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9,461,189	Portrait of a Young Girl (Christus)	1,119,086,557	Oil on oak painting by Petrus Christus	[ "1460s paintings", "15th-century portraits", "Paintings by Petrus Christus", "Paintings in the Gemäldegalerie, Berlin" ]	Portrait of a Young Girl is a small oil-on-oak panel painting by the Early Netherlandish painter Petrus Christus. It was completed towards the end of his life, between 1465 and 1470, and is held in the Gemäldegalerie, Berlin. It marks a major stylistic advance in contemporary portraiture; the girl is set in an airy, three-dimensional, realistic setting, and stares out at the viewer with a complicated expression that is reserved, yet intelligent and alert. It is widely regarded as one of the most exquisite portraits of the Northern Renaissance. Art historian Joel Upton described the sitter as resembling "a polished pearl, almost opalescent, lying on a cushion of black velvet." The panel builds on the work of Jan van Eyck and Rogier van der Weyden, and was highly influential in the decades after its completion. Its appeal lies in part in her intriguing stare, accentuated by the slight misalignment of her eyes, while the eyebrows are faintly skewed. ## Description Christus frames his sitter in a rigid and balanced architectural setting. She is positioned within a narrow rectangular space, before a wainscotted wall. The image is divided by the horizontal parallel lines of her wainscot and blouse, which join at the inverted triangle formed by the neckline of her dress. The rendering of the background departs somewhat from contemporary conventions in portraiture: Christus sets the girl against a dark brown wall with little detail, in contrast to the elaborate interiors of Jan van Eyck, who is often regarded as Christus' master. It is defined entirely by its material, a wooden dado rail along the top and the wainscot that forms the lower portion. The wall sets her in a realistic interior, perhaps intended to represent a space within her home. Light falls on the pictorial space from the left, creating shadows against the back wall, the strongest cast by the girl's hennin. The depth of space provided by the back wall gives room for this detailing, which Charles Sterling believes is indebted to van Eyck. The light throws a murky but curved shadow on the wall behind the girl and acts as a counterpoint to the contour of her cheek and hairline. The girl has pale skin, almond and slightly oriental eyes and a petulant mouth. She reflects the Gothic ideal of elongated facial features, narrow shoulders, tightly pinned hair and an almost unnaturally long forehead, achieved through tightly pulled-back hair which has been plucked at the top. She is dressed in expensive clothing and jewellery and seems to be uncommonly elegant. She looks out of the canvas in an oblique but self-aware and penetrating manner that some art historians have described as unnerving. Joanna Woods-Marsden remarks that a sitter acknowledging her audience in this way was virtually unprecedented even in Italian portrait painting. Her acknowledgment is accentuated by the painting's crop, which focuses the viewer's gaze in a near-invasive manner that seems to question the relationship between artist, model, patron and viewer. The headdress is a variant of the truncated or bee-hive hennin, then fashionable at the Burgundian court. A very similar style, with no tail, is seen on the older of two girls in the donor panels of Presentation of Christ by the Master of the Prado Adoration of the Magi, a pupil of Rogier van der Weyden. The black band under the chin is rarely found in other images from the period, and has been interpreted as a style borrowed from the male chaperon hat, which always has a long tailing tail or cornette, sometimes worn wrapped under the chin in this way. The influence of van Eyck can be seen in the delicate rendering of the textures and details of the dress, trimmings and adornments. Her pale skin and strong bone structure is strongly van Eyckian, and recalls the male sitter in his Arnolfini Portrait. But in other ways Christus abandons the developments made by van Eyck and Robert Campin. He reduces the emphasis on volume of those artists, in favour of an elongation of form; the narrow, slight upper body and head are, according to the German art historian Robert Suckale, "heightened by the V-shaped neckline of the ermine and the cylindrical hat." Further, while the first generation of Early Netherlandish painters benefited from the patronage of the newly emerging middle class, secularising portraiture, and removing it from the preserve of royalty, Christus renders the girl as aristocratic, haughty, sophisticated, and exquisitely dressed. ## Identity of the sitter In a letter dated 1824 or 1825 Gustav Waagen, later Director of the Berlin Museums, gave his interpretation of Latin inscriptions he had seen on the original frame of the portrait, which was subsequently lost. As well as a Christus signature, he found an identification of the sitter as "a niece of the famous Talbot" (eine Nichte des berühmten Talbots). His research led to a consensus that the sitter was a member of the leading English family, the Talbots, then headed by the Earl of Shrewsbury. In 1863 George Scharf suggested the panel was intended as the right-hand wing to a diptych with the 1446 Portrait of Edward Grimston (or "Grymston") in the National Gallery, London, leading to speculation that the girl might be Grimston's first wife, Alice. This was rejected by Grete Ring in 1913, on the basis that neither the dimensions nor background of the panels match, and that the Berlin panel was most probably completed some 20–30 years after the Grimston portrait. Joel Upton, supporting Waagen's analysis, investigated whether the "famous Talbot" was John Talbot, 1st Earl of Shrewsbury, killed at the Battle of Castillon in 1453. However, John Talbot had only one niece, Ankaret, who died in infancy in 1421. Lorne Campbell suggests that given the Latin signature, Waagen might have misinterpreted the word "nepos", which can also mean "grandchild". Upton concludes that she was more likely a daughter of John Talbot, 2nd Earl of Shrewsbury, either Anne or Margaret. Their parents married between 1444 and 1445, suggesting that the sitter was under 20 at the time of the portrait. She may have travelled to Bruges to attend the famously lavish wedding in 1468 of Margaret of York, sister of Edward IV of England, to Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy. ## Provenance The earliest extant record of the painting is in a 1492 inventory of the Medici family, where it is described as a small panel bust of a French lady, coloured in oil, the work of Pietro Cresci of Bruges. However, it seems from other works in the collection that the scribe was uninformed and noted any piece of northern art in the collection as "French". It was highly valued, with an unusually high price of 40 florins, and prominently displayed. The record does not address the matter of the girl's identity beyond her nationality, indicating that the painting was regarded as of aesthetic rather than historical interest. In the 20th century Erwin Panofsky was instrumental in furthering Christus' reputation as a major 15th-century northern painter, described the work as an "enchanting, almost French-looking portrait", perhaps noting the resemblance to the virgin in Jean Fouquet's Melun Diptych. Sterling picks up on this, noting the many similarities between the two women, including their tightly pulled-back hair, high cheek bones, slanted eyes and sulky expressions. The portrait entered the Prussian royal collection with the purchase in 1821 of the Edward Solly collection, from which the then-recently formed Gemäldegalerie, Berlin, was allowed to take its pick. It was positively identified in 1825 as an original by Christus when Waagen identified the lettering on the (now lost) frame "PETR XPI" as shorthand for "Petrus Christophori", which he associated with the "Pietro Christa" mentioned by Giorgio Vasari in the 1568 edition of his "Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects". In this way, Waagen also identified Christus' so-called Saint Eligius panel, now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York (and seen as just a portrait of a goldsmith), marking the painter's rediscovery after centuries of obscurity. Before this identification, a number of his paintings had been attributed to Jan van Eyck, but became identified with Christus after Waagen established him as a distinct and separate master. Christus is known to have signed six extant works, sometimes with the text "PETR XPI ME FECIT" (Petr Xpi made me). Over the next century sketches of Christus' biography were constructed, as art historians – notably Panofsky – slowly disentangled his works from those of van Eyck. ## Dating The painting was dated c. 1446 by Wolfgang Schöne in the 1930s, mainly by matching the style and fashion of her clothing to contemporary trends. In the early 20th century the dating and authorship of works then attributed to Christus were challenged. Max Friedländer proposed a number of dates and an ordering of works in the 1957 volume of his Early Netherlandish painting, but many of his assumptions were discounted by Otto Pächt just a few years later. In 1953, Erwin Panofsky established that Schöne's dating was at least twenty years too early. In his view, the girl's dress resembles Burgundian high fashion of the late 1460s to mid-1470s. He compared the hennin worn by Maria Portinari in a c. 1470 portrait by Hans Memling, and her gown to that worn by a lady in an illumination from around the 1470s Froissart of Louis of Gruuthuse of Bruges. Sterling, placing the work as c. 1465, remarks that the hennin in the Berlin panel is of a different type to that of the New York painting. The New York headdress is far more extended, and seems to be of a style prevalent a few years after, and moreover lacks the draped and hanging veil. Sterling further notes that the panel has increased depth of field and more intricate detailing of light than Christus' earlier works. On this basis he believes the work was executed late in the artist's career.	[ "## Description", "## Identity of the sitter", "## Provenance", "## Dating" ]	2,227	43,007
42,075,290	Statue of William the Silent	1,170,726,277	Bronze statue by Dupuis after Royer	[ "1920 sculptures", "Bronze sculptures in New Jersey", "Buildings and structures in New Brunswick, New Jersey", "Cultural depictions of William the Silent", "Dutch-American culture in New Jersey", "Outdoor sculptures in New Jersey", "Rutgers University", "Sculptures of men in New Jersey", "Statues in New Jersey", "Statues of monarchs", "Tourist attractions in New Brunswick, New Jersey", "Vandalized works of art in New Jersey" ]	A bronze statue of William the Silent (also known as Willie the Silent and Still Bill) was installed in 1928 on the Voorhees Mall section of Rutgers University's College Avenue Campus in New Brunswick, New Jersey. It is along Seminary Place, a street at the western end of the Voorhees Mall, and near several academic buildings, including the university's Graduate School of Education, Van Dyke Hall, and Milledoler Hall. The statue is of William I, Prince of Orange (1533–1584), an early leader of the Dutch revolt against Habsburg Spain which led to the Netherlands' independence in 1648. It was donated by Dr. Fenton B. Turck to commemorate the university's Dutch heritage. Turck, with the assistance of railroad executive and Rutgers alumnus Leonor F. Loree, arranged the anonymous donation through the Holland Society of New York. The statue has continued to be part of student life as the Voorhees Mall had been the site of student and community events, including graduation ceremonies, pep rallies, festivals, and protests. It has occasionally been a target of vandalism in the historical rivalry between students of Rutgers and Princeton University. It was restored in 2006 in an effort funded by alumni donations. ## History ### Acquisition and installation While travelling in Europe after World War I, biologist and physician Dr. Fenton Benedict Turck (1857–1932) purchased a bronze statue of William I (1533–1584), Count of Nassau, Prince of Orange, and national hero of the Netherlands. William, known as "William the Silent" (Dutch: Willem de Zwijger) and "William of Orange" (Dutch: Willem van Oranje), was the main leader of the Dutch revolt against the Spanish that set off the Eighty Years' War and resulted in the formal independence of the United Provinces in 1648. For this reason, William is known as the "Father of the Fatherland" (Dutch: Vader des Vaderlands) of the Netherlands. The statue is a replica of a similar monument created in 1848 by Dutch sculptor Lodewyk Royer (1793–1868) that was installed in Het Plein, a city square in the Hague's Oude Centrum (trans. "Old Center"). The plaster mold for Royer's original statue was kept in Brussels during World War I and after the war, the Dutch government permitted one copy of the statue to be made by sculptor Toon Dupuis (1877–1937) at the Fonderie Nationale des Bronzes, a foundry in Brussels, before destroying the mold. A graduate of Chicago's Northwestern University Medical School, Turck was an internist, medical researcher in cell biology, inventor of cytost serum, and author of The Action of the Living Cell (1933) as well as many tracts on gastrointestinal diseases. Turck was a direct descendant of Dr. Paschasius Turck, a sixteenth-century Dutch physician who treated William the Silent after he received severe wounds in a 1581 assassination attempt. During his return voyage to the United States, Turck "began to feel guilty about the great cost of the statue" and decided to keep the purchase hidden from his wife by storing the statue in the basement of his New York City laboratory at 428 Lafayette Street in Lower Manhattan. It remained in Turck's possession, stored in the laboratory basement, for eight years (1920–1928). Turck had become a member of the Holland Society of New York in 1917 and was active in their events and affairs. As early as 1887, the Holland Society had sought to install a prominent monument in New York City to celebrate the city's Dutch heritage. The society agreed on William the Silent as the monument's subject in 1892 and was urged to install the monument in the city's Central Park. In the following years, the society considered commissioning the work from prominent American sculptors Augustus Saint-Gaudens (1848–1907) and Daniel Chester French (1850–1931). In 1913, Tunis Bergen, a physician chairing the Holland Society's committee investigating options for a monument, visited the Netherlands and enquired whether a copy of the Royer's statue in the Hague could be made and took measurements and photographs of the work. Subsequently, World War I delayed the society's plans. Throughout the 1920s, the Holland Society had proposed to install Turck's statue in several locations in New York City, in Albany, New York, and other locations along the Hudson Valley. In 1924, the Holland Society of New York renewed its efforts to install a monument in a prominent location in New York City's Central Park. The proposal was initially accepted by city Parks Commissioner Francis Dawson Gallatin (1870–1933), but opposed by the city's Art Commission. The Art Commission's assistant secretary H. R. Marshall recommended that the statue be donated to Rutgers College as they recently installed a new college president, John Martin Thomas, adding that it would be a "nice new and very visible gift, tying the university to its Dutch legacy at the height of the fashion for colonial revivals". While Turck was having dinner with his close friend, railroad executive Leonor Fresnel Loree (1858–1940) discussed the Dutch roots of Rutgers University, his alma mater, and convinced Turck to donate the statue to the university. At the time, Loree was serving on the college's board of trustees. Rutgers, chartered in 1766 as Queen's College was the eighth of nine colleges established before the American Revolution and had been founded by Dutch Reformed clergymen from New York and New Jersey. After its founding, the college was affiliated with the church through the early nineteenth century, and graduated many students of Dutch ancestry. Turck desired to donate the statue anonymously, and with Loree's assistance, arranged for the Holland Society to transfer the statue to Rutgers. Bergen, now a Rutgers trustee in addition to continuing his efforts as chairman of the Holland Society's statue committee, said that it was "particularly fitting that the statue should stand on the grounds of the educational institution founded by descendants of the Netherlands." The statue was delivered and installed at Rutgers at the western end of the Voorhees Mall. It was dedicated during a ceremony held on June 9, 1928. ### Involvement in campus life Rutgers students affectionately call the statue "Willie the Silent" and "Still Bill." According to student tradition, the statue is expected to whistle should a virgin happen to walk by. However, Rutgers American studies professor and folklorist Angus Kress Gillespie remarked "But over the last 200 years, he hasn't yet whistled." Nevertheless, the statue has continued to be included in student life as the Voorhees Mall was used as the site of student and community events, graduation ceremonies (until 2007), pep rallies for the football team and other athletic teams, Dutch-American festivals, as well as protests including anti-war protests and strike rallies in the 1970s. On the afternoon of October 11, 1976, United States Senator Ted Kennedy of Massachusetts held a campaign rally at Rutgers during the presidential election of 1976. Kennedy addressed a crowd of approximately 1,000 students the Voorhees Mall in front of the statue of William the Silent. Before Kennedy began his speech he "had to quell boos and heckling by some students holding anti-Kennedy signs." Occasionally, the statue is a target of vandalism in ongoing historical rivalry between students of Rutgers and Princeton University. This rivalry which dates to the two schools playing the first intercollegiate football game in New Brunswick in 1869 and an escalating series of pranks and thefts "under the cover of night" including the theft of a cannon on the Princeton campus in 1875 that became known as the Rutgers–Princeton Cannon War. Over the years, Princeton students have frequently doused the William the Silent statue with orange paint, usually in advance of athletic events. On October 11, 1947, before the annual football game between the two schools, "in the early hours of the morning a group of Tigers (i.e. Princeton students) infiltrated the Rutgers campus and painted the statue of William the Silent". In 2006, Rutgers police officers chased several vandals from the site, allegedly Princeton students, who had painted a large penis and the word "Princeton" several times on the statue. The statue was restored in 2006 with funds donated by the university's alumni from the Class of 1956. Approximately \$150,000 in reunion campaign funds were used to restore the four historic gates on the university's historic Queens Campus and the William the Silent statue. It was cleaned to remove the effects of graffiti and transparent tape residue, and conservation efforts were needed to restore the statue's bronze casting and granite base. ## Description In 1928, the statue of William the Silent was installed at the western end of Voorhees Mall, a section of academic buildings on the College Avenue Campus in New Brunswick. It is located along Seminary Place, a city street that flanks the western side of the Mall, and separates the Rutgers campus from that of the New Brunswick Theological Seminary. The statue is placed near several academic buildings, including the university's Graduate School of Education, Van Dyke Hall, and Milledoler Hall. According to the Smithsonian Institution's Art Inventories Catalog, the bronze sculpture is approximately 15 feet in height and installed on a square stone base approximately 6 feet in height. It is recorded as weighing 2,000 pounds. The sculpture depicts William the Silent standing: > "...with his proper right hand raised to his chest, pointing with his index finger. He holds an open scroll with his proper left hand. A small dog sits at his feet on his proper right. William the Silent wears the clothes of a civilian magistrate of the 16th century. He has a moustache and a beard, and he wears a ruffled collar, an open ankle-length coat, a buttoned vest, and bloomers. The sculpture is mounted on a square base." Each of the four side of the statue's square base is inscribed with incised letters: - Front: (facing east): WILLIAM THE SILENT / COUNT OF NASSAU / PRINCE OF ORANGE / MDXXXIII MDLXXXIV - Back (facing west): THE HOLLAND SOCIETY / OF NEW YORK / TO RUTGERS UNIVERSITY / MCMXXVIII - Right (facing south): FATHER OF HIS FATHERLAND / FOUNDER OF THE UNITED / STATES OF THE NETHERLANDS - Left (facing north): AS LONG AS HE LIVED / HE WAS THE GUIDING STAR / OF A WHOLE BRAVE NATION / AND WHEN HE DIED THE / LITTLE CHILDREN CRIED The sculpture bears two inscriptions, a signed Founder's mark, near its base: "ROYER – STATUAIRE" and "FONDERIE NATLE DES BRONZES". ## Gallery	[ "## History", "### Acquisition and installation", "### Involvement in campus life", "## Description", "## Gallery" ]	2,311	26,122
59,894,128	The Rough Patch (book)	1,167,616,971	2018 picture book	[ "2018 children's books", "American picture books", "Caldecott Honor-winning works", "Children's books about death", "Children's books about foxes" ]	The Rough Patch is a 2018 picture book by Brian Lies. An idea of Lies' for more than ten years, when it was published it was well received and was named a 2019 Caldecott Honor book. The story tells of a fox named Evan whose dog dies. Evan then experiences various emotions while grieving before adopting a new dog at the end of the book. The book was praised for Lies' mixed media illustrations, in particular the way he used light and shadow. ## Development Author and illustrator Brian Lies developed the concept in his sketchbook for more than a decade before he decided to turn it into a book. His breakthrough came when he decided that, "Rather than full bleeds throughout, there would be a number of vignettes and pages in which Evan would appear on a stark, white background." White space normally is uncomfortable for Lies, but he felt it important for this particular story. As part of his process, Lies starts with sketches, then does color studies, before doing his final illustrations. Through the development process Evan started as a human, before becoming a bear, a rhino, and finally a fox. Lies felt that a fox's physical characteristics and the lines of the animal would help him to express the character's range of emotions, while a character who was the age of a grandparent would make it harder for children to relate. ## Story Evan, an anthropomorphic fox, does everything with his dog, including working on a garden they both love, until the dog dies one day. Evan buries the dog, shuts himself in his house, and becomes bitter, then angry, destroying the garden in this anger. When weeds grow in the garden, Evan tends these because if the "garden couldn't be a happy place, then it was going to be the saddest most desolate spot he could make it." However, when a pumpkin starts to grow, rather than destroy it Evan tends to it and it grows large enough for him to take it to the fair. At the fair, though still sad, he enjoys himself and reconnects with friends. Evan's pumpkin wins third prize and Evan, after first choosing a cash prize, decides to take a puppy home with him. ## Illustrations and text Lies used acrylics, oils, and colored pencils in creating the book's illustrations. Evan's emotional state is conveyed not only through the text but through the illustrations which provide visual reputations both over and subtle displaying the fox's grief. Lies use of color and light also help to bring both the literal and emotional world to life, with the joyful colors and language at the beginning of the story subsumed in shadow after the death of the dog. The interplay between the text and illustrations through the book's layout was also noted. The way Evan experiences death and processes his grief, which is never explicitly named in the book, is a major theme. The garden serves as a metaphor for Evan's emotional state, vibrant at the beginning, torn to pieces during his grief and rage, and hopeful when the pumpkin begins to grow. In the book emotions are portrayed, not as good or bad but simply what was felt. Through this process, Evan becomes ready to love again. Lies himself sees the book as one that is about hope. ## Awards and reception The book was well reviewed, receiving starred reviews from Booklist, Publishers Weekly, which suggested that, "some sensitive readers may draw back from tragedy this stark, but others will be fascinated by Evan’s mysterious world" and School Library Journal, with librarian Rachel Zuffa praising, "this poignant picture book provides an exquisite depiction of grief and hope." Kirkus Reviews noted the, "charming illustrations." in a generally positive review. In awarding it a Caldecott Honor, the award committee cited the book, "With compelling compositions and mastery of light and shadow, Brian Lies illustrates an emotional arc of loss, grief, healing, and hope." Lies knew the book was being discussed as a potential Caldecott book but had tried to not get his hopes up. Knowing that any call to tell him he'd won would come in early in the morning, he went to the gym mid-morning, leaving his phone in the car. He later tuned into the live stream of the event, not knowing that the committee had tried to contact him when he'd been at the gym. Lies was moved by the Caldecott recognition, "receiving this honor is deeply affecting... It’s a validation of the long years I’ve been trying to learn how to tell stories in pictures."	[ "## Development", "## Story", "## Illustrations and text", "## Awards and reception" ]	926	15,832
1,537,599	Recurrent laryngeal nerve	1,170,668,053	Nerve in the human body	[ "Human throat", "Nerves of the head and neck", "Vagus nerve" ]	The recurrent laryngeal nerve (RLN) is a branch of the vagus nerve (cranial nerve X) that supplies all the intrinsic muscles of the larynx, with the exception of the cricothyroid muscles. There are two recurrent laryngeal nerves, right and left. The right and left nerves are not symmetrical, with the left nerve looping under the aortic arch, and the right nerve looping under the right subclavian artery then traveling upwards. They both travel alongside the trachea. Additionally, the nerves are among the few nerves that follow a recurrent course, moving in the opposite direction to the nerve they branch from, a fact from which they gain their name. The recurrent laryngeal nerves supply sensation to the larynx below the vocal cords, give cardiac branches to the deep cardiac plexus, and branch to the trachea, esophagus and the inferior constrictor muscles. The posterior cricoarytenoid muscles, the only muscles that can open the vocal folds, are innervated by this nerve. The recurrent laryngeal nerves are the nerves of the sixth pharyngeal arch. The existence of the recurrent laryngeal nerve was first documented by the physician Galen. ## Structure The recurrent laryngeal nerves branch from the vagus nerve, relative to which they get their names; the term "recurrent" from Latin: re- (back) and currere (to run), indicates they run in the opposite direction to the vagus nerves from which they branch. The vagus nerves run down into the thorax, and the recurrent laryngeal nerves run up to the larynx. The vagus nerves, from which the recurrent laryngeal nerves branch, exit the skull at the jugular foramen and travel within the carotid sheath alongside the carotid arteries through the neck. The recurrent laryngeal nerves branch off the vagus, the left at the aortic arch, and the right at the right subclavian artery. The left RLN passes in front of the arch, and then wraps underneath and behind it. After branching, the nerves typically ascend in a groove at the junction of the trachea and esophagus. They then pass behind the posterior, middle part of the outer lobes of the thyroid gland and enter the larynx underneath the inferior constrictor muscle, passing into the larynx just posterior to the cricothyroid joint. The terminal branch is called the inferior laryngeal nerve. Unlike the other nerves supplying the larynx, the right and left RLNs lack bilateral symmetry. The left RLN is longer than the right, because it crosses under the arch of the aorta at the ligamentum arteriosum. ### Nucleus The somatic motor fibers that innervate the laryngeal muscles, and pharyngeal muscles are located in the nucleus ambiguus and emerge from the medulla in the cranial root of the accessory nerve. Fibers cross over to and join the vagus nerve in the jugular foramen. Sensory cell bodies are located in the inferior jugular ganglion, and the fibers terminate in the solitary nucleus. Parasympathetic fibers to segments of the trachea and esophagus in the neck originate in the dorsal nucleus of the vagus nerve. ### Development During human and all vertebrate development, a series of pharyngeal arch pairs form in the developing embryo. These project forward from the back of the embryo towards the front of the face and neck. Each arch develops its own artery, nerve that controls a distinct muscle group, and skeletal tissue. The arches are numbered from 1 to 6, with 1 being the arch closest to the head of the embryo, and the fifth arch only existing transiently. Arches 4 and 6 produce the laryngeal cartilages. The nerve of the sixth arch becomes the recurrent laryngeal nerve. The nerve of the fourth arch gives rise to the superior laryngeal nerve. The arteries of the fourth arch, which project between the nerves of the fourth and sixth arches, become the left-sided arch of the aorta and the right subclavian artery. The arteries of the sixth arch persist as the ductus arteriosus on the left, and are obliterated on the right. After birth, the ductus arteriosus regresses to form the ligamentum arteriosum. During growth, these arteries descend into their ultimate positions in the chest, creating the elongated recurrent paths. ### Variation In roughly 1 out of every 100–200 people, the right inferior laryngeal nerve is nonrecurrent, branching off the vagus nerve around the level of the cricoid cartilage. Typically, such a configuration is accompanied by variation in the arrangement of the major arteries in the chest; most commonly, the right subclavian artery arises from the left side of the aorta and crosses behind the esophagus. A left nonrecurrent inferior laryngeal nerve is even more uncommon, requiring the aortic arch be on the right side, accompanied by an arterial variant which prevents the nerve from being drawn into the chest by the left subclavian. In about four people out of five, there is a connecting branch between the inferior laryngeal nerve, a branch of the RLN, and the internal laryngeal nerve, a branch of the superior laryngeal nerve. This is commonly called the anastomosis of Galen (Latin: ansa galeni), even though anastomosis usually refers to a blood vessel, and is one of several documented anastomoses between the two nerves. As the recurrent nerve hooks around the subclavian artery or aorta, it gives off several branches. There is suspected variability in the configuration of these branches to the cardiac plexus, trachea, esophagus and inferior pharyngeal constrictor muscle. ## Function The recurrent laryngeal nerves control all intrinsic muscles of the larynx except for the cricothyroid muscle. These muscles act to open, close, and adjust the tension of the vocal cords, and include the posterior cricoarytenoid muscles, the only muscle to open the vocal cords. The nerves supply muscles on the same side of the body, with the exception of the interarytenoid muscle, which is innervated from both sides. The nerves also carry sensory information from the mucous membranes of the larynx below the lower surface of the vocal fold, as well as sensory, secretory and motor fibres to the cervical segments of the esophagus and the trachea. ## Clinical significance ### Injury The recurrent laryngeal nerves may be injured as a result of trauma, during surgery, as a result of tumour spread, or due to other means. Injury to the recurrent laryngeal nerves can result in a weakened voice (hoarseness) or loss of voice (aphonia) and cause problems in the respiratory tract. Injury to the nerve may paralyze the posterior cricoarytenoid muscle on the same side. This is the sole muscle responsible for opening the vocal cords, and paralysis may cause difficulty breathing (dyspnea) during physical activity. Injury to both the right and left nerve may result in more serious damage, such as the inability to speak. Additional problems may emerge during healing, as nerve fibres that re-anastamose may result in vocal cord motion impairment, uncoordinated movements of the vocal cord. ### Surgery The nerve receives close attention from surgeons because the nerve is at risk for injury during neck surgery, especially thyroid and parathyroid surgery; as well as esophagectomy. Nerve damage can be assessed by laryngoscopy, during which a stroboscopic light confirms the absence of movement in the affected side of the vocal cords. The right recurrent laryngeal nerve is more susceptible to damage during thyroid surgery because it is close to the bifurcation of the right inferior thyroid artery, variably passing in front of, behind, or between the branches. Similarly, thermal injury can occur with the use of radio frequency ablation to remove thyroid nodules. The nerve is permanently damaged in 0.3–3% of thyroid surgeries, and transient paralysis occurs in 3–8% of surgeries; accordingly, recurrent laryngeal nerve damage is one of the leading causes of medicolegal issues for surgeons. A 2019 systematic review concluded that the available evidence shows no difference between visually identifying the nerve or utilizing intraoperative neuroimaging during surgery, when trying to prevent injury to recurrent laryngeal nerve during surgery. ### Tumors The RLN may be compressed by tumors. Studies have shown that 2–18% of lung cancer patients develop hoarseness because of recurrent laryngeal nerve compression, usually left-sided. This is associated with worse outcomes, and when found as a presenting symptom, often indicates inoperable tumors. The nerve may be severed intentionally during lung cancer surgery in order to fully remove a tumor. The RLN may also be damaged by tumors in the neck, especially with malignant lymph nodes with extra-capsular extension of tumor beyond the capsule of the nodes, which may invade the area that carries the ascending nerve on the right or left. ### Other disease In Ortner's syndrome or cardiovocal syndrome, a rare cause of left recurrent laryngeal nerve palsy, expansion of structures within the heart or major blood vessels impinges upon the nerve, causing symptoms of unilateral nerve injury. ## Other animals Horses are subject to equine recurrent laryngeal neuropathy, a disease of the axons of the recurrent laryngeal nerves. The cause is not known, although a genetic predisposition is suspected. The length of the nerve is a factor since it is more common in larger horses, and the left side is affected almost exclusively. As the nerve cells die, there is a progressive paralysis of the larynx, causing the airway to collapse. The common presentation is a sound, ranging from a musical whistle to a harsh roar or heaving gasping noise (stertorous), accompanied by worsening performance. The condition is incurable, but surgery can keep the airway open. Experiments with nerve grafts have been tried. Although uncommon in dogs, bilateral recurrent laryngeal nerve disease may be the cause of wheezing (stridor) when middle-aged dogs inhale. In sauropod dinosaurs, the vertebrates with the longest necks, the total length of the vagus nerve and recurrent laryngeal nerve would have been up to 28 metres (92 ft) long in Supersaurus, but these would not be the longest neurons that ever existed: the neurons reaching the tip of the tail would have exceeded 30 metres (98 ft). ## Evidence of evolution The extreme detour of the recurrent laryngeal nerves, about 4.6 metres (15 ft) in the case of giraffes, is cited as evidence of evolution, as opposed to intelligent design. The nerve's route would have been direct in the fish-like ancestors of modern tetrapods, traveling from the brain, past the heart, to the gills (as it does in modern fish). Over the course of evolution, as the neck extended and the heart became lower in the body, the laryngeal nerve was caught on the wrong side of the heart. Natural selection gradually lengthened the nerve by tiny increments to accommodate, resulting in the circuitous route now observed. ## History Ancient Greek physician Galen demonstrated the nerve course and the clinical syndrome of recurrent laryngeal nerve paralysis, noting that pigs with the nerve severed were unable to squeal. Galen named the nerve the recurrent nerve, and described the same effect in two human infants who had undergone surgery for goiter. In 1838, five years before he would introduce the concept of homology to biology, anatomist Richard Owen reported upon the dissection of three giraffes, including a description of the full course of the left recurrent laryngeal nerve. Anatomists Andreas Vesalius and Thomas Willis described the nerve in what is now regarded as an anatomically standard description, and doctor Frank Lahey documented a way for its interoperative identification during thyroid operations.	[ "## Structure", "### Nucleus", "### Development", "### Variation", "## Function", "## Clinical significance", "### Injury", "### Surgery", "### Tumors", "### Other disease", "## Other animals", "## Evidence of evolution", "## History" ]	2,562	8,012
