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1637_33 | The New 52
In The New 52, Booster Gold appears as part of the new Justice League International series. In the Post-Flashpoint continuity, Booster is portrayed with his original glory-seeking personality and is chosen by the U.N. to lead the JLI due to his PR sense and naiveté. He takes his leadership role seriously, and strives to become a better hero and role model. However, despite his best efforts and support from Batman, who officially defers to Booster's leadership after supporting Booster for leader, the JLI falls apart due to a string of attacks against the group that leaves members killed or wounded. Despite his best attempts to bring in new members, Booster later watches in horror as the hero OMAC betrays the team and inflicts more carnage, including teleporting Blue Beetle to the homeworld of the villainous "Reach" species. |
1637_34 | In the end, Gold is confronted with what appears to be an older version of him, an agent of A.R.G.U.S. who warns his present self to prevent Superman and Wonder Woman from dating. Failure to prevent it, without explanation, would cause Booster Gold to cease existing. As the JLI monitor reveals Superman and Wonder Woman kissing, the future Gold disappears. The present day Gold disappears moments later. A.R.G.U.S.' director Amanda Waller orders Chronos to search for the contemporary Gold through time, but Chronos is captured by the Secret Society before carrying out his mission. The older Booster Gold mysteriously reappears in other timelines, like 19th century Gotham City. In Booster Gold: Futures End #1, the older Booster clarifies he is not an older version of the New 52 Booster, but an older version of him from a universe which has ceased to exist. The older Booster is sent careening through the timeline, eventually meeting up with his sister, Goldstar, who is in a version of |
1637_35 | Metropolis which has been sealed in a bubble by a godlike version of Brainiac from an alternative universe. They are teleported to where the younger, New 52 Booster is held captive by Brainiac. Brainiac threatens to kill Michelle unless the younger Booster gives up the location of Vanishing Point, which he concedes. The older Booster knows this could lead to the end of the Multiverse, setting up the events of Convergence. |
1637_36 | In the two-part Convergence: Booster Gold, Booster is found by a Pre-Flashpoint Rip Hunter on Skartaris, where the older Booster Gold and Goldstar are in prison on the planet Telos, where Brainiac has gathered cities from across the history of the Multiverse. The New 52 Booster and Rip release them both. Hunter tells older Gold that he has not traveled through the timeline, but through the cities in the planet which were now chronal anomalies that he was in conflict with, and that his body absorbed so much time travel radiation that he was aging rapidly and dying. The aged Pre-Flashpoint Booster transports again, and encounters the Zero Hour Ted Kord. Booster explains to Kord that he has led a good life, married and had a son. Rip, the New 52 Booster and Michelle find him, and Rip forces the New 52 Booster to take his father into the raw chronal field contained at Vanishing Point to cure him; Pre-Flashpoint Booster's body is destroyed, but he is reborn as Waverider, the all-knowing |
1637_37 | cosmic time traveler. Waverider then emerges on Telos in the final issue of Convergence, along with the New 52 Booster and Goldstar to bring back Brainiac, and they convince him to save the Multiverse from its imminent destruction. Brainiac then sends the Zero Hour Parallax and Pre-Flashpoint Superman back to the conclusion of the Crisis on Infinite Earths to avert the original crisis event, and this results in many of the classic worlds of the Multiverse being reborn in their modern forms. |
1637_38 | Alternate versions of Booster Gold and Blue Beetle as they were prior to Countdown to Infinite Crisis appear in the pages of Justice League 3000 #14, where they are awaken from a 1,000-year suspended animation on Takron-Galtos in the 31st century. According to Keith Giffen, "they're J.M. DeMatteis and my Blue Beetle and Booster Gold".
DC Rebirth |
1637_39 | Booster Gold and his robot partner Skeets return in Action Comics #992. Superman is still suffering mentally and emotionally after learning that his father, Jor-El, survived the explosion of Krypton. This is made even worse when he learns that Jor-El is also Mr. Oz. Superman, seeking more answers, decides to use the Cosmic Treadmill to travel back in time and learn more about the unseen forces affecting the universe. As he finally gains enough speed to travel in time, Booster Gold and Skeets appear one second too late to stop him as Superman disappears into the time stream. This Booster returns to his Pre-Flashpoint costume, using the Time Sphere once more and openly states that he is a Time Master tasked with protecting the timeline. Booster Gold goes to Krypton to get Superman out of there before he ruins the timeline. Booster Gold tells Superman he cannot save them at all. Booster is captured and imprisoned in a cell with his father, who refers to Booster throwing the football game |
1637_40 | for him. Superman and Skeets rescue Booster, and Skeets tells him what his father did to him in his past. Superman is saddened to hear how this affected Booster Gold's life. Superman knocks out Boosters Gold's father and breaks Booster out of jail. Booster goes to see his mother on Superman's recommendation, where he spends time with her, explaining his history. Booster Gold and Superman get captured by Zod after their Time Sphere breaks in the timeline. Zod ties them down, and Eradicator, who works for Zod, plans to take them down. Skeets is destroyed, devastating Booster, but it is revealed that Skeets downloaded his memory into an Eradicator to help free Booster and Superman from Zod. Skeets, Booster, and Superman watch Krypton explode from the safety of the fixed Time Sphere. History begins to fix itself around them. Skeets tells Superman the news that Lois Lane and Jon were killed by soldiers in the Middle East while attempting to free General Lane. Booster tells Skeets to go |
1637_41 | back in time so they can fix it for Superman. Booster Gold goes to the Middle East knocks out the soldiers, and saves Lois and Jon before Superman gets there. Back at the Watchtower, Flash is upset that they took his Cosmic Treadmill to save Krypton, which would negatively affect time. Booster Gold tells Flash it was Superman's idea to go back, and that he went back to stop Superman, who admits that he was wrong. |
1637_42 | Booster Gold was seen in Gotham City with Green Lantern (Hal Jordan), who kills himself with his own ring. Booster Gold and Skeets go find Batman, who shoots Booster. He runs from Batman, hiding in a back alley with Skeets, and finds it odd that Batman both does not know who he is and tried to kill him. Booster is captured by Batman again whom Skeets reveals to be Dick Grayson, not Bruce Wayne. Booster Gold escapes and finds Bruce Wayne, who is dancing at a party with his mother, Martha. Booster tells Bruce that he got him a gift: he went back in time and saved his parents to teach Bruce the lesson that even though terrible things happened, they were ultimately for the best, referencing the Alan Moore story "For the Man Who Has Everything". Bruce believes him, grabs a fire poker, and destroys Skeets, saying that he prefers life this way. |
1637_43 | Booster Gold breaks Selina Kyle out of a mental asylum. Unbeknownst to him, this version is an insane serial killer. He breaks into Wayne Manor to introduce her to Bruce Wayne. She kills everyone other than Bruce before she escapes with this alternate timeline's Batman (Dick Grayson). Booster is imprisoned by Bruce Wayne, who tells Booster to go back in time and prevent his parents' murders.
Development
Jurgens's 1984 series proposal for Booster Gold compared the hero to U.S. Olympic Gold athletes such as Dorothy Hamill, Peggy Fleming, and Bruce Jenner, who had turned "Olympic gold into commercial gold", selling multiple products based on their fame and past accomplishments. Booster's origin as a security guard at a future Superman museum was altered when writer/artist John Byrne was brought to DC to reboot Superman's origin in The Man of Steel.
