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Realizing the importance of some type of recognition, on 9 November 1789, Lord Dorchester, the governor of Quebec and Governor General of British North America, declared "that it was his Wish to put the mark of Honour upon the Families who had adhered to the Unity of the Empire". As a result of Dorchester's statement, the printed militia rolls carried the notation: Those Loyalists who have adhered to the Unity of the Empire, and joined the Royal Standard before the Treaty of Separation in the year 1783, and all their Children and their Descendants by either sex, are to be distinguished by the following Capitals, affixed to their names: UE or U.E. Alluding to their great principle The Unity of the Empire.
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Because most of the nations of the Iroquois had allied with the British, which had ceded their lands to the United States, thousands of Iroquois and other pro-British Native Americans were expelled from New York and other states. They were also resettled in Canada. Many of the Iroquois, led by Joseph Brant Thayendenegea, settled at Six Nations of the Grand River, the largest First Nations Reserve in Canada. A smaller group of Iroquois led by Captain John Deserontyon Odeserundiye, settled on the shores of the Bay of Quinte in modern-day southeastern Ontario.
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The government settled some 3,500 Black Loyalists in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, but they faced discrimination and the same inadequate support that all Loyalists experienced. Delays in making land grants, but mostly the willingness of the blacks to under-cut their fellow Loyalist and hire themselves out to the few available jobs at a lower wage aggravated racist tensions in Shelburne. Mobs of white Loyalists attacked Black Loyalists in the Shelburne Riots in July 1784, Canada's first so-called "race" riot. The government was slow to survey the land of Black Loyalists (which meant they could not settle); it was also discriminatory in granting them smaller, poorer and more remote lands than those of white settlers; not counting those Loyalists who were resettled in what would become Upper Canada in general or around the Bay of Quinte in specific, of course. This increased their difficulties in becoming established. The majority of Black Loyalists in Canada were refugees from the
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American South; they suffered from this discrimination and the harsh winters.
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When Great Britain set up the colony of Sierra Leone in Africa, nearly 1300 Black Loyalists emigrated there in 1792 for the promise of self-government. And so 2,200 remained. The Black Loyalists that left established Freetown in Sierra Leone. Well into the 20th century, together with other early settlers from Jamaica and slaves liberated from illegal slave ships, and despite vicious attacks from the indigenous peoples that nearly ended the Maroon colony, they and their descendants dominated the culture, economy and government of Sierra Leone. which finally pulled itself out of a civil war a decade ago and still struggles with glaring corruption until this day.
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Numerous Loyalists had been forced to abandon substantial amounts of property in the United States. Britain sought restoration or compensation for this lost property from the United States, which was a major issue during the negotiation of the Jay Treaty in 1795. Negotiations settled on the concept of the United States negotiators "advising" the U.S. Congress to provide restitution. For the British, this concept carried significant legal weight, far more than it did to the Americans; the U.S. Congress declined to accept the advice. Slavery
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Slave-owning Loyalists from across the former Thirteen Colonies brought their slaves with them to Canada, as the practice was still legal there. They took a total of about 2,000 slaves to British North America: 500 in Upper Canada (Ontario), 300 in Lower Canada (Quebec), and 1,200 in the Maritime colonies of New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island. The presence and condition of slaves in the Maritimes would become a particular issue. They constituted a larger portion of the population, but it was not an area of plantation agriculture.
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The settlers eventually freed many of these slaves. Together with the free Black Loyalists, many chose to go to Sierra Leone in 1792 and following years, seeking a chance for self-government. Meanwhile, the British Parliament passed an imperial law in 1790 that assured prospective immigrants to Canada that they could retain their slaves as property. In 1793, an anti-slavery law was passed, in the 1st Parliament of Upper Canada. The Act Against Slavery banned the importation of slaves into the colony, and mandated the emancipation of all children born henceforth to female slaves upon reaching the age of 25. The Act was partially introduced due to the influx of the number of slaves brought by Loyalist refugees to Upper Canada. The slave trade was abolished across the British Empire in 1807. The institution of slavery was abolished Empire-wide by 1834 (except in India, where it was considered an indigenous institution). War of 1812
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From 1812 to 1815, the United States and the United Kingdom were engaged in a conflict known as the War of 1812. On 18 June 1812, US President James Madison signed the declaration of war into law, after receiving heavy pressure from the War Hawks in Congress.
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By 1812, Upper Canada had been settled mostly by Revolution-era Loyalists from the United States (United Empire Loyalists) and postwar American and British immigrants. The Canadas were thinly populated and only lightly defended by the British Army and the sedentary units of the Canadian Militia. American leaders assumed that Canada could be easily overrun, with former president Thomas Jefferson optimistically describing the potential conquest of Canada as "a matter of marching". Many Loyalist Americans had migrated to Upper Canada after the Revolutionary War. However, there was also a significant number of non-Loyalist American settlers in the area due to the offer of land grants to immigrants. The Americans assumed the latter population would favour the American cause, but they did not. Although the population of Upper Canada included recent settlers from the United States who had no obvious loyalties to the Crown, the American forces found strong opposition from settlers during the
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War of 1812.
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A number of loyalists served as fencibles, provincial regulars, in the Provincial Marine, or with the sedentary militia. With the successful defence of the Canadian colonies from American invasion, the War of 1812 is seen by Loyalists as a victory. After the war, the British government transported to New Brunswick and settled about 400 of 3,000 former slaves from the United States whom they freed during and after the war. It had fulfilled its promise to them of freedom if they left Patriot slaveholders and fought with the British. Enslaved African Americans risked considerable danger by crossing to British lines to achieve freedom.
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Present While the honorific "United Empire Loyalist" is not part of the official Canadian honours system, modern-day descendants of Loyalist refugees may employ it, sometimes using "U.E." as postnominal letters. The practice, however, is uncommon today, even in original Loyalist strongholds like southeastern Ontario. Historians and genealogists use it extensively as a shorthand for identifying the ancestry of particular families.
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The influence of the Loyalists on the evolution of Canada remains evident. Their ties with Britain and antipathy to the United States provided the strength needed to keep Canada independent and distinct in North America. The Loyalists' basic distrust of republicanism and "mob rule" influenced Canada's gradual, "paper-strewn" path to independence. The new British North American provinces of Upper Canada (the forerunner of Ontario) and New Brunswick were created as places of refuge for the United Empire Loyalists. The mottoes of the two provinces reflect this history: Ontario's, also found on its coat of arms, is Ut incepit fidelis sic permanet ("Loyal she began, loyal she remains"); New Brunswick's, Spem Reduxit ("Hope restored").
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The word "Loyalist" appears frequently in school, street, and business names in such Loyalist-settled communities as Belleville, Ontario. The nearby city of Kingston, established as a Loyalist stronghold, was named in honour of King George III. And on the outskirts of that city is a township simply named "Loyalist". On 1 July 1934, Royal Mail Canada issued "United Empire Loyalists, 1776–1784" designed by Robert Bruce McCracken based on Sydney March's sculpture United Empire Loyalists. The 10-cent stamps are perforated 11 and were printed by the British American Bank Note Company.
