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1444_1 | Resistance/temperature relationship of metals
Common RTD sensing elements constructed of platinum, copper or nickel have a repeatable resistance versus temperature relationship (R vs T) and operating temperature range. The R vs T relationship is defined as the amount of resistance change of the sensor per degree of temperature change. The relative change in resistance (temperature coefficient of resistance) varies only slightly over the useful range of the sensor. |
1444_2 | Platinum was proposed by Sir William Siemens as an element for a resistance temperature detector at the Bakerian lecture in 1871: it is a noble metal and has the most stable resistance–temperature relationship over the largest temperature range. Nickel elements have a limited temperature range because the amount of change in resistance per degree of change in temperature becomes very non-linear at temperatures over 300 °C (572 °F). Copper has a very linear resistance–temperature relationship; however, copper oxidizes at moderate temperatures and cannot be used over 150 °C (302 °F).
The significant characteristic of metals used as resistive elements is the linear approximation of the resistance versus temperature relationship between 0 and 100 °C. This temperature coefficient of resistance is denoted by α and is usually given in units of Ω/(Ω·°C):
where
is the resistance of the sensor at 0 °C,
is the resistance of the sensor at 100 °C. |
1444_3 | Pure platinum has α = 0.003925 Ω/(Ω·°C) in the 0 to 100 °C range and is used in the construction of laboratory-grade RTDs. Conversely, two widely recognized standards for industrial RTDs IEC 60751 and ASTM E-1137 specify α = 0.00385 Ω/(Ω·°C). Before these standards were widely adopted, several different α values were used. It is still possible to find older probes that are made with platinum that have α = 0.003916 Ω/(Ω·°C) and 0.003902 Ω/(Ω·°C).
These different α values for platinum are achieved by doping – carefully introducing impurities, which become embedded in the lattice structure of the platinum and result in a different R vs. T curve and hence α value. |
1444_4 | Calibration
To characterize the R vs T relationship of any RTD over a temperature range that represents the planned range of use, calibration must be performed at temperatures other than 0 °C and 100 °C. This is necessary to meet calibration requirements. Although RTDs are considered to be linear in operation, it must be proven that they are accurate with regard to the temperatures with which they will actually be used (see details in Comparison calibration option). Two common calibration methods are the fixed-point method and the comparison method. |
1444_5 | Fixed point calibration is used for the highest-accuracy calibrations by national metrology laboratories. It uses the triple point, freezing point or melting point of pure substances such as water, zinc, tin, and argon to generate a known and repeatable temperature. These cells allow the user to reproduce actual conditions of the ITS-90 temperature scale. Fixed-point calibrations provide extremely accurate calibrations (within ±0.001 °C). A common fixed-point calibration method for industrial-grade probes is the ice bath. The equipment is inexpensive, easy to use, and can accommodate several sensors at once. The ice point is designated as a secondary standard because its accuracy is ±0.005 °C (±0.009 °F), compared to ±0.001 °C (±0.0018 °F) for primary fixed points. |
1444_6 | Comparison calibrations is commonly used with secondary SPRTs and industrial RTDs. The thermometers being calibrated are compared to calibrated thermometers by means of a bath whose temperature is uniformly stable. Unlike fixed-point calibrations, comparisons can be made at any temperature between −100 °C and 500 °C (−148 °F to 932 °F). This method might be more cost-effective, since several sensors can be calibrated simultaneously with automated equipment. These electrically heated and well-stirred baths use silicone oils and molten salts as the medium for the various calibration temperatures. |
1444_7 | Element types
The three main categories of RTD sensors are thin-film, wire-wound, and coiled elements. While these types are the ones most widely used in industry, other more exotic shapes are used; for example, carbon resistors are used at ultra-low temperatures (−273 °C to −173 °C).
Carbon resistor elements are cheap and widely used. They have very reproducible results at low temperatures. They are the most reliable form at extremely low temperatures. They generally do not suffer from significant hysteresis or strain gauge effects.
Strain-free elements use a wire coil minimally supported within a sealed housing filled with an inert gas. These sensors work up to 961.78 °C and are used in the SPRTs that define ITS-90. They consist of platinum wire loosely coiled over a support structure, so the element is free to expand and contract with temperature. They are very susceptible to shock and vibration, as the loops of platinum can sway back and forth, causing deformation. |
1444_8 | Thin-film elements have a sensing element that is formed by depositing a very thin layer of resistive material, normally platinum, on a ceramic substrate (plating). This layer is usually just 10 to 100 ångströms (1 to 10 nanometers) thick. This film is then coated with an epoxy or glass that helps protect the deposited film and also acts as a strain relief for the external lead wires. Disadvantages of this type are that they are not as stable as their wire-wound or coiled counterparts. They also can only be used over a limited temperature range due to the different expansion rates of the substrate and resistive deposited giving a "strain gauge" effect that can be seen in the resistive temperature coefficient. These elements work with temperatures to without further packaging, but can operate up to when suitably encapsulated in glass or ceramic. Special high-temperature RTD elements can be used up to with the right encapsulation. |
1444_9 | Wire-wound elements can have greater accuracy, especially for wide temperature ranges. The coil diameter provides a compromise between mechanical stability and allowing expansion of the wire to minimize strain and consequential drift. The sensing wire is wrapped around an insulating mandrel or core. The winding core can be round or flat, but must be an electrical insulator. The coefficient of thermal expansion of the winding core material is matched to the sensing wire to minimize any mechanical strain. This strain on the element wire will result in a thermal measurement error. The sensing wire is connected to a larger wire, usually referred to as the element lead or wire. This wire is selected to be compatible with the sensing wire, so that the combination does not generate an emf that would distort the thermal measurement. These elements work with temperatures to 660 °C. |
1444_10 | Coiled elements have largely replaced wire-wound elements in industry. This design has a wire coil that can expand freely over temperature, held in place by some mechanical support, which lets the coil keep its shape. This “strain free” design allows the sensing wire to expand and contract free of influence from other materials; in this respect it is similar to the SPRT, the primary standard upon which ITS-90 is based, while providing the durability necessary for industrial use. The basis of the sensing element is a small coil of platinum sensing wire. This coil resembles a filament in an incandescent light bulb. The housing or mandrel is a hard fired ceramic oxide tube with equally spaced bores that run transverse to the axes. The coil is inserted in the bores of the mandrel and then packed with a very finely ground ceramic powder. This permits the sensing wire to move, while still remaining in good thermal contact with the process. These elements work with temperatures to |
1444_11 | 850 °C. |
1444_12 | The current international standard that specifies tolerance and the temperature-to-electrical resistance relationship for platinum resistance thermometers (PRTs) is IEC 60751:2008; ASTM E1137 is also used in the United States. By far the most common devices used in industry have a nominal resistance of 100 ohms at 0 °C and are called Pt100 sensors ("Pt" is the symbol for platinum, "100" for the resistance in ohms at 0 °C). It is also possible to get Pt1000 sensors, where 1000 is for the resistance in ohms at 0 °C. The sensitivity of a standard 100 Ω sensor is a nominal 0.385 Ω/°C. RTDs with a sensitivity of 0.375 and 0.392 Ω/°C, as well as a variety of others, are also available. |
1444_13 | Function
Resistance thermometers are constructed in a number of forms and offer greater stability, accuracy and repeatability in some cases than thermocouples. While thermocouples use the Seebeck effect to generate a voltage, resistance thermometers use electrical resistance and require a power source to operate. The resistance ideally varies nearly linearly with temperature per the Callendar–Van Dusen equation. |
1444_14 | The platinum detecting wire needs to be kept free of contamination to remain stable. A platinum wire or film is supported on a former in such a way that it gets minimal differential expansion or other strains from its former, yet is reasonably resistant to vibration. RTD assemblies made from iron or copper are also used in some applications. Commercial platinum grades exhibit a temperature coefficient of resistance 0.00385/°C (0.385%/°C) (European Fundamental Interval). The sensor is usually made to have a resistance of 100 Ω at 0 °C. This is defined in BS EN 60751:1996 (taken from IEC 60751:1995). The American Fundamental Interval is 0.00392/°C, based on using a purer grade of platinum than the European standard. The American standard is from the Scientific Apparatus Manufacturers Association (SAMA), who are no longer in this standards field. As a result, the "American standard" is hardly the standard even in the US. |
1444_15 | Lead-wire resistance can also be a factor; adopting three- and four-wire, instead of two-wire, connections can eliminate connection-lead resistance effects from measurements (see below); three-wire connection is sufficient for most purposes and is an almost universal industrial practice. Four-wire connections are used for the most precise applications.