28,433,137	Brazilian monitor Pará	1,167,735,512	Imperial Brazilian Navy's Pará-class river monitors	[ "1867 ships", "Maritime incidents in February 1868", "Pará-class monitors", "Ships built in Brazil" ]	The Brazilian monitor Pará was the lead ship of the Pará-class river monitors built for the Brazilian Navy during the Paraguayan War in the late 1860s. Pará participated in the Passagem de Humaitá in February 1868 and provided fire support for the army for the rest of the war. The ship was assigned to the Mato Grosso Flotilla after the war. Pará was disarmed and discarded in 1884. ## Design and description The Pará-class monitors were designed to meet the need of the Brazilian Navy for small, shallow-draft armored ships capable of withstanding heavy fire. The monitor configuration was chosen as a turreted design did not have the same problems engaging enemy ships and fortifications as did the casemate ironclads already in Brazilian service. The oblong gun turret sat on a circular platform that had a central pivot. It was rotated by four men via a system of gears; 2.25 minutes were required for a full 360° rotation. A bronze ram was fitted to these ships as well. The hull was sheathed with Muntz metal to reduce biofouling. The ships measured 39 meters (127 ft 11 in) long overall, with a beam of 8.54 meters (28 ft 0 in). They had a draft between of 1.51–1.54 meters (4 ft 11 in – 5 ft 1 in) and displaced 500 metric tons (490 long tons). With only 0.3 meters (1 ft 0 in) of freeboard they had to be towed between Rio de Janeiro and their area of operations. Their crew numbered 43 officers and men. ### Propulsion The Pará-class ships had two direct-acting steam engines, each driving a single 1.3-meter (4 ft 3 in) propeller. Their engines were powered by two tubular boilers at a working pressure of 59 psi (407 kPa; 4 kgf/cm<sup>2</sup>). The engines produced a total of 180 indicated horsepower (130 kW) which gave the monitors a maximum speed of 8 knots (15 km/h; 9.2 mph) in calm waters. The ships carried enough coal for one day's steaming. ### Armament Pará carried a single 70-pounder Whitworth rifled muzzle loader (RML) in her gun turret. The 70-pounder gun had a maximum elevation of 15°. It had a maximum range of 5,540 meters (6,060 yd). The 70-pounder gun weighed 8,582 pounds (3,892.7 kg) and fired a 5.5-inch (140 mm) shell that weighed 81 pounds (36.7 kg). Most unusually the gun's Brazilian-designed iron carriage was designed to pivot vertically at the muzzle; this was done to minimize the size of the gunport through which splinters and shells could enter. ### Armor The hull of the Pará-class ships was made from three layers of wood that alternated in orientation. It was 457 millimeters (18.0 in) thick and was capped with a 102-millimeter (4 in) layer of peroba hardwood. The ships had a complete wrought iron waterline belt, 0.91 meters (3.0 ft) high. It had a maximum thickness of 102 millimeters amidships, decreasing to 76 millimeters (3 in) and 51 millimeters (2 in) at the ship's ends. The curved deck was armored with 12.7 millimeters (0.5 in) of wrought iron. The gun turret was shaped like a rectangle with rounded corners. It was built much like the hull, but the front of the turret was protected by 152 millimeters (6 in) of armor, the sides by 102 millimeters and the rear by 76 millimeters. Its roof and the exposed portions of the platform it rested upon were protected by 12.7 millimeters of armor. The armored pilothouse was positioned ahead of the turret. ## Service Pará was laid down at the Arsenal de Marinha da Côrte in Rio de Janeiro on 8 December 1866, during the Paraguayan War, which saw Argentina and Brazil allied against Paraguay. She was launched on 21 May 1867 and commissioned on 15 June 1867. She was towed to the Río de la Plata on 20 June 1867 and steamed up the Paraná River, although her passage further north was barred by the Paraguayan fortifications at Humaitá. On 19 February 1868 six Brazilian ironclads, including Pará, sailed past Humaitá at night. Pará and her two sister ships, Alagoas and Rio Grande, were lashed to the larger ironclads in case any engines were disabled by the Paraguayan guns. Barroso led with Rio Grande, followed by Bahia with Alagoas and Tamandaré with Pará. The monitor had to be beached after passing the fortress to prevent her from sinking. Pará was repaired by 27 February when she joined a squadron dispatched to capture the town of Laureles. On 15 October she bombarded Angostura Fort in company with Brasil, Silvado, Rio Grande and her sister Ceará. On 17 May 1869 she joined a blockading squadron on the Jejuy and Araguaya Rivers. After the war Pará was assigned to the newly formed Mato Grosso Flotilla. She was disarmed and discarded on 10 December 1884 at Ladário.	[ "## Design and description", "### Propulsion", "### Armament", "### Armor", "## Service" ]	1,179	31,136
15,203,301	Cisco Pike	1,150,896,860	1971 US drama film by Bill L. Norton	[ "1970s American films", "1970s English-language films", "1972 directorial debut films", "1972 drama films", "1972 films", "American drama films", "American films about cannabis", "Columbia Pictures films", "Films about music and musicians", "Films directed by Bill L. Norton" ]	Cisco Pike is a 1972 American drama film that was written and directed by Bill L. Norton, and released by Columbia Pictures. The film stars Kris Kristofferson as a musician who, having fallen on hard times, turns to the selling of marijuana and is blackmailed by a police officer (Gene Hackman). The movie, which is Norton's directorial debut and Kristofferson's debut as a leading actor, was filmed in the Los Angeles area in late 1970 and includes several contemporaneous landmarks. It premiered in 1971 to unfavorable reviews and was a box office failure. Cisco Pike was not officially available on home media until its re-release on DVD in 2006. Since its release, reviews became more favorable as the film earned followers and became a cult classic. ## Plot After being arrested for drug dealing, singer Cisco Pike tries to pawn his guitar. The shop owner declines and Cisco returns home to find his demos have been rejected. He records more and tells his girlfriend, Sue, about his failure. Former customers keep calling him, seeking to buy drugs. Detective Leo Holland has stolen a sizable quantity of high-grade marijuana from a Mexican gang and visits Cisco, who says he is trying to quit the drugs business. Holland arrests Cisco and then takes him to a garage, where he shows Cisco the stolen marijuana. Cisco then visits his lawyer, who confirms the garage belongs to a person called Betty Hall, apparently related to Holland. The lawyer advises Cisco to avoid Holland but shows further interest when Cisco mentions the high quality of the marijuana. Holland finds Cisco, tells him he needs US\$10,000, and gives him fifty-nine hours to sell the marijuana and, in return, tells Cisco he may keep any excess money and that he will alter his most recent arrest paperwork if the case goes to trial. Cisco accepts the deal and starts fragmenting the marijuana bricks, then contacts his former customers and proceeds with sales. After one bulk customer spots a solitary figure surveilling them with binoculars and takes off, Cisco confronts Holland, returns the bricks, and refuses to work with Holland any further, returning home to work on his demos. Holland is angry and visits Cisco's home; he beats Cisco and threatens to shoot him unless he continues the sales. Cisco agrees and Holland leaves. Cisco visits his former competitor, Brother Buffalo, to try to sell the bricks in bulk and thus more quickly, and offers him twenty-five kg (55 lb) for a low price. Buffalo tells Cisco he will try to work out a deal with his associates. Cisco then visits his musician friend Rex, who is recording songs at a studio. Rex rejects the demos Cisco previously sent him. Instead, he asks him about the marijuana. Cisco, disappointed, meets Rex's manager to discuss the sale of drugs. Cisco rejects the manager's deal, then meets groupie Merna and leaves with her. They pick up Lynn on the way to her father's mansion. After a brief sexual encounter with the two girls, Cisco continues selling drugs as tensions between him and his girlfriend escalate. He visits Rex's manager, who agrees to pay Cisco's price. The manager tells Cisco he will be paid in two days; Cisco starts destroying his office until the manager gives him a personal check. Another of Cisco's customers takes him to a major buyer, and Cisco realizes he and his customer are being set up by the police; they escape and are rescued by Sue. Cisco grows increasingly frustrated because he has not been contacted by his potential buyers and is still short of money. Sue finds Cisco's former bandmate, Jesse Dupre, taking a bath at their home. Affected by the state of Jesse's drug addiction, Cisco tells Sue he is being blackmailed by a police officer. Jesse and Cisco travel to Sunset Strip, where they find Merna and Lynn. Merna introduces Cisco to a big buyer, who accepts Cisco's requested price. Later, at a party at Merna's house, Jesse overdoses with heroin and dies. Meanwhile, Holland enters Cisco's house uninvited and stays with Sue, who escapes, leaving Holland inside. Cisco drives Jesse's body to his home in Venice and finds Sue sleeping in her van. Sue warns him of Holland and Cisco tells Sue of Jesse's death. Cisco leaves Jesse's corpse on a bench. Sue calls 9-1-1 to notify them about the body. Cisco confronts Holland and Sue tells Cisco she is leaving him. Cisco gives the money to a desperate Holland; they are interrupted by the arriving emergency services responding to the call about Jesse's body. Thinking they are coming after him, Holland starts shooting at them and is fatally shot. Sue returns home and Cisco drives away. ## Cast ## Background and production Following the success of Easy Rider (1969), films depicting the ideals of the counterculture of the 1960s spawned the New Hollywood movement in film. Releases in this style which met a good audience reception in 1970 include Getting Straight, The Strawberry Statement and Five Easy Pieces. UCLA graduate and Los Angeles–born Bill Norton wrote a draft of a story depicting the relationship between the contemporaneous music and drug scenes. Norton had worked as a director on short films for UCLA's film school, television commercials and rock-and-roll shorts. Norton came into contact with producer Gerald Ayres of Columbia Pictures and pitched the project to him. Ayres then forwarded the script to his friend Robert Towne, who reworked the story and further developed the characters. Towne added the character of the corrupt police officer who forces Cisco Pike back into the drug world and further expanded the role of Cisco's girlfriend. Norton initially opposed the casting of Karen Black but relented when the studio imposed it as a condition for producing the film. Columbia felt Black's recent Best Supporting Actress nomination in the Academy Awards for Five Easy Pieces would help the promotion of the release. Cisco Pike is Norton's directorial debut. Kris Kristofferson had made his film debut with a cameo appearance on Dennis Hopper's The Last Movie, which was unreleased at the time of Cisco Pike's production. After his debut performance as a singer at the Los Angeles nightclub The Troubadour, Kristofferson was approached by Fred Roos, the casting director of Five Easy Pieces, who invited him to audition for his film debut for a leading role on Two-Lane Blacktop. Kristofferson, who was signed to Columbia Records, arrived to the appointment intoxicated and left. Kristofferson was next offered Norton's script by Columbia. His peers encouraged him to reject the role and to take acting lessons instead, but he accepted the part, and later said; "I read the script and I could identify with this cat" and that acting is "understanding a character, and then being just as honest as you can possibly be". Gene Hackman accepted the role because he saw it as an opportunity to work in California, close to his wife at the time, Faye Maltese. Kristofferson's friend Harry Dean Stanton also joined the production. Supporting roles included Warhol superstar Viva and Joy Bang. Filming began on November 2, 1970, initially under the working title Dealer, which was changed to Silver Tongued Devil. Ayres wrote some scenes of the film, and the script and storyline were altered while filming progressed. Editor Robert Jones contributed the ending of the story. Cisco Pike was mostly filmed on location around Venice Beach and its boardwalk. Sunset Strip was also used as a location, and some indoor scenes were filmed at The Troubadour and The Source Restaurant. The mansion of silent-film-era star Pola Negri was used as the home of Viva's character. Filming was affected by intense seasonal rain but the schedule was kept to by shooting in up to three locations daily. During the official post-production process, new scenes were written and filmed partly in New York City. Filming was over by December 1970. A crew of thirty-five took part in the production, which was one of the smallest Columbia Pictures had used at that point. Norton described the sets to Action (the Directors Guild of America magazine) as "claustrophobic" and said the finished film did not "play on the screen like it played in [his] mind". Post-production was finished by early 1971; Cisco Pike cost less than US\$800,000 to produce. ## Release and reception Cisco Pike opened to a limited release on January 14, 1972, two years after its filming. Initial reviews were poor and it was a commercial failure at the box office. Released during the beginning of the war on drugs, Life described the approach of the movie studios and their depictions of drug issues in the United States as wrong. The publication said that due to the ongoing economic crisis, audiences were not open to "downers" and attributed the film's three changes of title to damage control. The article described the positive reception that comedy movies depicting drug culture had in comparison with dramatic ones. The New York Times gave Cisco Pike a negative review and concluded, "there isn't much to say about it". Newsday said the film "takes itself very seriously", called the script "limited", and criticized Norton for having "no noticeable talent for creating three-dimensional characters". The Washington Post called the plot and the "film's virtue" "mundane". Variety called Cisco Pike "surprisingly good" and Kristofferson "an excellent formal acting debut". Critic Roger Ebert rated it with three stars out of four and wrote that Kristofferson's acting "holds it together". Rolling Stone delivered a favorable review; the writer called Kristofferson "as good an actor, as he is a singer". Los Angeles Free Press considered the filming "faultless". New York Daily News rated it with two-and-a-half stars out of five. It described the inexperience of Norton, Ayres and Kristofferson and the "looseness of presentation" and "meandering story". The Boston Globe opened its review by calling the film "sluggish", while it suggested that Hackman's presence on the screen was "needed", but concluded that his character "doesn't have enough to do". The reviewer described the scenery of the movie as "shot with an eye for the sleazy and depressed", and he felt that it leaned "too long on background mood and too short on dialogue and action upfront". The review praised Kristofferson's singing, while added that his acting lacked "dimension". As for Black, it concluded "her talents are more or less wasted". Austin American-Statesman defined it as "one of those low-level, low-life, sex-and-drugs epics" that has "an occasional moment of perverse interest", but "great hunks of pure tedium". Comparing Kristofferson's film debut to those of Mick Jagger in Performance and James Taylor on Two-Lane Black Top, The Philadelphia Inquirer concluded "(he) can't act either". Meanwhile, The San Francisco Chronicle stated that Cisco Pike was "beautifully made", and San Francisco Examiner called it a "gripping suspense thriller". Atlanta Constitution praised Kristofferson for a "surprisingly able job". ### Legacy Cisco Pike was re-released in March 1975 to a short theater run; according to an article in the Los Angeles Times, most of the copies of the film had by then been destroyed. Reviewer Charles Champlin saw the film's depictions as an "accurate slice of social history". After Cisco Pike finished its run in theaters, Columbia Pictures did not license its broadcast for television and it was never officially released on VHS, though bootleg recordings circulated and it was screened in theaters that still possessed original copies. The film was screened at the American Cinematheque in Los Angeles, California in 2000 as part of a retrospective titled Celebrating the New Hollywood of the 1960s and 1970s. The American Cinematheque screened Cisco Pike again in 2005 as part of a retrospective titled The Return of Movies Not Available on Video. The film was released for the first time on DVD in 2006; Los Angeles Times favored it, accentuating its place in history where "the optimism of the 1960s slips into ... disappointing loneliness". Critic Sean Howe said the movie lacked the exposure it needed to turn it into a cult classic. Nevertheless, Cisco Pike was listed by Danny Peary as one of the emerging cult classics at the last page of his 1981 book Cult Movies. The website AllMovie gave it three-and-a-half stars out of five; reviewer Fred Beldin said the film is a "feature-length advertisement" for Kristofferson's next album release but concluded it "has plenty to offer with its eccentric pacing, great cast, and period ambiance". Reelfilm gave Cisco Pike two-and-a-half stars out of four and called it "fairly decent". It partly favored Norton's non-linear story approach but said the film is "overwhelmingly meandering and random". In November 2013, the West Hollywood theater Cinefamily hosted a month-long screening of Kristofferson's movies, beginning with Cisco Pike on November 1. The theater held a question-and-answer session with Kristofferson, Stanton and Norton in attendance. Norton described Cisco Pike as his version of La Dolce Vita "set in L.A". Before the film screened, Kristofferson and Stanton performed part of the soundtrack for the audience. The Hollywood Reporter noted the movie gained a cult following and praised Norton for a "clean and defined" plot. In the third volume of Marvel Comics' Rawhide Kid, the main character's enemy is named after the film and his outfit is called "The Cisco Pike Gang". Marvel's Cisco Pike appears in numbers one to five and inhabits the fictional universe Earth-616. ## Soundtrack The soundtrack of Cisco Pike is mostly composed of songs that would comprise Kristofferson's next album release, The Silver Tongued Devil and I; it includes "Breakdown (A Long Way from Home)", "The Pilgrim—Chapter 33" and "Lovin' Her Was Easier (Than Anything I'll Ever Do Again)". An extended play containing the songs was released by Columbia Records in 1972. The film's soundtrack also includes "Michoacan", which is sung by Doug Sahm during his cameo, as well as "Hootin' and Hollerin" by Sonny Terry and Brownie McGhee. ## See also - List of American films of 1972 ## General references	[ "## Plot", "## Cast", "## Background and production", "## Release and reception", "### Legacy", "## Soundtrack", "## See also", "## General references" ]	2,969	35,302
33,103,485	The Ten-Per-Cent Solution	1,160,993,872	null	[ "2011 American television episodes", "The Simpsons (season 23) episodes" ]	"The Ten-Per-Cent Solution" is the eighth episode of the twenty-third season of the American animated television series The Simpsons. It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on December 4, 2011. In the episode, Krusty the Clown becomes depressed after getting fired from his television show for being unpopular with children. The Simpson family encourages him to make a comeback, suggesting that he seek help from an agent they met earlier at a television museum. This agent turns out to be Annie Dubinsky, who was Krusty's first agent and former girlfriend. Krusty left her when he became successful but now he begs her to take him as a client again. She accepts and together they are able to get him back on television, hosting a show for adults that features his clown tricks. However, Annie soon begins to interfere too much, which frustrates the network executives. The episode, which contains parodies of films such as The King's Speech, The Social Network, and Black Swan, was written by cast member Dan Castellaneta and his wife Deb Lacusta. Comedian and actress Joan Rivers, who was a big fan of The Simpsons, guest starred as the character Annie. Other guest performances in the episode came from Kevin Dillon and Janeane Garofalo as themselves and Jackie Mason as Krusty's father. Reception of "The Ten-Per-Cent Solution" from television critics has been mixed, with praise directed at Rivers' appearance and the development of Krusty's character. The episode was criticized by the Parents Television Council for containing sexual dialogue. During its original American broadcast, the episode was seen by approximately nine million people. ## Plot During an episode of The Krusty the Clown Show, three Itchy & Scratchy cartoons are shown. This angers Krusty, the host of the show, since he thinks he should be the star of the show and not the Itchy and Scratchy characters. Meanwhile, the Simpsons visit a television museum that is soon to be closed. After a while, they come to an exhibit displaying The Adventures of Fatso Flanagan, which is one of Homer's favorite television shows. There, the family is approached by Annie Dubinsky, the agent of the actor who played Fatso Flanagan. They start chatting and become acquainted. At the Channel 6 studios, during a board meeting, Krusty is fired because "Today's children are uncomfortable with a clown whose every reference they have to look up on Wikipedia", and because Itchy and Scratchy are shown to be more popular with the children. Krusty goes to his current agent, hoping to get a new job, but the agent drops him since he got fired. After the Simpsons have left the museum, they head for Krusty Burger where they discover Krusty crying in a ball pit. Krusty is encouraged by them into making a comeback, and they inform him that they met an agent that can help him out. However, when they all go to Annie's office, Annie instantly recognizes Krusty and angrily slams the door before he gets a chance to enter. It is revealed that Annie was the one who discovered Krusty, became his first agent, and was responsible for his rise to success. They also had a romantic relationship together. However, once he achieved fame, Krusty fired Annie and replaced her with a more acclaimed agent, and as a result their relationship ended. Back in the present, he begs her to take him back as a client, and she eventually accepts. Krusty starts performing his clown tricks at a theater in front of adults, and not children like before. This is because Annie knows that there is nothing adults enjoy more than the things they liked as children. The performances are praised by both the audience and the critics, and Krusty and Annie initiate a relationship again. Soon, a premium cable television network called HBOWTIME (an obvious portmanteau of HBO and Showtime, straight down to their parody of HBO's longtime slogan, "It's not just TV, it's more expensive.") gives Krusty his own show and Annie is hired as the producer on his demand. The stars of the series Entourage, such as Kevin Dillon, become Krusty's assistants. The network executives soon become frustrated with Annie for meddling too much in the show. For example, she refuses to let Janeane Garofalo appear only because Garofalo is funnier than Krusty. She also runs over an intern with a stage car for sharpening her pencil too much. The executives decide to fire Annie, but Krusty refuses to continue without her. The couple therefore turns to another network where they start a show called Sex Over Sixty, with them as the stars. While doing the show, Annie dies of cardiac arrest while during a taping of one of their episodes. ## Production "The Ten-Per-Cent Solution" was written by Dan Castellaneta, who voices characters such as Homer and Krusty on The Simpsons, and his wife Deb Lacusta. American comedian and actress Joan Rivers guest starred in the episode as Annie. She recorded her lines in March 2011. In an interview with E! News at that time, Rivers noted that this was not her first animated voice-over role, though it was her biggest one yet. She further added that she is a fan of the show because it is "so clever and so funny on so many levels. So when they called and said, 'Do you want to do it?' without even reading a script I said, 'Absolutely.'" Adam Buckman, a former television columnist at the New York Post, noted on his blog that the story of the episode is similar to a period in Rivers' life at the end of the 1980s. At that time, she was hosting The Late Show Starring Joan Rivers on the Fox network. When Rivers challenged Fox executives who wanted to fire her husband Edgar Rosenberg as the show's executive producer, the network fired them both. Rosenberg committed suicide just three months later. Buckman wrote that the story of "The Ten-Per-Cent Solution" was "no doubt devised with Rivers’ approval and possibly with her input", and that "only a comedian of her stature and experience" would attempt to spoof a personal tragedy such as this one. Other guest stars in the episode include actor Kevin Dillon and stand-up comedian Janeane Garofalo as themselves, and stand-up comedian Jackie Mason in a minor reprisal of his role as Krusty's father, speaking only one line. Several references to popular culture, including a meta-reference to The Simpsons, are included in "The Ten-Per-Cent Solution". The three The Itchy & Scratchy cartoons that are shown at the beginning of the episode as Krusty is hosting his show are all parodies of films released in 2010: the first one, titled The Cat's Speech, is a parody of The King's Speech; the second one, titled The Social Petwork, parodies The Social Network in that the storyline is partially explained through the use of screens containing nothing but text; and the final one, titled Black and Blue Swan, references Black Swan. After the three cartoons are shown, Krusty points out that "It’s like those parodies were written when the movies came out, but it took so long to animate them that we look dated and hacky!" This is a reference to the long time it takes to produce an episode of The Simpsons—hence why cultural references on the show can often be seen as dated. Pop culture allusions at the television museum include a brief appearance by the main characters of the animated series King of the Hill as cardboard cutouts being taken down in a process similar to the opening of the show, an exhibit devoted to the sitcom The Beverly Hillbillies, and the showing of one of Homer's favorite television shows, Fatso Flanagan, which is a knockoff of the sitcom The Honeymooners. The music that is played during the parody of The King's Speech is "Symphony No. 7" by Ludwig van Beethoven, and a musical piece from the Swan Lake ballet is played during the Black Swan parody. For the King of the Hill visual gag, the Simpsons staff acquired the rights to use the actual theme song from that show. The music that is played as Krusty performs his new show in front of adults at the theater is a mixture of the old Krusty theme and the theme from Playboy After Dark, a television show hosted by Hugh Hefner that started airing in the 1960s and featured parties from a Playboy club. This musical combination was composed by Alf Clausen after The Simpsons music editor Chris Ledesma came with the suggestion. On his blog, Ledesma wrote that theme for Playboy After Dark "was cool and jazzy and just right for its time. Alf’s homage to that theme, wrapped around Krusty’s theme was very clever indeed." For the 2nd time in the show's history, a joke regarding Krusty and the Paul Reubens masturbation scandal was made (the first one was in I Love Lisa; when Annie says that doing a children's show helped Pee-wee Herman bounce back after his scandal, Krusty asks what Pee-wee did and after Annie tells him he says "That's all? I did that while you were on the phone!" ## Release and reception "The Ten-Per-Cent Solution" originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on December 4, 2011. It was watched by approximately nine million people during this broadcast. In the demographic for adults aged 18–49, the episode received a 4.0 Nielsen rating (a fifty-four percent increase over the previous episode) and a ten percent share. The high rating was the result of the episode being preceded by a popular National Football League game. The Simpsons became the highest-rated program in Fox's Animation Domination lineup that night in terms of both total viewers and in the 18–49 demographic, finishing ahead of new episodes of Family Guy, The Cleveland Show, and Allen Gregory. For the week of November 28 – December 4, 2011, "The Ten-Per-Cent Solution" placed seventh in the ratings among all prime-time broadcasts in the 18–49 demographic. Since airing, the episode has received mixed to positive reviews from critics. Hayden Childs of The A.V. Club praised the choice of having Rivers guest star since she was able to "employ her trademark humor within the world of The Simpsons without hijacking the plot or satire." He also noted that while the Simpson family does not appear heavily, "Krusty is such a large part of the supporting cast that he carries this episode well. While it may seem a little funny that Castellaneta, who voices Krusty, wrote such a large part for himself, it is also a testament to his empathy for Krusty that this episode both deepens our understanding of Krusty and actually allows him growth as a character in an organic fashion." Ology's Josh Harrison similarly praised "The Ten-Per-Cent Solution" for having "some wonderful Krusty the Klown moments and some clutch guest star appearances". He also cited the visual gags in the episode as "clever". Harrison concluded his review by writing that though the episode "wasn't Simpsons gold, it was a great chance to focus on a secondary character and an opportunity for Joan Rivers to, um, be Joan Rivers. I imagine your assessment of the episode may be based largely on your opinion of the guest star. That said? I dug it." AOL TV's Jason Hughes was more negative, criticizing the episode for taking a "soft approach" to the television industry when it "had a chance for some sharp satire". He elaborated that the writers "had a little bit of fun talking about networks meddling in shows – as well as agents trying to control content as when Joan Rivers booted Janeane Garofalo for being funnier than Krusty – and the differences between cable original programming and broadcast programming. But they had the potential they had to make some bold statements about television and how the industry works throughout, and simply didn't." Hughes did, however, like the King of the Hill appearance, which he described as a "fun nod". Further criticism came from the conservative Parents Television Council (PTC), which named The Simpsons the "Worst TV Show of the Week" because "The Ten-Per-Cent Solution" contains "content inappropriate for the Family Hour". The group wrote that the "frank sexual dialogue warranted a TV-14 rating, but the episode was rated TV-PG. Fox network executives surely know that almost nothing that comes out of Joan Rivers’ mouth is rated PG; but they chose to rate the program inappropriately anyway, thus blindsiding parents and children with crude content." PTC cited examples such as Annie saying that every night in his early days, Krusty "had [his audience] rolling in the aisles, followed by a roll in the hay with me," and that "Today's kids are less sensitive than an Army condom. They see more on TV than my mother did on her wedding night. And they don't complain about it for the next 50 years." ## See also - The Seven-Per-Cent Solution (film)	[ "## Plot", "## Production", "## Release and reception", "## See also" ]	2,706	4,450
72,726,365	Chickaboom!	1,166,680,921	2020 album by Tami Neilson	[ "2020 albums", "Albums produced by Delaney Davidson", "Rockabilly albums", "Tami Neilson albums" ]	Chickaboom! is the seventh studio album by Canadian-New Zealand country singer Tami Neilson, released on 14 February 2020, by Neilson Records and Outside Music. A country album inspired by rockabilly, Chickaboom! was nominated for the Juno Award for Contemporary Roots Album of the Year and Aotearoa Music Award for Album of the Year at the 2020 Aotearoa Music Awards. The album debuted at number eight on the Official New Zealand Music Chart. ## Production Neilson was inspired by a rockabilly and country sound for the album, reminiscent of Johnny Cash and Wanda Jackson. Many of the songs in the album are inspired by Neilson's struggles in the music industry and gender inequality. Neilson chose the album's title to express the sound of rockabilly and artists on Sun Records, and to evoke a feeling that the songs would "pop and explode". The album featured a stripped-back instrumentalisation compared to her previous album Sassafrass!, in part to be more easily able to replicate the album's sound in live performances. Neilson produced the album herself and wrote or co-wrote every song on the album excluding the album's closer, "Sleep", which was written by New Zealand country musician Delaney Davidson. Neilson's brother Jay Neilson was a major contributor to the project, performing guitars and appearing as a featured artist on the singles "Hey, Bus Driver!" and "Any Fool with a Heart". The song "Sister Mavis" was written as a tribute to singer Mavis Staples. Neilson's sons provided accompanying vocals for Neilson on the song "Queenie, Queenie". ## Release and promotion "Hey Bus Driver!" featuring Neilson's brother Jay Neilson was released as the lead single from the album in September 2019. Together the pair released Neilson's next single "Any Fool with a Heart" in October, followed by "Ten Tonne Truck" in November, "You Were Mine" in January 2020 and "Queenie, Queenie" in February. A music video was produced for "You Were Mine" and was intended to be released in January, however, due to the severity of the 2019–20 Australian bushfire season, Neilson and her team shelved the video, due to it containing scenes of a fiery blaze. Owing to the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic, Neilson was unable to tour in 2020. Instead, she focused on creating a YouTube series, The Tami Show, with her brother Jay. On 19 February 2021, the album was re-released as a deluxe edition, featuring a five song concert recorded at Roundhead Studios for Radio New Zealand recorded with her band and the Big Boss Orchestra. ## Reception On review aggregator Metacritic, Chickaboom! received a score of 84 out of 100 based on four reviews, indicating "universal acclaim". Kyle Mullin of Exclaim! praised the album, feeling that the cut-down band (compared to her large-scale backing in Sassafrass! "lets Neilson's outsized voice take center stage, exactly where it belongs". Jim Hynes called "You Were Mine" the album's stand-out track, describing it as "a cross between Screamin’ Jay Hawkins and early Mavis with her explosive vocals". Rich Wilhelm of Pop Matters described Neilson as "the heiress apparent to legendary rockabilly/country queen Wanda Jackson". The album was nominated for the Aotearoa Music Award for Album of the Year at the 2020 Aotearoa Music Awards, and for the Juno Award for Contemporary Roots Album of the Year in 2021, The album's lead single "Hey Bus Driver!" won the APRA award for Best Country Song at the 2020 Country Music Awards in New Zealand. ## Track listing ## Credits and personnel - Brett Adams – lead guitar (5) - Charlie – guest vocals (4) - Chris Chetland – mastering - Delaney Davidson – lead guitar, guest vocals (7), production - Jules Koblun – artwork design - Sabin Holloway – photography (cover) - Joe McCallum – drums, percussion - Jol Mulholland – mixing - Jay Neilson – bass guitar, rhythm guitar, vocals - Tami Neilson – rhythm guitar, producer, vocals - Todd Neilson – photography (stills) - Graham Reid – liner notes - Sam – guest vocals (4) ## Charts ## Release history	[ "## Production", "## Release and promotion", "## Reception", "## Track listing", "## Credits and personnel", "## Charts", "## Release history" ]	936	3,261