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In 1996, Canadian politicians Peter Milliken (a descendant of American Loyalists) and John Godfrey sponsored the Godfrey–Milliken Bill, which would have entitled Loyalist descendants to reclaim ancestral property in the United States which had been confiscated during the American Revolution. The bill, which did not pass the House of Commons, was intended primarily as a satirical response to the contemporaneous American Helms–Burton Act. In 1997, the Legislative Assembly of Ontario passed a bill declaring 19 June, "United Empire Loyalist Day" in Ontario. United Empire Loyalist Day is also celebrated on the same day in Saskatchewan, on 18 May in New Brunswick and on 22 July in British Columbia. Memory and historiography The Loyalists paid attention to their history developing an idealized image of themselves in which they took great pride. In 1898, Henry Coyne provided a glowing depiction:
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According to Canadian historians Margaret Conrad and Alvin Finkel, Coyne's memorial incorporates essential themes that have often been incorporated into patriotic celebrations. The Loyalist tradition, as explicated by Murray Barkley and Norman Knowles, includes: Conrad and Finkel point out some exaggerations: only a small percentage of the Loyalists were colonial elite. In fact Loyalists were drawn from every stratum of colonial society, and few suffered violence and hardship. About 20 percent would later return to the United States. Most were loyal to all things British, but other Loyalists supported the United States in the War of 1812. Conrad and Finkel conclude:
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From the 1870s many of their descendants returned to the United States in pursuit of cheaper land and greater employment opportunities, among whom were more recent British and Irish immigrants, French Canadians, and Europeans of other nationalities) who settled all over the US. In the New England States alone, greater than 10% of the population can trace its roots to the Maritime Provinces (2 million more of 14 million inhabitants or roughly 15% are part or wholly of French Canadian descent). United Empire Loyalists' Association The United Empire Loyalists' Association of Canada (UELAC) is an organization of Loyalist descendants and others interested in Canadian history, in particular the role of the United Empire Loyalists. The organization was incorporated on 27 May 1914 by the Legislative Assembly of Ontario. In 1972, the organization was granted a coat of arms from the College of Arms through a letter patent, dated 28 March 1972. Symbols
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On 17 April 1707, Queen Anne issued a proclamation referencing the use of the Union Flag "at Sea and Land". The Union Flag began to appear on forts and as regimental colours from this point, and at the time of the American Revolution, this was the flag in use. When those loyal to the Crown left the United States for British North America, they took this flag with them, and because of this historical connection, it continues to be the official flag of the UELAC. In Canadian heraldry, Loyalist descendants are entitled to use a Loyalist coronet in their coat of arms. List of Loyalist settlements in Canada 18th-century names are listed first, alongside their present-day equivalents.
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Adolphustown, Ontario Antigonish, Nova Scotia Beamsville, Ontario Bocabec, New Brunswick Myer's Creek → Belleville, Ontario Buell's Bay → Brockville, Ontario Butlersbury → Newark → Niagara-on-the-Lake, Ontario Cataraqui → Kingston, Ontario Clifton → Niagara Falls, Ontario Country Harbour, Nova Scotia Cobourg, Ontario Colchester → village now within Essex, Ontario Cornwall, Ontario Digby, Nova Scotia Doaktown, New Brunswick Eastern Townships, Quebec Effingham, Ontario Grimsby, Ontario Douglas Township → Kennetcook, Nova Scotia Lincoln, Ontario Ernestown Township → Loyalist, Ontario Machiche → Yamachiche, Quebec Merrittsville → Welland, Ontario Milliken Corners Milliken, Ontario Gravelly Bay → Port Colborne, Ontario Port Roseway → Shelburne, Nova Scotia Prescott, Ontario Prince Edward County, Ontario Rawdon, Nova Scotia Saint John, New Brunswick Sheet Harbour, Nova Scotia Shelburne, Nova Scotia Six Nations and Brantford, Ontario Smithville, Ontario
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St. Andrews by-the-Sea → St. Andrews, New Brunswick St. Anne's Point → Fredericton, New Brunswick Summerville, Nova Scotia The Twelve → Shipman's Corners → St. Catharines, Ontario Turkey Point → Norfolk, Ontario Sandwich → Windsor, Ontario Odell Town, Quebec Wainfleet, Ontario Remsheg → Wallace, Nova Scotia Westchester, Nova Scotia York → Toronto, Ontario
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See also Loyalist (American Revolution) Canadian honorifics Daughters of the American Revolution Expulsion of the Loyalists Society of the Cincinnati Sons of the American Revolution Sons of the Revolution Notes References
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Further reading Acheson, T.W. "A Study in the Historical Demography of a Loyalist County", Social History, 1 (April 1968), pp. 53–65. Compeau, Timothy J. "Dishonoured Americans: Loyalist Manhood and Political Death in Revolutionary America." (PhD Diss. The University of Western Ontario, 2015); online. Jasanoff, Maya. Liberty's Exiles: American Loyalists in the Revolutionary World. (Knopf, 2011) Ranlet (2014) [below] argues her estimate of the number of Loyalists is too high. Jodon, Michael. Shadow Soldiers of the American Revolution; 2009, . The History Press, Charleston SC. MacKinnon, Neil. "Nova Scotia Loyalists, 1783–1785", Social History 4 (November 1969), pp. 17–48 Moore, Christopher. The Loyalists: Revolution, Exile, Settlement; 1984, . Norton, Mary Beth. "The fate of some black loyalists of the American revolution." Journal of Negro History 58#4 (1973): 402–426. in JSTOR
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Walker, James W. St G. The Black Loyalists: The Search for a Promised Land in Nova Scotia and Sierra Leone, 1783–1870 (U of Toronto Press, 1992). Wallace, W. Stewart. The United Empire Loyalists: A Chronicle of the Great Migration; Volume 13 of the "Chronicles of Canada (32 volumes) Toronto, 1914. Whitehead, Ruth Holmes. Black Loyalists: Southern Settlers of Nova Scotia's First Free Black Communities (Halifax: Nimbus Publishing, 2013). Wright, Esther Clark. The Loyalists of New Brunswick (Fredericton: 1955).
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Historiography Barkley, Murray. "The Loyalist Tradition in New Brunswick: the Growth and Evolution of an Historical Myth, 1825–1914." Acadiensis 4#2 (1975): 3–45. online Bell, David VJ. "The Loyalist Tradition in Canada." Journal of Canadian Studies 5#2 (1970): 22+ Knowles, Norman James. Inventing the Loyalists: The Ontario Loyalist Tradition and the Creation of Usable Pasts (University of Toronto Press, 1997). Ranlet, Philip. "How Many American Loyalists Left the United States?." Historian 76.2 (2014): 278–307. Upton, L.F.S. ed. The United Empire Loyalists: Men and Myths (The Copp Publishing Company, 1967), Excerpts from historians and from primary sources
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Primary sources Talman, James ed. Loyalist Narratives from Upper Canada. Toronto: Champlain Society, 1946. "Letter, Benjamin Franklin to Baron Francis Maseres, June 26, 1785" Gray, Rev. J. W. D. A Sermon, Preached at Trinity Church, in the parish of St. John, N. B., on 8 December 1857, by the Rev. J. W. D. Gray, D.D., and Designed to Recommend the Principles of the Loyalists of 1783. Saint John, New Brunswick: J. & A. McMillan, Printers, 1857. 15 pp. Internet Archive pdf; title incorrectly gives the year as 1847. External links
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"A Short History of the United Empire Loyalists", by Ann Mackenzie, M.A.; Une Courte Histoire des Loyalistes de l'Empire Uni, French translation Haldimand Collection Black Loyalists in New Brunswick, 1783–1854, Atlantic Canadian Portal, University of New Brunswick Loyalist Women in New Brunswick, 1783–1827, Atlantic Canadian Portal, University of New Brunswick The Myth of the Loyalist Iroquois The United Empire Loyalists' Association of Canada: Home Page Photographs of the United Empire Loyalist monument at Country Harbour, Nova Scotia American Revolution veterans and lineage organizations Military history of Nova Scotia Monarchy in Canada Social history of Canada fr:Loyalistes
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Lake Okeechobee (), also known as Florida's Inland Sea, is the largest freshwater lake in the state of Florida. It is the eighth largest natural freshwater lake among the 50 states of the United States and the second-largest natural freshwater lake contained entirely within the contiguous 48 states. Okeechobee covers and is exceptionally shallow for a lake of its size, with an average depth of only . The Kissimmee River, located directly north of Lake Okeechobee, is the lake's primary source. The lake is divided between Glades, Okeechobee, Martin, Palm Beach, and Hendry counties. All five counties meet at one point near the center of the lake.
