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1331_11 | In 1991, the museum established a commercial consulting and project management group, the Australian Museum Business Services (AMBS), now known as Australian Museum Consulting. In 1995, the museum established new research centres in conservation, biodiversity, evolutionary research, geodiversity and "People and Places". These research centres have now been incorporated into the museum's natural science collection programs. In 1998, the djamu gallery opened at Customs House, Circular Quay, the first major new venue for the museum beyond College Street site. A series of exhibitions on Indigenous culture were displayed until the gallery closed at the end of 2000.
In 2001 two rural associate museums were established, The Age of Fishes Museum in Canowindra and the Australian Fossil and Mineral Museum in Bathurst which includes the mineral and dinosaur Somerville Collection donated by Warren Somerville. |
1331_12 | In 2002, ICAC launched Operation Savoy to investigate thefts of the zoological collections by a museum employee.
In 2011 the museum launched its first Mobile App – "DangerOZ" – about Australia's most dangerous animals.
In September 2013, the Australian Museum Research Institute (AMRI) was launched. AMRI's purposes are:
to provide a focal point for the many researchers working in the museum
to facilitate collaborations with government research agencies, universities, gardens, zoos and other museums
to showcase the important scientific research that is being done at the museum, focusing on climate change impacts on biodiversity; the detection and biology of pest species; understanding what constitutes and influences effective biodiversity conservation. |
1331_13 | Exhibitions
The museum has hosted exhibitions since 1854 to the present day, including permanent, temporary and touring exhibitions, such as "Dinosaurs from China", "Festival of the Dreaming", "Beauty from Nature: Art of the Scott Sisters" and "Wildlife Photographer of the Year". In 2012–13 the museum hosted "Alexander the Great" which exhibited the largest collection of treasures ever to come to Australia from the Hermitage Museum in Saint Petersburg, Russia.
When the Crystal Hall was launched as the museum's new entrance in August 2015, the former foyer, the Barnet Wing, became the permanent gallery housing "Wild Planet" – a display of over 400 animals that explores and explains evolution and the tree of life.
In 2015, "Trailblazers: Australia's 50 greatest explorers" opened, honouring the work of Bourke and Wills, Nancy Bird Walton, Dick Smith, Jessica Watson and Tim Jarvis, among others. |
1331_14 | Other audience engagement programs include live displays to help demonstrate the behaviours and adaptations of animals, video conferencing and "Museum in a Box" for schoolchildren, as well as cultural heritage initiatives for Pacific youth and Indigenous Australians. |
1331_15 | Jurassic Lounge
Established in early 2011 by the Australian Museum and non-profit company The Festivalists, Jurassic Lounge is a re-inauguration of the creative use of museum spaces for contemporary arts display.
Combining events, live music, art, cultural displays, and new media with standard exhibition space in the museum precinct, Jurassic Lounge is a seasonal display-event held on Tuesdays for two seasons annually. Jurassic lounge first opened on 1 February 2011. It is held from 5.30pm to 9.30pm at the Australian Museum which is located on 6 College Street Sydney, Australia. It allows the public to discover Sydney's hottest new emerging artists, musicians and performers. Last year's line ups included a burlesque show, a silent disco, live painting, a photobooth, interaction with museum animals (snake and stick insects).
Heritage listing |
1331_16 | As at 14 November 2014, the Australian Museum buildings house the first public museum inaugurated in Australia, one of Australia's oldest scientific and cultural institutions. Conceived and developed initially along the contemporary European model of an encyclopedic warehouse of cultural and natural history, the museum buildings evolved as the institution evolved, partly in response to its visiting public, to pursue and expand knowledge of the natural history of Australia and the nearby pacific region. The museum continues to occupy the site provided, and the building constructed, as its first permanent home, commenced in 1846 and opened to the public in 1857. The extended and enlarged complex of buildings which now provide its principal exhibition, administrative and research accommodation reflect the growth of the institution and its prestige, as well as the evolving attitudes of Australian Government and society to science and research. |
1331_17 | The Museum's various buildings further comprise a unique aggregation of work by successive colonial and Government Architects of New South Wales, exhibiting:
changes in the philosophy and functional requirements of museum design
changing stylistic influences and design approaches in architecture from the early 19th century to the present, and
corresponding developments in building technology, materials and craftsmanship. |
1331_18 | Individually the various elements of the Museum complex remain significantly intact, with potential for enhancement of their cultural significance through conservation techniques, though conflicts exist between conservation of fabric and contemporary use, particularly exhibition techniques. Of special note are the exteriors and principal interiors of the three earliest wings of the complex, which despite varying degrees of alteration, remain in substantial original condition. The interlinked exhibition galleries comprise an important group of 19th and early 20th century public interests. |
1331_19 | Through its development, the Museum complex has assumed a prominent stature in the townscape of Sydney. With its frontage to William and College Street, the Museum commands the eastern reaches of Hyde Park and forms and extension of the principal historic civic and religious precincts adjoining the northern boundaries of the park in Macquarie and College streets. Through recent expansion the museum site includes the former grounds and two surviving buildings of the William Street National School, which, established in 1851, is one of the earlier public schools continued in educational use for almost 100 years.
Australian Museum was listed on the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 2 April 1999. |
1331_20 | 2020 Upgrade
At the end of 2020, after being closed for 15 months, the 200 year old Museum re-opened following a major upgrade. Subsequent to its refurbishment, Museum entry will be free for the public and the building will provide a physical space that "equals the importance of the collection and the scientific research" done there.
Gallery
See also
The Lewis Collection
List of museums in Australia
National Museum of Australia
Museum of Sydney
References
Bibliography
Attribution
External links
Australian Museum – Sydney.com
Australian Museum at Google Cultural Institute
[CC-By-SA] |
1331_21 | Museums in Sydney
Natural history museums in Australia
Neoclassical architecture in Australia
James Barnet buildings in Sydney
New South Wales State Heritage Register sites located in the Sydney central business district
Mortimer Lewis buildings
1827 establishments in Australia
Articles incorporating text from the New South Wales State Heritage Register
Sandstone buildings in Australia
College Street, Sydney |
1332_0 | A phonemic orthography is an orthography (system for writing a language) in which the graphemes (written symbols) correspond to the phonemes (significant spoken sounds) of the language. Natural languages rarely have perfectly phonemic orthographies; a high degree of grapheme-phoneme correspondence can be expected in orthographies based on alphabetic writing systems, but they differ in how complete this correspondence is. English orthography, for example, is alphabetic but highly nonphonemic; it was once mostly phonemic during the Middle English stage, when the modern spellings originated, but spoken English changed rapidly while the orthography was much more stable, resulting in the modern nonphonemic situation. However, because of their relatively recent modernizations compared to English, the Romanian, Italian, Turkish, Spanish, Finnish, Czech, Latvian, Esperanto, Korean and Swahili orthographic systems come much closer to being consistent phonemic representations. |
1332_1 | In less formal terms, a language with a highly phonemic orthography may be described as having regular spelling. Another terminology is that of deep and shallow orthographies, in which the depth of an orthography is the degree to which it diverges from being truly phonemic. The concept can also be applied to nonalphabetic writing systems like syllabaries.
Ideal phonemic orthography
In an ideal phonemic orthography, there would be a complete one-to-one correspondence (bijection) between the graphemes (letters) and the phonemes of the language, and each phoneme would invariably be represented by its corresponding grapheme. So the spelling of a word would unambiguously and transparently indicate its pronunciation, and conversely, a speaker knowing the pronunciation of a word would be able to infer its spelling without any doubt. That ideal situation is rare but exists in a few languages. |
1332_2 | A disputed example of an ideally phonemic orthography is the Serbo-Croatian language. In its alphabet (Latin as well as Serbian Cyrillic alphabet), there are 30 graphemes, each uniquely corresponding to one of the phonemes. This seemingly perfect yet simple phonemic orthography was achieved in the 19th century—the Cyrillic alphabet first in 1814 by Serbian linguist Vuk Karadžić, and the Latin alphabet in 1830 by Croatian linguist Ljudevit Gaj. However, both Gaj's Latin alphabet and Serbian Cyrillic do not distinguish short and long vowels, and non-tonic (the short one is written), rising, and falling tones that Serbo-Croatian has. In Serbo-Croatian, the tones and vowel lengths were optionally written as (in Latin) ⟨e⟩, ⟨ē⟩, ⟨è⟩, ⟨é⟩, ⟨ȅ⟩, and ⟨ȇ⟩, especially in dictionaries.
