-3''', to the project.", "A single sub-variant '''XF4U-3B''' with minor modifications was also produced for the FAA.", "'''XF4U-4''': New engine and cowling.", "'''F4U-4''': The last variant to see action during World War II.", "Deliveries to the U.S. Navy of the F4U-4 began in early 1945.It had the dual-stage-supercharged -18W engine.", "When the cylinders were injected with the water/alcohol mixture, power was boosted to .", "The aircraft required an air scoop under the nose and the unarmored wing fuel tanks of capacities were removed for better maneuverability at the expense of maximum range.", "The propeller was changed to a four blade type.", "Maximum speed was increased to and climb rate to over as opposed to the of the F4U-1A.", "The \"4-Hog\" retained the original armament and had all the external load (i.e., drop tanks, bombs) capabilities of the F4U-1D.", "Vought also tested the two F4U-4Xs (BuNos 49763 and 50301, prototypes for the new R2800) with fixed wingtip tanks (the Navy showed no interest) and an Aeroproducts six-blade contraprop (not accepted for production).An F4U-4 of VF-1b on board USS Midway, 1947–1948.", "'''F4U-4B''': 300 F4U-4s ordered with alternate gun armament of four AN/M3 cannon.", "'''F4U-4E and F4U-4N''': Developed late in WWII, these nightfighters featured radar radomes projecting from the right wingtip.", "The -4E was fitted with the APS-4 search radar, while the -4N was fitted with the APS-6 type.", "In addition, these aircraft were often refitted with four 20 mm M2 cannons similar to the F4U-1C.", "Though these variants would not see combat during WWII, the nightfighter variants would see great use during the Korean war.", "'''F4U-4K''': Experimental radio-controlled target drone variant (1 unit built).", "'''F4U-4P''': F4U-4 equivalent to the -1P, a rare photo reconnaissance variant.", "'''XF4U-5''': New engine cowling, other extensive changes.VMF(N)-513 F4U-5N at Wonsan during the Korean War, 1950.", "'''F4U-5''': A 1945 design modification of the F4U-4, first flown on 21 December 1945, was intended to increase the F4U-4 Corsair's overall performance and incorporate many Corsair pilots' suggestions.", "It featured a more powerful Pratt and Whitney R-2800-32(E) engine with a two-stage supercharger, rated at a maximum of .", "Other improvements included automatic blower controls, cowl flaps, intercooler doors, and oil cooler for the engine, spring tabs for the elevators and rudder, a completely modernized cockpit, a completely retractable tail wheel, and heated cannon bays and pitot head.", "The cowling was lowered two degrees to help with forward visibility, but perhaps most striking as the first variant to feature all-metal wings (223 units produced).", "Maximum speed was and max rate of climb at sea level 4,850 feet per minute.", "'''F4U-5N''': Radar equipped version (214 units produced)'''F4U-5NL''': Winterized version (72 units produced, 29 modified from F4U-5Ns (101 total)).", "Fitted with rubber de-icing boots on the leading edge of the wings and tail.", "'''F4U-5P''': Long-range photo-reconnaissance version (30 units produced)A factory-fresh AU-1, 1952.", "'''F4U-6''': Re-designated '''AU-1''', this was a ground-attack version produced for the U.S. Marine Corps.", "'''F4U-7''' : AU-1 airframe with -18w engine developed for the French Navy.", "'''FG-1E''': Goodyear FG-1 with radar equipment.", "'''FG-1K''': Goodyear FG-1 as drone.", "'''FG-3''': Turbosupercharger version converted from FG-1D.", "'''FG-4''': Goodyear F4U-4, never delivered.", "'''AU-1''': U.S. Marines attack variant with extra armor to protect the pilot and fuel tank, and the oil coolers relocated inboard to reduce