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History The earliest recorded people to have lived around the lake were the Calusa. They called the lake Mayaimi, meaning "big water," as reported in the 16th century, by Hernando de Escalante Fontaneda. The name Okeechobee comes from the Hitchiti words oki (water) and chubi (big). Slightly later in the 16th century, René Goulaine de Laudonnière reported hearing about a large freshwater lake in southern Florida called Serrope. By the 18th century the largely mythical lake was known to British mapmakers and chroniclers by the Spanish name Laguna de Espiritu Santo. In the early 19th century it was known as Mayacco Lake or Lake Mayaca after the Mayaca people, originally from the upper reaches of the St. Johns River, who moved near the lake in the early 18th century. The modern Port Mayaca on the east side of the lake preserves that name.
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On the southern rim of Lake Okeechobee, three islands—Kreamer, Ritta, and Torey—were once settled by early pioneers. These settlements had a general store, post office, school, and town elections. Farming was the main vocation. The fertile land was challenging to farm because of the muddy muck. Over the first half of the twentieth century, farmers used agricultural tools—including tractors—to farm in the muck. By the 1960s, all of these settlements were abandoned. All of Lake Okeechobee was included in the boundaries of Palm Beach County when it was created in 1909. In 1963, the lake was divided among the five counties surrounding the lake.
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Hurricanes In 1926, the Great Miami Hurricane hit the Lake Okeechobee area, killing approximately 300 people. Two years later in 1928, the Okeechobee Hurricane crossed over the lake, killing thousands. The Red Cross reported 1,836 deaths, a figure which the National Weather Service initially accepted, but in 2003, the number was revised to "at least 2,500". In both cases the catastrophe was caused by flooding from a storm surge when strong winds drove water over the mud dike that circled the lake at the time.
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After the two hurricanes, the Florida State Legislature created the "Okeechobee Flood Control District". The organization was authorized to cooperate with the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers in actions to prevent similar disasters. U.S. President Herbert Hoover visited the area personally, and afterward the Corps designed a plan incorporating the construction of channels, gates, and nearly 140 miles of levees to protect areas surrounding Lake Okeechobee from overflow. The Okeechobee Waterway was officially opened on March 23, 1937, by a procession of boats which left Fort Myers, Florida on March 22 and arrived at Stuart, Florida the following day. The dike was then named the "Herbert Hoover Dike" in honor of the president. The 1947 Fort Lauderdale Hurricane sent an even larger storm surge to the crest of the new dike, causing it to be expanded again in the 1960s.
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Four recent hurricanes –Frances, Jeanne, Wilma, and Irma – had no major adverse effects on communities surrounding Lake Okeechobee, even though the lake rose after Hurricane Wilma in 2005. Tropical Storm Ernesto increased water levels by in 2006, the last time it exceeded . However, the lake's level began dropping soon after and by July 2007, it had dropped more than to its all-time low of . In August 2008, Tropical Storm Fay increased water levels to above sea level, the first time it exceeded since January 2007. Over a seven-day period (including some storms that preceded Fay), about of rain fell directly onto the lake. Rim Canal
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During construction of the dike, earth was excavated along the inside perimeter, resulting in a deep channel which runs along the perimeter of the lake. In most places the canal is part of the lake, but in others it is separated from the open lake by low grassy islands such as Kreamer Island. During the drought of 2007–2008, this canal remained navigable while much of surrounding areas were too shallow or even above the water line. Even when the waters are higher, navigating the open lake can be tricky, whereas the rim canal is simple, so to reach a specific location in the lake it is often easiest to go around the rim canal to get close then take one of the many channels into the lake. Environmental concerns
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In 2007, during a drought, state water and wildlife managers removed thousands of truckloads of toxic mud from the lake's floor, in an effort to restore the lake's natural sandy base and create clearer water and better habitat for wildlife. The mud contained elevated levels of arsenic and other pesticides. According to tests from the South Florida Water Management District, arsenic levels on the northern part of the lake bed were as much as four times the limit for residential land. Independent tests found the mud too polluted for use on agricultural or commercial lands, and therefore difficult to dispose of on land.
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Through early 2008, the lake remained well below normal levels, with large portions of the lake bed exposed above the water line. During this time, portions of the lake bed, covered in organic matter, dried out and caught fire. In late August 2008, Tropical Storm Fay inundated Florida with record amounts of rain. Lake Okeechobee received almost a increase in water level, including local run-off from the tributaries. In 2013, heavy rains in central Florida resulted in high runoff into the lake; rising lake levels forced the CoE (Army Corps of Engineers) to release large volumes of polluted water from the lake through the St. Lucie River estuary to the east and the Caloosahatchee River estuary to the west. Thus the normal mix of fresh and salt water in those estuaries was replaced by a flood of polluted fresh water resulting in ecological damage.
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Since 2013, the CoE has been forced to pump billions of gallons of water out of the lake to avoid jeopardizing the integrity of the Hoover dike holding back the water from inundating the surrounding populated area. Some claim that sugar plantations have been pumping polluted water from their flooded fields into the lake, but U.S. Sugar claims back pumping is only to avoid flooding of communities, never to protect farmland. In March 2015, the rate was daily. This results in pollution problems for the Treasure Coast, St. Lucie estuary, and the Indian River Lagoon. In May 2016, of the southern portion of the lake were affected by an algal bloom. The outbreak was possibly due in part to nutrient-laden waters reaching the lake from farms and other sources. Microcystin was found among the other species involved in the outbreak.
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In July 2016, the Federal Government denied Governor Rick Scott's request for Federal Disaster Aid to the Treasure Coast as a result of the toxic algal bloom in the St. Lucie Estuary which was responsible for millions of dollars of lost income for local businesses: this reaffirmed the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) finding that the lake's water quality was a State issue. The Florida Department of Environmental Protection and Martin County had carried out toxicity testing on the algae, but had not funded any work to clean up the water, and a FEMA spokesman said that "The state has robust capability to respond to emergencies and disasters." On June 23, 2017, the South Florida Water Management District was granted emergency permission to back pump clean water into Lake Okeechobee to save animals and plants in bloated water conservation areas."
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Geology Lake Okeechobee sits in a shallow geological trough that also underlies the Kissimmee River Valley and the Everglades. The trough is underlain by clay deposits that compacted more than the limestone and sand deposits did along both coasts of peninsular Florida. Until about 6,000 years ago, the trough was dry land. As the sea level rose, the water table in Florida also rose and rainfall increased. From 6,000 to 4,000 years ago, wetlands formed building up peat deposits. Eventually the water flow into the area created a lake, drowning the wetlands. Along what is now the southern edge of the lake, the wetlands built up the layers of peat rapidly enough (reaching thick) to form a dam, until the lake overflowed into the Everglades. At its capacity, the lake holds of water and is the headwaters of the Everglades.