Legacy
Since his origin, characters within the DC Universe have hinted that there is a greater purpose to Booster Gold than he knows. |
1637_44 | During the Millennium event, Harbinger reveals to Martian Manhunter that Booster is descended from the Chosen and that he must be protected. It is revealed that Booster is destined to come to the past to protect him from an unknown event in the future. In 52 Rip states that the moment Booster helped save the multiverse from Mister Mind would be remembered in the future as the start of Gold's "glory years". Later, in the new Booster Gold series, Rip hints at a "Carter heroic legacy". It is then revealed that Booster is important to the Time Masters, as he will train "the greatest of them all", being the father and the teacher of Rip Hunter himself, who willingly chose to protect his identity against other time-travellers, to pass through history as the only loser of the clan. Despite the general distrust of Booster, Rip and his descendants apparently know the truth, always honoring him. |
1637_45 | Due to the complicated Time-Travels mechanics, Booster's future self, "currently" operating from an unknown era with his time-travel educated wife, still watches over his past self and his son, making sure that Rip Hunter gives his past self proper schooling. The older Booster acts in total anonymity, and has access to other "time-lost" equipment than his suit, such as Superboy's seemingly-destroyed "super-goggles".
Due to a predestination paradox, the future Booster is revealed to be a more experienced Time Master than his son Rip Hunter, but also that he personally tasked Rip to school his past self. It is also implied that the departure of the Hypertime concept, rather than a simple retcon, is Booster's work, as in the future he tasked himself with the role of pruning divergent timelines from each universe in the Multiverse. |
1637_46 | Powers and equipment
While Booster Gold has no superhuman abilities, he is an excellent athlete. He demonstrates enough willpower to use his Legion flight ring at range, a feat few have been able to demonstrate. |
1637_47 | Booster gained his "powers" from the artifacts he stole from a museum in the future. A power suit grants him super strength and wrist blasters allow him to project force blasts. The wrist blasters contain the primary controls and power supply for the suit as well as communications equipment. Circuitry from a force field belt (once belonging to Brainiac 5 of the legion of Super Heroes) allows Booster to resist physical and energy attacks, and he uses the force field to repel objects with great force and generate a breathable self-contained environment. The force field centers on Booster's body, but can expand and even project outward. The costume's goggles have infrared and magnifying capabilities. In addition to the powers from his suit, Booster can fly thanks to a Legion of Super-Heroes flight ring. Booster can also absorb mass and eject it either in its original form or as a melted mass, although this depletes his force field for a time afterward. |
1637_48 | Booster's equipment includes:
Legion flight ring
Force field belt
Power suit
Time-travel circuitry
Gauntlets
Visor devices
Other versions
As the series Booster Gold features time travel as a major plot element, Booster regularly visits alternate timelines where key events in history played differently. Occasionally, in Booster Gold, and in Justice League International, alternate versions of Booster from these timelines make appearances. |
1637_49 | In I Can't Believe It's Not the Justice League, several "Super Buddies" visit an alternate universe where Maxwell Lord leads a violent super-team of strippers and male enforcers called the "Power Posse". An apparently unpowered and street-talking Gold serves as an employee. He is much more brutish, pimp slapping a female employee simply because Lord commands it. This alternate version of JLI may be the same team as the Antimatter Universe-based Crime Syndicate of Amerika, which first appeared in Justice League Quarterly #8 (1992) sans Booster Gold, but many of the events in this series do not seem to tie directly into continuity.
Elseworlds
In The Kingdom, the sequel to the Mark Waid and Alex Ross Kingdom Come Elseworlds series, Booster is the founder and owner of the Planet Krypton restaurant. He is also mentioned in Kingdom Come by Fire. |
1637_50 | In Justice Riders, a western take on the Justice League by Chuck Dixon and J. H. Williams III, Booster is a travelling gambler who wants to join Sheriff Diana Prince's posse. To counter the speed advantage of Prince's preferred choice, Wallace "Kid Flash" West, he acquires a machine gun from the eccentric inventor Ted Kord. At the end of the story, once the Justice Riders have defeated Maxwell Lord, Gold heads for Denver, where "the suckers come in by the trainload every day".
Justice League 3000
In the continuity of Justice League 3000, Ted and Booster have slept for 1,000 years in suspended animation tubes. They wake up on Earth, now the prison world of Takron Galtos, where they are immediately taken advantage of. |
1637_51 | DC One Million
The DC One Million version of Booster Gold is a time traveler named Peter Platinum ("Platinum always beats gold") who appears in Booster Gold vol. 2 #1,000,000. Based on Booster's reputation as a profiteer posing as a hero, Platinum admits to Booster that he is pulling the same scam, but more successfully, and assumes Booster is after a cut. His superhero gear is based on technology stolen from Rip Hunter, who has apparently had several encounters with him to get it back. |
1637_52 | 52 Multiverse
In the final issue of DC Comics' 2006–2007 year-long weekly series, 52, it was revealed that a "Multiverse" system of 52 parallel universes, with each Earth being a different take on established DC Comics characters as featured in the mainstream continuity (designated as "New Earth"), had come into existence. The Multiverse acts as a storytelling device that allows writers to introduce alternate versions of fictional characters, hypothesize "What if?" scenarios, revisit popular Elseworlds stories, and allow these characters to interact with the mainstream continuity. |
1637_53 | The 2007–2008 weekly series Countdown to Final Crisis and its spin-offs would either directly show or insinuate the existence of alternate versions of Booster Gold in the Multiverse. For example, Countdown #16 introduced his evil Earth-3 counterpart, a member of the villainous Crime Society of America — and a similar Booster Gold exists on the Antimatter Universe, as suggested in a 1992 Justice League comic book, with Booster's evil variant first appearing in a 2005 Super Buddies story. The 2007 Countdown spin-off series Countdown Presents: The Search for Ray Palmer also featured a gender-reversed Earth-11 where, through character exposition, it is revealed that Maxine Lord (the female Maxwell Lord) murdered this world's female Booster Gold as opposed to its Ted Kord counterpart. The 1997 Tangent Comics fifth-week event (Jurgens) originally introduced an entirely different version of Booster Gold, a yacht-owning gentleman connected to the origins of the mysterious Green Lantern; when |
1637_54 | the Tangent Comics universe was later amalgamated into Earth-9 of the 52 multiverse, 2008's Tangent: Superman's Reign #1 (again by Jurgens) introduced an African American superhero by that name. |
1637_55 | Injustice 2
Booster Gold and Skeets appeared in the prequel to the sequel game Injustice 2. He and Ted Kord, the Blue Beetle, had been friendly rivals, even though Booster used to mock Ted's Blue Beetle suit due to his weight. One year after Superman's Regime has ended, Michael warns Ted about the latter's cruel fate in the future, something Michael cannot prevent and is not allowed to interfere with. Before he sets on his way home back to the future with Skeets, Michael bids his friend farewell and promises that they will see each other at the end. After Ted is mortally wounded by Orca and Killer Croc, Michael arrives to talk to Ted one last time. Ted tells Michael to look after Jaime Reyes before his final breath. During a training session with Jaime, Booster receives a message from Ted, telling him he now owns Kord Industries and his suit.
Smallville
Booster Gold is featured in the Smallville Season 11 digital comic based on the TV series. |
1637_56 | Legion of Super Heroes in the 31st Century
Another incarnation of Booster Gold appears in Legion of Super Heroes in the 31st Century #19. The series is based upon the television series of the same name.
Reception
Booster Gold was ranked as the 173rd greatest comic book character of all time by Wizard magazine. IGN also ranked him as the 59th greatest comic book hero.
In other media
Television |
1637_57 | Animated
Booster Gold and Skeets appear in Justice League Unlimited, voiced by Tom Everett Scott and Billy West. He is a member of the Justice League.
Booster makes a cameo appearance in Legion of Super-Heroes. He is one of the janitors in the Superman museum, along with Skeets.
