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1404_7 | Djokovic has spent a record 361 weeks (as of Monday 21st February 2022) and in the process became only male player to be No. 1 for more than 6 years as ATP world No. 1, surpassing Federer's previous record of 310 weeks. In 2021 he became the only male player in the Open Era to be Year-end No. 1 for seven years, surpassing Sampras's record of 6 YE#1. At age 34, he is also the oldest year-end No. 1 in ATP rankings history, for the 2021 season.
Djokovic was the first tennis player to earn more than 100 million US dollars in prize money, and has earned more than any other player across his career. |
1404_8 | Djokovic's 2011 season, during which he went on a 41–match winning streak, is considered as one of the greatest seasons by a tennis player in the Open Era. He won 10 titles on three different surfaces, won 3 majors while making the semifinals of the fourth, won 5 ATP Masters 1000 events, and made the finals of 11 of the 16 events he entered. He defeated Nadal and Federer 10 times combined, going 10–1 against them while finishing the year with a 70–6 record. He was eliminated in the round-robin portion of the ATP Finals. |
1404_9 | In 2015, he won 3 majors in one season for a second time, while reaching the final of the fourth and won a record 6 ATP Masters 1000 titles before finishing the year with his fourth consecutive ATP Finals championship. He won 11 titles while reaching the finals of 15 of the 16 events he entered to finish with an 82–6 record. His record against Nadal and new rival Murray was 10–1 combined, although he was less dominant versus Federer compared to 2011, with a 5–3 record. This season was seen as the greatest in the Open Era by many fans and analysts.
Djokovic competed in 8 Masters 1000 finals in 2015, breaking the previous record of 6 finals. He is the only player to win all 9 Masters 1000 tournaments, and he won each at least twice. As a result, he is considered to be the greatest and most accomplished player in ATP Masters history. Overall, he has reached a record 54 finals. |
1404_10 | Djokovic is widely viewed as one of the greatest hardcourt players of the Open Era. He has won a record 12 hard court major titles (9 Australian Opens & 3 US Opens), surpassing Federer's record of 11. He has also won an Open Era record of 27 Masters hard court titles. In addition, Djokovic has a record 88.6% Grand Slam match win percentage on hard courts. |
1404_11 | Djokovic's clay court achievements include 17 titles on the surface, including two French Open titles and 10 Masters titles. Djokovic is the second player after Robin Söderling to defeat Nadal at the French Open, the only player to do so twice, and the only player to beat Nadal in straight sets at the tournament. He is also the only player to defeat Nadal in all three clay court Masters events, which he first achieved in the finals of Madrid and Rome in 2011 and in Monte Carlo in 2013. The latter victory also ended Nadal's consecutive run of 8 Monte Carlo titles. Djokovic is the player with the most clay-court match wins over Nadal (8).
Because of these many accomplishments, Djokovic is considered by many sports analysts to be the greatest tennis player of all time.
Performance timelines
{{Performance key|short=yes}}
Only main-draw results in ATP Tour, Grand Slam tournaments, Davis Cup/ATP Cup/Laver Cup and Olympic Games are included in win–loss records. |
1404_12 | Singles
Current through the 2022 Dubai Tennis Championships.
Doubles
Grand Slam tournaments
Djokovic has the joint second record number of Grand Slam men's singles titles in history (20), and is tied for the highest number of finals (31) with Federer. He holds the records for the most hardcourt titles (12), and hardcourt finals (18). His nine titles at Australian Open is an all-time record. Djokovic is one of two (Nadal) men in the Open Era to achieve a double Career Grand Slam, and the only one to hold all four Grand Slam titles simultaneously across three different surfaces. He is also the only player to reach at least 6 men's singles finals at each of the Grand Slam events.
Grand Slam tournament finals: 31 (20 titles, 11 runners-up)
Year–End Championships
Djokovic has won the second highest number of Year-End Championships (5). He holds the record for consecutive titles (4). He won his first five finals, also a record.
Year–End Championship finals: 7 (5 titles, 2 runners-up) |
1404_13 | ATP Masters
Djokovic has won a record 37 Masters titles overall as well as a record 27 on hard courts. In 2015, he set the records for most titles (6) and most finals (8) in the same season. He also holds the record for consecutive wins in finals (12). In 2018 he became the first tennis player in history to win a title at all nine Masters tournaments, and in 2020 he became the first to win each tournament at least twice.
Finals: 54 (37 titles, 17 runners-up)
Olympic medal finals
Singles: 3 (1 bronze medal, 2 4th places)
Mixed doubles: 1 (1 4th place)
ATP career finals
Singles: 123 (86 titles, 37 runners-up)
Doubles: 3 (1 title, 2 runners-up)
Team competitions
ATP Challengers & ITF Futures
Singles: 6 (6 titles)
Doubles: 1 (title)
ATP ranking
Djokovic has spent the most weeks as ATP world No. 1, a record total of 361. Djokovic holds the record for the most ATP year-end No. 1 rankings, having achieved the feat 7 times. Djokovic is the oldest ATP year-end number one player. |
1404_14 | General
Djokovic has spent the total 848* consecutive weeks in the ATP Tour's top-100.
He also has spent the total 723* non-consecutive weeks in the ATP Tour's top-10.
He first ascended into the top-10 on 19 March 2007 when he moved up from No. 13 to No. 10. Since then, he's spent:
No. 1 – 361 weeks
No. 2 – 145 weeks*
No. 3 – 148 weeks
No. 4 – 32 weeks
No. 5 – 11 weeks
No. 6 – 13 weeks
No. 7 – 6 weeks
No. 8 – 0 weeks
No. 9 – 0 weeks
No. 10 – 7 weeks
*.
ATP world No. 1
Note: The ATP Tour was suspended from 16 March to 21 August, 2020. The ATP Ranking was frozen from 23 March to 23 August, 2020.
Weeks at No. 1 by span
Time spans holding the ranking
Age at first and last dates No. 1 ranking was held
ATP world No. 1 ranking
No. 1 stats
Weeks at No. 1 by decade
2010s
2020s
*. |
1404_15 | Coaches
The following is a list of coaches who are coaching or coached Djokovic during his career, with his current coaches in boldface:
Jelena Genčić (1993–1999)
Nikola Pilić (1999–2003)
Dejan Petrović (2004–2005)
Riccardo Piatti (2005–2006)
Marián Vajda (2006–2017, 2018–present)
Ronen Bega (2006–2009), fitness coach
Mark Woodforde (2007)
Todd Martin (2009–2010)
Gebhard Gritsch (2009–2017, 2018–2019), fitness coach
Dušan Vemić (2011–2013)
Boris Becker (2013–2016)
Andre Agassi (2017–2018)
Mario Ančić (2017)
Marco Panichi (2017–2018, 2019–present), fitness coach
Radek Štěpánek (2018)
Goran Ivanišević (2019–present)
Timeline
Record against other players
Record against top-10 players
Djokovic's match record against those who have been ranked in the top 10. Active players are in boldface:
Record against players ranked No. 11–20
Active players are in boldface. |
1404_16 | Viktor Troicki 13–1
Andreas Seppi 12–0
Philipp Kohlschreiber 12–2
Sam Querrey 9–2
Feliciano López 9–1
Alexandr Dolgopolov 6–0
Albert Ramos Viñolas 6–0
Bernard Tomic 6–0
Kyle Edmund 6–1
Paul-Henri Mathieu 6–1
Jarkko Nieminen 6–1
Taylor Fritz 5–0
Robby Ginepri 5–0
Florian Mayer 5–0
Igor Andreev 4–0
Borna Ćorić 4–0
Marcel Granollers 4–0
Nikoloz Basilashvili 2–0
Juan Ignacio Chela 2–0
Cristian Garín 2–0
Benoît Paire 2–1
Marco Cecchinato 1–1
Chung Hyeon 1–1
Aslan Karatsev 1–1
Xavier Malisse 1–1
Fabrice Santoro 1–1
Pablo Cuevas 1–0
Dominik Hrbaty 1–0
Jerzy Janowicz 1–0
Andrei Pavel 1–0
Guido Pella 1–0
Cameron Norrie 1-0
Dmitry Tursunov 1–0
Ivo Karlović 1–2
Nick Kyrgios 0–2
*.