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The floor of the lake is a limestone basin, with a maximum depth of . Its water is somewhat murky from runoff from surrounding farmlands. The Army Corps of Engineers targets keeping the surface of the lake between above sea level. The lake is enclosed by a high Herbert Hoover Dike built by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers after a hurricane in 1928 breached the old dike, flooding surrounding communities and claiming at least 2,500 lives. Water flows into Lake Okeechobee from several sources, including the Kissimmee River, Fisheating Creek, Lake Istokpoga, Taylor Creek, and smaller sources such as Nubbin Slough and Nicodemus Slough. The Kissimmee River is the largest source, providing more than 60% of the water flowing into Lake Okeechobee. Fisheating Creek is the second largest source for the lake, with about 9% of the total inflow. Prior to the 20th century, Lake Istokpoga was connected to the Kissimmee River by Istokpoga Creek, but during the rainy season Lake Istokpoga overflowed,
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with the water flowing in a 40 km wide sheet across the Indian Prairie into Lake Okeechobee. Today Lake Istokpoga drains into Lake Okeechobee through several canals that drain the Indian Prairie, and into the Kissimmee River through a canal that has replaced Istokpoga Creek. Historically, outflow from the lake was by sheet flow over the Everglades, but most of the outflow has been diverted to dredged canals connecting to coastal rivers, such as the Miami Canal to the Miami River, the New River on the east, and the Caloosahatchee River (via the Caloosahatchee Canal and Lake Hicpochee) on the southwest.
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Uses Congressionally authorized uses for Lake Okeechobee According to the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, the Congressionally authorized uses for Lake Okeechobee include the following: Flood and storm risk management Navigation Water supply for the following: Salinity control in estuaries Regional groundwater control Agricultural irrigation Municipalities and industry Enhancement of fish and wildlife Recreation Florida National Scenic Trail The wide dike surrounding Lake Okeechobee is the basis for the Lake Okeechobee Scenic Trail (LOST), a part of the Florida National Scenic Trail, a trail. There is a well-maintained paved pathway along the majority of the perimeter, although with significant breaks. It is used by hikers and bicyclists, and is wide enough to accommodate vehicles. Fishing The most common fish in this lake are largemouth bass, crappie, and bluegill. Pickerel have been less commonly caught.
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Limnology This shallow lake has been previously studied for its algal blooms. Lake Okeechobee is known for its algal blooms in consequence of increased eutrophication. Algal blooms like this can be harmful to the environment, including the lake's flora and fauna, because of released toxins. The vegetation at Lake Okeechobee is important in maintaining the oxygen in the lake, of which many aquatic biota are reliant on. There are various species of biota in Lake Okeechobee that are interdependent on each other for food, habitat, and other resources. Multiple limnological studies and related research has been conducted at Lake Okeechobee.
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Characteristics
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Lake Okeechobee is shallow lake, with an average depth of only 3 meters, and has a fetch of 54 km. In total, the lake has a surface area of 1730 km². The lake is normally mixed, but on days with direct sunlight and limited wind, the lake can exhibit diurnal thermal stratification. Although daily thermal stratification is brief, a hypolimnion can from during this time resulting in decreased amounts of dissolved oxygen at the lake bottom. Lake transparency, measured as secchi depth, is found to be inversely correlated with the amount of suspended solids in the lake. Suspended solids varied with season with higher amounts of suspended solids in the winter, and thus less transparency on average, and lower amounts of suspended solids in the summer, leading to more transparency on average. Secchi depths not only varied across seasons, but also by location in the lake. Secchi depths ranges average from about 0.2 - 0.5 meters in the winter, depending on location in the lake, and 0.3 - 0.9
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meters in the summer. Secchi depths of 1.7 meters have been recorded, indicating higher transparencies than average for the lake.
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Fauna Lake Okeechobee is home to more than 40 species of native fish, along with introduced species, such as the Mayan cichlid, Cichlasoma urophthalmus. Fish species displaying varying distributions throughout the lake depending on seasonality, site depth, sediments, and turbidity. Yearly fish recruitment was found to be positively correlated with increased water levels, providing more substrate and protection. These fish populations support different wading birds, including various species of egrets, ibises, wood storks, and herons, along with alligator populations. Fish diets in Lake Okeechobee depend on macro-invertebrates and zooplankton, such as calanoids, cyclopoids, and cladoceran. Lake Okeechobee supports over 3,800 different arthopods, including insects and arachnids, along with around 400 species of nematodes.
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Flora
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Vascular macrophytes are important in the nutrient dynamics of lakes, along with creating micro-habitats for fish and invertebrates, and providing substrate for epiphytes. Macrophytes provide the lake with oxygen through photosynthesis, along with acting as a buffer for eutrophication by uptake of phosphorus. However, with increased eutrophication of lakes along with climate change, trends are showing decreased richness of macrophytes. Because the fauna are so reliant on the macrophytes for habitat, food, and protection from predation, a decrease in macrophyte diversity and abundance has negative consequences on fauna richness. Macrophyte abundance is dependent on many abiotic factors such as water depth, water transparency and light availability, and nutrients, along with influence of biotic factors. Increasing phytoplankton and algal blooms from eutrophication and nutrient abundance can decrease water transparency and light availability to submerged macrophytes, providing one
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explanation how macrophytes are sensitive to eutrophication. Some submerged macrophytes that have been recorded at Lake Okeechobee include southern naiad (Najas guadelupensis), Illinois pondweed (Potamogeton illlinoensis), vallisneria (Vallisneria americana), and hydrilla (Hydrilla verticillata). Lake Okeechobee is afflicted with the invasive terrestrial plant, torpedograss (Panicum repens).
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Eutrophication and Algal Blooms
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The concerning levels of total phosphorus (TP) began to be noticed in 1970s, and since then inputs of TP have averaged 516 tons per year. These yearly inputs can vary based on the volume of runoff entering the lake. The years 2005 and 2018 had particularly large volumes of water and TP inputs in relation to hurricanes increasing runoff. Despite limiting TP inputs by decreasing phosphorus use in agriculture, Lake Okeechobee has yet to be reach the aimed target set by the South Florida Water Management District's in the 1980s of reducing the lake's TP by 40 μg/L. Although proposed by the South Florida Water Management District, this initiative of limiting the lake's TP to 40 μg/L was adopted by The Lake Okeechobee Technical Advisory Committee (LOTAC), the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), and the Florida Department of Environmental Protection (FDEP), but phosphorus inputs have yet to be controlled enough to reach this goal. Concerning estimates of phosphorus
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assimilation capacity indicates that even if phosphorus inputs were to be stopped, or severely limited, the extensive saturation of the lake would result in it taking years before improved water quality can be observed.
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These inputs of phosphorus provide optimal conditions for harmful algal blooms (HABs). Cyanobacteria (CyanoHABs), which need nitrogen and phosphorus for growth, have the ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen. With this ability along with the high inputs of phosphorus, the shallow nature of the lake providing plenty of sunlight, and cyanobacteria's preference for warm waters, Lake Okeechobee is an optimal environment for a cyanobacteria algal bloom. The presence of various species of cyanobacteria in Lake Okeechobee have been recorded since the 1980s. Cyanobacteria produce various toxins, including microcystin, which is not only harmful to the environment, but humans. In 2016, Lake Okeechobee experienced an extensive cyanobacteria algal bloom that lasted from May to mid-July. During the previous 2015-16 winter, there were relatively high recorded temperatures, and higher than average rates of precipitation and storms in relation to the El Niño event. As mentioned, higher rates of
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precipitation can lead to greater influxes of runoff which unload more phosphorus into the lake, enabling harmful algal bloom. Along with this algal bloom in 2016, other algal blooms have been found to occur in relation to hurricanes and other climate events leading to increased water flow into the lake.