vulnerability to ground fire.", "The supercharger was simplified as the design was intended for low-altitude operation.", "Extra racks were also fitted.", "Fully loaded for combat the AU-1 weighed 20% more than a fully loaded F4U-4, and was capable of carrying of bombs.", "The AU-1 had a maximum speed of at , when loaded with of bombs and a drop-tank.", "When loaded with ten HVAR rockets and two 150-gallon drop-tanks, maximum speed was at .", "When not carrying external loads, maximum speed was at .", "First produced in 1952 and used in Korea, and retired in 1957.Re-designated from '''F4U-6'''.===Super Corsair variants===In March 1944, Pratt & Whitney requested an F4U-1 Corsair from Vought Aircraft for evaluation of their new P&W R-4360, Wasp Major 4-row 28-cylinder \"corncob\" radial engine.", "The F2G-1 and F2G-2 were significantly different aircraft.", "F2G-1 featured a manual folding wing and propeller, while the F2G-2 had hydraulic operated folding wings, propeller, and carrier arresting hook for carrier use.", "There were five pre-production XF2G-1s: BuNo 14691, 14692, 14693 (Race 94), 14694 (Race 18), and 14695.There were ten production F2Gs: Five F2G-1s BuNo 88454 (Museum of Flight in Seattle, Washington), 88455, 88456, 88457 (Race 84), and 88458 (Race 57) and five F2G-2s BuNo 88459, 88460, 88461, 88462, and 88463 (Race 74).", "Five F2Gs were sold as surplus and went on to racing success after the war (indicated by the \"Race\" number after the BuNo), winning the Thompson trophy races in 1947 and 1949.The only surviving F2G-1s are BuNos 88454 and 88458 (Race 57).", "The only surviving F2G-2 was BuNo 88463 (Race 74).", "It was destroyed in a crash September 2012 after having a full restoration completed in July 2011." ], [ "Operators", "Argentine F9F Cougar and F4U Corsairs, 1960sCorsair FG-1D (Goodyear built F4U-1D) in the Royal New Zealand Air Force markings;* Argentine Navy** Argentine Naval Aviation operated 26 F4U-5/5N/5NL Corsairs from 1956 to 1968 from ARA ''Independencia'';* Air Force of El Salvador operated 5 F4Us and 20 FG-1Ds from 1957 to 1976;French Navy'' Aeronavale'' operated 69 AU-1 and 94 F4U-7 from 1954 to 1964* * * * Flottille 17F;* Honduran Air Force operated 19 from 1956 to 1979FAH-609;* Royal New Zealand Air Force operated 368 F4U-1s and 60 FG-1Ds from 1944 to 1949 No.", "14 Squadron RNZAF No.", "15 Squadron RNZAF No.", "16 Squadron RNZAF No.", "17 Squadron RNZAF No.", "18 Squadron RNZAF No.", "19 Squadron RNZAF No.", "20 Squadron RNZAF No.", "21 Squadron RNZAF No.", "22 Squadron RNZAF No.", "23 Squadron RNZAF No.", "24 Squadron RNZAF No.", "25 Squadron RNZAF** No.", "26 Squadron RNZAF;The Royal Navy's Fleet Air Arm operated 2,012 Corsairs of all types during World War II, including 95 Corsair Is (F4U-1), 510 Corsair IIs (F4U-1A), 430 Corsair IIIs (F3A-1D), and 977 Corsair IVs (FG-1D)700 Naval Air Squadron 703 Naval Air Squadron* 706 Naval Air Squadron* 715 Naval Air Squadron* 716 Naval Air Squadron* 718 Naval Air Squadron* 719 Naval Air Squadron* 721 Naval Air Squadron* 723 Naval Air Squadron* 731 Naval Air Squadron* 732 Naval Air Squadron* 736 Naval Air Squadron* 738 Naval Air Squadron* 748 Naval Air Squadron* 757 Naval Air Squadron* 759 Naval Air Squadron* 760 Naval Air Squadron* 767 Naval Air Squadron* 768 Naval Air Squadron* 771 Naval Air Squadron* 778 Naval Air Squadron* 787 Naval Air Squadron* 791 Naval Air Squadron* 794 Naval Air Squadron* 797 Naval Air Squadron* 885 Naval Air Squadron* 1830 Naval Air Squadron* 1831 Naval Air Squadron* 1833 Naval Air Squadron* 1834 Naval Air Squadron* 1835 Naval Air Squadron* 1836 Naval Air Squadron* 1837 Naval Air Squadron* 1838 Naval Air Squadron* 1841 Naval Air