28,025,712	French ironclad Thétis	1,062,074,535	French Alma-class ironclad	[ "1867 ships", "Alma-class ironclads", "Ships built in France" ]	The French ironclad Thétis was a wooden-hulled armored corvette built for the French Navy in the late 1860s. She was named for the Greek sea-goddess Thetis. During the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871 she was assigned to a squadron of French ships that attempted to blockade the Prussian ports in the Baltic Sea in 1870. She accidentally rammed her sister Reine Blanche in 1877. En route to the Pacific in 1884 her propeller fell off and she had to return to France under sail. Thétis was eventually hulked in New Caledonia. ## Design and description The Alma-class ironclads were designed as improved versions of the armored corvette Belliqueuse suitable for foreign deployments. Unlike their predecessor the Alma-class ships were true central battery ironclads as they were fitted with armored transverse bulkheads. Like most ironclads of their era they were equipped with a metal-reinforced ram. Thétis measured 69.03 meters (226 ft 6 in) between perpendiculars, with a beam of 14.13 meters (46 ft 4 in). She had a mean draft of 6.26 meters (20 ft 6 in) and displaced 3,569 metric tons (3,513 long tons). Her crew numbered 316 officers and men. ### Propulsion The ship had a single horizontal return connecting-rod steam engine driving a single propeller. Her engine was powered by four oval boilers. On sea trials the engine produced 1,676 indicated horsepower (1,250 kW) and the ship reached 11.99 knots (22.21 km/h; 13.80 mph). Unlike all of her sisters except Jeanne d'Arc, she had two funnels, mounted side-by-side. Thétis carried 250 metric tons (250 long tons) of coal which allowed the ship to steam for 1,620 nautical miles (3,000 km; 1,860 mi) at a speed of 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph). She was barque-rigged and had a sail area of 1,453 square meters (15,640 sq ft). ### Armament Thétis mounted her four 194-millimeter (7.6 in) Modèle 1864 breech-loading guns in the central battery on the battery deck. The other two 194-millimeter guns were mounted in barbettes on the upper deck, sponsoned out over the sides of the ship. The four 120-millimeter (4.7 in) guns were also mounted on the upper deck. She may have exchanged her Mle 1864 guns for Mle 1870 guns. The armor-piercing shell of the 20-caliber Mle 1870 gun weighed 165.3 pounds (75 kg) while the gun itself weighed 7.83 long tons (7.96 t). The gun fired its shell at a muzzle velocity of 1,739 ft/s (530 m/s) and was credited with the ability to penetrate a nominal 12.5 inches (320 mm) of wrought iron armour at the muzzle. The guns could fire both solid shot and explosive shells. ### Armor Thétis had a complete 150-millimeter (5.9 in) wrought iron waterline belt, approximately 2.4 meters (7.9 ft) high. The sides of the battery itself were armored with 120 millimeters (4.7 in) of wrought iron and the ends of the battery were closed by bulkheads of the same thickness. The barbette armor was 100 millimeters (3.9 in) thick, backed by 240 millimeters (9.4 in) of wood. The unarmored portions of her sides were protected by 15-millimeter (0.6 in) iron plates. ## Service Thétis, named for the Greek sea-goddess Thetis, was laid down at Toulon in 1865 and launched on 22 August 1867. The ship began her sea trials on 1 May 1868 and was put into reserve at Brest the following year. She was commissioned on 20 July 1870 for the Franco-Prussian War and assigned to the Northern Squadron. On 24 July 1870 she departed Cherbourg in company with the rest of the Northern Squadron and they cruised off the Danish port of Frederikshavn between 28 July and 2 August until they entered the Baltic Sea. The squadron, now renamed the Baltic Squadron, remained in the Baltic, attempting to blockade Prussian ports on the Baltic until ordered to return to Cherbourg on 16 September. The ship was assigned to the Evolutionary Squadron in 1871 and detached to the Levant Squadron the following year. During the Cantonal Revolution Thétis and her sister Reine Blanche spent much of September–October 1873 in the port of Cartagena, Spain where they could protect French citizens. She became the temporary flagship of Vice Admiral Roze after 31 October 1875 when the armored frigate Magenta caught fire and exploded in Toulon. Thétis was paid off on 1 March 1876, but was recommissioned on 18 April 1877 for service with the Evolutionary Squadron. On 3 July 1877 she accidentally rammed Reine Blanche who had to be run ashore to prevent her from sinking. The ship was in reserve between 1878 and 1881 although she was intended to be used as the flagship of the Pacific Squadron. Her sister Montcalm was sent instead. On 8 October 1885 she was commissioned as the flagship of Rear Admiral Marcq de St. Hilaire and sailed for the Pacific. Thétis lost her propeller off Madeira and had to return to Cherbourg under sail where the admiral transferred his flag to the Champlain. She ended her days as a hulk in Nouméa, New Caledonia.	[ "## Design and description", "### Propulsion", "### Armament", "### Armor", "## Service" ]	1,264	1,286
66,371,163	A Little Red Flower	1,171,405,948	2020 Chinese film by Han Yan	[ "2020 romantic drama films", "Chinese romantic drama films", "Films about cancer", "Films directed by Han Yan", "Films involved in plagiarism controversies", "Films shot in Shandong" ]	A Little Red Flower (Chinese: 送你一朵小红花) is a 2020 Chinese romantic-drama film directed by Han Yan from a screenplay he co-wrote with Jinliang Han, Han Li, Jia Jia Wei, and Yu Yonggan. It stars Jackson Yee as Wei Yihang, a teenager who has been in remission following a brain tumor operation years prior, and Liu Haocun as a fellow patient named Ma Xiaoyuan. The idea for the film was conceived when Yan was working on Go Away Mr. Tumor (2015), a film about cancer patient and comic book artist Xiong Dun. A Little Red Flower premiered on December 31, 2020, and grossed \$216 million, setting multiple box-office records in China and becoming one of the highest-grossing films of 2020. The film sparked controversy over its similar plot to the American film The Fault in Our Stars (2014). Unveiled documents revealed that a canceled Chinese remake of the American film had been in development and that A Little Red Flower could have potentially derived from it with no connections or credit to the original source. However, Yan has said that parts of the film were actually inspired by real-life events that he witnessed himself. ## Plot Wei Yihang, a cynical and reclusive teenager, has been in remission since his brain tumor operation two years ago. After meeting fellow brain tumor patient Ma Xiaoyuan, Wei begins to open up socially, as the pair share various imaginary travel adventures and try to live life as "ordinary people" which they are unable to be because of their respective illnesses. At the same time, Wei begins forming a deeper understanding and appreciation of his family, who have unconditionally supported him during his medical difficulties. At one point, Wei sees his grandmother volunteering to sell her house to fund his medical expenses, with his uncles and aunts saying they would do the same, sending his father into tears. Soon after, Wei is allowed to travel to a lake in Qinghai that he once saw in a hallucination where he was playing with an unknown girl. Ma and Wei set off their journey together. However, Ma faints on the train and is sent to the hospital, where she is given a grim prognosis. Wei accompanies and cares for Ma during her final days, including shaving his head and conjuring a "potion of no return". During this time, Wei and his mother discuss the difficult topic of death, with Wei's parents recording and sending him a video depicting their life in case of Wei's death. Wei cries as he watches their video, now comforted by the fact that his parents will be able to carry forward even if he is no longer around. After Ma dies, Wei packs up her belongings. One year later, Wei finishes his classes in college. He then makes a trip to Qinghai by himself, where he finally arrives at the lake he frequently hallucinates. There, Wei sees images of himself with Ma playing in the waters. It occurs to him that those images are not hallucinations, but life in a parallel universe where he, Wei, and all his fellow cancer friends are healthy and living ordinary lives. ## Cast - Jackson Yee as Wei Yihang - Liu Haocun as Ma Xiaoyuan - Yuanyuan Zhu as Tao Hui - Yalin Gao as Wei Jiang ## Production A Little Red Flower was directed and co-written by Han Yan, who had previously worked on Go Away Mr. Tumor, a comedy-drama about the life of Xiong Dun, a comic book artist who became famous after creating a popular webcomic shortly after being diagnosed with cancer. As that film tackled a person's individual fight against cancer, Han wanted A Little Red Flower to show how entire families struggled with the same problem, stating that the film was "intended as a spiritual guide and therapeutic support for the audience", and that it was the second part of his "Trilogy of Life". During production, Han worked with film colorist Hua Cheng to give the film a "natural look", eventually deciding to use the DaVinci Resolve 17 tool to give color to the film and a high quality look. Produced by Yin Lu and Lian Ray, A Little Red Flower began filming on June 12, 2020, in the Shinan District of the city of Qingdao. To prepare for his role, Jackson Yee went to Qingdao one month prior to filming, lost weight in an attempt to become "closer to the character's morbid setting", began searching for information about brain cancer, and consulted a doctor to learn about patients affected by it. ## Reception ### Box office A Little Red Flower was theatrically released in China on December 31, 2020. It grossed US\$39 million on its first day and \$80.1 million over its three-day-opening weekend, breaking several New Year's Day's box-office records in the country. By its second weekend, the film had grossed \$160 million nationwide, becoming the highest-grossing film of 2020, in front of the American releases of Soul and Wonder Woman 1984. It made \$11.7 million in its third weekend, and \$7 million in its fourth. By its fifth and final sixth weekend, A Little Red Flower managed to gross over \$200 million, and was still ahead of both American films, but fell behind on the weekly earnings of Big Red Envelope and Shock Wave 2. The following weekend, the film was overtaken from its number one spot by the \$398 million three-day opening weekend record set by Detective Chinatown 3. ### Controversy Following its release, several filmgoers claimed that the premise of A Little Red Flower was similar to that of the 2014 film The Fault in Our Stars, which had been produced by the American company Fox 2000 Pictures, and had also never been theatrically released in China. The Hollywood Reporter, quoting user posts and comments from Douban, reported on January 13, 2021, that Fox had attempted to create a Chinese remake to The Fault in Our Stars in 2016, with the former president of Fox International Productions, Tomas Jegeus, confirming that a remake was indeed in development at the studio with Yin Lu and Han Yan producing, and Yu Yonggan writing the film's script. Shortly after, two official film notices announced that the remake was in the works, but after the acquisition of 21st Century Fox by Disney, the studio decided to drop the film in 2018 to work on Dil Bechara, the Indian remake of The Fault in Our Stars. In 2018, a notice was released by the Film Administration for a project titled Hopeless in Love, which would be produced by HG Entertainment and Lian Ray Pictures, with a premise similar to the original remake that had been in development. In 2020, A Little Red Flower was released from the same production companies, and with Yin Lu producing, Yu Yonggan co-writing, and Han Yan directing, but with no credit or mentions to Fox. However, Han said that many of the scenes portrayed in the story were inspired by real-life events that he witnessed himself. One scene portrays how Wei Yihang orders a takeaway meal for a stranger who is walking in a daze on the street after losing his daughter to cancer, which he stated was in fact based on an incident he witnessed at the entrance of the Peking University Third Hospital in Beijing. Both Disney, who acquired Fox, and A Little Red Flower's co-producer Lian Ray have declined to comment on the matter. ### Accolades	[ "## Plot", "## Cast", "## Production", "## Reception", "### Box office", "### Controversy", "### Accolades" ]	1,581	32,840
34,210,804	Typhoon Irma (1985)	1,132,953,620	Pacific typhoon in 1985	[ "1985 Pacific typhoon season", "Tropical cyclones in 1985", "Typhoons", "Typhoons in Japan", "Typhoons in Taiwan", "Typhoons in the Philippines" ]	Typhoon Irma, known in the Philippines as Typhoon Daling, affected the Philippines in late June 1985. Typhoon Irma originated from a monsoon trough situated near Guam in the Western Pacific Ocean. It slowly developed, with insufficient organization delaying classification as a tropical cyclone. By June 24, organization improved as the system encountered favorable conditions aloft and the disturbance attained tropical storm intensity the next day. Moving west, Irma gradually deepened, and on June 28, it was believed to have attained typhoon intensity. On the morning of June 27, Irma was upgraded into a typhoon. After passing northeast of the Philippines, Typhoon Irma attained its peak intensity on June 29. Accelerating to the north and then the northeast, Irma steadily weakened as it encountered significantly less favorable conditions. The typhoon made landfall in central Japan on June 30. Irma weakened below typhoon intensity the next day, and later on July 1, Irma transition into an extratropical cyclone. The remnants of the cyclone were tracked until July 7, when it merged with an extratropical low south of the Kamchatka Peninsula. Although Irma stayed offshore the Philippines, moisture associated with the storm inundated areas already affected by Typhoon Hal earlier in the week. The capital city of Manila was 60% flooded, resulting in the evacuation of 40,000. Six drownings were reported in the nearby suburb of Quezon City, where 1,000 families were evacuated. Citywide, eight people were killed. In Olongapo City, seven people were buried because of a landslide. Overall, more than 500,000 people were directly affected by the typhoon throughout the country. A total of 253 homes were destroyed, with 1,854 others partially damaged. Nationwide, 65 people were killed due to the typhoon and damage totaled \$16 million (1985 USD). Across Japan, Irma brought widespread flooded that resulted in 1,475 mudslides, which damaged 625 residencies. The storm left 650,000 customers without power. In the Chiba Prefecture, seven people were injured. In the capital city of Tokyo, 119 trees were toppled, 40 homes were flooded, 20 flights were cancelled, 26 railway lines were suspended, and 25 roads were flooded, all combining to leave more than 240,000 stranded. In Izu Ōshima, 17 boats were swept away and 20 houses were damaged. Nationwide, 19 people were killed and 49 others were injured. A total of 811 dwellings were destroyed and 10,000 others were damage. Throughout the country, the storm inflicted \$545 million in damage. ## Meteorological history During mid-June 1985, the monsoon trough in the Western Pacific retreated eastward to near Guam, spawning several areas of low pressure. At 00:00 UTC on June 17, a tropical disturbance embedded within the monsoon trough was detected by meteorologists on weather satellite imagery about 400 km (250 mi) southwest of the island of Ponape. Although the disturbance's surface circulation was initially ill-defined, interaction with an upper-level low (ULL) to the southeast of Guam associated with a broader tropical upper-tropospheric trough (TUTT) enhanced development and thus the low was slow to develop. Moving west-northwest south of a ridge, the disturbance passed 180 km (110 mi) south-southeast of the Truk Atoll early on June 18. Following an increase of thunderstorm activity associated with the disturbance in both coverage and organization, the JTWC issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert (TCFA) for the system at noon the same day. During the next three days, the disturbance maintained vigorous, but poorly organized convection. Data from a Hurricane Hunter aircraft on June 19 failed to locate a surface circulation. That afternoon, the TCFA was re-issued. On the afternoon of June 20, the Hurricane Hunters finally founded a closed circulation, but outflow from nearby Typhoon Hal inhibited further development. Early on June 22, the TCFA was cancelled because of a decrease in thunderstorm activity. By June 24, however, vertical wind shear had begun to relax, coinciding with an expansion of the storm's southwesterly outflow channel. Several hours later, the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) started tracking the cyclone. After an increase in thunderstorm activity, the TCFA was re-issued for the fifth and final time on the evening of June 24. Based on a rapid improvement in the system's convective structure and Dvorak classifications of tropical storm intensity, the JTWC upgraded the system to Tropical storm Irma early on June 25. Shortly thereafter, a Hurricane Hunter aircraft measured winds of 80 km/h (50 mph) and a minimum barometric pressure of 994 mbar (29.4 inHg), though these winds were displaced roughly 150 km (95 mi) to the west of the center. Based on this, the JMA followed suit and declared the system a tropical cyclone at 06:00 UTC on June 25. At around the same time, the Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA) started to follow the storm and assigned it with the local name Daling. At midday on June 25, the JMA upgraded Irma to severe tropical storm intensity Initially, the JTWC predicted Irma to follow Hal along the monsoon trough into the South China Sea before curving around a subtropical ridge. Irma slowly deepened, and according to the JMA, the system attained a secondary peak intensity of 115 km/h (70 mph) late on June 25. However, by June 26, the JTWC revised its forecast and instead expected the storm to take a more northerly trek. On June 27, Irma's forward speed slowed as it approached the edge of the subtropical ridge situated along the 130th meridian east while intensifying. That morning, both the JTWC and the JMA estimated that Irma attained typhoon intensity; this upgraded was primarily based on data from ship reports. Continuing to intensify, Irma moved northward. However, by June 28, the JMA indicated that Irma leveled off in intensity. At 00:00 UTC on June 29, the JTWC estimated a peak intensity of 170 km/h (105 mph). Six hours later, the JMA increased the intensity of the typhoon to 145 km/h (90 mph), its maximum intensity. At this time, the agency also assessed the pressure of the storm at 960 mbar (28 inHg). Shortly after its peak, Typhoon Irma began to accelerate towards the northeast in the direction of central Japan in response to westerlies. Irma quickly weakened, and on the evening of June 29, the JMA decreased the intensity of Irma to 120 km/h (75 mph). Tracking just east of the Ryukyu Islands, Irma began to acquire extratropical characteristics A Hurricane Hunter flight on June 30 suggested that that typhoon was encountering cooler and drier air, although the storm maintained a 55 km (35 mi) eye. That evening, the typhoon made landfall on Honshu. At 00:00 UTC on July 1, the JMA downgraded Irma into a severe tropical storm. Six hours later, the cyclone completed its extratropical transition near Tokyo; the JTWC issued its final warning on the system. The JMA continued the monitor the system as it passed northeast of the Kuril Islands. On July 7, the JMA ceased tracking the system as it had merged with an extratropical low south of the Kamchatka Peninsula. ## Preparations and impact Prior to the arrival of Irma, storm signals were issued for much of Luzon, including Samar and Catanduanes. Although the system remained offshore Taiwan, it came close enough to require storm signals. Even though Typhoon Irma passed well east to the Philippines, over 30 in (710 mm) of rain fell over parts of Luzon. These rains resulted in major flooding; Irma was also the second storm to directly affect the nation within a week, following Typhoon Hal. The capital city of Manila sustained flooding along low-lying areas, which stranded motorists. A total of 60% of the city was flooded, forcing the evacuation of 40,000 persons. Six drownings occurred in the suburb of Quezon City, where 1,000 families were evacuated, 700 to churches and 300 to schools. Within the Manila metropolitan area, a man and a woman were also electrocuted. All classes in Manila were suspended, and many stores and offices shut down for a day. Furthermore, domestic flights in and out of Manila were canceled since the runway was flooded with water 600 mm (25 in) deep. Citywide, eight people were killed. According to press reports, Irma was to worst tropical cyclone to directly impact Manila in over 10 years. Offshore Bataan, eight fishermen were initially rendered missing after a boat capsized. In Olongapo City, seven people were buried due to a landslide. In the downtown Santa Cruz area, all forms of transportation except for the railroad were immobile. The Makati area sustained waist-deep flooding. Due to both Irma and Hal, 14 communities in Tarlac were flooded, leaving 375,000 people displaced, 116,963 of whom were evacuated to 46 evacuation centers. Seven bridges were also damaged. Overall, 511,067 people, or 94,661 families were directly affected by the typhoon. A total of 253 homes were destroyed, with 1,854 others partially damaged. Nationwide, 65 people were killed due to the typhoon. The storm inflicted \$13.7 million in damage to infrastructure and \$2.3 million in damage to agriculture, totaling to approximately \$16 million. Upon making landfall on Honshu, Irma became the first tropical system to strike the nation that season. Impacting an area already devastated by prior flooding, Irma deluged the archipelago with additional precipitation. Mount Ontake received 718 mm (30 in) of rain throughout the duration of the storm. Additionally, Mount Amagi recorded 18.0 in (457 mm) in a day, including 64 mm (2.5 in) in an hour, both storm highs in those respective categories. A total of 1,475 mudslides occurred in Japan, resulting in 625 damaged homes. Approximately 650,000 customers were left without power at the height of the storm while 160 trains were delayed or cancelled, which left 50,000 people stranded. In Chiba Prefecture, one person was listed missing due to a drowning, where seven persons were also hurt and over 200 houses were flooded. There, 400,000 individuals were also stranded due to lack of train service. In Tokyo, 119 trees were toppled and 25 roads were flooded. Twenty domestic airline flights were cancelled and 26 railway lines within Tokyo were suspended, leaving 240,000 people stranded. Throughout the city, at least 40 dwellings sustained flooding. In Izu Ōshima, 17 boats were swept away and 20 houses were damaged. Offshore, 26 individuals were rescued from a 5,100 tonnes (5,100,000 kg) freighter Gloria Fortuna. Throughout the country, 493 people sought refuge in shelters. In all, 19 people were killed and 49 others were injured. A total of 811 dwellings were destroyed and 10,000 homes were damaged, with 12,691 houses flooded. Nationwide, a total of 31,617 ha (78,125 acres) of crops were damaged. Across Japan, damage amounted to \$545 million, including at least \$61 million in property damage. ## See also - Other tropical cyclones named Irma - Typhoon Dot (1985) – affected the Philippines later that year	[ "## Meteorological history", "## Preparations and impact", "## See also" ]	2,479	31,791
57,963,655	Mississippi Highway 826	1,054,760,146	Highway in Mississippi	[ "State highways in Mississippi", "Transportation in Sharkey County, Mississippi" ]	Mississippi Highway 826 (MS 826) is a short state highway in western Mississippi. The route starts at U.S. Route 61 (US 61) south of Rolling Fork. The road then travels northward through farmland, and MS 826 ends at its intersection with MS 14, west of the town. The road was constructed in 1955 to bypass Rolling Fork, and the route was designated around 1957, after a proposal by Sharkey County to transfer the road to state maintenance. ## Route description All of MS 826 is located in Sharkey County. In 2018, the Mississippi Department of Transportation (MDOT) calculated 690 vehicles traveling on MS 826 south of Ending Bar Road on average each day. The route is legally defined in Mississippi Code § 65-3-3, and it is maintained by MDOT and Sharkey County, as part of the Mississippi State Highway System. The route starts at the intersection of US 61 and Fork Creek Road southwest of Rolling Fork. Surrounded by farmland, the road travels north and intersects a gravel road. MS 826 then intersects Ending Bar Road, which travels to the southern part of the town. The route continues northward and ends at MS 14, west of Rolling Fork. The road continues north as Burma Road, a gravel road that ends at MS 16 near Lorenzen. ## History The road was paved around 1955 by Sharkey County, connecting US 61 to MS 14 and bypassing the town of Rolling Fork. It was built to relieve cross-country traffic travelling around Rolling Fork. Following a proposal by the Sharkey County Board of Supervisors in March 1955, the road was added to the state highway system by 1957. ## Major intersections	[ "## Route description", "## History", "## Major intersections" ]	364	16,283
8,705,259	Buffalo Grove ambush	1,037,626,587	null	[ "1832 in the United States", "Battles and skirmishes of the Black Hawk War in Illinois", "May 1832 events", "Polo, Illinois" ]	The Buffalo Grove ambush was an ambush that occurred on May 19, 1832 as part of the Black Hawk War. A six-man detail carrying dispatches from United States Colonel James M. Strode at Galena, Illinois to General Henry Atkinson at Dixon's Ferry was ambushed by Native Americans during the attack. William Durley was killed and buried near the site of the ambush. Durley's remains were initially interred by the party that would become victims of the St. Vrain massacre. Two other men had bullet holes in their clothing, but were uninjured. In 1910 the Polo Historical Society moved Durley's remains to a plot beneath a memorial they erected west of Polo, Illinois. ## Background As a consequence of an 1804 treaty between the Governor of Indiana Territory and a group of Sauk and Fox leaders regarding land settlement, the Sauk and Fox tribes vacated their lands in Illinois and moved west of the Mississippi in 1828. However, Sauk Chief Black Hawk and others disputed the treaty, claiming that the full tribal councils had not been consulted, nor did those representing the tribes have authorization to cede lands. Angered by the loss of his birthplace, between 1830–31 Black Hawk led a number of incursions across the Mississippi River, but was persuaded to return west each time without bloodshed. In April 1832, encouraged by promises of alliance with other tribes and the British, he again moved his so-called "British Band" of around 1000 warriors and non-combatants into Illinois. Finding no allies, he attempted to return to Iowa, but ensuing events led to the Battle of Stillman's Run. A number of other engagements followed, and the state militias of Wisconsin and Illinois were mobilized to hunt down Black Hawk's band. The conflict became known as the Black Hawk War. ## Prelude When the Black Hawk War began in the spring of 1832, the settlers at Buffalo Grove were notified of Black Hawk's victory at Stillman's Run and ordered to leave the grove. Most of the settlers went to Peoria where they remained for the duration of the war. On May 19, 1832 a small unit was detailed to carry dispatches from Colonel James M. Strode in Galena to General Henry Atkinson at Dixon's Ferry (present-day Dixon, Illinois). The group of men, which included soldiers Fred Stahl, William Durley, Vincent Smith, Redding Bennett, James Smith, and mail contractor John D. Winters, left Dixon around 3 p.m. on May 19. ## Ambush The Buffalo Grove ambush occurred near Buffalo Grove, Illinois, a small, unincorporated settlement in present-day Ogle County. As the group neared the edge of the grove one of the party noted the increased chances for ambush and suggested that the party avoid the usual route by taking a more roundabout route. The suggestion was opposed and Durley reared his horse and entered the wooded area within the grove. He had traveled only a few "bounds" when he was cut down by gunfire from the previously suggested ambush. On May 20, 1832, Sergeant Stahl returned to Dixon's Ferry with the other four survivors of the attack and reported that his party had been ambushed by a group of Native Americans the evening before on the edge of the grove. He reported that Durley was killed instantly, scalped, and left on the spot. Stahl and James Smith both had bullets rip through articles of clothing but were uninjured and only Durley died in the attack. ## Aftermath The events of the Buffalo Grove ambush are closely interrelated with those of the St. Vrain massacre. A group of four men, including Aaron Hawley and John Fowler, both casualties of the St. Vrain massacre, was en route to Galena when they stumbled upon the body of Durley at Buffalo Grove. The group returned to Dixon's Ferry, reported their find and stayed there overnight. When Atkinson returned to Dixon on May 23 it was with dispatches destined for Fort Armstrong. He ordered Indian Agent Felix St. Vrain to join the group that had discovered Durley's body and travel with them to Galena. The group left Dixon and traveled north where they found, and interred the remains of Durley at Buffalo Grove. The Polo Historical Society erected a memorial to Durley on May 19, 1910, the 78th anniversary of the attack. At that time, Durley's remains were moved from where St. Vrain's party buried him, near where he had fallen, and interred beneath the memorial. The Buffalo Grove ambush historical marker and memorial to Durley are located west of the city of Polo, Illinois along Eagle Point Road.	[ "## Background", "## Prelude", "## Ambush", "## Aftermath" ]	980	34,366
21,697,041	Charles Scherf	1,169,083,572	Australian Second World War flying ace	[ "1917 births", "1949 deaths", "Australian Army soldiers", "Australian World War II flying aces", "Companions of the Distinguished Service Order", "Military personnel from New South Wales", "Recipients of the Distinguished Flying Cross (United Kingdom)", "Road incident deaths in New South Wales", "Royal Australian Air Force officers" ]	Charles Curnow Scherf, (17 May 1917 – 13 July 1949) was an Australian flying ace of the Second World War. Born in New South Wales, Scherf was working on his father's grazing property when he enlisted in the Royal Australian Air Force in 1941. On graduating as a pilot, he was sent to the United Kingdom for service in the European theatre. Flying de Havilland Mosquitos with No. 418 Squadron RCAF, Scherf was credited with the destruction of 71⁄2 aircraft in the air and on the ground, and awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross. Afterward, he was posted for duties with Headquarters Air Defence of Great Britain. He nevertheless returned occasionally to No. 418 Squadron and flew operational sorties with the unit, destroying a further 16 aircraft and earning two more decorations. By the end of the war, Scherf had achieved 141⁄2 aerial victories in 38 operational sorties. He was also credited with destroying nine aircraft on the ground, and with damaging seven others. ## Early life Scherf was born at Emmaville, New South Wales, on 17 May 1917, the son of Charles Henry Scherf, a grazier, and his Cornish wife Susan Jane (née Curnow). An active sportsman, Scherf attended the local school where he obtained an Intermediate Certificate. In 1934, he enlisted in the Citizens Military Force and was allotted to the 12th Light Horse Regiment as a private. He rose to the rank of corporal, before taking his discharge in 1939. On 23 August 1939, Scherf married Florence Hope O'Hara in an Anglican ceremony at the Holy Trinity Church, Glen Innes; the couple had a son and three daughters. By this time he was working as a grazier on his father's property. ## Second World War On 12 September 1941, Scherf enlisted in the Royal Australian Air Force for service during the Second World War. Posted for flight training at No. 10 Empire Flight Training School, Temora, and later No. 6 Service Flying Training School, Mallala, he graduated as a pilot with an "above average" rating on 2 July 1942. Commissioned as a pilot officer on 17 September, Scherf embarked from Sydney bound for the United Kingdom the following month. Following a six-week voyage, he disembarked on 27 November and was attached to Royal Air Force training units for "advanced flying and operational training". He was promoted to flying officer during this time. On completion, Scherf was posted to No. 418 Squadron RCAF on 13 July 1943, flying the de Havilland Mosquito, on intruder (a.k.a. "ranger") operations over occupied Europe. In August 1943, Scherf commenced flying operational sorties against Axis airfields in France. On 15 September, he flew as an escort to a group of eight Lancaster bombers during a low level attack on the Dortmund-Ems Canal, Germany. He was promoted to acting flight lieutenant on 29 December. During this time, Scherf took part in several night operations and was credited with damaging a variety of targets as well as shooting down four German aircraft at night. Praised for his "exceptional keenness and ... courage", Scherf was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross for his night time exploits. The announcement and accompanying citation for the award was published in a supplement to the London Gazette on 4 April 1944. In late February 1944, Scherf took part in a sortie over Axis occupied territory with Squadron Leader Howie Clevelend; Scherf flew the leading aircraft of the two. The pair attacked an Axis airfield at St Yan, France, and successfully destroyed three aircraft on the ground. Soon after, the two pilots spotted a Heinkel He 111Z twin-fuselage glider tug towing two Gotha Go 242 gliders. Scherf and Clevelend attacked the party, with Clevelend firing first and destroying one of the gliders. Scherf then destroyed the second glider, before the pair assaulted the Heinkel. In the first pass, Scherf set the starboard engine ablaze while Clevelend hit the starboard side. Scherf made a second firing pass, before the Heinkel spiralled to the ground with three of its five engines on fire. This action was Scherf's final sortie of his tour. The pair were credited with shooting down three aircraft in this operation, with an additional three others damaged or destroyed on the ground. On 13 March 1944, Scherf was promoted to acting squadron leader and, with his operation tour at an end, was posted to Headquarters Air Defence of Great Britain as a controller of Intruder operations. By the time of this posting, Scherf had destroyed seven airborne or grounded German aircraft, with an additional shared victory. Despite his new position, Scherf's "impatient spirit was far from satisfied with a staff position", and he occasionally returned to No. 418 Squadron when he was off duty, taking part in operational sorties with the unit. On 5 April, Scherf joined the squadron in a sortie over Northern France. During the engagement, Scherf shot down two Axis aircraft in the air and damaged three more on the ground. For his actions on the two operations in February and April, Scherf was awarded a Bar to his Distinguished Flying Cross. The citation for the decoration was published in a supplement to the London Gazette on 12 May 1944, reading: > Air Ministry, 12th May, 1944 > > The KING has been graciously pleased to approve the following awards in recognition of gallantry displayed in flying operations against the enemy — > > Bar to Distinguished Flying Cross > > Acting Flight Lieutenant Charles Curnow SCHERF, DFC (Aus 413671), Royal Australian Air Force, No 418 (RCAF) Squadron. > > Since being awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross, this officer has taken part in numerous sorties and has continued to display the highest qualities of gallantry and skill. Towards the end of February, 1944, he flew the leading aircraft of two detailed for a sortie far in enemy occupied territory. During the operation three enemy aircraft were shot down, and three others damaged on the ground. During another sortie over Northern France in April, 1944, Flight Lieutenant Scherf destroyed two enemy aircraft in the air and damaged three others on the ground at an airfield. These 2 sorties were a fitting climax to an outstanding tour. This officer has destroyed at least 9 enemy aircraft, successes which pay an excellent tribute to his great fighting qualities and resolution. On 2 and 16 May 1944, Scherf took part in two further daylight sorties with No. 418 Squadron into "well-defended areas far into Germany". Leading a section of Mosquito aircraft in action against Luftwaffe bases in the Baltic area and over northern Germany, Scherf was credited with shooting down six aircraft in aerial combat, and damaging an additional three on the ground over the two operations. Commended for his "great skill, enterprise and fearlessness", Scherf was awarded the Distinguished Service Order. The notification and accompanying citation for the decoration was published in a supplement to the London Gazette on 27 June 1944. Scherf embarked to return to Australia on 10 July 1944, arriving in Brisbane two months later. He was briefly posted to RAAF Station Sandgate, before moving to No. 5 Operational Training Unit, based at Williamtown, as chief flying instructor in October. He served in this position until late December, when he was posted for duties with RAAF Base Richmond and later RAAF Bradfield Park. On 11 April 1945, Scherf transferred to Royal Australian Air Force Reserve and returned to his home in Emmaville, thus ending his wartime service. By this time, Scherf had been officially credited with shooting down 141⁄2 Axis aircraft in aerial combat, as well as nine aircraft destroyed on the ground and a further seven damaged from a total of 38 operational sorties. ## Later life On 16 February 1946, Scherf attended an investiture ceremony at Government House, Sydney, where he was presented with his decorations by the Governor-General of Australia, Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester. Scherf was discharged from the Royal Australian Air Force Reserve on 1 July 1947. Scherf found it difficult to re-adjust to civilian life, and began to have nightmares about the Germans he had shot down and killed during the war. This led him to drink heavily. On 13 July 1949, Scherf was driving his car along the Inverell road approximately 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) from Emmaville when he struck a tree and the vehicle overturned. He died from his injuries later that day. Survived by his wife, their three daughters and son, Scherf was buried in the local cemetery. Two RAAF P-51 Mustang fighters flew in formation over the cemetery as the funeral party arrived, followed by a Mosquito as Scherf's casket was lowered into the grave.	[ "## Early life", "## Second World War", "## Later life" ]	1,944	11,711