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Research at Lake Okeechobee Research done by James et al. (2009) aimed to evaluate and compare shallow lakes, including Lake Okeechobee and Lake Taihu in P.R. China, including their light, temperature, and nutrient dynamics. This research provides important knowledge on conditions that influence algal blooms. They found that for both lakes, wind, nutrients, water depth, and water transparency varied seasonally, and this had implications on phytoplankton abundance. Different locations in the lake may have had different limiting factors based on the light and nutrient availability in those locations. At Lake Okeechobee specifically, algal blooms were found to have strong effects during the winter on the western side of the lake.
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In the limnological study conducted by Beaver et al. (2013) at Lake Okeechobee, lake phytoplankton composition was examined in response to conditions of anthropogenic inputs, including nutrient inputs, along with natural events, like extreme weather conditions. Lake Okeechobee was a great location for this study because of its long history of agricultural runoff causing algal blooms, along with its location in the Gulf of Mexico making it susceptible to weather events like tropical storms and hurricanes. From 2000-2008, phytoplankton samples were collected using an integrated tube sampler, and weather conditions, including temperature and wind conditions, were recorded. They found that phytoplankton composition transitioned from non-nitrogen fixing cyanobacteria dominating the lake before 2000, to nitrogen fixing cyanobacteria dominating the lake after 2000 and up until 2004 as phosphorus inputs were high and nitrogen was limiting. This time was referred to as the "pre-hurricane" time
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period, and the period after the 2004-2005 hurricane season was referred to as the "post-hurricane" period. During the post-hurricane period, light became limiting and influenced phytoplankton composition.
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Kramer et al. (2018) studied Lake Okeechobee during and after its major 2016 algal bloom that was related to the El Niño event. They collected information on nutrient availability, phytoplankton communities, and the presence of toxins, along with the genetic makeup of the phytoplankton communities and their genetic abilities to produce toxins. Additionally, they conducted nutrient experiments to couple with their findings. They found that cyanobacteria with the ability to do nitrogen fixation were in high abundance during this 2016 algal bloom. During this time, nitrogen was a limiting factor due to the extreme amounts of phosphorus in the freshwater ecosystem. The field experiments conducted with this study found that microcystin, the toxin produced by cyanobacteria, was produced in higher quantities when there was more nitrogen present.
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A study conducted by Pei, Zhang, and Mitsch (2020) examined nitrate concentrations, and their respective isotope compositions, in hopes of determining origins of major inflows and outflows of nitrogen into the lake and what their respective contributions are. They found that ammonium based fertilizers and soil nitrogen were the largest contributors to nitrate found in the lake. Manure and precipitation were two other sources of nitrate. These results can aid in monitoring and regulation of nitrogen uses around Okeechobee, and subsequently aid in restoring the lake. Notes References Fisheating Creek Sub-Watershed Feasibility Study - accessed 18 April 2011 Lodge, Thomas E. (2005). The Everglades Handbook: Understanding the Ecosystem. Second Edition. CRC Press. External links Okeechobee Everglades Okeechobee Okeechobee Okeechobee Okeechobee Okeechobee Quadripoints and higher
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HP 9000 is a line of workstation and server computer systems produced by the Hewlett-Packard (HP) Company. The native operating system for almost all HP 9000 systems is HP-UX, which is based on UNIX System V. The HP 9000 brand was introduced in 1984 to encompass several extant technical workstation models launched formerly in the early 1980s. Most of these were based on the Motorola 68000 series, but there were also entries based on HP's own FOCUS designs. From the mid-1980s, the line was transitioned to HP's new PA-RISC architecture. Finally, in the 2000s, systems using the IA-64 were added. The HP 9000 line was discontinued in 2008, being superseded by Itanium-based HPE Integrity Servers running HP-UX. History
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The first HP 9000 models comprised the HP 9000 Series 200 and Series 500 ranges. These were rebadged existing models, the Series 200 including various Motorola 68000 (68k) based workstations such as the HP 9826 and HP 9836, and the Series 500 using HP's FOCUS microprocessor architecture introduced in the HP 9020 workstation. These were followed by the HP 9000 Series 300 and Series 400 workstations which also used 68k-series microprocessors. From the mid-1980s onward, HP began changing to its own microprocessors based on its proprietary PA-RISC instruction set architecture (ISA), for the Series 600, 700, 800, and later lines. More recent models use either the PA-RISC or its successor, the HP–Intel IA-64 ISA.
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All of the HP 9000 line run various versions of the HP-UX operating system, except earlier Series 200 models, which ran standalone applications or the Basic Workstation / Pascal 3.1 Workstation operating systems. HP released the Series 400, also known as the Apollo 400, after acquiring Apollo Computer in 1989. These models had the ability to run either HP-UX or Apollo's Domain/OS. From the early 1990s onward, HP replaced the HP 9000 Series numbers with an alphabetical Class nomenclature. In 2001, HP again changed the naming scheme for their HP 9000 servers. The A-class systems were renamed as the rp2400s, the L-class became the rp5400s, and the N-class the rp7400s. The rp prefix signified a PA-RISC architecture, while rx was used for IA-64-based systems, later rebranded HPE Integrity Servers.
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On 30 April 2008, HP announced end of sales for the HP 9000. The last order date for HP 9000 systems was 31 December 2008 and the last ship date was 1 April 2009. The last order date for new HP 9000 options was December 31, 2009, with a last ship date of 1 April 2010. HP intends to support these systems through to 2013, with possible extensions.
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The end of life for HP 9000 also marks the end of an era, as it essentially marks HP's withdrawal from the Unix workstation market (the HP 9000 workstations are end of life, and there are no HP Integrity workstations, so there is no longer a solution which targets HP/UX at the desktop). When the move from PA-RISC (9000) to Itanium (Integrity) was announced, Integrity workstations running either HP/UX or Windows were initially announced and offered, but were moved to end of sales life relatively quickly, with no replacement (arguably because x86-64 made IA-64 uncompetitive on the desktop, and HP/UX does not support x86-64, with HP offering desktop Linux as an alternative, not fully compatible, solution). Workstation models Prior to January 1985 (see also HP 9800 series): Series 200 16 (HP 9816), 20 (HP 9920), 26 (HP 9826), 36 (HP 9836) Series 500 20 (HP 9020), 30 (HP 9030), 40 (HP 9040)
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After 1985: Series 200 216 (HP 9816), 217 (HP 9817), 220 (HP 9920), 226 (HP 9826), 236 (HP 9836), 237 (HP 9837) Series 300 310, 318, 319, 320, 322, 330, 332, 340, 345, 350, 360, 362, 370, 375, 380, 382, 385 Series 400 (HP Apollo 9000 Series 400) 400dl, 400s, 400t, 425dl, 425e, 425s, 425t, 433dl, 433s, 433t Series 500 520 (HP 9020), 530 (HP 9030), 540 (HP 9040), 550, 560 Series 600 635SV, 645SV Series 700 705, 710, 712, 715, 720, 725, 730, 735, 742, 743, 744, 745, 747, 748, 750, 755 B-class B132L, B160L, B132L+, B180L, B1000, B2000, B2600 C-class C100, C110, C132L, C160, C160L, C180, C180L, C180XP, C200, C240, C360, C3000, C3600, C3650, C3700, C3750, C8000 J-class J200, J210, J210XC, J280, J282, J2240, J5000, J5600, J6000, J6700, J6750, J7000 Series 200
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The Series 200 workstations originated before there were any "Series" at HP. The first model was the HP 9826A, followed by the HP 9836A. Later, a color version of the 9836 (9836C) was introduced. There was also a rack-mount version, the HP 9920A. These were all based on the Motorola 68000 chip. There were 'S' versions of the models that included memory bundled in. When HP-UX was included as an OS, there was a 'U' version of the 9836s and 9920 that used the 68012 processor. The model numbers included the letter 'U' (9836U, 9836CU, and 9920U). Later versions of the Series 200's included the 9816, 9817, and 9837. These systems were soon renamed as the HP Series 200 line, before being renamed again as part HP 9000 family, the HP 9000 Series 200.