Squadron* 1842 Naval Air Squadron* 1843 Naval Air Squadron* 1845 Naval Air Squadron* 1846 Naval Air Squadron* 1848 Naval Air Squadron* 1849 Naval Air Squadron* 1850 Naval Air Squadron* 1851 Naval Air Squadron* 1852 Naval Air Squadron;* United States Navy* United States Marine Corps" ], [ "Surviving aircraft", "According to the FAA there are 45 privately owned F4Us in the U.S." ], [ "Specifications (F4U-4)", "3-view line drawing of the F4U-1 variant" ], [ "Notable appearances in media", "The Corsair was detailed during the 2022 movie “Devotion” featuring Glen Powell and Jonathan Majors." ], [ "See also" ], [ "References", "===Notes======Citations======Bibliography===* Abrams, Richard.", "''F4U Corsair at War''.", "London: Ian Allan Ltd., 1977..* Angelucci, Enzo with Peter M. Bowers.", "''The American Fighter''.", "New York: Orion Books, 1985..* Barber, S.B.", "''Naval Aviation Combat Statistics: World War II, OPNAV-P-23V No.", "A129''.", "Washington, D.C.: Air Branch, Office of Naval Intelligence, 1946.", "* Bell, Dana.", "''F4U-1 Corsair, Vol.", "1'', Aircraft Pictorial, No.", "7.Tucson: Classic Warships Publishing, 2014..* Blackburn, Tom.", "''The Jolly Rogers''.", "New York: Orion Books, 1989..* Bowman, Martin W. ''Vought F4U Corsair''.", "Marlborough, UK: The Crowood Press Ltd., 2002..* Campbell, Douglas E. \"BuNos!", "Disposition of World War II USN, USMC, USCG Aircraft Listed by Bureau Number\".", "2012.", "* Condon, John Pomeroy.", "''Corsairs and Flattops: Marine Carrier Warfare, 1944–1945''.", "Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1998..* D’Angina, James.", "\"Vought F4U Corsair\".", "Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 2014.", "* Dean, Francis H. ''America's Hundred Thousand''.", "Atglen, Pennsylvania: Schiffer Publishing Ltd., 1997..* Donald, David, ed.", "''American Warplanes of World War II''.", "London: Aerospace Publishing.", "1995..* Dorr, Robert F. \"Marine Air, The History of the Flying Leathernecks in Words and Photos\" New York: Berkley Publishing Group, 2005..* Drendel, Lou.", "''U.S.", "Navy Carrier Fighters of World War II''.", "Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications Inc., 1987..* Green, William.", "''Famous Fighters of the Second World War''.", "Garden City, New York: Doubleday & Company, 1975..* Green, William.", "\"Vought F4U-1, F4U-4 (FG-1 Corsair)\".", "''War Planes of the Second World War, Volume Four: Fighters''.", "Garden City, New York: Doubleday & Company, 1973, pp. 188–194..", "* Green, William and Gordon Swanborough.", "\"Chance Vought F4U Corsair\".", "''WW2 Aircraft Fact Files: U.S. Navy and Marine Corps Fighters''.", "London: Macdonald and Jane's Publishers Ltd., 1976, pp. 16–29..", "* Grossnick, Roy A. and William J. Armstrong.", "''United States Naval Aviation, 1910–1995''.", "Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Historical Center, 1997..* Guyton, Boone T. ''Whistling Death: The Test Pilot's Story of the F4U Corsair''.", "Atglen, Pennsylvania: Schiffer Publishing Ltd., 1996..* ''The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Aircraft''.", "London: Aerospace Publishing/Orbis Publishing, 1985.", "* Irons, Martin.", "''Corsair Down!''.", "Atglen, Pennsylvania: Schiffer Publishing Ltd., 2022.", "* Jablonski, Edward.", "''Airwar''.", "New York: Doubleday & Co., 1979..* Johnsen, Frederick A.", "''F4U Corsair''.", "New York: Crown Publishers, 1983..* Kinzey, Bert.", "''F4U Corsair Part 2: F4U-4 Through F4U-7: Detail and Scale Vol 56''.", "Carrolton, Texas: Squadron Signal Publications, 1998.", "* Kristy, Ben.", "Aviation Curator, National Museum of the Marine Corps, Quantico, Virginia.", "Emailed remarks regarding FG-1A Corsairs.", "25 February 2013* Maloney, Edward T. and Uwe Feist.", "''Chance Vought F4U Corsair, Vol.", "11''.", "Fallbrook, California: Aero Publishers, Inc., 1967..