Advantages and limitations
The advantages of platinum resistance thermometers include:
High accuracy
Low drift
Wide operating range
Suitability for precision applications.
Limitations: |
1444_16 | RTDs in industrial applications are rarely used above 660 °C. At temperatures above 660 °C it becomes increasingly difficult to prevent the platinum from becoming contaminated by impurities from the metal sheath of the thermometer. This is why laboratory standard thermometers replace the metal sheath with a glass construction. At very low temperatures, say below −270 °C (3 K), because there are very few phonons, the resistance of an RTD is mainly determined by impurities and boundary scattering and thus basically independent of temperature. As a result, the sensitivity of the RTD is essentially zero and therefore not useful.
Compared to thermistors, platinum RTDs are less sensitive to small temperature changes and have a slower response time. However, thermistors have a smaller temperature range and stability. |
1444_17 | RTDs vs thermocouples
The two most common ways of measuring temperatures for industrial applications are with resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) and thermocouples. The choice between them is typically determined by four factors.
Temperature If process temperatures are between , an industrial RTD is the preferred option. Thermocouples have a range of , so for temperatures above it is the contact temperature measurement device commonly found in physics laboratories.
Response time If the process requires a very fast response to temperature changes (fractions of a second as opposed to seconds), then a thermocouple is the best choice. Time response is measured by immersing the sensor in water moving at with a 63.2% step change.
Size A standard RTD sheath is in diameter; sheath diameters for thermocouples can be less than . |
1444_18 | Accuracy and stability requirements If a tolerance of 2 °C is acceptable and the highest level of repeatability is not required, a thermocouple will serve. RTDs are capable of higher accuracy and can maintain stability for many years, while thermocouples can drift within the first few hours of use. |
1444_19 | Construction
These elements nearly always require insulated leads attached. PVC, silicone rubber or PTFE insulators are used at temperatures below about 250 °C. Above this, glass fibre or ceramic are used. The measuring point, and usually most of the leads, require a housing or protective sleeve, often made of a metal alloy that is chemically inert to the process being monitored. Selecting and designing protection sheaths can require more care than the actual sensor, as the sheath must withstand chemical or physical attack and provide convenient attachment points.
The RTD construction design may be enhanced to handle shock and vibration by including compacted magnesium oxide (MgO) powder inside the sheath. MgO is used to isolate the conductors from the external sheath and from each other. MgO is used due to its dielectric constant, rounded grain structure, high-temperature capability, and its chemical inertness.
Wiring configurations
Two-wire configuration |
1444_20 | The simplest resistance-thermometer configuration uses two wires. It is only used when high accuracy is not required, as the resistance of the connecting wires is added to that of the sensor, leading to errors of measurement. This configuration allows use of 100 meters of cable. This applies equally to balanced bridge and fixed bridge system.
For a balanced bridge usual setting is with R2 = R1, and R3 around the middle of the range of the RTD. So for example, if we are going to measure between , RTD resistance will range from 100 Ω to 138.5 Ω. We would choose R3 = 120 Ω. In that way we get a small measured voltage in the bridge.
Three-wire configuration |
1444_21 | In order to minimize the effects of the lead resistances, a three-wire configuration can be used. The suggested setting for the configuration shown, is with R1 = R2, and R3 around the middle of the range of the RTD. Looking at the Wheatstone bridge circuit shown, the voltage drop on the lower left hand side is V_rtd + V_lead, and on the lower right hand side is V_R3 + V_lead, therefore the bridge voltage (V_b) is the difference, V_rtd - V_R3. The voltage drop due to the lead resistance has been cancelled out. This always applies if R1=R2, and R1, R2 >> RTD, R3. R1 and R2 can serve the use of limiting the current through the RTD, for example for a PT100, limiting to 1mA, and 5V, would suggest a limiting resistance of approximately R1 = R2 = 5/0.001 = 5,000 Ohms.
Four-wire configuration |
1444_22 | The four-wire resistance configuration increases the accuracy of measurement of resistance. Four-terminal sensing eliminates voltage drop in the measuring leads as a contribution to error. To increase accuracy further, any residual thermoelectric voltages generated by different wire types or screwed connections are eliminated by reversal of the direction of the 1 mA current and the leads to the DVM (digital voltmeter). The thermoelectric voltages will be produced in one direction only. By averaging the reversed measurements, the thermoelectric error voltages are cancelled out.
Classifications of RTDs |
1444_23 | The highest-accuracy of all PRTs are the Ultra Precise Platinum Resistance Thermometers (UPRTs). This accuracy is achieved at the expense of durability and cost. The UPRT elements are wound from reference-grade platinum wire. Internal lead wires are usually made from platinum, while internal supports are made from quartz or fused silica. The sheaths are usually made from quartz or sometimes Inconel, depending on temperature range. Larger-diameter platinum wire is used, which drives up the cost and results in a lower resistance for the probe (typically 25.5 Ω). UPRTs have a wide temperature range (−200 °C to 1000 °C) and are approximately accurate to ±0.001 °C over the temperature range. UPRTs are only appropriate for laboratory use. |
1444_24 | Another classification of laboratory PRTs is Standard Platinum Resistance Thermometers (Standard SPRTs). They are constructed like the UPRT, but the materials are more cost-effective. SPRTs commonly use reference-grade, high-purity smaller-diameter platinum wire, metal sheaths and ceramic type insulators. Internal lead wires are usually a nickel-based alloy. Standard PRTs are more limited in temperature range (−200 °C to 500 °C) and are approximately accurate to ±0.03 °C over the temperature range. |
1444_25 | Industrial PRTs are designed to withstand industrial environments. They can be almost as durable as a thermocouple. Depending on the application, industrial PRTs can use thin-film or coil-wound elements. The internal lead wires can range from PTFE-insulated stranded nickel-plated copper to silver wire, depending on the sensor size and application. Sheath material is typically stainless steel; higher-temperature applications may demand Inconel. Other materials are used for specialized applications.
History
The application of the tendency of electrical conductors to increase their electrical resistance with rising temperature was first described by Sir William Siemens at the Bakerian Lecture of 1871 before the Royal Society of Great Britain. The necessary methods of construction were established by Callendar, Griffiths, Holborn and Wein between 1885 and 1900. |
1444_26 | The Space Shuttle made extensive use of platinum resistance thermometers. The only in-flight shutdown of a Space Shuttle Main Engine — mission STS-51F — was caused by multiple failures of RTDs which had become brittle and unreliable due to multiple heat-and-cool cycles. (The failures of the sensors falsely suggested that a fuel pump was critically overheating, and the engine was automatically shut down.) Following the engine failure incident, the RTDs were replaced with thermocouples. |
1444_27 | In 1871 Werner von Siemens invented the Platinum Resistance Temperature Detector and presented a three-term interpolation formula. Siemens’ RTD rapidly fell out of favour due to the instability of the temperature reading. Hugh Longbourne Callendar developed the first commercially successful platinum RTD in 1885.