Another such ideal phonemic orthography is native to Esperanto, employing the language creator L. L. Zamenhof's then-pronounced principle “one letter, one sound”. |
1332_3 | There are two distinct types of deviation from this phonemic ideal. In the first case, the exact one-to-one correspondence may be lost (for example, some phoneme may be represented by a digraph instead of a single letter), but the "regularity" is retained: there is still an algorithm (but a more complex one) for predicting the spelling from the pronunciation and vice versa. In the second case, true irregularity is introduced, as certain words come to be spelled and pronounced according to different rules from others, and prediction of spelling from pronunciation and vice versa is no longer possible. Common cases of both types of deviation from the ideal are discussed in the following section. |
1332_4 | Deviations from phonemic orthography
Some ways in which orthographies may deviate from the ideal of one-to-one grapheme-phoneme correspondence are listed below. The first list contains deviations that tend only to make the relation between spelling and pronunciation more complex, without affecting its predictability (see above paragraph).
Case 1: Regular
Pronunciation and spelling still correspond in a predictable way
A phoneme may be represented by a sequence of letters, called a multigraph, rather than by a single letter (as in the case of the digraph ch in French and the trigraph sch in German). That only retains predictability if the multigraph cannot be broken down into smaller units. Some languages use diacritics to distinguish between a digraph and a sequence of individual letters, and others require knowledge of the language to distinguish them; compare goatherd and loather in English.
Examples:
sch versus s-ch in Romansch
ng versus n + g in Welsh |
1332_5 | ch versus çh in Manx Gaelic: this is a slightly different case where the same digraph is used for two different single phonemes.
ai versus aï in French
This is often due to the use of an alphabet that was originally used for a different language (the Latin alphabet in these examples) and so does not have single letters available for all the phonemes used in the current language (although some orthographies use devices such as diacritics to increase the number of available letters).
Sometimes, conversely, a single letter may represent a sequence of more than one phoneme (as x can represent the sequence /ks/ in English and other languages).
Sometimes, the rules of correspondence are more complex and depend on adjacent letters, often as a result of historical sound changes (as with the rules for the pronunciation of ca and ci in Italian and the silent e in English). |
1332_6 | Case 2: Irregular
Pronunciation and spelling do not always correspond in a predictable way
Sometimes, different letters correspond to the same phoneme (for instance u and ó in Polish are both pronounced as the phoneme /u/). That is often for historical reasons (the Polish letters originally stood for different phonemes, which later merged phonologically). That affects the predictability of spelling from pronunciation but not necessarily vice versa. Another example is found in Modern Greek, whose phoneme /i/ can be written in six different ways: ι, η, υ, ει, οι and υι.
Conversely, a letter or group of letters can correspond to different phonemes in different contexts. For example, th in English can be pronounced as /ð/ (as in this) or /θ/ (as in thin), as well as /th/ (as in goatherd). |
1332_7 | Spelling may otherwise represent a historical pronunciation; orthography does not necessarily keep up with sound changes in the spoken language. For example, both the k and the digraph gh of English knight were once pronounced (the latter is still pronounced in some Scots varieties), but after the loss of their sounds, they no longer represent the word's phonemic structure or its pronunciation.
Spelling may represent the pronunciation of a different dialect from the one being considered.
Spellings of loanwords often adhere to or are influenced by the orthography of the source language (as with the English words ballet and fajita, from French and Spanish respectively). With some loanwords, though, regularity is retained either by
nativizing the pronunciation to match the spelling (as with the Russian word шофёр, from French chauffeur but pronounced in accordance with the normal rules of Russian vowel reduction; see also spelling pronunciation) or by |
1332_8 | nativizing the spelling (for example, football is spelt fútbol in Spanish and futebol in Portuguese).
Spelling may reflect a folk etymology (as in the English words hiccough and island, so spelt because of an imagined connection with the words cough and isle), or distant etymology (as in the English word debt in which the silent b was added under the influence of Latin).
Spelling may reflect morphophonemic structure rather than the purely phonemic (see next section) although it is often also a reflection of historical pronunciation. |
1332_9 | Most orthographies do not reflect the changes in pronunciation known as sandhi in which pronunciation is affected by adjacent sounds in neighboring words (written Sanskrit and other Indian languages, however, reflect such changes). A language may also use different sets of symbols or different rules for distinct sets of vocabulary items such as the Japanese hiragana and katakana syllabaries (and the different treatment in English orthography of words derived from Latin and Greek). |
1332_10 | Morphophonemic features
Alphabetic orthographies often have features that are morphophonemic rather than purely phonemic. This means that the spelling reflects to some extent the underlying morphological structure of the words, not only their pronunciation. Hence different forms of a morpheme (minimum meaningful unit of language) are often spelt identically or similarly in spite of differences in their pronunciation. That is often for historical reasons; the morphophonemic spelling reflects a previous pronunciation from before historical sound changes that caused the variation in pronunciation of a given morpheme. Such spellings can assist in the recognition of words when reading. |
1332_11 | Some examples of morphophonemic features in orthography are described below.
The English plural morpheme is written -s regardless of whether it is pronounced as or , e.g. cats and dogs, not cats and dogz. This is because the and sounds are forms of the same underlying morphophoneme, automatically pronounced differently depending on its environment. (However, when this morpheme takes the form , the addition of the vowel is reflected in the spelling: churches, masses.)
Similarly the English past tense morpheme is written -ed regardless of whether it is pronounced as , or .
Many English words retain spellings that reflect their etymology and morphology rather than their present-day pronunciation. For example, sign and signature include the spelling , which means the same but is pronounced differently in the two words. Other examples are science vs. conscience , prejudice vs. prequel , nation vs. nationalism , and special vs. species . |
1332_12 | Phonological assimilation is often not reflected in spelling even in otherwise phonemic orthographies such as Spanish, in which obtener "obtain" and optimista "optimist" are written with b and p, but are commonly neutralized with regard to voicing and pronounced in various ways, such as both [β] in neutral style or both [p] in emphatic pronunciation. On the other hand, Serbo-Croatian (Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian and Montenegrin) spelling reflects assimilation so one writes Србија/Srbija "Serbia" but српски/srpski "Serbian". |
1332_13 | The final-obstruent devoicing that occurs in many languages (such as German, Polish and Russian) is not normally reflected in the spelling. For example, in German, Bad "bath" is spelt with a final even though it is pronounced , thus corresponding to other morphologically related forms such as the verb baden (bathe) in which the d is pronounced . (Compare , ("advice", "advise") in which the t is pronounced in both positions.) Turkish orthography, however, is more strictly phonemic: for example, the imperative of eder "does" is spelled et, as it is pronounced (and the same as the word for "meat"), not *ed, as it would be if German spelling were used. |
1332_14 | Korean hangul has changed over the centuries from a highly phonemic to a largely morphophonemic orthography. Japanese kana are almost completely phonemic but have a few morphophonemic aspects, notably in the use of ぢ di and づ du (rather than じ ji and ず zu, their pronunciation in standard Tokyo dialect), when the character is a voicing of an underlying ち or つ. That is from the rendaku sound change combined with the yotsugana merger of formally different morae. The Russian orthography is also mostly morphophonemic, because it does not reflect vowel reduction, consonant assimilation and final-obstruent devoicing. Also, some consonant combinations have silent consonants. |
1332_15 | Defective orthographies
A defective orthography is one that is not capable of representing all the phonemes or phonemic distinctions in a language. An example of such a deficiency in English orthography is the lack of distinction between the voiced and voiceless "th" phonemes ( and , respectively), occurring in words like this (voiced) and thin (voiceless) respectively, with both written . |
1332_16 | Comparison between languages
Languages with a high grapheme-to-phoneme and phoneme-to-grapheme correspondence (excluding exceptions due to loan words and assimilation) include:
Kurdish
Maltese
Finnish
Albanian
Georgian
Hindi (apart from schwa deletion)
Sanskrit
Kannada
Turkish (apart from ğ and various palatal and vowel allophones)
Serbo-Croatian (Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian and Montenegrin; written in either Cyrillic or Latin script)
Slovenian
Bulgarian
Macedonian (if the apostrophe denoting schwa is counted, though slight inconsistencies may be found)
Eastern Armenian (apart from o, v)
Basque (apart from palatalized l, n)
Haitian Creole
Spanish (apart from h, x, b/v, and sometimes k, c, g, j, z)
Czech (apart from ě, ů, y, ý)
Polish (apart from ó, ch, rz and nasal vowels)
Romanian
Ukrainian (mainly phonemic with some other historical/morphological rules, as well as palatalization)
Belarusian (phonemic for vowels but morphophonemic for consonants except ў written phonetically) |
1332_17 | Swahili (missing aspirated consonants, which do not occur in all varieties and anyway are sparsely used)
Mongolian (Cyrillic) (apart from letters representing multiple sounds depending on front or back vowels, the soft and hard sign, silent letters to indicate from and voiced versus voiceless consonants)
Azerbaijani (apart from k)
Hungarian (apart from j and ly)
Oromo |
1332_18 | Many otherwise phonemic orthographies are slightly defective: Malay (incl. Malaysian and Indonesian), Italian, Maltese, Welsh, and Kazakh do not fully distinguish their vowels, Lithuanian, Latvian, and Serbo-Croatian does not distinguish tone and vowel length (also additional vowels for Lithuanian and Latvian), Somali does not distinguish vowel phonation, and graphemes b and v represent the same phoneme in all varieties of Spanish (except in Valencia), while in Spanish of the Americas, can be represented by graphemes s, c, or z. Modern Indo-Aryan languages like Hindi, Punjabi, Gujarati, Maithili and several others feature schwa deletion, where the implicit default vowel is suppressed without being explicitly marked as such. Others, like Marathi, do not have a high grapheme-to-phoneme correspondence for vowel lengths. |
1332_19 | French, with its silent letters and its heavy use of nasal vowels and elision, may seem to lack much correspondence between spelling and pronunciation, but its rules on pronunciation, though complex, are consistent and predictable with a fair degree of accuracy. The actual letter-to-phoneme correspondence, however, is often low and a sequence of sounds may have multiple ways of being spelt.
