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1755_63 | Emerging developments in artificial intelligence look likely to propel these changes into a new phase of social transformation, whose outlines at present remain hazy, but which look certain to be quite profound. Supercomputers are becoming more and more powerful in terms of their capacity to handle immense amounts of data while quantum computers, with even greater processing capacity, loom on the horizon. At the same time, deep learning—artificial neural networks capable of innovative thinking—is fast advancing. A world-wide debate is going on about how far artificial intelligence can match, or even surpass, human intellectual capabilities. Artificial intelligence and geopolitics, Giddens says, are converging all over again "as the circle of change comes back to its point of origin". In the meantime, China is pouring resources into the further development of artificial intelligence and currently possesses the world's most advanced supercomputer. |
1755_64 | Giddens was a member of the House of Lords Select Committee on artificial intelligence which reported in April 2018. The committee put forward a variety of suggested reforms to apply not only in the United Kingdom, but potentially much more widely as well. These should take place within a common ethical framework to guide intervention on the part of government and of the digital corporations themselves. The power of the digital mega-corporations must be curtailed and subjected to democratic governance, challenging and problematic though such an endeavour is. Artificial intelligence should be developed for the common good. It should follow principles of transparency and fairness and never be allocated the autonomous capability to harm human actors. The major nations and transnational agencies should work towards ensuring that such principles are incorporated into their own codes and practices and applied on a transnational level. The worry is that an artificial intelligence arms race |
1755_65 | would develop as countries jostle to take the lead both in artificial intelligence generally and in its application to weaponry of diverse sorts. In a much-publicised speech given in 2017, Russian President Vladimir Putin observed of advances in artificial intelligence that "whoever becomes the leader in this sphere will become the ruler of the world". If there is a jostling for advantage among the major powers, concerns of ethics and safety may fall by the wayside in the scramble for advantage, adding to the stresses and strains already visible in the international order. |
1755_66 | Honours
Giddens was appointed to a life peerage on 16 June 2004 as Baron Giddens, of Southgate in the London Borough of Enfield and sits in the House of Lords for the Labour Party.
He was elected a member of the Academia Europaea in 1993. He is also a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences.
In 1999, he was made a Grand Cross of the Order of Prince Henry the Navigator by the Portuguese government.
Giddens received the Prince of Asturias Award for Social Sciences in 2002.
In June 2020 it was announced that Giddens had been awarded the Arne Naess Chair and Prize at the University of Oslo, Norway, in recognition of his contributions to the study of environmental issues and climate change. Previous holders of the chair include James Lovelock, David Sloan Wilson and Eva Joly. |
1755_67 | He also holds over 15 honorary degrees from various universities, including recently honorary degrees from Jagiellonian University (2015), the University of South Australia (2016), Goldsmiths, University of London (2016) and Lingnan University (2017).
Select bibliography
Giddens is the author of over 34 books and 200 articles. This is a selection of some of the most important of his works: |
1755_68 | Giddens, Anthony (1971) Capitalism and Modern Social Theory: An Analysis of the writings of Marx, Durkheim and Max Weber. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Giddens, Anthony (1973) The Class Structure of the Advanced Societies. London: Hutchinson.
Giddens, Anthony (1976) Functionalism: apres la lutte, Social Research, 43, 325–366.
Giddens, Anthony (1976) New Rules of Sociological Method: a Positive Critique of interpretative Sociologies. London: Hutchinson.
Giddens, Anthony (1977) Studies in Social and Political Theory. London: Hutchinson.
Giddens, Anthony (1978) Durkheim. London: Fontana Modern Masters.
Giddens, Anthony (1979) Central problems in Social Theory: Action, Structure and Contradiction in Social Analysis. London: Macmillan.
Giddens, Anthony (1981) A Contemporary Critique of Historical Materialism. Vol. 1. Power, Property and the State. London: Macmillan.
Giddens, Anthony (1982) Sociology: A Brief but Critical Introduction. London: Macmillan. |
1755_69 | Giddens, Anthony (1982) Profiles and Critiques in Social Theory. London: Macmillan.
Giddens, Anthony; Mackenzie, Gavin (eds.) (1982) Social Class and the Division of Labour: Essays in Honour of Ilya Neustadt. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Giddens, Anthony (1984) The Constitution of Society. Outline of the Theory of Structuration. Cambridge: Polity.
Giddens, Anthony (1985) A Contemporary Critique of Historical Materialism. Vol. 2. The Nation-State and Violence. Cambridge: Polity.
Giddens, Anthony (1990) The Consequences of Modernity. Cambridge: Polity.
Giddens, Anthony (1991) Modernity and Self-Identity: Self and Society in the Late Modern Age. Cambridge: Polity.
Giddens, Anthony (1992) The Transformation of Intimacy: Sexuality, Love and Eroticism in Modern Societies. Cambridge: Polity.
Beck, Ulrich; Giddens, Anthony; Lash, Scott (1994) Reflexive Modernization: Politics, Tradition and Aesthetics in the Modern Social Order. Cambridge: Polity. |
1755_70 | Giddens, Anthony (1994) Beyond Left and Right — the Future of Radical Politics. Cambridge: Polity.
Giddens, Anthony (1995) Politics, Sociology and Social Theory: Encounters with Classical and Contemporary Social Thought. Cambridge: Polity.
Giddens, Anthony (1996) In Defence of Sociology. Cambridge: Polity.
Giddens, Anthony (1996) Durkheim on Politics and the State. Cambridge: Polity.
Giddens, Anthony (1998) The Third Way. The Renewal of Social Democracy. Cambridge: Polity.
Giddens, Anthony (1999) Runaway World: How Globalization is Reshaping Our Lives. London: Profile.
Hutton, Will; Giddens, Anthony (eds.) (2000) On The Edge: Living with Global Capitalism. London: Vintage.
Giddens, Anthony (2000) The Third Way and Its Critics. Cambridge: Polity.
Giddens, Anthony (2000) Runaway World. London: Routledge.
Giddens, Anthony (ed.) (2001) The Global Third Way Debate. Cambridge: Polity.
Giddens, Anthony (2002) Where Now for New Labour? Cambridge: Polity (publisher). |
1755_71 | Giddens, Anthony (ed.) (2003) The Progressive Manifesto. New Ideas for the Centre-Left. Cambridge: Polity.
Giddens, Anthony (ed.) (2005) The New Egalitarianism Cambridge: Polity.
Giddens, Anthony (2006) Sociology (Fifth Edition). Cambridge: Polity.
Giddens, Anthony (2007) Europe In The Global Age. Cambridge: Polity
Giddens, Anthony (2007) Over to You, Mr Brown - How Labour Can Win Again. Cambridge: Polity.
Giddens, Anthony (2009) The Politics of Climate Change. Cambridge: Polity
Giddens, Anthony (2009) Sociology (Sixth Edition). Cambridge, Policy Network: Polity.
Giddens, Anthony; Duneier, Mitchell; Appelbaum, Richard P.; Carr, Deborah (2009) Introduction to Sociology (Seventh Edition). Cambridge: Polity.
Giddens, Anthony; Duneier, Mitchell; Appelbaum, Richard P.; Carr, Deborah (2011) Introduction to Sociology (Eighth Edition). New York: W. W. Norton & Company. |
1755_72 | Giddens, Anthony; Duneier, Mitchell; Appelbaum, Richard P.; Carr, Deborah (2013) Introduction to Sociology (Ninth Edition). New York: W. W. Norton & Company.
Giddens, Anthony; Duneier, Mitchell; Appelbaum, Richard P.; Carr, Deborah (2016) Introduction to Sociology (Tenth Edition). New York: W. W. Norton & Company.
Giddens, Anthony; Duneier, Mitchell; Appelbaum, Richard P.; Carr, Deborah (2018) Introduction to Sociology (Eleventh Edition). New York: W. W. Norton & Company.
Giddens, Anthony; Duneier, Mitchell; Appelbaum, Richard P.; Carr, Deborah (2021) Introduction to Sociology (Twelfth Edition). New York: W. W. Norton & Company. |
1755_73 | See also
Modalities (sociology)
Risk society
References
Further reading
Bryant, Christopher G. A.; Jary, David (2001). The Contemporary Giddens: Social Theory in a Globalizing Age. Palgrave Macmillan. .
Held, David; Thompson, John B. (1989). Social Theory of Modern Societies: Anthony Giddens and His Critics. Cambridge University Press. .