5,326,054	HMS Northumberland (1866)	1,096,335,274	1866 ship	[ "1866 ships", "Coal hulks", "Five-masted ships", "Maritime incidents in December 1872", "Minotaur-class ironclads", "Ships built in Millwall", "Three-masted ships", "Victorian-era battleships of the United Kingdom" ]	HMS Northumberland was the last of the three Minotaur-class armoured frigates built for the Royal Navy during the 1860s. She had a different armour scheme and heavier armament than her sister ships, and was generally regarded as a half-sister to the other ships of the class. The ship spent her career with the Channel Squadron and occasionally served as a flagship. Northumberland was placed in reserve in 1890 and became a training ship in 1898. She was converted into a coal hulk in 1909 and sold in 1927, although the ship was not scrapped until 1935. ## Design and description The Minotaur-class armoured frigates were essentially enlarged versions of the ironclad HMS Achilles with heavier armament, armour, and more powerful engines. They retained the broadside ironclad layout of their predecessor, but their sides were fully armoured to protect the 50 guns they were designed to carry. Their plough-shaped ram was also more prominent than that of Achilles. Northumberland was 400 feet 4 inches (122.0 m) long between perpendiculars and had a beam of 58 feet 5 inches (17.8 m) and a draught of 27 feet 9 inches (8.5 m). The ship displaced 10,584 long tons (10,754 t) and had a tonnage of 6,621 tons burthen. Her hull was subdivided by 15 watertight transverse bulkheads and had a double bottom underneath the engine and boiler rooms. The ship was considered "a steady gun platform, able to maintain her speed in a seaway and satisfactory in manoeuvre". She was authorized a crew of 705 officers and ratings, but actually carried 800 men. ### Propulsion Northumberland had a two-cylinder trunk steam engine, made by John Penn and Sons, driving a single propeller using steam provided by 10 rectangular fire-tube boilers. It produced a total of 6,558 indicated horsepower (4,890 kW) during the ship's sea trials on 15 September 1868 and Northumberland had a maximum speed of 14.1 knots (26.1 km/h; 16.2 mph). The ships normally carried 750 long tons (760 t) of coal, but had a maximum capacity of 1,400 long tons (1,400 t), enough to steam 2,825 nautical miles (5,232 km; 3,251 mi) at 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph). Originally designed with three masts, Northumberland was fitted with five masts until her 1875–79 refit when two were removed and she was re-rigged as a barque. Northumberland only made 7 knots (13 km/h; 8.1 mph) under sail, mainly because the ship's propeller could only be disconnected and not hoisted up into the stern of the ship to reduce drag, the worst speed of any ironclad of her era. Admiral George A. Ballard described the Minotaur-class ships as "the dullest performers under canvas of the whole masted fleet of their day, and no ships ever carried so much dress to so little purpose." ### Armament Unlike her half-sisters, Northumberland was armed with a mix of seven-inch (178 mm), eight-inch (203 mm), and nine-inch (229 mm) rifled muzzle-loading guns. All 4 nine-inch and 18 eight-inch were mounted on the main deck while 4 eight-inch guns were fitted on the upper deck as chase guns. Both seven-inch guns were mounted in the stern on the main deck, also as chase guns. The nine-inch gun was credited with the ability to penetrate 11.3 inches (287 mm) of wrought iron armour at the muzzle. The eight-inch gun could penetrate 9.6-inch (244 mm) of armour and the seven-inch gun could penetrate 7.7 inches (196 mm). Northumberland was partially rearmed in 1875 with an armament of 7 nine-inch guns, 4 on the main deck, 2 forward chase guns and 1 rear chase gun. Two eight-inch guns replaced the seven-inchers on the main deck at the stern; the other 18 eight-inch guns remained where they were. In 1886 two six inches (152 mm) breech-loading guns replaced two eight-inch guns. Six quick-firing (QF) 4.7-inch (120-mm) guns, 10 QF 3-pounder Hotchkiss guns, and six machine guns were later added. ### Armour Unlike her half-sisters, the entire side of Northumberland's hull was not covered with wrought iron armour. To compensate for the additional weight of her armament, only her battery was protected above the main deck. The ship was fitted with a complete waterline armour belt that tapered from 4.5 inches (114 mm) at the ends to 5.5 inches (140 mm) amidships. The armour extended 5 feet 9 inches (1.8 m) below the waterline. The sides of the battery were 184.5 feet (56.2 m) long and it was protected by 5.5-inch armour on all sides, including transverse bulkheads fore and aft of the guns. The two forward chase guns on the upper deck were also protected by armoured bulkheads, but the stern chase guns on that same deck were entirely unprotected. The armour was backed by 10 inches (254 mm) of teak. The ship also had a conning tower protected by 4.5-inch armour plates. ## Construction and service Northumberland, named after the ceremonial county, was ordered on 2 September 1861 from the Millwall Ironworks. She was laid down on 10 October 1861 at its shipyard in Millwall, London. She was altered while on the building slip after Sir Edward Reed succeeded Isaac Watts as Chief Constructor. Unlike her half-sisters, the ship spent five years on the stocks before she was ready to be launched, partially due to frequent changes in design, although Northumberland was much closer to completion. The additional weight caused her stick for an hour on the slipway before she slid halfway down with her stern only supported by air, threatening to buckle the ship. Efforts by hydraulic jacks and tugboats failed to get her into the water on the next spring tide failed, but the use of pontoons on 17 April 1866 proved successful. Her builders went into bankruptcy while the ship was being launched and the liquidators seized Northumberland as a company asset once she was in the water. Eight months passed before the Admiralty could take possession and begin fitting out the ship. She was commissioned in October 1868 and completed on 8 October for a cost a total of £444,256. The ship's first posting was to the Channel Squadron, where she remained until 1873. Her first captain, Roderick Dew, had all of her yards painted black so that she could be visually distinguished from her half-sisters, whose yards were white. During this time she helped her half-sister Agincourt tow a floating drydock from England to Madeira where it would be picked up by Warrior and Black Prince and taken to Bermuda. The ships departed the Nore on 23 June 1869, loaded down with 500 long tons (510 t) of coal stowed in bags on their gun decks, and transferred the floating dock 11 days later after an uneventful voyage. She was anchored at Funchal, Madeira, on Christmas Day 1872, when a storm parted her anchor chain and the ship drifted onto the ram bow of the ironclad Hercules. Northumberland was seriously damaged below the waterline, with one compartment flooded, though she was able to steam to Malta for repairs. While her half-sister Minotaur, normally flagship of the Channel Squadron, was refitting in 1873–75, Agincourt, normally the flagship of the fleet second-in-command, replaced her as flagship and Northumberland became flagship of the second-in-command until Minotaur's return to duty. She served as the flagship for Rear Admirals George Hancock and Lord John Hay. Northumberland received her own refit and rearmament from 1875 to 1879 and rejoined the Channel Squadron upon its completion. The ship was paid off in 1885 for another refit and became the flagship of Vice Admirals Sir William Hewett and John Baird, successive commanders of the Channel Squadron, upon her completion in 1887. Northumberland was assigned to the 1st Reserve Squadron at the Isle of Portland in 1890–91 and then at Devonport from 1891 to 1898. She was hulked in 1898 as a stokers' training ship at the Nore and renamed Acheron on 1 January 1904. From 1909 to 1927 the ship served as a coal hulk at Invergordon, renamed C.8 in 1909 and then C.68 in 1926. The ship was sold in 1927, but was then resold and renamed as Stedmound for service at Dakar until she was scrapped in 1935. ## Relics Two large 1870s half-scale models of the ship are at the Museum of London Docklands.	[ "## Design and description", "### Propulsion", "### Armament", "### Armour", "## Construction and service", "## Relics" ]	1,953	18,308
12,784,253	Maryland Route 22	1,157,659,773	State highway in Harford County, Maryland, US	[ "Roads in Harford County, Maryland", "State highways in Maryland" ]	Maryland Route 22 (MD 22) is a state highway in the U.S. state of Maryland. The state highway runs 12.91 miles (20.78 km) from U.S. Route 1 Business (US 1 Business) and MD 924 in Bel Air east to an entrance to Aberdeen Proving Ground in Aberdeen. MD 22 is the main connection between the county seat of Bel Air and Aberdeen, which is the largest city in Harford County. The state highway also provides the primary route between Interstate 95 (I-95) and Aberdeen Proving Ground. MD 22 was one of the original state roads marked for improvement in 1909 and one of the original state-numbered highways in 1927. The highway was constructed between Bel Air and Aberdeen in the early 1910s. Another section of highway between Aberdeen and Havre de Grace, the Post Road, was also built in the early 1910s. The Post Road became part of US 40 in 1927 but was designated as an extension of MD 22 after US 40 was relocated in the early 1930s. MD 22 was reconstructed from Bel Air to Aberdeen in the 1950s. MD 22's present course east of I-95 was built in the late 1960s; the old section of MD 22 through Aberdeen became MD 132. ## Route description MD 22 begins in the Bel Air Courthouse Historic District in the town of Bel Air as a one-way pair, Fulford Avenue eastbound and Churchville Road westbound, at Main Street. Main Street carries northbound MD 924 and US 1 Business; the business route enters downtown Bel Air from the west on Fulford Avenue. Churchville Road continues west as unsigned MD 922E, which intersects Bond Street, which carries southbound MD 924 and US 1 Business; the business route leaves downtown Bel Air to the west on Churchville Road. The two directions of MD 22 unite at Shamrock Road as Churchville Road, a four-lane divided highway that passes north of Rockfield Park and The John Carroll School. The road heads north of Bynum Run Park, where a park and ride lot is located, as it leaves the town of Bel Air. The state highway crosses over Bynum Run as it passes through Fountain Green, where the highway intersects MD 543 (Fountain Green Road). East of MD 543, MD 22 reduces to a two-lane undivided road and passes the historic Dibb House and Tudor Hall, the latter notable for being the boyhood home of John Wilkes Booth. The state highway passes through the hamlet of Schucks Corner and intersects Thomas Run Road, which leads to Thomas Run Park, Harford Technical High School, Thomas Run Church, Medical Hall Historic District, and the historic Hays-Heighe House on the campus of Harford Community College. In the unincorporated village of Churchville, MD 22 intersects MD 136 (Calvary Road/Priestford Road) adjacent to the community's namesake, Churchville Presbyterian Church. After meeting the west end of MD 155 (Level Road) immediately to the east, the state highway curves to the south. After MD 156 (Aldino Road) splits to the east, MD 22 returns to an eastward heading to pass through the hamlet of Carsins. The state highway expands to a four-lane highway immediately before intersecting Long Drive, which serves as the entrance to Ripken Stadium, home of the Aberdeen IronBirds baseball team. A park and ride lot is located south of this intersection. Just east of the stadium complex, the state highway meets I-95 (John F. Kennedy Memorial Highway) at a six-ramp partial cloverleaf interchange. MD 22 continues east as Aberdeen Thruway, a four-lane divided highway bypass of downtown Aberdeen that connects I-95 with Aberdeen Proving Ground. Immediately east of I-95, the state highway enters the city limits of Aberdeen and intersects Beards Hill Road. Beards Hill Road heads south as unsigned MD 132A, which leads to MD 132 (Bel Air Avenue), the old alignment of MD 22 that leads to downtown Aberdeen. MD 22 continues east through an intersection with MD 462 (Paradise Road) and curves south. The state highway continues through grade-separated crossings of CSX's Philadelphia Subdivision and Amtrak's Northeast Corridor railroad lines northeast of downtown Aberdeen. Squeezed in between the two railroad lines is MD 22's partial cloverleaf interchange with US 40 (Philadelphia Boulevard); several movements between the two highways are provided via Rogers Avenue, which intersects MD 22 between the bridges across the Philadelphia Subdivision and US 40. East of the railroads, the highway intersects Post Road, which heads north as another section of MD 132 (officially MD 132B), before reaching its eastern terminus at Bel Air Avenue just west of an entrance to Aberdeen Proving Ground. This gate is open from 5:00 am to midnight and allows entry for persons with a Government ID; visitors must use the gate along MD 715. The highway continues onto the military base as Harford Boulevard. MD 22 is a part of the National Highway System for its entire length. The highway is a part of the main National Highway System from I-95 to Aberdeen Proving Ground and as a principal arterial from MD 924 in Bel Air to I-95. ## History MD 22 was one of the original state roads marked for improvement by the Maryland State Roads Commission in 1909. The highway was part of the original main road from Baltimore to Aberdeen and Havre de Grace that passed through Bel Air. The Post Road, also known as the Philadelphia Road, did not become the main connection between Baltimore and Aberdeen until the 1920s. The highway from Bel Air to Churchville, part of the Bel Air Road extending west from Havre de Grace, was already improved beyond a rudimentary dirt road by 1910. The highway from Churchville to Paradise Road in Aberdeen was constructed in 1911. The portion of the state road between Bel Air and Churchville was reconstructed in 1913. The Post Road between Aberdeen and Havre de Grace was constructed as a state aid road around 1911. All three segments were constructed as a 14-foot (4.3 m) wide macadam road. The original construction did not include the portions of Bel Air Avenue and the Post Road within the limits of Aberdeen. The portion of Bel Air Avenue from Paradise Road to the Post Road and the Post Road from there to approximately the modern intersection of MD 22 and MD 132B were rebuilt as a 17-foot (5.2 m) wide concrete road in 1917. By 1920, the road was part of the Capitol Trail, an auto trail linking Atlanta and Philadelphia via Washington, D.C. MD 22 was widened to 17 feet (5.2 m) with the addition of 3-foot (0.91 m) wide concrete shoulders around 1926, just before the highway became one of the original state-numbered highways in 1927. The Post Road became part of US 40 the same year. Both MD 22 and US 40 from Aberdeen to Havre de Grace were widened to 20 feet (6.1 m) by 1930. US 40 was relocated from the Post Road to its present alignment from Aberdeen to Havre de Grace between 1930 and 1933. MD 22 was extended north along the Post Road to MD 132B's present northern terminus by 1939. Work to further modernize MD 22 began in 1951 when Churchville Road from Bel Air to MD 156 near Churchville was straightened, widened, and resurfaced. The Bel Air–Churchville work was completed in 1953; the following year, the MD 22–MD 155 intersection was reconstructed. MD 22 from MD 156 to US 40 in Aberdeen was widened and resurfaced between 1954 and 1956. The Aberdeen Thruway was constructed to improve the east–west connection between I-95, US 40, and Aberdeen Proving Ground and to provide grade separated crossings of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad (now CSX), Pennsylvania Railroad (now Amtrak), and US 40. The grade separations had been contemplated as early as 1942. Construction on the relocation of MD 22 began in 1967 and was completed in 1969. The old alignment of MD 22 from I-95 east and north through Aberdeen to US 40 near Havre de Grace was designated MD 132. Beards Hill Road was reconstructed as a divided highway between MD 132 and MD 22 and the ramps from northbound I-95 to MD 132 and from eastbound MD 22 to MD 132 were constructed by 1972. The western end of MD 22 was changed to a one-way pair when Fulford Avenue was added to the state highway system as eastbound MD 22 in Bel Air in 1979. The state highway was expanded to a divided highway from the east end of the one-way pair to MD 543 between 1994 and 1999. MD 22 was expanded to a four-lane divided highway from the I-95 overpass west to Long Drive in 2004 concurrent with the transformation of the original diamond interchange with I-95 to a partial cloverleaf with collector-distributor lanes. ## Junction list ## Auxiliary routes - MD 22A is the designation for Old Section MD 22, a 0.13-mile (0.21 km) section of old alignment of MD 22 that serves several houses on the westbound side of MD 22 immediately to the west of the MD 22–I-95 interchange. MD 22A was designated in 2004 when MD 22 was relocated slightly to the south as part of the construction of the divided highway to the west of I-95. - MD 22B is the designation for Old MD 22 Spur, a 0.02-mile (0.032 km) road connecting MD 22 north to MD 22A. MD 22B was designated in 2011. ## See also	[ "## Route description", "## History", "## Junction list", "## Auxiliary routes", "## See also" ]	2,138	28,589
31,308,914	Pensacola Dam	1,134,468,589	Dam in Mayes County, Oklahoma	[ "1940 establishments in Oklahoma", "Art Deco architecture in Oklahoma", "Buildings and structures in Mayes County, Oklahoma", "Buttress dams", "Dams completed in 1940", "Dams on the National Register of Historic Places in Oklahoma", "Energy infrastructure completed in 1941", "Hydroelectric power plants in Oklahoma", "Multiple-arch dams", "National Register of Historic Places in Mayes County, Oklahoma", "Public Works Administration in Oklahoma", "United States state-owned dams" ]	The Pensacola Dam, also known as the Grand River Dam, is a multiple-arch buttress dam located between the towns of Disney and Langley on the Grand River in Mayes County, Oklahoma. The dam is operated by the Grand River Dam Authority and creates Grand Lake o' the Cherokees. After decades of vision and planning, it was constructed between 1938 and 1940 for the purposes of hydroelectric power generation, flood control and recreation. It is Oklahoma's first hydroelectric power plant and is referred to as the longest multiple-arch dam in the world. ## Background The idea to construct a dam on the Grand River originated in the late 1800s with Henry C. Holderman, a Cherokee Nation citizen, who wanted to provide electric power to the Cherokee Nation. Holderman and a few colleagues soon conducted the first survey of the river in 1895 on their own handmade houseboat. Holderman later left the United States at the age of 16 and worked on dam projects in India and Africa before returning to Oklahoma. He sold his land holdings and borrowed money from friends in order to purchase rights to the dam sites he had prospected. Over several decades, Holderman and a group known as the "Rainbow Chasers" tried to secure funding to construct the dam; making several trips to Washington DC. The dam was almost built in 1914 by British capitalists but plans were halted due to World War I. In 1920, Holderman refused an offer given by Chicago businessmen and in 1929, the Wall Street Crash ended the hopes of Canadian engineers and investors building the dam for Holderman. In DC, supporters of the dam, which later included state and federal officials, argued for the dam as a source of hydroelectric power and that it could stimulate the state's economy but local energy providers opposed the possibility of a state-run electric utility. The onset of the Great Depression would revive and accelerate plans to construct the dam. Just prior in 1928, Oklahoma Representative Everette B. Howard secured \$5,000 in funding for the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers to survey the Grand River. The results of the study concluded that it would cost over \$6.2 million to construct a dam at the "Pensacola site" for flood control. The name "Pensacola" was derived from the only available means of identifying the site at the time: an old store on a Cherokee plantation. Because of limited state funding and a limited water supply on the Grand River, the project was not proposed at first for federal funding under the scope of hydroelectric power but instead for flood control. Oklahoma set up the Grand River Dam Authority (GRDA) on January 10, 1935. Eventually, on September 18, 1937, with the help of Oklahoma Representative Wesley E. Disney, Senator Elmer Thomas and engineer W. R. Holway, President Franklin D. Roosevelt approved \$20 million in funding through the New Deal's Public Works Administration for the dam. The higher cost for the dam was attributed to a project that was approved for additional purposes, including hydroelectric power generation and recreation. Additional costs for the dam were covered by the state government and by GRDA municipal bond auctions which appropriated or raised \$11 million. Disney had pushed much of the legislation for the dam, comparing the higher electric utility rates in Oklahoma compared to other states. Senator Thomas helped appropriate additional state and public funding for the dam while also being instrumental in its legislation. Once approved and funded, Holway, the main engineer on the project and previous engineer of the nearby Spavinaw Dam, began survey and engineering work on October 25, 1937. The multiple-arch buttress design was adopted because materials were expensive at the time of the Great Depression and the limestone and chert foundation was considered "ideal" for the design. John Duncan Forsyth served as the architect for the dam and applied an Art Deco-style to it and the power house. Massman Construction Company out of Kansas City, Missouri was selected to construct the major superstructures, including the dam and power plant. Thousands of workers moved to the area to work on the dam before construction began and 3,000 eventually did, earning about \$16 a week. ## Construction Initial construction began in February 1938 and included the excavation of over 1,600,000 cu yd (1,200,000 m<sup>3</sup>) of earth and rock. Workers also constructed the first cofferdam on the east side of the river and left it in place until the arches were above the normal water level. Once this was achieved, workers removed the east cofferdam and constructed another on the west side of the river to divert water from the location of the future power plant. On December 30, 1938, Massman began the first concrete pour. Pouring was conducted 24-hours a day for 20 months, totaling 510,000 cu yd (390,000 m<sup>3</sup>). A total of 23.9 million pounds of steel and iron were placed into the dam's structure to reinforce it. Major works on the dam were complete on March 21, 1940 and the lake was filled by the end of that year's summer. The dam's power plant, with four original hydroelectric generators, began commercial operation in 1941. The dam was finished in 26 months, ahead of schedule. Much of this was attributed to eastern Oklahoma having its 18 driest months on record during construction which alleviated obstacles from flooding. The federal government took control of the dam in November 1941 to aid in the World War II effort and returned it to the GRDA in 1946. ### Effect on Native Americans The construction of the Pensacola Dam resulted in the loss of 1,285 acres (520 ha) of Cherokee land and 802 acres (325 ha) of the Quapaw Indian Agency, most of which belonged to the Seneca-Cayuga Tribe. This land was condemned and later flooded by the reservoir in 1940. Half of the Seneca-Cayuga Elk River ceremonial area was flooded as well. Although losing significant portions of land, some tribe members were forced to find work on the dam project. ### Power plant upgrades In the 1950s, two additional generators were added to the power station, bringing the total to six. Between 1995 and 2003, the dam's six hydroelectric generators were upgraded, bringing the installed capacity of the power plant from 92 MW to 120 MW and increasing its generation 20%. Each autumn, a generator was taken out of service, upgraded and returned to service by spring of the next year. The sixth and final generator upgrade was completed in May 2003. Among the components principally upgraded were the turbine shafts and runners. ## Design Pensacola Dam is a multiple-arch buttress type consisting of 51 arches and one main spillway, two auxiliary. It has a maximum height of 150 ft (46 m) above the river bed. The total length of the dam and its sections is 6,565 ft (2,001 m) while the multiple-arch section is 4,284 ft (1,306 m) long and its combination with the spillway sections measure 5,145 ft (1,568 m). Each arch in the dam has a clear span of 60 ft (18 m) and each buttress is 24 ft (7.3 m) wide. The thickness of the buttress sidewalls ranges from 5 ft (1.5 m) at the base to 2.2 ft (0.67 m) at the crest. Inside of each buttress are 18 in (460 mm) thick transverse walls that act as "stiffeners". The buttresses were the widest of their type prior to 1938 and are designed to withstand 500 lbf/in<sup>2</sup> (3,400 kPa; 35 kgf/cm<sup>2</sup>). The main spillway, part of the eastern end of the dam, is a 861 ft (262 m) long Ogee-type and utilizes twenty-one 25 ft (7.6 m) tall and 36 ft (11 m) wide tainter gates that are operated by two 60-ton hoists. The auxiliary spillways are located about 1 mi (1.6 km) northeast of the dam and are controlled by another twenty-one 37 ft (11 m) wide and 15 ft (4.6 m) high tainter gates stretched over their combined 860 ft (260 m) length. The lip of the spillways lie at an elevation of 730 ft (220 m) above sea level while the tops of the gates are 755 ft (230 m). All three spillways have a combined maximum discharge of 525,000 cu ft/s (14,900 m<sup>3</sup>/s). The two-lane State Highway 28 crosses over the top of the dam and a bridge that stretches over the main spillway. It is accessible by cars and trucks within weight. The dam's reservoir, Grand Lake o' the Cherokees (Grand Lake over the Cherokees), has a storage capacity of 1,672,000 acre⋅ft (2.062×10<sup>9</sup> m<sup>3</sup>) of which 540,000 acre⋅ft (670,000,000 m<sup>3</sup>) is flood storage. The reservoir's surface area is 46,500 acres (188 km<sup>2</sup>) and it extends 66 mi (106 km) upstream, creating 1,300 mi (2,100 km) of shoreline. Normal surface elevation is 742 ft (226 m) above sea level. The dam's power station is located at the base of the dam's western end and its building is 279 ft (85 m) long, 72 ft (22 m) wide and 60 ft (18 m) tall. The building houses six 20 MW Francis turbine generators that generate 335 million kWh annually and are each fed with their own individual penstock. The power plant is designed to accommodate four additional generators. It operates at its highest generation levels during the summer and lowest during the winter. Just west of the power station is its substation and an observation house. ## Regulation The power station is regulated by the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC), under the Federal Power Act, with the current license issued in 1992 and set to expire in 2022. The first license was granted by the FERC's predecessor, the Federal Power Commission in 1939. When the reservoir's elevation exceeds 745 ft (227 m), control of the dam's discharges are transferred to the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) who manage flood control in the larger basin. By federal regulation, the GRDA and the Corps of Engineers often coordinate discharges and reservoir levels. ### Impact FERC and USACE regulated releases downstream from the dam have been the center of controversy in recent years. Since the dam is a multi-purpose project, there are conflicting interests between flood control, environmental conservation, recreation and hydroelectric power production. The USACE may request minimal releases to prevent flooding in areas downstream and in hot mid-summer periods, releases can be minimal. This reduces dissolved oxygen (DO) levels in the river downstream. Such reductions resulted in the death of at least 5,000 fish downstream in July 2007. Significant releases from the dam have drawn opposition from people such as Oklahoma State Representative Doug Cox. He argues that the large releases effect the state's economy as an off-road recreational rock park is flooded downstream. Inconsistent releases are blamed for the overall problem and a better regulation of releases has been proposed while the GRDA is contemplating the installation of aeration devices and conducting studies along with other measures. The 1992 FERC license had addressed problematic DO levels and required the GRDA to plan methods to monitor and improve DO levels to a consistency with state water quality standards. In 2019-2020, residents of the town of Miami and neighboring Native American groups have objected to proposals to increase high water levels at Pensacola Dam and Grand Lake, on the grounds that when water backs up downstream, it can increase Miami's flooding problems. ## Tourism Between Memorial Day and Labor Day, the GRDA offers free tours of the dam. In 2010, there were over 9,000 visitors; a number which has been steadily growing in recent years. Additionally in 2010, the Ecosystems and Education Center was completed and has become part of the tour. The center serves as a water and fish monitoring research lab while offering visitors information about hydropower and water/electrical safety.	[ "## Background", "## Construction", "### Effect on Native Americans", "### Power plant upgrades", "## Design", "## Regulation", "### Impact", "## Tourism" ]	2,662	285
31,725,226	Ramone Moore	1,115,551,039	American basketball player	[ "1989 births", "Adelaide 36ers players", "Alba Fehérvár players", "American expatriate basketball people in Australia", "American expatriate basketball people in Greece", "American expatriate basketball people in Hungary", "American expatriate basketball people in Israel", "American expatriate basketball people in Italy", "American expatriate basketball people in Lithuania", "American expatriate basketball people in Ukraine", "American men's basketball players", "BC Khimik players", "BC Pieno žvaigždės players", "Basketball players from Philadelphia", "Hapoel Tel Aviv B.C. players", "Living people", "Melbourne United players", "Pallacanestro Biella players", "Peristeri B.C. players", "Shooting guards", "Springfield Armor players", "Temple Owls men's basketball players" ]	Ramone Edward Moore Jr. (born May 27, 1989) is an American professional basketball player who plays for CSM Oradea of the Romanian Liga Națională (LNBM). He attended South Philadelphia High School, where he was coached by George Anderson. Moore led the Philadelphia Public League in scoring as a senior and earned Public League MVP honors. He enrolled at Temple as a non-scholarship student and redshirted his freshman year. As a redshirt sophomore, he was the Atlantic 10 Sixth Man of the Year. As a junior, he was an All-Atlantic 10 Second Team selection, and as a senior, he was an All-Atlantic 10 First Team selection. ## Early life and high school career Moore was born on May 27, 1989, in Philadelphia, the son of Ramone Moore, Sr. and Stephanie Pugh. The younger Moore spent his childhood on the basketball court, playing until nightfall to hone his skills. He attended South Philadelphia High School, the alma mater of basketball players Nate Blackwell and Lionel Simmons. He played on the school basketball team, the Rams, and was coached by George Anderson. As a junior, he was named All-Philadelphia Public League honorable mention. In Moore's senior year, he led the Public League in scoring with 25.1 points per game and was named Public League Most Valuable Player. He finished his career at South Philadelphia High with 1,186 points. He was on the All-State Second Team and the Philadelphia Daily News named him to their All-City Team. In addition, Moore participated in the All-Star Labor Classic. Hoop Scoop named him the 166th best player in the Class of 2007. On January 9, 2007, Moore committed to Temple University over the University of Nebraska. He said that he originally wanted to move out of the city, but Nebraska was simply too far. Ultimately, his relationship with Temple coach Fran Dunphy, who began recruiting Moore at a summer Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) event, proved to be the deciding factor. Moore said that he "not only know what kind of coach [Dunphy]'s going to be, but he's going to help turn me into a man." ## College career ### Freshman year To improve his academic profile, Moore planned to attend American Christian School in Aston, Pennsylvania, but a new NCAA rule was instituted that limited the number of core classes able to be taken at a prep school. Lacking the required number of credits to receive an athletic scholarship, he enrolled at Temple as a non-scholarship student and sat out his freshman year as a redshirt. In his freshman debut the following year, he scored 11 points against East Tennessee State. Moore followed that performance up with a double-double of 11 points and 10 rebounds versus the College of Charleston, and a season-high 13 points in a loss to Clemson. As a freshman, Moore averaged 4.5 points and 2.3 rebounds per game in 13.2 minutes of playing time. After his 13th game, he was suspended due to Temple eligibility rules and did not play in the remainder of the season. ### Sophomore year In his sophomore season, Moore played 34 games, starting five, and averaged 7.6 points and 3.0 rebounds per game. In the November 17 game against Georgetown, with Temple maintaining a one-point lead with 23 seconds left, Moore missed the front end of a one-and-one foul shot. Afterwards, Greg Monroe of Georgetown hit a layup to give the Hoyas a 46–45 victory. The following game against Siena, Moore was at the foul line with a one-point lead and, with 22 seconds left, hit both free throws to hand Temple a 73–69 victory. He increased his scoring average to 9.8 points per game in conference play, receiving more minutes due to a head injury to teammate Juan Fernandez. On February 20, 2010, he scored a season-high 24 points in an overtime victory over city rival Saint Joseph's, and made a critical fullcourt layup with 1.5 seconds left to send the game into overtime. Moore helped Temple to a 29–5 record and a third consecutive Atlantic 10 conference tournament title and an automatic bid to the NCAA tournament. He was named Atlantic 10 Sixth Man of the Year. ### Junior year Prior to his junior season, Moore participated in workouts in Houston with Houston Rocket and former Villanova Wildcat Kyle Lowry. The workouts focused on three point shooting, and Moore improved his percentages from 12.5 percent as a sophomore to 38.3 percent as a junior. His averages increased as well, to 15.2 points per game, a team high, and 4.2 rebounds per game, while also being the only Temple player to start all 34 games. On December 9, 2010, Moore scored a season-high 30 points in a 68–65 upset of Georgetown. He shot 12-for-18 in the game, which was coach Fran Dunphy's 400th career victory. During the season, Moore scored in double digits in 15 straight games. Moore led Temple to a 26–8 record and a seven seed in the 2011 NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Tournament. He had 23 points as they defeated tenth-seeded Penn State in the Round of 64, 66–64. Moore finished with 17 points against San Diego State, but the Owls fell in double overtime. He was named to the All-Atlantic 10 Second Team at the conclusion of the regular season and was a Philadelphia Big Five First Team honoree. He was recognized as an All-Fourth District second-team selection by the National Association of Basketball Coaches making him eligible for the State Farm Division I All‐America teams. Since the Atlantic 10 Conference was its own district, this is equivalent to being named second team All-Atlantic 10 by the NABC. Moore considered entering the 2011 NBA draft to receive NBA evaluations, but decided not to fill out the paperwork. ### Senior year Moore was a Preseason All-Atlantic 10 First Team selection as a senior. He changed his jersey number from 23 to 10 in honor of his cousin Zaire, who died in a car crash in the summer of 2011 at the age of 10. He was named to the All-Atlantic 10 First Team at the conclusion of the regular season. He was recognized as an All-Fourth District first-team selection by the National Association of Basketball Coaches making him eligible for the State Farm Division I All-America teams. According to the Sporting News, Moore was the Player of the Year in the Atlantic 10. ## Professional career After going undrafted in the 2012 NBA draft, Moore joined the Chicago Bulls for the 2012 NBA Summer League. On August 2, 2012, he signed with Angelico Biella of Italy for the 2012–13 season. He appeared in five games for Biella before leaving in November and joining Israeli club Hapoel Tel Aviv. He appeared in just one game for Hapoel before parting ways with the club on November 21. On December 19, 2012, Moore was acquired by the Springfield Armor of the NBA Development League. In 37 games for the Armor in 2012–13, he averaged 9.2 points, 2.3 rebounds and 2.4 assists per game. In September 2013, Moore signed with Alba Fehérvár of Hungary for the 2013–14 season. In 32 games for Alba, he averaged 16.3 points, 4.0 rebounds, 2.6 assists and 1.1 steals per game. On August 10, 2014, Moore signed with Ukrainian club Khimik for the 2014–15 season. In 35 games for Khimik, he averaged 13.3 points, 4.1 rebounds, 5.2 assists and 1.7 steals per game, helping the team win the SuperLeague championship. In September 2015, Moore signed with Pieno žvaigždės Pasvalys of Lithuania for the 2015–16 season. In 38 games for Pieno žvaigždės, he averaged 13.9 points, 3.7 rebounds, 2.7 assists and 1.3 steals per game. On August 2, 2016, Moore signed with Melbourne United for the 2016–17 NBL season. On January 12, 2017, he was ruled out for the rest of the season with a calf injury. In 20 games for United, he averaged 10.1 points, 2.9 rebounds and 2.0 assists per game. On March 13, 2017, Moore signed a two-week contract with Lithuanian club Lietkabelis Panevėžys. He left the team before playing in a game for them. On August 7, 2017, Moore signed with the Adelaide 36ers for the 2017–18 NBL season. In 32 games, he averaged 11.6 points, 3.2 rebounds and 2.6 assists per game. On May 24, 2018, Moore re-signed with the 36ers on a two-year deal. A left calf strain saw him sit out from mid-January to early February 2019. In 19 games for the 36ers in 2018–19, Moore averaged 9.2 points, 3.6 rebounds and 4.3 assists per game. On February 22, 2019, Moore signed with Peristeri of the Greek Basket League. In eight games, he averaged 8.8 points, 3.1 rebounds and 3.0 assists per game. Moore rejoined the 36ers in the 2019–20 NBL season. In January 2020, Moore was sidelined with a shoulder injury and subsequently ruled out for the final seven games of the 36ers' season. He averaged 7.8 points per game in 20 games. ## Career statistics ### College \\|- \\| align="left" \\| 2008–09 \\| align="left" \\| Temple \\| 13 \\|\\| 0 \\|\\| 13.2 \\|\\| .393 \\|\\| .381 \\|\\| .857 \\|\\| 2.3 \\|\\| .7 \\|\\| .3 \\|\\| .0 \\|\\| 4.5 \\|- \\| align="left" \\| 2009–10 \\| align="left" \\| Temple \\| 35 \\|\\| 5 \\|\\| 18.0 \\|\\| .479 \\|\\| .125 \\|\\| .667 \\|\\| 3.1 \\|\\| 1.5 \\|\\| .4 \\|\\| .0 \\|\\| 7.6 \\|- \\| align="left" \\| 2010–11 \\| align="left" \\| Temple \\| 34 \\|\\| 34 \\|\\| 33.9 \\|\\| .447 \\|\\| .383 \\|\\| .795 \\|\\| 4.2 \\|\\| 3.1 \\|\\| 1.2 \\|\\| .2 \\|\\| 15.2 \\|- \\| align="left" \\| 2011–12 \\| align="left" \\| Temple \\| 32 \\|\\| 32 \\|\\| 36.6 \\|\\| .426 \\|\\| .383 \\|\\| .763 \\|\\| 4.3 \\|\\| 3.4 \\|\\| 1.1 \\|\\| .2 \\|\\| 17.3	[ "## Early life and high school career", "## College career", "### Freshman year", "### Sophomore year", "### Junior year", "### Senior year", "## Professional career", "## Career statistics", "### College" ]	2,481	8,884