* March, Daniel J.", "\"British Warplanes of World War II\".", "Westport, CT: AIRtime Publishing Inc., 1998.", "* Mondey, David.", "''The Hamlyn Concise Guide to American Aircraft of World War II''.", "London: Octopus Publishing Group Ltd., 1982..* Moran, Gerard P., ''Aeroplanes Vought, 1917–1977''.", "Terre Haute, Indiana: Aviation Heritage Books, Sunshine House, Inc., 1978..* Morris, David.", "''Corsair KD431: The Time Capsule Fighter''.", "Stroud, UK: Sutton Publishing Ltd., 2006..* Musciano, Walter A.", "''Corsair Aces: The Bent-wing Bird Over the Pacific''.", "New York: Arco Publishing Company, Inc., 1979..* Núñez, Padin and Jorge Félix.", "''Vought F4U-5,-5N & 5NL Corsair (serie Aeronaval Nro.18)'' (in Spanish).", "Buenos Aires, Argentina: Museo de la Aviacón Naval, Instituto Aeronaval, 2004.", "* Okumiya, Masatake and Jiro Horikoshi, with Martin Caidin.", "''Zero!''", "New York: E.P.", "Dutton & Co., 1956.", "* O'Leary, Michael.", "''United States Naval Fighters of World War II in Action''.", "Poole, Dorset, UK: Blandford Press, 1980..* Pautigny, Bruno (translated from the French by Alan McKay).", "''Corsair: 30 Years of Filibustering 1940–1970''.", "Paris: Histoire & Collections, 2003..* ''Pilots Manual for F4U Corsair''.", "Appleton, Wisconsin: Aviation Publications, 1977 (reprint).", ".", "* ''Pilot's Notes for Corsair I-IV: Air Publications 2351A, B, C & D-P.N.''.", "London: Air Ministry, August 1944.", "* Russell, Warren P. ''Chance Vought F4U-1/F4U-1D and Goodyear FG-1D Corsair: NZPAF, RNZAF Aircraft colour schemes''.", "Invercargill, New Zealand: New Zealand Aero Products, 1984.", "* Sakaida, Henry.", "''Imperial Japanese Navy Aces 1937–45 – Osprey Aircraft of the Aces 22''.", "Botley, Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 1998, .", "* Sherrod, Robert.", "''History of Marine Corps Aviation in World War II''.", "Washington, D.C.: Combat Forces Press, 1952.No ISBN.", "* Shettle, M.L.", "''Marine Corps Air Stations of World War II''.", "Bowersville, Georgia: Schaertel Publishing Co., 2001..* Styling, Mark.", "''Corsair Aces of World War 2'' (Osprey Aircraft of the Aces No 8).", "London: Osprey Publishing, 1995..* Sullivan, Jim.", "''F4U Corsair in action''.", "Carrollton, TX: Squadron/Signal Publications, 1977..* Sullivan, Jim.", "''F4U Corsair in action''.", "Carrollton, TX: Squadron/Signal Publications, 2010..* Swanborough, Gordon and Peter M. Bowers.", "''United States Navy Aircraft since 1911''.", "London: Putnam, Second edition, 1976..* Thetford, Owen.", "''British Naval Aircraft since 1912''.", "London: Putnam, Fourth edition, 1978..* Thompson, Warren.", "\"Marine Corsairs in Korea\".", "''International Air Power Review'', Volume 11, Winter 2003/2004, Norwalk, CO: AirTime Publishing, 2004..* Thompson, Warren.", "''F4U Corsair Units of the Korean War: Osprey Combat Aircraft 78''.", "Botley, Oxford UK: Osprey Publishing, 2009.", "* Tillman, Barrett.", "''Corsair — The F4U in World War II and Korea''.", "Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1979..* Tillman, Barrett.", "''Vought F4U Corsair''.", "Warbird Tech Series, Vol.", "4.North Branch, Minnesota: Speciality Press, 1996..* Veronico, Nick and John M. and Donna Campbell.", "''F4U Corsair''.", "St. Paul, Minnesota: Motorbooks International, 1994..* Wilson, Randy.", "\"From Bent-winged Bird to Whistling Death.