Players with winning records against Djokovic
Active players are in boldface. |
1404_17 | Andy Roddick 4–5
Fernando González 1–2
Ivo Karlović 1–2
Taro Daniel 0–1
Antony Dupuis 0–1
Dan Evans 0–1
Dennis van Scheppingen 0–1
Filippo Volandri 0–1
Nick Kyrgios 0–2
Marat Safin 0–2
Jiří Veselý 0–2
*As of 24 February 2022.
Wins over top ranked players
Wins over top ranked opposition
Djokovic has a record against players who were, at the time the match was played, top ranked player, or if he was world No. 1 himself, then the highest ranked player other than himself which is the world No. 2.
Top 10 wins
Djokovic has the most wins over top 10 ranked players in the Open Era and is only one of the two players (the other being Federer) in the Open Era to reach 200 top-10 wins. He has a record against players who were, at the time the match was played, ranked in the top 10. He also set the era's single season record with 31 wins in 2015. |
1404_18 | In 2011, in a seven-tournament span, Djokovic defeated then world No. 1 Nadal in the finals of five prestigious events; Indian Wells Masters, Miami Masters, Madrid Masters, Rome Masters, and Wimbledon.
Winning streaks
Djokovic has had eight 20+ match win streaks in his career: 43 (2010–11), 29 (2019–20), 28 (2013–14), 28 (2015), 23 (2015), 22 (2012–13), 22 (2018) and 22 (2021).
43–win streak 2010–11
Djokovic's 43-match winning streak in 2010–11 is the fifth best in the Open Era in men's singles (see winning streaks on all the surfaces). It also covers 41 straight matches since the start of 2011, which is the second longest streak to start the year since 1980, behind John McEnroe (started 42–0 in 1984).
38–win indoors streak 2012–2015
Djokovic had a 38 match indoor–court winning streak between 2012 and 2015. |
1404_19 | 30–win major streak 2015–2016
Djokovic won an Open Era 30-consecutive singles matches at Grand Slam (Open Era record), becoming the third man to hold all four major titles at once, joining Don Budge six major (1937–38) / 37 match wins streak (1937 Wimbledon–1938 US Championships) and Rod Laver four major (1962) / 31 match wins streak (1962 Australian Championships–1968 Roland Garros Final) & four major (1969) / 29 match wins streak (1969 Australian Open–1970 Wimbledon Round of 16).
28–win streak in China 2012–14
Djokovic's 28-match winning streak in China began at the China Open in 2012 and was ended by Roger Federer at the Shanghai Masters in 2014.
26–win season streak 2020
Career Grand Slam tournament seedings
The tournaments won by Djokovic are bolded. |
1404_20 | <small>
* Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the 2020 Wimbledon Championships of the tournament was cancelled for the first time since World War II.
** Djokovic had deported from Australia a day before the 2022 Australian Open was to have begun stating to deny entry in Australia and his inability on exemption for vaccination requirements.</small>
Career milestone wins
Note: Bold indicates that he went on to win the tournament.Centennial match wins
Milestone Grand Slam match wins
Milestone hard court match wins
Milestone clay court match wins
Milestone grass court match wins
National and international representation
Davis Cup
Wins: 1
Participations: 55 (42–13)
indicates the outcome of the Davis Cup match followed by the score, date, place of event, the zonal classification and its phase, and the court surface. |
1404_21 | Chantouria gave up the opening rubber because of a calf injury.
Djokovic withdrew from the rubber due to flu symptoms he was suffering the whole week. He wasn't scheduled to play but after Janko Tipsarević had fallen out of the team suffering from a stomach bug and an ankle injury team captain Bogdan Obradović chose to substitute Djokovic.
ATP Cup
Wins: 1
Participations: 12 (11–1)
Summer Olympics matches
(16 wins – 10 losses)
Singles (13–6)
Doubles (1–3)
Mixed Doubles (2–1)
ATP Tour career earnings* Statistics correct .''
Notable exhibitions
Singles
Doubles
Team competitions
See also
List of career achievements by Novak Djokovic
Open Era tennis records – men's singles
Sport in Serbia
Notes
References
External links
Statistics
Novak Djokovic tennis seasons
Tennis career statistics
Sport in Serbia |
1405_0 | The is a series of mid-size executive cars sold by Lexus, the luxury division of Toyota since 1989. Seven generations of the sedan have been introduced to date, each offering V6 engines and the front-engine, front-wheel-drive layout. The first five generations of the ES were built on the Toyota Camry platform, with the sixth and seventh generations more closely related to the Avalon. Manual transmissions were offered until 1993, a lower-displacement inline-four engine became an option in Asian markets in 2010, and a gasoline-electric hybrid version was introduced in 2012. The ES was Lexus' only front-wheel drive vehicle until 1998, when the related RX was introduced, and the sedan occupied the entry-level luxury car segment of the Lexus lineup in North America and other regions until the debut of the IS in 1999. The ES name stands for "Executive Sedan". However, some Lexus importers use the backronymic name, "Elegant Sedan". |
1405_1 | Introduced in 1989, the first generation ES 250 was one of two vehicles in Lexus' debut lineup, the other being the flagship LS 400. The second generation ES 300 debuted in 1991, followed by the third generation ES 300 in 1996, and the fourth generation ES 300/330 in 2001. The first- through fourth generation sedans shared body styling elements with Japan-market Toyota sedans, and a domestic market equivalent, the , was sold until the launch of the fifth generation ES in 2006. The word "Windom" is a combination of "win" and the suffix "dom" expresses a state of perpetual victory. The fifth generation ES, featuring Lexus' own L-finesse body styling, debuted in early 2006 as a 2007 model. The sixth generation ES debuted in the first half of 2012 as a 2013 model, and features increased cabin dimensions due to a longer wheelbase which is shared with the full-size XX40 series Avalon. |
1405_2 | Lexus has positioned the ES in the comfort luxury segment, with an emphasis on interior amenities, quietness, and ride quality, in contrast with more firm-riding sport sedans. Buyers seeking more performance-focused models are targeted by the Lexus IS and rival makes, with such models offering a sportier drive with differently tuned suspensions. In Europe, Japan and other markets where it was not available until the seventh generation model, the GS sport sedans occupy the mid-size category in the Lexus lineup until it was cancelled August 2020. In the United States, the ES has been the best-selling Lexus sedan for over fifteen years.
First generation (V20; 1989) |
1405_3 | 1989–1991
The first generation ES (VZV21) debuted in January 1989 at the North American International Auto Show in Detroit as part of the launch of the Lexus division. In order to avoid introducing the nameplate with only one model, the LS 400, Lexus quickly developed the ES to debut alongside their flagship sedan. The smaller representative of the initial two-sedan Lexus lineup was designated the ES 250, and powered by the Camry's 2.5 L, V6, which was aimed directly at the Acura Legend. The ES 250 was based on the Camry Prominent/Vista (V20). Design patents were filed on 17 November 1987, at the Japan Patent Office under the patent number 0666961-006 and registered on 8 August 1989. |
1405_4 | On the exterior, the ES 250 shared the same general body style and overall dimensions as its Toyota counterparts, but had a more prominent grille, bigger tail lights, chrome trim, frameless windows, and distinct wheel design similar to its LS brethren. Inside the cabin, the ES 250 featured a six-speaker Pioneer sound system, genuine wood trim, one-touch power windows, and leather seats. A four-speed automatic or five-speed manual transmission was offered. The Electronically Controlled Automatic Transmission (ECT) featured "normal" and "power" modes.