Booster Gold and Skeets appear in the Batman: The Brave and the Bold episode "Menace of the Conqueror Caveman!", voiced again by Tom Everett Scott and Billy West. In this episode, Booster discovers that his robot companion is kidnapped by Kru'll the Eternal. Booster is later saved by Skeets from super-powered versions of Kru'll's henchmen where Skeets releases own charge and reverses Kru'll's ray's effects. Booster and Skeets appear in "A Bat Divided" (without the lines for the latter), then in two-part "The Siege of Starro" (where Booster is among the few superheroes that wasn't controlled by the Starros) and in "Menace of the Madniks". |
1637_58 | Booster Gold appears in episode 46 of Mad. He joins the other superheroes in a musical number that asks Superman, Wonder Woman, and Batman why they are called "Super Friends". Booster states that the membership changes frequently and that "commitment is a sham".
Booster Gold appears in Robot Chicken DC Comics Special, alongside other members of the Justice League.
Booster Gold appears in Justice League: Action, voiced by Diedrich Bader. His robot companion Skeets has a Polaroid-style instant camera, which Booster uses on Batman in one episode.
Legends of Tomorrow'''s executive producers Marc Guggenheim and Phil Klemmer talked about bringing Booster Gold into the series. Rip Hunter's true name being Michael is a callback to Booster being his father. Also, some of Booster's character traits are mixed into that of Rip's. |
1637_59 | Live action
Booster Gold and Skeets appear in the Smallville episode "Booster", portrayed by Eric Martsolf and voiced by Ross Douglas respectively.
In November 2011, Syfy ordered a Booster Gold television series, developed by Greg Berlanti and Andrew Kreisberg. Kreisberg submitted a script in early June 2013. The project, however, never came to fruition.
Both fans and critics noted similarities between Krypton’s version of Adam Strange and Booster Gold, with many outlets considering the character an amalgamation of the two.https://wizardworld.com/wizard/who-is-adam-strange-explaining-kryptons-new-to-tv-character |
1637_60 | Film
Booster Gold is portrayed by Joe Bereta in the 2011 short film The Death and Return of Superman.
In May 2016, Zack Stentz was rumored to write a Booster Gold film with Greg Berlanti producing as well as possibly directing. Later in September, Berlanti stated the film did not have any "connective tissue" to the DC Extended Universe at that time. In March 2018, Greg Berlanti confirmed that the Booster Gold film is still in development despite months of inactivity and lack of news reports. The script has been turned in for the film and is pending to be greenlit by the studio, as of May 2019.
Booster Gold appears in Batman and Harley Quinn, voiced by Bruce Timm. Booster Gold answers Batman and Nightwing's call to the Watchtower for Justice League assistance, and Gold suggests several candidates, all of which are rejected by Nightwing. Booster then suggests he could help, which Batman and Nightwing both reject. |
1637_61 | Booster Gold makes a brief appearance in Teen Titans Go! To the Movies. |
1637_62 | Video games
Booster Gold appears as a "jump-in hero" in Batman: The Brave and the Bold – The Videogame, voiced again by Tom Everett Scott.
Booster Gold and Skeets appear in DC Universe Online, voiced by Tracy W. Bush and J. Shannon Weaver. Booster gives virtual tours of Metropolis and Gotham City and serves as a miniboss in duo mode of the H.I.V.E. Base Mission.
Booster Gold and Skeets appear in Scribblenauts Unmasked: A DC Comics Adventure.
Booster Gold appears as an unlockable playable character in Lego Batman 3: Beyond Gotham, voiced by Travis Willingham, along with Skeets voiced by Roger Craig Smith; the latter is shown with Booster when the player plays as him.
Booster Gold appears on a poster in Batman: Arkham Knight.
Booster Gold and Skeets appear in Lego DC Super-Villains, voiced again by Travis Willingham and Roger Craig Smith. Like in Beyond Gotham'', Booster appears as a playable character.
References |
1637_63 | External links
Booster Gold's secret origin at DC Comics.com
The Daily Planet: Remembering Booster Gold, Newsarama, August 16, 2006
Dan Jurgens on the death of Booster Gold, Newsarama, August 29, 2006
Toonopedia entry
Characters created by Dan Jurgens
1986 comics debuts
2007 comics debuts
Comics characters introduced in 1986
DC Comics male superheroes
DC Comics characters with superhuman strength
DC Comics titles
Fictional players of American football
Fictional janitors
Comics about time travel
Fictional twins
Time travelers |
1638_0 | Solid acid fuel cells (SAFCs) are a class of fuel cells characterized by the use of a solid acid material as the electrolyte. Similar to proton exchange membrane fuel cells and solid oxide fuel cells, they extract electricity from the electrochemical conversion of hydrogen- and oxygen-containing gases, leaving only water as a byproduct. Current SAFC systems use hydrogen gas obtained from a range of different fuels, such as industrial-grade propane and diesel. They operate at mid-range temperatures, from 200 to 300 °C.
Design
Solid acids are chemical intermediates between salts and acids, such as CsHSO4. Solid acids of interest for fuel cell applications are those whose chemistry is based on oxyanion groups (SO42-, PO43−, SeO42−, AsO43−) linked together by hydrogen bonds and charge-balanced by large cation species (Cs+, Rb+, NH4+, K+). |
1638_1 | At low temperatures, solid acids have an ordered molecular structure like most salts. At warmer temperatures (between 140 and 150 degrees Celsius for CsHSO4), some solid acids undergo a phase transition to become highly disordered "superprotonic" structures, which increases conductivity by several orders of magnitude. When used in fuel cells, this high conductivity allows for efficiencies of up to 50% on various fuels.
The first proof-of-concept SAFCs were developed in 2000 using cesium hydrogen sulfate (CsHSO4). However, fuel cells using acid sulfates as an electrolyte result in byproducts that severely degrade the fuel cell anode, which leads to diminished power output after only modest usage. |
1638_2 | Current SAFC systems use cesium dihydrogen phosphate (CsH2PO4) and have demonstrated lifetimes in the thousands of hours. When undergoing a superprotonic phase transition, CsH2PO4 experiences an increase in conductivity by four orders of magnitude. In 2005, it was shown that CsH2PO4 could stably undergo the superprotonic phase transition in a humid atmosphere at an "intermediate" temperature of 250 °C, making it an ideal solid acid electrolyte to use in a fuel cell. A humid environment in a fuel cell is necessary to prevent certain solid acids (such as CsH2PO4) from dehydration and dissociation into a salt and water vapor.
Electrode Reactions |
1638_3 | Hydrogen gas is channeled to the anode, where it is split into protons and electrons. Protons travel through the solid acid electrolyte to reach the Cathode, while electrons travel to the cathode through an external circuit, generating electricity. At the cathode, protons and electrons recombine along with oxygen to produce water that is then removed from the system.
Anode: H2 → 2H+ + 2e−
Cathode: ½O2 + 2H+ + 2e− → H2O
Overall: H2 + ½O2 → H2O
The operation of SAFCs at mid-range temperatures allows them to utilize materials that would otherwise be damaged at high temperatures, such as standard metal components and flexible polymers. These temperatures also make SAFCs tolerant to impurities in their hydrogen source of fuel, such as carbon monoxide or sulfur components. For example, SAFCs can utilize hydrogen gas extracted from propane, natural gas, diesel, and other hydrocarbons.
Fabrication and Production
Sossina Haile developed the first solid acid fuel cells in the 1990s. |
1638_4 | In 2005, SAFCs were fabricated with thin electrolyte membranes of 25 micrometer thickness, resulting in an eightfold increase in peak power densities compared to earlier models. Thin electrolyte membranes are necessary to minimize the voltage lost due to internal resistance within the membrane.
