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Article 280 of the Constitution.	(ii) Devolution from the State Government based on	recommendations of the State Finance Commission as per Art
243-I.	(iii) Loans / grants from the State Government.	(iv) Programme-specific allocation under Centrally Sponso
Schemes and Additional Central Assistance.	(v) Internal Resource Generation (tax and non-tax).	2. Across the country, States have not given adequate attention to
fiscal empowerment of the Panchayats. The Panchayats own	resources are meager. Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu are	the states which are considered to be progressive in PRIs
empowerment but even there, the Panchayats are heavily	dependent on government grants. One can draw the following	broad conclusions:
(i) Internal resource generation at the Panchayat level is weak. T	is partly due to a thin tax domain and partly due to Panchay	own reluctance in collecting revenue.
(ii) Panchayats are heavily dependent on grants from Union	State Governments.	(iii) A major portion of the grants both from Union as well as the S
Governments is scheme specific. Panchayats have lim	discretion and flexibility in incurring expenditure.	(iv) In view of their own tight fiscal position, State Governments
education, healthcare, water supply, sanitation and m	irrigation even now, it is the State Government which is dire	responsible for implementation of these programmes and he
expenditure.	(vi) Overall, a situation has been created where Panchayats h	responsibility but grossly inadequate resources.
3. Though, in absolute terms, the quantum of funds the	Union/State Government transfers to a Panchayat forms the	major component of its receipt, the PRI’s own resource
generation is the soul behind its financial standing. It is not only	a question of resources; it is the existence of a local taxation	system which ensures people’s involvement in the affairs of an
elected body. It also makes the institution accountable to its	citizens.	4. In terms of own resource collection, the Gram Panchayats are
comparatively in a better position because they have a tax	domain of their own, while the other two tiers are dependent only	on tolls, fees and non-tax revenue for generating internal
resources.	5. State Panchayati Raj Acts have given most of the taxation	powers to Village Panchayats. The revenue domain of the
intermediate and District Panchayats (both tax as well as non-	tax) has been kept much smaller and remains confined to	secondary areas like ferry services, markets, water and
conservancy services, registration of vehicles, cess on stamp	duty and a few others.	6. A study of various State Legislations indicates that a number of
taxes, duties, tolls and fees come under the jurisdiction of the	Village Panchayats. These interalia include octroi, prop-	erty/house tax, profession tax, land tax/cess, taxes/tolls on
vehicles, entertainment tax/fees, license fees, tax on non-	agriculture land, fee on registration of cattle, sanitation/drainage/	conservancy tax, water rate/ tax, lighting rate/tax, education cess
REASONS FOR INEFFECTIVE PERFORMANCE	Even after conferring the constitutional status and protection through	the 73rd Amendment Act (1992), the performance of the Panchayati
Raj Institutions (PRIs) has not been satisfactory and not upto the	expected level. The various reasons for this sub-optimal performance	are as follows7b:
1. Lack of adequate devolution: Many States have not taken	adequate steps to devolve 3Fs (i.e., functions, funds and	functionaries) to the PRIs to enable them to discharge their
constitutionally stipulated function. Further, it is imperative that	the PRIs have resources to match the responsibilities entrusted	to them. While SFCs (state finance commissions) have
submitted their recommendations, not many few States have	implemented these or taken steps to ensure the fiscal viability of	the PRIs.
2. Excessive control by bureaucracy: In some States, the Gram	Panchayats have been placed in a position of subordination.	Hence, the Gram Panchayat Sarpanches have to spend
extraordinary amount of time visiting Block Offices for funds	and/or technical approval. These interactions with the Block staff	office distort the role of Sarpanches as elected representatives.
3. Tied nature of funds: This has two implications. The activities	stated under a certain scheme are not always appropriate for all	parts of the district. This results in unsuitable activities being