Kaspersen, Lars Bo (2000). Anthony Giddens: An Introduction to a Social Theorist. Blackwell.
Giddens, Anthony; Pierson, Christopher (1999). Conversations with Anthony Giddens. Stanford University Press. . A starting-point in which Giddens explains his work and the sociological principles which underpin it in clear, elegant language.
External links
Current LSE profile
Giddens archived LSE page
Social Democracy Observatory
Selection of Giddens quotes |
1755_74 | Selected interviews
(1 May 2007).
BBC Interview with Giddens. 1999 BBC Reith Lectures interview with Giddens on the topic of "The Runaway World" and reflections on globalisation.
"The Second Globalization Debate: A Talk With Anthony Giddens". A video is also available.
Giddens in conversation on the BBC World Service discussion show The Forum (audio). "On Climate Change" (audio).
Videos
"The Great Debate: What is radical politics today?". December 2008 discussion with Will Hutton and Jonathan Pugh. |
1755_75 | 1938 births
Living people
People from Edmonton, London
English sociologists
Medical sociologists
Anthony (Baron) Giddens
Radical centrist writers
Alumni of the University of Hull
Alumni of King's College, Cambridge
Academics of the University of Leicester
Fellows of King's College, Cambridge
Academics of the London School of Economics
Scholars of nationalism
Foreign Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences
Writers about globalization
Modernity
Critics of postmodernism
Liberalism in the United Kingdom
Honorary Fellows of the London School of Economics
Grand Crosses of the Order of Prince Henry |
1756_0 | After the glaciers of the Ice Age in the Early Stone Age withdrew from the area, which since about 1000 AD is called Pomerania, in what are now northern Germany and Poland, they left a tundra. First humans appeared, hunting reindeer in the summer. A climate change in 8000 BC allowed hunters and foragers of the Ertebølle-Ellerbek culture to continuously inhabit the area. These people became influenced by farmers of the Linear Pottery culture who settled in southern Pomerania. The hunters of the Ertebølle-Ellerbek culture became farmers of the Funnelbeaker culture in 3000 BC. The Havelland culture dominated in the Uckermark from 2500 to 2000 BC. In 2400 BC, the Corded Ware culture reached Pomerania and introduced the domestic horse. Both Linear Pottery and Corded Ware culture have been associated with Indo-Europeans. Except for Western Pomerania, the Funnelbeaker culture was replaced by the Globular Amphora culture a thousand years later. |
1756_1 | During the Bronze Age, Western Pomerania was part of the Nordic Bronze Age cultures, while east of the Oder river the Lusatian culture dominated. Throughout the Iron Age, the people of the western Pomeranian areas belonged to the Jastorf culture, while the Lusatian culture of the East was succeeded by the Pomeranian culture, then in 150 BC by the Oksywie culture, and at the beginning of the first millennium by the Wielbark culture.
While the Jastorf culture is usually associated with Germanic peoples, the ethnic category of the Lusatian culture and its successors is debated. Veneti, Germanic peoples like Goths, Rugians, and Gepids, and Slavs are assumed to have been the bearers of these cultures or parts thereof. |
1756_2 | From the 3rd century onwards, many settlements were abandoned, marking the beginning of the migration period in Pomerania. It is assumed that Burgundians, Goths and Gepids with parts of the Rugians left Pomerania during that stage, while some Veneti, Vidivarii and other, Germanic groups remained, and formed the Gustow, Debczyn and late Wielbark cultures, which existed in Pomerania until the 6th century.
The name Pomerania comes from Slavic po more, which means "[land] by the sea".
Ice Age and Paleolithic (Early Stone) Age (before 8000 BC)
20,000 years ago the territory of present-day Pomerania was covered with ice, which did not start to recede until the late period of the Old Stone Age or Paleolithic some 13,000 years BC, when the Scandinavian glacier receded northwards (Allerød oscillation). At the site of the later Baltic Sea was the cold, saline Yoldia Sea (~11,500-9500 BC), which was succeeded by the fresh water Ancylus Lake (9500-8000 BC).
Hamburgian |
1756_3 | Hamburgian reindeer hunters were the first humans to occupy the plains freed from the retreating glaciers in north-central Europe. However, whether they also roamed Pomerania is uncertain: though there are finds in neighboring regions of Denmark, Mecklenburg and Poland, there are no finds from Pomerania which can be associated to the Hamburgian techno-complex without doubt. Though finds resembling Hamburgian typology were made in Tanowo, these finds likely stem from a later era.
Federmesser, Bromme |
1756_4 | The Federmesser and related Bromme techno-complexes are archaeologically traceable in Pomerania, but finds are sparse. That may be due to Pomerania's location within the fall-out zone of the Laacher See eruption, which in 10970 BC covered the area with a tephra layer and is probably responsible for the emergence of the Bromme techno-complex from the Federmesser one by separating it from the southern groups. A worked giant deer antler and a sharpened horse rib from the Endingen IV Federmesser site were 14C-dated to 11555 ±100 BP and 11830 ±50 BP, respectively, and together with a giant deer skull from Mecklenburg represent the oldest absolutely dated human traces in northeastern Germany.
Ahrensburgian
Mesolithic (Middle Stone) Age (8000 - 3000 BC)
About 8000 BC, the climate started to change, and the former subarctic tundra was transformed into woodlands. |
1756_5 | About 7,500 years ago, the Litorina Sea, a predecessor of the Baltic Sea evolved, with its southern coastline being close to the current one.
Maglemosian culture
The paleolithic Ahrensburg culture was succeeded by the early mesolithic Maglemosian culture (8000-6000 BC), whose members were not only hunters, but also foragers and fishermen. According to their tools, they are grouped as first belonging to the Komornica (east) and Duvensee culture (west), later to the Chojnice-Pienki culture (east). They settled the dunes and used flint stone microliths.
Ertebølle-Ellerbek-Lietzow culture
Flintstone tools of hunters and foragers from the Mesolithic Age were found at various sites. Most of the artefacts date back to the late Mesolithic Age (since 5500 BC). They belong to the Ertebølle-Ellerbek culture (Lietzow subgroup), a culture that settled the coastline and already used ceramics. |
1756_6 | While primarily hunters, it is assumed that the mesolithic people were also foraging, fishing, and even farming on a most primitive scale. They also knew how to build dugout canoes, and with these they travelled down the rivers into the hinterlands. The starting point for these expeditions often was Rügen.
Neolithic (Late Stone) Age (3000 -1900 BC)
Linear Pottery culture
The move from Middle to Late Stone Age (Mesolithic to Neolithic Age) is marked by the change in the way of life from hunting and foraging to farming and livestock breeding. This was not a sudden change, but took place over a long period. The people of the Ertebølle culture were thereby inspired by the Middle German Linear Pottery culture, whose northernmost frontier was southern Pomerania (Uckermark and the Pyritz area).
Funnelbeaker culture |
1756_7 | From 3000 to 1900 BC Pomerania was settled by farmers and herders of the Funnelbeaker culture (also TRB, Trichterbecher culture), that had evolved from the previous Mesolithic cultures and Linear Pottery culture influence. During this period, Western Pomerania was more densely settled than before, primarily on smooth hills near the water. Artefacts and settlements from this periods have been found at various sites in Western Pomerania, e.g. around the Bay of Greifswald. The Funnelbeaker culture people erected numerous Megalith tombs.
Havelland culture
From 2500 to 2000 BC, the Uckermark was not influenced by the Funnelbeaker culture, but by the Havelland culture, representing the northernmost area of this culture that was centered around the middle Elbe and Havel rivers. The Bay of Greifswald, Usedom and Uecker-Randow areas were under a weak influence of this culture also.
Corded Ware culture |
1756_8 | About 2400 BC, people of the Corded Ware culture reached Pomerania. They probably originated in the Black Sea area and introduced the domestic horse. While the Corded Ware people have been associated with the first Indo-Europeans, recently the earlier Linear Pottery Culture is said to be Indo-European, too.
While most of Pomerania was part of or influenced by the Single Grave culture subgroup, eastern Pomerelia belonged to the Rzucewo (also Bay Coast or Haffküsten) culture subgroup stretching from Pomerelia to Lithuania, formerly associated with early Balts.
The impact of the late neolithic Corded Ware culture on Western Pomerania was not as strong, but traceable. For example, both Funnelbeaker and Corded Ware culture artefacts were found in a Megalith tomb near Groß Zastrow.
Globular Amphora culture |
1756_9 | The Globular Amphora culture replaced the Funnelbeaker culture in most of Pomerania a thousand years later, but no artefacts have been found in Western Pomerania. This culture is associated with amber trade.