A 1971 paper by Eriksson, Keuther, and Glatzel identified six noble metal alloys (63Pt37Rh, 37Pd63Rh, 26Pt74Ir, 10Pd90Ir, 34Pt66Au, 14Pd86Au) with approximately linear resistance temperature characteristics. The alloy 63Pt37Rh is similar to the readily available 70Pt30Rh alloy wire used in thermocouples.
Standard resistance thermometer data
Temperature sensors are usually supplied with thin-film elements. The resistance elements are rated in accordance with BS EN 60751:2008 as:
Resistance-thermometer elements functioning up to 1000 °C can be supplied. The relation between temperature and resistance is given by the Callendar-Van Dusen equation: |
1444_28 | Here is the resistance at temperature T, is the resistance at 0 °C, and the constants (for an α = 0.00385 platinum RTD) are:
Since the B and C coefficients are relatively small, the resistance changes almost linearly with the temperature.
For positive temperature, solution of the quadratic equation yields the following relationship between temperature and resistance:
Then for a four-wire configuration with a 1 mA precision current source the relationship between temperature and measured voltage is
Temperature-dependent resistances for various popular resistance thermometers
Copied from German version, please don't remove
See also
Thermowell
Thermistor
Thermostat
Thermocouple
References
Sensors
Resistive components
Thermometers |
1445_0 | is a Japanese graphic designer and researcher in Asian iconography.
Throughout his career, Sugiura has been a pioneer within the design world using processes that enables the visualization of consciousness in his large body of work that ranges from record jackets and posters, to books, magazines, and exhibition catalogues, to diagrams, stamps, and more. He is also active in promoting the study of traditional Asian cultures through producing innovative catalogue designs and organizing exhibitions such as Mandala: now you see it, now you don't (1980) and Flower Cosmology: Traditions in Dyeing, Weaving, and Ornaments (1992), underscored by his prolific research on cosmologies and mandalas. |
1445_1 | Sugiura served as a visiting professor for the Ulm School of Design in Germany (1964-1967); professor at Kobe Design University (1987-2002); and is currently the director of the Asian Design Institute at Kobe Design University (from April 2010). He has received numerous awards including the Mainichi Industrial Award (1962), Mainichi Art Award (1997); Purple Ribbon (1997); Leipzig Book Design Competition Special Honor Award; Design Special Achievement Award by the Hong Kong Design Award Asia (2014); Order of the Rising Sun, Gold Rays (2019). |
1445_2 | Education and Career
Sugiura studied architecture at the Tokyo National University of the Arts. He developed an interest in design as a university student and after graduating in 1955, he worked under the designer Ryuichi Yamashiro at Takashimaya Department Store's advertising department for six months. The following year, Sugiura received the prestigious Nisshenbi (日宣美, JAAC) Award for his jacket design for of the record LP JACKET and began to garner attention in the graphic design world as a rising talent with an atypical architecture background.
From a young age, Sugiura loved music and was knowledgeable in folk music and contemporary music. Early in his career, Sugiura took on various music related design jobs, such as the newly founded Sogetsu Art Center. For Sogetsu, he worked with other notable designers Tadanori Yokoo, Kiyoshi Awazu, and Makoto Wada to create materials promoting music related events for contemporary artists and musicians including John Cage and David Tudor. |
1445_3 | Sugiura began his career in the late 1950s when advertising dominated the majority of design work, as was suggested by the term “commercial design” (商業デザイン) having come into conventional use. In response, Sugiura, along with a bourgeoning generation of artists in their late 20s, sought to devise a mode of visual design that took inspiration from a wide frame of references, including science, philosophy, and religion, as well as other artistic mediums.
Suigura took on a leadership role for this group of young designers, bringing Japan’s existing design climate into a modern era. Some of his best examples include his numerous book designs as well as his inventive diagrams (also known as infographics), such as his series of Time Distance Maps. His work on "maps" served as an important step in establishing diagrams and infographics as part of visual communication and design in Japan. |
1445_4 | Magazines
Over the course of his career, Sugiura has worked as a designer on nearly 40 different magazines, ranging from academic periodicals to novel cultural publications and some with run times as long as two or three decades. |
1445_5 | Early Magazines (1960s)
When Sugiura moved to freelance work in the late 1950s, most magazines and particularly academic magazines, were designed by editors who often had little design experience. Sugiura was among the first to introduce an artistic yet methodical approach to the field of academic magazine design. His designs from this period are characterized by his process of first determining an origin pattern and reworking the pattern in various orientations and color arrangements. He described this method as jikozōshoku dezain (自己増殖デザイン; self-proliferation design). As these types of magazines often had a limited design budget, Sugiura's method saved costs by repurposing printing plates which would typically be discarded or retired after the original design had been printed. |
1445_6 | Sugiura attributes the realization of self-proliferation design to his work on one of his earliest magazines, Ongaku geijutsu (音楽芸術, "art of music") (1960-1963), the only Japanese magazine at the time that was dedicated to academic research on contemporary music. For the cover, he created an original pattern based on the sequence of Olivier Messiaen's mode de valuers et d’intensités and micro sequences from the twelve-tone technique of musical composition. Over the next two years, subsequent covers were derivatives of the same pattern, composed through slight deviations in the sequences combined with variations in the colors and number of colors. Magazines Kōhoku (広告, "advertising") (1960); Kōgei nyūsu (工芸ニュース, "industrial art news"), Sūgaku seminā (数学セミナー, "mathematics semina")（第１期）1962-1970, and Shin Nhon bungaku (新日本文学, "new Japanese literature") (1964-1966) also featured covers conceived through the mechanics of self-proliferation design. |
1445_7 | Using the self-proliferation method, Sugiura also realized a series of “vibrating” designs that he would incorporate into music-based projects, including the record jacket of Experimental Music of Japan '69 (日本の電子音楽 '69 "electronic music of Japan '69") and Masakazu Nakai zenshū (中井正一全集 ) (1981). These designs also originated from his cover work for Ongaku geijutsu, in 1963, when Sugiura replaced the original pattern with one that was formed primarily through concentric circles. Through the overlaying, crossing, and cropping of concentric circles and other geometric shapes, Sugiura felt he had developed a design that could capture a sense of movement or rhythm and act as a visual embodiment of acoustics and noise. |
1445_8 | Shift from pattern to content (Late 1960s onwards)
After teaching at the Ulm School of Design, Sugiura's design philosophy underwent a significant shift, inspired by the consciousness of civil society within German design practices and the role of design as method of visual communication. For his magazine covers, Sugiura moved away from purely decorative patterns and towards a more content focused approach wherein he would form a unique “face” and visual identity for the magazine. |
1445_9 | In the case of architectural magazines such as SD (1966-1968) and the Toshi-Jutaku (都会住宅, "the monthly journal of urban housing") (1968-1970), Sugiura opted for covers that were unprecedentedly text heavy in an attempt to appeal to the reader-base of architects (whom he felt were more concerned with verbal and textual expression/communication versus visual). While most architecture magazine covers at the time featured a single enlarged photograph, Sugiura opted for dense and compositionally complex covers because he felt the simplicity of a single image could not properly convey the multiplicity of thoughts present in postmodern urban society. |