promoted or an under-spend of the funds.	4. Overwhelming dependency on government funding: A	review of money received and own source funds shows the
overwhelming dependence of Panchayats on government	funding. When Panchayats do not raise resources and instead	receive funds from outside, people are less likely to request a
social audit.	5. Reluctance to use fiscal powers: An important power	devolved to GP (Gram Panchayat) is the right to levy tax on
property, business, markets, fairs and also for services provided,	like street lighting or public toilets, etc. Very few Panchayats use	their fiscal power to levy and collect taxes. The argument
your own constituency, especially when you live in the	community.	6. Status of the Gram Sabha: Empowering the Gram Sabhas
could have been a powerful weapon for transparency,	accountability and for involvement of the marginalized sections.	However, a number of the State Acts have not spelt the powers
of Gram Sabhas nor have any procedures been laid down for	the functioning of these bodies or penalties for the officials.	7. Creation of Parallel Bodies: Often, Parallel Bodies (PBs) are
created for supposedly speedy implementation and greater	accountability. However, there is little evidence to show that such	PBs have avoided the evils including that of partisan politics,
sharing of spoils, corruption and elite capture. Missions (in	particular) often bypassing mainstream programmes, create	disconnect, duality, and alienation between the existing and the
new structures and functions. PBs usurp the legitimate space of	PRIs and demoralize the PRIs by virtue of their superior	resource endowments.
8. Poor Infrastructure: A large number of Gram Panchayats in the	country do not have even full time Secretary. Around 25 percent	of the Gram Panchayats do not have basic office buildings. The
database for planning, monitoring etc., are lacking in most of the	cases.	A large number of elected representatives of PRIs are semi-
literate or literate and know little about their roles &	responsibilities, programmes, procedures, systems. Often for	want of good, relevant and periodic training, they are not able to
perform their functions properly.	Although all the District and Intermediate Panchayats are	connected with computers, only around 20% Gram Panchayats
reported to be having computing facility. In some States, Village	Panchayats do not have any computing facility.	Table 38.2 Articles Related to Panchayats at a Glance
Article No. Subject-matter	243. Definitions	243A. Gram Sabha
243C. Composition of panchayats	243D. Reservation of seats	243E. Duration of panchayats, and so on
243F. Disqualifications for membership	243G. Powers, authority and responsibilities of panchayats	243H. Powers to impose taxes by, and funds of, the
panchayats	243-I. Constitution of finance commission to review financial	position
243J. Audit of accounts of panchayats	243K. Elections to the panchayats	243L. Application to union territories
243M. Part not to apply to certain areas	243N. Continuance of existing laws and panchayats	243-O. Bar to interference by courts in electoral matters
Table 38.3 Name of Panchayati Raj Institutions in the States (2019)8	Sl. No. State Panchayati Raj	Institutions
1. Andhra Pradesh 1. Gram Panchayats	2. Mandal Parishads	3. Zilla Parishads
2. Arunachal Pradesh 1. Gram Panchayats	2. Anchal Samities	3. Zilla Parishads
3. Assam 1. Goan Panchayats	2. Anchalic Panchayats	3. Zilla Parishads
4. Bihar 1. Village Panchayats	2. Panchayat Samities	3. Zilla Parishads
5. Chattisgarh 1. Gram Panchayats	2. Janpad Panchayats	3. Zilla Panchayats
6. Goa 1. Village Panchayats	2. Zilla Panchayats	7. Gujarat 1. Village Panchayats
2. Taluka Panchayats	3. District Panchayats	8. Haryana 1. Gram Panchayats
2. Panchayat Samities	3. Zilla Parishads	9. Himachal Pradesh 1. Gram Panchayats
2. Panchayat Samities	3. Zilla Panchayats	10. Jharkhand 1. Gram Panchayats
2. Panchayat Samities	3. Zilla Panchayats	11. Karnataka 1. Gram Panchayats
2. Taluka Panchayats	3. Zilla Panchayats	12. Kerala 1. Village Panchayats
2. Block Panchayats	3. District Panchayats	13. Madhya Pradesh 1. Village Panchayats
2. Block Panchayats	3. District Panchayats	14. Maharashtra 1. Village Panchayats
2. Panchayat Samities	3. Zilla Parishads	15. Manipur 1. Gram Panchayats