Safety features included a driver's SRS airbag and anti-lock brakes. In typical specification, the ES 250 further included 15-inch alloy wheels, a power driver's seat, power moonroof, and CD player. Leather upholstery was common equipment, despite being listed as an option, while some ES 250s were also produced with cloth interiors. |
1405_5 | In September 1989, the ES 250 and the flagship LS 400 went on sale in the United States. The ES 250 was marketed as the "luxury sedan of sports sedans," and carried a U.S. market suggested base price of approximately $22,000. During the first month of release, the ES 250 logged 1,216 units in sales. However, these numbers were eclipsed by the larger LS sedan, which unlike the ES was built on a unique and all-new platform. The original LS had been envisioned as a standalone model, but Lexus dealerships had asked for an additional vehicle to accompany its launch. Due to its similarities to the Camry, some viewed the ES 250 as a placeholder product of badge engineering and the vehicle ultimately did not sell as well as its larger counterpart. Initial perception of the ES led some to believe all the development time and research spent creating the larger LS showed that they overlooked one of the reasons the LS was developed, which was the 1986 Acura Legend, so it seems that the appearance |
1405_6 | of the LS was shrunk to fit the ES so as to compete with the Legend. |
1405_7 | Production totaled 19,534 units in 1990 and 17,942 units in 1991, most for the automatic transmission model. Production commenced in June 1989 at Tsutsumi, with the first 1990 ES 250 rolling off the production line on 30 August 1989. Production ended on 5 July 1991. Because of its relatively brief production run, the ES 250 is a rare model on US roads today.
Second generation (XV10; 1991) |
1405_8 | 1991–1994
In 1987, with creation of the Lexus brand, an entry level front-wheel Lexus model was ordered for development alongside the LS 400 and other offerings. In late 1988, a final design was chosen and design patents filed utilizing a clay 1:1 design model on February 3, 1989. In September 1991, for the 1992 model year, Lexus announced the second generation ES almost one year after the introduction of the second generation Acura Legend, but before Infiniti finally decided to add a similarly classed sedan, the J30. The second generation ES shared its design with the new generation Toyota Windom (XV10), which was officially announced in Japan on 30 September 1991, introduced at the October 1991 Tokyo Motor Show, and exclusive to Toyota Japan dealership sales channel called Toyota Corolla Store as the top level luxury sedan. The Windom itself shared elements with the latest generation of the Japan-market V30 series Camry. |
1405_9 | Completely redesigned and now sharing design features with the XV10 series Toyota Windom and styling cues with the LS 400, the model was renamed the ES 300 to reflect the half-liter increase in engine displacement to 3.0-liters. The second generation ES was significantly larger and more curvaceous than its predecessor, gaining in length and of width. On the front fascia, the ES gained projector headlamps in a curved housing and a three-slat grille with the Lexus emblem moved above on the hood. The side profile featured an invisible B-pillar and frameless-window doors. The rear deck lid featured an integrated spoiler effect similar to the flagship LS 400, improving the ES model's aerodynamics, now rated . |
1405_10 | Inside the cabin, the second generation ES featured California walnut trim on the center console, leather seats, an eight-speaker premium sound system, and keyless entry. The added wheelbase length and overall width made for increased legroom and shoulder space than the previous model. Compared to its Camry relative, the ES 300 featured separate styling, a different suspension setup with front and rear independent MacPherson strut, and added weight amounting to . Much of this is due to increased dimensions, asphalt insulation in the body panels and additional on-board equipment. As with its predecessor, anti-lock brakes were standard.
The ES 300 sported a 3.0-liter 3VZ-FE V6 engine and had an advertised time of 7.9 seconds. In Japan, where the ES was badged as the Toyota Windom, a 2.5-liter 4VZ-FE version producing was made available in October 1993. Lexus offered a standard five-speed E53 manual transmission and optional four-speed A540/1E automatic. |
1405_11 | Production assembly of the ES 300 commenced on 9 September 1991, and the sedan went on sale later that year in the U.S. as a 1992 model. The sedan was not released in Europe, where similar Toyota models were offered. The second generation ES was a major sales success, becoming Lexus' best-selling vehicle overall. In its first full year of sales, the ES logged 39,652 units, and throughout the following years of its production run, sales reached near or above that figure. Although the initial US base price was $26,550, this increased to over $30,000 in later years. By 1994, in part because of the rising yen and high demand, the manufacturer's suggested retail price had increased to $31,200, 19.3 percent more than the original 1992 figure. In 1993, a passenger airbag was added as standard equipment. |
1405_12 | 1994–1996
Minor updates were introduced in 1994 for the 1995 model year (August 1994 production), including: a revised grille insert (now with a three-slot grille, replacing the previous four-slot version), new headlights and fog lights, outside air temp readout, and CFC-free air conditioning. In North America, the 1994 update introduced the new all-aluminum 1MZ-FE engine with . This change in engine resulted in a change in model code for the car (now known as the MCV10 series). Other markets retained the 3VZ-FE engine (and thus retained the VCV10 model code).
In September 1995 for the 1996 model year, Lexus offered an ES 300 "Coach Edition", featuring select Coach leather trim in the interior and a set of Coach luggage. Despite being its final year of sales, the 1996 ES 300 logged a 21 percent increase in sales over the previous year in the US, and 40,735 units were produced that year.
Third generation (XV20; 1996) |
1405_13 | 1996–1999 |
1405_14 | From 1992 to 1996, chief engineer Kosaku oversaw development of the XV20 Lexus variant alongside the XV20 series Camry programme under project code 416T. In mid-1993, an exterior design concept by Hiroshi Okamoto was approved and later frozen for production in January 1994, later being patented on 9 November 1994 at the Japanese patent office, under patent No. 0796802. The third generation ES (designated MCV20) premiered in September 1996 for the 1997 model year, featuring a design that was an evolution of the VCV10. The new cars featured a 30 percent stiffer body with a more rakish profile and sharper lines, reflector headlights (as opposed to projector headlights), and a more upscale-feeling interior. Introduced at a gala event on Rodeo Drive in Beverly Hills hosted by actress Sharon Stone, the ES 300 featured one powertrain option, a 3.0-liter V6 capable of and of torque and a four-speed automatic – although a , 2.5-liter 2MZ-FE V6 was also offered in the equivalent |
1405_15 | Japanese-market Windom. The ES 300 could go from in 7.7 seconds. The third generation ES was also slightly longer (overall length increased by ) but weighed less than the previous model, and its drag coefficient was , improved over its predecessor. For the first time, an Adaptive Variable Suspension, capable of adjusting individual wheels' dampers according to road conditions (within 0.0025 seconds), was offered. |
1405_16 | Production commenced in August 1996 at the Tsutsumi plant in Toyota, Aichi, supplemented in May 1997 with Toyota Motor Kyushu's Miyata plant at Miyawaka, Fukuoka.
Inside the cabin, the ES 300 featured a new electroluminescent Lexus Optitron instrument panel, walnut trim, and leather seats. Other luxury standard features included heated outside mirrors and an automatic climate control system. A power moonroof, Nakamichi premium sound system with in-glove-box mounted CD changer, and heated seats were options.
The U.S. base price of the 1997 ES 300 was $30,395. The third generation ES expanded upon the success of the previous generation model, reaching a record-setting 58,430 units in sales in its first year, and recording sales in the 35,000–50,000 range throughout its production run. |
1405_17 | In 1997 for the 1998 model year, the ES received a few updates, mainly consisting of a revised supplemental restraint system (next generation), standard front row side-torso airbags, and force limiting seat belt pre-tensioners that were designed to tighten the front seat passengers into their seats upon impact. Transponder chips were now also used in the keys as to provide added protection from theft. The power rating grew to in 1998 (1999 model year) due to the new 1MZ-FE engine with variable valve timing (VVT-i).