According to Suryaprakash et al. 2014, the ideal solid acid fuel cell anode is a "porous electrolyte nanostructure uniformly covered with a platinum thin film." This group used a method called spray drying to fabricate SAFCs, depositing CsH2PO4 solid acid electrolyte nanoparticles and creating porous, 3-dimensional interconnected nanostructures of the solid acid fuel cell electrolyte material CsH2PO4. |
1638_5 | Mechanical Stability
Compared to their high operating temperature counterparts such as high temperature protonic ceramic fuel cells or solid oxide fuel cells, solid acid fuel cells benefit from operating at low temperatures where plastic deformation and creep mechanisms are less likely to cause permanent damage to the cell materials. Permanent deformation occurs more readily at elevated temperatures because defects present within the material have sufficient energy to move and disrupt the original structure. Lower temperature operation also allows for the use of non-refractory materials which tends to decrease the cost of the SAFC. |
1638_6 | However, solid acid fuel cell electrolyte materials are still susceptible to mechanical degradation under normal operating conditions above their superprotonic phase transition temperatures due to the superplasticity enabled by this transition. For instance in the case of CsHSO4, a study has shown that the material can undergo strain rates as high as for an applied compressive stress in the range of several MPa. Since fuel cells often require pressures in this range to properly seal the device and prevent leaks, creep is likely to degrade the cells by creating a short circuiting path. The same study showed that the strain rate, as modeled using the standard steady-state creep equation , has a stress exponent of typically associated with a dislocation glide mechanism, and an activation energy of 1.02 eV. n is the stress exponent, Q is the creep activation energy, and A is a constant that depends on the creep mechanism. |
1638_7 | Creep resistance can be obtained by precipitate strengthening using a composite electrolyte whereby ceramic particles are introduced to prevent dislocation motion. For example, the strain rate of CsH2PO4 was reduced by a factor of 5 by mixing in SiO2 particles with a size of 2 microns, however resulting in a 20% decrease in protonic conductivity.
Other studies have looked at CsH2PO4/epoxy resin composites where micron size particles of CsH2PO4 are embedded in a cross-linked polymer matrix. A comparison between the flexural strength of an SiO2 composite versus an epoxy composite demonstrated that while the strengths themselves are similar, the flexibility of the epoxy composite is superior, a property which is essential in preventing electrolyte fracture during operation. The epoxy composite also shows comparable but slightly lower conductivities than the SiO2 composite when operating at temperatures below 200 °C. |
1638_8 | Applications
Because of their moderate temperature requirements and compatibility with several types of fuel, SAFCs can be utilized in remote locations where other types of fuel cells would be impractical. In particular, SAFC systems for remote oil and gas applications have been deployed to electrify wellheads and eliminate the use of pneumatic components, which vent methane and other potent greenhouse gases straight into the atmosphere. A smaller, portable SAFC system is in development for military applications that will run on standard logistic fuels, like marine diesel and JP8.
In 2014, a toilet that chemically transforms waste into water and fertilizer was developed using a combination of solar power and SAFCs.
References
Fuel cells |
1639_0 | USS Alfred A. Cunningham (DD-752), an , is the only ship of the United States Navy to be named for Alfred Austell Cunningham, a USMC officer and aviator.
Alfred A. Cunningham (DD-752) was laid down on 23 February 1944 at Staten Island, New York, by the Bethlehem Steel Co.; launched on 3 August 1944; sponsored by Mrs. Alfred A. Cunningham, the widow of Lieutenant Colonel Cunningham; and commissioned on 23 November 1944.
Service history
World War II
Following shakedown training out of Bermuda, Alfred A. Cunningham returned to New York on 17 January 1945 for post-shakedown availability. Proceeding to Norfolk soon thereafter, the destroyer spent the next three months operating in the Chesapeake Bay area as a training ship for prospective destroyer crews. Here the ship introduced hundreds of trainees to life on board a destroyer, engaging in gunnery exercises, damage control drills, and maneuvering practice. |
1639_1 | Following a brief availability for repairs and alterations at the Norfolk Navy Yard, Cunningham got underway on 7 May, and rendezvoused with the new heavy cruiser off Brown Shoals, Delaware Bay, and proceeded with that ship to Chesapeake Bay for gunnery exercises. The two warships then steamed to Guantánamo Bay, then Panama, transiting the canal on 18 May, and arrived at Pearl Harbor on 31 May. Over the next two weeks, Cunningham remained in Hawaiian waters, undergoing an availability alongside the and carrying out training.
On 13 June, the destroyer joined Task Group (TG) 12.4 and sailed for the western Pacific. A week later, while en route, Cunningham screened carriers launching air strikes on Japanese-held Wake Island. The group arrived at Leyte on 26 June. |
1639_2 | Cunningham got underway the following day for Okinawa, and while en route to her destination conducted a depth charge attack on what she evaluated as a "good" submarine contact, but with negative results. Shortly after arriving at Okinawa on 29 June, she served on radar picket duty off the island's southwest coast. From 1 July until the end of hostilities she served on patrol, escort, and screening duty in waters surrounding the Ryukyus. Following Japan's capitulation, Cunningham remained in the Far East, operating off the coast of China between the Yellow Sea and the South China Sea. She performed escort services and served on an antismuggling patrol between Korea and Japan. The destroyer returned to the United States on 28 March 1946, went into reserve at San Diego on 12 May 1947, and was decommissioned in August 1949. |
1639_3 | Korea
During the buildup of the fleet in the wake of the North Korean invasion of South Korea in late June 1950, Alfred A. Cunningham was recommissioned on 5 October 1950 and joined the Pacific Fleet. Following training exercises, the destroyer got underway for the western Pacific (WestPac) on 2 January 1951. Cunningham was involved in a variety of operations, principally serving with Task Force (TF) 77, the fast carrier task force, off the coast of Korea.
Early in this deployment, on 18 February 1951, the ship was released from her "Bird Dog" station (plane guard) with TF 77 to carry out a night shore bombardment mission on "targets of opportunity" near Tanchon, on the east coast of Korea. Cunningham arrived on station at 2130 and opened fire, conducting harassing and interdictory fire; her targets included railroad tracks, two grade crossings, a tunnel, and lights on the road leading south. After expending 90 rounds of 5-inch, the destroyer ceased fire at 0605 on the 19th. |
1639_4 | Returning to San Diego on 4 September 1951, Cunningham again sailed for the Far East in March 1952. As before, she steamed with the fast carrier task force off Korea and performed shore bombardment missions. On 19 September, the destroyer was operating in Task Element 95.22 (the "Songjin Element") to prevent the movement of trains along the railroad at that point by preventing clearance of the roadbed and repair during the day, and destroying trains at night. Patrolling some 6,000 yards off the beach at about 1340, Cunningham fired on enemy workers she had seen in the vicinity. A little over an hour later, detecting the workers at a tunnel, the destroyer stood in toward the shoreline, turning slowly to starboard to take a northeasterly course to fire on the enemy at the tunnel mouth. |
1639_5 | At that point, at least three enemy guns opened fire on the ship. The first salvo was a direct hit, on the main deck, starboard side; several pieces of shrapnel penetrated the shield of mount 51 and wounded three of the mount's crew. Two air bursts followed in quick succession, one on either side of the bridge. Within two minutes time, the North Korean guns had registered four more direct hits and at least seven air bursts near the ship. |
1639_6 | One shell penetrated into the forward fire room, destroying a forced-draft blower; shrapnel holed a nearby bulkhead. Another shell struck a depth charge on the forward K-gun, blowing the charge apart and scattering burning TNT as far aft as the fantail; shrapnel from this hit set another depth charge afire, and ruptured four others. The fourth hit on the starboard side, two feet below the main deck; shrapnel from this hit caused extensive damage to the motor whaleboat. The last shell to hit struck about two feet below the waterline, but did not penetrate. The air bursts near the bridge rendered the SG radar inoperative.