Comb Ceramic culture
During the mid-Neolithic Age, small populations belonging to the Comb Ceramic or Pit-comb ware culture were traced in Pomerania.
Bronze Age (1900 - 550 BC)
Nordic Bronze Age (Western Pomerania)
While the Bronze Age began in Southern Germany before 1800 BC and had reached the Elbe and Saale area by 1550 BC, the North was still dominated by the neolithic Funnelbeaker culture and Corded Ware culture (Single Grave culture). Only isolated artefacts belonging to the early Bronze Age have been found in Western Pomerania. The early Bronze Age cultures in Western Pomerania are classified as Buchholz group (Plonia group). |
1756_10 | From the Late Bronze Age, various settlements and artefacts were found in Western Pomerania. These later Bronze Age culters (periods II and III) are classified as Westpomeranian group (also Wusterwitz or Ostrowice group), and associated with the Grubengrab culture. In this period, settlement became more stable.
Early Bronze Age in Eastern Pomerania
During the early Bronze Age, the eastern and the southeastern parts of Pomerania were not as densely settled as the western parts. The local cultures were influenced by Iwno culture, later Trzciniec culture. Based on linguistic analyses of toponymes, Marija Gimbutas and others proposed a culture of Pomeranian Balts from the mouth of the Oder, and the whole Vistula basin to Silesia in the South-West.
Lusatian Culture (Eastern Pomerania) |
1756_11 | During the late Bronze Age (1200 BC), Farther Pomerania and Pomerelia were under the influence of the Lusatian culture, the north-eastern subgroup of the Urnfield culture. People of this culture burned their dead and buried the ashes in urns, which were typically placed in urnfields but also in tumuli. The Pomeranian variant of the Lusatian culture can further be divided into an eastern and the Göritz group. The sun is assumed to have played a prominent role in their religion, which also included cannibalism. Numerous archeological findings of imported Scandinavian products prove contacts to Nordic Bronze Age peoples. |
1756_12 | These contacts and the Scandinavian influence on Pomerania was so considerable that this region is sometimes included in the Nordic Bronze Age culture. The local Lusatian cultures were also influenced by the west-alpine and Hallstatt cultures. Metalworks technologies were imported from the South via the Oder river. The eastern or Kashubian group of the Pomeranian Lusatian culture, characterized by burial rites were burned ashes were placed in burial mounds with stone constructions, imported their metalworks technologies from the South via the Vistula river as well as from the North via the Baltic Sea.
The people of the Lusatian Culture lived either in unfortified villages or in fortified strongholds. The number of such strongholds rapidly increased at about 700 BC for unknown reasons. Towards and during the Iron Age, an increasing wealth is recorded. |
1756_13 | There was a dispute between German and Polish historians concerning the ethnicity of the Lusatian Culture people. This dispute had reached its climax in the interbellum and also after World War II. Recent studies conclude a multi-ethnic character, prominently including the Veneti, but also Germanic peoples in the Northwest and Slavic peoples in the East.
Pre-Roman Iron Age
Jastorf culture (Western Pomerania, 550 - 50 BC)
During the Iron Age, Western Pomerania belonged to the Jastorf culture (550-50 BC). As before during the Bronze Age, the dead were burned and the ashes buried in urns. Settlements and urn grave fields with artefacts were found e.g. in the then densely settled Greifswald area. |
1756_14 | The Jastorf culture is associated with early Germanic peoples. Western Pomerania belonged to the Warnow-Oder estituary subgroup of the Jastorf culture, the easternmost group is designated Oder group. The Oder group, formerly thought to have emerged after an immigration from Bornholm, is now thought to have evolved from a local population formerly belonging to the Pomeranian culture and the Göritz group of the Lusatian culture, who first adapted to new habits and later mingled with a Germanic population from the West.
Pomeranian culture (Eastern Pomerania, 650 - 150 BC)
The Pomeranian culture evolved from the Lusatian culture east of the Parseta river and in Pomerelia. It is characterized primarily by the use of faced urns, also of house urns, placed in stone cists. |
1756_15 | This culture is considered to mark the (proto-)Germanic-Baltic frontier. A linguistic classification, whether Baltic, Germanic, or interlink, is not possible. Earlier, the Pomeranian culture was associated with the Bastarnae, yet today the culture is considered to have evolved from the local Lusatian culture tribes.
Oksywie (Oxhöft) culture (Eastern Pomerania, 150 BC - 1 AD)
The Oksywie culture existed in the area of Farther Pomerania and Pomerelia around the lower Vistula river, from the 2nd century BC to the early 1st century AD. The culture is named after the village Oksywie (formerly Oxhöft, today part of the city of Gdynia), where the first artifacts typical of this culture were discovered.
Roman Iron Age and Migration period |
1756_16 | Gustow group, Western Pomerania
Since the second half of the 1st century AD, settlement in Western Pomerania became more dense. The highest density was reached in the 2nd century. Artefacts, settlements and tombs from this period belong to the coastal group of the Roman Iron Age and are heavily influenced by the material culture of the Oder and Vistula area. Influences from the Elbe area and Scandinavia are found in ceramics artefacts.
Slag from the smelting of iron was found in many settlements, also imported goods, primarily from the Roman provinces, as well as silver and gold. After an archaeological site in Gustow on Rügen, this western Pomeranian culture is referred to as Gustow group. The Gustrow group comprised the coastal territories between the Darß peninsula in the West, and the Rega river in the East, while the adjacent Lower Oder area in the South belonged to the related Lebus group. The Gustow group was closely related to the contemporary Elbe cultures. |
1756_17 | In the 3rd century, as in all of Pomerania, many settlements were abandoned, and fewer settlement traces are found in the following period. Though rather scarce, Gustow group settlements were located on better soil due to the increasing importance of plant cultivation.
Wielbark (Willenberg) Culture (Eastern Pomerania, 1 - 450 AD)
The Willenberg or Wielbark culture appeared during the first half of the 1st century AD and replaced the Oksywie culture. This culture dominated the area of Farther Pomerania northeast of the Ihna river, most of Pomerelia and northern Mazovia.
The ethnic background of the Wielbark people is not certain. While in the past, German and Polish historians had associated them with the Goths or Slavs, respectively, recent hypotheses suggest they were a heterogeneous people, though scholarship is divided on whom to include therein; suggestions include the Veleti, Germanic peoples (Goths, Rugians, and Gepids) and possibly Slavs. |
1756_18 | From this period, many influences are recorded from the Roman Empire. Coins were in use abundantly. Imported Roman goods and their native imitations, though poorer in quality, were common. Roman luxury goods were also found, but those were most probably reserved for the elite. Besides the import of Roman goods, the society also to a lesser degree copied the social differentiation of the Romans. Many princely graves are known from this period.