The Lexus IS was introduced to European markets in 1999 and became the luxury marque's entry-level model; by this time the ES was no longer sold in most European markets. Recent versions of the ES were sold in North America, Asia, and Australia. |
1405_18 | There was a widespread engine oil gelling issue which could block oil from parts of the engine. After a US class action lawsuit, Toyota notified US owners that engines would be overhauled or replaced for free if damaged by the buildup of gelled oil.
1999–2001
The ES 300 received a mild facelift in 1999 for the 2000 model year that consisted of new, clear tail lights and turn signals, a revised front end with a new grill, headlights, and lower bumper with clear fog lights and larger alloy wheels. Inside, the interior received an electrochromatic mirror, more wood trim and slight revisions to the audio system. Xenon High-Intensity Discharge headlights with auto-leveling were now optional. From 1998 through 2001 (1999 to 2001 model years), a limited "Coach Edition" was offered, and in 1999 for 2000, a "Platinum Edition" package was offered, including power moonroof, unique interior trim, and custom alloy wheels.
Fourth generation (XV30; 2001) |
1405_19 | 2001–2003
As development on the XV30 series Camry began in 1997, development of the MCV30 commenced under chief engineer Kosaku Yamada, with styling being done through 1998 under design chief Makoto Oshima. In December 1998, a concept design by Kengo Matsumoto was approved and frozen for production in June 1999. Design patents were filed on 8 March 2000 at the Japan Patent Office and registered under patent No. 1098805. The larger, fourth generation ES (designated MCV30) debuted in July 2001 for the 2002 model year, one year after the Lexus IS became Lexus' entry-level car. The presence of the IS in the Lexus lineup enabled the company to give the new ES 300 a more upscale image and luxury feel by excising the sporting pretensions of the previous ES models. The more aerodynamic shape had a drag coefficient of . In Japan, the MCV30 Windom received a 2-star LEV rating. |
1405_20 | Production occurred between July 2001 and September 2004 at the Tsutsumi plant in Toyota, Aichi, supplemented until December 2002 with Toyota Motor Kyushu's Miyata plant. The Toyota-badged Windom version was launched in Japan in August 2001. In January 2003, production started at the Higashi Fuji plant at Susono, Shizuoka, lasting until the XV30 ended production in February 2006.
The cabin was fitted with California Walnut wood trim on the front dashboard, center console, and doors as well as exterior puddle lamps, floor-well lighting, chrome door handles, an electric rear sunblind, and rear-view mirrors that would automatically tilt downward in reverse gear. Available options, including a power rear sunshade, rain-sensing windshield wipers, a DVD-based navigation system, and a Mark Levinson premium stereo system, were similar to features on the flagship LS 430 sedan. |
1405_21 | Other features included a drive-by-wire electronic throttle, a five-speed automatic transmission, anti-lock brakes with electronic brake-force distribution and brake assist as well as electronic stability and traction control systems. The fourth generation ES was built in Kyūshū and Toyota, Aichi, Japan.
ES sales sold 71,450 units its first year, making it the best-selling luxury car in the United States. Throughout its production run, the fourth generation ES was Lexus' best-selling sedan, and outsold only in the Lexus model range by the RX luxury utility vehicle.
U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) crash test results in 2003 rated the ES 300 the maximum five stars in the Frontal Driver, Frontal Passenger, and Side Driver categories, and four stars in the Side Rear Passenger and Rollover categories. |
1405_22 | The catalogue photos of the Japanese-spec XV30 series Windom were shot on location in New York City, United States. The original owner's manual included a photo of the automobile with the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center in the background. However, the Twin Towers were destroyed in the September 11 attacks, which occurred less than a month after the model's JDM launch. Within a month of the attacks, Toyota issued a revised owner's manual, this time with the Twin Towers digitally erased.
2003–2006 |
1405_23 | During 2003, for the 2004 model year, the American market received a revised 3.3-liter engine producing (later revised to , because of changes in SAE power testing procedures), and the car was renamed the ES 330 (codename MCV31, however, the 3.0 L engine MCV30 model was still available). Lexus released the limited ES 330 "SportDesign" special edition in 2004. The model featured the Adaptive Variable Suspension, 17-inch Y-spoke alloy wheels, Mark Levinson audio, interior upgrades, and special dark exterior colors. |
1405_24 | In 2004 for the 2005 model year, the ES received a facelift with new front and rear fascias, clear taillights, projector headlights, and a redesigned grille. Inside, features included standard audio and display steering wheel-mounted controls, power adjustable pedals, heated and ventilated front seats, Bird's Eye Maple trim and optional integrated satellite radio. Lexus also offered an exclusive ES 330 "Black Diamond Edition" in 2005, featuring black wood trim, iridescent Black Diamond paint, and a set of Tumi luggage.
Fifth generation (XV40; 2006) |
1405_25 | Lexus unveiled the fifth generation ES in February 2006 at the Chicago Auto Show for the 2007 model year. The line initially consisted of the ES 350 sedan, which as per previous models, featured front-wheel-drive and a V6 engine—now displacing 3.5 liters. The line was refreshed in 2009, during which more features were added, and a four-cylinder variant, the ES 240, was introduced for Asian markets. The fifth generation ES remained Lexus' top-selling sedan model in the North American and Asian markets, anchoring the marque's entry-level model lineup. Like previous generations, the fifth generation ES was geared towards the comfort luxury segment, favoring a soft ride over sporty performance. It continued the previous generation's direction of moving the ES more upscale in its design and features; Lexus touted the ES 350 as faster, more powerful, more aerodynamic, and more quiet than the original LS 400 flagship. Like its predecessors, the fifth generation ES continued to be made in |
1405_26 | Japan, at the Kyushu plant in Fukuoka, Japan. Despite being built in the country, the XV40 is left-hand drive only and was not sold in the Japanese market, as well as the other regions with right-hand drive, although the country allows both RHD and LHD vehicles on their roads. |
1405_27 | 2006–2009 |
1405_28 | The fifth generation ES (GSV40) debuted at the Chicago Auto Show in February 2006 as the ES 350, featuring a six-speed automatic transmission with a front-wheel drive 272 hp (203 kW) aluminum 3.5 L 2GR-FE V6 engine with intake and exhaust variable valve timing. The exterior design featured an all-new body in the style of Lexus' new design philosophy, L-finesse. The new design was sleeker than its predecessor, with a streamlined cabin and character lines across the hood, fenders, and rear pillars. The Lexus emblem returned to the grille for the first time since the first generation, and was placed at the center of a five-bar horizontal grille. For the debut 2007 models, Lexus introduced a number of unique colors exclusive to the ES 350, including Aquamarine Pearl, Royal Ruby Metallic, Moon Shell Mica, and Amber Pearl. The drag coefficient was Cd 0.28. Compared to the preceding fourth generation ES 300/330, the fifth generation ES 350 was longer and wider overall, but with shorter |
1405_29 | overhangs. |
1405_30 | The ES 350 interior featured walnut wood accents, leather seats, dual zone climate control with air filter, an MP3 player auxiliary input, power tilt and telescoping steering wheel, and eight standard airbags. A keyless entry and ignition system, Lexus SmartAccess, which does not require the electronic remote to be taken out of the driver's pocket, was standard. Available new features included a 300-watt, 14-speaker Mark Levinson premium audio system, power seat cushion extender, radar-based adaptive cruise control, rain-sensing windshield wipers, power rear sunshade, DVD navigation system, and Lexus Park Assist, a sonar-based warning system with backup camera. For the first time, the ES offered an "Ultra Luxury Package," which featured many of the aforementioned options along with a three-panel panoramic glass moonroof. The ES also featured a secondary start system, that runs on battery, so that the driver does not have to use the engine for accessory functions. The secondary system |