Orthographies such as those of German, Hungarian (mainly phonemic with the exception ly, j representing the same sound, but consonant and vowel length are not always accurate and various spellings reflect etymology, not pronunciation), Portuguese, and modern Greek (written with the Greek alphabet), as well as Korean hangul, are sometimes considered to be of intermediate depth (for example they include many morphophonemic features, as described above). |
1332_20 | Similarly to French, it is much easier to infer the pronunciation of a German word from its spelling than vice versa. For example, for speakers who merge /eː/ and /ɛː/, the phoneme /eː/ may be spelt e, ee, eh, ä or äh.
English orthography is highly non-phonemic. The irregularity of English spelling arises partly because the Great Vowel Shift occurred after the orthography was established; partly because English has acquired a large number of loanwords at different times, retaining their original spelling at varying levels; and partly because the regularisation of the spelling (moving away from the situation in which many different spellings were acceptable for the same word) happened arbitrarily over a period without any central plan. However even English has general, albeit complex, rules that predict pronunciation from spelling, and several of these rules are successful most of the time; rules to predict spelling from the pronunciation have a higher failure rate. |
1332_21 | Most constructed languages such as Esperanto and Lojban have mostly phonemic orthographies.
The syllabary systems of Japanese (hiragana and katakana) are examples of almost perfectly shallow orthography – exceptions include the use of ぢ and づ (discussed above) and the use of は, を, and へ to represent the sounds わ, お, and え, as relics of historical kana usage. There is also no indication of pitch accent, which results in homography of words like 箸 and 橋 (はし in hiragana), which are distinguished in speech. |
1332_22 | Xavier Marjou uses an artificial neural network to rank 17 orthographies according to their level of Orthographic depth. Among the tested orthographies, Chinese and French orthographies, followed by English and Russian, are the most opaque regarding writing (i.e. phonemes to graphemes direction) and English, followed by Dutch, is the most opaque regarding reading (i.e. graphemes to phonemes direction); Esperanto, Arabic, Finnish, Korean, Serbo-Croatian and Turkish are very shallow both to read and to write; Italian is shallow to read and very shallow to write, Breton, German, Portuguese and Spanish are shallow to read and to write.
Realignment of orthography
With time, pronunciations change and spellings become out of date, as has happened to English and French. In order to maintain a phonemic orthography such a system would need periodic updating, as has been attempted by various language regulators and proposed by other spelling reformers. |
1332_23 | Sometimes the pronunciation of a word changes to match its spelling; this is called a spelling pronunciation. This is most common with loanwords, but occasionally occurs in the case of established native words too.
In some English personal names and place names, the relationship between the spelling of the name and its pronunciation is so distant that associations between phonemes and graphemes cannot be readily identified. Moreover, in many other words, the pronunciation has subsequently evolved from a fixed spelling, so that it has to be said that the phonemes represent the graphemes rather than vice versa. And in much technical jargon, the primary medium of communication is the written language rather than the spoken language, so the phonemes represent the graphemes, and it is unimportant how the word is pronounced. Moreover, the sounds which literate people perceive being heard in a word are significantly influenced by the actual spelling of the word. |
1332_24 | Sometimes, countries have the written language undergo a spelling reform to realign the writing with the contemporary spoken language. These can range from simple spelling changes and word forms to switching the entire writing system itself, as when Turkey switched from the Arabic alphabet to a Turkish alphabet of Latin origin.
Phonetic transcription
Methods for phonetic transcription such as the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) aim to describe pronunciation in a standard form. They are often used to solve ambiguities in the spelling of written language. They may also be used to write languages with no previous written form. Systems like IPA can be used for phonemic representation or for showing more detailed phonetic information (see Narrow vs. broad transcription). |
1332_25 | Phonemic orthographies are different from phonetic transcription; whereas in a phonemic orthography, allophones will usually be represented by the same grapheme, a purely phonetic script would demand that phonetically distinct allophones be distinguished. To take an example from American English: the sound in the words "table" and "cat" would, in a phonemic orthography, be written with the same character; however, a strictly phonetic script would make a distinction between the aspirated "t" in "table", the flap in "butter", the unaspirated "t" in "stop" and the glottalized "t" in "cat" (not all these allophones exist in all English dialects). In other words, the sound that most English speakers think of as is really a group of sounds, all pronounced slightly differently depending on where they occur in a word. A perfect phonemic orthography has one letter per group of sounds (phoneme), with different letters only where the sounds distinguish words (so "bed" is spelled differently |
1332_26 | from "bet"). |
1332_27 | A narrow phonetic transcription represents phones, the sounds humans are capable of producing, many of which will often be grouped together as a single phoneme in any given natural language, though the groupings vary across languages. English, for example, does not distinguish between aspirated and unaspirated consonants, but other languages, like Korean, Bengali and Hindi do.
The sounds of speech of all languages of the world can be written by a rather small universal phonetic alphabet. A standard for this is the International Phonetic Alphabet.
See also
Alphabetic principle
English-language spelling reform
Spelling
Morphophonology
Orthographic depth
Orthographic transcription
References
Orthography
Phonetics
Phonology
Spelling |
1333_0 | An electro-galvanic fuel cell is an electrochemical device which consumes a fuel to produce an electrical output by a chemical reaction. One form of electro-galvanic fuel cell based on the oxidation of lead is commonly used to measure the concentration of oxygen gas in underwater diving and medical breathing gases.
Electronically monitored or controlled diving rebreather systems, saturation diving systems, and many medical life-support systems use galvanic oxygen sensors in their control circuits to directly monitor oxygen partial pressure during operation. They are also used in oxygen analysers in recreational, technical diving and surface supplied mixed gas diving to analyse the proportion of oxygen in a nitrox, heliox or trimix breathing gas before a dive. |
1333_1 | These cells are lead/oxygen galvanic cells where oxygen molecules are dissociated and reduced to hydroxyl ions at the cathode. The ions diffuse through the electrolyte and oxidize the lead anode. A current proportional to the rate of oxygen consumption is generated when the cathode and anode are electrically connected through a resistor
Function
The cell reaction for a lead/oxygen cell is: 2Pb + O2 → 2PbO, made up of the cathode reaction: O2 + 2H2O + 4e− → 4OH−, and anode reaction: 2Pb + 4OH− → 2PbO + 2H2O + 4e−. |
1333_2 | The cell current is proportional to the rate of oxygen reduction at the cathode, but this is not linearly dependent on the partial pressure of oxygen in the gas to which the cell is exposed: Linearity is achieved by placing a diffusion barrier between the gas and the cathode, which limits the amount of gas reaching the cathode to an amount that can be fully reduced without significant delay, making the partial pressure in the immediate vicinity of the electrode close to zero. As a result of this the amount of oxygen reaching the electrode follows Fick's laws of diffusion and is proportional to the partial pressure in the gas beyond the membrane. This makes the current proportional to PO2.