1445_10 | Sugiura also began experimenting with novel designs that featured uncommon text orientations and printing materials. For the philosophy magazine Paideia (パイデイア) (1969-1972), he formulated his own design grid that is based on 8 point type, making it one of the first twentieth-century Japanese magazines to forgo the Japanese metric system or shakkanhō. Sugiura also chose unconventional paper colors, such as green and light purple, and ink colors for the text. For the magazine Asian Culture (1972-1987), later renamed to APC (Asian Pacific Culture) (1988-1995), he refrained from using any white or black paper, and instead chose to print onto bright craft paper with vividly colored inks to create an electric duo-chrome style that would convey the vitality he saw in Asian culture. Sugiura's longest running involvement with a single publication, Ginka (季刊銀花, "quarterly silver flower") (1970-2010) underwent a new design schemata every year based on a unique theme. With Ginka, Sugiura played |
1445_11 | with a dynamic and constantly changing arrangement of text and images, numerous type faces, and hand drawn calligraphy. One of the most well known themes from Ginka was in the year 1983 for which all the layouts were angled in line with the tilt of the earth's axis. |
1445_12 | Sugiura's dedication to explorative design is also evidenced in the experimental and cross-disciplinary publications Uwasa no Shinsō (噂の眞相, "truth of rumor") (1980-2004) and Yu (遊, "play") (1971-1979). Uwasa no Shinsō, a unique magazine that investigated various contemporary and historical rumors, underwent a design change every three issues. Sugiura selected new artists every year and assigned them a theme, similar to Ginka — however the constant stylistic evolution of Uwasa no Shinsō was an intentional choice to emulate the temporality and elusiveness of rumors. On the covers, images and text were often overlapped and partially covering one another, thereby creating a sense of movement and secrecy that spoke to the nature of rumors. Yu, a self-proclaimed “anti-literature/ non literature” magazine that paired the work of scientists and artists, took on a design style that echoed the content's radical sense of play. Sugiura explorations with Yu included dizzying spreads with text |
1445_13 | blocks that intersected each other from various angles (1975, V. 8), combined faces of the couples featured in the magazine (1976, V. 9), and issue titles printed on the spine made from the initials of the people within the magazine (1976, V. 10). |
1445_14 | Books
Sugiura's venture into book design began in the early 1960s when he was brought on as a designer for Document 1961, a book published by Japan Council against A & H Bombs, which included photographs of Ken Domon and Shōmei Tōmatsu. His involvement in photobooks grew significantly from the late 1960s to 1980s, during which Sugiura worked with famed photographers based both in and outside of Japan, including Eikoh Hosoe, Ikko Nakahara, Yutaka Takanashi, and Robert Frank. At a time when photobooks were generally regarded as a reproduction of original images, Sugiura’s approach to book design was notable in that the photobook itself was meant to be considered its own original work. Through the medium of a book with its own unique materials, printing techniques, methods of physical engagement, and three dimensionality, Sugiura sought out a sense of materiality and active viewing experience that operated as a separate entity from stand alone photography prints. |
1445_15 | Sugiura’s design for Kikuji Kawada’s The Map (地図) (1965) propelled his reputation as a formidable book designer among Japanese art critics and continues to be regarded as a seminal work in the history of photobooks. Given that Kawada photographs include images of the war’s aftermath and shadow like imprints burned into the walls of the Atomic Bomb Dome, Sugiura wanted to design a book that would necessitate longer and more intimate interactions with the book. The Map features a book of Kawada’s work, a brown insert of text by Kenzaburo Ōe, and a two part slipcase. When the exterior part of the slipcase is removed, the interior part encases the book with 2 sets of doors (a panel on each edge of the book). When all four panels, the reader can see have words, related to images’ content, printed in a list wrapping around the circumference of the book — though the orientation of the text would require one to rotate the entire case in order to read it. Within the photobook, each page is |
1445_16 | folded so that a single spread contains outer image and hidden inner images, once again requiring greater physically engagement than a standard book. Sugiura joined the folded pages through an uncommon binding process that relied solely on glue. |
1445_17 | Sugiura's play with the notion of materiality is seen in other photobooks like Yutaka Takanashi's To the City (都市へ) (1974) for which a large moon-like aluminum circle is placed on top of the front cover but also extends to books in other genres including the artist monograph Tetsumi Kudo (1969), in which small scale figurines created by the artist are set within enclaves carved into the pages. Sugiura's emphasis of the medium's three dimensionality is evidenced further in his detailed utilization of every available surface within a book. In his all black book depicting the cosmos, Summa Cosmographica (1979), an image of either the Andromeda Galaxy or Flamsteed's chart of the constellations is revealed on trim edge depending on the tilt of the pages. For the design of Tough Woman Like a Spinning Top (ぶっちんごまの女) (1985), a book about the Meiji courtesan grandmother of the author and painter Shinichi Saitō, features a landscape painting of the red light district Yoshiwara that wraps around |
1445_18 | from the front end sheets, across the fore edge, and ending at the back end sheets. In the case of multivolume collections, such as the writings of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (ライプニッツ著作集) (Kōsakusha, 1988–1999) or Louis-Ferdinand Céline (セリーヌの作品集) (Kokusho Kankōkai, 1978–2003), multiple images are printed on the spines so that the combined display of all the volumes doubles as a visual showcase of the writers. |
1445_19 | Asian Design and Iconography Research |
1445_20 | Sugiura's consciousness of Asia began as a child with his attraction to Asian folk music and grew during a his time teaching at Ulm, where he acquired a new found self-awareness about Asian identity. However, Sugiura's preoccupation with the question of defining Asian design and iconography was informed by his trip to India in 1971 when he was sent under UNESCO Development Program in order to survey the state of Indian printing and create seminars on printing development in the country. Sugiura then began producing and compiling research on ancient Asian cosmologies, calligraphic traditions, iconography, and general culture that spanned across the multiple countries within the Asian continent. The regional breadth of his research interests speak to one of the core tenants of his theories — many of the multilayered symbols and iconography of various Asian countries have shared origins that are independent from Western traditions. Through the Asian Cultural Centre for UNESCO, Sugiura |
1445_21 | has published his research in the periodicals Asian Culture and APC. He has also created award-winning luxurious book sets that evidence his deep understanding of these cosmologies, such as The Mandalas of the Two Worlds (伝真言院両界曼荼羅) (1977) and Tibetan Mandalas - The Ngor Collection (西蔵曼荼羅集成：チベット・マンダラ) (1983). In addition to his leadership of the Asian Design Institute, Sugiura continues to promote the study of Asian design through lectures, academic publications, and exhibitions. |
1445_22 | Publications designed by Sugiura
Magazines
Books |
1445_23 | Kawada, Kikuji. 地図 = The Map. Tokyo: Bijutsu Shuppan-sha, 1965.
Narahara, Ikko. ヨーロッパ・静止した時間 = Europe: Where Time Has Stopped. Tokyo: Kashima Kenkyujo Shupankan 1967.
Haniya, Yukou. Black Horse in the Darkness. Tokyo: Kawadeshobo Shinsha, 1971.
Takanashi, Yutaka. 都市へ = Towards the City. Izara Shobo (Yutaka Takanashi, Self-Published), 1974.
Miyauchi, Yoshihisa et al., ed. The World of Isamu Kenmochi. Tokyo: Kawadeshobo Shinsha, 1975.
Lithographs of Bayrle: City. UNAC Tokyo, 1977.
伝真言院両界曼荼羅 = The Mandalas of the Two Worlds. Photographs by Yasuhiro Ishimoto. Tokyo: Heibonsha, 1977.
Matsuoka, Seigo, ed. 全宇宙誌 = Summa Cosmographica. Tokyo: Kousakusha, 1979.
Narahara, Ikko. Portici di Luce: Piazza San Marco. UNAC Tokyo, 1981.