2. Zilla Panchayats	16. Odisha 1. Gram Panchayats	2. Panchayat Samities
3. Zilla Parishads	17. Punjab 1. Gram Panchayats	2. Panchayat Samities
3. Zilla Parishads	18. Rajasthan 1. Gram Panchayats	2. Panchayat Samities
19. Sikkim 1. Gram Panchayats	2. Zilla Panchayats	20. Tamil Nadu 1. Village Panchayats
2. Panchayat Unions	3. District Panchayats	21. Telangana 1. Gram Panchayats
2. Mandal Parishads	3. Zilla Parishads	22. Tripura 1. Gram Panchayats
2. Panchayat Samities	3. Zilla Panchayats	23. Uttar Pradesh 1. Gram Panchayats
2. Kshetra Panchayats	3. Zilla Panchayats	24. Uttarakhand 1. Gram Panchayats
2. Intermediate	Panchayats	3. District Panchayats
25. West Bengal 1. Gram Panchayats	2. Panchayat Samities	3. Zilla Parishads
Table 38.4 Milestones in the Evolution of Panchayati Raj9	I. Towards First Generation Panchayats	1948– Constituent Assembly debates on the role of Panchayati Raj
49 in Indian polity	1950 The Constitution of India comes into force on 26 January;	Directive Principles of State Policy mention village panchayats
as ‘units of self-government’ (Art 40)	1952 Community Development Programme starts on 2nd October	1957 Balvantrai Mehta Committee, appointed in January, submits
its report on 24 November	1958– Several state governments enact new Panchayat Acts	60 bringing in three-tier panchayat system
at Nagaur in Rajasthan on 2nd October Kerala District Council	Bill is introduced in Kerala Assembly; lapses after Assembly is	dissolved
1964– Decline of first generation Panchayati Raj Institutions	77	II. Growth and Decline of Second Generation Panchayats
1978 Panchayat elections are held in West Bengal on party basis	on 4th June–marking the beginning of second generation of	Panchayati Raj.
Ashok Mehta Committee on working of panchayats, appointed	on 12 December 1977, submits its report on 21 August	1983 Karnataka government enacts new PR Act
1984 Hanumantha Rao Committee on district level planning,	appointed by Planning Commission in September 1982,	submits its report in May
1985 Karnataka PR Act receives President’s assent in July; comes	into force on 14th August	1985 G.V.K. Rao Committee on administrative aspects of rural
development, appointed by Planning Commission on 25	March, submits its report in December	1986 Andhra Pradesh follows West Bengal and Karnataka
Panchayati Raj Model	1987 Karnataka holds panchayat elections in January	1990– Panchayats are dissolved and brought under administrators in
92 Karnataka	III. Constitutionalisation of Panchayati Raj	1986 L.M. Singhvi Committee submits its report on 27 November;
recommends constitutional status for panchayats	1988 Consultative Committee of Parliament appoints a sub-	committee under chairpersonship of P.K. Thungon to consider
Constitutional Amendment	1989 64th Constitutional Amendment Bill is introduced in Parliament	on 15 May; is defeated in Rajya Sabha on 15 October
1991 72nd (Panchayats) and 73rd (Municipalities) Amendment Bills	are introduced in Parliament; referred to the Parliament’s Joint	Select Committee in September
1992 Lok Sabha passes both the Bills on 22 December; Rajya	Sabha passes them on 23 December	1993 73rd Amendment Act, 1992 comes into force on 24 April
74th Amendment Act, 1992 comes into force on 1 June	1993– All state governments pass Conformity Acts between 30 May,	94 1993 and 23 April, 1994
1994 Madhya Pradesh holds panchayat elections under the 73rd	Amendment dispensation on 30 May	1996 Provisions of the Panchayats (Extension to the Scheduled
Areas) Act, 1996, extending 73rd Amendment Act to	Scheduled Areas, comes into force on 24 December.	Kerala launches People’s Plan Campaign on 16 August
2001 Bihar holds panchayat elections after 23 years (11–30 April)	2001 83rd Constitutional Amendment Act, 2000 amends Art. 243-M	to dispense with reservations for Scheduled Castes in
Arunachal Pradesh–paving way for panchayat elections in the	only state yet to hold them under the new dispensation	Table 38.5 Committees Related to Panchayati Raj (After
Constitutionalisation)	Sl. Name of the Committee Chairman Appointed Reported	No. in in
1. Task Force on Devolution Lalit Mathur 2001 2001	of Powers and Functions	to Panchayati Raj
Institutions	2. Expert Group on V. 2005 2006	Planning at the Ramachandran
Grassroots Level	3. Task Force for Smt. Rajwant 2008 2008	Preparation of a Manual Sandhu
4. Committee on V. 2010 2012	Restructuring of DRDA Ramachandran	(District Rural