The load resistor over the cell allows the electronics to measure a voltage rather than a current. This voltage depends on the construction and age of the sensor, and typically varies between 7 and 28 mV for a PO2 of 0.21 bar |
1333_3 | Diffusion is linearly dependent on the partial pressure gradient, but is also temperature dependent, and the current rises about two to three percent per kelvin rise in temperature. A negative temperature coefficient resistor is used to compensate, and for this to be effective it must be at the same temperature as the cell. Oxygen cells which may be exposed to relatively large or rapid temperature changes, like rebreathers, generally use thermally conductive paste between the temperature compensating circuit and the cell to speed up the balancing of temperature. |
1333_4 | Temperature also affects the signal response time, which is generally between 6 and 15 seconds at room temperature for a 90% response to a step change in partial pressure. Cold cells react much slower and hot cells much faster. As the anode material is oxidised the output current drops and eventually will cease altogether. The oxidation rate depends on the oxygen reaching the anode from the sensor membrane. Lifetime is measured in oxygen-hours, and also depends on temperature and humidity
Applications
Gas mixture analysis
The oxygen content of a stored gas mixture can be analysed by passing a small flow of the gas over a recently calibrated cell for long enough that the output stabilises. The stable output represents the fraction of oxygen in the mixture. Care must be taken to ensure that the gas flow is not diluted by ambient air, as this would affect the reading. |
1333_5 | Breathing gas composition monitoring
The partial pressure of oxygen in anaesthetic gases is monitored by siting the cell in the gas flow, which is at local atmospheric pressure, and can be calibrated to directly indicate the fraction of oxygen in the mix.
The partial pressure of oxygen in diving chambers and surface supplied breathing gas mixtures can also be monitored using these cells. This can either be done by placing the cell directly in the hyperbaric environment, wired through the hull to the monitor, or indirectly, by bleeding off gas from the hyperbaric environment or diver gas supply and analysing at atmospheric pressure, then calculating the partial pressure in the hyperbaric environment. This is frequently required in saturation diving and surface oriented surface supplied mixed gas commercial diving. |
1333_6 | Diving rebreather control systems
The breathing gas mixture in a diving rebreather loop is usually measured using oxygen cells, and the output of the cells is used by either the diver or an electronic control system to control addition of oxygen to increase partial pressure when it is below the chosen lower set-point, or to flush with diluent gas when it is above the upper set-point. When the partial pressure is between the upper and lower set-points, it is suitable for breathing at that depth and is left until it changes as a result of consumption by the diver, or a change in ambient pressure as a result of a depth change. |
1333_7 | Accuracy and reliability of measurement is important in this application for two basic reasons. Firstly, if the oxygen content is too low, the diver will lose consciousness due to hypoxia and probably die, or if the oxygen content is too high, the risk of central nervous system oxygen toxicity causing convulsions and loss of consciousness, with a high risk of drowning becomes unacceptable. Secondly, decompression obligations cannot be accurately or reliably calculated if the breathing gas composition is not known. Pre-dive calibration of the cells can only check response to partial pressures up to 100% at atmospheric pressure, or 1 bar. As the set points are commonly in the range of 1.2 to 1.6 bar, special hyperbaric calibration equipment would be required to reliably test the response at the set-points. This equipment is available, but is expensive and not in common use, and requires the cells to be removed from the rebreather and installed in the test unit. To compensate for the |
1333_8 | possibility of a cell failure during a dive, three cells are generally fitted, on the principle that failure of one cell at a time is most likely, and that if two cells indicate the same PO2, they are more likely to be correct than the single cell with a different reading. Voting logic allows the control system to control the circuit for the rest of the dive according to the two cells assumed to be correct. This is not entirely reliable, as it is possible for two cells to fail on the same dive. |
1333_9 | The sensors should be placed in the rebreather where a temperature gradient between the gas and the electronics in the back of the cells will not occur.
Lifespan
Oxygen cells behave in a similar way to electrical batteries in that they have a finite lifespan which is dependent upon use. The chemical reaction described above causes the cell to create an electrical output that has a predicted voltage which is dependent on the materials used. In theory they should give that voltage from the day they are made until they are exhausted, except that one component of the planned chemical reaction has been left out of the assembly: oxygen. |
1333_10 | Oxygen is one of the fuels of the cell so the more oxygen there is at the reaction surface, the more electrical current is generated. The chemistry sets the voltage and the oxygen concentration controls the electric current output. If an electrical load is connected across the cell it can draw up to this current but if the cell is overloaded the voltage will drop. When the lead electrode has been substantially oxidised, the maximum current that the cell can produce will drop, and eventually linearity of output current to partial pressure of oxygen at the reactive surface will fail within the required range of measurement, and the cell will no longer be accurate. |
1333_11 | There are two commonly used ways to specify expected sensor life span: The time in months at room temperature in air, or volume percentage oxygen hours (Vol%O2h). Storage at low oxygen partial pressure when not in use would seem an effective way to extend cell life, but when stored in anoxic conditions the sensor current will cease and the surface of the electrode may be passivated, which can lead to sensor failure. High ambient temperatures will increase sensor current, and reduce cell life. In diving service a cell typically lasts for 12 to 18 months, with perhaps 150 hours service in the diving loop at an oxygen partial pressure of about 1.2 bar and the rest of the time in storage in air at room temperature. |
1333_12 | Failures in cells can be life-threatening for technical divers and in particular, rebreather divers. The failure modes common to these cells are: failing with a higher than expected output due to electrolyte leaks, which is usually attributable to physical damage, contamination, or other defects in manufacture, or current limitation due to exhausted cell life and non linear output across its range.
Shelf life can be maximised by keeping the cell in the sealed bag as supplied by the manufacturer until being put into service, storing the cell before and between use at or below room temperature, - a range of from 10 to 22 °C is recommended by a manufacturer - and avoid storing the cell in warm or dry environments for prolonged periods, particularly areas exposed to direct sunlight. |
1333_13 | Failure modes |
1333_14 | When new, a sensor can produce a linear output for over 4 bar partial pressure of oxygen, and as the anode is consumed the linear output range drops, eventually to below the range of partial pressures which may be expected in service, at which stage it is no longer fit to control the system. The maximum output current eventually drops below the amount needed to indicate the full range of partial pressures expected in operation. This state is called current-limited. Current limited cells do not give a high enough output in high concentrations of oxygen. The rebreather control circuit responds as if there is insufficient oxygen in the loop and injects more oxygen in an attempt to reach a setpoint the cell can never indicate, resulting in hyperoxia. When a current limited sensor can no longer reliably activate the control system at the upper set-point in a life support system, there is a severe risk of an excessive oxygen partial pressure occurring which will not be noticed, which can be |
1333_15 | life-threatening. |
1333_16 | Other failure modes include mechanical damage, such as broken conductors, corroded contacts and loss of electrolyte due to damaged membranes.
Failing high – producing an output indicating partial pressure higher than reality – is invariably a result of a manufacturing fault or mechanical damage. In rebreathers, failing high will result in the rebreather assuming that there is more oxygen in the loop than there actually is which can result in hypoxia.