Takahashi, Eiichi. Four Seasons of Hyotei. Tokyo: Shibata Shoten, 1982.
Gyatso, Sonam. 西蔵曼荼羅集成：チベット・マンダラ= Tibetan Mandalas - The Ngor Collection. Tokyo: Kodansha, 1983. |
1445_24 | Hosoe, Eikoh. 薔薇刑 = Ordeal by Roses. New York: Aperture, 1985. Photographs of Yukio Mishima.
Saito, Tadao, ed. 古凧の美 日本古凧絵四十選 = Beauty of Old Kites: Forty Selected Japanese Kite Paintings. Miraisha, 1987.
Aida, Mitsuo. Thank You All. Tokyo: Diamond-sha, 1988.
Unagami, Masaomi, ed. Collected Works of Teppei Ujiyama. Fukuoka: Nishinihon Shimbunsha, 1989.
Nakamura, Makoto and Shigeo Fukuda. One Hundred Smiles of Mona Lisa. UNAC Tokyo, 2004.
Publications about Sugiura's design
Sugiura Kohei et al. 疾風迅雷―杉浦康平雑誌デザインの半世紀 = Wind and Lightning: A Half-Century of Magazine Design by Kohei Sugiura. Tokyo, DNP Graphic Design Archive. 2004.
Luminous Mandala: Book Designs of Kohei Sugiura. Tokyo: Ginza Graphic Gallery, 2011.
Sugiura Kohei et al. 杉浦康平・脈動する本——デザインの手法と哲学 = Vibrant Books: Methods and Philosophy of Kohei Sugiura’s Design. Tokyo: Musashino Art University Museum and Library, 2010. |
1445_25 | Sugiura Kohei et al. 時間のヒダ、空間のシワ ... [時間地図]の試み：杉浦康平ダイアグラムコレクション = Experiments in "Time Distance Map": Diagram Collection by Kohei Sugiura. Toyo: Kajima Institute Publishing, 2014.
(3 Volume Series) 杉浦康平デザインの言葉: 多主語的なアジア (2010); アジアの音・光・夢幻 (2011); 文字の霊力 (2014). |
1445_26 | External Links
Kōhei Sugiura Design Archive (Japanese)― A large visual library of Sugiura's publication designs and design methodology, presented by the Musashino Art University Museum & Library. This archive also features an exhaustive list of projects and achievements.
Sources
Kaneko, Ryuichi and Ivan Vartanian. 日本ん写真集史1956-1986. Kyoto: Akaaka, 2009.
Sugiura Kohei et al. 疾風迅雷―杉浦康平雑誌デザインの半世紀 = Wind and Lightning: A Half-Century of Magazine Design by Kohei Sugiura. Tokyo, DNP Graphic Design Archive. 2004.
Sugiura, Kohei. The Way of Asian Design ― Kohei Sugiura: Graphic Design Methodology and Philosophy. Edited by Kirti Trivedi. Mumbai: Asian Design and Art Research Group, 2015.
Usuda, Shoji. 杉浦康平のデザイン. Tokyo: Heibonsha, 2010.
References
1932 births
Living people
Japanese graphic designers
Tokyo University of the Arts alumni |
1446_0 | Rail transport in Myanmar consists of a railway network with 960 stations. The network, generally spanning north to south with branch lines to the east and west, is the second largest in Southeast Asia, and includes the Yangon Circular Railway which serves as a commuter railway for Yangon, the principal commercial city in Myanmar. The quality of the railway infrastructure is generally poor. The tracks are in poor condition, and are not passable during the monsoon season. The speed of freight trains is heavily restricted on all existing links as a consequence of poor track and bridge conditions. The maximum speed for freight trains has been quoted as , suggesting that commercial speeds on this section could be as low as . |
1446_1 | The network is run by Myanma Railways (, ; also spelled Myanmar Railways; formerly Burma Railways), a state-owned railway company under the Ministry of Rail Transportation. In the 2013-14 fiscal year, Myanmar Railways carried about 60 million passengers (35 million in the circular railway and 25 million inter-city travelers) and 2.5 million metric tons of freight. Its rolling stock consisted of 384 locomotives, 1,600 passenger railcars, and 3,600 freight wagons.
The network has steadily increased in size over the last two decades, from nearly in 1988 to in 2015. Myanmar Railways is currently undertaking an ambitious expansion program that will add another to its network, making it spread in to including extensions to Myeik in the south, Kyaingtong in the east, Sittwe in the west.
History |
1446_2 | Rail transport was first launched in British Burma on 2 May 1877 with the opening of the Rangoon (Yangon) to Prome (Pyay) line by The Irrawaddy Valley State Railway. Unusually for a British colonial railway, it was built to . Subsequent development was to the same gauge, though the Burma Mines Railway opened in 1906 operated on a separate gauge. In 1884, a new company, The Sittang Valley State Railway, opened a line along the Sittaung River from Yangon to the town of Toungoo (Taungoo) via Pegu (Bago). After the annexation of Upper Burma following the Third Anglo-Burmese War of 1885, the Toungoo line was extended to Mandalay in 1889. Following the opening of this section, the Mu Valley State Railway was formed and construction began on a railway line from Sagaing to Myitkyina which connected Mandalay to Shwebo in 1891, to Wuntho in 1893, to Katha in 1895, and to Myitkyina in 1898. Extensions into southern Myanmar began in 1907 with the construction of the Bago-Mottama line. |
1446_3 | Passengers had to take a ferry over the Thanlwin River (Salween River) to Mawlamyaing. |
1446_4 | In 1896, before the completion of the line to Myitkyina, the three companies were combined into the Burma Railway Company as a state owned public undertaking. In 1928, the railway was renamed Burma Railways and, in 1989, with the renaming of the country, it became Myanma Railways.
The Japanese invasion during the Second World War caused considerable damage to the rail network. In 1942, the country had (route-km) of metre gauge track, but the Japanese removed about and, by the end of the war, only (route-km) was operational in four isolated sections. The Japanese were also responsible for the construction of the Thailand - Burma Railway, also known as the Death Railway, using the labour of Allied prisoners of war, many of whom died in the attempt. The "Death Railway" link with Thailand fell into disuse after the war and the section of this line in Burma was permanently closed. |
1446_5 | Attempts at rebuilding the network began in the 1950s following Burmese independence. By 1961 the network extended to , and then remained constant until the opening of a line from Kyaukpadaung to Kyini in October 1970. In 1988, there were 487 operational railway stations over a long network. Since coming to power in 1988, the military government embarked on a railway construction program and, by 2000 the network had grown to (track-km) divided into 11 operating divisions. Between 1994 and 1998, the Ye-Dawei (Tavoy) railway in peninsular Myanmar was completed. With the construction of the road/rail bridge across the Ye River in 2003 and the Thanlwin Bridge in 2008, the Southern peninsula became fully integrated into the Myanmar's railway network. Also in 2008/9, the Ayeyawady Valley route was extended north along the west bank of the river towards Pakokku in the far north of the country. The Kyangin-Okshippin (Padang) section of Kyangin-Thayet railway was opened in March 2008 |
1446_6 | and the Okshippin-Kamma railway section was opened in March 2009. |
1446_7 | In 2016 a tram route opened in Yangon, on a former heavy rail freight route through the city streets. Rolling stock is a three car train purchased second hand from Hiroshima, Japan; it is the first , and a third rail was added to the line to accommodate it.
Lines
There are 960 active railway stations in Myanmar with Yangon Central and Mandalay Central as the twin anchors of the network. Recently, rail service has been extended along the Taninthayi coast to Mon State and Tanintharyi Region with Mawlamyine station as the southern hub. The railway lines generally run north to south with branches to the east and the west.