\"", "''The Dispatch''.", "Midland, Texas: Confederate Air Force, 1996." ], [ "Further reading", "* Núñez Padin, Jorge Felix.", "''Vought F4U-5, -5N & -5NL Corsair'' (Serie Aeronaval, Volume 27).", "Bahía Blanca, Argentina: Fuerzas Aeronavales, 2009.." ], [ "External links", "* VBF-85 Historical web site; F4U-1D, F4U-1C, FG-1D* CorsairExperience.com: ''Interviews with Corsair pilots''* AviationHistory: ''Vought F4U Corsair''* WWII Aircraft performance: ''Includes a large collection of official test data for F4U & FG series'' Retrieved: 20 February 2009.", "* * Vought F4U Corsair;Survivor links* AeroWeb: ''List of survivor F4Us on display''* AeroWeb: ''List of survivor FG1s on display''* Brewster F3A Corsair on display * Warbird Registry — listings of existing Corsairs* * Hi-res spherical panoramas inside the cockpit, access panels, tail wheel and arrestor hook bays of the Collings Foundation's F4U-5NL; click area to be viewed" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Freddy Heineken" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Alfred Henry''' \"'''Freddy'''\" '''Heineken''' (4 November 1923 – 3 January 2002) was a Dutch businessman for Heineken International, the brewing company created in 1864 by his grandfather Gerard Adriaan Heineken in Amsterdam.", "He served as chairman of the board of directors and CEO from 1971 until 1989.After his retirement as chairman and CEO, Heineken continued to sit on the board of directors until his death and served as chairman of the supervisory board from 1989 to 1995.At the time of his death, Heineken was one of the richest people in the Netherlands, with a net worth of 9.5 billion guilders." ], [ "Early life", "Heineken was born on 4 November 1923 in Amsterdam.", "He was the grandson of Gerard Adriaan Heineken, who was the founder of the brewery Heineken International." ], [ "Career", "On 1 June 1941, he entered the service of the Heineken company, which by then was no longer owned by the family.", "He bought back stock several years later, to ensure the family controlled the company again.", "He created the Heineken Holding that owned 50.005% of Heineken International; he held a majority stake in Heineken Holding.", "By the time of his resignation as chairman of the board in 1989 he had transformed Heineken from a brand that was known primarily in the Netherlands into a brand name recognized worldwide." ], [ "Kidnapping", "Freddy Heineken and his driver Ab Doderer were kidnapped in 1983 and released on a ransom of 35 million Dutch guilders (around 15,800,000 euros or 17,332,600 USDollars).", "The kidnappers – Cor van Hout, Willem Holleeder, Jan Boellaard, Frans Meijer, and Martin Erkamps – were eventually caught and served prison terms.", "Before being extradited, Van Hout and Holleeder stayed for more than three years in France, first on the run, then in prison, and then, awaiting a change of the extradition treaty, under house arrest, and finally in prison again.", "Meijer escaped and lived in Paraguay for years, until he was discovered by crime reporter Peter R. de Vries and imprisoned there.", "In 2003, Meijer stopped resisting his extradition to the Netherlands and was transferred to a Dutch prison to serve the last part of his term.The films ''The Heineken Kidnapping'' (2011) and ''Kidnapping Freddy Heineken'' (2015) are based on this incident." ], [ "Personal life", "Heineken married Lucille Cummins, an American from a Kentucky family of bourbon whiskey distillers.", "Heineken was a member of the People's Party for Freedom and Democracy (VVD).In 1989, Heineken illegally destroyed the Villa Böhler in Oberalpina, designed by Heinrich Tessenow from 1916-18.Heineken struggled for some time with deteriorating health; in 1999 he suffered a mild stroke but recovered.", "Shortly before his death, he broke his arm in a fall.", "He died from