Non-linear cells do not perform in the expected manner across the required range of oxygen partial pressures. Two-point calibration against diluent and oxygen at atmospheric pressure will not pick up this fault which results in inaccurate loop contents of a rebreather. This gives the potential for decompression illness if the loop is maintained at a lower partial pressure than indicated by the cell output, or hyperoxia if the loop is maintained at a higher partial pressure than indicated by cell output. |
1333_17 | Testing cells in the field
Preventing accidents in rebreathers from cell failures is possible in most cases by accurately testing the cells before use. Some divers carry out in-water checks by pushing the oxygen content in the loop to a pressure that is above that of pure oxygen at sea level to indicate if the cell is capable of high outputs. This test is only a spot check and does not accurately assess the quality of that cell or predict its failure. The only way to accurately test a cell is with a test chamber which can hold a calibrated static pressure above the upper set-point without deviation and the ability to record the output voltage over the full range of working partial pressures and graph them. |
1333_18 | Managing cell failure in a life-support system |
1333_19 | If more than one statistically independent cell is used, it is unlikely that more than one will fail at a time. If one assumes that only one cell will fail, then comparing three or more outputs which have been calibrated at two points is likely to pick up the cell which has failed by assuming that any two cells that produce the same output are correct and the one which produces a different output is defective. This assumption is usually correct in practice, particularly if there is some difference in the history of the cells involved. The concept of comparing the output from three cells at the same place in the loop and controlling the gas mixture based on the average output of the two with the most similar output at any given time is known as voting logic, and is more reliable than control based on a single cell. If the third cell output deviates sufficiently from the other two, an alarm indicates probable cell failure. If this occurs before the dive, the rebreather is deemed unsafe |
1333_20 | and should not be used. If it occurs during a dive, it indicates an unreliable control system, and the dive should be aborted. Continuing a dive using a rebreather with a failed cell alarm significantly increases the risk of a fatal loop control failure. This system is not totally reliable. There has been at least one case reported where two cells failed similarly and the control system voted out the remaining good cell. |
1333_21 | If the probability of failure of each cell was statistically independent of the others, and each cell alone was sufficient to allow safe function of the rebreather, the use of three fully redundant cells in parallel would reduce risk of failure by five or six orders of magnitude. |
1333_22 | The voting logic changes this considerably. A majority of cells must not fail for safe function of the unit. In order to decide whether a cell is functioning correctly, it must be compared with an expected output. This is done by comparing it against the outputs of other cells. In the case of two cells, if the outputs differ, then one at least must be wrong, but it is not known which one. In such a case the diver should assume the unit is unsafe and bail out to open circuit. With three cells, if they all differ within an accepted tolerance, they may all be deemed functional. If two differ within tolerance, and the third does not, the two within tolerance may be deemed functional, and the third faulty. If none are within tolerance of each other, they may all be faulty, and if one is not, there is no way of identifying it. |
1333_23 | Using this logic, the improvement in reliability gained by use of voting logic where at least two sensors must function for the system to function is greatly reduced compared to the fully redundant version. Improvements are only in the order of one to two orders of magnitude. This would be great improvement over the single sensor, but the analysis above has assumed statistical independence of the failure of the sensors, which is generally not realistic. |
1333_24 | Factors which make the cell outputs in a rebreather statistically dependent include:
Common calibration gas - They are all calibrated together in the pre-dive check using the same diluent and oxygen supply.
Sensors are often from the same manufacturing batch - Components, materials and processes are likely to be very similar.
Sensors are often installed together and have since been exposed to the same PO2, temperature profile over the subsequent time.
Common working environment, particularly with regards to temperature and relative humidity, as they are usually mounted in very close proximity in the loop, to ensure that they measure similar gas.
Common measurement systems
Common firmware for processing the signals |
1333_25 | This statistical dependency can be minimised and mitigated by:
Using sensors from different manufacturers or batches, so that no two are from the same batch
Changing sensors at different times, so they each have a different history
Ensuring that the calibration gases are correct
Adding an statistically independent PO2 measuring system to the loop at a different place, using a different model sensor, and using different electronics and software to process the signal.
Calibrating this sensor using a different gas source to the others |
1333_26 | An alternative method of providing redundancy in the control system is to recalibrate the sensors periodically during the dive by exposing them to a flow of either diluent or oxygen or both at different times, and using the output to check whether the cell is reacting appropriately to the known gas as the known depth. This method has the added advantage of allowing calibration at higher oxygen partial pressure than 1 bar. This procedure may be done automatically, where the system has been designed to do it, or the diver can manually perform a diluent flush at any depth at which the diluent is breathable to compare the cell PO2 readings against a known FO2 and absolute pressure to verify the displayed values. This test does not only validate the cell. If the sensor does not display the expected value, it is possible that the oxygen sensor, the pressure sensor (depth), or the gas mixture FO2, or any combination of these may be faulty. As all three of these possible faults could be |
1333_27 | life-threatening, the test is quite powerful. |
1333_28 | Testing
The first commercially available certified oxygen cell checking device was launched in 2005 by Narked at 90, but did not achieve commercial success. A much revised model was released in 2007 and won the "Gordon Smith Award" for Innovation at the Diving Equipment Manufacturers Exhibition in Florida. Narked at 90 Ltd also won the Innovation Award for "an technical diving product that has made diving safer" at EUROTEK.2010 for their Oxygen Cell Checker.. The Cell Checker has been used by organisations such as Teledyne, Vandagraph, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, NURC (NATO Undersea Research Centre), and Diving Diseases Research Centre.
A small pressure vessel for hyperbaric testing of cells is also available in which a pressurised oxygen atmosphere of up to 2 bar can be used to check linearity at higher pressures using the electronics of the rebreather.
See also
References
Fuel cells
Underwater diving safety equipment
Sensors
Oxygen |
1334_0 | is a Japanese voice actress, choreographer, dancer and singer from Hyōgo Prefecture. She appeared on Kōhaku Uta Gassen as background dancer behind Ami Suzuki in 1999 and 2000. She used the name and others in her previous roles. She is also credited as FES from the band in the Science Adventure visual novel series, which is a stage name of her character Ayase Kishimoto from Chaos;Head.