Immediately, one of the ship's 3-inch mounts opened up to return the shore battery's fire, expending both hoppers full (ten rounds); these rounds landed in the target area but did not slow the enemy's rate of fire. |
1639_7 | With Cunningham under fire, Lieutenant Frederick F. Palmer, USNR, the officer of the deck, sounded the general alarm, ordered the rudder shifted to left full, rang up the port engine back emergency full, starboard engine ahead flank, in order to come left and open the range.
Although mount 53 had reported a fire on the starboard K-guns, the blast from the guns of that mount and the nearby 3-inch mount, 34, prevented a repair party from approaching the blaze from that angle. Men from another damage control party got to the fire and battled the blaze, while as the ship sped to seaward, weaving but keeping at least one main battery mount bearing on the target guns at all times. |
1639_8 | As the ship opened the range to 9,000 yards and worked up to 26.5 knots, Ensign Charles E. Dennis, USNR; Chief Torpedoman William J. Bohrman; and Electrician's Mate 2nd Class Victor J. Leonard manhandled one burning depth charge over the side, performing this task at great personal risk while the fire on the K-guns was being brought under control. All three men were later recommended for the award of the Bronze Star.
Having suffered 13 men wounded, principally to shrapnel, Cunningham pulled out of range and stood down from general quarters, steering toward Yang Do Island to receive medical assistance from . After emergency repairs, Cunningham was able to continue her combat operations. Cunningham ultimately returned to the United States and reached her new home port, Long Beach, California, on 6 November. |
1639_9 | Cunningham operated in the southern California area through the first five months of 1953 before getting underway on 13 June for another WestPac deployment. During her five months in the Far East, Cunningham operated twice with TF 77. The first of these periods saw her escorting the heavy cruiser . On 29 and 30 July 1953, Cunningham participated, with Bremerton and other United States Navy ships, in the search and rescue effort to recover the crew of a Boeing RB-50 that had crashed in the Sea of Japan. The searching ships managed to recover only the co-pilot.
The destroyer also participated in intensive antisubmarine warfare (ASW) exercises with TG 96.7 and joined in operations near Taiwan with other ships of Destroyer Division (DesDiv) 131. She returned to Long Beach on 20 December 1953. |
1639_10 | A regular overhaul kept her at the Mare Island Naval Shipyard from February through April 1954. Then, after two months of training, Cunningham got underway for WestPac on 10 August. En route, she stopped at Pearl Harbor for gunnery and antisubmarine exercises and then continued on to Yokosuka, Japan. Cunningham joined TG 70.2 for maneuvers and division exercises and made two brief port visits to Manila. Next she operated with TF 72 as a part of a patrol in the Taiwan Strait. Cunningham then escorted to Hong Kong and on to Manila, where she spent the holiday season.
Cunningham continued her work as plane guard for Yorktown into 1955, and returned to Long Beach on 6 February. After a leave and upkeep period, she resumed operations off the California coast. On 11 May, the destroyer took part in Operation "WigWam." |
1639_11 | Following five months of preparation, Cunningham departed the west coast on 11 October, bound for Japan. She made fuel stops at Pearl Harbor and Midway en route to Yokosuka. Upon completion of voyage repairs, the destroyer joined TF 77 for three weeks of duty, broken once by a port call at Kobe, Japan. Cunningham spent the Christmas holidays at Yokosuka. |
1639_12 | 1956–1965
Antisubmarine exercises were her first assignment of 1956 before she proceeded, via Subic Bay, to join the Taiwan Strait patrol for a fortnight. Then the destroyer visited Hong Kong and stopped briefly in Yokosuka for repairs before sailing for home. After arriving at Long Beach on 31 March, she entered the San Francisco Naval Shipyard in May for an overhaul which was followed by two months of underway training out of San Diego. On 6 November, Alfred A. Cunningham got underway to escort Bremerton to Melbourne, Australia, where the ships participated in festivities surrounding the XVI Olympic Games. After 10 days in that port, the destroyer sailed for Yokosuka. |
1639_13 | In January 1957, Cunningham took part in exercises near Chinhae, Korea, with ships of the Republic of Korea Navy (ROK). She then joined TF 77 in the South China Sea for plane-guard duty. This work was followed by another stint with the Taiwan Strait patrol. Cunningham made stops at Subic Bay, Hong Kong, and Yokosuka before sailing for the United States.
She arrived at Long Beach on 12 May and devoted the next few months to air defense, hunter/killer operations, and shore bombardment exercises along the California coast. In December, the destroyer entered the Long Beach Naval Shipyard for an availability.
On 13 January 1958, Cunningham sailed for another Far East tour. Following stops at Pearl Harbor; Pago Pago, American Samoa; and Wellington, New Zealand, the destroyer arrived at Hobart, Tasmania, on 7 February. There, the members of her crew were graciously entertained by officials of the Royal Hobart Regatta. |
1639_14 | On 12 February, Cunningham got underway for Guam, where she received two weeks of repair work. The destroyer then shifted to Yokosuka, arriving on 1 April. During the following months, the ship took part in numerous exercises, escorting and screening and other warships. During the cruise, she visited Hong Kong; Subic Bay; and Buckner Bay, Okinawa, before arriving back at Long Beach on 21 July. In early September, she entered the Long Beach Naval Shipyard for overhaul. She left drydock in early December and spent the holidays in leave and upkeep.
The destroyer held refresher training during the first three months of 1959, departed Long Beach on 28 March, and steamed to Yokosuka. On 15 April, she left that port in company with to take part in Exercise "Sea Turtle", off the coast of Korea. |
1639_15 | Late in May, Cunningham assisted in Exercise "Granite Creek." After a visit to Hong Kong, she returned to Yokosuka for an availability to prepare for the voyage home where she arrived on 27 August. The ship spent the rest of the year participating in gunnery exercises, ASW exercises, and acting as a school ship for Fleet Training Group, Pacific.
In January 1960, Cunningham, took part in STRIKEX 30–60. On 1 February, she became a unit of DesDiv 132 and was assigned to TG 14.7, a hunter/killer group. From 1 February to 7 May, the destroyer trained with that unit in the eastern Pacific. |
1639_16 | Leaving Long Beach on 17 May with Destroyer Squadron 13 and , Cunningham proceeded to Pearl Harbor where she arrived on 23 May. The force remained in Hawaiian waters conducting ASW exercises until their departure on 5 July. The destroyer reached Kobe, Japan, on 16 July and began an upkeep period. She next sailed for ASW operations in the area off Okinawa, conducting these until 29 August, when the ship entered Subic Bay. Except for two brief visits to Hong Kong, she remained in the Subic Bay area until 3 December, when she sailed for Yokosuka. After a brief upkeep period, the ship left on a return voyage to the west coast, arriving at Long Beach on 18 December. |
1639_17 | In late January 1961, the ship entered the Long Beach Naval Shipyard for a fleet rehabilitation and modernization (FRAM) overhaul. She held sea trials in July and August and resumed operations on 22 September. On 9 October, she sailed for Seattle. The ship conducted sound trials in Puget Sound from 12 to 20 October and then returned to Long Beach, whence she held refresher training in San Diego waters with the fleet training group from 30 October through 8 December. |
1639_18 | Throughout the first five months of 1962, Cunningham alternated periods at sea with upkeep in her home port. On 7 June, she departed the west coast for a six-month WestPac cruise. Upon her arrival at Pearl Harbor on 13 June, the destroyer conducted ASW operations off Oahu before proceeding on to Yokosuka. In August, the destroyer took part in combined operations with the Japanese Maritime Self-Defense Force and made port calls at Kure, Kobe, and Sasebo, before returning to Yokosuka on 31 October. She got underway again on 3 November for patrol duty in the Strait of Tsushima and, after completing this task on 14 November, sailed via Hong Kong to Subic Bay. On 2 December, the ship participated in a weapons demonstration, then began her voyage back to the United States, arriving at Long Beach on 21 December. |
1639_19 | The destroyer spent the first three months of 1963 in local operations, including its participation in the filming of the Warner Brothers family film The Incredible Mr. Limpet, starring Don Knotts and Carole Cook.