1405_31 | allowed the driver use the radio, GPS, Bluetooth, and air conditioning/heating. The instrument panel used Optitron gauges and LED lighting. |
1405_32 | Lexus estimated that the ES 350's engine-transmission combination allowed acceleration to in less than 7 seconds, but tests netted the ES 350 as being one of the fastest front-wheel drive luxury sedans then available. 0– was acquired in as little as 6.2 seconds by auto magazines, and the car showed a strong point of high-end power as it cleared the quarter-mile in 14.6 seconds while traveling at almost . Fuel economy was estimated at in the city and on the highway. Some commentators have complained that so much power to the front wheels has produced uncomfortable torque steer in both the new ES and Camry. |
1405_33 | The ES 350 arrived at U.S. dealerships in late April 2006 as a 2007 model. The 2007 base price in the U.S. was $33,470. That year, the ES 350 was launched in North America, the Middle East, China (excluding Hong Kong and Macau), South Korea and Taiwan. At the 2008 Chicago Auto Show, Lexus debuted a Pebble Beach Edition ES 350, produced in partnership with the Pebble Beach Company. The Pebble Beach ES 350 came in either Truffle Mica, Pearl Silver, or Obsidian Black exterior colors, with exterior and interior badging, along with the choice of either travel or golf products by the Callaway Golf Company or Viking Range cookware. |
1405_34 | Safety features on the ES 350 included dual front airbags, knee airbags, side-torso and curtain airbags, along with traction control, Vehicle Stability Control (VSC), anti-lock brakes (ABS), and electronic brake-force distribution (EBD). A pre-collision system (PCS), which incorporates a grille-mounted sensor and retracts seatbelts and triggers full braking power, was optional, and came with the distance-aware Dynamic Radar Cruise Control system. The front passenger airbag used a twin-chamber design for reduced occupant discomfort upon deployment. The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) crash test results in 2007 rated the ES 350 the maximum five stars in the Frontal Driver, Frontal Passenger, and Side Driver categories, and four stars in the Side Rear Passenger and Rollover categories. |
1405_35 | Toyota recalled and replaced 55,000 optional all-weather rubber floor mats from the Camry and ES 350 in September 2007, citing the risk of unsecured mats jamming the accelerator pedal. In August 2009, the NHTSA probed the ES 350 following 40 acceleration control complaints, eight crashes and 12 injuries, with floor mats implicated in most cases. An accident involving a loaner ES 350 killed four persons near San Diego on 28 August. The NHTSA and San Diego County Sheriff's Department found that the car was wrongly fitted with an unsecured SUV rubber floor mat; the mat had jammed the accelerator, which an earlier driver had complained about. On 29 September, a Toyota safety notice advised floor mat removal, shift to Neutral (N) gear in an emergency, with a 3-second push button ignition press for engine shutoff. On 29 November, the 2007–2010 MY floor mat recall was revised to add shorter accelerator pedals, thinner replacement mats, and a brake override feature which ignores accelerator |
1405_36 | input when the brake pedal is depressed. |
1405_37 | 2009–2012
In 2009, the 2010 model year ES underwent a mid-cycle facelift. A slightly revised grille resembled that of the new HS 250h, and the lower bumper and taillights were changed. Other exterior changes included chrome-trimmed side moulding, turn signal indicators on the side mirrors, and new split 5-spoke alloy wheels. Memory seating, rain-sensing windshield wipers, and rear seat-mounted side-impact airbags were now standard. The steering wheel controls now had hard touch buttons as opposed to the previous soft ones. The navigation system shared with the then current RX now included upgraded VoiceBox speech recognition, Bluetooth phone book downloading, and Lexus Insider, XM Weather, Sports, and Stocks reports, and switched from DVD based maps to an internal hard drive. Bluetooth streaming audio and a USB port that included iPod integration was now built into the stereo. |
1405_38 | In 2010, the revised ES line gained a brake override feature which ignored accelerator input when the brake pedal was depressed, which was installed on new builds from January 2010. Debuting first in the Chinese auto market, the 2010 ES lineup added a second model, the ES 240 (ACV40), which was produced to comply with the country's new emission laws for luxury cars, making it the first gasoline four-cylinder Lexus since the 2005 IS. The ES 240 received a 2.4L 2AZ-FE inline-four engine producing and of torque at 4000 rpm. |
1405_39 | Several awards won by the fifth generation ES include 2009 Best Upscale Car for the Money from U.S News & World Report, AutoPacific 2009 Vehicle Satisfaction Award for Best Mid-size Luxury Car, and Best New Luxury Car (under $50k) Award in 2007 at the Canadian Car of the Year Awards, selected by the Automobile Journalists Association of Canada. The ES 350 has also been named Consumer Guide 2008 Best Buy in the Premium Midsize Class, ConsumerSearch Best "budget" luxury sedan of 2008, Kiplinger's Personal Finance Best New Car for 2007, and Best in Class for 2008, Intellichoice Best Car Value Over $23,000 for 2007, and Polk Automotive Loyalty award for 2008.
Sixth generation (XV60; 2012)
2012–2015 |
1405_40 | The sixth generation ES was revealed on 4 April 2012 at the New York International Auto Show. For its sixth generation, the model was introduced in ES 350 and hybrid ES 300h versions. The ES 350 came with a six-speed automatic transmission, while the hybrid ES 300h models came with an eCVT. Despite the fact that the redesigned ES and the XV50 series Camry still share the same platform, the two vehicles are somewhat less mechanically related, as the ES is now more closely related to the XX40 series Avalon which also uses a wheelbase. The interior added the Lexus Remote Touch interface. Several safety features were introduced for the 2013 model year such as Blind Spot Monitor with Rear Cross Traffic Alert (RCTA), Lane Departure Alert (LDA), and Pre-Collision System (PCS). All models had a backup camera and 10 airbags. |
1405_41 | The ES 250 made its world debut at the April 2012 Auto China in Beijing. This car is equipped with a 2.5-liter inline-four engine and a six-speed automatic transmission. ES 250, ES 300h, and ES 350 models are being offered in China. Production started on 6 July 2012 at Toyota Mptor Kyushu's Miyata plant.
This generation is export-only, not sold in Japan where it is manufactured, but has been offered in right-hand drive since late 2013, being sold in Australia, Brunei, South Africa, New Zealand, Singapore, Hong Kong, Malaysia, and Indonesia.
2015–2018
The facelifted ES was unveiled at the April 2015 Shanghai International Automobile Industry Exhibition. Production of the updated ES 350 began at the Kentucky plant on 19 October 2015 for the 2016 model year—the first Lexus vehicle manufactured in the US. |
1405_42 | The ES is also manufactured by Toyota Motor Kyushu for markets outside North America. This plant also supplies the hybrid ES to all global markets, as the Kentucky plant builds the ES 350 only and does not build the ES 300h.
Seventh generation (XZ10; 2018)
The seventh generation ES was unveiled at the April 2018 Beijing International Automotive Exhibition. It is built on the same GA-K platform as the XX50 series Avalon and the XV70 series Camry. The F Sport variant also made its debut in this generation. All models come equipped with Lexus Safety System+ 2.0. |
1405_43 | The facelift model was unveiled in April 2021. It's the first year that offered an AWD, the 50/50 maximum torque distribution provided equal torque between the front and rear wheels. The ES didn't get as much updates on the exterior – the grille has a similar spindle with horizontal slats instead of a mesh design. On the sides of the car, smaller side scoops were used than the previous model. The day time running lights got updated, featuring V-shaped LEDs. The interior also got updated. The infotainment system got a touch-screen, and it also had the touch pad from the center console. The standard 8-inch was moved up an extra 4.3 inches for easier accessibility. A 12.3-inch unit was offered in 2021. There were also rear view cameras added instead mirrors for better visibility, and they were installed at the bottom of the A-pillar.