Article 280 of the Constitution.

(ii) Devolution from the State Government based on

recommendations of the State Finance Commission as per Art

243-I.

(iii) Loans / grants from the State Government.

(iv) Programme-specific allocation under Centrally Sponso

Schemes and Additional Central Assistance.

(v) Internal Resource Generation (tax and non-tax).

2. Across the country, States have not given adequate attention to

fiscal empowerment of the Panchayats. The Panchayats own

resources are meager. Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu are

the states which are considered to be progressive in PRIs

empowerment but even there, the Panchayats are heavily

dependent on government grants. One can draw the following

broad conclusions:

(i) Internal resource generation at the Panchayat level is weak. T

is partly due to a thin tax domain and partly due to Panchay

own reluctance in collecting revenue.

(ii) Panchayats are heavily dependent on grants from Union

State Governments.

(iii) A major portion of the grants both from Union as well as the S

Governments is scheme specific. Panchayats have lim

discretion and flexibility in incurring expenditure.

(iv) In view of their own tight fiscal position, State Governments

education, healthcare, water supply, sanitation and m

irrigation even now, it is the State Government which is dire

responsible for implementation of these programmes and he

expenditure.

(vi) Overall, a situation has been created where Panchayats h

responsibility but grossly inadequate resources.

3. Though, in absolute terms, the quantum of funds the

Union/State Government transfers to a Panchayat forms the

major component of its receipt, the PRI’s own resource

generation is the soul behind its financial standing. It is not only

a question of resources; it is the existence of a local taxation

system which ensures people’s involvement in the affairs of an

elected body. It also makes the institution accountable to its

citizens.

4. In terms of own resource collection, the Gram Panchayats are

comparatively in a better position because they have a tax

domain of their own, while the other two tiers are dependent only

on tolls, fees and non-tax revenue for generating internal

resources.

5. State Panchayati Raj Acts have given most of the taxation

powers to Village Panchayats. The revenue domain of the

intermediate and District Panchayats (both tax as well as non-

tax) has been kept much smaller and remains confined to

secondary areas like ferry services, markets, water and

conservancy services, registration of vehicles, cess on stamp

duty and a few others.

6. A study of various State Legislations indicates that a number of

taxes, duties, tolls and fees come under the jurisdiction of the

Village Panchayats. These interalia include octroi, prop-

erty/house tax, profession tax, land tax/cess, taxes/tolls on

vehicles, entertainment tax/fees, license fees, tax on non-

agriculture land, fee on registration of cattle, sanitation/drainage/

conservancy tax, water rate/ tax, lighting rate/tax, education cess

REASONS FOR INEFFECTIVE PERFORMANCE

Even after conferring the constitutional status and protection through

the 73rd Amendment Act (1992), the performance of the Panchayati

Raj Institutions (PRIs) has not been satisfactory and not upto the

expected level. The various reasons for this sub-optimal performance

are as follows7b:

1. Lack of adequate devolution: Many States have not taken

adequate steps to devolve 3Fs (i.e., functions, funds and

functionaries) to the PRIs to enable them to discharge their

constitutionally stipulated function. Further, it is imperative that

the PRIs have resources to match the responsibilities entrusted

to them. While SFCs (state finance commissions) have

submitted their recommendations, not many few States have

implemented these or taken steps to ensure the fiscal viability of

the PRIs.

2. Excessive control by bureaucracy: In some States, the Gram

Panchayats have been placed in a position of subordination.

Hence, the Gram Panchayat Sarpanches have to spend

extraordinary amount of time visiting Block Offices for funds

and/or technical approval. These interactions with the Block staff

office distort the role of Sarpanches as elected representatives.

3. Tied nature of funds: This has two implications. The activities

stated under a certain scheme are not always appropriate for all

parts of the district. This results in unsuitable activities being

promoted or an under-spend of the funds.

4. Overwhelming dependency on government funding: A

review of money received and own source funds shows the

overwhelming dependence of Panchayats on government

funding. When Panchayats do not raise resources and instead

receive funds from outside, people are less likely to request a

social audit.

5. Reluctance to use fiscal powers: An important power

devolved to GP (Gram Panchayat) is the right to levy tax on

property, business, markets, fairs and also for services provided,

like street lighting or public toilets, etc. Very few Panchayats use

their fiscal power to levy and collect taxes. The argument

your own constituency, especially when you live in the

community.