pneumonia on 3 January 2002 at the age of 78 in his home in Noordwijk in the presence of his immediate family, including his daughter Charlene de Carvalho-Heineken.", "Heineken's daughter inherited his fortune.", "He was buried at the General Cemetery in Noordwijk." ], [ "In popular culture", "A film of the kidnapping, ''De Heineken Ontvoering'', with Rutger Hauer playing Freddy Heineken, was released in October 2011.A second film, ''Kidnapping Mr. Heineken'', based on De Vries' book about the kidnapping, was produced by Informant Media in 2013 based on the scenario written by William Brookfield.", "In this film Heineken is played by Anthony Hopkins with the kidnappers played by Jim Sturgess, Sam Worthington, Ryan Kwanten, Mark van Eeuwen and Thomas Cocquerel." ], [ "Book", "* ''The United States of Europe, A Eurotopia?", "'', 1992." ], [ "See also", "List of kidnappingsList of solved missing person cases" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "International Formula 3000" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Formula 3000 International Championship''' was a motor racing series created by the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA) in 1985 to become the final preparatory step for drivers hoping to enter Formula One.", "Formula Two had become too expensive, and was dominated by works-run cars with factory engines; the hope was that Formula 3000 would offer quicker, cheaper, more open racing.", "The series began as an open specification, then tyres were standardized from 1986 onwards, followed by engines and chassis in 1996.The series ran annually until 2004, and was replaced in 2005 by the GP2 Series.The series was staged as the Formula 3000 European Championship in 1985, as the Formula 3000 Intercontinental Championship in 1986 and 1987 and then as the Formula 3000 International Championship from 1988 to 2004." ], [ "Engines", "Formula 3000 replaced Formula Two, and was so named because the engines used were limited to 3000cc maximum capacity.", "Initially, the Cosworth DFV was a popular choice, having been made obsolete in Formula One by the adoption of 1.5 litre turbocharged engines.", "The rules permitted any 90-degree V8 engine, fitted with a rev-limiter to keep power output under control.", "As well as the Cosworth, a Honda engine based on an Indy V8 by John Judd also appeared; a rumoured Lamborghini V8 never raced.", "In later years, a Mugen-Honda V8 became the unit of choice, eclipsing the DFV; Cosworth responded with the brand new AC engine.", "Costs began to increase significantly." ], [ "Chassis", "Fernando Alonso's Lola chassis in the 2000 season.The first chassis from March, Automobiles Gonfaronnaises Sportives (AGS) and Ralt were developments of their existing 1984 Formula Two designs, although Lola's entry was based on and looked very much like an IndyCar.", "A few smaller teams tried obsolete three-litre Formula One cars (from Tyrrell, Williams, Minardi, Arrows and RAM), with little success—the Grand Prix and Indycar-derived entries were too unwieldy as their fuel tanks were about twice the size of those needed for F3000 races, and the weight distribution was not ideal.", "The first few years of the championship saw March establishing a superiority over Ralt and Lola—there was little to choose between the chassis, but more Marches were sold and ended up in better hands.", "In 1988, the ambitious Reynard marque entered with a brand new chassis; Reynard had won their first race in every formula they had previously entered, and did so again in F3000.The next couple of years saw Lola improve slightly—their car was competitive with the Reynard in 1990—and March slip, but both were