7,184,051	Hurricane Karen (2001)	1,171,787,336	Category 1 Atlantic hurricane in 2001	[ "2001 Atlantic hurricane season", "2001 disasters in Canada", "Category 1 Atlantic hurricanes", "Hurricanes in Bermuda", "Hurricanes in Canada", "Tropical cyclones in 2001" ]	Hurricane Karen was a hurricane of non-tropical origin that formed in October of the 2001 Atlantic hurricane season. It developed out of the interaction between a cold front and an upper level trough on October 10 located to the south of Bermuda, and quickly strengthened as an extratropical storm. The storm passed near Bermuda on October 12, producing hurricane-force winds on the island. It then organized, becoming a subtropical cyclone on October 12 and a tropical cyclone on October 13. Karen strengthened to reach 80 mph (130 km/h) winds as a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale, and after weakening over cooler waters, it made landfall on Nova Scotia as a tropical storm. It quickly became extratropical. On Bermuda, winds from the precursor extratropical storm produced moderate damage, primarily to power lines and marine interests. Over 2/3 of the island's power subscribers were left without power during the worst of the storm, and several boats sank or ran aground from the high winds. Damage on Bermuda totaled to over \$1.4 million (2001 USD; \$1.7 million 2008 USD). In Atlantic Canada, Tropical Storm Karen produced light winds and rain, but caused minimal damage. ## Meteorological history A cold front stalled a couple hundred miles southeast of Bermuda on October 10. During that day, a strong upper-level trough moved southeastward off the southeast coast of the United States. Due to several factors, including upward motion and strong diffluence—the rate at which a fluid moves—the area became baroclinically unstable. This caused the interaction between the trough and the front to develop into an extratropical low about 345 miles (555 km) southeast of Bermuda on October 11. The low moved quickly northward, then northwestward, strengthening quickly due to the instability of the atmosphere. Late on October 11, the system slowed, and the upper-level circulation became aligned with the low-level circulation. The extratropical storm began to develop tropical characteristics late on October 11, including surface temperatures warmer than the surrounding environment, and vertical wind characteristics of a tropical cyclone. Based on its organization, the system developed into Subtropical Storm One early on October 12 while located about 35 miles (56 km) south of Bermuda. While passing to the south of Bermuda, the subtropical storm maintained winds of 70 mph (110 km/h), with wind gusts on the island surpassing 100 mph (160 km/h). After becoming dissociated from the Westerlies, the system turned northward, and began to develop convection over the center. In addition, the frontal characteristics of the subtropical storm continually weakened. On October 13, based on an Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit observation that stated that a warm core was present throughout the system, the National Hurricane Center designated the system as a tropical storm, and gave it the name Karen. At this point, Karen was located 200 miles (320 km) north of Bermuda. Karen slowly strengthened over the warm waters of the Gulf Stream, and the storm intensified to a hurricane later on October 13. Convection continued to develop, and organized into a ring around the eye as Karen reached its peak intensity of 80 mph (130 km/h) on October 14 while located about 400 miles (640 km) south of Halifax, Nova Scotia. Karen quickly weakened as it moved over cooler waters, and late on October 14 it degenerated back into a tropical storm as it accelerated northward. Convection gradually decreased, and Karen made landfall on southwestern Nova Scotia with winds of 45 mph (72 km/h) on October 15. Karen retained its tropical characteristics during and after making landfall, based on a research flight out of Halifax intended to study the early stages of extratropical transition. The flight reported arced bands and a warm-core system transitioning into a more typical mid-latitude system. Under the influence of a mid-latitude system, the storm turned sharply to the northeast, and after losing the remaining of its convection it became extratropical shortly after landfall. Continuing northward, the remnant low quickly weakened, and dissipated as it was absorbed by a larger extratropical storm over the Gulf of Saint Lawrence. ## Preparations On October 10, as the precursor extratropical storm was forming, the Bermuda Weather Service issued a gale and later a storm warning for the island, expecting winds of 50 to 60 mph (80 to 97 km/h). Several radio interviews and television stations issued information on the expected storm. Many residents believed they were insufficiently warned, though it is acknowledged that emergency managers and citizens pay less attention to gale warnings than they do for tropical cyclone warnings. On October 12, as the storm was passing to the south of the island, officials closed all schools and government offices. Many private businesses closed as well. At the time of Karen's landfall, gale warnings were issued for coastal waters, while inland wind warnings were in effect for Cape Breton. In addition, heavy rainfall warnings were issued for large portions of Nova Scotia including Halifax, southeastern New Brunswick, Fundy National Park, and Prince Edward Island. ## Impact ### Bermuda While passing to the south of the island, the tight pressure gradient between the precursor extratropical storm and high pressures resulted in strong winds on the island, including sustained winds of hurricane status at Fort George. Gusts on the island officially peaked at 100 mph (160 km/h) at Devonshire. A cruise ship anchored at harbor reported a wind gust of 118 mph (190 km/h), though it could have been caused by a downdraft. The storm also dropped moderate rainfall of just over 3 inches (76 mm), resulting in minor flooding of streets. Because the storm developed quickly, wave-induced beach erosion was minor. The strong winds left considerable tree and powerline damage. At the worst of the storm, 23,000 of the island's 30,000 power subscribers were without electricity. Damage to power lines totaled to \$385,000 (2001 USD, \$468,700 2008 USD). The strong winds also caused considerable damage to vegetation. Three cruise ships weathered the storm at St. George's Harbour, where the powerful winds ripped out a post and snapped a mooring line, leaving a ship drifting in the harbor. One crew member was minorly injured. Over a dozen boats broke free from their moorings, resulting in them running aground or sinking. In all, 87 boats were affected to some degree, with marine damage totaling to about \$665,000 (2001 USD, \$809,600 2008 USD). The winds also caused minor damage to 175 properties on the island, primarily to houses. Damage to houses amounted to about \$425,000 (2001 USD, \$517,400 2008 USD). Overall damage was moderate, totaling to about \$1.4 million (2001 USD, \$1.7 million 2008 USD). No fatalities were reported, though a few storm-related injuries occurred. ### Canada Tropical Storm Karen produced light to moderate winds across Atlantic Canada, peaking at 47 mph (76 km/h) with a gust of 64 mph (103 km/h) in Cape George in Antigonish County, Nova Scotia, along with a 26 mph (42 km/h) report in Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island. Rainbands in the storm dropped light rainfall of up to 1.8 inches (46 mm) in Yarmouth, Nova Scotia and 1.4 inches (36 mm) in Saint John, New Brunswick, most of which fell in a short amount of time. Skewed to the left side of the transitioning storm, the rainfall was beneficial for the drought-stricken areas of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. Due to the fast-moving nature of the storm, though, most areas reported only around half an inch of rain. A buoy in Halifax Harbour reported wave heights of up to 16.7 feet (5.1 m), causing breaking waves at docks white caps along the ocean. Damage in Canada was minor due to the storm, limited to an uprooted tree in New Glasgow, Nova Scotia and several other trees with damaged branches. There were no injuries or fatalities in Canada. ## See also - Other storms of the same name - List of Bermuda hurricanes - Timeline of the 2001 Atlantic hurricane season	[ "## Meteorological history", "## Preparations", "## Impact", "### Bermuda", "### Canada", "## See also" ]	1,739	37,393
66,106,748	SS Jarvis Lord	1,113,807,803	American wooden bulk freighter	[ "1872 ships", "2020 archaeological discoveries", "Great Lakes freighters", "Maritime incidents in April 1874", "Maritime incidents in August 1885", "Maritime incidents in November 1880", "Maritime incidents in September 1881", "Ships built in Marine City, Michigan", "Shipwrecks of Lake Michigan", "Shipwrecks of the Michigan coast", "Wreck diving sites in the United States" ]	SS Jarvis Lord was a wooden-hulled American Great Lakes freighter in service between 1872 and 1885. She sank without loss of life in the Manitou Passage on Lake Michigan on August 17 or 18, 1885, while loaded with iron ore. Jarvis Lord was one of the first bulk freighters ever built for the Great Lakes. She was built in 1872 by the Morley & Hill shipyard in Marine City, Michigan for William B. Morley, one of the yard's owners. One of the first purpose built lake freighters, Jarvis Lord was designed to operate in the iron-ore and coal trade. She would end up changing hands twice during the 1870s, before being purchased by John W. Moore & H.H. Brown of Cleveland, Ohio in 1883. On August 17 or 18, 1885, while bound from St. Ignace, Michigan for Chicago, Illinois, Jarvis Lord was travelling in the Manitou Passage when she sprang a leak and began sinking rapidly. Captain Richard Neville ordered that the pumps be turned on, and that Jarvis Lord be steered towards Pyramid Point in order to beach her. The situation became so dire Captain Neville ordered that the crew abandon ship. She sank stern first. All of her crew survived, making it to Glen Haven, Michigan about an hour later. The wreck of Jarvis Lord was discovered in 2020 by Ross Richardson, resting in 220 feet (67 m) of water and partially broken up. Richardson speculated that Jarvis Lord sank due to a possible grounding in the North Manitou Shoal. ## History ### Design and construction Jarvis Lord (US official number 75499) was built in 1872 in Marine City, Michigan, by the Morley & Hill shipyard. Her master carpenter was William B. Morley, one of the yard's owners. She was launched on November 23, 1872. At the time of her construction, Jarvis Lord was the largest double-decked steamship ever built in Marine City, and one of the first purpose-built bulk freighters ever built for the Great Lakes (lake freighter). Jarvis Lord's wooden hull was 178.3 feet (54.3 m) in length, 32.6 feet (9.9 m) wide and 18 feet (5.5 m) deep. Jarvis Lord had a gross register tonnage of 770.97 tons and a net register tonnage of 641.06 tons. Jarvis Lord was powered by a 500 hp (370 kW) single-cylinder low pressure steam engine; the cylinder of the engine had a bore of 42 inches (110 cm) and a stroke of 32 inches (81 cm). Steam for the engine was produced by a coal-burning 9.5-by-16-foot (2.9 m × 4.9 m) 40 psi (280 kPa) tubular boiler. The engine was manufactured by Desotelle & Hutton of Detroit, Michigan. She was propelled by a single fixed-pitch propeller. ### Service history Jarvis Lord was named after a politician and banker from New York, who was then a member of the New York State Senate. She was originally built for her master carpenter, William B. Morley, and was designed to operate in the iron ore and coal trade. She received her enrollment in Port Huron, Michigan on May 19, 1873. Her home port was Chicago, Illinois. Throughout her career, Jarvis Lord was involved in many notable incidents and accidents. On June 1, while loaded with 27,800 bushels of wheat, Jarvis Lord became the first ship to arrive in Buffalo, New York from Duluth, Minnesota in 1873. In 1874, Jarvis Lord operated as part of Eber Brock Ward's Lake Superior Line, making eleven round trips to Lake Superior. While in the Chicago harbour on April 1, 1874, Jarvis Lord received \$100 worth of damage to her hull. Jarvis Lord was in Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan in June 1874, when her engine broke down. She sustained \$3,000 worth of damage. Jarvis Lord was sold to John H. Bartow of Buffalo on April 29, 1875. She was fitted with a new stem in September 1875, by the Union Dry Dock Company in Buffalo. On April 29, 1879, Jarvis Lord was purchased by Marcus M. Drake of Buffalo, who chartered her to the Wabash Line in 1880. Jarvis Lord suffered the most serious accident of her career on November 19, 1880, while bound from Toledo, Ohio for Buffalo with 24,000 bushels of wheat and 10,000 bushels of corn, when she struck an obstruction about 1.5 miles (2.4 km) east of Turtle Island on Lake Erie. She began leaking so badly that Captain A.W. Drake was forced to run her aground on Turtle Island. On November 25, she was towed to Amherstburg, Ontario by the steamer Garland, going into winter layup immediately. On September 27, 1881, Jarvis Lord was blown ashore at Ile Parisienne on Lake Superior while loaded with 32,000 bushels of wheat. By 1882, Jarvis Lord was engaged in the Marquette, Michigan – Cleveland, Ohio iron ore trade. She was sold to John W. Moore and H.H. Brown of Cleveland in March 1883, for \$28,000. In 1883, she towed the barge T.P. Sheldon. Jarvis Lord received a major overhaul in March 1885; she had new decks, beams, hatches and stringers installed. In May of that same year, Jarvis Lord towed the schooners Champion, G.P. King and Reindeer in the Milwaukee and Chicago grain trade. Jarvis Lord was damaged in a collision with the schooner E.P. Royce on July 23, 1885, off the Skilligalee Light. ### Final voyage On August 17 or 18, 1885, while under the command of Captain Richard Neville, Jarvis Lord left St. Ignace, Michigan with a load of iron ore destined for Chicago, Illinois. She was transiting the Manitou Passage, when she sprang a leak, probably from grounding out on a shoal. Captain Neville ordered that the pumps be turned on. However, the pumps could not keep up with the water pouring in, prompting Captain Neville to give the order to steer her towards Pyramid Point in order to beach her. Eventually, the rising water inside her hull extinguished the fire in her boiler. The situation got so dire that Captain Neville gave the order to launch the lifeboats. As her crew of 20 began to row away, Jarvis Lord sank stern first, with her deck breaking away from her hull. Her crew rowed to Glen Haven, Michigan, arriving there about an hour later. They travelled back to Chicago on the steamer Lawrence. About a week and a half after Jarvis Lord sank, a large piece of her deck was reported floating off Frankfort, Michigan. At the time of her loss, Jarvis Lord was valued at \$32,000, and her hull had an Inland Lloyd's insurance rating of A2 1⁄2. ## Jarvis Lord wreck ### Discovery In the years following her sinking, multiple shipwreck hunters tried and failed to find Jarvis Lord's wreck. In the twenty-first century, shipwreck hunter Ross Richardson of Lake Ann, Michigan had aspirations of locating Jarvis Lord for a number of years. On May 31, 2019, Richardson located what appeared to be a shipwreck while scanning the bottom of the Manitou Passage. Scheduling conflicts prevented him from returning to the site immediately, but in November 2019, he began working with local television station WZZM to plan an exploration of the shipwreck the following year. On June 24, 2020, Richardson and fellow shipwreck hunters Cal Kothrade and Steve Wimer II from Milwaukee, Wisconsin joined a team from WZZM in Glen Haven, Michigan. Once they reached the wreck site, Wimer dove and captured footage of the wreck for review by the team. Based on the size and location, Richardson was able to identify the wreck as Jarvis Lord. Richardson shared the GPS coordinates of the wreck immediately after making the discovery public. He speculated that Jarvis Lord sank due to a possible grounding on the North Manitou Shoal. ### Jarvis Lord today The wreck of Jarvis Lord rests in 220 feet (67 m) of water, 2.5 miles (4.0 km) west of Pyramid Point. Her wreck is split open at the bow and the stern. Her midsection remains partially intact, with the starboard side remaining upright and the port side having fallen away. Her boiler lies next to her wreck, indicating that she sank so quickly that the air-filled boiler remained buoyant and floated away from the hull. Her helm lies off to the starboard side. There is a debris field off to her port side, and a pile of iron ore to her starboard side.	[ "## History", "### Design and construction", "### Service history", "### Final voyage", "## Jarvis Lord wreck", "### Discovery", "### Jarvis Lord today" ]	1,902	34,331
31,462,698	Seahorse Seashell Party	1,171,011,087	null	[ "2011 American television episodes", "Crossover animation", "Family Guy (season 10) episodes", "Television episodes about drugs", "Television episodes with live action and animation" ]	"Seahorse Seashell Party" is the second episode of the tenth season of the American animated television series Family Guy. It originally aired on Fox in the United States on October 2, 2011. The episode mainly centers around the Griffin family, who are riding out an oncoming hurricane. In their attempt to pass the time, they participate in numerous activities and games. After being condemned by her family yet again, Meg, having had enough of being bullied over the years, finally loses her temper and confronts them for their abusiveness, eventually leading the entire family to turn their rage on each other. Meanwhile, Brian secretly consumes magic mushrooms which causes him to have hallucinations. "Seahorse Seashell Party" is the second part of the Night of the Hurricane block with The Cleveland Show and American Dad!. The episode was first announced by Seth MacFarlane at the 2010 San Diego Comic-Con International. It was written by Wellesley Wild and directed by Brian Iles. Originally scheduled to air on May 1, 2011, as the sixteenth episode of the ninth season of Family Guy, the episode was postponed due to the 2011 Super Outbreak subsequently coinciding with the timing of the scheduled episodes. Reception of "Seahorse Seashell Party" by television critics has been negative, with its humor and main plot being the most criticized. An estimated 6.91 million viewers tuned into the episode upon its initial airing, while also garnering a 3.5/8 rating in the 18–49 demographic according to the Nielsen ratings. The episode featured guest performances by Ioan Gruffudd, Dee Bradley Baker, Debra Wilson, Colin Ford, and Kat Purgal. ## Plot As a hurricane approaches Quahog, the Griffins prepare for its arrival. In an attempt to pass the time, Brian decides to take magic mushrooms, to Stewie's surprise. As the mushrooms start to take effect, he begins hallucinating, leading to him inadvertently cutting off his own ear. Stewie tries to help Brian by staying by his side all night and taking care of him. When Brian falls asleep, he has a surreal nightmare in which he is attacked by monstrous beings resembling the Griffins and Quagmire. Brian gradually comes back to lucidity after Stewie takes him downstairs to drink some water. Meanwhile, the rest of the family attempts to pass the time by playing charades and various other games. They are unable to keep themselves entertained, and take their frustrations out on Meg. Having had enough of their abused over the years, Meg finally loses her temper and turns on the other members of the family. She starts with Chris, calling him a bastard for his bullying treatment of her and how he never takes her side against their parents. When Lois tries to tell her that she is taking her problems out on everyone else, Meg brings up Lois's criminal history and tells her that she is "the furthest thing from" the perfect mother. Meg also informs an apologetic Lois that when she turns 18, she is considering never seeing her again. Finally, Meg angrily confronts Peter for his destructive tendencies and points out that he would go to prison if anyone in the real world witnessed his treatment of her, calling him a "waste of a man". Shocked, he demands Lois make Meg stop, but Lois refuses on the grounds that he did not stand up for her. Within moments, the whole family turn their own abusive criticisms against each other, which ends with a devastated and tearful Peter running away to his room, leaving Meg and Brian alone to discuss the situation. Despite Brian commending her for standing up for herself, Meg feels remorse for hurting her family's feelings and concludes that they cannot survive without a "lightning rod" to endure their antagonism and absorb all their dysfunction. She decides to mend fences by apologizing to Peter, Lois and Chris for taking her own problems out on them, restoring their egos, personalities and original opinions. Stewie then breaks the fourth wall by telling the audience about drug use and advising them to visit their local library for more information. ## Production and development The episode was first announced in July 2010 by series creator Seth MacFarlane at the Comic-Con International in San Diego, California. Kevin Reilly, the entertainment president of the Fox Broadcasting Company, originally pitched the idea for the crossover, which was inspired by theme nights of comedy shows from the 1980s. MacFarlane described the crossover event to be an "enormous challenge" and a "substantial undertaking"; he chose to do one central story line so that each writing staff would not have to write stories for unfamiliar characters. MacFarlane was also willing to do another crossover event if this one receives successful ratings. In April 2011, executives of the Fox Broadcasting Company officially announced that "Seahorse Seashell Party" would air on May 1. However, on April 29, it was announced that the crossover event would be removed from the schedule, in response to a series of tornadoes that killed nearly 300 people in the Southern United States. The episodes were subsequently replaced by repeats of "I Am the Walrus" from American Dad!, "Brian Writes a Bestseller" from Family Guy, and "Ain't Nothin' But Mutton Bustin'" from The Cleveland Show. MacFarlane agreed with the decisions after consulting with the executives of Fox, and a spokeswoman for the company later announced that the episodes would air the following season. "Seahorse Seashell Party" was written by Wellesley Wild and directed by Brian Iles. It features guest appearances from Ioan Gruffudd, Dee Bradley Baker, Colin Ford, and Debra Wilson. This episode marked Gruffudd's first guest appearance since the season eight episode "The Splendid Source" and Wilson's first guest appearance since the season three episode "And the Wiener Is...". ## Cultural references "Seahorse Seashell Party" features several references to media, music, film, and other pop culture phenomena. The episode's title references dialogue from the viral video "Drinking out of Cups" by electronic musician and composer Dan Deacon. Peter mentions wanting to watch "G.I. José," which leads to a cutaway parodying the G.I. Joe: A Real American Hero public service announcements with a Mexican version of the title character. Peter mentions the film Fletch while playing charades. One of the many passing-time gags involves Peter performing a sing-a-long to the opening chase music from Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade. As Brian's hallucinations begin to worsen, Stewie attempts to calm him, reminding him that seeing Lady Gaga nude was a worst-case scenario. A cutaway gag involving a confrontation between an African American woman and an Italian American man parodies the National Geographic's documentaries. A reference to the social networking site Twitter was also made by Stewie. ## Reception "Seahorse Seashell Party" first aired in the United States on October 2, 2011 as part of the animation television night on Fox. It was preceded by episodes of The Simpsons and The Cleveland Show, while being followed by an episode of American Dad!. It was viewed by 6.91 million viewers upon its initial airing, despite simultaneously airing with Desperate Housewives on ABC, The Amazing Race on CBS, and a game between the Baltimore Ravens and the New York Jets on NBC. Total viewership for the episode was the highest out of its respective line-up. "Seahorse Seashell Party" garnered a 3.5/8 rating in the 18–49 demographic, according to the Nielsen ratings, also becoming the highest rating of the animation television night on Fox. Total viewership and ratings were significantly down from the previous episode, "Lottery Fever", which was watched by 7.69 million viewers and garnered a 4.1/9 rating in the 18–49 demographic. The main plot of "Seahorse Seashell Party" was panned by critics (particularly the ending). Kevin McFarland of The A.V. Club wrote of the episode, "This far into the show’s run, shifting to a much more dramatic bottle episode and reaching for emotional payoffs felt far too little too late." He resumed: "Nobody cares about any member of the Griffin family the way we care about every last Simpson. I feel bad about Meg becoming the scapegoat. Not because she’s a good character, but because instead of tweaking and working to make her appreciated or comically valuable, Family Guy spent years going down the path of least resistance and simply joined the fan chorus of hatred. One episode of pointed, forced justification for that shift doesn’t change a thing." McFarland concluded his review by giving the episode a grade of D+. Similarly, Terron Moore of Ology felt that much of the episode was wasted. In his review, Moore stated that "Seahorse Seashell Party" was "an episode that spends a lot of time addressing something that didn’t need to be addressed." He gave the episode a 4.5 out of ten points. TV Fanatic's Kate Moon was less negative of the episode, stating that even though Meg confronting her family in regards to her treatment was long overdue, she concluded that it felt contrived and uninteresting. Critics were polarized with the episode subplot. While McFarland expressed enjoyment of some of the animation of the episode, he asserted that it "fell flat". Moon exclaimed that the subplot would have been more interesting had Stewie ingested the mushrooms alongside Brian. The episode debuted in the United Kingdom on May 20, 2012, and achieved 1.6 million viewers. ## See also - Night of the Hurricane - "The Hurricane!", the related episode of The Cleveland Show - "Hurricane!", the related episode of American Dad!	[ "## Plot", "## Production and development", "## Cultural references", "## Reception", "## See also" ]	2,043	6,868
55,736,260	Don't Blame Me (Taylor Swift song)	1,171,620,044	2017 song by Taylor Swift	[ "2017 songs", "Electronic dance music songs", "Electropop songs", "Gospel songs", "Song recordings produced by Max Martin", "Song recordings produced by Shellback (record producer)", "Songs written by Max Martin", "Songs written by Shellback (record producer)", "Songs written by Taylor Swift", "Taylor Swift songs" ]	"Don't Blame Me" is a song by American singer-songwriter Taylor Swift from her sixth studio album, Reputation (2017). Written by Swift and producers Max Martin and Shellback, "Don't Blame Me" combines electropop, EDM, and gospel. Its production is driven by heavy bass, pulsing synthesizers, and manipulated vocals. The lyrics are about Swift's unapologetic attitude reflecting her reputation as a songwriter who mostly wrote about love and past relationships. In Reputation album reviews, contemporaneous critics described the production as dark and moody; some deemed "Don't Blame Me" a highlight and praised the dense production, while a few others felt the sound is generic. In 2022, "Don't Blame Me" gained traction on TikTok and debuted on various national charts, and has since earned sales certifications in several countries. Swift included the song on the set list of her Reputation Stadium Tour (2018) and the Eras Tour (2023). ## Background Taylor Swift released her fifth studio album, 1989, in October 2014 to commercial success. The album sold over six million copies in the U.S. and spawned three Billboard Hot 100 number-one singles: "Shake It Off", "Blank Space", and "Bad Blood". Swift continued to be a major target of tabloid gossip during the promotion of 1989. She had short-lived romantic relationships with Scottish producer Calvin Harris and English actor Tom Hiddleston. Her reputation was blemished from publicized disputes with other celebrities, including rapper Kanye West, media personality Kim Kardashian, and singer Katy Perry. Swift became increasingly reticent on social media, having maintained an active presence with a large following, and avoided interactions with the press amidst the tumultuous affairs. She conceived her sixth studio album, Reputation, as an answer to the media commotion surrounding her celebrity. Describing the album as "cathartic", Swift followed the songwriting for her 2014 single "Blank Space", on which she satirized her perceived image. She said: "I took that template of, OK, this is what you're all saying about me. Let me just write from this character for a second." The final cut of Reputation consists of 15 tracks, all of which Swift co-wrote. ## Composition "Don't Blame Me" was written by Swift and its producers, Max Martin, and Shellback. Both Martin and Shellback played keyboards, and the latter played guitar. Swift and Martin provided background vocals. Sam Holland and Michael Ilbert, with engineering assistants Cory Bice and Jeremy Lertola, engineered the track at MXM Studios in Los Angeles and Stockholm. It was mixed by Serban Ghenea at MixStar Studios in Virginia Beach, Virginia, and mastered by Randy Merrill at Sterling Sound Studios in New York City. In publications' reviews, critics described "Don't Blame Me" as electropop, EDM, and "gospel pop". Rolling Stone critic Rob Sheffield characterized it as "moody 'bad girl goes to church', a sound that recalls Madonna's "Like a Prayer" (1989). Hannah Mylrae from NME described the production as "thundering, foot-stomping, fist-pumping". The song is accompanied by a dark, moody electronic production and a "church-y sound" for the refrain. Its instrumentation includes pulsing drums, surging synthesizers, a heavy bass, and distorted, multitracked vocals. Spin's Monique Mendelez compared its "thunderous gothic church soundscape" to the sound of Hozier's "Take Me to Church" (2013). Alexis Petridis from The Guardian found the track's chord progression to be similar to that on Britney Spears's "...Baby One More Time" (1998). For the lyrics, media publications interpreted "Don't Blame Me" as Swift's unapologetic attitude reflecting her reputation as a songwriter who mostly wrote about love and past relationships. Swift hints at "how crazy her newest lover made her". In the song, she also replies to the criticism she endured for singing about her relationships. She understands the concept of consequence as she declares her love. She uses religious imagery, "I would fall from grace / Just to touch your face" and makes references to addiction ("Oh, lord save me, my drug is baby"). Neil McCormick from The Daily Telegraph interpreted the song as a contemplation on whether love can survive in the presence of media scrutiny. In the South African edition of GQ, Bernd Fischer thought the song shows a more vulnerable side of Swift despite its title suggesting otherwise. The track also contains a reference to The Great Gatsby where Swift refers to herself as "your Daisy". ## Release and commercial performance "Don't Blame Me" is track number four on Reputation, which was released in various countries on November 10, 2017, by Big Machine Records. Swift included the song on the set list of her Reputation Stadium Tour (2018). She again featured the song in the set list of her 2023 headlining tour, the Eras Tour. In May–June 2022, "Don't Blame Me" gained traction on the video-sharing app TikTok and entered several record charts. It appeared on the charts across various European countries, peaking within the top 50 in Norway (18), the Czech Republic (33), and Austria (49). In the wider English-speaking world, "Don't Blame Me" peaked at number 34 in Australia and at number 77 in the United Kingdom. On the Billboard Global 200 chart, the track peaked at number 118. The track was certified gold in several European countries including Norway, Greece, Poland, and Portugal. In Australia, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom, it was certified platinum. ## Critical reception "Don't Blame Me" received mostly positive reviews from critics. Melendez opined that "Don't Blame Me" was the song that represented Reputation, praising the production and lyrics. Pitchfork's Jamieson Cox called the song a "glittering [monster] held together by Swift's presence at their center". Writing for PopMatters, Evan Sawdy deemed the track a highlight on the album. In other reviews, Petridis, McCormick, and Ellen Peirson-Hagger from Under the Radar picked it as an album highlight. Peirson-Hagger noticed its "warming, singalong, confessional style intriguingly dark", while McCormick highlighted its "pithy observations, insidious melodies and intimately conversational vocals". On a less positive note, Eleanor Graham from The Line of Best Fit and Uppy Chatterjee from The Music found the EDM/electronic-influenced production ineffective partly because the sound had already been hugely popular on the charts, although the latter acknowledged that the track had some "deeply personal" lyrics. Rudy K. from Sputnikmusic commented that the track "begs for a more nimble voice than Swift can give". In a review for Atwood Magazine, Nicole Almeida found the drug metaphor in the lyrics clichéd. ## Personnel Credits are adapted from the liner notes of Reputation. - Taylor Swift – lead vocals, backing vocals, songwriting - Max Martin – production, songwriting, keyboards, backing vocals - Shellback – production, songwriting, guitars, keyboards - Sam Holland – engineering - Michael Ilbert – engineering - Cory Bice – assistant engineering - Jeremy Lertola – assistant engineering - Serban Ghenea – mixing - John Hanes – mix engineering - Randy Merrill – mastering ## Charts ## Certifications \\|- !colspan="3"\\|Streaming \\|-	[ "## Background", "## Composition", "## Release and commercial performance", "## Critical reception", "## Personnel", "## Charts", "## Certifications" ]	1,591	20,955