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There was also a "portable" version of the Series 200 called the Integral. The official model was the HP9807. This machine was about the size of a portable sewing machine, contained a MC68000 processor, ROM based HP-UX, 3½ inch floppy disk drive, inkjet printer, a keyboard, mouse, and an electroluminescent display similar to the early GRiD Compass computers. It was not battery powered, and unlike the other Series 200's that were manufactured in Fort Collins, Colorado, it was made in Corvallis, Oregon. Series 300/400
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The Series 300 workstations were based around Motorola 68000-series processors, ranging from the 68010 (Model 310, introduced 1985) to the Motorola 68040 (Model 38x, introduced 1991). The Series 400 (introduced 1990) were intended to supersede the Apollo/Domain workstations and were also based on the 68030/040. They were branded "HP Apollo" and added Apollo Domain/OS compatibility. The suffix 's' and 't' used on the Series 400 represented "Side" (as in Desk side) and "Top" (as in Desk top) model. The last two digits of the Series 400 originally was the clock frequency of the processor in MHz (e.g. 433 was 33 MHz). At introduction, the Series 400 had a socket for the MC68040, but since they were not available at the time, an emulator card with an MC68030 and additional circuitry was installed. Customers who purchased systems were given a guaranteed upgrade price of $5,000USD to the MC68040, when they became available. The Series 300 and 400 shared the same I/O interface as the Series
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200. The 32-bit DIO-II bus is rated at 6 MB/s.
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Series 500
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The Series 500s were based on the HP FOCUS microprocessor. They began as the HP 9020, HP 9030, and HP 9040, were renamed the HP Series 500 Model 20, 30, and 40 shortly after introduction, and later renamed again as the HP 9000 Model 520, 530 and 540. The 520 was a complete workstation with built-in keyboard, display, 5.25-inch floppy disk, and optional thermal printer and 5 MB hard disk. The 520 could run BASIC or HP-UX and there were three different models based on the displays attached (two color and one monochrome). The 530 was a rackmount version of the Series 500, could only run HP-UX, and used a serial interface console. The 540 was a 530 mounted inside a cabinet, similar to the disk drives offered then and included a serial multiplexer (MUX). Later models of the Series 500s were the 550 and 560, which had a completely different chassis and could be connected to graphics processors. The processors in the original Series 500s ran at 20 MHz, and could reach a benchmark speed of 1
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million instructions per second (MIPS), equivalent to a VAX-11/780, then a common benchmark standard. They could be networked together and with 200 and 300 series using the Shared Resource Manager (SRM).
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Because of their performance, the US government placed the 500 series on its export restricted list. The computers were only permitted to be sold in Western Europe, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, with any other country needing written approval. Series 700
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The first workstations in the series, the Model 720, Model 730 and Model 750 systems were introduced on 26 March 1991 and were code-named "Snakes". The models used the PA-7000 microprocessor, with the Model 720 using a 50 MHz version and the Model 730 and Model 750 using a 66 MHz version. The PA-7000 is provided with 128 KB of instruction cache on the Model 720 and 730 and 256 KB on the Model 750. All models are provided with 256 KB of data cache. The Model 720 and Model 730 supported 16 to 64 MB of memory, while the Model 750 supported up to 192 MB. Onboard SCSI was provided by an NCR 53C700 SCSI controller. These systems could use both 2D and 3D graphics options, with 2D options being the greyscale GRX and the color CRX. 3D options were the Personal VRX and the Turbo GRX.
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In early January 1992, HP introduced the Model 705, code-named "Bushmaster Snake", and the Model 710, code-named "Bushmaster Junior". Both systems are low-end diskless workstations, with the Model 705 using a 32 MHz PA-7000 and the Model 710 using a 50 MHz version. At introduction, the Model 705 was priced at under US$5,000, and the Model 710 under US$10,000. The first Series 700 workstations were superseded by the Model 715/33, 715/50, 725/50 low-end workstations and the Model 735/99, 735/125, 755/99 and 755/125 high-end workstations on 10 November 1992. The existing Model 715 and Model 725 were later updated with the introduction of the Model 715/75 and 725/75 in September 1993. The new models used a 75 MHz PA-7100.
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Increasing integration led to the introduction of the Model 712/60 and Model 712/80i workstations on 18 January 1994. Code-named "Gecko", these models were intended to compete with entry-level workstations from Sun Microsystems and high-end personal computers. They used the PA-7100LC microprocessor operating at 60 and 80 MHz, respectively. The Model 712/80i was an integer only model, with the floating point-unit disabled. Both supported 16 to 128 MB of memory. The Model 715/64, 715/80, 715/100 and 725/100 were introduced in May 1994, targeted at the 2D and 3D graphics market. These workstations use the PA-7100LC microprocessor and supported 32 to 128 MB of memory, except for the Model 725/100, which supported up to 512 MB.
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The Model 712/100 (King Gecko), an entry-level workstation, and Model 715/100 XC, a mid-range workstation, were introduced in June 1995. The Model 712/100 is a Model 712 with a 100 MHz PA-7100LC and 256 KB of cache while the Model 715/100 XC is a Model 715/100 with 1 MB of cache. The Model 712 and 715 workstations feature the Lasi ASIC, connected by the GSC bus. The Lasi ASIC provided an integrated NCR 53C710 SCSI controller, an Intel Apricot 10 Mbit Ethernet interface, CD-quality sound, PS/2 keyboard and mouse, a serial and a parallel port. All models, except for the 712 series machines also use the Wax ASIC to provide an EISA adapter, a second serial port and support for the HIL bus. The SGC bus (System Graphics Connect), which is used in the earlier series 700 workstations, has similar specifications as PCI with 32-bit/33 MHz and a typical bandwidth of about 100 MB/s . VME Industrial Workstations Models 742i, 743i, 744, 745/745i, 747i, 748i. B, C, J class
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The C100, C110, J200, J210 and J210XC use the PA-7200 processor, connected to the UTurn IOMMU via the Runway bus. The C100 and C110 are single processor systems, and the J200 and J210 are dual processor systems. The Uturn IOMMU has two GSC buses. These machines continue to use the Lasi and Wax ASICs. The B132L (introduced 1996), B160L, B132L+, B180L, C132L, C160L and C180L workstations are based on the PA-7300LC processor, a development of the PA-7100LC with integrated cache and GSC bus controller. Standard graphics is the Visualize EG. These machines use the Dino GSC to PCI adapter which also provides the second serial port in place of Wax; they optionally have the Wax EISA adapter. The C160, C180, C180-XP, J280 and J282 use the PA-8000 processor and are the first 64-bit HP workstations. They are based on the same Runway/GSC architecture as the earlier C and J class workstations.