crushed by the Reynard teams, and by the mid-90s, F3000 was a virtual Reynard monopoly, although Lola did eventually return with a promising car and the Japanese Footwork and Dome chassis were seen in Europe.", "Dallara briefly tried the series before moving up to Formula One, and AGS moved up from Formula Two but never recaptured their occasional success.", "At least one unraced F3000 chassis existed—the Wagner fitted with a straight-six short-stroke BMW.", "This was converted into a sports car, however." ], [ "Politics", "The series saw occasional controversy.", "Definitive rules for the 1985 season did not appear until the championship was well under way.", "In 1987 questions were asked about the ability of some of the drivers, given the high number of accidents in the formula.", "In 1989 the eligibility of the new Reynard chassis was challenged, as it was raced with a different nose to the one that had been crash tested.", "This season also saw problems with driver changes - the cost of F3000 was escalating to the point that teams were finding it difficult to run drivers for a whole season.", "A rule limiting driver changes to two per car per season meant that some cars had to sit idle while drivers with budgets could not race them.", "In 1991, some Italian teams started using Agip's so-called \"jungle juice\" Formula One fuel, worth an estimated 15 bhp, giving their drivers a significant advantage.", "In the early years of the formula there was much concern about safety, with a high number of accidents resulting in injuries to drivers.", "There was one fatality in the International Championship - Marco Campos in the final round of the 1995 series." ], [ "Races", "Formula 3000 races during the \"open chassis\" era tended to be of about 100–120 miles in distance, held at major circuits, either headlining meetings or paired with other international events.", "The \"jewel in the crown\" of the F3000 season was traditionally the Pau Grand Prix street race, rivalled for a few years by the Birmingham round.", "Most major circuits in France, Italy, Spain, Germany and the United Kingdom saw the series visit at least once." ], [ "The spec-chassis years", "In 1996, new rules introduced a single engine (a detuned Judd V8 engine, re-engineered by and badged as a Zytek) and chassis (Lola), to go along with tyre standardization (Avon) introduced in 1986.The following year the calendar was combined with that of Formula One, so the series became support races for the Grand Prix.", "Several Grand Prix teams established formal links with F3000 teams to develop young drivers (and engineering talent); these relationships varied from formal \"junior teams\" (such as the one McLaren set up for Nick Heidfeld) to fairly distant relationships based mostly upon shared sponsors and the use of the 'parent' team's name.", "The series grew dramatically through the late nineties, reaching an entry of nearly 40 cars - although this in itself was problematic as it meant many drivers failed to qualify.", "In 2000, the series was restricted to 15 teams of two cars each.However, by 2002 expenses were once more very high and the number of entries, and sponsors, rapidly dwindled.", "International Formula 3000 was experiencing tough competition with cheaper formulae, such as European F3000 (using ex-FIA 1999 and 2002 Lola chassis), World Series by Nissan (also known as Formula Nissan) and Formula Renault V6 Eurocup.", "By the end of 2003, car counts had fallen to new lows.The 2004 season was the last F3000 campaign, due in part to dwindling field sizes.", "In 2005 it was replaced with a new series known as GP2, with Renault backing.