Between 170 and 260 AD, settlement in Pomerania became less dense. The Wielbark culture continued to exist in the Oder and Vistula estuaries, in parallel to and under mutual influence of the Dębczyn (Denzin) culture that evolved in its midst. Numerous imported goods found from this period in the Oder estuary, originating in the Black Sea area, the Roman provinces, and Scandinavia underline the contemporary importance of the Oder estuary. |
1756_19 | Dębczyn (Denzin) culture (250-525 AD)
In the second half of the 3rd century, the Dębczyn (Denzin) culture (or group) succeeded the Wielbark culture between the Persante and Drawa rivers, and a local, not yet classified culture between the lower Oder and Persante rivers. The adjacent areas to the east were uninhabited by this time. Whether the eastern Dębczyn culture replaced or evolved from the Wielbark culture is not yet known, in the western areas, settlement was continuous. The emergence of this group is characterized by an influence of the Vistula region (Wielbark culture), the expansion of the Gustow group, and many paralleles to the Elbe Germanic areas. The dead were buried unburned. The culture existed until the first quarter of the 6th century, when burial of the dead in grave fields stopped. |
1756_20 | The Dębczyn group might comprise the archaeological remnants of Tacitus' Lemovii, probably identical with Widsith's Glommas, who are believed to have been the neighbors of the Rugians, a tribe dwelling at the Pomeranian coast before the migration period. Germanic sagas report a battle on the isle of Hiddensee between King Hetel (Hethin, Heodin of the Glommas) and Rugian king Hagen, following the abduction of Hagen's daughter Hilde by Hetel. Yet, there are also other hypotheses about the location of the Lemovii, and that their identification as Glommas, though probable, is not certain. |
1756_21 | 5th and 6th centuries
Since the mid-5th century, the dead were not buried on grave fields anymore. Also, hoards of fibulae have been found from this period, especially of the Sösdala and Sjörup type. From the second half of the 5th century and the beginning 6th century, treasures of late Roman solidi, bracteates, and golden jewelry are found. From the same period these treasures were hidden, both hoards of and single solidi have been found, coined by Valentinian III (425-455) and Anastasius I (491-518). These were found in the Debczin group area, the Vistula area, where they are associated with the Vidivarian stage of the Willenberg culture, and in the Oder estituary, where they were found together with jewelry. Some of these hoards might have served as a substitute for burial objects, others might have been buried for some mythological purpose. |
1756_22 | In the late 5th and early 6th centuries, large grave fields were set up in the coastal areas, which differ from the Debzcyn group type and show Scandinavian analogies. Findings include fibulae of the Bornholm type, needles with bird heads, and armour (shields, lances and swords) of western European and Scandinavian type. |
1756_23 | It is assumed that Burgundians, Goths and Gepids with parts of the Rugians left Pomerania during the late Roman Age, and that during the migration period, remnants of Rugians, Vistula Veneti, Vidivarii and other, Germanic tribes remained and formed units that were later Slavicized. The Vidivarii themselves are described by Jordanes in his Getica as a melting pot of tribes who in the mid-6th century lived at the lower Vistula. Though differing from the earlier Willenberg culture, some traditions were continued. One hypothesis, based on the sudden appearance of large amounts of Roman solidi and migrations of other groups after the breakdown of the Hun empire in 453, suggest a partial re-migration of earlier emigrants to their former northern homelands.
References
History of Pomerania by period
de:Geschichte Pommerns |
1757_0 | The United States Anti-Doping Agency (USADA, ) is a non-profit, non-governmental 501(c)(3) organization and the national anti-doping organization (NADO) for the United States. To protect clean competition and the integrity of sport, USADA provides education, leads scientific initiatives, conducts testing, and oversees the results management process. Headquartered in Colorado Springs, Colorado, USADA is a signatory to the World Anti-Doping Code, which harmonizes anti-doping practices around the world and is widely considered the basis for the strongest and strictest anti-doping programs in sports. |
1757_1 | In 2001, USADA was recognized by the U.S. Congress as "the official anti-doping agency for Olympic, Pan American and Paralympic sport in the United States." While USADA is not a government entity, it is partly funded by the Office of National Drug Control Policy (ONDCP), with its remaining budget generated from contracts for anti-doping services with sport organizations, most notably the United States Olympic and Paralympic Committee (USOPC). The United States has also ratified the UNESCO International Convention against Doping in Sport, the first global international treaty against doping in sport, and largely relies on USADA to carry out this commitment.
The Chief Executive Officer of USADA, since September 2007, is Travis Tygart. |
1757_2 | History
In October 1999, the USOC launched USADA and operations began on October 1, 2000. In 2003, one of USADA's first major undertakings was the revision of the then-current United States anti-doping policies in order to bring them into compliance with the newly adopted World Anti-Doping Code. One of the major adjustments made to the Code by USADA included reducing the standard of proof required in doping-related adjudication. Before modifications, the standard of proof was equal to that required in a United States court of law. After modification, USADA reduced the standard required to establish a doping violation to "comfortable satisfaction of a hearing body". |
1757_3 | Currently, USADA's status and independence from the USOC contrasts the norm in sport in the United States, as most professional sport organizations (MLB, NFL, NBA, NHL) manage the anti-doping functions of their own sports. As a result of USADA's ongoing multi-year contracts with the USOC and the sport national governing bodies (USA Track & Field, USA Cycling, USA Swimming, US Soccer, etc.), the agency is responsible for managing anti-doping programs, to include testing and results management, for each sport's athletes and events throughout the year. Despite its name and status as the country's official anti-doping organization, USADA is a private organization and not subject to government oversight. |
1757_4 | World Anti-Doping Code
USADA is responsible for implementation of the World Anti-Doping agency's Code (Code) in the United States. The Code is the core document that harmonizes anti-doping policies, rules, and regulations within sport organizations and among public authorities around the world. It works in conjunction with five International Standards, which aim to foster consistency among anti-doping organizations in: testing; laboratories; therapeutic use exemptions; the list of prohibited substances and methods; and the protection of privacy and personal information. The Code's International Standards are as follows:
WADA Prohibited ListOutlines the substances and methods prohibited in sport;
International Standard for Testing and Investigations (ISTI)test planning and sample collection process;
International Standard for Laboratories (ISL)Standard for the caliber of laboratories that can process athlete samples; |
1757_5 | International Standard for Therapeutic Use Exemptions (ISTUE)The approval process for allowing athletes to obtain exemptions for prohibited substances when a legitimate medical reason exists;
International Standard for Protection of Privacy and Personal Information (ISPPPI)Privacy protections when collecting and using athlete personal information.
The International Olympic Committee (IOC) required that all Olympic sports adopt the World Anti-Doping Code prior to August 13, 2004. |
1757_6 | Testing
The USADA Protocol for Olympic and Paralympic Movement Testing outlines the organization's testing program and is consistent with the WADA Code and International Standard for Testing. USADA collects both blood and urine samples during in-competition and out-of-competition tests, which can occur at any time, at any location, and without advance notice. Comprehensive, no-notice testing programs like USADA's that are consistent with the WADA Code have often been referred to as Olympic style drug testing. |
1757_7 | The United States Olympic and Paralympic Committee (USOPC), USOPC-recognized National Governing Bodies for sport (NGBs), and the World Anti-doping Agency (WADA) Code have authorized USADA to test and adjudicate anti-doping rule violations for any athlete who:
Is a member or license holder of a sport National Governing Body (NGB)
Is participating at an Event or Competition sanctioned by the USOPC or an NGB or participating at an Event or Competition in the United States sanctioned by an International Federation (IF)
Is a foreign athlete who is present in the United States
Has given his/her consent to testing by USADA or who has submitted a Whereabouts Filing to USADA or an IF within the previous 12 months and has not given his or her NGB and USADA written notice of retirement |
1757_8 | Has been named by the USOPC or an NGB to an international team or who is included in the USADA Registered Testing Pool ("USADA RTP") or is competing in a qualifying event to represent the USOPC or NGB in international competition
Is a United States athlete or foreign athlete present in the United States who is serving a period of Ineligibility on account of an anti-doping rule violation and who has not given prior written notice of retirement from all sanctioned competition to the applicable NGB and USADA, or the applicable foreign anti-doping agency or foreign sport association
Is being tested by USADA under authorization from the USOPC, an NGB, IF, any NADO, WADA, the International Olympic Committee ("IOC"), the International Paralympic Committee ("IPC") or the organizing committee of any Event or Competition. |
1757_9 | USADA does testing for International Federations (IFs), other National Anti-Doping Organizations (NADOs), and the World Anti-Doping Agency. USADA does not test at the Olympic Games. The Local Organizing Committee for the Olympic Games and WADA oversee testing at the Games.
USADA maintains a group of elite athletes as part of its registered testing pool (RTP). Consistent with the WADA Code, athletes in this pool are subject to strict whereabouts requirements in which they must inform the organization of their whereabouts (specific locations) at all times so they can be located for no-notice testing. Critics of WADA Code whereabouts requirements have criticized the requirement as overly strict, while proponents claim the requirement ensure athletes cannot evade tests and take advantage of testing gaps. |
1757_10 | USADA determines its test distribution plan (TDP) or the determination of who, when, and where the organization tests through a combination of many factors that are consistent with the WADA IST. Factors for determining tests may include:
Physical demands of the sport and possible performance-enhancing effect that doping may elicit
Available doping analysis statistics
Available research on doping trends
The history of doping in the sport and/or discipline
Training periods and the competition calendar, season
Information received on possible doping practices
Resources aimed at the detection of doping may be specifically targeted.
Even though testing may be described as random, the term "random" is inaccurate, as USADA uses various factors to strategically plan when and where they test athletes. High-profile or elite athletes are tested significantly more frequently than others. |
1757_11 | USADA's sample collection process is also consistent with the WADA IST and tests are conducted by doping control officers (DCOs), who are employed and extensively trained by USADA. For tests in which blood is collected, USADA contracts trained phlebotomists who work in conjunction with a USADA DCO.