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The C200, C240 and J2240 offer increased speed with the PA-8200 processor and the C360 uses the PA-8500 processor. The B1000, B2000, C3000, J5000 and J7000 were also based on the PA-8500 processor, but had a very different architecture. The U2/Uturn IOMMU and the GSC bus is gone, replaced with the Astro IOMMU, connected via Ropes to several Elroy PCI host adapters. The B2600, C3600 and J5600 upgrade these machines with the PA-8600 processor. The J6000 is a rack-mountable workstation which can also be stood on its side in a tower configuration. The C3650, C3700, C3750, J6700 and J6750 are PA-8700-based. The C8000 uses the dual-core PA-8800 or PA-8900 processors, which uses the same bus as the McKinley and Madison Itanium processors and shares the same zx1 chipset. The Elroy PCI adapters have been replaced with Mercury PCI-X adapters and one Quicksilver AGP 8x adapter. Server models
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800 Series 807, 817, 822, 825, 827, 832, 835, 837, 840, 842, 845, 847, 850,855, 857, 867, 877, 887, 897 1200 FT Series 1210, 1245, 1245 PLUS A-class A180, A180C (Staccato), A400, A500 D-class D200, D210, D220, D230, D250, D260, D270, D280, D300, D310, D320, D330, D350, D360, D370, D380, D390 E-class E25, E35, E45, E55 F-class F10, F20, F30 (Nova) G-class G30, G40, G50, G60, G70 (Nova / Nova64) H-class H20, H30, H40, H50, H60, H70 I-class I30, I40, I50, I60, I70 K-class K100, K200, K210, K220, K250, K260, K360, K370, K380, K400, K410, K420, K450, K460, K570, K580 L-class L1000, L1500, L2000, L3000 N-class N4000 N-class N4004 N-class N4005 N-class N4006 R-class R380, R390 S-class rebadged Convex Exemplar SPP2000 (single-node) T-class T500, T520, T600 V-class V2200, V2250, V2500, V2600 X-class rebadged Convex Exemplar SPP2000 (multi-node) rp2400 rp2400 (A400), rp2405 (A400), rp2430 (A400), rp2450 (A500), rp2470 (A500) (former A-class)
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rp3400 rp3410-2, rp3440-4 (1-2 PA-8800/8900 processors) rp4400 rp4410-4, rp4440-8 rp5400 rp5400, rp5405, rp5430, rp5450, rp5470 (former L-class) rp7400 rp7400 (former N-class) rp7405 rp7405, rp7410, rp7420-16, rp7440-16 rp8400 rp8400, rp8410, rp8420-32, rp8440-32 HP 9000 Superdome SD-32, SD-64, SD-128 (PA-8900 processors)
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D-class (Codename: Ultralight) The D-class are entry-level and mid-range servers that succeeded the entry-level E-class servers and the mid-range G-, H-, I-class servers. The first models were introduced in late January 1996, consisting of the Model D200, D210, D250, D310 and D350. The Model D200 is a uniprocessor with a 75 MHz PA-7100LC microprocessor, support for up to 512 MB of memory and five EISA/HP-HSC slots. The Model D210 is similar, but it used a 100 MHz PA-7100LC. The Model D250 is dual-processor model and it used the 100 MHz PA-7100LC. It supported up to 768 MB of memory and had five EISA/HP-HSC slots. The Model D310 is a uniprocessor with a 100 MHz PA-7100LC, up to 512 MB of memory and eight EISA/HP-HSC slots. The Model D350 is a high-end D-class system, a dual-processor, it had two 100 MHz PA-7100LCs, up to 768 MB of memory and eight EISA/HP-HSC slots.
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In mid-September 1996, two new D-class servers were introduced to utilize the new 64-bit PA-8000 microprocessor, the Model D270 uniprocessor and the Model D370 dual-processor. Both were positioned as entry-level servers. They used the 160 MHz PA-8000 and supported 128 MB to 1.5 GB of memory. In January 1997, the low-end Model D220, D230, D320 and D330 were introduced, using 132 and 160 MHz versions of the PA-7300LC microprocessor. The D-class are tower servers with up to two microprocessors and are architecturally similar to the K-class. They sometimes masquerade as larger machines as HP shipped them mounted vertically inside a large cabinet containing a power supply and multiple disks with plenty of room for air to circulate. R-class The R-class is simply a D-class machine packaged in a rack-mount chassis. Unlike the D-class systems, it does not support hot-pluggable disks. N-class
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The N-class is a 10U rackmount server with up to eight CPUs and 12 PCI slots. It uses two Merced buses, one for every four processor slots. It is not a NUMA machine, having equal access to all memory slots. The I/O is unequal though; having one Ike IOMMU per bus means that one set of CPUs are closer to one set of I/O slots than the other. The N-class servers were marketed as "Itanium-ready", although when the Itanium shipped, no Itanium upgrade was made available for the N class. The N class did benefit from using the Merced bus, bridging the PA-8x00 microprocessors to it via a special adapter called DEW. The N4000 was upgraded with newer processors throughout its life, with models called N4000-36, N4000-44 and N4000-55 indicating microprocessor clock frequencies of 360, 440, and 550 MHz, respectively. It was renamed to the rp7400 series in 2001.
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L-class The L-class servers are 7U rackmount machines with up to 4 CPUs (depending on model). They have 12 PCI slots, but only 7 slots are enabled in the entry-level L1000 system. Two of the PCI slots are occupied by factory integrated cards and cannot be utilized for I/O expansion by the end-user. The L1000 and L2000 are similar to the A400 and A500, being based on an Astro/Elroy combination. They initially shipped with 360 MHz and 440 MHz PA-8500 and were upgraded with 540 MHz PA-8600. The L3000 is similar to the N4000, being based on a DEW/Ike/Elroy combination. It shipped only with 550 MHz PA-8600 CPUs. The L-class family was renamed to the rp5400 series in 2001. A-class The A180 and A180C were 32-bit, single-processor, 2U servers based on the PA-7300LC processor with the Lasi and Dino ASICs.
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The A400 and A500 servers were 64-bit, single and dual-processor 2U servers based on the PA-8500 and later processors, using the Astro IOMMU and Elroy PCI adapters. The A400-36 and A500-36 machines used the PA-8500 processor running at 360 MHz; the A400-44 and A500-44 are clocked at 440 MHz. The A500-55 uses a PA-8600 processor running at 550 MHz and the A500-75 uses a PA-8700 processor running at 750 MHz. The A-class was renamed to the rp2400 series in 2001. S/X-class The S- and X-class were Convex Exemplar SPP2000 supercomputers rebadged after HP's acquisition of Convex Computer in 1995. The S-class was a single-node SPP2000 with up to 16 processors, while the X-class name was used for multi-node configurations with up to 512 processors. These machines ran Convex's SPP-UX operating system.
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V-class The V-class servers were based on the multiprocessor technology from the S-class and X-class. The V2200 and V2250 support a maximum of 16 processors, and the V2500 and V2600 support a maximum of 32 processors. The V-class systems are physically large systems that need extensive cooling and three-phase electric power to operate. They provided a transitional platform between the T-class and the introduction of the Superdome. Operating systems Apart from HP-UX and Domain/OS (on the 400), many HP 9000s can also run the Linux operating system. Some PA-RISC-based models are able to run NeXTSTEP. Berkeley Software Distribution (BSD) Unix was ported to the HP 9000 as HPBSD; the resulting support code was later added to 4.4BSD. Its modern variants NetBSD and OpenBSD also support various HP 9000 models, both Motorola 68k and PA-RISC based.
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In the early 1990s, several Unix R&D systems were ported to the PA-RISC platform, including several attempts of OSF/1, various Mach ports and systems that combined parts of Mach with other systems (MkLinux, Mach 4/Lites). The origin of these ports were mostly either internal HP Labs projects or HP products, or academic research, mostly at the University of Utah.