29,513,730	Naz Mehmet	1,150,194,558	Fictional character in EastEnders: E20	[ "EastEnders: E20", "Fictional Turkish people", "Fictional people from London", "Television characters introduced in 2010" ]	Nazan "Naz" Mehmet is a fictional character from EastEnders: E20, an Internet spin-off from the BBC soap opera EastEnders, played by Emaa Hussen. Naz is a main character in series 2, where she is joined by brothers Asher (Heshima Thompson) and Sol Levi (Tosin Cole), and Stevie Dickinson (Amanda Fairbank-Hynes). Naz is torn between two worlds: her traditional Muslim family life and modern London life. She loves and respects her family but also loves to party. She falls in love with Sol despite being engaged to Ekin Beg (Hemi Yeroham) by arrangement. This leads to Naz and Sol falling out and she sleeps with Asher, but eventually reunites with Sol. She is described as confident, strong, fiery and a troublemaker. Hussen briefly reprised the role in series 3. ## Storylines Naz arrives in Walford having bought a fake ID from Fatboy (Ricky Norwood), but she is angry that the photo looks nothing like her and the age is too high, so she steals her money back from him. He chases after her but she is rescued by Sol Levi (Tosin Cole). She removes her makeup and changes into plain clothes to return home but hears her father (Nayeef Rashed) shouting so leaves. She meets Sol and his older brother Asher (Heshima Thompson), and goes with them to Stevie Dickinson's (Amanda Fairbank-Hynes) flat where Stevie allows them to stay. Naz and Sol begin to bond, and she kisses him to avoid being seen by Ekin Beg (Hemi Yeroham). However, Ekin later finds her and takes her to her parents' house where it is revealed that Naz and Ekin are to be married. Naz and Sol almost kiss twice but are interrupted both times, the second time by the arrival of Ekin, who tells Naz's friends they are engaged. Naz and Sol argue and she says she is not engaged to Ekin but then says she is, leaving Sol angry. She then discovers it is Stevie's birthday and arranges a surprise dinner party for her. Stevie tells her that Sol likes her and she should kiss him, but he insults her because Ekin has inadvertently led him to believe Asher and Naz are seeing each other. Naz and Asher go clubbing and get drunk and high on drugs, and though Sol sends her an apologetic text message, Asher deletes it before Naz sees it. Naz and Asher end up having sex, but he abandons her afterwards and Sol finds her and apologises. They reconcile but she feels guilty. The next day they wake up after spending the night in the same bed, and Naz later watches Sol at dance rehearsals. Asher returns a necklace to Naz, and Sol sees this. He confronts her about it and she reveals she had a one-night stand with Asher but it meant nothing to her. She insists she did not receive Sol's text message but he is still angry. In an attempt to get Naz and Sol to reconcile again, Stevie pretends to swallow the key to the flat's front door, leaving them trapped. Naz reveals she is going to Turkey to meet Ekin's family and Sol angrily says she can stay there. When left alone, they get close again, but Asher interrupts them when he returns. Stevie drops the key revealing she did not swallow it and Sol thinks Naz was in on the plan so he sarcastically tells her to enjoy Turkey before leaving. She returns home and prepares to leave for Turkey but her father discovers she has escaped through a window. She returns to the flat but her father and Ekin come after her and try to take her back home. Sol stops the car and Naz gets out and they kiss. Later at the dance-off, she and her father talk and he finally accepts her choice of boyfriend. In series 3, Naz and Sol are seen briefly together, and they are still a couple. ## Creation, development and characterisation Naz is one of four main characters from series two of EastEnders: E20, created by its team of thirteen writers, along with Asher, Sol and Stevie. Newcomer Emaa Hussen was cast in the role, and said: "It's a really exciting place to start my career. I'm from East London and a big fan of EastEnders, which is one of the reasons I wanted to do the show." Hussen said she was offered the part as the producers saw something "authentic and real" in her and that she could play the character how they wanted, and said she is similar to the character in some ways, adding that she enjoyed playing a strong character and felt like Naz as soon as she got into costume. The character and casting were announced on 28 July 2010. The show's producer, Deborah Sathe, said "I am [...] proud of what the writers have achieved. [They] have created four new faces for [Albert] Square and their reaction to Walford life is really exciting." The character, of Turkish descent, is described as being "torn between two worlds", which Hussen explained are her traditional family life and modern London life. Naz is a family girl who has reached a point in her life where she wants to have fun, but is also a daddy's girl, the apple of her father's eye. He sees her as a perfect student. She has a good relationship with her parents and is respectful of them, doing what they want, even though they do not know her very well. She loves her family but they do not understand her or what she wants. Hussen opined that Naz would be a good girl if her family did understand her more. What Naz wants is to be like everyone around her and to be able to pick her own boyfriend, but being from a Muslim family means she is unable to. She tries to keep each side of her life secret from the other, but more of each side is seen as the series goes on, and they eventually meet, leading to bad consequences. Hussen opined that this is a common real-life situation that is rarely portrayed on television, so girls would be able relate to the character. Naz likes to make everyone happy but ultimately is more likely to think about her own happiness; she likes to get her own way. Naz believes that her new friends can take her away from her home life. She falls in love with Sol, which Hussen said leads to Naz having to make a difficult decision as Sol is "the wrong person". Naz turns out to be not as strong as first expected, and she puts up a wall. Hussen said that there is something about Sol that attracts her, and as she is stronger than he is, she sees it as taking him in and teaching him. Sol falls for Naz very quickly, and Cole said they have never met people like each other before. Naz is a party girl who loves to have fun, but causes trouble and drama, such as when her argument with Fatboy in episode 1 leads to a fight between the main characters of series 1 and 2. Hussen said that this was her favourite scene to film. Not everyone gets on with Naz straight away. She is confident and fiery, she has a strong power and people listen to what she has to say. Emer Kenny, who played Zsa Zsa Carter in series 1 of EastEnders: E20 and was one of the writers, introducing the characters in the first episode, said that although Naz was her favourite character to write for, she found it a challenge as she is funny but not a "clown" like Fatboy. Kenny compared Naz to Zsa Zsa, saying she is clever but cool, feisty, sassy and able to outwit Fatboy. Kenny also admired the character's costume and makeup, saying she looked perfect and was exactly as she imagined her to look. ## Other appearances Naz is one of four characters from series 2 who has an official profile on social networking site Twitter, along with Stevie, Stevie's boyfriend Olly Manthrope-Hall (Joshua McGuire) and Fatboy, where it is revealed that the character works in a kebab shop during the summer holiday. Further posts on Twitter allude to the storyline running up to the start of the series, such as Naz buying the fake ID from Fatboy. Naz also appears in extra video content on the E20 website. In one video, she attempts to take a photo of herself to use on her fake ID. In another, Stevie and Naz have a picnic in the park, and Naz makes a video of Stevie, hoping to make Olly jealous, but Stevie ends up with cake on her face. In another video, the four friends play a drinking game in the café. Another scene features Stevie and Naz talking about kissing, and another features a nightmare scenario of her and Ekin getting married in a Laz Vegas wedding chapel. ## See also - List of EastEnders: E20 characters	[ "## Storylines", "## Creation, development and characterisation", "## Other appearances", "## See also" ]	1,874	30,488
64,156,823	4th Missouri Infantry Regiment (Confederate)	1,108,534,162	Infantry regiment of the Confederate States Army	[ "1862 disestablishments in Mississippi", "1862 establishments in Tennessee", "Military units and formations disestablished in 1862", "Military units and formations established in 1862", "Units and formations of the Confederate States Army from Missouri" ]	The 4th Missouri Infantry Regiment was formed on April 28, 1862, and served in the Confederate States Army during the American Civil War. The infantry regiment did not see action at the Battle of Farmington on May 9, and the Battle of Iuka on September 19 despite being part of the Confederate force present at those battles. As part of Brigadier General Martin E. Green's brigade, the regiment participated in three charges against Union lines on October 3, 1862, during the Second Battle of Corinth. The following day, the regiment, along with the rest of Green's brigade, attacked the new Union lines. Despite initial success, the attack was repulsed by a Union counterattack. The regiment ceased to exist as a separate unit when it was combined with the 1st Missouri Infantry Regiment on November 7, 1862, to form the 1st and 4th Missouri Infantry Regiment (Consolidated). The combined unit served in the Vicksburg campaign in 1863, before surrendering at the end of the siege of Vicksburg. After undergoing a prisoner exchange, the men rejoined the Confederate Army and served in the Atlanta Campaign and the Battle of Franklin in 1864, still as part of the 1st and 4th Missouri Infantry Regiment (Consolidated). On May 9, 1865, near the end of the war, the consolidated regiment surrendered during the Battle of Fort Blakely, ending the unit's existence. The 4th Missouri Infantry's battle flag is displayed at the American Civil War Museum. ## Background and organization When the American Civil War began in 1861, the state of Missouri was politically divided between those supporting secession and those wishing to remain in the Union. The Governor of Missouri, Claiborne Fox Jackson, was a secessionist and supported the Confederate States of America; he created a pro-secession militia unit known as the Missouri State Guard (MSG) in May. The MSG, under the command of Major General Sterling Price, had initial success, including a victory against the Union Army in the Battle of Wilson's Creek, but were confined to southwestern Missouri by the end of the year. In the Battle of Pea Ridge, fought on March 7 and 8, 1862, in northwestern Arkansas, Price and the MSG suffered another defeat while serving under Major General Earl Van Dorn. After Pea Ridge, Van Dorn's army was transferred east of the Mississippi River. Eventually, many of the men of the MSG joined Confederate Army units. The 4th Missouri Infantry Regiment was formed on April 28, 1862, in Memphis, Tennessee. Two previously existing battalions, commanded by Archibald A. MacFarlane and Waldo P. Johnson, were combined with a small element of the MSG; many of MacFarlane and Johnson's men were MSG veterans. MacFarlane was appointed the regiment's first colonel, Johnson was the first lieutenant colonel, and Stephen W. Wood was the regiment's first major. On April 28, the regiment contained ten companies, all Missouri-raised; they were designated with the letters A–I and K. Almost all of the regiment's soldiers were of Anglo-Saxon descent. ## Service history After formation, the regiment was transferred by railroad to Corinth, Mississippi, as part of the Army of the West. An accounting of the regiment's troops during a May 5, 1862 muster listed 547 men in the regiment. On May 9, the 4th Missouri Infantry was near the action at the Battle of Farmington and deployed, but did not enter the fray. After the Confederates evacuated Corinth because of Union pressure, the regiment trained in several locations in northern Mississippi. Price was in command of the Army of the West, which he had stationed at Iuka, Mississippi; Van Dorn had troops further to the south. The Confederates were conducting an offensive into Kentucky, and Price and Van Dorn were expected to move into Tennessee to support it. Major General Ulysses S. Grant, who was the Union commander in the region, attempted to trap Price before he could join Van Dorn, but the Confederates were able to escape after fighting the Battle of Iuka. At this time, the 4th Missouri Infantry was in Brigadier General Martin E. Green's brigade, which was held in reserve and did not fight at Iuka. After escaping, Price joined Van Dorn, who commanded the combined force. Together, the Confederates moved against Corinth, which was strategically important to Union plans in the region. On October 2, Union Major General William S. Rosecrans occupied Corinth with 23,000 men; that same day, he learned of Van Dorn's approach. After arriving near the city, the Confederates deployed in an arc northwest of the Union defenses with 22,000 men. At 10:00 a.m. on October 3, Van Dorn attacked, beginning the Second Battle of Corinth. At Corinth, the 4th Missouri Infantry was still part of Green's brigade, which was in Brigadier General Louis Hébert's division; Hébert's formation was, in turn, part of Price's corps within the Army of West Tennessee. The 4th Missouri Infantry and the rest of Green's brigade (except for the artillery) attacked an outer Union position held by Brigadier General Thomas A. Davies's division. The initial attack was repulsed, but Green ordered a second charge, which was again repulsed, this time by a Union counterattack led by the 2nd Iowa Infantry. Later in the afternoon, Green's brigade made another charge against Davies's line; this attack was supported by elements of Colonel Elijah Gates's and Brigadier General Charles W. Phifer's brigades. After heavy fighting, the Union line was broken. Despite an opportunity to attack the inner Union line, Price decided not to press the attack as only 30 minutes of daylight remained; instead, he waited for the morning of the 4th to resume the battle. After Hébert fell ill, Green was promoted to divisional command on October 4. Command of Green's brigade then fell to Colonel William H. Moore, who led a charge against the inner Union line, to capture a fortification known as Battery Powell. The Union line was defended by men of Davies's division, who were quickly routed by the Confederate charge. After breaking through Davies's line, Moore's brigade aimed for the town of Corinth itself. Along with elements of Phifer's brigade and the brigade of Brigadier General John C. Moore, it entered Corinth and penetrated as far as the Tishomingo Hotel. A Union counterattack drove the Confederates out of Corinth. At Second Corinth, the 4th Missouri lost 129 men: 15 killed, 87 wounded, and 27 missing. MacFarlane suffered a serious head wound during the battle. ## Legacy On November 7, in the vicinity of Wyatt, Mississippi, the regiment consolidated with the 1st Missouri Infantry, due to losses in both units. The combination of the two regiments formed the 1st and 4th Missouri Infantry Regiment (Consolidated). Companies B, C, E, H, and I of the new regiment were composed of men from the 4th Missouri Infantry; Companies A, D, F, G, and K were composed of men from the 1st Missouri Infantry. MacFarlane and Colonel Amos C. Riley of the 1st Missouri Infantry came to an agreement whereby McFarlane became colonel of the unit and Riley lieutenant colonel; the latter commanded the unit while MacFarlane recovered from his wounds. As a result of the consolidation, about 40 officers were deemed superfluous and were sent back across the Mississippi River to recruit new soldiers. In 1863, the new regiment fought at the Battle of Grand Gulf, the Battle of Champion Hill, the Battle of Big Black River Bridge, and the siege of Vicksburg, where the regiment was captured as part of a Confederate surrender. The men of the regiment then underwent a prisoner exchange and rejoined the Confederate army, still under the designation of the 1st and 4th Missouri Infantry Regiment (Consolidated). In 1864, the regiment was engaged at the Battle of New Hope Church, the Battle of Kennesaw Mountain, the siege of Atlanta, the Battle of Allatoona, and the Battle of Franklin. On May 9, 1865, near the end of the war, the 1st and 4th Missouri Infantry (Consolidated) surrendered at the Battle of Fort Blakely, ending the unit's existence. As of January 2021, the flag of the 4th Missouri Infantry, a Van Dorn battle flag, is held by the American Civil War Museum in Richmond, Virginia. ## See also - List of Missouri Confederate Civil War units	[ "## Background and organization", "## Service history", "## Legacy", "## See also" ]	1,846	39,958
34,445,485	Special Project	1,130,166,368	null	[ "2012 American television episodes", "The Office (American season 8) episodes" ]	"Special Project" is the fourteenth episode of the eighth season of the American comedy television series The Office and the show's 166th episode overall. The episode aired on NBC in the United States on February 9, 2012. It was written by Amelie Gillette and was directed by David Rogers. The series—presented as if it were a real documentary—depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton, Pennsylvania, branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company. In the episode, Pam Halpert (Jenna Fischer) returns from her maternity leave, and Dwight Schrute (Rainn Wilson) and Andy Bernard (Ed Helms) must select employees to accompany Dwight to Tallahassee, Florida after he is sent on an assignment. Meanwhile, Darryl Philbin (Craig Robinson) receives a beanie from warehouse worker Val (Ameenah Kaplan) and is unsure if she intended it as a romantic gift or simply one of friendship. "Special Project" introduced a six-episode arc which featured several of the office workers working on a special project for Sabre in Tallahassee. The episode received largely positive reviews from critics, with many reviewers looking forward to the "special projects" storyline. The ending scene featuring Cathy's phone conversation about Jim and Pam's marriage has also received significant attention from critics. According to Nielsen Media Research, "Special Project" drew 5.16 million viewers and received a 2.5 rating/6% share in the 18–49 demographic, marking a three-tenths drop in ratings from the previous episode, "Jury Duty", and becoming one of the lowest-rated episodes of the series. Despite this, it was the highest-rated NBC series of the night. ## Synopsis Just as Pam Halpert's (Jenna Fischer) maternity leave ends and Angela Lipton (Angela Kinsey) also returns, Dwight Schrute (Rainn Wilson) is assigned with the task of forming a team and traveling down to Florida for three weeks to help Sabre launch a chain of retail stores. He and Andy Bernard (Ed Helms) must select employees to accompany Dwight to Tallahassee. At first Dwight chooses Darryl Philbin (Craig Robinson), Phyllis Vance (Phyllis Smith), Toby Flenderson (Paul Lieberstein), Angela, and Oscar Martinez (Oscar Nunez), for varying reasons, but Andy refuses to let so many essential employees leave for three weeks. While letting Dwight have Darryl and Phyllis, Andy chooses Kelly Kapoor (Mindy Kaling), Kevin Malone (Brian Baumgartner) and Cathy Simms (Lindsey Broad) to join the team instead, upsetting Dwight. Dwight then prematurely announces the picks and deliberately riles up the employees, hoping to change the team. Andy decides to let people convince him why they should go before making his final decision, further stressing Dwight. Meanwhile, Jim Halpert (John Krasinski) receives a text from Robert California (James Spader), which seems to invite him on the trip to Tallahassee. After unsuccessfully trying to back out via text, Jim and Pam both agree Jim should just go. During Jim's request session with Andy and Dwight, Jim shows the texts from California, shocking both Andy and Dwight, making it all but official that Jim will be going to Tallahassee. The final team includes Cathy, Ryan Howard (B. J. Novak), Stanley Hudson (Leslie David Baker), Erin Hannon (Ellie Kemper) and Jim, infuriating Dwight. At first he tries to convince the members to change their minds using various Florida stereotypes, at one point filling the conference room with 300 mosquitoes, but after realizing they all have excellent ideas for the project, he is content with the team. Erin expresses frustration that Andy is still with Jessica. After Andy and Dwight jointly choose her for the project team, she admits in a talking head that she is not going to return to Scranton once she arrives in Florida. At the end of the episode, it is revealed that Cathy also has ulterior motives for the trip, intending to seduce Jim while the two are in Florida together, stating, during a cell phone conversation to a friend, that "[Jim's] marriage is not good; nobody knows better than me. Definitely we will. It's three weeks in Tallahassee. What else is there to do?" Darryl discovers warehouse worker Val (Ameenah Kaplan) has knitted him a beanie. Unsure if she intended it as a romantic gift or simply one of friendship, Darryl decides to find out by giving her a Valentine's Day gift of an expensive pair of cashmere ladies' gloves with a romantic card. Upon discovering that Val had knitted a beanie for everyone in the warehouse, an embarrassed Darryl passes the gloves off to warehouse worker Nate (Mark Proksch), who is moved by the gift, and later gives him personal coupons for repayment. Darryl is further disappointed when a man named Brandon calls asking for the address of the warehouse to send flowers to his girlfriend Val. He is intrigued, however, when she says the flowers were from her mother, despite him pointing out the caller had had a deep voice and gone by the name Brandon. Darryl decides Val's gift was "a love beanie". ## Production The episode was written by story editor Amelie Gillette, her second writing credit for the series after joining the writing staff in the seventh season. It was directed by series producer and editor David Rogers, his fifth directing credit for the series. The episode also marks the eighth appearance of Lindsey Broad, who plays Cathy, Pam's replacement during her maternity leave. She makes an appearance in the episode, despite the fact that Pam arrives back in work, which is referenced in the episode by Meredith Palmer. The episode introduced a six-episode arc which featured several of the office workers working on a special project for Sabre in Tallahassee, Florida. The Season Eight DVD contains a number of deleted scenes from this episode. Notable cut scenes include more clips of Dwight forming his group, Cathy mentioning a former boyfriend to the camera, and more clips of the office workers attempting to join the special projects group. ## Cultural references Stanley says that he's the only one in the office who watches the television series, Burn Notice. Dwight says after finishing work on the special project in Florida, they will be able to go visit Cape Canaveral and go sea kayaking with Gloria Estefan. While attempting to convince his group not to go to Florida, pictures of Casey Anthony, Katherine Harris, Brooke Hogan and Tony Montana are used. ## Reception ### Ratings The episode first aired on NBC in the United States on February 9, 2012. The episode was viewed by an estimated 5.16 million viewers and received a 2.5 rating/6% share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49. This means that it was seen by 2.5% of all 18- to 49-year-olds, and 6% of all 18- to 49-year-olds watching television at the time of the broadcast. This marked a three-tenths drop in the ratings from the previous episode, "Jury Duty". The episode finished third in its time slot, being beaten by Grey's Anatomy which received a 3.9 rating/10% share and the CBS drama Person of Interest which received a 3.3 rating/8% share in the 18–49 demographic. The episode beat the Fox drama series The Finder and The CW drama series The Secret Circle. Despite this, "Special Project" was the highest-rated NBC television episode of the night. After DVR usage was taken into account, the episode increased its viewership by 64%, being viewed by a total of 7.842 million viewers. ### Critical response "Special Project" received mainly positive reviews from critics, with many looking forward to the "special projects" plotline. The A.V. Club reviewer Myles McNutt praised the episode and the introduction of the special projects plotline, comparing it to the third season arc featuring Jim in Stamford, Connecticut, and the "Michael Scott Paper Company" arc from the fifth season. He praised the episode for feeling "like a big answer to many of the issues that have plagued the show so far this season", specifically pointing to Dwight's meta-commentary on Cathy's "lack of personality". He moreover wrote that he was looking forward to the rest of the season and the change in dynamic. Despite this, he criticized Dwight's role in the episode, comparing his orientation to Michael's conference room lectures and wrote he had a "distaste" for the broader moments for the character. He ultimately gave the episode an A−, his highest grade for an eighth-season episode. New York writer Michael Tedder gave the episode a positive review for avoiding the "cutesy" moments that were featured in the first half of the season. He praised several of the cast members' performances in the episode, including Ellie Kemper and Mark Proksch. He also complimented the sub-plot featuring Darryl and Val, but wrote that the producers should just get the two together, because "Not every ongoing plotline needs to last all season". IGN writer Cindy White wrote a positive review for the episode for allowing the "less prominent characters of the ensemble" to get some lines in the episode, specifically mentioning Stanley and Ryan. She also complimented the Darryl-Val subplot, writing that they're one of the few romantic pairings on the show that she's "rooting" for. She ultimately gave the episode an 8.0/10, calling it "impressive". However, not all reviews were positive. Lizzie Fhur of Buzz Sugar wrote that while the "special projects" storyline has potential, "this week just kind of landed flat for me". Brian Marder of Hollywood called the episode a "giant step back", especially following the previous episode which he called "promising". He wrote that the jokes and story of the episode went "nowhere" and he criticized the episode for its loud, "laugh-track-worthy" jokes compared to the early seasons of the series that featured more subtle humor. Despite the mostly negative review, he wrote that he hoped the episode would lead to a better storyline in the following episodes. The ending scene featuring Cathy's phone conversation about Jim and Pam's marriage has also received significant attention. Cindy White criticized the suggestion that Cathy will break Jim and Pam, calling it a "cheap plow" and that if Cathy and Jim would have an affair, it would cause "serious damage to [Jim's] character", while Myles McNutt felt it would allow Cathy to become an actual character in the series.	[ "## Synopsis", "## Production", "## Cultural references", "## Reception", "### Ratings", "### Critical response" ]	2,225	12,815
22,934,601	2nd Brigade, 7th Infantry Division (United States)	1,054,637,424	null	[ "Infantry brigades of the United States Army", "Military units and formations disestablished in 1993", "Military units and formations established in 1917" ]	The 2nd Brigade, 7th Infantry Division, originally known as the 13th Infantry Brigade was an infantry brigade of the United States Army, and a part of the 7th Infantry Division. The brigade was based at Fort Ord, California for most of its history. Activated for service in World War I, the unit saw brief service in the conflict, but never fought as an entire unit. After the Korean War, it was reactivated as a brigade, and was returned to the United States where it saw action in Operation Just Cause and Operation Golden Pheasant. The 2nd Brigade was sent to quell civil unrest resulting from the 1992 Los Angeles Riots. The brigade was finally deactivated in 1993. ## History ### World War I The 2nd Brigade, 7th Infantry Division was first constituted and activated in the regular army as the 13th Infantry Brigade on 6 December 1917 at Camp Wheeler, Georgia. One month later it organized and prepared for deployment to Europe to participate in World War I as a part of the American Expeditionary Force, along with the rest of the division. The 13th Infantry Brigade was one of two brigades assigned to the division headquarters, the other being the 14th Infantry Brigade. Serving within the brigade were the 34th Infantry Regiment and the 55th Infantry Regiment, bringing the total strength of the brigade to around 8,000 men. Most of the brigade sailed to Europe aboard the SS Leviathan. During its time in France, the brigade did not participate as a whole in any engagements, though its infantry and reconnaissance elements did engage German forces. On 11 October 1918 the 13th Brigade and 7th Division first came under shelling attacks. At Saint-Mihiel the units also came under chemical attack. Elements of the 7th probed up toward Prény near the Moselle River, capturing positions and driving German forces out of the region. It was around this time that the division first received its shoulder sleeve insignia, which the 13th Brigade wore as a part of the division. In early November, the 13th Brigade began readying itself for an attack on the Hindenburg Line with the division, which was part of the Second Army. The division launched a reconnaissance in force on the Voëvre Plain, but before it could begin a full assault, the Allies signed an Armistice ending hostilities. After 33 days on the front lines, the 7th Division suffered 1,988 casualties. It was awarded one campaign streamer for Lorraine. The brigade performed occupation duties for the next year as it began preparations to return to the continental United States. The 13th Brigade returned to the United States in late 1919, and gradually demobilized at Camp George G. Meade, Maryland until 1921. On 22 September of that year, the Headquarters Company, 7th Division was inactivated, and the 13th and 14th Brigades deactivated with it. ### Reorganization On 1 July 1940, the 7th Infantry Division was reactivated at Camp Ord, California Under the command of Major General Joseph W. Stilwell. The Headquarters element, 13th and 14th Brigades did not reactivate, however, and the division was instead centered around three infantry regiments; the 17th Infantry Regiment, the 32nd Infantry Regiment, and the 53rd Infantry Regiment. The 13th Brigade was not activated for the duration of the war and its headquarters formation was not used to form a new unit. ### Post-Korean War In the wake of the Korean War, between 1953 and 1971, the 7th Infantry Division defended the Korean Demilitarized Zone. Its main garrison was Camp Casey, South Korea. During these occupation duties, the division saw a complete reorganization in compliance with the Reorganization Objective Army Divisions plan. In 1963, the division's former headquarters company grew into the 1st Brigade, 7th Infantry Division while the 13th Infantry Brigade became the 2nd Brigade, 7th Infantry Division. The 14th Infantry Brigade redesignated at the 3rd Brigade, 7th Infantry Division. These renamed formations retained all of the lineage and campaign credits of their previous designations. On 2 April 1971, the division and its brigades returned to the United States and inactivated at Fort Lewis, Washington. In October 1974 the 7th and two brigades reactivated at their former garrison, Fort Ord (a National Guard "roundout" brigade, the 41st, would periodically train with the division as its third brigade). The unit did not see any action in Vietnam or during the post war era, but was tasked to keep a close watch on South American developments. It trained at Fort Ord, Camp Roberts, and Fort Hunter Liggett. On 1 October 1985 the division redesignated as the 7th Infantry Division (Light), organized again as a light infantry division. It was the first US division specially designed as such. The various battalions of the 17th, 31st, and 32nd Regiments moved from the division, replaced by battalions from other regiments, including battalions from the 21st Infantry Regiment, the 27th Infantry Regiment, and the 9th Infantry Regiment. The 27th Infantry and the 9th Infantry Regiment participated in Operation Golden Pheasant in Honduras. In 1989 the 2nd Brigade, 7th Infantry Division participated in Operation Just Cause in Panama. In 1991 the Base Realignment and Closure Commission recommended the closing of Fort Ord due to the escalating cost of living on the Central California coastline. By 1994, the garrison was closed and the Division was assigned to relocate to Fort Lewis, Washington. The 2nd Brigade, to include its Headquarters and Headquarters Company along with the 3rd Brigade's 3rd Battalion 17th Infantry Regiment and other assigned military police companies participated in one final mission in the United States before inactivation; quelling the 1992 Los Angeles Riots, called Operation Garden Plot. In 1993 the division was slated to move to Fort Lewis, WA and inactivate as part of the post-Cold War drawdown of the US Army, but the 2nd and 3rd Brigades of the 7th inactivated at Ft. Ord in 1993. The 1st Brigade relocated to Ft. Lewis and was later reflagged as the 2nd Brigade of the 2nd Infantry Division while the division headquarters formally inactivated on 16 June 1994 at Fort Lewis. ## Honors ### Unit decorations ### Campaign streamers	[ "## History", "### World War I", "### Reorganization", "### Post-Korean War", "## Honors", "### Unit decorations", "### Campaign streamers" ]	1,405	4,883