In accordance with the WADA International Standard for Laboratories, all samples are analyzed at laboratories that have been accredited by the World Anti-Doping Agency. In the United States there are only two WADA-accredited labs: the UCLA Olympic Analytical Laboratory in Los Angeles, CA., and the Sports Medicine Research and Testing Laboratory (SMRTL) in Salt Lake City, Utah. WADA accredited labs comply with the WADA International Standard for Laboratories. |
1757_12 | Results management
In compliance with the World Anti-Doping Code and relevant international standards, USADA is charged with handling the results management and adjudication process for U.S. athletes in Olympic, Paralympic, Pan American and ParaPan American Sport. This independent results management process removes the inherent conflict of interest associated with sport organizations trying to both promote and police their sports.
Results management involves processing and communicating the results of drug tests, as well as the adjudication of potential anti-doping rule violations (ADRVs), which can be the result of a positive drug test or an investigation. According to the Code, an ADRV consists of the following: |
1757_13 | Presence of a prohibited substance or its metabolites or markers in an athlete's sample
Use or attempted use by an athlete of a prohibited substance or a prohibited method
Evading, refusing, or failing to submit to sample collection
Violation of applicable requirements regarding athlete availability for out-of-competition testing, including failure to file required whereabouts information and missed tests
Any combination of three missed tests and/or filing failures, as defined in the International Standard for Testing and Investigations, within a 12-month period by an athlete in a Registered Testing Pool * Tampering or attempted tampering with any part of doping control
Possession of a prohibited substance or a prohibited method
Trafficking or attempted trafficking of any prohibited substance or prohibited method |
1757_14 | Administration or attempted administration to any athlete in-competition of any prohibited substance or prohibited method, or administration or attempted administration to any athlete out-of-competition of any prohibited substance or any prohibited method that is prohibited out-of-competition
Complicity: Assisting, encouraging, aiding, abetting, conspiring, covering up, or any other type of intentional complicity involving an anti-doping rule violation, or attempted anti-doping rule violation
Association by an athlete or other person subject to the authority of an Anti-Doping Organization in a professional or sport-related capacity with any athlete support person who is serving a period of ineligibility related to one of the above ADRVs; and/or has been convicted outside of sport to have engaged in conduct that would be considered an ADRV. |
1757_15 | When evidence meeting one or more of the above violations is found, an independent anti-doping review board will make the recommendation whether USADA should move forward with a sanction. Athletes can either accept or challenge the sanction through an established legal process. In the United States, athletes can take a case before an arbitration panel (American Arbitration Association / North American Court of Arbitration for Sport) and make a final appeal to the Court of Arbitration for Sport.
Sanctions normally include one or more of the following:
Disqualification of results in a particular competition or event
Forfeiture of any medals, points, and prizes
Team disqualification and forfeiture
An ineligibility period that may vary according to circumstances
Public announcement
Name and offense listed on USADA's website indefinitely |
1757_16 | Sanctions have ranged from public warnings or time served for completing education (often the case for first time marijuana offenses), to life-time bans for repeated or particularly egregious cases. USADA maintains a sanctions list of all sanctioned athletes on its website.
Drug Reference Resources and Therapeutic Use Exemptions (TUE)
Athletes subject to testing by USADA have access to a number of resources designed to help athletes understand prohibited substances and if specific medications are prohibited according to the WADA prohibited List. In addition to a drug reference phone line, where athletes can speak to an expert, USADA has partnered with Antidoping Switzerland (ADCH), UK Anti-Doping (UKAD), and the Canadian Centre for Ethics in Sport (CCES) to provide the Global Drug Reference Online (GlobalDRO) tool. The tool allows athletes to search for the prohibited or not-prohibited status of a medication, by brand or generic drug name, as well as ingredients. |
1757_17 | USADA also allows athletes to apply for and obtain therapeutic use exemptions (TUEs) when a legitimate medical need for a prohibited substance exists. USADA's TUE process is compliant with both the World Anti-Doping Code and the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) International Standard for Therapeutic Use Exemptions. TUE applications are reviewed by a TUE Committee consisting of independent doctors and medical experts. USADA's TUE application process is designed to be as simple as possible for athletes, but a thorough evaluation is conducted in accordance with international rules to ensure that athletes with TUEs don't experience performance-enhancing benefits. An athlete's medical documentation and diagnosis is evaluated during the TUE application process. USADA's TUE policy, along with WADA's International Standard for Therapeutic Use Exemptions, balances the necessity for athletes to have access to important medication with the need to protect a level playing field.
Other programs |
1757_18 | Science and research
In the years 2001-2009, USADA budgeted $2 million per year to support research that advanced the deterrence and detection of performance-enhancing drugs in sport. USADA supported research in a variety of areas, including anabolic steroids, growth hormone, oxygen transport-enhancing substances, genetic doping, ethics, and Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry.
Since 2009, the majority of anti-doping research activities previously undertaken by USADA has been assumed by the Partnership for Clean Competition. The Partnership for Clean Competition (PCC) was founded in 2008 by the U.S. Olympic Committee, the National Football League, Major League Baseball, and the U.S. Anti-Doping Agency as a Washington D.C. non-profit corporation. |
1757_19 | By combining the resources and expertise of America's leading sports entities, the PCC supports non-partisan and independent scientific research by making targeted grants to various universities and other world-class research institutions. The PCC encourages independent research focusing on the development of more effective tests for performance-enhancing substances, the societal causes of doping, and non-test based methods to decrease doping and performance-enhancing drug use across all levels of athletic participation and competition, from the casual youth sports participant to the elite amateur and professional athlete. |
1757_20 | Education and outreach
USADA focuses on deterring the use of performance-enhancing drugs in sport through education efforts that are targeted at elite-level athletes, as well as other levels of sport, youth athletes, and the general public. In addition to topics surrounding performance-enhancing drug use in sport, USADA claims to be an important promoter of other positive values associated with sport (sportsmanship, respect, teamwork.) In March 2011, USADA released a research report titled "What Sport Means in America: A Study of Sports Role In Society". The report aimed to measure the value of sport in American society and attitudes about the importance of protecting sport's integrity. |
1757_21 | Supplements
USADA created an online resource designed to provide athletes with the best possible information to evaluate the risks associated with the use of supplements. On Supplement411.org there is information to help athletes realize that risk exists, recognize risk when they see it, and reduce their risk of testing positive or experiencing harmful health effects from the use of dietary supplements. |
1757_22 | USADA manages the High Risk List, which is a list of dietary supplements and other black market products that have been known to contain prohibited substances, or claim to deliver the same performance-enhancing effects as prohibited substances. The list also includes products that USADA has previously tested to confirm the presence of a prohibited substance. Similarly, USADA adds supplements to the High Risk List when the Court of Arbitration for Sport has determined that a supplement likely caused a positive test for an athlete. When referring to the High Risk List, it's important to realize that the list is not exhaustive and that the absence of a product on the list doesn't mean the supplement is safe. With more loosely regulated supplements added to the market every day, it's difficult to develop a truly comprehensive list of supplements that could cause an athlete to test positive for a prohibited substance.
UFC Anti-Doping Program |
1757_23 | When it was launched in June 2015, the Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC) Anti-Doping Program became the first independent anti-doping program in major fighting sports. The program is designed to protect the health and safety of athletes, while also preserving the integrity of competition to ensure that every UFC fighter has the opportunity to compete in a clean Octagon.
To familiarize athletes to the program, the UFC and USADA launched a joint education campaign, meeting athletes for in-person education sessions at gyms and events around the world. By the end of 2016, the Program had hosted at least 25 in-person education seminars in countries around the globe, including Japan, Ireland, Australia, and Brazil - often working with translators to ensure that athletes received the education in their own language. In order to further help ease the transition, athletes have been provided access to numerous anti-doping resources in a multitude of languages – both print and online. |
1757_24 | Along with its education initiatives, the UFC Anti-Doping Program started testing athletes both in and out-of-competition at gradually increasing rates. In the first year-and-a-half of the Program, more than 2,000 tests were completed. The Program's testing pool has also grown to include around 550 athletes worldwide, with tests collected in nearly 20 countries.
On September 28, 2018, it was reported that UFC and USADA grant the UFC's fighters time to go through adjudication process before an announcement is made with the results of the potential doping violation after several cases of fighters such Junior dos Santos, Josh Barnett and Cris Cyborg were flagged for potential doping violations but clear from punishment after they were proved of unintentional use of performance enhancing drug (usually in the form of contaminated supplement). |
1757_25 | In January 2021, USADA announced that UFC fighters would no longer be punished for cannabis use except in extreme cases where clear signs of intoxication were present at the time of a fight.