Most of the routes are single track although large parts of Yangon-Pyay and Yangon-Mandalay routes are double track.
Myanmar's railway network is divided into three broad groups of lines, the lines in Upper Myanmar, those in Lower Myanmar, and the Yangon Circular Railway that serves as Yangon's commuter rail.
Rail lines in Lower Myanmar
Rail lines in Upper Myanmar |
1446_8 | Yangon Circular Railway
Yangon Circular Railway is an 39-station loop system that connects Yangon's downtown, satellite towns and suburban areas. Around 150,000 people use the approximately 300 trains that run around the loop daily.
Proposed rapid transit
The Yangon Urban Mass Rapid Transit is due to begin construction of the east–west line from Hlaing Thayar in the west to Parami in the east in 2022, to be complete by 2027. This line is to be further extended east to Togyaung Galay station on the Yangon-Bago intercity rail line.
Lines under construction
The following four lines are currently under construction: |
1446_9 | Kyaukyi–Sinkhan–Bamow with a distance of as a part of Katha–Bamow railway project to allow the passengers and cargo to reach Bamow by rails rather by the Irrawaddy flotilla service. So far, the opened section is while the other is still under construction. The section under construction is the Kyaukkyi Bridge across Ayarwaddy Bridge at Sinkhan–Bamaw (). Construction started 16 May 2007 expecting to finish the project in 2018–2019. The opened sections are:
Katha-Moetagyi (): construction started 16 May 2007 and opened 20 May 2010
Moetagyi–Kyaukkyi (): construction started 16 May 2007 and opened 7 February 2014
Natmouk- KanPyar with a distance of as a part of Pyawbwe-Natmouk-Magwe railway project. So far, the opened section is while the other are still under construction, being Kanbya-Natmauk. Construction started 10 November 2008, expecting to finish in 2017 - 2018. The opened sections are:
Magwe-Kanbya (): construction started 10 November 2008, opened 19 December 2009 |
1446_10 | Pyawbwe(Yan Aung) - Ywadaw (): construction started 10 November 2008, opened 16 January 2010
Ywadaw-Natmauk (): construction started 10 November 2008, opened 16 March 2013
Yechanbyin - Kwantaung - Kyaukhtu(Kyauk Taw) - Ann - Minbu with a distance of as a part of Minbu-Ann-Sittway railway project to allow the connection to Port of Sittway. So far, the opened section is while the other is still under construction, one of them being Yechanbyin-Pardaleik (). Construction started 15 February 2009. The other sections which are waiting for budget and contract signing is Pardaleik-Kwan Taung () and Kyaukhtu-Ann-Minbu () with a hope to finish the project in 2021 - 2022. Sittwe-Kyaukthu-Zorinpui railway is part of India-Myanmar Kaladan Multi-Modal Transit Transport Project. From Minbu it will connect to 1,215 km long Kyaukpyu port-Minbu-Kunming high-speed railway being planned by China. The opened sections are: |
1446_11 | Sittwe-Yechanbyin (): construction started 15 February 2009, opened 19 May 2009
Kwan Taung- Ponnagyun-Yotayouk (): construction started 15 February 2009 and opened 15 May 2010
Yotayouk-Kyaukhtu (): construction started 16 May 2010, opened 11 April 2011
Einme-Nyaundong with a distance of as a part of Pathein(Begayet) – Einme - Nyaundong Yangon (Hlaing Thayar) to allow the connection between Yangon with Port of Pathein. The section under construction is Einme-Nyaungdong-Hlaingthayar (). Construction started 1 December 2009 with a hope to be done in 2017 - 2018. So far, the opened section is while the other is still under construction. The opened sections are:
Pathein(Begayet)-Einme (): construction started 1 December 2009 and opened 20 March 2011 |
1446_12 | Rolling Stock
In 2005, the Japan Railways Group and other, privately owned, Japanese railway companies donated rolling stock to Myanmar Railways, including former JNR-era DMUs, railcars and passenger coaches. China donated 130 units of meter gauge carriages in 2006 and another 225 in 2009. In early As of 2011, Myanma Railways operated 389 locomotives and 4,673 railway coaches. |
1446_13 | Locomotives
In 1999, Myanma Railway had 201 diesel locomotives, and a further 88 were on order. Up to 1987 the main suppliers were Alstom, Krupp and various Japanese companies, but since then orders have been placed with China because of Myanmar's lack of access to hard currency. In 2004, Myanma Railway had approximately 40 oil-fired steam locomotives, of which about a dozen were serviceable and saw occasional use on goods, local passenger and tourist trains. Up to three heavy repairs are performed per year using locally manufactured parts. Between 1988 and 2009, the railway imported 96 diesel locomotives, 55 from China and 41 from India and, by December 2009, it had a total of 319 locomotives. In October 2010, the railway acquired 30 more locomotives from China. |
1446_14 | In 2014, Myanma Railway acquired a Hokutosei train set from Japan after the withdrawal of the Hokutosei Blue Train Service in preparation of the opening of the Hokkaido Shinkansen which opened in 2016. The locomotive acquired was the former DD51 Diesel Locomotive along with the former Blue Trains that were formerly operated by JR Hokkaido.
In March 2018, India handed over 18 diesel-electric locomotives to Myanmar under an Indian line of credit. These 18 locomotives were fitted with the microprocessor control based system. 1350 HP AC/DC main line diesel locomotives with a maximum speed of 100 km/h had been customised for the Myanma Railways. From the Indian side, RITES Ltd., an Indian government enterprise, has been a principal partner of Myanma Railways and was involved in the supply of these 18 locomotives. |
1446_15 | Coaches
In 1999 Myanma Railways had 868 coaches, with a further 463 on order. However many branch lines have only lightly built permanent way, and on these routes traffic is in the hands of a fleet of more than 50 light rail-buses built from lorry parts in MR's workshops. These are powered through their rubber-tired road wheels, and usually haul three small four-wheel coaches converted from goods wagons. Small turntables are used to turn the rail-buses at the termini. |
1446_16 | Wagons
There were 5,187 freight wagons in 1999, with 1,188 due to be delivered. The majority of goods trains on lines without significant gradients run without any train brakes, as most of the serviceable wagons have been cannibalised and now lack vacuum hoses. Goods trains up to 600 tonnes are braked by the locomotive only, and operate at a maximum speed of . If the train is particularly heavy the wagons at the front will be fitted with hoses for the duration of the trip. On the steeply-graded ghat sections all wagons will be braked. |
1446_17 | Railway links to adjacent countries
Apart from the Thailand–Burma Railway the country has never had any international links. However:
China–Myanmar–Thailand railway to Dawei: In 2010 and 2011, international lines north to China and east to Thailand from a new port and industrial area at Dawei were proposed.
China–Myanmar railway from Yangôn to Kunming: *Dali to Ruili in China is under construction and expected to be completed in 2023. But the construction of the section in Myanmar has not been decided and is still under negotiation*. Serves new Bay of Bengal port. From Yangôn to Kunming in China. |
1446_18 | India–Vietnam railway via Myanmar–Thailand–Cambodia: On 9 April 2010, the Government of India announced that it is considering a Manipur to Vietnam link via Myanmar, although this would require a break-of-gauge (Burma)/ (India). India also proposed that these two proposed links be connected, allowing trains from Delhi to Kunming via Myanmar, but requiring break-of-gauge from in Burma to in India.