6. Status of the Gram Sabha: Empowering the Gram Sabhas

could have been a powerful weapon for transparency,

accountability and for involvement of the marginalized sections.

However, a number of the State Acts have not spelt the powers

of Gram Sabhas nor have any procedures been laid down for

the functioning of these bodies or penalties for the officials.

7. Creation of Parallel Bodies: Often, Parallel Bodies (PBs) are

created for supposedly speedy implementation and greater

accountability. However, there is little evidence to show that such

PBs have avoided the evils including that of partisan politics,

sharing of spoils, corruption and elite capture. Missions (in

particular) often bypassing mainstream programmes, create

disconnect, duality, and alienation between the existing and the

new structures and functions. PBs usurp the legitimate space of

PRIs and demoralize the PRIs by virtue of their superior

resource endowments.

8. Poor Infrastructure: A large number of Gram Panchayats in the

country do not have even full time Secretary. Around 25 percent

of the Gram Panchayats do not have basic office buildings. The

database for planning, monitoring etc., are lacking in most of the

cases.

A large number of elected representatives of PRIs are semi-

literate or literate and know little about their roles &

responsibilities, programmes, procedures, systems. Often for

want of good, relevant and periodic training, they are not able to

perform their functions properly.

Although all the District and Intermediate Panchayats are

connected with computers, only around 20% Gram Panchayats

reported to be having computing facility. In some States, Village

Panchayats do not have any computing facility.