Markets |
1405_44 | Europe
The seventh generation ES is the first to be sold in Europe, replacing the GS. It went on sale from September 2018 in Russia and other Eastern markets and from December 2018 in Western and Central Europe.
Asia
The ES was scheduled to be available in Japanese dealerships in the fourth quarter of 2018, making the debut of ES in the Japanese domestic market since the discontinuation of the XV30-based Windom as well as the introduction of Lexus brand to Japan 13 years prior.
Initial deliveries of ES 300h started on 24 October 2018 in Japan, where it replaced the smaller HS 250h and served as a front-wheel-drive counterpart of GS.
The Hong Kong model was unveiled on 15 September 2018. Models included the ES250 Executive/Premium and the ES300h Executive/Premium. Lexus Safety System+ became standard in 2019.
The Thailand model was unveiled on 17 August 2018. Models included the ES 300h Luxury/Grand Luxury/Premium. |
1405_45 | Lexus began local assembly of the ES 300h in India, at its new assembly line at Toyota India's plant in January 2020. Lexus is said to have invested $100 million in this new assembly line.
North America
United States
In the US, the ES lineup went on sale in September 2018. |
1405_46 | The US market ES was redesigned with an F Sport Trim that was never available on the ES line. This was done to attract a younger audience into purchasing or leasing an ES. The 2019 model year line-up includes three trim levels – the base 3.5-liters trim, the Hybrid trim and the F Sport 3.5-liters trim. All ES models comes standard with Lexus Safety System+ 2.0 that includes Pre-Collision System (PCS) with Pedestrian Detection, Lane Departure Alert with Steering Assist, Dynamic Radar Cruise Control (DRCC), Lane Tracing Assist (LTA) and Road Sign Assist (RSA). The ES also features Apple CarPlay as an option as well. Other options include the Mark Levinson surround sound by Harman Kardon and navigation with Amazon Alexa support. |
1405_47 | Originally, only the ES 350 and ES 300h were offered. In 2020, for the 2021 model year, the ES 250 was added that also introduced AWD. A Black Line Special Edition package was also added for the F Sport. For the hybrid, the nickel-metal hydride battery was replaced by a more compact lithium-ion battery. The reduction in the height of the pack freed up trunk space, and the lower weight improved the front-to-rear weight distribution, which benefited handling.
Sales and production
Hybrid sales
Technical specifications |
1405_48 | Awards
U.S. News & World Report named the 2009 ES 350 the Best Upscale Car for the Money.
Consumer Reports named the ES 350 the highest ranked upscale/large car in reliability in its 2006 annual car survey.
The Canadian Car of the Year Awards (selected by the Automobile Journalists Association of Canada) gave the ES 350 its Best New Luxury Car (under $50k) Award in 2007.
J.D. Power and Associates named the ES 300 the best entry luxury car in Initial Quality in 1996, 1998, 2000, 2001, 2003 and 2006.
Intellichoice gave the ES 330 the Best Overall Value Award in the Near Luxury Segment in 2004, 2005, and 2007.
Kelley Blue Book gave the ES its Best to Hold Value Award in 1998 and 2001.
J.D. Power named the ES as one of the Top Ten in Initial Quality in 1991, 1993, and 1994.
The ES series was named most appealing entry luxury car by J.D. Power and Associates in 1997, 2001 and 2007. |
1405_49 | Kiplinger's Personal Finance report named the ES Best in Class for the over $30,000 segment in 1993, and the ES was a Top Pick in 2007.
Automobile Magazine named the ES one of its Top Ten All-Stars in 1992. |
1405_50 | References
External links
ES
Cars introduced in 1989
1990s cars
2000s cars
2010s cars
2020s cars
Compact executive cars
Mid-size cars
Executive cars
Sedans
Front-wheel-drive vehicles
All-wheel-drive vehicles
Hybrid electric cars
Partial zero-emissions vehicles |
1406_0 | The lemon shark (Negaprion brevirostris) is a species of shark from the family Carcharhinidae and is classified as a Vulnerable species by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature. Lemon sharks can grow to in length. They are often found in shallow subtropical waters and are known to inhabit and return to specific nursery sites for breeding. Often feeding at night, these sharks use electroreceptors to find their main source of prey: fish. Lemon sharks enjoy the many benefits of group living such as enhanced communication, courtship, predatory behavior, and protection. This species of shark gives birth to live young, and the females are polyandrous and have a biennial reproductive cycle. Lemon sharks are not thought to be a large threat to humans. The lemon shark's life span is unknown, but the average shark is 25 to 30 years old. |
1406_1 | Taxonomy
The lemon shark was first named and described in 1868 by Felipe Poey. He originally named it Hypoprion brevirostris, but later renamed it Negaprion brevirostris. The lemon shark has also appeared in literature as Negaprion fronto and Carcharias fronto (Jordan and Gilbert, 1882), Carcharias brevirostris (Gunther, 1870), and Carcharhinus brevirostris (Henshall, 1891). |
1406_2 | Description
The shark's yellow colouring serves as an excellent camouflage when swimming over the sandy seafloor in its coastal habitat. The lemon shark commonly attains a length of and a weight up to by adulthood, although sexual maturity is attained at in males and in females. The maximum recorded length and weight is and , respectively. It has a flattened head with a short, broad snout, and the second dorsal fin is almost as large as the first. Lemon sharks, as any other species of shark, have electroreceptors concentrated in their heads, called the ampullae of Lorenzini. These receptors detect electrical pulses emitted by potential prey and allow these nocturnal feeders to sense their prey in the dark.
Distribution |
1406_3 | Lemon sharks are found from New Jersey to southern Brazil in the tropical western Atlantic Ocean. They also live off the coast of west Africa in the southeastern Atlantic. In addition, lemon sharks have been found in the eastern Pacific, from southern Baja California to Ecuador. This species of shark often occupies the subtropical shallow waters of coral reefs, mangroves, enclosed bays, and river mouths; however, lemon sharks have also been found in the open ocean down to depths of 92 meters (301 feet.) Although lemon sharks do swim up rivers, they never seem to travel very far into fresh water. They are found in open water primarily during migrations, and tend to stay along the continental and insular shelves for most of their lives. |
1406_4 | Habitat selection
Information about activity patterns and the use of space is important in understanding a species’ behavioral ecology. Animals often make decisions about habitat use by evaluating their environment's abiotic conditions that serve as valuable indicators of good foraging sites or predator-safe locations. Lemon sharks select habitats in warm and shallow water with a rocky or sandy bottom. |
1406_5 | The environmental temperature influences an individual's body temperature, which ultimately affects physiological processes such as growth and metabolism. Lemon sharks, therefore, select warm-water habitats to maintain optimal metabolic levels. They are believed to avoid areas with thick sea grasses because they make finding prey more difficult. Lemon sharks tend to live in or near shallow-water mangroves, which are often the nursery areas of several species of fish. One theory is that lemon sharks select mangrove habitats due to the abundance of prey that resides there, while another theory posits that mangroves provide a safe haven from adult lemon sharks that occasionally feed on juvenile sharks and are unable to enter the shallow waters. Ontogenetic niche shifts, or changes in an animal's niche breadth or position, to deeper waters are known to occur in relation to a lemon shark's size. These changes occur due to the dramatic decrease in the risk of predation as body size |
1406_6 | increases. Habitat selection clearly depends on a variety of biological and environmental variables. |
1406_7 | The mangrove areas that lemon sharks inhabit are often referred to as their nursery sites. A nursery site is best defined as the most common area sharks are encountered, the location sharks tend to remain at after birth or frequently return to, and the habitat used by shark groups repeatedly for several years. The nursery ground concept has been known and studied for at least a century. In addition, fossil evidence from 320 million years ago suggests the use of shallow, coastal areas as pupping grounds is primitive.