India-Sittwe Kaladan Multi-Modal Transit Transport Project: Sittwe–Kyaukhtu(Kyauk Taw)–Zochachhuah/Hmawngbuchhuah– Sairang with a distance of as part of India–Myanmar Kaladan Multi-Modal Transit Transport Project. 90 km Sittwe–Kyaukhtu railway in Myanmar already exists, 200 km long Kyaukhtu–Zorinpui in Myanmar is planned but not yet surveyed, 375 km long Zochawchhuah(Zorinpui)–Sairang railway in India is being surveyed since Aug-2017. |
1446_19 | Summary
The proposed international rail links are:
Same gauge
China (opened 2021)
Thailand
Break of gauge /
India
Bangladesh
See also
List of railway stations in Myanmar
Transport in Myanmar
Burma Mines Railway
References
Bibliography
External links
Myanmar Railways (English version)
Myanmar Railways (Burmese version)
Myanmar railways, Ministry of Transportation (Burmese version) |
1447_0 | The Baháʼí Faith in South Africa began with the holding of Baháʼí meetings in the country in 1911. A small population of Baháʼís remained until 1950 when large numbers of international Baháʼí pioneers settled in South Africa. In 1956, after members of various tribes in South Africa became Baháʼís, a regional Baháʼí Assembly which included South Africa was elected. Later each of the constituent countries successively formed their own independent Baháʼí National Spiritual Assembly. Then in 1995, after a prolonged period of growth and oppression during Apartheid and the homelands reuniting with South Africa, the Baháʼí National Spiritual Assembly of South Africa was formed. In 2005 Baháʼís were estimated at about 240,100 adherents.
Early history |
1447_1 | 1911 marks the beginning of a presence of the Baháʼí Faith in South Africa at the home of Agnes Cook in Sea Point, Cape Town. Mr. and Mrs. William Fraetas from Muizenberg who had met ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, the son of the founder of the Baháʼí Faith, Baháʼu'lláh, in New York, in 1912 came back to South Africa.
ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's Tablets of the Divine Plan |
1447_2 | ʻAbdu'l-Bahá wrote a series of letters, or tablets, to the followers of the religion in the United States in 1916–1917; these letters were compiled together in the book Tablets of the Divine Plan. The eighth and twelfth of the tablets mentioned Africa and were written on 19 April 1916 and 15 February 1917, respectively. Publication however was delayed in the United States until 1919—after the end of the First World War and the Spanish flu. The tablets were translated and presented by Mirza Ahmad Sohrab on 4 April 1919, and published in Star of the West magazine on 12 December 1919. ʻAbdu'l-Bahá mentions Baháʼís traveling "…especially from America to Europe, Africa, Asia and Australia, and travel through Japan and China. Likewise, from Germany teachers and believers may travel to the continents of America, Africa, Japan and China; in brief, they may travel through all the continents and islands of the globe" and " …the anthem of the oneness of the world of humanity may confer a new |
1447_3 | life upon all the children of men, and the tabernacle of universal peace be pitched on the apex of America; thus Europe and Africa may become vivified with the breaths of the Holy Spirit, this world may become another world, the body politic may attain to a new exhilaration…." |
1447_4 | After the death of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá Baháʼís began to move to South Africa. By 1929 there were 6 small groups of Baháʼís mainly due to pioneers and travelling Baháʼís, notably Martha Root, in the Western Cape and near Johannesburg. The very first local Baháʼí Assembly formed in Pretoria in 1925 but was dissolved in 1931, and by about 1937 only one Baháʼí remained from that period, Mrs. Agnes Carey. Carey was a social worker for women prisoners who had been released from the Pretoria prison, and because of her staunchness in the religion she was later honoured with the title of "The Mother of the Baháʼís of South Africa" by Shoghi Effendi, who was appointed the leader of the religion after ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's death. Shoghi Effendi had travelled through South Africa in 1929 and 1940. In 1949 the painter Reginald Turvey returned to South Africa from England as a Baháʼí since 1936 through his association with the well-known painter Mark Tobey and lifelong friend Bernard Leach. Turvey was unaware of |
1447_5 | the existence of other Baháʼís in South Africa including Agnes Carey. As a result, Turvey spent thirteen years believing he was the sole Baháʼí in South Africa. For his patience, devotion and subsequent services to the African Baháʼís in his latter years, he was given the title of "The Father of the Baháʼís of South Africa". |
1447_6 | Ten-Year Crusade
In 1953 Shoghi Effendi planned an international teaching plan termed the Ten Year Crusade. During the plan 65 pioneers from the United States, Canada, Germany, New Zealand and England settled in South Africa. Many of the pioneers settled permanently in the country; William Sears and his family, Harry and Margaret Ford, and Robert Miller and his family settled in Johannesburg; Ruth and Bishop Brown, who were Margaret Ford's mother and stepfather, settled in Durban. Lowell and Edith Johnson settled in Cape Town while Eleanor and Lyall Hadden settled in Pretoria. |
1447_7 | In 1954 in Pretoria, Klaas Mtsweni, a Zulu, became the first indigenous South African to become a Baháʼí. In the succeeding years members of other South African ethnic groups including the Tswana, the Xhosa, the southern and Northern Sotho peoples, the Coloured ethnic group, the Cape Coloureds, the Cape Malays, and White, Afrikaners became Baháʼís. In 1959, after years of political involvement in ANC related organizations in the 1950s, Bertha Mkize became a Baháʼí and withdrew from political involvements and instead pioneered to KwaZulu where she helped found 28 Baháʼí communities. |
1447_8 | In April 1956 the Baháʼí Faith was present in small numbers across 15 countries of Southern Africa including islands off Southern Africa. To administer these Baháʼí communities a regional governing body was elected in South Africa to cover them. Following the death of Shoghi Effendi and the election of the Universal House of Justice, the islands of the Indian Ocean and the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland each formed their own National Spiritual Assembly in 1964. Starting in 1967 the number of Baháʼís in the region was growing and it was necessary for new independent National Assemblies to be formed in those countries: 1967 - Zambia; 1970 - Botswana, Malawi, Zimbabwe; 1971 - Lesotho; 1972 - Madagascar, Mauritius, Reunion Island; 1977 - Swaziland; 1981 - Namibia; 1985 - Mozambique; 1991 - Angola; and in 1995 a re-united South Africa which included Bophuthatswana, Ciskei and Transkei. |
1447_9 | Apartheid
The 1959 Come Back, Africa film about Apartheid mentions the Baháʼí Faith as part of the discussion on the philosophical underpinnings of how the Africans were to respond to the challenge of Apartheid. The mention of the religion begins about 1 hr 10 min into the film, after the performance of Miriam Makeba. It is not known if the cause of the mention of the religion was scripted or improvised, and if by the choice of Lionel Rogosin, the filmmaker (who may have encountered the religion in Israel or the USA) or the Africans themselves because of their exposure to the religion in the country.