Table 38.2 Articles Related to Panchayats at a Glance

Article No. Subject-matter

243. Definitions

243A. Gram Sabha

243C. Composition of panchayats

243D. Reservation of seats

243E. Duration of panchayats, and so on

243F. Disqualifications for membership

243G. Powers, authority and responsibilities of panchayats

243H. Powers to impose taxes by, and funds of, the

panchayats

243-I. Constitution of finance commission to review financial

position

243J. Audit of accounts of panchayats

243K. Elections to the panchayats

243L. Application to union territories

243M. Part not to apply to certain areas

243N. Continuance of existing laws and panchayats

243-O. Bar to interference by courts in electoral matters

Table 38.3 Name of Panchayati Raj Institutions in the States (2019)8

Sl. No. State Panchayati Raj

Institutions

1. Andhra Pradesh 1. Gram Panchayats

2. Mandal Parishads

3. Zilla Parishads

2. Arunachal Pradesh 1. Gram Panchayats

2. Anchal Samities

3. Zilla Parishads

3. Assam 1. Goan Panchayats

2. Anchalic Panchayats

3. Zilla Parishads

4. Bihar 1. Village Panchayats

2. Panchayat Samities

3. Zilla Parishads

5. Chattisgarh 1. Gram Panchayats

2. Janpad Panchayats

3. Zilla Panchayats

6. Goa 1. Village Panchayats

2. Zilla Panchayats

7. Gujarat 1. Village Panchayats

2. Taluka Panchayats

3. District Panchayats

8. Haryana 1. Gram Panchayats

2. Panchayat Samities

3. Zilla Parishads

9. Himachal Pradesh 1. Gram Panchayats

2. Panchayat Samities

3. Zilla Panchayats

10. Jharkhand 1. Gram Panchayats

2. Panchayat Samities

3. Zilla Panchayats

11. Karnataka 1. Gram Panchayats

2. Taluka Panchayats

3. Zilla Panchayats

12. Kerala 1. Village Panchayats

2. Block Panchayats

3. District Panchayats

13. Madhya Pradesh 1. Village Panchayats

2. Block Panchayats

3. District Panchayats

14. Maharashtra 1. Village Panchayats

2. Panchayat Samities

3. Zilla Parishads

15. Manipur 1. Gram Panchayats

2. Zilla Panchayats

16. Odisha 1. Gram Panchayats

2. Panchayat Samities

3. Zilla Parishads

17. Punjab 1. Gram Panchayats

2. Panchayat Samities

3. Zilla Parishads

18. Rajasthan 1. Gram Panchayats

2. Panchayat Samities

19. Sikkim 1. Gram Panchayats

2. Zilla Panchayats

20. Tamil Nadu 1. Village Panchayats

2. Panchayat Unions

3. District Panchayats

21. Telangana 1. Gram Panchayats

2. Mandal Parishads

3. Zilla Parishads

22. Tripura 1. Gram Panchayats

2. Panchayat Samities

3. Zilla Panchayats

23. Uttar Pradesh 1. Gram Panchayats

2. Kshetra Panchayats

3. Zilla Panchayats

24. Uttarakhand 1. Gram Panchayats

2. Intermediate

Panchayats

3. District Panchayats

25. West Bengal 1. Gram Panchayats

2. Panchayat Samities

3. Zilla Parishads

Table 38.4 Milestones in the Evolution of Panchayati Raj9

I. Towards First Generation Panchayats

1948– Constituent Assembly debates on the role of Panchayati Raj

49 in Indian polity

1950 The Constitution of India comes into force on 26 January;

Directive Principles of State Policy mention village panchayats

as ‘units of self-government’ (Art 40)

1952 Community Development Programme starts on 2nd October

1957 Balvantrai Mehta Committee, appointed in January, submits

its report on 24 November

1958– Several state governments enact new Panchayat Acts

60 bringing in three-tier panchayat system

at Nagaur in Rajasthan on 2nd October Kerala District Council

Bill is introduced in Kerala Assembly; lapses after Assembly is

dissolved

1964– Decline of first generation Panchayati Raj Institutions

77

II. Growth and Decline of Second Generation Panchayats

1978 Panchayat elections are held in West Bengal on party basis

on 4th June–marking the beginning of second generation of

Panchayati Raj.

Ashok Mehta Committee on working of panchayats, appointed

on 12 December 1977, submits its report on 21 August

1983 Karnataka government enacts new PR Act

1984 Hanumantha Rao Committee on district level planning,

appointed by Planning Commission in September 1982,

submits its report in May

1985 Karnataka PR Act receives President’s assent in July; comes

into force on 14th August

1985 G.V.K. Rao Committee on administrative aspects of rural

development, appointed by Planning Commission on 25

March, submits its report in December

1986 Andhra Pradesh follows West Bengal and Karnataka

Panchayati Raj Model

1987 Karnataka holds panchayat elections in January

1990– Panchayats are dissolved and brought under administrators in

92 Karnataka

III. Constitutionalisation of Panchayati Raj

1986 L.M. Singhvi Committee submits its report on 27 November;

recommends constitutional status for panchayats

1988 Consultative Committee of Parliament appoints a sub-

committee under chairpersonship of P.K. Thungon to consider

Constitutional Amendment

1989 64th Constitutional Amendment Bill is introduced in Parliament

on 15 May; is defeated in Rajya Sabha on 15 October

1991 72nd (Panchayats) and 73rd (Municipalities) Amendment Bills

are introduced in Parliament; referred to the Parliament’s Joint

Select Committee in September

1992 Lok Sabha passes both the Bills on 22 December; Rajya

Sabha passes them on 23 December

1993 73rd Amendment Act, 1992 comes into force on 24 April

74th Amendment Act, 1992 comes into force on 1 June

1993– All state governments pass Conformity Acts between 30 May,

94 1993 and 23 April, 1994

1994 Madhya Pradesh holds panchayat elections under the 73rd

Amendment dispensation on 30 May

1996 Provisions of the Panchayats (Extension to the Scheduled

Areas) Act, 1996, extending 73rd Amendment Act to

Scheduled Areas, comes into force on 24 December.

Kerala launches People’s Plan Campaign on 16 August

2001 Bihar holds panchayat elections after 23 years (11–30 April)

2001 83rd Constitutional Amendment Act, 2000 amends Art. 243-M

to dispense with reservations for Scheduled Castes in

Arunachal Pradesh–paving way for panchayat elections in the

only state yet to hold them under the new dispensation

Table 38.5 Committees Related to Panchayati Raj (After

Constitutionalisation)

Sl. Name of the Committee Chairman Appointed Reported

No. in in

1. Task Force on Devolution Lalit Mathur 2001 2001

of Powers and Functions

to Panchayati Raj

Institutions

2. Expert Group on V. 2005 2006

Planning at the Ramachandran

Grassroots Level

3. Task Force for Smt. Rajwant 2008 2008

Preparation of a Manual Sandhu

4. Committee on V. 2010 2012

Restructuring of DRDA Ramachandran

(District Rural