67,465,178	Star on the Mountain	1,136,997,485	Man-made illuminated structure in El Paso, Texas	[ "1940 establishments in Texas", "Buildings and structures in El Paso, Texas", "Light art", "Vandalized works of art in Texas" ]	The Star on the Mountain is a man-made star-shaped landmark on the Franklin Mountains in El Paso, Texas, that is illuminated nightly by the El Paso Chamber of Commerce. It was first lit as a Christmas decoration in 1940 and was meant as a reminder to people on both sides of the nearby Mexico–United States border that America was at peace during the holiday season. It has also been compared to the similar Roanoke Star in Virginia. The five-point star consists of 459 bulbs and is visible from the air at up to 100 miles (160 km) away. It was previously only lit during the holiday season but is now maintained year-round by the Greater El Paso Chamber of Commerce and the El Paso Electric Company. ## Measurements The El Paso Star is 459 feet (140 m) tall and 278 feet (85 m) wide. It is made up of 459 bulbs arranged on the Franklin Mountains at a 30-degree angle. The poles supporting it range from 12 to 15 feet (3.7 to 4.6 m) tall. The star is located about 300 feet (91 m) above Scenic Drive, a prominent El Paso location for taking photos of the cityscape. It is visible from the air at up to 100 miles (160 km) away and from the ground at up to 25–35 miles (40–56 km) away. The star was estimated to cost about \$8 per night to light in 1981 and \$16 per night in 1992, which was paid for by El Paso Electric customers through a negligible amount added to normal electric bills. ## History ### 20th century The star was first lit on November 29, 1940, at 6:10 p.m. with over 300 blue lamps. It was constructed by the El Paso Electric Company, which hoped that the star would "contribute something toward the festive appearance of [the] city during the holiday season." The original star was only 50 feet wide. Shortly after, a bigger and more durable star was built, measuring 403 by 300 feet (123 by 91 m) and using 300 lights. In 1941, 50 more bulbs were added to fill in dim spots. The star was later reconstructed in December 1946 after being destroyed by a storm and was visible by air from up to 100 miles (160 km) away. This version of the star was constructed with 459 150-watt lamps and was 459 by 278 feet (140 by 85 m). Its length is greater than its width to allow for the distortion caused by viewing it from the ground. This star has also been compared to the similar Roanoke Star in Roanoke, Virginia. For almost 50 years, the star only shone for the holiday season, with two exceptions. Starting in 1979, the star was lit for 444 nights to support U.S. hostages during the Iran hostage crisis. After the hostages were released, the star returned to its normal holiday schedule. It also shined every night from December 1990 until August 21, 1991, the day when the last soldier from Fort Bliss returned from the Gulf War. There are no clear records indicating that the star has been lit every year since 1940. It may or may not have been lit during World War II, but many agree that it has been lit every holiday season since then. As part of an international Earth Run for UNICEF, on December 14, 1986, Tanzanian athlete Suleiman Nyambui passed a flame to El Paso Electric Company president Evern Wall, who dipped it into a ceremonial vessel at 6 p.m. and lit the star at the same time. In November 1993, a joint project between the Greater El Paso Chamber of Commerce and the El Paso Electric Company led to the star being lit nightly, although many residents of El Paso were originally against the idea. The project also allows individuals to sponsor a lighting of the star in honor of a loved one or a special occasion. ### 21st century \$32,000 was spent to remodel the star in 2007, including installing new wiring and lighting fixtures, more reliable bulbs, and a radio frequency system to allow remote control of the star from a computer or cell phone. This allowed easy control of the star without requiring a crew to physically visit it on the mountain. The city government took ownership of the star in 2009 after the city council voted to accept the Chamber of Commerce's donation of the equipment and logo. In 2010, the city council approved a 50-year lease with 88 Investments Inc., the company that owns the land that the star resides on. Rather than paying rent, the city would pay taxes of about \$1,200 per year on the land. In October 2021, the star was bright red to celebrate several public safety campaigns, including Fire Prevention Week, National Domestic Violence Awareness Month, and Red Ribbon Week. ## Vandalism The star is frequently vandalized by trespassers, and officials say that vandalism has been constant for as long as the star has existed. The Chamber of Commerce has constantly asked the local community to avoid trespassing and vandalizing this symbol of El Paso, also noting that the area is monitored by cameras and the El Paso Police Department. Vandalism of the star typically consists of breaking light bulbs and discarding empty beer bottles at the site and has been known to result in criminal citations from El Paso police. Some vandals also steal light bulbs from the property. ## See also - Palmer Lake Star - Light pollution	[ "## Measurements", "## History", "### 20th century", "### 21st century", "## Vandalism", "## See also" ]	1,158	5,084
4,410,557	Gee Bee (video game)	1,066,101,391	1978 video game	[ "1978 video games", "Arcade video games", "Arcade-only video games", "Bandai Namco Entertainment franchises", "Breakout clones", "Gremlin Industries games", "Namco arcade games", "Pinball video games", "Video games developed in Japan" ]	is a block breaker/video pinball hybrid arcade game developed and published by Namco in 1978. The player controls a set of paddles with a rotary knob, with the objective being to score as many points as possible by deflecting a ball against bricks, pop bumpers and other objects in the playfield. It was developed by Toru Iwatani, known as the creator of Pac-Man and Pole Position. Outside Japan, it was published by Gremlin Industries. Gee Bee was the first video game to be designed in-house by Namco – prior to this, the company had manufactured arcade electro-mechanical games (such as Periscope and F-1) and published a number of video games by Atari, Inc. (notably Breakout) in Japan. Iwatani originally wanted to produce pinball machines for the company; however, higher-ups at Namco disapproved of the idea. As a compromise, Iwatani instead made a video game with pinball-elements, combined with mechanics established in Breakout. Gee Bee was the eighth highest-grossing arcade video game of 1978 in Japan, and sold 10,000 units worldwide. However, it was not as big of a success as hoped, but it would nevertheless help establish Namco's presence in the video game industry. Two sequels were produced in 1979, Bomb Bee and Cutie Q. ## Gameplay Gee Bee is a block breaker arcade game intermixed with elements of a pinball table. The player uses a rotary dial to control a set of paddles on-screen, the objective being to score as many points as possible by deflecting a ball towards objects placed on the board – these include Breakout-like brick formations, pop bumpers that award ten points each when hit, and spinners that slow down the ball. Having the ball touch the "NAMCO" rollover symbols (replaced by the Gremlin logo in the North American version) causes them to light up and having all of them lit up increases the score multiplier. ## Development and release Gee Bee was developed by Toru Iwatani and was Namco's first video game produced in-house. The company began their insertion into game development in July 1976, when Shigeichi Ishimura, a Namco electro-mechanical game designer, proposed the idea of creating a video arcade game utilizing a CPU, with information accumulated from his work on electro-mechanical games. Namco approved of the idea and purchased a surplus amount of PDA-08 microcomputers from NEC, employees being assigned to study the system's potential to create video games. In 1977, Toru Iwatani joined Namco, shortly after graduating college. Before the arrival of Iwatani, Namco was in the midst of publishing Atari arcade games in Japan, following their acquisition of Atari Japan a few years prior. Iwatani had wanted to create pinball machines as opposed to video games; however, Namco higher-ups disapproved of his idea. As a compromise of sorts, Iwatani was allowed to instead create a video game based on the concept of pinball, akin to Atari's Video Pinball dedicated console, intermixed with the gameplay elements established in Breakout. Ishimura would assist with programming. Due to hardware limitations, strips of cellophane were applied to the monitor to compensate for the lack of color. The actual layout of the game board is made to resemble a human face. The game was named after the Japanese word for carpenter bee, "kumanbachi", and used the same font type from Atari's unreleased arcade title Cannonball from 1976. Gee Bee was first released in Japan in October 1978. That same year, Gremlin Industries licensed the game outside Japan. ## Reception and legacy The game is reported to have sold nearly 10,000 units, which was a good sales figure for its time. However, Gee Bee was not as successful as Namco hoped it would be, due to coin drop earnings per unit falling below expectations and due to competition from Taito's Space Invaders. Nevertheless, Gee Bee was the eighth highest-earning arcade video game of 1978 in Japan, and helped establish Namco as a prime video game developer in Japan, leading to them producing their own arcade games alongside publishing those from other companies. The November 11, 1978 issue of Cashbox complimented the game's cabinet artwork, while the December 30 issue stated that it had a "good looking cabinet and graphics". In a retrospective, Earn Green of Allgame noted the game's importance for Namco, being Toru Iwatani's first video game for the company. Retro Gamer listed Gee Bee as one of the best Breakout clones for its notability as Namco's first internally designed video game. Gee Bee would spawn two sequel titles – Bomb Bee was released a year later in 1979. This game includes colorized graphics, new gameplay additions such as a 1,000 point pop bumper, and the ability to earn extra lives. A second sequel, Cutie Q, was released in 1979 – this one was not developed by Iwatani, but rather Shigeru Yokoyama, who would later create Galaga, although Iwatani designed a number of the sprites. Cutie Q is notable for featuring "cute" characters, which would become a key inspiration for character design in Iwatani's next work, Pac-Man, released a year later. Both Bomb Bee and Cutie Q were ported to the PlayStation in 1996 in the Japanese version of Namco Museum Vol. 2; however, international versions replaced both games with Super Pac-Man. Cutie Q was also ported over to the Wii as part of Namco Museum Remix in 2007 and its 2010 update Namco Museum Megamix.	[ "## Gameplay", "## Development and release", "## Reception and legacy" ]	1,209	19,919
58,502,297	Christine Blasey Ford	1,173,333,555	American professor of psychology	[ "1966 births", "20th-century American educators", "20th-century American psychologists", "20th-century American women educators", "20th-century American women scientists", "21st-century American educators", "21st-century American psychologists", "21st-century American women educators", "21st-century American women scientists", "Academics from Maryland", "Academics from Palo Alto, California", "American educational psychologists", "American women academics", "American women psychologists", "Articles containing video clips", "Biostatisticians", "Brett Kavanaugh", "Living people", "Palo Alto University faculty", "Pepperdine University alumni", "Place of birth missing (living people)", "Sexual harassment in the United States", "Stanford Graduate School of Education alumni", "Stanford University School of Medicine faculty", "Stanford University faculty", "University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill alumni", "University of Southern California alumni", "Women statisticians" ]	Christine Margaret Blasey Ford (/ˈblɑːzi/ BLAH-zee; born November 1966) is an American professor of psychology at Palo Alto University and a research psychologist at the Stanford University School of Medicine. She specializes in designing statistical models for research projects. During her academic career, Ford has worked as a professor at the Stanford University School of Medicine Collaborative Clinical Psychology Program. In September 2018, Ford alleged that then-U.S. Supreme Court nominee Brett Kavanaugh sexually assaulted her in Bethesda, Maryland, when they were teenagers in the summer of 1982. She testified about her allegations during a Senate Judiciary Committee hearing regarding Kavanaugh's Supreme Court nomination later that month. ## Early life and education Ford grew up in the suburbs of Washington, D.C. Her parents are Paula K. and Ralph G. Blasey Jr., registered Republicans. She has two brothers, Tom and Ralph III. From 1978 through 1984, she attended the Holton-Arms School, a private, all-girls university-preparatory school in Bethesda, Maryland. While on her regional sports team for diving, she accompanied diver Greg Louganis on a trip to the White House to discuss the 1980 Summer Olympics boycott. She earned an undergraduate degree in experimental psychology in 1988 from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. She received a master's degree in clinical psychology from Pepperdine University in 1991. In 1996, she received a PhD in educational psychology from the University of Southern California. Her 1995 dissertation was entitled Measuring Young Children's Coping Responses to Interpersonal Conflict. In 2009, she earned a master's degree in epidemiology, with a focus on the subject of biostatistics, from Stanford University School of Medicine. ## Career Ford has worked in the academic and private sector as a biostatistician and research psychologist. Since 1998, she has worked as a research psychologist and biostatistician in the Stanford School of Medicine psychiatry department. Since 2011, she has been a psychology professor in the PGSP-Stanford Consortium for Clinical Psychology, a collaborative program between Palo Alto University and Stanford. Ford teaches subjects including psychometrics, study methodologies, clinical trials, and statistics to doctoral students and serves on dissertation committees. She has also performed consulting work for multiple pharmaceutical companies. She formerly worked as a director of biostatistics at Corcept Therapeutics, and as a biostatistical consultant for Titan Pharmaceuticals, and Brain Resource. She has collaborated with FDA, academic and industry statisticians, including leading roundtable discussions at the American Statistical Association's Annual FDA-Industry meetings that focus on statistical analyzes in industry-FDA interactions. She is widely published within her field. Ford "specializes in designing statistical models for research projects in order to make sure they come to accurate conclusions", as summarized by Helena Chmura Kraemer, a Stanford professor emeritus in biostatistics who co-authored a book and several articles with Ford. Ford has written or co-written several books about psychological topics, including depression. Her other research topics published in academic journal articles have included child abuse and the September 11 attacks. In 2015, she co-authored a book titled How Many Subjects? Statistical Power Analysis in Research. Her research into the social impact of hiding one's sexual orientation was published in 2016 in the journal Behavior Therapy, and reviewed by psychologist William Gibson of the American Psychological Association, who found their research "demonstrates that issues of identity have relevance to mental health outcomes in ways that much of previous work misses." ## Sexual assault allegation against Brett Kavanaugh In early July 2018, after Judge Brett Kavanaugh was reported to be on Donald Trump's shortlist to become an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States, Ford contacted both The Washington Post and her congresswoman, Anna Eshoo. On July 20, eleven days after Trump nominated Kavanaugh, Eshoo met with Ford, becoming convinced of her credibility and noting that Ford seemed "terrified" that her identity as an accuser might become public. Eshoo and Ford decided to take the matter to Senator Dianne Feinstein, one of Ford's senators in California and the ranking Democrat on the Senate Judiciary Committee, which would deliberate Kavanaugh's nomination. In a July 30, 2018 letter to Feinstein, Ford alleged that Kavanaugh had sexually assaulted her when both were in high school in Bethesda, Maryland, and stated that she expected her story to be kept confidential. In August that year, Ford took a polygraph test that was administered by a former FBI agent, who concluded Ford was being truthful when attesting to the accuracy of her allegations. Feinstein said that owing to her confidentiality commitment to Ford, she did not raise the issue in the initial Kavanaugh confirmation proceedings. On September 12, The Intercept reported (without naming Ford) that Feinstein was withholding a Kavanaugh-related document from fellow Judiciary Committee Democrats. On September 13, Feinstein referred Ford's letter to the FBI, which redacted Ford's name and forwarded the letter to the White House as an update to Kavanaugh's background check. The White House in turn sent the letter to the full Senate Judiciary Committee. On September 16, after media reported anonymous allegations and reporters started to track down her identity, Ford went public. Ford had wrestled with the choice to make her identity known, weighing the potential negative impact it could have on her, but ultimately spoke to The Washington Post, alleging that Kavanaugh had sexually assaulted her in the summer of 1982 when she was 15 and he was 17. She said that, while his friend Mark Judge watched, Kavanaugh, intoxicated, held her down on a bed with his body, grinding against and groping her, covering her mouth when she tried to scream and trying to pull her clothes off. Finding it hard to breathe, she thought Kavanaugh was going to accidentally kill her. She recounted escaping when Judge jumped on the bed and toppled them. As corroboration of her account, Ford provided the Post with the polygraph results as well as session notes from her couples therapist written in 2012. The therapist's notes do not name Kavanaugh but record Ford's claim of being attacked by students "from an elitist boys' school" who went on to become "highly respected and high-ranking members of society in Washington". The therapist's notes also say four boys were involved, which Ford attributed to an error by the therapist; Ford clarified in 2018 that four boys were at the party but only two were involved in the incident. Ford's husband recalled that she had used Kavanaugh's last name in her 2012 description of the incident, and that she said he might one day be nominated to the Supreme Court. In an individual therapy session in 2013, Ford described a "rape attempt" that occurred in her late teens. Kavanaugh denied Ford's allegations. Attorneys Debra Katz, Lisa Blanks and Michael Bromwich represented Ford pro bono in the process of going public with her statements about Kavanaugh. Democratic adviser Ricki Seidman, who helped prepare Anita Hill for her testimony against Clarence Thomas during his 1991 Supreme Court nomination hearings, was brought in to personally advise Ford in navigating a potential hearing. On September 18, Ford's attorneys sent a letter to Senate Judiciary Chairman Chuck Grassley requesting that the FBI investigate the incident before the Senate held a hearing on Ford's allegations to "ensure that the crucial facts and witnesses in this matter are assessed in a non-partisan manner, and that the Committee is fully informed before conducting any hearing or making any decisions". The letter additionally noted the significant public support Ford had received, but also severe harassment including death threats, forcing her to leave her home. The same day, a crowdfunding campaign was created to defray Ford's security costs, surpassing its \$100,000 goal in less than 24 hours. On September 21, President Trump tweeted about Ford, saying that if Ford's allegations were true, either she or her parents would have reported them at the time of the event. Fortune called the tweet an attempt "to undermine her allegation" and Republican Senator Susan Collins—at the time considered a key swing vote on Kavanaugh's nomination—said she was "appalled" by Trump's tweet, calling it "inappropriate and wrong". Trump's statements about Ford prompted sexual assault victims to start tweeting using the hashtag \#WhyIDidntReport to share reasons for silence. Trump issued several more statements, including a tweet alleging that Kavanaugh was "under assault by radical left wing politicians". Trump's attacks on Ford were widely characterized as victim blaming. On September 27, the Senate Judiciary Committee held an additional day of public hearings to discuss her allegations. Ford and Kavanaugh were the only witnesses scheduled. Ford testified that Kavanaugh "groped me and tried to take off my clothes", and that "I believed he was going to rape me." Kavanaugh had previously denied all allegations of sexual assault as "totally false and outrageous" and testified separately later in the day. Republican members of the committee did not question Ford directly; that was done by Rachel Mitchell, a career prosecutor from Arizona retained by the committee's Republican majority to question Ford on their behalf. Alternating with Mitchell's questions, Democratic committee members questioned Ford themselves. Following the hearing, Mitchell produced a report stating that she did not believe a reasonable prosecutor would bring a case against Kavanaugh based on the evidence presented to the committee and adding that there were multiple inconsistencies in Ford's testimony. Mitchell asserted that Ford's case was "even weaker than" the standard "he said, she said" case, because other witnesses identified by Ford "either refuted her allegations, or failed to corroborate them". In response to Mitchell's memo detailing her conclusions, several former prosecutors and legal analysts published rebuttals, arguing that Mitchell erred in questioning Ford without there having been an impartial and full investigation. Others noted that Mitchell's role was "akin to [that of] a defense attorney", and therefore she should not have submitted a prosecution report. Two MSNBC legal analysts characterized Mitchell's assertions that Ford had "no memory of key details" and that others had not corroborated her account as flawed arguments, even going so far as to describe Mitchell's conclusions as "reek[ing] of desperation" and "misleading at best and disingenuous at worst". On September 28, following requests from U.S. Senator Jeff Flake and from the Senate Judiciary Committee, President Trump ordered a supplemental FBI background investigation into Kavanaugh, giving them one week to investigate the sexual assault allegations. On October 4, the FBI submitted the confidential report to the Senate; Judiciary Committee Chairman Chuck Grassley (R-Iowa) said there was nothing new in the report and no corroboration of the allegations. Senate Republicans were generally approving of how the investigation was conducted; Senate Democrats criticized the investigation as "limited" and "incomplete." The FBI interviewed 10 additional witnesses during the investigation, including Deborah Ramirez, another woman who had accused Kavanaugh of sexual assault; they did not interview Kavanaugh or Ford. On October 5, Ford's attorneys said she had no regrets about coming forward, and did not want Kavanaugh impeached if Democrats took control of Congress. The Senate confirmed Kavanaugh's nomination by a vote of 50–48 on October 6, 2018. By the time it was closed to further donations, the GoFundMe account set up on Ford's behalf had raised \$647,610. As of November 21, 2018, Ford had used some of the money to cover security costs to protect herself and her family, but said that she would donate the remainder to organizations that support trauma survivors. Ford received a number of threats – including death threats – for coming forward with her allegations against Kavanaugh. During her testimony, Ford stated, "I have been called the most vile and hateful names imaginable. People have posted my personal information on the internet. This has resulted in additional emails, calls, and threats. My family and I were forced to move out of our home." As of November 2018, Ford stated that she was still being harassed and threatened and had to move four times as well as hire private security; furthermore, she had not been able to resume her teaching at Palo Alto University. In their 2019 book The Education of Brett Kavanaugh: An Investigation, authors Robin Pogrebin and Kate Kelly interviewed Leland Keyser, a close friend of Ford's from high school, who, according to Ford, was at the party where the alleged assault took place (although not in the same room). Keyser initially stated through her attorney that while she did not recall the evening in question, she believed Ford, but in a later interview she stated that she no longer does. The interview revealed that Keyser, who is a Democrat, had felt pressured earlier to corroborate Ford's account. ## Recognition The Wing, a co-working network and club for women, named a conference room in its San Francisco location after Ford. In November 2018, a GoFundMe started by Georgetown Law professor Heidi Li Feldman raised \$30,000 towards endowing a professorship or scholarship in Ford's name. That same year, Time magazine included Ford on its shortlist for Person of the Year. On December 11, 2018, Ford presented the Sports Illustrated "Inspiration of the Year" award to Rachael Denhollander. In 2019, she was named one of that year's 100 most influential people in Time 100, having been nominated by then-Senator Kamala Harris. Additionally, Ford has been nominated for a University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Distinguished Alumna Award for "speaking truth to power" when she went public with her sexual assault allegations against Kavanaugh. ## Selected works ### Books ### Book chapters ### Journal articles ## Personal life Before coming forward with allegations against Kavanaugh, Ford lived in Palo Alto, California, with her husband Russell Ford (whom she married in 2002) and their two sons. Since coming forward, she says that she has moved multiple times. Ford is the aunt of actress and singer Bridgit Mendler. Ford is a registered Democrat who has made small contributions to political organizations. In 2017, she participated in a local Women's March protesting President Trump and attended a March for Science in San Francisco to protest the Trump administration's cuts to research.	[ "## Early life and education", "## Career", "## Sexual assault allegation against Brett Kavanaugh", "## Recognition", "## Selected works", "### Books", "### Book chapters", "### Journal articles", "## Personal life" ]	2,949	11,114
66,716,852	Charles MacCarthy, 1st Viscount Muskerry	1,161,443,877	Irish lord (died 1641)	[ "1641 deaths", "17th-century Irish people", "Burials at Westminster Abbey", "MacCarthy dynasty" ]	Sir Charles MacCarthy, 1st Viscount of Muskerry (died 1641), also called Cormac Oge, especially in Irish, was from a family of Irish chieftains but acquired a noble title under English law, becoming Viscount Muskerry instead of Lord of Muskerry. He sat in the House of Lords in both Irish parliaments of King Charles I. He opposed Strafford, the king's viceroy in Ireland, and in 1641 contributed to his demise by submitting grievances to the king in London. Muskerry died during this mission and was buried in Westminster Abbey. ## Birth and origins Charles, also called Cormac, was probably born in the 1570s in County Cork, southern Ireland. Living in a bilingual context, he had two names, Charles in English and Cormac in Irish. He was the eldest son of Cormac MacDermot MacCarthy and his wife Mary Butler. As his father's name also was Cormac, he was distinguished as "Cormac oge", the younger, whereas his father usually included the patronymic "MacDermot" (son of Dermot) in his name. MacDermot (Charles's father) was the 16th Lord of Muskerry. MacDermot had conformed to the established religion, in other words: become a Protestant, by adhering to the Church of Ireland. Charles's father's family were the MacCarthys of Muskerry, a Gaelic Irish dynasty that had branched from the MacCarthy-Mor line in the 14th century when a younger son received Muskerry as appanage. Charles's mother was the second daughter of Theobald Butler, 1st Baron Cahir. His mother's family was a cadet branch of the Butler Dynasty. The Butlers were Old English and descended from Theobald Walter, who had been appointed chief butler of Ireland by King Henry II in 1177. Charles was one of four siblings, who are listed in his father's article. MacCarthy seems to have been a protestant in his youth but later became Catholic. ## First marriage and children MacCarthy married Margaret O'Brien in about 1590. She was a daughter of Donogh O'Brien, 4th Earl of Thomond, a protestant. Her family, the O'Briens, were another Gaelic Irish dynasty, descending, in her case, from Brian Boru, a medieval high king of Ireland. Charles and Margaret had two sons: 1. Cormac, disabled, died young predeceasing his father 2. Donough (1594–1665), 1st earl of Clancarty and 2nd viscount of Muskerry —and five daughters (in an unordered list as their birth order is poorly known): - Julia, also called Sheela (died 1633), married Sir Valentine Browne, 1st Baronet of Molahiffe, County Kerry, as his 2nd wife - Mary, the 2nd daughter, married 1st Sir Valentine Browne, 2nd Baronet of Molahiffe, and had Valentine Browne, 1st Viscount Kenmare as son - Elena, married John Power and was ancestress of Frances Power, who married Richard Trench and was mother of William Trench, 1st Earl of Clancarty of the 2nd creation - Eleanor, married in 1636 Charles MacCarthy Reagh, son of Donal MacCarthy Reagh; they had three sons: Finin, Donal, Donogh, and a daughter, Ellen, who married John de Courcy, 21st Baron Kingsale - Helen, the 5th daughter, married Colonel Edmund Fitzmaurice, eldest son of the second marriage of Thomas Fitzmaurice, 18th Baron Kerry ## Tyrone's Rebellion MacDermot (MacCarthy's father) fought in Tyrone's Rebellion, also called the Nine Years' War, which lasted from 1593 to 1603. MacDermot sided with the English and fought the Spanish during the Siege of Kinsale in 1601. Most of MacCarthy's life fell into the subsequent period of almost 40 years of peace in southern Ireland from the Treaty of Mellifont, which ended the Nine Years' War, to the Irish Rebellion of 1641. ## Lord and Viscount In 1616 MacCarthy succeeded his father as the 17th Lord of Muskerry. Lord Deputy Oliver St John knighted him in 1620. In 1628 Charles I, King of Ireland, England, and Scotland, created him Baron Blarney and Viscount Muskerry. The titles were probably bought. They had a special remainder that designated his second son Donough as successor, excluding his eldest son Cormac, who was alive at the time but disabled. This is the first creation of the title Muskerry. The title would become extinct with the attainder of the 4th earl in 1691, but be resurrected in the 2nd creation as Baron Muskerry in favour of Robert Tilson Deane, 1st Baron Muskerry in 1781. ## Parliament of 1634–1635 Muskerry, as he was now, sat in the House of Lords during the two Irish parliaments of King Charles I. The Irish Parliament of 1634–1635 was opened on 14 July 1634 by the new Lord Deputy of Ireland, Thomas Wentworth (the future Lord Strafford), who had taken office in July 1633. Muskerry took his seat immediately on the day of its opening. Wentworth dissolved parliament on 18 April 1635. ## Second marriage When his first wife died, Muskerry remarried in or after 1636 to Ellen Roche, eldest daughter of David Roche, 7th Viscount Fermoy, a zealous Catholic. It was also her second marriage. She was the widow of Donal MacCarthy Reagh of Kilbrittain, Prince of Carbery in the Gaelic tradition, with whom she had had a son called Charles MacCarthy Reagh of Kilbrittain, who had in 1636 before his father's death, married Eleanor, one of Muskerry's daughters from his first marriage. Muskerry thus married the mother of one of his sons-in-law. Muskerry was a Catholic during his later life. He probably converted after the death of his first wife, whose father had been a protestant. ## Parliament of 1640–1649 The Irish Parliament of 1640–1649 was opened on 16 March 1640 by Christopher Wandesford, whom Strafford, as Wentworth was now called, had appointed Lord Deputy. Strafford arrived two days later. In its first session the parliament unanimously voted four subsidies of £45,000 (about £ in ) to raise an Irish army of 9000 for use by the King against the Scots in the Second Bishops' War. While attending parliament, Muskerry probably stayed at his new townhouse built about 1640 on Dublin's College Green. On 3 April 1640 Strafford left Ireland. The Commons formed a commission of grievances that gathered evidence for Strafford's misbehaviour. They sent a delegation to Westminster where they submitted the grievances to the King. This delegation included Muskerry's son Donough. The Lords had not acted on grievances during the third parliamentary session as the Commons had done, but afterwards some of them decided to send Lords Muskerry, Gormanston, Dillon, and Kilmallock to London to submit their grievances to the King. Parliament met again on 26 January 1641. Lord Deputy Wandesford had died on 3 December 1640 and the Irish government had devolved to the Lords Justices, Parsons and Borlase. The House of Lords recognised its members who had gone to London as constituting one of its committees and excused their absence. On 18 February 1641 the lords' grievances were written up in 18 articles. The lords complained that Strafford had overtaxed them. ## Death and timeline Muskerry died on 20 February 1641 in London during his parliamentary mission. He was buried in Westminster Abbey. Muskerry was succeeded by his second son Donough. As the ailing elder brother had died some time before, the title's special remainder did not need to be invoked. His widow married Thomas, 4th son of Thomas Fitzmaurice, 18th Baron Kerry.	[ "## Birth and origins", "## First marriage and children", "## Tyrone's Rebellion", "## Lord and Viscount", "## Parliament of 1634–1635", "## Second marriage", "## Parliament of 1640–1649", "## Death and timeline" ]	1,783	13,807
35,601,388	Chikaraishi	1,054,495,234	Heavy rocks used in Japan to develop or demonstrate physical strength.	[ "Japanese architectural features", "Japanese architectural history", "Shinto shrines", "Sport in Japan", "Strongmen competitions" ]	Chikaraishi (力石, chikaraishi, lit. "strength stones") (also hakari-ishi (秤石, "weighing stones") or bijuru (Okinawan) are heavy rocks used at least since the 8th century CE in Japan to develop or demonstrate physical strength. Commonly found within Shinto shrines, they were used for competition, divination, physical fitness and entertainment; some famous examples have also become tourist attractions, and many have been recognised as Important Cultural Assets by the Japanese Government. Competitive stone-lifting is still continued in modern times, and a number of competitive forms of stone-lifting exist, employing different physical techniques. ## History Strength-stones are found throughout Japan, often at Shinto shrines. In 2005 around 14,000 strength-stones were recorded in shrines around Japan. Of these, around 300 are designated as Important Cultural Assets. Many are inscribed with the names and feats of those who lifted them. The oldest-known inscribed stone is from Shinobu, and dates to 1664. The first recorded incidence of strength-stone lifting is attributed to the samurai Kamakura Gongorō Kagemasa in 1089, however the practice itself is much older, dating to before the 8th century. The Nippo Jisho, also called the Vocabvlario da Lingoa de Iapam, a Japanese – Portuguese dictionary published in 1603, includes the term chikaraishi in the written record as early as the 17th century. The Nippo Jisho, published in Nagasaki and associated with the Jesuit priest João Rodrigues (1561 or 1562 – 1633), identically records both the modern pronunciation and written form of the term chikaraishi. It is one of the few traditional sports not solely the preserve of the samurai class, being popular among peasants and sake brewers. Both professions valued the manual labor of young people, and similar practices called kyokumochi also existed, which involved lifting sacks of rice or barrels of sake. The sporting aspect of stone-lifting developed in Edo around the seventeenth century, likely evolving from the sack-lifting contests of the stevedores and labourers. Historically, the lifting of strength-stones was exclusively practiced by men. The practice of lifting strength-stones was especially popular in the 19th and early 20th centuries (roughly coinciding with the Meiji period), with organised competitions occurring. Stones used in competition were usually inscribed with their weight, measured in kan (貫) (a unit of approximately 3.75 kg (8 lb)), and if not naturally smooth, were often sculpted into a roughly oval shape. Some strength-stones have become tourist attractions due to the legends attached to them. In Nerima, for example, tourists still visit Sobei's Horse-Headed Kannon Stone, a strength-stone associated with the tale of Kato Sobei from 1840. According to the story, Sobei was awarded possession of a heavy stone that he managed to lift. However, his horse collapsed and died under the weight of the stone, and in its memory, he erected the stone as the horse's grave marker. Another famous stone is the Benkei-ishi, a huge rock supposedly moved from present-day Himeji, Hyōgo, Hyōgo Prefecture to its current resting place on Mount Shosha by the folk hero Benkei (1155 – 1189). The Benkei-ishi can be viewed at Engyō-ji, high above Himeji. ## Purpose A general lack of recorded evidence makes it difficult to ascertain the intended purpose of stone-lifting. It has been assumed that the practice was for competition, physical fitness or entertainment purposes (sumo wrestlers have been known to perform such feats between bouts for the entertainment of their audience). Records of competition techniques and winners (such as the 1836 list of "Men of Strength in Edo", which ranks competitors by weights lifted) indicate a competitive aspect. Strength-stones are used in modern times for strength training, particularly in the martial arts where such practices are known as hojo undō. Special stones are manufactured for this purpose, usually with a wooden handle to aid their manipulation; such stones are also known as chi ishi. It is a common practice in karate, used in solo training to improve stances and upper body strength. ### In divination The prevalence of the stones in Shinto shrines and temples has led to speculation that rock-lifting was used for divining the future, a practice known as ishi-ura (石占). The ease with which a petitioner lifted the stones indicated the likelihood of his preferred outcome occurring. Ishi-ura was notably practiced in ancient Shinano Province, now modern-day Nagasaki Prefecture. Smaller versions of these stones were sometimes placed by a child's bed, in the belief that this would strengthen the child. ### As a sport Several forms of competition were employed in stone-lifting, each sometimes using a particular type of stone. Ishizashi (石差, "various stones") was the simplest form, requiring competitors to hoist a rock of about 70 kg (154 lb), known as a sashi-ishi (サシ石), from the ground to above the head. It was permissible for participants to pause and readjust their grip once the rock was at chest height. Ishikatsugi (石担, "shoulder carried stone") contests required that the stone be lifted to the shoulder; this form employed heavier rocks (up to 240 kg (529 lb)), known as a katage-ishi (カタゲ石), and allowed the use of a rope wrapped around the stone. In ishihakobi (石運び, "stone carrying") competitions, the aim was to carry the stone as far as possible, the winner naturally being the man who carried it the greatest distance, whilst ashiuke (足受, "foot receiving") contests featured extremely heavy stones that were lifted with the feet by competitors lying on their backs. Rocks that were too heavy to be lifted clear of the ground were employed in ishiokoshi (石起し, "stone raising"), using a type of stone called the chigiri-ishi (チギリ石), the aim of which was to raise a stone so that it was balanced on its edge. Stone-lifting contests still take place in the modern era. The city of Sōja, Okayama hosts an annual competition in which local teams participate. ## See also - Lifting stone ## Footnote A.The Nippo Jisho romanizes "chikaraishi" as "chicara ixi"; the difference in spelling reflects the early Portuguese romanization of the Japanese language, not a difference between the early 17th century and modern pronunciations of the name.	[ "## History", "## Purpose", "### In divination", "### As a sport", "## See also", "## Footnote" ]	1,456	7,277