On 1 April, she became a part of DesDiv 232 and spent April and May in availability at San Diego. Putting to sea in early June, she began a series of intensive ASW training exercises. In August, Cunningham sailed north with Carrier Division 19 on a goodwill and training cruise to Seattle, and the Alaskan ports of Skagway and Dutch Harbor. After a month back at Long Beach, the destroyer got underway for Pearl Harbor and several weeks of ASW operations. She returned to Long Beach in December for leave and upkeep. |
1639_20 | On 20 February 1964, the ship left Long Beach in company with the other ships of DesDiv 232 for a six-month WestPac tour. Reaching Pearl Harbor on 28 February, Cunningham operated locally until sailing for the Far East on 23 March. Soon after leaving Hawaii, the destroyer took part in Operation "Crazy Horse", off the coast of Okinawa. On 7 April, the ship began a week of upkeep in Yokosuka. Other ports of call during this deployment included Kure, Sasebo, and Hong Kong. From 9 June to 4 July, the ship operated out of Kaohsiung, Taiwan, on the Taiwan Strait patrol. Alfred A. Cunningham. then steamed to the Sea of Japan for Operation "Crossed Tee", a joint operation with ships of the Japanese Maritime Self-Defense Force. Then, following stops at Hakodate and Yokosuka, Japan, the destroyer arrived back in Long Beach on 11 August for leave, upkeep, and local operations. On 15 November, she entered the Long Beach Naval Shipyard for an overhaul. |
1639_21 | Upon completion of this renewal effort on 15 March 1965, the ship departed Long Beach for seven weeks of refresher training in San Diego waters. Early in June, she embarked 30 midshipmen for a two-week training cruise in the Puget Sound area. On 12 August, Cunningham got underway for her 13th WestPac cruise. The ship stopped at Pearl Harbor for a two-week ASW operation held southwest of Molokai. A fortnight's upkeep at the Pearl Harbor Naval Shipyard ensued before the destroyer continued on to Yokosuka. |
1639_22 | Vietnam
In October, Alfred A. Cunningham joined TF 77 for patrol and surveillance duties off the coast of North Vietnam and in the Gulf of Tonkin. Following a week of recreation in Hong Kong, the destroyer got underway on 10 November to steam to Kaohsiung, and operated out of that port on patrol in the Taiwan Strait. On 5 December, she proceeded through the Tsushima Strait into the Sea of Japan for a joint ASW exercise with ships of the Republic of Korea (ROK) Navy before returning to Sasebo for the Christmas holidays.
In January 1966, Cunningham again patrolled off the Vietnamese coast and provided naval gunfire support in the area of Quang Ngai, South Vietnam. The final weeks of her patrol were spent on radar picket station south of Hainan Island. After a brief respite at Yokosuka, the ship sailed back to the United States, reaching Long Beach on 3 March. |
1639_23 | For the next seven months, she held numerous training operations and availability periods but was underway west again on 4 November, bound for Oahu on the first leg of her deployment. Once in Hawaiian waters, the destroyer held exercises with combined American and Canadian forces and then continued on to Yokosuka for a brief upkeep period before sailing to the Taiwan Strait for patrol duty. |
1639_24 | Cunningham proceeded to the Gulf of Tonkin early in January 1967 to serve as a plane guard for to assist in recovering downed aviators. In February, the ship was assigned to Operation "Sea Dragon", a logistics interdiction effort in the coastal waters of North Vietnam, and continued this duty into April. Another stint of service in the Taiwan Strait followed, lasting from 6 to 12 April. On the 28th of that month, the destroyer sailed for home where she spent one and a half months preparing for an overhaul. She entered the Long Beach Naval Shipyard on 14 July and underwent extensive repairs and alterations. Upon completion of the yard work in November, Cunningham spent a month in independent steaming and undergoing tender availability. |
1639_25 | The destroyer began 1968 with refresher training in San Diego and then was deployed once more to southeast Asian waters. She repeated her former pattern of plane guard and search and rescue operations off the Vietnamese coast. On 23 October, the ship set course for home, made fueling stops at Midway and Pearl Harbor, and arrived back in Long Beach on 9 November.
On 2 January 1969, Cunningham took part in Operation "Quickstart", and plane guarded for . The destroyer maintained a full schedule of exercises and availability periods until 1 July, when a shaft bearing casualty caused her to enter the Todd Shipyard at San Pedro, California, for repairs. |
1639_26 | Emerging from drydock on 6 September, Cunningham began an intensive one-month period of preparations for deployment. The destroyer left Long Beach in early October and sailed to Pearl Harbor for refueling; she then conducted port calls at Yokosuka, Buckner Bay, and Subic Bay. On 14 November, the destroyer stood out of Subic Bay for duty off Vietnam. From 19 November until 4 December, she supported forces ashore with fire from her 5-inch guns. On 5 December, she joined Hancock on "Yankee Station" and remained there until the 20th when she headed for Sasebo for the holidays. |
1639_27 | Cunningham began the year of 1970 with ASW and flight operations in Okinawan waters which were followed by a five-day visit to Hong Kong. On 17 January, she sailed to join Constellation on "Yankee Station" and remained on this assignment until 21 February when the ship paid a brief visit to Kaohsiung. The destroyer sailed on 21 March to return to Long Beach. Upon her arrival on 9 April, she began a leave and upkeep period and then resumed operations in the southern California area in May. She spent the early summer months in training exercises and a midshipman training cruise, sailing from Long Beach to San Francisco, Victoria (Canada), Pearl Harbor, and then back to Long Beach. On 7 August, slated for inactivation, Cunningham unloaded all her ammunition at Seal Beach, California (USA). |
1639_28 | Fate and awards
Decommissioned on 24 February 1971, Alfred A. Cunningham was placed in reserve. Her name was struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 1 February 1974. Utilized as a target for weapons tests off the coast of Southern California, she was sunk after being hit with five laser-guided bombs on 12 October 1979.
Cunningham earned one battle star for World War II service, six for Korea, and seven for Vietnam.