As another context for responding to the challenges of the period, it is known that the Sophiatown Renaissance was inspired by the Harlem Renaissance. The role of Alain Locke is key in that renaissance and Locke was a Baháʼí very involved in advocacy of Africans, African ideas, and internationalist thinking in line with the world-view of the religion. |
1447_10 | Faced with the segregated social pattern and laws of Apartheid in South Africa, the integrated population of Baháʼís had to decide how to be composed in their administrative structures – whether the National Spiritual Assembly would be all black or all white. The Baháʼí community decided that instead of dividing the South African Baháʼí community into two population groups, one black and one white, they instead limited membership in the Baháʼí administration to black adherents, and placed the entire Baháʼí community under the leadership of its black population. In 1997 the National Spiritual Assembly presented a Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of South Africa which said in part: |
1447_11 | Abhorring all forms of prejudice and rejecting any system of segregation, the Baháʼí Faith was introduced on a one-to-one basis and the community quietly grew during the apartheid years, without publicity. Despite the nature of the politics of that time, we presented our teachings on unity and the oneness of humankind to prominent individuals in politics, commerce and academia and leaders of thought including State Presidents.... [b]oth individual Baháʼís and our administrative institutions were continually watched by the security police.... Our activities did not include opposition to the previous Government for involvement in partisan politics and opposition to government are explicitly prohibited by the sacred Texts of our Faith.... During the time when the previous Government prohibited integration within our communities, rather than divide into separate administrative structures for each population group, we opted to limit membership of the Baháʼí Administration to the black |
1447_12 | adherents who were and remain in the majority of our membership and thereby placed the entire Baháʼí community under the stewardship of its black membership.... The pursuit of our objectives of unity and equality has not been without costs. The "white" Baháʼís were often ostracized by their white neighbours for their association with "non-whites". The Black Baháʼís were subjected to scorn by their black compatriots for their lack of political action and their complete integration with their white Baháʼí brethren. The most tragic loss to our community was the brutal execution of four of our adherents, at our places of worship, three in Mdantsane and one in Umtata. |
1447_13 | The four Baháʼís - three adults and one youth - murdered were Houshmand Anvari, Dr Shama Bakhshandegi, Vincent and Rias Razavi. at the Baháʼí Faith Centre, Mdantsane, Ciskei, on 13 March 1994.
Modern community |
1447_14 | Since its inception the religion has had involvement in socio-economic development beginning by giving greater freedom to women, promulgating the promotion of female education as a priority concern, and that involvement was given practical expression by creating schools, agricultural coops, and clinics. The religion entered a new phase of activity when a message of the Universal House of Justice dated 20 October 1983 was released. Baháʼís were urged to seek out ways, compatible with the Baháʼí teachings, in which they could become involved in the social and economic development of the communities in which they lived. Worldwide in 1979 there were 129 officially recognized Baháʼí socio-economic development projects. By 1987, the number of officially recognized development projects had increased to 1482. Following the end of Apartheid the South African Baháʼí community in South Africa has also been involved in a variety of projects around the country. The Parliament of the World's |
1447_15 | Religions held its 1999 session in South Africa and the Baháʼís helped in its organization and operation; Dr. Marks, the South African co-chair, is a Baháʼí. In 2001 the Baháʼí International Community released two statements with regard to issues in South Africa. The first, on HIV/AIDS and gender equality issues particular to South Africa underscored the "[f]allacious notions about the naturally voracious sexual appetites of men" and "how culturally accepted social inequalities conspire with economic vulnerability to leave women and girls with little or no power to reject unwanted or unsafe sex. Yet, once infected with HIV/AIDS, women are often stigmatised as the source of the disease and persecuted, sometimes violently." The second statement was on the issue of racism. Baháʼís also participated in the follow-up to the 1992 Rio Conference on the Environment - Earth Summit 2002 held in South Africa in 2002. Some 30 representatives of six Baháʼí and Baháʼí-inspired organizations took |
1447_16 | part in the Summit including a statement entitled "Religion and Development at the Crossroads: Convergence or Divergence?". Delegations from the Baháʼí International Community, as well as the official Baháʼí communities of South Africa, Brazil, and Canada were accredited to the Summit as well as numerous sessions of Commissions of the United Nations on Sustainable Development. During the Summit the experience of South African Baháʼí community with dealing with racism, education and gender inequality was offered. |
1447_17 | In 2004 Baháʼís Mark Bamford and wife, co-writer and producer Suzanne Kay, and their two children, who had moved from the United States to live in Cape Town, South Africa made the movie Cape of Good Hope. In 2007 two professional filmmakers finished an hourlong documentary about three Baháʼís and how they practice their faith, and the film is being aired on television in South Africa and neighbouring countries. "Baha'i Faith: A Way Forward" was produced by Ryan and Leyla Haidarian at the request of the South African Broadcasting Corporation, which has licensed rights to the documentary for two years. |
1447_18 | In addition to a variety if singular events the Baháʼís engaged in a number of annual events. The perennial youth service and arts project "Beyond Words" has toured South African Baháʼí communities since 2000. The Association for Baháʼí Studies in Southern Africa held its seventh annual conference in 2006 at Bloemfontein, South Africa, including talks by John Grayzel, Chair, Baháʼí Studies, University of Maryland and Continental Counsellor Enos Makhele.
Jubiliee |
1447_19 | In 2003 the Baháʼí community of South Africa celebrated their Golden Jubilee (50-year anniversary of the community) in Phokeng which was followed by satellite festivities in eight cities:Bloemfontein, Cape Town, Durban, Pretoria, Johannesburg, Sabie, Umtata, and Mafikeng. The National Spiritual Assembly's own Golden Jubilee included a 2006 commemoration by Thabo Mbeki on behalf of the Government and people of South Africa to say congratulations and best wishes to the National Spiritual Assembly of the Baháʼís of South Africa.
South African regional conference |
1447_20 | Regional conferences were called for by the Universal House of Justice 20 October 2008 to celebrate recent achievements in grassroots community-building and to plan their next steps in organizing in their home areas. Just two weeks later twin conferences were held - one in South Africa and the other in Kenya. One regional conference was hosted by the National Spiritual Assembly of the Baháʼís of South Africa in Johannesburg in November 2008 and attracted over 1000 Baháʼís from Angola, Botswana, La Reunion, Lesotho, Madagascar, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia, Seychelles, South Africa, and Swaziland.
Demographics
Estimates of the Baháʼís in South Africa range from around 201,000 to about 240,100 adherents by the World Christian Encyclopedia.
Publications |
1447_21 | My African Heart by Bonnie Fitzpatrick-Moore, Paperback, 196 pages, , December 1999, published by Baha'i Publishing Trust of South Africa. About an African-American Baháʼí author who moved to South Africa and lived there for a quarter century.
Lights of the Spirit: Historical Portraits of Black Baháʼís in North America By Gwendolyn Etter-Lewis, Richard Walter Thomas, 338 pages, , 2006, published by United States Baha'i Publishing Trust, includes several individuals who moved or made special trips to South Africa.
*
See also
Religion in South Africa
History of South Africa
World Conference against Racism 2001
References |
1447_22 | External links
Baháʼís of South Africa Official Website
Official Webpage of the National Spiritual Assembly of the Baháʼís oF South Africa maintained by the Baháʼí International Community
Baháʼí Club at University of the Witwatersrand.
Association for Baháʼí Studies in Southern Africa
Introduction to the Baháʼí Faith in Afrikaans.
Baha'i Youth of South Africa
South Africa
Religion in South Africa
South Africa
Bahá'í Faith in South Africa |
1448_0 | The Mikhailovsky Palace () is a grand ducal palace in Saint Petersburg, Russia. It is located on Arts Square and is an example of Empire style neoclassicism. The palace currently houses the main building of the Russian Museum and displays its collections of early, folk, eighteenth, and nineteenth century art. |
1448_1 | It was originally planned as the residence of Grand Duke Michael Pavlovich, the youngest son of Emperor Paul I. Work had not yet begun on the Mikhailovsky Palace, when Paul was overthrown and killed in a palace coup that brought Michael's elder brother to the throne as Alexander I. The new emperor resurrected the idea for a new palace by the time Michael was 22, and plans were drawn up by Carlo Rossi to develop a new site in Saint Petersburg. The palace, built in the neoclassic style, became the centrepiece of an ensemble that took in new streets and squares. It was lavishly decorated, with the interiors costing more than the main construction work. It was gifted to Grand Duke Michael and his new wife, Grand Duchess Elena Pavlovna, by the Emperor in 1825. The grand ducal family had comfortable apartments furnished to their individual tastes. Grand Duke Michael carried out some of his military duties there, while his wife hosted salons that brought together many of the leading members |
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