Lemon sharks have proven to be an ideal model species to challenge the belief that all sharks are asynchronous opportunistic predators due to their tendency to use nursery areas for an extended period of time. Lemon shark feeding behaviors are easy to determine because their well-defined home ranges are conducive to accurate calculations of both the amount and types of prey in the environment and diet of a lemon shark. |
1406_8 | Lemon sharks feed at night and are mainly piscivorous; however, they have been known to feed on crustaceans and benthic organisms. Intraspecific predation, or cannibalism, of juvenile lemon sharks by larger conspecifics has also been documented. Rather than feeding randomly, lemon sharks display a high degree of preference for certain species and size of prey when environmental conditions are favorable. They also tend to prefer a prey when it is more abundant and available. Lemon sharks feed selectively on species that are slower and more easily captured by using a stalking technique. For example, parrotfish and mojarras are common prey in the Bahamas because they use camouflage rather than an escape response and are vulnerable due to their stationary foraging behavior. Lemon sharks feed on prey that are intermediate in size compared to other available prey. This tendency can be explained by the tradeoff between the probability of capture and the profitability when it comes to prey |
1406_9 | size. The general trend in the foraging behavior of lemon sharks conforms to the optimal foraging theory, which suggests a positive relationship between prey selectivity and availability. |
1406_10 | Rather than rolling on their sides to rip off chunks of prey, lemon sharks approach their victim with speed only to brake suddenly using their pectoral fins upon contact. The animal then jabs forward multiple times until it has a good grasp of its prey in its jaw and proceeds to shake its head from side to side until it tears off a chunk of flesh. A feeding frenzy, or large swarm of other sharks, then forms as the individuals sense the blood and bodily fluids released from the prey. Sounds of struggling prey also attract groups of sharks, suggesting they use sound detection for predation. Group feeding behavior such as pack hunting or communal scavenging was observed in a study in which pieces of the same stingray were found in the stomachs of several lemon shark individuals that were caught and examined.
Social behavior |
1406_11 | Many species of sharks, including the lemon shark, are known to actively prefer to be social and live in groups or loose aggregations. A few benefits of group living are enhanced communication, courtship, predatory behavior, and protection. Group living and a preference for social interaction is thought to be important for the survival and success of juvenile lemon sharks. Group living, though, comes with its costs. A few include increased risk of disease, ease of parasite transmission, and competition for resources. |
1406_12 | Lemon sharks are found in groups based on similar size. Passive sorting mechanisms such as its ontogenetic habitat shift have been postulated to contribute to the formation of groups organized based on size or sex. One exception to this behavior is that sharks up to 1 year old show no preference for groups of matched or unmatched size. One hypothesis for this finding is that it is beneficial for the small young lemon sharks to associate with the larger individuals because they have an easier time gathering information about the habitat regarding elements such as predators and local prey. Lemon shark groups form due to an active desire to be social rather than a simple attraction to the same limited resources such as the mangrove habitat and prey associated with such a habitat. |
1406_13 | Many studies have related brain size with complex social behaviors in mammals and birds. The brain of a lemon shark, being comparable in relative mass to that of a mammal or bird, suggests they have the ability to learn from social interactions, cooperate with other individuals, and have the potential to establish dominance hierarchies and stable social bonds. |
1406_14 | Reproduction |
1406_15 | Lemon sharks congregate for reproduction at special mating grounds. Females give birth to their young in shallow nursery waters to which they are philopatric. Lemon shark young are known as pups and they tend to remain in the nursery area for several years before venturing into deeper waters. Lemon sharks are viviparous, meaning that the mother directly transfers nutrients to her young via a yolk-sac placenta and the young are born alive. Fertilization is internal and occurs after a male lemon shark holds a female, bites her, and inserts his clasper into her cloaca. Female lemon sharks are polyandrous and sperm competition occurs due to their ability to store sperm in an oviducal gland for several months. Several studies suggest that polyandry in female lemon sharks has adapted out of convenience, rather than indirect genetic benefits to offspring. This type of polyandry is termed as convenience polyandry because females are believed to mate multiple times to avoid harassment by |
1406_16 | males. Females have a biennial reproductive cycle, requiring a year for gestation and another year for oogenesis and vitellogenesis after parturition. Lemon sharks reach sexual maturity around 12–16 years of age and have low fecundity. Males tend to mature earlier than females. The maximum number of pups recorded in a litter is 18. |
1406_17 | Relationship with humans
This species of shark is best known in its behavior and ecology, mainly due to the work of Samuel Gruber at the University of Miami, who studied the lemon shark both in the field and in the laboratory from 1967. The population around the Bimini Islands in the western Bahamas, where Gruber's Bimini Biological Field Station is situated, is probably the best known of all shark populations.
The lemon shark is targeted by commercial and recreational fishermen along the U.S. Atlantic Ocean, Caribbean, and in the eastern Pacific Ocean due to its prized meat, fins, and skin. Lemon shark skin may be used for leather and its meat can be consumed and is believed to be a delicacy in many cultures. Concern exists that over-fishing has led the lemon shark populations in the western north Atlantic and eastern Pacific Ocean to decline. It is considered vulnerable. |
1406_18 | Lemon sharks do not represent a large threat to humans. The International Shark Attack File lists 10 unprovoked lemon shark bites, none of which were fatal.
See also
List of sharks
References
Further reading
Washington Post, 2005, Aug. 22nd: "Scientists Fear Oceans on the Cusp Of a Wave of Marine Extinctions"
External links
Lemon shark facts and pictures
lemon shark
Viviparous fish
Fish of the Atlantic Ocean
Fish of the Americas
Fish of the Dominican Republic
Fish of the Caribbean
Marine fauna of West Africa
lemon shark |
1407_0 | Burmese cuisine () encompasses the diverse regional culinary traditions of Myanmar, which have developed through longstanding agricultural practices, centuries of sociopolitical and economic change, and cross-cultural contact and trade with neighboring countries at the confluence of South Asia, Southeast Asia, and East Asia, including the modern-day nations of India, China, and Thailand.
Burmese cuisine is typified by a wide-ranging array of dishes, including traditional Burmese curries, Burmese salads, and soups that are traditionally eaten with white rice. Burmese cuisine also features noodles in many forms, as fried or dry noodles, noodle soups, or as noodle salads, as well as Indian breads. Street food culture has also nurtured the profuse variety of traditional Burmese fritters and traditional snacks called mont. |
1407_1 | The contrasting flavor profile of Burmese cuisine is broadly captured in the phrase chin ngan sat (ချဉ်ငန်စပ်), which literally means "sour, salty, and spicy." A popular Burmese rhyme — "of all the fruit, the mango's the best; of all the meat, the pork's the best; and of all the leaves, lahpet's the best" — sums up the traditional favourites.
History |
1407_2 | Rice is the principal staple in Burmese cuisine, reflecting several millennia of rice cultivation, which first emerged in the country's Chindwin, Ayeyarwady, and Thanlwin river valleys between 11,000 and 5000 BCE. By 3000 BCE, irrigated rice cultivation flourished, paralleled by the domestication of cattle and pigs by inhabitants. In addition to rice, tea originated in the borderlands separating Myanmar from China, precipitating a longstanding tradition of tea consumption and the development of pickled tea known as laphet, which continues to play a pivotal role in Burmese ritual culture. This longstanding history is reflected in the Burmese language, which is among the few world languages whose word for "tea" is not etymologically traced back to the Chinese word for "tea" (see etymology of tea). |
1407_3 | Agrarian settlements were settled by ancestors of Myanmar's modern-day ethnolinguistic groups. From these settlements emerged a succession of Burmese, Mon, Shan, Rakhine-speaking kingdoms and tributary states that now make up contemporary Myanmar. Paddy rice cultivation remains synonymous with the predominantly Buddhist Bamar, Mon, Shan, and Rakhine peoples who inhabit the country's fertile lowlands and plateaus.