Notable prosecutions
Lance Armstrong
In June 2012, USADA charged retired cyclist Lance Armstrong with an anti-doping rule violation. The charges followed a dropped federal investigation involving charges relating to Armstrong's time on the US Postal Service professional cycling team (1998–2004). Armstrong sued USADA claiming that USADA did not have jurisdiction to bring a case forward, and that if forced to arbitrate his case, he would not receive due process. In Armstrong v. United States Anti-Doping Agency and Travis Tygart, Armstrong lost his battle with USADA, as the District Court found sufficiency within USA Cycling's agreement with the USOC to adhere to the USADA Protocol. |
1757_26 | The District Court found, that as a member of USA Cycling, Armstrong was thereby beholden to the USADA Protocol, which required that all contested charges of doping be tried through NAS and CAS arbitration. In its decision, the District Court noted that other federal courts have held similar, limited views on the role that federal courts should play regarding eligibility and arbitration issues within Olympic sports. Echoing the holdings of Slaney v. The International Amateur Athletic Federation and Harding v. U.S. Figure Skating Association, the District Court held that "federal courts should not interfere with an amateur sports organization's disciplinary procedures unless the organization shows wanton disregard for its rules, to the immediate and irreparable harm of a plaintiff, where the plaintiff has no other available remedy." The lawsuit was ultimately dismissed. On August 23, 2012; Armstrong announced he would not take part in arbitration. While he maintained his innocence, he |
1757_27 | contended that he could not take part in a "one-sided and unfair" process. In response, Armstong was given a life ban by USADA from competing in any sport that uses the World Anti-Doping Code, effectively ending his competitive career. He was also stripped of his seven Tour de France titles from 1999 to 2005. |
1757_28 | A month later, USADA released a 200-page "reasoned decision" in accordance with WADA protocol. It named Armstrong as the ringleader of "the most sophisticated, professionalized and successful doping program that sport has ever seen." In response to Armstrong's argument that the eight-year statute of limitations for doping offenses had long since expired, USADA replied that the statute of limitations for doping offenses did not apply because of Armstrong's "fraudulent concealment" of his doping. Longstanding precedent in U.S. law holds that the statute of limitations does not apply in cases of fraudulent conduct by a defendant.
Based on evidence received during the Armstrong investigation and its prosecutions, USADA forwarded its "reasoned decision" document and supporting information to the Union Cycliste International, the World Anti-Doping Agency, and the World Triathlon Corporation. USADA claimed that: |
1757_29 | BALCO investigation
The Bay Area Laboratory Co-operative (BALCO) was a San Francisco Bay Area business that supplied anabolic steroids to professional athletes. BALCO was founded by Victor Conte, who sourced the drugs from Illinois chemist Patrick Arnold and distributed them with the help of personal trainer Greg Anderson. Together, they sold substances like erythropoietin and human growth hormone undetected from 1988 until 2002, when the official federal investigation of BALCO began.
In the summer of 2003, USADA investigators received a syringe with trace amounts of a mysterious substance and launched their own investigation. The syringe went to Don Catlin, MD, the founder and then-director of the UCLA Olympic Analytical Laboratory, who had developed a testing process for the substance, tetrahydrogestrinone (THG). He tested 550 existing samples from athletes, of which 20 proved to be positive for THG. |
1757_30 | A number of athletes, including Marion Jones, Kelli White, British sprinter Dwain Chambers, shot putter Kevin Toth, middle distance runner Regina Jacobs, and hammer throwers John McEwen and Melissa Price were subsequently incriminated in the investigation.
TJ Dillashaw
In April 2019, UFC bantamweight champion TJ Dillashaw voluntarily relinquished his title, after adverse findings in a USADA test before his fight with Henry Cejudo. The test showed that Dillashaw tested positive for EPO, which he admitted to using. Blood doping was not commonly tested for in the UFC by that point, making this a milestone case.
See also
Doping in the United States
List of drugs banned from the Olympics
Use of performance-enhancing drugs in sport
References
Further reading
External links
United States Anti-Doping Agency
Supplement Safety Now |
1757_31 | Anti-doping organizations
Anti-Doping Agency
Drugs in sport in the United States
Organizations based in Colorado Springs, Colorado
1999 establishments in the United States |
1758_0 | The phonology of Catalan, a Romance language, has a certain degree of dialectal variation. Although there are two standard dialects, one based on Eastern Catalan and one based on Valencian, this article deals with features of all or most dialects, as well as regional pronunciation differences. Various studies have focused on different Catalan varieties; for example, Wheeler and Mascaró analyze Central Eastern varieties, the former focusing on the educated speech of Barcelona and the latter focusing more on the vernacular of Barcelona, and Recasens does a careful phonetic study of Central Eastern Catalan.
Catalan is characterized by final-obstruent devoicing, lenition, and voicing assimilation; a set of 7 or 8 phonemic vowels, vowel assimilations (including vowel harmony), many phonetic diphthongs, and vowel reduction, whose precise details differ between dialects. Several dialects have a dark l, and all dialects have palatal l () and n (). |
1758_1 | Consonants
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonants of Catalan
! colspan="2" |
! Labial
! Dental/Alveolar
! Palatal
! Velar
! Uvular
|-
! colspan="2" | Nasal
|
|
|
| ()
|
|-
! rowspan="2" | Plosive
! voiceless
|
|
| colspan="2" |
|
|-
! voiced
|
|
| colspan="2" |
|
|-
! rowspan="2" | Affricate
! voiceless
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! voiced
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! rowspan="2" | Fricative
! voiceless
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! voiced
| ()
|
|
|
|rowspan="2" | ()
|-
! rowspan="2" | Approximant
! central
|
|
|
|
|-
! lateral
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" | Trill
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" | Tap
|
|
|
|
|
|} |
1758_2 | Phonetic notes:
, are laminal denti-alveolar , . After , they are laminal alveolar , .
, are velar but fronted to pre-velar position before front vowels. In some Majorcan dialects, the situation is reversed; the main realization is palatal , , but before liquids and rounded back vowels they are velar , .
, , are apical front alveolar , , , but the first two are laminal denti-alveolar , before , . In addition, is postalveolar or alveolo-palatal before , , , , velar before , and labiodental before , (), where it merges with . It also merges with (to ) before , .
, , are apical back alveolar , , , also described as postalveolar.
, are apical alveolar , . They may be somewhat fronted, so that the stop component is laminal denti-alveolar, while the fricative component is apical post-dental.
, are laminal "front alveolo-palatal" , . |
1758_3 | There is some confusion in the literature about the precise phonetic characteristics of , , , and ; while Recasens, Fontdevila & Pallarès and Recasens & Espinosa describe them as "back alveolo-palatal", implying that the characters would be more accurate, they (and all literature on Catalan) use the characters for palato-alveolar affricates and fricatives while using for alveolo-palatal sounds in examples in other languages like Polish or Chinese. Otherwise, sources, like Carbonell & Llisterri generally describe them as "postalveolar". |
1758_4 | Obstruents
Voiced obstruents undergo final-obstruent devoicing so that ('cold', m. s.) is pronounced with , while ('cold', f. pl.) is pronounced with .
Stops
Voiced stops become lenited to fricatives or approximants in syllable onsets, after continuants: → , → , → .
Exceptions include after lateral consonants and after , e.g. (E) / (W) ('oeil-de-boeuf'), (E) / (W) ('excellent ballpoint').
Additionally, remains unlenited in non-betacist dialects.
In the coda position, these sounds are always realized as stops; except in many Valencian dialects, where they are lenited.
In Catalan (not in Valencian), and may be geminated in certain environments (e.g. 'village', 'rule'). |
1758_5 | Affricates
The phonemic status of affricates is dubious; after other consonants, affricates are in free variation with fricatives, e.g. (E) / (W) ('hair parting') and may be analyzed as either single phonemes or clusters of a stop and a fricative.
Alveolar affricates, and , occur the least of all affricates.
only occurs intervocalically: (E) / (W) ('toxic substances').
Instances of arise mostly from compounding; the few lexical instances arise from historical compounding. For instance, (E) / (W) ('maybe') comes from ('may') + ('be' inf). As such, does not occur word-initially; other than some rare words of foreign origin (e.g. 'tsar', 'tsuga'), but it may occur word-finally and quite often in cases of heteromorphemic (i.e. across a morpheme boundary) plural endings: ('everybody').