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One project conducted at HP Laboratories involved replacing core HP-UX functionality, specifically the virtual memory and process management subsystems, with Mach functionality from Mach 2.0 and 2.5. This effectively provided a vehicle to port Mach to the PA-RISC architecture, as opposed to starting with the Berkeley Software Distribution configured to use the Mach kernel infrastructure and porting this to PA-RISC, and thereby delivered a version of HP-UX 2.0 based on Mach, albeit with certain features missing from both Mach and HP-UX. The motivation for the project was to investigate performance issues with Mach related to the cache architecture of PA-RISC along with potential remedies for these issues. See also HP 3000 HPE Integrity Servers HP Superdome HP 9800 series, prior series of scientific computer workstations HP 7935 disc drive Notes External links
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HP 9000 evolution, HP 9000 evolution to HP Integrity Official HP Mission-Critical Musings Blog HP 9836 at old-computers.com HP Computer Museum OpenPA.net Information resource on HP PA-RISC-based computers, including HP 9000/700, 800 and later systems Site communautaire sur les stations de travail et serveurs hp9000, regroupant des informations, part number ainsi que de la documentation au format PDF. 9000 9000 Computer workstations Computer-related introductions in 1984 32-bit computers 64-bit computers
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Darioconus is a subgenus of sea snails, marine gastropod mollusks in the genus Conus, family Conidae, the cone snails and their allies. In the new classification of the family Conidae by Puillandre N., Duda T.F., Meyer C., Olivera B.M. & Bouchet P. (2015), Darioconus has become a subgenus of Conus: Conus (Darioconus) Tucker & Tenorio, 2013 represented as Conus Thiele, 1929 Distinguishing characteristics The Tucker & Tenorio 2009 taxonomy distinguishes Darioconus from Conus in the following ways:
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Genus Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Shell characters (living and fossil species) The basic shell shape is conical to elongated conical, has a deep anal notch on the shoulder, a smooth periostracum and a small operculum. The shoulder of the shell is usually nodulose and the protoconch is usually multispiral. Markings often include the presence of tents except for black or white color variants, with the absence of spiral lines of minute tents and textile bars. Radular tooth (not known for fossil species) The radula has an elongated anterior section with serrations and a large exposed terminating cusp, a non-obvious waist, blade is either small or absent and has a short barb, and lacks a basal spur. Geographical distribution These species are found in the Indo-Pacific region. Feeding habits These species eat other gastropods including cones.
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Subgenus Darioconus Iredale, 1930 Shell characters (living and fossil species) The shell is ovate in shape. The protoconch can be paucispiral or multispiral, poorly developed nodules die out in the early postnuclear whorls, and the sides of the body whole are convex. The anal notch is moderate to shallow. The shell does not have textile bars, but is ornamented with spiral lines of minute tents. The periostracum is smooth, and the operculum is small. Radular tooth (not known for fossil species) The anterior section of the radula is substantially more elongated than the posterior section. The waist is not obvious. A basal spur is absent, and the blade and barb is short. A terminating cusp is present. Geographical distribution These species are found in the Indo-Pacific region. Feeding habits These species are molluscivorous (meaning that they prey on other mollusks).
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Species list This list of species is based on the information in the World Register of Marine Species (WoRMS) list. Species within the genus Darioconus include: Darioconus leviteni Tucker, Tenorio & Chaney, 2011 Darioconus aulicus (Linnaeus, 1758): synonym of Conus aulicus Linnaeus, 1758 Darioconus auratinus (da Motta, 1982): synonym of Conus auratinus da Motta, 1982 Darioconus auricomus (Hwass in Bruguière, 1792): synonym of Conus auricomus Hwass in Bruguière, 1792 Darioconus behelokensis (Lauer, 1989): synonym of Conus behelokensis Lauer, 1989 Darioconus bengalensis Okutani, 1968: synonym of Conus bengalensis (Okutani, 1968) Darioconus crocatus (Lamarck, 1810): synonym of Conus crocatus Lamarck, 1810 Darioconus echo (Lauer, 1988): synonym of Conus pennaceus echo Lauer, 1988 Darioconus episcopatus (da Motta, 1982): synonym of Conus episcopatus Da Motta, 1982 Darioconus fortdauphinensis Bozzetti, 2015: synonym of Conus fortdauphinensis (Bozzetti, 2015)
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Darioconus lamberti (Souverbie, 1877): synonym of Conus lamberti Souverbie, 1877 Darioconus laueri Monnier & Limpalaër, 2013: synonym of Conus (Darioconus) laueri (Monnier & Limpalaër, 2013) represented as Conus laueri (Monnier & Limpalaër, 2013) Darioconus leviteni Tucker, Tenorio & Chaney, 2011: synonym of Conus (Darioconus) leviteni (Tucker, Tenorio & Chaney, 2011) represented as Conus leviteni (Tucker, Tenorio & Chaney, 2011) Darioconus lohri (Kilburn, 1972): synonym of Conus lohri Kilburn, 1972 Darioconus madagascariensis (G.B. Sowerby II, 1858): synonym of Conus madagascariensis G. B. Sowerby II, 1858 Darioconus magnificus (Reeve, 1843): synonym of Conus magnificus Reeve, 1843 Darioconus natalaurantius S. G. Veldsman, 2013: synonym of Conus (Darioconus) natalaurantius (S. G. Veldsman, 2013) represented as Conus natalaurantius (S. G. Veldsman, 2013)
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Darioconus omaria (Hwass in Bruguière, 1792): synonym of Conus (Darioconus) omaria Hwass in Bruguière, 1792 represented as Conus omaria Hwass in Bruguière, 1792 Darioconus pennaceus (Born, 1778): synonym of Conus pennaceus Born, 1778 Darioconus textilis: synonym of Conus textile Linnaeus, 1758 Darioconus thomae Gmelin, 1791:synonym of Conus (Darioconus) thomae Gmelin, 1791, represented as Conus thomae Gmelin, 1791
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References Further reading Kohn A. A. (1992). Chronological Taxonomy of Conus, 1758-1840". Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington and London. Monteiro A. (ed.) (2007). The Cone Collector 1: 1-28. Berschauer D. (2010). Technology and the Fall of the Mono-Generic Family The Cone Collector 15: pp. 51-54 Puillandre N., Meyer C.P., Bouchet P., and Olivera B.M. (2011), Genetic divergence and geographical variation in the deep-water Conus orbignyi complex (Mollusca: Conoidea)'', Zoologica Scripta 40(4) 350-363. External links To World Register of Marine Species Gastropods.com: Conidae setting forth the genera recognized therein. Conidae
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Judicial Watch (JW) is an American conservative activist group that files Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) lawsuits to investigate claimed misconduct by government officials. Founded in 1994, JW has primarily targeted Democrats, in particular the Presidency of Bill Clinton, the Presidency of Barack Obama, and Hillary Clinton. It was founded by attorney Larry Klayman, and has been led by Tom Fitton since 2003. The organization has described climate science as "fraud science" and has filed lawsuits against government climate scientists. JW has made numerous false and unsubstantiated claims that have been picked up by right-wing news outlets and promoted by conservative figures. Former U.S President Donald Trump has repeatedly cited false claims by Judicial Watch about voter fraud. Courts have dismissed the vast majority of its lawsuits. History
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Judicial Watch was founded in 1994 by attorney and right-wing activist Larry Klayman. Before leaving the organization in 2003, Klayman hired Tom Fitton, who became president of the organization. In October 2016, The New York Times wrote: "Judicial Watch's strategy is simple: Carpet-bomb the federal courts with Freedom of Information Act lawsuits." As of 2016, the organization had nearly fifty employees. Judicial Watch calls itself a nonpartisan educational foundation as well as a media organization. According to the Times, "the group has forced the release of government records that would otherwise have been kept from the public." Critics accuse JW of "weaponizing the Freedom of Information Act for political purposes." Clinton Administration