References
External links
navsource.org: USS Alfred A. Cunningham
hazegray.org: USS Alfred A. Cunningham
DestroyersOnLine.com: USS Alfred A. Cunningham
FRAM: Destroyers including USS Alfred A. Cunningham
World War II destroyers of the United States
Cold War destroyers of the United States
Korean War destroyers of the United States
Vietnam War destroyers of the United States
Ships built in Staten Island
1944 ships
Allen M. Sumner-class destroyers of the United States Navy
United States Navy Georgia-related ships
Ships sunk as targets
Maritime incidents in 1979 |
1640_0 | New York, often called New York City (NYC) to distinguish it from the state of New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With a 2020 population of 8,804,190 distributed over , New York City is also the most densely populated major city in the United States. Located at the southern tip of the state of New York, the city is the center of the New York metropolitan area, the largest metropolitan area in the world by urban area. With over 20.1 million people in its metropolitan statistical area and 23.5 million in its combined statistical area as of 2020, New York is one of the world's most populous megacities. New York City has been described as the cultural, financial, and media capital of the world, significantly influencing commerce, entertainment, research, technology, education, politics, tourism, dining, art, fashion, and sports, and is the most photographed city in the world. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for |
1640_1 | international diplomacy, and has sometimes been called the capital of the world. |
1640_2 | Situated on one of the world's largest natural harbors, New York City is composed of five boroughs, each of which is coextensive with a respective county of the state of New York. The five boroughs—Brooklyn (Kings County), Queens (Queens County), Manhattan (New York County), the Bronx (Bronx County), and Staten Island (Richmond County)—were created when local governments were consolidated into a single municipal entity in 1898. The city and its metropolitan area constitute the premier gateway for legal immigration to the United States. As many as 800 languages are spoken in New York, making it the most linguistically diverse city in the world. New York is home to more than 3.2 million residents born outside the United States, the largest foreign-born population of any city in the world as of 2016. , the New York metropolitan area is estimated to produce a gross metropolitan product (GMP) of nearly $1.8 trillion, ranking it first in the United States. If the New York metropolitan area |
1640_3 | were a sovereign state, it would have the eighth-largest economy in the world. New York is home to the second highest number of billionaires of any city in the world. |
1640_4 | New York City traces its origins to a trading post founded on the southern tip of Manhattan Island by Dutch colonists in approximately 1624. The settlement was named New Amsterdam () in 1626 and was chartered as a city in 1653. The city came under English control in 1664 and was renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, the Duke of York. The city was regained by the Dutch in July 1673 and was renamed New Orange for one year and three months; the city has been continuously named New York since November 1674. New York City was the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790, and has been the largest U.S. city since 1790. The Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the U.S. by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and is a symbol of the U.S. and its ideals of liberty and peace. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a global node of creativity, entrepreneurship, and environmental sustainability, and |
1640_5 | as a symbol of freedom and cultural diversity. In 2019, New York was voted the greatest city in the world per a survey of over 30,000 people from 48 cities worldwide, citing its cultural diversity. |
1640_6 | Many districts and monuments in New York City are major landmarks, including three of the world's ten most visited tourist attractions in 2013. A record 66.6 million tourists visited New York City in 2019. Times Square is the brightly illuminated hub of the Broadway Theater District, one of the world's busiest pedestrian intersections, and a major center of the world's entertainment industry. Many of the city's landmarks, skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world, as is the city's fast pace, spawning the term New York minute. The Empire State Building has become the global standard of reference to describe the height and length of other structures. Manhattan's real estate market is among the most expensive in the world. Providing continuous 24/7 service and contributing to the nickname The City That Never Sleeps, the New York City Subway is the largest single-operator rapid transit system worldwide, with rail stations. The city has over 120 colleges and universities, |
1640_7 | including Columbia University, New York University, Rockefeller University, and the City University of New York system, which is the largest urban public university system in the United States. Anchored by Wall Street in the Financial District of Lower Manhattan, New York City has been called both the world's leading financial center and the most financially powerful city in the world, and is home to the world's two largest stock exchanges by total market capitalization, the New York Stock Exchange and Nasdaq. |
1640_8 | Etymology
In 1664, the city was named in honor of the Duke of York, who would become King James II of England. James's elder brother, King Charles II, appointed the Duke proprietor of the former territory of New Netherland, including the city of New Amsterdam, when England seized it from the Dutch.
History
Early history
In the precolonial era, the area of present-day New York City was inhabited by Algonquian Native Americans, including the Lenape. Their homeland, known as Lenapehoking, included Staten Island, Manhattan, the Bronx, the western portion of Long Island (including the areas that would later become the boroughs of Brooklyn and Queens), and the Lower Hudson Valley. |
1640_9 | The first documented visit into New York Harbor by a European was in 1524 by Italian Giovanni da Verrazzano, an explorer from Florence in the service of the French crown. He claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême (New Angoulême). A Spanish expedition, led by the Portuguese captain Estêvão Gomes sailing for Emperor Charles V, arrived in New York Harbor in January 1525 and charted the mouth of the Hudson River, which he named Río de San Antonio (Saint Anthony's River). The Padrón Real of 1527, the first scientific map to show the East Coast of North America continuously, was informed by Gomes' expedition and labeled the northeastern United States as Tierra de Esteban Gómez in his honor. |
1640_10 | In 1609, the English explorer Henry Hudson rediscovered New York Harbor while searching for the Northwest Passage to the Orient for the Dutch East India Company. He proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River (now the Hudson River), named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange. Hudson's first mate described the harbor as "a very good Harbour for all windes" and the river as "a mile broad" and "full of fish". Hudson sailed roughly north, past the site of the present-day New York State capital city of Albany, in the belief that it might be an oceanic tributary before the river became too shallow to continue. He made a ten-day exploration of the area and claimed the region for the Dutch East India Company. In 1614, the area between Cape Cod and Delaware Bay was claimed by the Netherlands and called Nieuw-Nederland (New Netherland). |
1640_11 | The first non–Native American inhabitant of what would eventually become New York City was Juan Rodriguez (transliterated to Dutch as Jan Rodrigues), a merchant from Santo Domingo. Born in Santo Domingo of Portuguese and African descent, he arrived in Manhattan during the winter of 1613–14, trapping for pelts and trading with the local population as a representative of the Dutch. Broadway, from 159th Street to 218th Street in Upper Manhattan, is named Juan Rodriguez Way in his honor.
Dutch rule |
1640_12 | A permanent European presence near New York Harbor began in 1624—making New York the 12th oldest continuously occupied European-established settlement in the continental United States—with the founding of a Dutch fur trading settlement on Governors Island. In 1625, construction was started on a citadel and Fort Amsterdam, later called Nieuw Amsterdam (New Amsterdam), on present-day Manhattan Island. The colony of New Amsterdam was centered on what would later be known as Lower Manhattan. It extended from the lower tip of Manhattan to modern day Wall Street, where a 12-foot wooden stockade was built in 1653 to protect against Native American and British raids. In 1626, the Dutch colonial Director-General Peter Minuit, acting as charged by the Dutch West India Company, purchased the island of Manhattan from the Canarsie, a small Lenape band, for "the value of 60 guilders" (about $900 in 2018). A disproved legend claims that Manhattan was purchased for $24 worth of glass beads. |
1640_13 | Following the purchase, New Amsterdam grew slowly. To attract settlers, the Dutch instituted the patroon system in 1628, whereby wealthy Dutchmen (patroons, or patrons) who brought 50 colonists to New Netherland would be awarded swaths of land, along with local political autonomy and rights to participate in the lucrative fur trade. This program had little success.
Since 1621, the Dutch West India Company had operated as a monopoly in New Netherland, on authority granted by the Dutch States General. In 1639–1640, in an effort to bolster economic growth, the Dutch West India Company relinquished its monopoly over the fur trade, leading to growth in the production and trade of food, timber, tobacco, and slaves (particularly with the Dutch West Indies). |
1640_14 | In 1647, Peter Stuyvesant began his tenure as the last Director-General of New Netherland. During his tenure, the population of New Netherland grew from 2,000 to 8,000. Stuyvesant has been credited with improving law and order in the colony; however, he also earned a reputation as a despotic leader. He instituted regulations on liquor sales, attempted to assert control over the Dutch Reformed Church, and blocked other religious groups (including Quakers, Jews, and Lutherans) from establishing houses of worship. The Dutch West India Company would eventually attempt to ease tensions between Stuyvesant and residents of New Amsterdam.
English rule |
1640_15 | In 1664, unable to summon any significant resistance, Stuyvesant surrendered New Amsterdam to English troops, led by Colonel Richard Nicolls, without bloodshed. The terms of the surrender permitted Dutch residents to remain in the colony and allowed for religious freedom. In 1667, during negotiations leading to the Treaty of Breda after the Second Anglo-Dutch War, the Dutch decided to keep the nascent plantation colony of what is now Suriname (on the northern South America coast) they had gained from the English; and in return, the English kept New Amsterdam. The fledgling settlement was promptly renamed "New York" after the Duke of York (the future King James II and VII), who would eventually be deposed in the Glorious Revolution. After the founding, the duke gave part of the colony to proprietors George Carteret and John Berkeley. Fort Orange, north on the Hudson River, was renamed Albany after James's Scottish title. The transfer was confirmed in 1667 by the Treaty of Breda, which |
1640_16 | concluded the Second Anglo-Dutch War. |
1640_17 | On August 24, 1673, during the Third Anglo-Dutch War, Dutch captain Anthony Colve seized the colony of New York from the English at the behest of Cornelis Evertsen the Youngest and rechristened it "New Orange" after William III, the Prince of Orange. The Dutch would soon return the island to England under the Treaty of Westminster of November 1674.