Burmese cuisine has been significantly enriched by contact and trade with neighboring kingdoms and countries well into modern times. The Columbian exchange in the 15th and 16th centuries introduced key ingredients into the Burmese culinary repertoire, including tomatoes, chili peppers, peanuts, and potatoes. A series of Burmese–Siamese wars between the 16th to 19th centuries resulted in the emergence of Thai-inspired delicacies, including khanon dok, shwe yin aye, mont let hsaung, and Yodaya mont di. |
1407_4 | While record-keeping of pre-colonial culinary traditions is scant, food was and remains deeply intertwined with religious life, especially among Buddhist communities, exemplified in the giving of food alms (dāna), and communal feasts called satuditha and ahlu pwe (အလှူပွဲ). One of the few remaining pre-colonial cookbooks is the Sadawhset Kyan (, ), written on a palm leaf manuscript in 1866 during the Konbaung dynasty. By the Konbaung dynasty (16th to 19th centuries), elaborate preparations of food played a central role in key court ceremonies (e.g., naming ceremonies, wedding ceremonies, etc.), including as ritual offerings to Hindu and indigenous deities, and as celebratory meals for attendees. |
1407_5 | British rule in Burma between the 19th and 20th centuries led to the establishment of Burmese Indian and Sino-Burmese communities that introduced novel cooking techniques, ingredients, food vocabulary, and fusion dishes that are now considered integral parts of Burmese cuisine. These range from Indian breads such as naan and paratha to Chinese stir frying techniques and ingredients like tofu and soy sauce.
Etiquette and customs
Dining
Traditionally, the Burmese eat meals from plates on a low table or daunglan, while sitting on a bamboo mat. Dishes are simultaneously served and shared. A traditional meal includes steamed white rice as the main dish accompanied by Burmese curries, a light soup or consommé, and other side dishes, including fried vegetables, Burmese fritters, and ngapi yay gyo (ငါးပိရည်ကျို), a plate of fresh and blanched vegetables served with pickled fish dip. The meal is then finished with a piece of palm sugar or laphet (fermented tea leaves). |
1407_6 | Out of respect, the eldest diners are always served first before the rest join in; even when the elders are absent, the first morsel of rice from the pot is scooped and put aside as an act of respect to one's parents, a custom known as u cha (, ).
The Burmese traditionally eat with their right hand, forming the rice into a small ball with only the fingertips and mixing this with various morsels before popping it into their mouths. Chopsticks and Chinese-style spoons are used for noodle dishes, although noodle salads are more likely to be eaten with just a spoon. Western-style utensils, especially forks and knives, have gained currency in recent years. |
1407_7 | Religious practices
The country's diverse religious makeup influences its cuisine, as Buddhists and Hindus traditionally avoid beef and Muslims pork. Beef is considered taboo by devout Buddhists and farmers because the cow is highly regarded as a beast of burden. Vegetarianism is commonly practiced by Buddhists during the three-month Vassa (ဝါတွင်း) between July and October, as well as during Uposatha days, reflected in the Burmese word for "vegetarian," thet that lut (သက်သတ်လွတ်, ). During this time, devout Buddhists observe eight or more precepts, including fasting rules that restrict food intake to two daily meals (i.e., breakfast and lunch) taken before noon. |
1407_8 | Beef taboo
The beef taboo is fairly widespread in Myanmar, particularly in the Buddhist community. In Myanmar, beef is typically obtained from cattle that are slaughtered at the end of their working lives (16 years of age) or from sick animals. Cattle is rarely raised for meat; 58% of cattle in the country is used for draught animal power. Few people eat beef, and there is a general dislike of beef (especially among the Bamar and Burmese Chinese), although it is more commonly eaten in regional cuisines, particularly those of ethnic minorities like the Kachin. Buddhists, when giving up meat during the Buddhist (Vassa) or Uposatha days, will forego beef first. Butchers tend to be Muslim because of the Buddhist doctrine of ahimsa (no harm). |
1407_9 | During the country's last dynasty, the Konbaung dynasty, habitual consumption of beef was punishable by public flogging. In 1885, Ledi Sayadaw, a prominent Buddhist monk wrote the Nwa-myitta-sa (), a poetic prose letter which argued that Burmese Buddhists should not kill cattle and eat beef, because Burmese farmers depended on them as beasts of burden to maintain their livelihoods, that the marketing of beef for human consumption threatened the extinction of buffalo and cattle, and that the practice was ecologically unsound. He subsequently led successful beef boycotts during the colonial era, and influenced a generation of Burmese nationalists in adopting this stance. |
1407_10 | On 29 August 1961, the Burmese Parliament passed the State Religion Promotion Act of 1961, which explicitly banned the slaughtering of cattle nationwide (beef became known as todo tha (); ). Religious groups, such as Muslims, were required to apply for exemption licences to slaughter cattle on religious holidays. This ban was repealed a year later, after Ne Win led a coup d'état and declared martial law in the country.
Food theories
In traditional Burmese medicine, foods are divided into two classes: heating (, apu za) or cooling (, a-aye za), based on their effects on one's body system, similar to the Chinese classification of food. Examples of heating foods include chicken, bitter melon, durian, mango, chocolate, and ice cream. Examples of cooling foods include pork, eggplant, dairy products, cucumbers, and radish. |
1407_11 | The Burmese also hold several taboos and superstitions regarding consumption during various occasions in one's life, especially pregnancy. For instance, pregnant women are not supposed to eat chili, due to the belief that it causes children to have sparse scalp hairs.
Cooking techniques
Burmese dishes are not cooked with precise recipes. The use and portion of ingredients used may vary, but the precision of timing is of utmost importance. Burmese dishes may be stewed, boiled, fried, roasted, steamed, baked or grilled, or any combination of the said techniques. Burmese curries use only a handful of spices (in comparison to Indian ones) and use more fresh garlic and ginger.
Regional and variant cuisines |
1407_12 | Broadly speaking, Burmese cuisine is divided between the culinary traditions of Upper Myanmar, which is inland and landlocked; and Lower Myanmar; which is surrounded by numerous rivers, river deltas, and the Andaman Sea. Variations between regional cuisines are largely driven by the availability of fresh ingredients. Myanmar's long coastline has provided an abundant source of fresh seafood, which is particularly associated with Rakhine cuisine. Southern Myanmar, particularly the area around Mawlamyaing, is known for its cuisine, as the Burmese proverb goes: "Mandalay for eloquence, Yangon for boasting, Mawlamyaing for food." |
1407_13 | Cuisine in Lower Myanmar, including Yangon and Mawlamyaing, makes extensive use of fish and seafood-based products like fish sauce and ngapi (fermented seafood). The cuisine in Upper Myanmar, including the Bamar heartland (Mandalay, Magway, and Sagaing Regions), Shan State, and Kachin States, tends to use more meat, poultry, pulses and beans. The level of spices and use of fresh herbs varies depending on the region; Kachin and Shan curries will often use more fresh herbs.
Fusion Chettiar () cuisine, originating from Southern Indian cuisine, is also popular in cities.
Dishes and ingredients
Because a standardised system of romanisation for spoken Burmese does not exist, pronunciations of the following dishes in modern standard Burmese approximated using IPA are provided (see IPA/Burmese for details).
Preserved foods |
1407_14 | Myanmar is one of very few countries where tea is not only drunk but eaten as lahpet, pickled tea served with various accompaniments. The practice of eating tea dates in modern-day Myanmar back to prehistoric antiquity, reflecting the legacy of indigenous tribes who pickled and fermented tea leaves inside bamboo tubes, bamboo baskets, plantain leaves and pots. Tea leaves are traditionally cultivated by the Palaung people. Pickled tea leaves continue to play an important role in Burmese culture today. |
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