The distribution of alveolo-palatal affricates, and , depends on dialect: |
1758_6 | In most of Valencian and southern Catalonia, most occurrences of correspond to the voiced fricative in Standard Eastern Catalan: ('ice').
In Standard Eastern Catalan, word-initial is found only in a few words of foreign origin (e.g. 'Czech', 'Tchaikovsky') while being found freely intervocalically (e.g. 'arrow') and word-finally: (E) / (W) ('office').
Standard Eastern Catalan also only allows in intervocalic position (e.g. 'medic', 'enclosed'). Phonemic analyses show word-final occurrences of (e.g. (E) / (W) 'skew ray'), but final devoicing eliminates this from the surface: ('ray').
In various other dialects (as well as in emphatic speech), occurs word-initially and after another consonant to the exclusion of . These instances of word-initial seem to correspond to in other dialects, including the standard (on which the orthography is based): ('bedbug'), pronounced in the standard, is in these varieties. |
1758_7 | There is dialectal variation in regards to affricate length, with long affricates occurring in both Eastern and Western dialects such as in Majorca and few areas in Southern Valencia. Also, intervocalic affricates are predominantly long, especially those that are voiced or occurring immediately after a stressed syllable (e.g. (E) / (W) 'medic'). In modern Valencian and have merged into . |
1758_8 | Fricatives
occurs in Balearic, as well as in Alguerese, Standard Valencian and some areas in southern Catalonia. Everywhere else, it has merged with historic so that and occur in complementary distribution.
In Majorcan, and are in complementary distribution, with occurring before vowels (e.g. 'blue' f. vs. 'blue' m.).
In other varieties that have both sounds, they are in contrast before vowels, with neutralization in favor of before consonants.
Sonorants
While "dark (velarized) l", , may be a positional allophone of in most dialects (such as in the syllable coda; e.g. 'ground'), is dark irrespective of position in Eastern dialects like Majorcan and standard Eastern Catalan (e.g. ). |
1758_9 | The distribution of the two rhotics and closely parallels that of Spanish.
Between vowels, the two contrast (e.g. (E) / (W) 'myrrh' vs. (E) / (W) 'look'), but they are otherwise in complementary distribution. appears in the onset, except in word-initial position (), after , , and (, , ), and in compounds (infraroig), where is used.
Different dialects vary in regards to rhotics in the coda, with Western Catalan generally featuring and Central Catalan dialects like those of Barcelona or Girona featuring a weakly trilled unless it precedes a vowel-initial word in the same prosodic unit, in which case appears ( in Western Catalan, in Central Catalan).
There is free variation in word-initially, after , , and , and in compounds (if is preceded by consonant), wherein is pronounced or , the latter being similar to English red: . |
1758_10 | In careful speech, , , and may be geminated (e.g. (E) / (W) 'unnecessary'; (E) / (W) 'to store'; 'illusion'). A geminated may also occur (e.g. (E) / (W) 'line'). Wheeler analyzes intervocalic as the result of gemination of a single rhotic phoneme: (E) / (W) 'saw, mountains' (this is similar to the common analysis of Spanish and Portuguese rhotics).
Vowels
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Vowels of Catalan
!
! Front
! Central
! Back
|-
! Close
|
|
|
|-
! Close-mid
|
| rowspan="2" | ()
|
|-
! Open-mid
|
|
|-
! Open
| colspan="3" |
|} |
1758_11 | Phonetic notes:
The vowel is further back and open than the Castilian counterpart in North-Western and Central Catalan, slightly fronted and closed in Valencian and Ribagorçan , and further fronted and closed in Majorcan.
The open-mid and are lower in Majorcan, Minorcan and Valencian.
In Alguerese, Northern Catalan and some places bordering the Spanish-speaking areas, open-mid and close-mid vowels may merge into mid vowels; and .
The close vowels are more open than in Castilian. Unstressed are centralized.
In Valencian and most Balearic dialects are further open and centralized.
Northern Catalan sometimes adds two loan rounded vowels, and , from French and Occitan (e.g. 'aim', 'leaves').
The realization of the reduced vowel varies from mid to near-open , with the latter variant being the most usual in the Barcelona metropolitan area, where the distinction between and is less pronounced than in other varieties that maintain the distinction. |
1758_12 | Phonetic nasalization occurs for vowels occurring between nasal consonants or when preceding a syllable-final nasal; e.g. (E) / (W) ('Sunday'). |
1758_13 | Stressed vowels
Most varieties of Catalan contrast seven stressed vowel phonemes. However, some Balearic dialects have an additional stressed vowel phoneme (); e.g. ('dry, I sit'). The stressed schwa of these dialects corresponds to in Central Catalan and in Western Catalan varieties (that is, Central and Western Catalan dialects differ in their incidence of and , with appearing more frequently in Western Catalan; e.g. Central Catalan vs. Western Catalan ('dry, I sit')).
Contrasting series of the main Catalan dialects:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ class="nowrap" | Central Catalan [Eastern Catalan]
!
!
! Gloss
|-
|
|
| 'bag'
|-
|
|
| 'fold'
|-
|
|
| 'dry'/'I sit'
|-
|
|
| 'sic'
|-
|
|
| 'I am'
|-
|
|
| 'clog'
|-
|
|
| 'juice'
|-
! colspan="3" | Other contrast
|-
!
!
! Gloss
|-
| rowspan="2" | *set
| rowspan="2" |
| 'seven'
|-
| 'thirst'
|} |
1758_14 | Unstressed vowels
In Eastern Catalan, vowels in unstressed position reduce to three : , , (phonetically in Barcelona); , , ; remains unchanged. However there are some dialectal differences: Alguerese merges , and with ; and in most areas of Majorca, can appear in unstressed position (that is, and are usually reduced to ). |
1758_15 | In Western Catalan, vowels in unstressed position reduce to five: , ; , ; remain unchanged. However, in some Western dialects reduced vowels tend to merge into different realizations in some cases:
Unstressed may merge with before a nasal or sibilant consonant (e.g. 'anvil', 'swarm'), in some environments before any consonant (e.g. 'earthy'), and in monosyllabic clitics. This sounds almost the same as the Barcelonian open schwa . Likewise, unstressed may merge into when in contact with palatal consonants (e.g. 'lord').
Unstressed may merge with before a bilabial consonant (e.g. 'covered'), before a stressed syllable with a high vowel (e.g. 'rabbit'), in contact with palatal consonants (e.g. 'Joseph'), and in monosyllabic clitics. |
1758_16 | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ class="nowrap" | Central, Northern, General Balearic & Alguerese [Eastern Catalan]
! Term
!
! Gloss
|-
|
| rowspan="2" |
| 'speech'
|-
|
| 'back'
|-
|
|
| 'lily'
|-
|
| rowspan="2" |
| 'iron'
|-
|
| 'mutual'
|}
Diphthongs and triphthongs
There are also a number of phonetic diphthongs and triphthongs, all of which begin and/or end in or . |
1758_17 | {| class="wikitable"
! colspan="6" | Falling diphthongs
|-
! IPA
! word
! gloss
! IPA
! word
! gloss
|-
| || || 'water' || || || 'table'
|-
| (E) (W) || || 'children' || (E) (W) || || 'we will fall'
|-
| || || 'remedy' || || || 'foot'
|-
| || || 'king' || || || 'his/her'
|-
| (E) (W) || || 'Ibiza' || (E) (W) || || 'eufenism'
|-
| || || || || || 'nest'
|-
| || || 'boy' || || || 'new'
|-
| (E) (W) || || 'Moses' || || || 'well'
|-
| || || 'today' || || || 's/he is carrying'
|-
! colspan="6" | Rising diphthongs
|-
! IPA
! word
! gloss
! IPA
! word
! gloss
|-
| || || 'grandma' || || || 'glove'
|-
| (E) (W) || || 's/he was doing' || (E) (W) || || 'watercolour painting'
|-
| || || 'we see' || || || 'sequence'
|-
| || || 'seat' || || || 'ointment'
|-
| (E) (W) || || 'thank you' || (E) (W) || , || 'question', 'they say'
|-
| || || || || || 'penguin'
|-
| || || 'iodine' || || || 'payment'
|- |
1758_18 | | (E) (W) || || 'yoghurt' || || seuós || 'greasy'
|-
| || || 'Yugoslav' || || ||
|} |
1758_19 | In Standard Eastern Catalan, rising diphthongs (that is, those starting with or ) are only possible in the following contexts:
in word-initial position, e.g. () ('yoghurt').