Several intertribal wars among the Native Americans and some epidemics brought on by contact with the Europeans caused sizeable population losses for the Lenape between the years 1660 and 1670. By 1700, the Lenape population had diminished to 200. New York experienced several yellow fever epidemics in the 18th century, losing ten percent of its population to the disease in 1702 alone.
Province of New York |
1640_18 | New York grew in importance as a trading port while as a part of the colony of New York in the early 1700s. It also became a center of slavery, with 42% of households holding slaves by 1730, the highest percentage outside Charleston, South Carolina. Most slaveholders held a few or several domestic slaves, but others hired them out to work at labor. Slavery became integrally tied to New York's economy through the labor of slaves throughout the port, and the banks and shipping tied to the American South. Discovery of the African Burying Ground in the 1990s, during construction of a new federal courthouse near Foley Square, revealed that tens of thousands of Africans had been buried in the area in the colonial period. |
1640_19 | The 1735 trial and acquittal in Manhattan of John Peter Zenger, who had been accused of seditious libel after criticizing colonial governor William Cosby, helped to establish the freedom of the press in North America. In 1754, Columbia University was founded under charter by King George II as King's College in Lower Manhattan. |
1640_20 | American Revolution
The Stamp Act Congress met in New York in October 1765, as the Sons of Liberty, organized in the city, skirmished over the next ten years with British troops stationed there. The Battle of Long Island, the largest battle of the American Revolutionary War, was fought in August 1776 within the modern-day borough of Brooklyn. After the battle, in which the Americans were defeated, the British made the city their military and political base of operations in North America. The city was a haven for Loyalist refugees and escaped slaves who joined the British lines for freedom newly promised by the Crown for all fighters. As many as 10,000 escaped slaves crowded into the city during the British occupation. When the British forces evacuated at the close of the war in 1783, they transported 3,000 freedmen for resettlement in Nova Scotia. They resettled other freedmen in England and the Caribbean. |
1640_21 | The only attempt at a peaceful solution to the war took place at the Conference House on Staten Island between American delegates, including Benjamin Franklin, and British general Lord Howe on September 11, 1776. Shortly after the British occupation began, the Great Fire of New York occurred, a large conflagration on the West Side of Lower Manhattan, which destroyed about a quarter of the buildings in the city, including Trinity Church. |
1640_22 | In 1785, the assembly of the Congress of the Confederation made New York City the national capital shortly after the war. New York was the last capital of the U.S. under the Articles of Confederation and the first capital under the Constitution of the United States. New York City as the U.S. capital hosted several events of national scope in 1789—the first President of the United States, George Washington, was inaugurated; the first United States Congress and the Supreme Court of the United States each assembled for the first time; and the United States Bill of Rights was drafted, all at Federal Hall on Wall Street. By 1790, New York had surpassed Philadelphia to become the largest city in the United States, but by the end of that year, pursuant to the Residence Act, the national capital was moved to Philadelphia. |
1640_23 | Nineteenth century |
1640_24 | Over the course of the nineteenth century, New York City's population grew from 60,000 to 3.43 million. Under New York State's abolition act of 1799, children of slave mothers were to be eventually liberated but to be held in indentured servitude until their mid-to-late twenties. Together with slaves freed by their masters after the Revolutionary War and escaped slaves, a significant free-Black population gradually developed in Manhattan. Under such influential United States founders as Alexander Hamilton and John Jay, the New York Manumission Society worked for abolition and established the African Free School to educate Black children. It was not until 1827 that slavery was completely abolished in the state, and free Blacks struggled afterward with discrimination. New York interracial abolitionist activism continued; among its leaders were graduates of the African Free School. New York city's population jumped from 123,706 in 1820 to 312,710 by 1840, 16,000 of whom were Black. |
1640_25 | In the 19th century, the city was transformed by both commercial and residential development relating to its status as a national and international trading center, as well as by European immigration, respectively. The city adopted the Commissioners' Plan of 1811, which expanded the city street grid to encompass almost all of Manhattan. The 1825 completion of the Erie Canal through central New York connected the Atlantic port to the agricultural markets and commodities of the North American interior via the Hudson River and the Great Lakes. Local politics became dominated by Tammany Hall, a political machine supported by Irish and German immigrants. |
1640_26 | Several prominent American literary figures lived in New York during the 1830s and 1840s, including William Cullen Bryant, Washington Irving, Herman Melville, Rufus Wilmot Griswold, John Keese, Nathaniel Parker Willis, and Edgar Allan Poe. Public-minded members of the contemporaneous business elite lobbied for the establishment of Central Park, which in 1857 became the first landscaped park in an American city.
The Great Irish Famine brought a large influx of Irish immigrants; more than 200,000 were living in New York by 1860, upwards of a quarter of the city's population. There was also extensive immigration from the German provinces, where revolutions had disrupted societies, and Germans comprised another 25% of New York's population by 1860. |
1640_27 | Democratic Party candidates were consistently elected to local office, increasing the city's ties to the South and its dominant party. In 1861, Mayor Fernando Wood called upon the aldermen to declare independence from Albany and the United States after the South seceded, but his proposal was not acted on. Anger at new military conscription laws during the American Civil War (1861–1865), which spared wealthier men who could afford to pay a $300 () commutation fee to hire a substitute, led to the Draft Riots of 1863, whose most visible participants were ethnic Irish working class. |
1640_28 | The draft riots deteriorated into attacks on New York's elite, followed by attacks on Black New Yorkers and their property after fierce competition for a decade between Irish immigrants and Black people for work. Rioters burned the Colored Orphan Asylum to the ground, with more than 200 children escaping harm due to efforts of the New York Police Department, which was mainly made up of Irish immigrants. At least 120 people were killed. Eleven Black men were lynched over five days, and the riots forced hundreds of Blacks to flee the city for Williamsburg, Brooklyn, and New Jersey. The Black population in Manhattan fell below 10,000 by 1865, which it had last been in 1820. The White working class had established dominance. Violence by longshoremen against Black men was especially fierce in the docks area. It was one of the worst incidents of civil unrest in American history.
Modern history |
1640_29 | In 1898, the modern City of New York was formed with the consolidation of Brooklyn (until then a separate city), the County of New York (which then included parts of the Bronx), the County of Richmond, and the western portion of the County of Queens. The opening of the subway in 1904, first built as separate private systems, helped bind the new city together. Throughout the first half of the 20th century, the city became a world center for industry, commerce, and communication.
In 1904, the steamship General Slocum caught fire in the East River, killing 1,021 people on board. In 1911, the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire, the city's worst industrial disaster, took the lives of 146 garment workers and spurred the growth of the International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union and major improvements in factory safety standards. |
1640_30 | New York's non-White population was 36,620 in 1890. New York City was a prime destination in the early twentieth century for African Americans during the Great Migration from the American South, and by 1916, New York City had become home to the largest urban African diaspora in North America. The Harlem Renaissance of literary and cultural life flourished during the era of Prohibition. The larger economic boom generated construction of skyscrapers competing in height and creating an identifiable skyline.
New York became the most populous urbanized area in the world in the early 1920s, overtaking London. The metropolitan area surpassed the 10 million mark in the early 1930s, becoming the first megacity in human history. The difficult years of the Great Depression saw the election of reformer Fiorello La Guardia as mayor and the fall of Tammany Hall after eighty years of political dominance. |
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