Filmography
Anime
Happiness! (2006), Haruhi Kamisaka
Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru (2006), Hisako Kajiura
Super Robot Wars Original Generation: Divine Wars (2006), Leona Garstein
Prism Ark (2007), Priecia
Chaos;Head (2008), Ayase Kishimoto
H2O: Footprints in the Sand (2008), Hamaji Yakumo
Nyan Koi! (2009), Kumaneko
Super Robot Wars Original Generation: The Inspector (2010), Leona Garstein
Koi to Senkyo to Chocolate (2012), Mieru Ariake
Seikoku no Dragonar (2014), Navi |
1334_1 | Original video animation
Papillon Rose (2003), Sister Pchela
Touhou Project Side Story: Hoshi no Kioku (2007), Kaguya Houraisan
Harukoi Otome (2008), Umi Hayasaka
Yotsunoha (2008), Nono Nekomiya
Mayo elle Otokonoko (2010), Umezaemon Matsukaze
Web Anime
Saishū Shiken Kujira (2007), Niina Mikage |
1334_2 | Console games
St. Luminous Mission High School (2000), Yuka Tajima
Super Robot Wars Alpha (2000), Leona Garstein
Nukumori no Naka de: in the warmth (2001) Rina Shinbashi
Super Robot Wars Alpha for Dreamcast (2001), Leona Garstein
Chocolate♪Kiss (2002), Natsuki Tachibana
Jockey's Road (2002), Hikaru Kamiya
Konohana 2: Todokanai Requiem (2002), Mayumi Shiina, Yuko Oomi and Masami Kitayama
Konohana 3: Itsuwari no Kage no Mukō ni (2003), Mayumi Shiina, Yuko Oomi, Masami Kitayama
Fu-un Shinsengumi (2004), Ikumatsu
Tokyo Majin Gakuen Gehouchou Keppuuroku (2004), Fureiya
Fu-un Bakumatsu-den (2005), Ikumatsu
Konohana 4: Yami o Harau Inori (2006), Mayumi Shiina, Yuko Oomi
Kūron Yōma Gakuenki re:charge (2006), Itsuha Hibiki, Mayuko
Mutsuboshi☆Kirari: Hoshifuru Miyako (2006), Hokuto, Araki Miyako
Happiness! De:Luxe (2007), Haruhi Kamisaka
Nitro Royale (2007), Natsumi Aihara
Ojousama Kumikyoku -SweetConcert- (2007), Nanase Iwamoto |
1334_3 | Saishū Shiken Kujira Alive (2007), Niina Mikage
Super Robot Wars OG: Original Generations (2007), Leona Garstein
Super Robot Wars OG Gaiden (2007), Leona Garstein
H2O + (2008), Hamaji Yakumo
Kanokon Esuii (2008), Shirane Kamura
Prism Ark -Awake- (2008), Priecia
The Amazon Road (2008), Johnny
Yotsunoha: A Journey of Sincerity (2008), Nono Nekomiya
Yggdra Union (2008), Kylier, Monica
Chaos;Head Noah (2009), Ayase Kishimoto
Pia Carrot e Yokoso!! G.P.: Gakuen Princess (2009), Hina Satō
Pia Carrot e Yokoso!! G.P.: Gakuen Princess Portable (2009), Hina Satō
Solfège: Sweet harmony (2009), Kagura Fujimiya
Time Leap (2009), Ayumu
77: beyond the Milky Way (2010), Kuu
Chaos;Head Love Chu Chu! (2010), Ayase Kishimoto
Game Book DS: Aquarian Age Perpetual Period (2010), Ai Amane
Record of Agarest War 2 (2010), Figline
Sakura Sakura: Haru Urara (2010), Kurumi Tachibana
Tenshinranman Happy Go Lucky!! (2010), Kotaro Asagi |
1334_4 | Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru: Futari no Elder Portable (2011), Utano Sasou
Stella Glow (2015), Sakuya |
1334_5 | PC game
Album no Naka no Hohoemi (1999), Yuzuko Sugadaira
Heart de Network (2000), Mari Tsudanuma, Mūchan, Marine
Sukidayo! (2000), Rina Shimbashi
Memories Zero: Aoi Hikari no Yakusoku (2001), Yuumi Futaba
Gakuen Counsellor (2002), Akiko Oodate
"Hello, world." (2002), Natsumi Aibara
Mayonaka wa Ware no Mono (2002), May
Motto Muriyari! (2002), Moemi Asagi
Sī Sī Syndrome (2002), Badrinath Silva
Ane mo ne (2003), Futaba Shingūji
Blaze of Destiny (2003), Lena Raputohōn
Kakoi: Zetsubō no Shojo Kangokutō (2003), Kaede Kurata, Reika
Oshikake Harem (2003), Excel Bouquet
Sefure☆Syndrome (2003), Badrinard Silva
to... (2003), Miho Ogasawara
Chijoku Hitozuma Jogakuin (2004), Kaoru Mitone
Kao no nai Tsuki: Suzuna Nikki (limited edition for fan club) (2004), Suzuna Kuraki
Mutsuboshi Kirari (2004), Hokuto, Araki Miyako
Oshikake Harem Hard Party (2004), Excel Bouquet
Puni Puni Handmade (2004), Pochiko, Bochiko
Saishū Shiken Kujira ~Departures~ (2004), Niina Mikage |
1334_6 | Akanaeru Sekai no Owari ni (2005), Chifuyu Oumi
Gift (2005), Kirino Konosaka
Gunjō no Sora o koete: Glas Auszeichnung (2005), Wakana Mizuki
Hajimete no Otetsudai (2005), Yuuki Momono
Happiness! (2005), Haruhi Kamisaka
Bra-ban! -The bonds of melody- (2006), Tae Nakanoshima
Gift: Nijiiro Stories (2006), Kirino Konosaka
H2O: Footprints in the Sand (2006), Hamaji Yakumo
Happiness! Re:Lucks (2006), Haruhi Kamisaka
Harukoi Otome: Otome no Sono de Gokigen'yō (2006), Umi Hayasaka
Himesama Ririshiku! (2006), Atirene
Koiotome (2006), Misora Yamato
Osananajimi tono Kurashikata (2006), Nono Nekomiya
Otaku☆Masshigura (2006), Yoshitsuki Fukushima
Potto -Rondo for Dears- (2006), Kimika Ogata
Prism Ark (2006), Priecia
Spitan: Spirits Expedition -in the Phantasmagoria- (2006), Zena Clousy
Yotsunoha (2006), Nono Nekomiya
Ah! Ojousama (2007), Kaori Shihou
Alpeggio: Kimiiro no Melody (2007), Chisato Kitami |
1334_7 | Chu×Chu Idol -The idol is a Vampire?- (2007), Chuchu Astram, Chiyu Nakauchi, Chua Churam
Chu×Chu Paradise (2007), Chuchu Astram, Chiyu Nakauchi, Chua Churam
Dies irae -Also sprach Zarathustra- (2007), Marie
eXceed3rd-Jade Penetrate- (2007), Sariabell Orphannights
E×E (2007), Madoka Kamigoryou
FairChild (2007), Kotori Hazumi
Figurehead (2007), Eolie
Happy☆Marguerite! (2007), Karin Hortensia Minahase
Kannabi (2007), May
Maid to Majutsushi (2007), Hondou Crimean Ōki
Nagagutsu o Haita Deko (2007), Kasane Aifuri
Nono to Kuraso! (2007), Nono Nekomiya
Pastel (2007), Mio Momose
Pia-jong (2007), Reona Kinoshita
Piano no Mori no Mankai no Shita (2007), Kamimori Sakurano, Konohana
Root after and another (2007), Hamaji Yakumo
Sweet! (2007), Haori Midou
Time Leap (2007), Ayumu
Akatsuki no Goei (2008), Aya Nikaido
Akatsuki no Goei: Principal tachi no Kyujitsu (2008), Aya Nikaidou
Asanagi no Aquanauts (2008), Mio Asanagi
Chaos;Head (2008), Ayase Kishimoto |
1334_8 | Chest Chase (2008), Nishiki Kiri
Concerto Note (2008), Seika Nanagi
D.C.P.K.: Da Capoker (2008), Siiren
Furufuru Full Moon (2008), Noa Ninamori
Konboku Mahjong: Konna Mahjong ga Attara Boku wa Ron! (2008), Ayumu (Ericia Quintaine de Yggdrasil)
Pia Carrot e Yokoso!! G.P. (2008), Hina Satō
Prism Ark Love Love Maxim! (2008), Priecia
Sumaga (2008), Amaho Kusakabe
77: And, two stars meet again (2009), Kuu
Koko yori, Haruka -Surrounded sea in the world- (2009), Anna Hoshino
Memoria (2009), Yuuki Hanks
Midarete Majiwaru Ore to Hime: Hime to Shitsuji Utahime to Sonota Oozei to (2009), Hondou Crimean Ōki
Reincarnation☆Shinsengumi (2009), Yue Kondo
Sakura Sakura (2009), Kurumi Tachibana
Signal Heart (2009), Kokone Amami
Signal Heart Plus (2009), Kokone Amami
Skyprythem (2009), Nanami Suzushiro
Sumaga Special (2009), Amaho Kusakabe
Tenshinranman -Lucky or Unlucky!?- (2009), Kotaro Asagi
Tiara (2009), Claire Dorner
Time Leap Paradise (2009), Ayumu |
1334_9 | Zettai Karen! Ojōsama (2009), Nanase Kinosaki
Akatsuki no Goei: Tsumibukaki Shūmatsuron (2010), Aya Nikaidou
Azanaeru (2010), Ena Fujimi
Melclear: Mizu no Miyako ni Koi no Hanataba o (2010), Himiko Takamori
Orange Memories (2010), Kokoro Akashi
Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru: Futari no Elder (2010), Utano Sasou
Sora o Aogite Kumo Takaku (2010), Mint
Koi to Senkyo to Chocolate (2010), Mieru Ariake
Kimi to Boku to Eden no Ringo (2011), Karen Asakura
Sakura Sakura Festival! (2011), Kurumi Tachibana
Hatsukoi Time Capsule (2011), Mio Kiwada |
1334_10 | Mobile games
Azur Lane (2017), HMS Aurora (12)
Drama CDs |
1334_11 | Akanaeru Sekai no Owari ni (yyyy), Chifuyu Oumi
Asanagi no Aquanauts (yyyy), Mio Asanagi
Chaos;Head Drama CD:The parallel bootleg (yyyy), Ayase Kishimoto
Dies irae Drama CD Wehrwolf (yyyy), Marie
Gift Drama CD (series) (yyyy), Kirino Konosaka
Happiness! Yuki no Valentine's Day (yyyy), Haruhi Kamisaka
"Hello, world.": Butchake Hello, world. (yyyy), Hatsumi Aihara
Himesama Ririshiku! (yyyy), Atirene
Hoshi no Kioku (yyyy), Kaguya Houraisan
Koi no Hibiscus (yyyy), Nono Nekomiya, Takada-san
Magical☆Drama CD: Bust to Bust to Prelude (yyyy), Ibuki
Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru: Natsu no Cosmos, Aki no Matsurika (yyyy), Nao Sakurai
Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru (yyyy), Hirako Kajiura
Play☆Stationery (yyyy), Harumi
Prism Ark (series) (yyyy), Priecia
Solfège (series) (yyyy), Kagura Fujimiya
Sukidayo! (yyyy), Rina Shimbashi
Sakura Sakura: Sōshisōai (yyyy), Kurumi Tachibana
Bi -vi-: #1 Ten to Chi to (yyyy), Sanada Yukimura
Yggdra Unison: Seiken Buyūden (yyyy), Kylier |
1334_12 | Yotsunoha (series) (yyyy), Nono Nekomiya |
1334_13 | Dubbing
Over the Hedge (2006), Stella
Other
Voiceroid+ Kotonoha Akane & Aoi (April 2014)
Voiceroid2 Kotonoha Akane & Aoi (June 2017)
Synthesizer V Kotonoha Akane & Aoi (July 2020)
Discography |
1334_14 | Albums
yuithm
Released by LOVE×TRAX on January 27, 2006
Realythm
jewelry days - August Fan Box main theme
- Konneko opening theme
- Mozu no Nie... ~Hayanie no Sho~ opening theme
- Ane mo ne opening theme
- to... opening theme
It's just love - Sukidayo! ending theme
- UNDER GROUND endingtheme
- Papillon Rose G opening theme
- Nukumori no naka de opening theme
- Motto! Ojamajo Doremi ending theme
school meet you - Sukumizu Police opening theme
- Ane mo ne ending theme
Traveling - Blaze of Destiny ending theme
melody
(secret track)
HONEY
Released by LOVE×TRAX on September 22, 2006
HONEY
refrain - Blaze of Destiny opening theme
Favorite Love - Otaku☆Masshigura opening theme
- Mirorama opening theme
- Mirorama ending theme
You make me! - Yu Me Ku Me! ~Wakeari Bukken, Yōsei Tsuki~ opening theme
Wake me up! - Koiotome opening theme
- Papillon Rose G ending theme
Beautiful Harmony - Bra-ban! -The bonds of melody- opening theme
- Konneko ending theme |
1334_15 | Shining Orange - Yotsunoha ending theme
Happy Birthday
ONE DAY - Akanaeru Sekai no Owari ni insert song
- Piano no Mori no Mankai no Shita opening theme
Love×2♪song -English Version-
princess
Released by LOVE×TRAX on September 21, 2007
princess
Chu×Chu!! - Chu×Chu Idol -The idol is a Vampire? opening theme
I Will...! - Utsurigi Nanakoi Tenkiame opening theme
Just I wish - Utsurigi Nanakoi Tenkiame insert song
- Osananajimi tono Kurashikata opening theme
VOYAGEURS - NEO STEAM image song
- Happiness! Re:Lucks opening theme
SINCLAIR - Shūmatsu Shōjo Gensō Alicematic opening theme
core - Shūmatsu Shōjo Gensō Alicematic insert theme
SHOOTING STAR - Itsuka, Todoku, Anosorani. opening theme
Trust in me - EXE opening theme
Eternal Destiny - Yoake Mae yori Ruri Iro na opening theme
LOVEclick☆ - LOVE×Radio theme song
dreaming - Hobi Radi theme song
Joker
Released by LOVE×TRAX☆Records on September 10, 2008
Love Game (JOKER prelude)
JOKER - G-Taste OVA theme song |
1334_16 | Einsatz - Dies irae opening theme
Believe
Happy Leap - Time Leap opening theme
Over the Light - Nanairo Kanata insert song
Together - Akatsuki no Goei opening theme
- Furufuru☆Fullmoon opening theme
Till I can see you again - Chu x Chu Paradise ending theme
Get Love Power - Konboku Mahjong: Konna Mahjong ga Attara Boku wa Ron! opening theme
Aqua Voice - Asanagi no Aquanauts opening theme
Ready Go!! - Fate/Tiger Colosseum opening theme
Imitation - Imitation Lover opening theme
Girl meets Boy - Tokimeki Fantasy Latale image song
message!
~PHANTASM~ End Prophecy as FES (PHANTASM 1st album)
Compilation album of songs from Chaos;Head; Released by Media Factory on May 6, 2009
（Black Mass Ver.）
(To the distance Ver.)
(Heavy Generation Ver.)
(Extra Solo Ver.)
Dream Party Memorial Album
Released by DreamParty Secretariat on June 30, 2009
Brightness
Dream a go!go!（ArrangementVersion）
(CoverVersion)
Premonition Dream（ArrangementVersion）
Shiny Road |
1334_17 | Rose quartz（ArrangementVersion）
Summer Angel☆
To be continued...
Happy Day☆（ArrangementVersion）
The desert of time
Thank you for us（ArrangementVersion）
Sign
LOVE×singles
Released by LOVE×TRAX on July 3, 2009
Jewelry days - August Fan Box theme song
Love×2♪song - LOVE×Radio theme song
- Piano no Mori no Mankai no Shita opening theme
- Piano no Mori no Mankai no Shita ending theme
Eternal Destiny - Yoake Mae yori Ruri Iro na opening theme
Love☆Emergency - LOVE×Radio theme song
Imitation - Imitation Lover opening theme
feel - Imitation Lover ending theme
Jewelry days（Instrumental）
Love×2♪song（Instrumental）
（Instrumental）
（Instrumental）
Eternal Destiny（Instrumental）
Love☆Emergency（Instrumental）
Imitation（Instrumental）
feel（Instrumental）
Yeeeeell!
Released by LOVE×TRAX on August 26, 2009
Yeeeeell!
It's show time - Time Leap Paradise opening theme
- Tenshinranman -LUCKY or UNLUCKY!?- opening theme
- ''Alpeggio: Kimiiro no Melody opening theme
ACTION! |
1334_18 | warmth
Eternal Ring - Unity Marriage: Futari no Hanayome opening theme
- Himawari no Chapel de Kimi to opening theme
Festivity - Chu×Chu Paradise theme song
Blue eyes - Asanagi no Aquanauts enging theme
Try Real! - Fate/tiger Colosseum UPPER theme song
selfish
- Potto -Rondo for Dears- opening theme
- "Hello, world." ending theme
- Meguri, Hitohira opening theme
EVERGREEN
Released by b-fairy records on November 26, 2009
- Galaxy Angel II Eigō Kaiki no Toki opening theme
Aqua Voice - Asanagi no Aquanauts opening theme
- Sakura Tail opening theme
Ping×Otome=Koi () - Ane imo 2: Imoimo Fan Disc opening theme
- Happiness! opening theme
- H2O: Footprints in the Sand insert song
- Musō Tōrō theme song
- Galaxy Angel II Eigō Kaiki no Toki ending theme of chapter 8 and 10
- Monster Collection TCG theme song
- Time Leap Paradise ending theme
- Harumoi opening theme
- H2O: Footprints in the Sand opening song
You♡I
Released by 5pb. on February 3, 2010
LOOP |
1334_19 | - 12RIVEN opening theme
- Happiness! De:Luxe opening theme
- Prism Ark opening theme
Silky Rain - Anison Plus opening theme in June 2009
- Happiness! ending theme
Distance - 12RIVEN ending theme
RISE -Prism Ark AWAKE ending theme
Déjà vu - Hapitora -Happy Transportation- opening theme
- Kanokon ending theme
- Kanokon Esuii insert song
- Kanokon Esuii ending song
Eternal Snow - Anison Plus opening theme in February 2009
You I - we will be together
BLOODY TUNE
Released by LOVE×TRAX on August 25, 2010
BLOODY TUNE
Gregorio (L×T mix) Dies irae -Also sprach Zarathustra- opening theme
- Akatsuki no Goei: Tsumibukaki Shūmatsuron opening theme
- Natsuzora Kanata ending theme
Miss．Brand-new day - Zettai☆Maō opening theme
FairChild - FairChild opening theme
- Airebo -IDOL☆REVOLUTION- opening theme
My Dear HERO - RGH: Koi to Hero to Gakuen to ending theme
=Suki () - Sweet! opening theme
Love☆Jet! - LOVE×Radio theme song
summer day |
1334_20 | STAR LEGEND - 77: And, two stars meet again opening theme
- Touhou Project Side Story: Hoshi no Kioku ending theme
ONENESS!
HONEY -dance remix- (HAPPY☆LOVE×Live 2009 original remix) |
1334_21 | ~PHANTASM~ Revival Prophecy as FES (PHANTASM 2nd album)
Released by Media Factory on December 21, 2011
- Steins;Gate -Anime ED-
- Steins;Gate -PSP ED-
- Steins;Gate -main theme from Rai-Net anime-
- Chaos;Head Noah -PSP ED-
- Chaos;Head Love Chu☆Chu -Xbox 360 ED-
- Steins;Gate: Hiyoku Renri no Darling -ED-
- Chaos;Head Love Chu☆Chu -PSP ED-
- Chaos;Head -insert song-
Prophecy ～Gate of Steiner～
- Steins;Gate -Xbox 360 ED- |
1334_22 | Maxi singles
jewelry days
Released by LOVE×TRAX☆Records on August 27, 2004
jewelry days - August Fan Box main theme
Love×2♪song - LOVE×Radio main theme
Jewelry days (instrumental)
Love×2♪song (instrumental)
Kono Hana Saku Koro
Released by LOVE×TRAX☆Records on August 29, 2005
- Piano no Mori no Mankai no Shita opening theme
- Piano no Mori no Mankai no Shita ending theme
Kono Hana saku koro (instrumental)
Chiru Hana Sakura (instrumental)
Eternal Destiny
Released by LOVE×TRAX☆Records on September 30, 2005
Eternal Destiny - Yoake Mae yori Ruri Iro na opening theme
Love☆Emergency - LOVE×Radio main theme
Eternal Destiny (instrumental)
Love☆Emergency (instrumental)
Imitation
Released by LOVE×TRAX☆Records on April 14, 2006
Imitation - Imitation Lover opening theme
feel - Imitation Lover ending theme
Imitation (instrumental)
feel (instrumental)
Dream a go!go!