The semivowel ( or ) occurs between vowels as in ( 'he/she was doing') or ( 'they say').
In the sequences or plus vowel, e.g. ('glove'), ('quota'), ('question'), ('penguin'); these exceptional cases even lead some scholars to hypothesize the existence of rare labiovelar phonemes and .
Processes
There are certain instances of compensatory diphthongization in Majorcan so that ('logs') (in addition to deleting the palatal stop) develops a compensating palatal glide and surfaces as (and contrasts with the unpluralized ). Diphthongization compensates for the loss of the palatal stop (segment loss compensation). There are other cases where diphthongization compensates for the loss of point of articulation features (property loss compensation) as in ('year') vs. ('years'). |
1758_20 | The dialectal distribution of compensatory diphthongization is almost entirely dependent on the dorsal stop () and the extent of consonant assimilation (whether or not it is extended to palatals).
Voiced affricates are devoiced after stressed vowels in dialects like Eastern Catalan where there may be a correlation between devoicing and lengthening (gemination) of voiced affricates: → ('medic'). In Barcelona, voiced stops may be fortified (geminated and devoiced); e.g. 'village'). |
1758_21 | Assimilations
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
! colspan="3" | Nasal
! colspan="3" | Lateral
|-
! word
! IPA
! gloss
! word
! IPA
! gloss
|-
| ínfim || || 'lowest' || style="background:#fff solid 1px" colspan="3" |
|-
| anterior || (E) (W) || 'previous' || altes || (E) (W) || 'tall' (f. pl.)
|-
| engegar || (E) (W) || 'to start (up)' || àlgid || (E) (W) || 'decisive'
|-
| sang || (E) (W) || 'blood' || style="background:#fff solid 1px" colspan="3" |
|-
| sagna || (E) (W) || 'he bleeds' || style="background:#fff solid 1px" colspan="3" |
|-
| cotna || (E) (W) || 'rind' || atles || (E) (W) || 'atlas'
|-
| | sotmetent || (E) (W) || 'submitting' || ratllar || (E) (W) || 'to grate'
|} |
1758_22 | Catalan denti-alveolar stops can fully assimilate to the following consonant, producing gemination; this is particularly evident before nasal and lateral consonants: e.g. ('rind'), / ('spring'), and ('week'). Learned words can alternate between featuring and not featuring such assimilation (e.g. 'atlas', (E) / (W) 'to administer').
Central Valencian features simple elision in many of these cases (e.g , ) though learned words don't exhibit either assimilation or elision: and .
Prosody
Stress
Stress most often occurs on any of the last three syllables of a word (e.g. (E) / (W) 'compass', 'punishment', (E) / (W) 'fool').
Compound words and adverbs formed with may have a syllable with secondary stress (e.g. (E) (W) 'willingly'; (E) (W) 'lightning conductor') but every lexical word has just one syllable with main stress. |
1758_23 | Phonotactics
Any consonant, as well as and may be an onset. Clusters may consist of a consonant plus a semivowel (C, C) or an obstruent plus a liquid. Some speakers may have one of these obstruent-plus-liquid clusters preceding a semivowel, e.g. ('watermelon'); for other speakers, this is pronounced (i.e. the semivowel must be syllabic in this context).
Word-medial codas are restricted to one consonant + ( (E) / (W)). In the coda position, voice contrasts among obstruents are neutralized. Although there are exceptions (such as 'future'), syllable-final rhotics are often lost before a word boundary or before the plural morpheme of most words: (E) / (W) ('color') vs. (E) / (W) ('bright color').
In Central Eastern (and North-Western Catalan), obstruents fail to surface word-finally when preceded by a homorganic consonant (e.g. ). Complex codas simplify only if the loss of the segment doesn't result in the loss of place specification. |
1758_24 | {| class="wikitable"
|+Suffixation examples in Eastern Catalan
|-
!
! colspan="2" | Final
! gloss
! colspan="2" | Internal
! gloss
|-
! rowspan="6" | no cluster
| camp || || 'field' || camperol || || 'peasant'
|-
| punt || || 'point' || punta || || 'tip'
|-
| banc || || 'bank' || banca || || 'banking'
|-
| malalt || || 'ill' || malaltia || || 'illness'
|-
| hort || || 'orchard' || hortalissa || || 'vegetable'
|-
| gust || || 'taste' || gustar || || 'to taste'
|-
! rowspan="3" | cluster
| serp || || 'snake' || serpentí || || 'snake-like'
|-
| disc || || 'disk' || |disquet || || 'diskette'
|-
| remolc || || 'trailer' || remolcar || || 'to tow'
|} |
1758_25 | When the suffix is added to it makes , indicating that the underlying representation is (with subsequent cluster simplification), however when the copula is added it makes . The resulting generalization is that this underlying will only surface in a morphologically complex word. Despite this, word-final codas are not usually simplified in most of Balearic and Valencian (e.g. ). |
1758_26 | Word-initial clusters from Graeco-Latin learned words tend to drop the first phoneme: (E) / (W) ('pneumatic'), (E) / (W) ('pseudonym'), (E) / (W) ('pterodactylus'), ('gnome').
Word-final obstruents are devoiced; however, they assimilate voicing of the following consonant, e.g. (E) / (W) ('silkworm'). In regular and fast speech, stops often assimilate the place of articulation of the following consonant producing phonetic gemination: ('all good').
Word-final fricatives (except ) are voiced before a following vowel; e.g. (E) / (W) ('huge bus').
Dialectal variation |
1758_27 | The differences in the vocalic systems outlined above are the main criteria used to differentiate between the major dialects:
Wheeler distinguishes two major dialect groups, western and eastern dialects; the latter of which only allow , , and to appear in unstressed syllables and include Northern Catalan, Central Catalan, Balearic, and Alguerese. Western dialects, which allow any vowel in unstressed syllables, include Valencian and North-Western Catalan.
Regarding consonants, betacism and fricative–affricate alternations are the most prominent differences between dialects. |
1758_28 | Other dialectal features are:
Vowel harmony with and in Valencian; this process is progressive (i.e. preceding vowels affect those pronounced afterwards) over the last unstressed vowel of a word; e.g. → . However, there are cases where regressive metaphony occurs over pretonic vowels; e.g. → ('towel'), → ('affects').
In a number of dialects unstressed can merge with (Eastern dialects) or (Western dialects) according to the previous or following vowel (i.e. through assimilation when these vowels are high or dissimilation when they are mid or low). This merger is especially common in words with the prefix or .
In Southern Valencian subvarieties, especially in Alicante Valencian, the diphthong (phonetically in Valencian) has become : ('bulls').
In regular speech in both Eastern and Western Catalan dialects, word-initial unstressed – or – may be diphthongized to (Eastern Catalan) or (Western Catalan): ('to drown, suffocate'). |
1758_29 | In Aragonese Catalan (including Ribagorçan), is palatalized to in consonant clusters; e.g. 'it rains'.
In Alguerese and Ribagorçan word-final and are depalatized to and , respectively; e.g. ('rooster'), ('year').
Varying degrees of L-velarization among dialects: is dark irrespective of position in Balearic and Central Catalan and might tend to vocalization in some cases. In Western varieties like Valencian, this dark l contrasts with a clear l in intervocalic and word-initial position; while in other dialects, like Alguerese or Northern Catalan, is never velarized in any instance.
(also known as "historic ") in regular speech in most of Majorcan, Northern Catalan and in the historic comarca of Vallès (Barcelona): merges with in some Latin-derived words with intervocalic L-palatalization (intervocalic + yod (--, --), --, --, and --); e.g. ('straw'). An exception to this rule is initial L-palatalization; e.g. ('moon'). |
1758_30 | The dorso-palatal may occur in complementary distribution with , only in Majorcan varieties that have dorso-palatals rather than the velars found in most dialects: ('war') vs. ('the war').
In northern and transitional Valencian, word-initial and postconsonantal (Eastern Catalan and ) alternates with intervocalically; e.g. 'game', but 'worse', 'crazy' (standard Valencian , ; ; standard Catalan , and ).
In northern Valencia and southern Catalonia has merged with realizations of after a high front vocoid; e.g. ('pottery'), ('I insist') vs. ('to pee'), ('to leave'). In these varieties is not found after other voiced consonants, and merges with after consonants; e.g. ('thorn').
Intervocalic dropping (particularly participles) in regular speech in Valencian, with compensatory lengthening of vowel ; e.g. ('evening'). |
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