===Final year specifications==='''Engine displacement''': Zytek-Judd ''KV'' F3000 DOHC V8'''Power output''': @ 8,750-10,500 rpm (11,000 rpm redline)'''Torque output''': '''Gearbox''': 6-speed paddle-shift sequential gearbox (must have reverse)'''Weight''': (including driver)'''Fuel''': 102 RON unleaded'''Fuel delivery''': Electronic-indirect fuel injection'''Aspiration''': Naturally-aspirated'''Width''': '''Wheelbase''': '''Steering''': Non-assisted rack and pinion" ], [ "Champions", "Sweden's Björn Wirdheim won the 2003 FIA Formula 3000 International Championship for DriversSeasonChampion DriverTeamCarChampion TeamCarRef(s) 1985 Christian Danner BS Automotive March 85B-Cosworth Not Awarded 1986 Ivan Capelli Genoa Racing March 86B-Cosworth 1987 Stefano Modena Onyx March 87B-Cosworth 1988 Roberto Moreno Bromley Motorsport Reynard 88D-Cosworth 1989 Jean Alesi Eddie Jordan Racing Reynard 89D-Mugen 1990 Érik Comas DAMS Lola T90/50-Mugen 1991 Christian Fittipaldi Pacific Racing Reynard 91D-Mugen 1992 Luca Badoer Crypton Engineering Reynard 92D-Cosworth 1993 Olivier Panis DAMS Reynard 93D-Cosworth 1994 Jean-Christophe Boullion DAMS Reynard 94D-Cosworth 1995 Vincenzo Sospiri Super Nova Racing Reynard 95D-Cosworth 1996 Jörg Müller RSM Marko Lola T96/50-Zytek 1997 Ricardo Zonta Super Nova Racing Lola T96/50-Zytek 1998 Juan Pablo Montoya Super Nova Racing Lola T96/50-Zytek 1999 Nick Heidfeld West Competition Lola B99/50-Zytek 2000 Bruno Junqueira Petrobras Junior Team Lola B99/50-Zytek D2 Playlife Super Nova Lola B99/50-Zytek 2001 Justin Wilson Coca-Cola Nordic Racing Lola B99/50-Zytek Coca-Cola Nordic Racing Lola B99/50-Zytek 2002 Sébastien Bourdais Super Nova Racing Lola B02/50-Zytek Arden International Lola B02/50-Zytek 2003 Björn Wirdheim Arden International Lola B02/50-Zytek Arden International Lola B02/50-Zytek 2004 Vitantonio Liuzzi Arden International Lola B02/50-Zytek Arden International Lola B02/50-Zytek Three past F3000 champions (Müller, Junqueira and Wirdheim) have never been entered in an F1 race.", "Montoya and Bourdais became Champions in North American open-wheel (CART and Champ Car) respectively, with Fittipaldi, Moreno, Junqueira and Wilson also becoming race winners, and Danner and Wirdheim making the ranks.", "Müller became a BMW driver in WTCC touring car racing after having been a test driver for the BMW-Williams F1 project in 1999 as well as a racer of the BMW V12 LMR Le Mans winner.", "Sospiri attempted to qualify for one Formula One race but failed to make it, as part of the disastrous MasterCard Lola team.", "He later had a successful career in sportscars.", "Wirdheim was third driver in practice sessions for Jaguar Racing, but never participated in a race.Three past F3000 champions have won an F1 Grand Prix: Alesi, Panis and Montoya (who also won the Indy 500)." ], [ "Related series", "Auto GP (formerly Italian Formula 3000, Superfund Euro Formula 3000 and Euro Formula 3000, Euroseries 3000), active 1999–2016.", "Super Formula (Japanese Formula 3000, Formula Nippon, active 1973 onwards (1987–1995 as Japanese F3000).", "British Formula 3000 (also known as British Formula Two), active 1989–1994 (1989–1992 as British F3000).", "OzBoss (formerly known as Australian Formula 4000, Formula 4000, Formula Holden and Formula Brabham), active 1989 onwards (used mostly F3000 chassis 1989–2006).", "American Racing Series/Indy Lights, active 1986 onwards (used F3000 chassis 1986–1992).", "*some F3000 cars raced in hillclimbs races in various countries of Europe (UK, France, etc.", ")." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links" ] ]	wikipedia

Subsets and Splits

No community queries yet

The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.