Released by DreamParty Secretariat on October 13, 2006
Dream a go!go! - DreamParty 2nd image song |
1334_23 | - DreamParty image song
(short version) - Alpeggio opening theme
Dream a go! go!（OffVocal）
Motto, Yume, Miyō!! (off Vocal)
Magical★Generation
Released by Media Factory on October 25, 2006
- Happiness! ending theme
- Happiness! De:Luxe opening theme
Magical★Generation (off Vocal)
Happiness Hōteishiki (off Vocal)
Again
Released by Star Child on October 25, 2006
Again - Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru insert song
Beautiful day - Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru ending theme
Again (off Vocal)
Beautiful day (off Vocal)
Far Away
Released by LOVE×TRAX☆Records on April 6, 2007
Far Away - Figurehead opening theme
- Figurehead main theme
Far Away (instrumental)
Ai no Uta (instrumental)
Premonition Dream / Shiny Road
Released by DreamParty Secretariat on April 29, 2007 (in DreamParty 2007 Spring) / May 4, 2007 (general)
Premonition Dream - DreamParty 2007 Spring image song
Shiny Road - DreamParty 2007 Spring image song
Premonition Dream (off vocal)
Shiny Road (off vocal) |
1334_24 | Soshite Boku wa...
Released by Five Records on October 24, 2007
- Prism Ark (anime) opening theme
RISE - Prism Ark AWAKE (PS2) ending theme
Soshite Boku wa... (off vocal)
RISE (off vocal)
SHINING STAR
Released by LOVE×TRAX☆Records on October 25, 2007
SHINING STAR - Itsuka, Todoku, Anosora ni. opening theme
SHINING STAR (instrumental)
Katayoku no Icarus
Released by b-fairy records on January 25, 2008
- H2O: Footprints in the Sand opening theme
- H2O: Footprints in the Sand insert song
Katayoku no Icarus (off vocal)
Switch on♪ (off vocal)
Koisuru Kioku / Negai
Released by Geneon Entertainment on February 29, 2008; This maxi single contains a song by Chata.
(Yui Sakakibara) - Yotsunoha (OVA) opening theme
(Chata) - Yotsunoha (OVA) ending theme
Koisuru Kioku (off vocal)
Negai (off vocal)
Koi no Honoo
Released by 5pb. on April 23, 2008
- Kanokon (anime) ending theme
Sweet Time - Kanokon Radio ending theme
(off vocal)
Sweet Time (off vocal)
Soon / Love Rice |
1334_25 | Released by Geneon Entertainment on July 23, 2008; This maxi single contains a song by Chata.
Soon (Yui Sakakibara) - Yotsunoha: A journey of sincerity opening theme
(Chata) - Yotsunoha: A journey of sincerity ending theme
Soon (off vocal)
Love Rice (off vocal)
Soon (GAMEver.) (Yui Sakakibara) - Yotsunoha: A journey of sincerity opening theme
Love Rice (Chata) - Yotsunoha: A journey of sincerity ending theme
Eien no Koi
Released by 5pb. on September 24, 2008
- Kanokon Esuii ending theme
- Kanokon Esuii insert song
Eien no Koi (off vocal)
Natsu no Inori (off vocal)
Try Real!
Released by Geneon Entertainment on October 29, 2008
Try Real! - Fate/tiger colosseum UPPER theme song
Try Real! (off vocal ver.)
Try Real! (fate on fake mix / Sampling Master MEGA)
Gessei no Kanon
Released by b-fairy records on November 26, 2008
- Galaxy Angel II Eigō Kaiki no Toki opening theme
- Galaxy Angel II Eigō Kaiki no Toki insert song
Gessei no Kanon (off vocal) |
1334_26 | Unmei no Revolution (off vocal)
Love Island
Released by LOVE×TRAX☆Records on December 24, 2008; This maxi single was sold on only Comic Toranoana.
Love Island - 15 Bishōjo Hyōrūki opening theme
chance - 15 Bishōjo Hyōrūki ending theme
Love Island（instrumental）
chance （instrumental）
Tsurugi no Mai
Released by b-fairy records on February 4, 2009
- Musō Tōrō theme song
- Musō Tōrō insert song
Tsurugi no Mai (off vocal)
Toki o Koete (off vocal)
KoIGoRoMo / Eternal Snow
Released by Five Records on March 25, 2009
KoIGoRoMo - Kemeko Deluxe! DS: Yome to Mecha to Otoko to Onna opening theme
Eternal Snow - Anison Plus opening theme in February 2009
KoIGoRoMo (off vocal)
Eternal Snow (off vocal)
Marionette
Released by LOVE×TRAX☆Records on March 25, 2009
Marionette - PYGMALION opening theme
Marionette (instrumental)
Haitoku no Waltz (instrumental)
Déjà vu / Silky Rain
Released by 5pb. on March 25, 2009
Déjà vu - Hapitora -Happy Transportation- opening theme |
1334_27 | Silky Rain - Anison Plus opening theme in June 2009
Déjà vu (off vocal)
Silky Rain (off vocal)
Nyanderful!/Cross the Rainbow
Released by Five Records on October 21, 2009
- Nyan Koi! opening theme
Cross the Rainbow - Nyan Koi! Radio Jōkō Rikujōbu ending theme
Nyanderful! (off vocal)
Cross the Rainbow (off vocal)
Komorebi no Sordino
Released by 5pb. on November 25, 2009
- Kanokon: Manatsu no Dai Shanikusai opening theme
- Akatsuki no Amaneca to Aoi Kyojin opening theme
Komorebi no Sordino (off vocal)
Hollow: Akatsuki no Sora ni (off vocal)
Happy⇔Lucky X'mas♪
Released by LOVE×TRAX☆Records on December 18, 2009
Happy⇔Lucky X'mas♪
I remembers
Happy⇔Lucky X'mas♪ (instrumental)
I remembers (instrumental)
Konton no Oratorio
Released by b-fairy records on February 10, 2010
- Game Book DS: Aquarian Age Perpetual Period theme song
Konton no Oratorio (off vocal)
Blue Bird Syndrome (off vocal)
Let's start now
Released by LOVE×TRAX☆Records on July 30, 2010 |
1334_28 | Let's start now - Sora o Aogite Kumo Takaku theme song
I don't wanna forget - Sora o Aogite Kumo Takaku ending theme
Let's start now (instrumental)
I don't wanna forget (instrumental)
LOVE×Quartet 2010
Released by LOVE×TRAX☆Records on December 24, 2010
Again (Quartet Ver.)
(Quartet Ver.)
(Quartet Ver.)
Again (violin Ver.)
Kono Hana Saku Koro (violin Ver.)
Katayoku no Icarus (violin Ver.)
Again (Quartet Instrumental)
Kono Hana Saku Koro (Quartet Instrumental)
Katayoku no Icarus (Quartet Instrumental) |
1334_29 | References
External links
Living people
Anime musicians
Japanese choreographers
Japanese video game actresses
Japanese voice actresses
Musicians from Hyōgo Prefecture
Voice actresses from Hyōgo Prefecture
20th-century Japanese actresses
21st-century Japanese actresses
21st-century Japanese singers
Year of birth missing (living people)
21st-century Japanese women singers |
1335_0 | This article describes Buckinghamshire as it was prior to 1974, when it included Slough, Eton and Linslade.
The railway system of Buckinghamshire has a long and complex history dating back to the 1830s with the opening of sections of today's West Coast Main Line and Great Western Main Line. The development of Buckinghamshire's railway network was largely due to its position nationally as many long-distance routes chose to go through Buckinghamshire, especially between Britains two largest cities, London and Birmingham. The county had its own pulling power in addition, as produce such as the Aylesbury Duck could then be easily transported to the capital. |
1335_1 | The railway system expanded enormously throughout the rest of the 19th century, but over-enthusiasm led to the construction of lines that made little, if any, profit. As a result, many of these lines were closed systematically during the 1930s and 1960s. In recent years, the benefits of railway travel have become more widespread, and once again the railway network of Buckinghamshire is expanding.
History
Origins |
Subsets and Splits
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