6,618,769	SNCAC NC 1080	1,126,749,632	Prototype carrier-based fighter aircraft	[ "1940s French fighter aircraft", "Carrier-based aircraft", "SNCAC aircraft", "Single-engined jet aircraft" ]	The SNCAC NC 1080 was a French jet-engined interceptor developed in the late 1940s by SNCAC for use aboard aircraft carriers. It was intended to compete for an Aéronavale (French Naval Aviation) contract and first flew in 1949. The aircraft used an innovative system of flight control surfaces that proved to be a failure during flight testing and had to be modified before it could fly again. Its development was troubled by other design flaws and the company's merger with SNCAN that same year. Further development was cancelled after a fatal crash destroyed the sole prototype in 1950. ## Development and description After the end of World War II, Aéronavale had only two small aircraft carriers: Dixmude, which was loaned by the Americans, and Arromanches, which had been leased from the British, but planned to lay down its own larger PA-28 design in 1947. All of its aircraft were piston-engined and had been rendered obsolete by the advent of jet-propelled aircraft during the war. The French lacked an indigenous turbojet design and licensed the British Rolls-Royce Nene to facilitate their development of jet-propelled aircraft. Aéronavale issued a requirement for a jet-powered interceptor on 29 March 1946 and then issued a request for proposals on 8 June. The aircraft had to exceed a speed of 900 km/h (559 mph) at all altitudes, have a climb rate in excess of 25 m/s (82 ft/s) at sea level, and an armament of three 30-millimeter (1.2 in) autocannon with the possibility of carrying bombs or unguided air-to-ground rockets. The Nord 2200 and Arsenal VG 90 were the other competitors for the contract for 90 aircraft. The single-seat SNCAC NC 1080 had a low-mounted single-spar wing that was swept back at an angle of 22° 30'. Its circular-section fuselage was built in two parts and the fuel tank was housed in the forward section with a total capacity of 1,950 liters (429 imp gal; 515 U.S. gal). It was fitted with a radar in the nose, tricycle landing gear and folding wings. Air for the 22.2-kilonewton (5,000 lb<sub>f</sub>) Nene 102 engine was provided by semi-elliptical intakes on the sides of the fuselage and used boundary layer suction to smooth the airflow. Most unusually, the aircraft lacked ailerons and lateral control was intended to be provided by "compensators", combination double-slotted and blown flaps designed by Pierre-Marcel Lemoigne, and spoilers in the wings; the spoilers were also intended to act as dive brakes when deployed below the wings. The entire aft fuselage could be removed to allow access to the engine. The cockpit was armored and the pilot was provided with an ejection seat. ## Construction and flight testing Aéronavale awarded SNCAC a contract on 31 December 1946, but cancelled it two years later under budgetary constraints. The company decided to continue work at its own expense, still hoping for a production order. The prototype was completed in March 1949 with temporary fixed landing gear and it was trucked to Toussus-le-Noble Airport, but flight testing was delayed by the late delivery of the retractable landing gear. Taxiing trials began on 23 June and a few short hops were made during high-speed taxiing two days later. These revealed problems with lateral stability which caused the aircraft's vertical stabilizer and rudder to be heightened and small plates to be added at the wingtips. While these modifications were being made, SNCAC went bankrupt in July and merged with SNCAN (later Nord Aviation). The NC 1080 made its official maiden flight on 29 July from the airfield at Melun Villaroche while its fate was being decided. The flight demonstrated that the wind-tunnel testing of the prototype's novel control surfaces had been grossly inadequate as the spoilers and compensators were almost entirely useless and it was still only marginally stable laterally. The test pilot found the aircraft almost impossible to turn, but was able to land at Brétigny-sur-Orge Air Base after eight minutes of flight only because it was almost straight ahead from Melun Villaroche. SNCAN considered terminating the program after the flight, flying its own competitor for the requirement, but it was awarded a contract by Aéronavale later that year to continue development. SNCAN's engineers replaced the spoilers with ailerons and moved the wingtip plates to the tips of the horizontal stabilizers. The prototype was flown back to Melun Villaroche on 16 December and it resumed flight testing in January 1950. The following month servomotors were installed to boost the aileron controls and the boundary layer suction system was removed. The manufacturer's trials were completed in March after 19 more flights and the aircraft was flown back to Brétigny-sur-Orge on 31 March to begin its official trials at the Centre d'essais en vol (Flight Test Center). It reached a speed of 720 km/h (450 mph) and a speed of Mach 0.64 in a dive during flights on 6 April. The following day the NC 1080 entered a spin at an altitude of 3,000 m (9,800 ft), had its anti-spin parachute torn away, and crashed, killing the pilot, Pierre Gallay. Witnesses saw pieces fly off the aircraft, but the subsequent investigation was unable to determine why it crashed. Without another prototype available to continue development, the program was cancelled and a license-built version of the British de Havilland Sea Venom was ultimately selected to satisfy Aéronavale's requirement. ## Specifications ## See also	[ "## Development and description", "## Construction and flight testing", "## Specifications", "## See also" ]	1,219	22,656
61,915,825	Nino Tkeshelashvili	1,159,291,594	Georgian feminist, suffragist, writer (1874–1956)	[ "1874 births", "1956 deaths", "20th-century educators", "20th-century women educators", "20th-century women writers from Georgia (country)", "Educators from the Russian Empire", "Feminists from Georgia (country)", "People from Georgia Governorate", "People from Kutaisi", "People from Tiflis Governorate", "Schoolteachers from Georgia (country)", "Suffragists from Georgia (country)", "Suffragists from the Russian Empire", "Women's rights activists from Georgia (country)", "Writers from Tbilisi", "Writers from the Russian Empire" ]	Nino Tkeshelashvili (Georgian: ნინო ტყეშელაშვილი, 1874–1956) was a Georgian teacher, writer and women's rights activist. Born into an intellectual family in 1874, she completed the schooling available to her in Tiflis and then worked for a time in Didi Jikhaishi as a Russian language teacher. In 1903, she went to study dentistry in Moscow, where she became involved in the revolutionary student movement during the 1905 Russian Revolution. Returning to Tiflis the following year, she began to meet women writers and activists participating in the struggle for women's rights. She joined the Union of Georgian Women for Equal Rights in 1906, but three years later left the organization and co-founded the Caucasian Women's Society with a breakaway group of feminists. As chair of the new society, Tkeshelashvili was active in the struggle for women's suffrage, in advancing the education of workers and the poor, working towards improved employment conditions and higher education for women, while addressing concerns in connection with women's health and sexuality. Around 1912, she began contributing to magazines and newspapers, addressing the issues facing women. With developments following the 1917 Russian Revolution, feminists hoped that the new Georgian Republic would heed their demands for civic and political equality. Instead, state policy created the Zhenotdel (Women's Bureau) in 1919, which limited women's free participation in society. Together with other feminists, Tkeshelashvili continued to press for equal participation until Stalin's state policies abolished the Zhenotdel and neutralized their efforts. She turned to writing, mainly writing for children in the Soviet era. When the Soviet Union dissolved, Georgian feminists rediscovered the history of Tkeshelashvili and other early associates. ## Early life Nino Tkeshelashvili was born in 1874 in Tiflis (known after 1936 as Tbilisi) in the Caucasus Viceroyalty of the Russian Empire. Her father, whose family had been priests in the Georgian Orthodox Church, worked in agriculture and was an avid reader. Her mother was a close relative of the poet Akaki Tsereteli. From a young age, Tkeshelashvili enjoyed reading works from her father's library and was influenced by displaced revolutionaries who were frequent visitors in her parents' home. These included Ilia Bakhtadze, a journalist using the pen name Ilia Khoneli; the novelist Leo Kiacheli; and Archil Abashidze. She attended their discussions and dreamed of going to Russia to attend high school, like her brother. Though she completed the local school and earned a medal, she was unable to attend teacher training courses. Through her parents, Tkeshelashvili met Niko Nikoladze, who was living in Didi Jikhaishi, in the Imereti region of western Georgia with his wife, Olga Guramishvili-Nikoladze (Georgian: ოლღა გურამიშვილი-ნიკოლაძე, 1855-1940) one of the first Georgian women to study abroad. Educated in Switzerland, Guramishvili returned to Georgia, where she was involved in pedagogy. She became a mentor to Tkeshelashvili, encouraging her to become a Russian-language teacher at the school she headed in Didi Jikhaishi. Besides teaching, she actively participated in literary evenings and read books from Nikoladze's library. In 1903, Tkeshelashvili went to Moscow, finally able to attend courses at dental school. She became involved in student radicalism and agitated with the intelligentsia for democratic reforms. At the end of the 1905 Russian Revolution, Tsar Nicholas conceded to terms that created the Duma, which had legislative oversight, while protecting freedom of conscience, speech, and assembly for the citizenship. ## Career Returning to Tiflis in 1906, Tkeshelashvili found that the movement to expand civil and political rights had reached Georgia. She lived in a boarding house belonging to Ivane Machabeli. One of the other tenants, Mariam Demuria [ka], was closely involved in public works projects. Demuria worked as a journalist and regularly gave lectures to the general public. She also ran a Sunday school to offer education to workers and hired Tkeshelashvili to teach Russian language courses. Through her work with Demuria, Tkeshelashvili gained a wider circle of friends and met other women writers, like Ekaterine Gabashvili, who was involved in the feminist movement. She joined the Union of Georgian Women for Equal Rights, which began planning a conference for all Russian women to be held in Tiflis in 1908. Tkeshelashvili gave the opening address, calling on women to work for their freedom and cultural development. After the conference, recognizing that they wanted a more international approach than the Union of Georgian Women offered, a group led by Tkeshelashvili parted in 1909 to form the Caucasian Women's Society (Georgian: კავკასიელ ქალთა საზოგადოება) (CWS). Among the 135 founding members were Gabashvili, Babilina Khositashvili, Nino Kipiani and Kato Mikeladze. Besides supporting women's suffrage, the CWS established clubs for working women in which they taught literacy and sewing. Tkeshelashvili hosted literary evenings where speakers presented talks on the Russian classics. The CWS also mounted a strong campaign to uphold women's "moral standards", labeling prostitution a "social evil". They invited women to attend debates that discussed social issues such as prostitution, education for the poor, employment conditions, higher education, and women's health and sexuality, among other topics. Around 1912, Tkeshelashvili began publishing translations and original works in კვალი (Trace) and the children's magazine ჯეჯილი (Jejili, meaning "wheat shoots"), founded by Anastasia Tumanishvili-Tsereteli. That year, she also joined the editorial staff of ნაკადული (The Stream), where she met writers Nino Nakashidze and Akaki Tsereteli. Writing under the pseudonym სუფრაჟისტკას (Suffragist), Tkeshelashvili published works urging the political and civic equality of women. In 1914, during World War I, the Caucasian Women's Society began operating free canteens and sewing clothes for soldiers. Tkeshelashvili also increased her literary output, writing for such journals as the Reference Sheet, The Rock, Theater and Life, and the Voice of Georgian Woman among others. One of her articles from the period, ქალი რევოლუციონურ კულტურის ფრონტზე (A Woman at the Front of Revolutionary Culture), evaluated women's economic dependence on men and confinement by social roles which tied them to the family. She postulated that Lenin's revolutionary ideas would free women from laws that were discriminatory. Tkeshelashvili took courses at the Kutaisi Women's Gymnasium and between 1917 and 1918 was active in the Georgian independence movement, following the collapse of the Russian Empire at the end of the 1917 Revolution. When the Democratic Republic of Georgia was being formed, she participated in the district elections for the Social Democratic Party of Georgia, held at the Gymnasium, and was shocked that out of 20 candidates there was only one woman. When she lamented the numbers to the audience, the party chair asked her to name qualified candidates. Tkeshelashvili gave him five names, but none were added to the ballot. She and other members of the Caucasian Women's Society cut all ties with the Social Democratic Party, recognizing that there was no genuine interest in their goals. Instead, the Party began promoting their own policies and became increasingly hostile to grassroots initiatives. In 1919 the Zhenotdel was founded which enacted government policies from the top down ignoring the real needs of women. The feminists continued to fight vigorously for their rights, meeting in private homes to discuss how best to continue their struggle. At one such meeting, Tkeshelashvili presented a story, მგალობელი ჩიტების ზეიმი (Mourning Birds Celebration) in which other women acted out the parts. It was an allegory of the feminist struggle and after its presentation, the other women dubbed her the მერცხალას (the Swallow), which she took on as a new pseudonym. In 1924, she wrote and participated in the public mock-trial, ქრისტინეს გასამართლება (Judging Christine) in which she protested the remnants of capitalism that continued to victimize women. The performance was very popular and was presented at theaters and workers' palaces. In 1930, Stalin abolished the Zhenotdel, effectively neutralizing the women's movement. Officially, a woman's primary obligation became motherhood and domestic work, a secondary function being social productivity. Feminists transformed from seeking equality to writing children's fiction, as it was an approved activity for women. From that time, Tkeshelashvili wrote children's short stories and fables, which were run as features in Georgian magazines and newspapers. Her best works were ხუხულები (Hooks) and ასლამაზა (Alamosa) but other well-known pieces included სპილო და მტაცებლები (Elephant and Predators), მგალობელი ჩიტები (Mourning Birds), and ვირი (Donkey). ## Death and legacy Tkeshelashvili died in her home town in 1956. Like most feminists of the times, her activism for women's rights was forgotten in the Soviet era. Her 1990 biography listed her as a writer but since the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Georgian feminists have been exploring their past and reclaiming the stories of early contributors like Tkeshelashvili. ## See also - List of Georgian women writers	[ "## Early life", "## Career", "## Death and legacy", "## See also" ]	2,487	1,905
5,014,644	Jesus Freak (song)	1,144,112,595	null	[ "1995 singles", "1995 songs", "DC Talk songs", "Grunge songs", "Songs written by TobyMac" ]	"Jesus Freak" is a song by the American contemporary Christian music group DC Talk. Released on August 1, 1995, it was the lead radio single from (and lends its name to) the group's fourth album. The song was written and produced by Toby McKeehan and Mark Heimermann. Lyrically, the song is about standing up for the belief in Jesus Christ in the midst of persecution. Musically, the song has been described as alternative rock and grunge. It received airplay on both contemporary Christian music and alternative rock stations, formats that rarely interact. "Jesus Freak" earned DC Talk three GMA Dove Awards. ## Origin and lyrics After the success of DC Talk's third album, Free at Last (1992), which was based primarily on hip-hop and pop oriented songwriting, the trio decided to innovate their style. Michael Tait, one of the members of DC Talk, said, "I was totally into rock and roll at the time [...] I really wanted to make a rock record." The band decided to focus on more rock-oriented music, with touches of rap and pop interwoven into the mix. Tait later explained, "We wanted to write songs that would hopefully touch a generation." DC Talk member Toby McKeehan, writer of the song's lyrics, wrote the song to be a bold declaration of love for Jesus Christ, even in the midst of persecution. In order to bring the hard-hitting reality of their message to the mainstream, DC Talk combined the raw lyrics with guitar-driven grunge-rock. McKeehan took the song's title from the derogatory 1970s term "Jesus freak" and turned it on its head; he noted that when he was looking up the word "freak" in the dictionary, he saw an entry that said "ardent enthusiast". Since the song and album's release, many of the group's fans have donned products with the term "Jesus Freak". The first time the band performed the song live, McKeehan only had about a verse written. He later recalled, "We had not yet recorded it for our album, but we had a demo with one verse written. We thought it would be safe to try it [in South Africa]. We could not believe the immediate response it got." ## Composition "Jesus Freak", which follows a "three-part repetitive" song form that is common to the rock genre (i.e. chorus, verse, bridge), opens with four acoustic guitar scraps, establishing the time signature (4/4) and the tempo (roughly 107 bpm). Following this brief count-off, an acoustic guitar begins strumming the main riff in the key of Eb minor; the guitar is accompanied by faint vocals singing the song's chorus (i.e. "What will people think when they hear that I'm a Jesus Freak?/What will people do when they find that's it's true?"). The guitar then abruptly switches into overdrive, and modulates into the key of F minor. Throughout this portion of the song, the chorus riff is repeated twice on electric guitar, but no main vocals are heard. During the verses, a sparse electric guitar pattern, which outlines the chord progression, is played. The opening portion of the first verse, according to Jon Radwan, describes "a change in self-concept". The second portion, rapped by McKeehan, describes the story of a street preacher who, "stood on a box in the middle of the city and he claimed he had a dream". The first portion of the second verse discusses self-sacrifice and "the killing of an old self that feared social judgement" for being a Christian. The verse then shifts into a rap about John the Baptist, re-reads "John a Christian martyr instead of a Jewish political dissident." A repetition of the chorus follows, succeeded by a melodic breakdown and a dissonant guitar solo. Following a final play-through of the chorus, the feedback-laden conclusion ends abruptly. Musically, the song has been described as alternative rock and grunge, with many reviews noting a similarity with the sound of Nirvana. Radwan argues that the song contains "direct allusions to hit songs by Nirvana", and that the drum flam entrance to the song and the chord progression in the verses recall "Smells like Teen Spirit" and "Heart-Shaped Box", respectively. According to the Encyclopedia of American Gospel Music, "Jesus Freak" is believed to be one of the first songs to link alternative rock and rap rock in CCM. ## Music video The music video for "Jesus Freak" was directed by Simon Maxwell, who also worked on the music video for "Hurt" by Nine Inch Nails. Maxwell's treatment of the video, reminiscent of his work with Nine Inch Nails, features footage of Christian imagery such as doves and crosses mixed with stock footage of riots, book burnings, hate crimes, a metallic hammer and sickle, footage of the Russian Revolution, footage of one of Hitler's speeches and an accompanying Nazi propaganda film projected onto a screen that includes Nazi burnings of "degenerate" materials. Interspersed between the stock footage is video of the band performing the song in a darkened room. Although the song and video are, on the surface, about expressing one's belief in Jesus Christ, the band later commented that the song could also be a metaphor for the "preservation of standing up for what you believe in – even in the midst of persecution." McKeehan later said that the point of the video was to "push the envelope" for the Christian rock community, and indeed, the song and video proved controversial. Although the song and video were an earnest attempt to "declare a single-hearted faithfulness in Christ in an age when such devotion strikes many as the freakiest kind of fanaticism," some of the more conservative Christian community members disapproved of the video. The song however, was highly successful on Z Music and managed to achieve air time on MTV. ## Release and reception "Jesus Freak", which served as the lead-off single for the album of the same name, was released in 1995 to alternative and modern rock stations, the band's first venture into these radio formats. Because the song – which is defined by a dark, grunge sound – was released during an era when alternative rock was ruling the airwaves, the song was played on some non-Christian stations. As part of the promotion strategy for the song, InterLinc, a Nashville-based Christian music promotion company, sent out over 4,000 copies of the CD single to youth pastors, along with Bible study material. The single initially charted on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles at No. 25 with little mainstream radio assistance. The song peaked at No. 10 on this chart. The single also peaked at No. 1 on CCM Magazine's rock chart. Entertainment Weekly editor Laura Jamison, in a review for the Jesus Freak album, said that DC Talk, "successfully, if derivatively, combines textured vocals, aggressive guitar, and solid songwriting, especially on [...] the raucous title track." In a review of "Jesus Freak", the Chicago Tribune said "In considering the group's artistic merits, it's time to bury the over-burdened label 'Christian band' [...] DC Talk deserves to be judged by a different standard." In addition to "Colored People" and "Between You and Me", "Jesus Freak" was considered instrumental in breaking DC Talk into the mainstream. In 1996, the song won GMA Dove Award for Song of the Year and Rock Recorded Song of the Year. The music video for the song later won the award for Short Form Music Video of the Year in 1997. ## Other releases Various versions of "Jesus Freak" have appeared on several DC Talk official releases, including the band's greatest hits album Intermission. A live version of "Jesus Freak" was included on the 1997 live release Welcome to the Freak Show (1997). A short, comedic reprise, performed by Michael Tait, is included on the Jesus Freak album. In addition, a remix of the song, available on the "Jesus Freak" single, entitled "Jesus Freak (Gotee Bros. Freaked Out Remix)" features a more hip-hop sound, reminiscent of the band's third album, Free at Last. On August 3, 2010, the single was released as downloadable content for Rock Band. ### Cover versions and remixes The Christian rock band Newsboys recorded a cover of "Jesus Freak" and released it on their 2010 album Born Again. On the DC Talk tribute album, Freaked! (2006), both 4th Avenue Jones and Chasing Victory recorded covers of this particular song. "Jesus Freak" has also been covered by Larry Norman. McKeehan, under his stage name TobyMac, also recorded a cover version of the song for his album Alive and Transported. On January 1, 2021, Owl City released a remix the song. ## Track listing ## Charts ## Album credits Personnel - Toby McKeehan – vocals - Michael Tait – vocals - Kevin Max – vocals - Oran Thornton – guitar - Dann Huff – guitar - Sean Turner – guitar - John Painter – bass guitar - David L. Huff – drums - Todd Collins – cowbell, drums - Mark Heimermann – double bass, Hammond B-3 Production - Toby McKeehan – producer - Mark Heimermann – programming, producer - Todd Collins – programming - Joe Baldridge – engineer - Pat Murphy – engineer assistant - Chuck Linder – engineer assistant ## Accolades	[ "## Origin and lyrics", "## Composition", "## Music video", "## Release and reception", "## Other releases", "### Cover versions and remixes", "## Track listing", "## Charts", "## Album credits", "## Accolades" ]	2,004	13,355
5,143,286	Ali's Smile	1,165,586,630	Book by William S. Burroughs II	[ "1978 short stories", "1978 short story collections", "Books about Scientology", "Books critical of Scientology", "Essay collections by William S. Burroughs", "Scientology in popular culture" ]	Ali's Smile: Naked Scientology is a collection of essays and a short story by American Beat writer William S. Burroughs (1914–1997). First published in 1971 as the short story "Ali's Smile", the book eventually contained a group of previously published newspaper articles as well, all of which address Scientology. Burroughs had been interested in Scientology throughout the 1960s, believing that its methods might help combat a controlling society. He joined the Church of Scientology later in the decade. However, he became disenchanted with the authoritarian nature of the organization. In 1970 Burroughs had published a "considered statement" on Scientology's methods because he felt they were significant enough to warrant commentary. These pieces were later gathered together into Ali's Smile: Naked Scientology, which religious studies scholar Hugh B. Urban describes as a "nonscholarly popular exposé of Scientology". Burroughs's texts argue that while some of Scientology's therapies are worthwhile, the dogmatic nature of the group and its secrecy are harmful. ## Background Beat Generation writer William S. Burroughs was an avant-garde author whom several important critics consider the most important American writer since World War II. Sometimes called the "Godfather of Punk literature", he adopted a persona that Matt Theado, a scholar of the Beats, describes as "a tormented but supremely curious person who explored the dark side of the human consciousness." Burroughs often probed contentious social and political problems with "a cold-blooded, almost insectlike presence" that influenced popular culture as well as literature. Burroughs believed readers needed to take an active part in reshaping their own reality through reading. For example, works such as the controversial novel Naked Lunch (1959) dealt with his concerns regarding "the battle against control", and Burroughs wrote others "might see the control that governments, religions, greedy human beings, and their own cravings for drugs, sex, or power often hold over them". Theado writes that Burroughs saw words as "instruments of control that allow evil forces to impose their will over people", and he attempted to use words themselves to combat this problem. He wrote in a way that would allow both him and his readers to redefine words and to create new levels of meaning, thereby liberating them from social control. His concerns about social control and language led Burroughs to write at length about Scientology. He had been interested in Scientology since the early 1960s, having been introduced to the concepts of its founder L. Ron Hubbard by artist Brion Gysin. Burroughs's early novels emphasized the power of Scientology to combat a controlling society. For example, in both The Ticket That Exploded (1962) and Nova Express (1964), Scientology, along with the cut-up technique, silence, and apomorphine (which he believed was an extremely effective treatment for heroin addiction), allows the characters to resist social control. These works reflected Burroughs's initial belief that Scientology could be an instrument of liberation from social control, much as he used his own cut-up style of writing. He sought to use cut-ups "to expose the arbitrary nature and manipulative power of all linguistic systems", and connected cut-ups to the theories of the self expounded by Hubbard's Dianetics. As religious studies scholar John Lardas explains, "the cut-up method was the evangelical counterpart of Scientology in that it was intended to alter a reader's consciousness". In 1967 Burroughs became a more serious devotee to Scientology, taking several courses and in 1968 becoming what the Church of Scientology calls "clear"—a psychological state in which one has managed to eradicate the harmful influence of their reactive mind by removing engrams, traumatic mental images, from their subconscious through Scientology's auditing process. In his works, Burroughs represented the process that Scientologists refer to as "clearing" memories as a step towards becoming an active rather than passive member of society. Scientology thus appealed to Burroughs because it "confirmed his belief that consciousness is akin to a tape recording that can be rewound, fast-forwarded, or even erased". Burroughs believed that Scientology's practice of auditing had helped him resolve some traumatic life experiences, and "came to regard the E-Meter as a useful device for deconditioning". However, he had "growing doubts about some of the other Scientology technology, and grave reservations about their policy as an organisation". He became frustrated by the authoritarian nature of the organization, and as biographer Ted Morgan writes, "... had hoped to find a method of personal emancipation and had found instead another control system." In a similar vein, Burroughs was both intrigued by Scientology's study of language, but felt distaste for the way it was being utilized: > They [the Church of Scientology] have a great deal of very precise data on words and the effects produced by words – a real science of communication. But I feel that their presentation has been often deplorable and that as a science, a body of knowledge, it is definitely being vitiated by a dogmatic policy. By 1970, Burroughs had severed connections with the Church of Scientology. He was eventually expelled from the organization and declared to be in "Condition of Treason". He became increasingly disenchanted with the group and wrote a series of critical articles published in Mayfair. Burroughs also forced one of their headquarters to relocate by publicizing photos of it. ## Publication and contents Ali's Smile, Burroughs's short story on Scientology, was originally published in a limited-edition run of 99 copies by Unicorn in 1971. A recording of Burroughs reading the story was simultaneously released. Two years later, Expanded Media Editions issued a revised and enlarged version titled Ali's Smile: Naked Scientology, which contained a series of articles, most of which had been previously published in newspapers and magazines. In 1970 Burroughs had published a "considered statement" on Scientology's methods because he felt that they were significant enough to warrant commentary. This statement articulates what he calls the group's "precise and efficient" therapeutic methods, however he also criticizes the authoritarian nature of the institution, describing Hubbard's statements as fascistic and comparing their internal surveillance methods to that of the FBI and CIA. He also condemns the "unquestioning acceptance" demanded of Scientologists as well as the institution's secrecy. These pieces were later gathered together into Ali's Smile: Naked Scientology, which religious studies scholar Hugh Urban describes as a "nonscholarly popular exposé of Scientology". In 1985, Expanded Media Editions published a bilingual German and English edition. "Burroughs on Scientology" is an opinion piece originally published in the Los Angeles Free Press on 6 March 1970. It begins "In view of the fact that my articles and statements on Scientology may have influenced young people to associate themselves with the so called Church of Scientology, I feel an obligation to make my present views on the subject quite clear." Burroughs states that some Scientology practices have value: "Some of the techniques are highly valuable and warrant further study and experimentation." He is critical of the Church of Scientology's organizational policy and organizations in general, and Scientology's attempts to keep many of its counseling methods secret, and writes "On the other hand I am in flat disagreement with the organizational policy." "William Burroughs: Open Letter to Mr. Garden Mustain" was originally published in the East Village Other on 7 July 1970. The East Village Other introduction to Burroughs' piece notes that the open letter "is Mr. Burroughs' final answer to his critics and to Mister Gorden Mustain who attacked him for his position on Scientology in the pages of the L.A. FREE PRESS. In it he asks the inevitable question to be faced by us all, whether we be in a professional status or not: 'We would like to know where Scientology and Mr. Hubbard stand on the Vietnam war, on sexual freedom, militant students, Black Power, pot, Red China, the politics of the American Narcotics department and the CIA. If it comes to a revolution: which side would you fight on?'" "William Burroughs on Inside Scientology by Robert Kaufman" was originally published in Rolling Stone on 26 October 1972. It is a book review of Inside Scientology, which was embroiled in a legal controversy. In the review, Burroughs relates his personal experiences as a Scientologist and describes himself as an anthropologist. Burroughs begins by praising Kaufman's decision to reveal confidential upper-level Scientology teachings in the book: "Mr. Kaufman has shown real courage in publishing Hubbard's so-called confidential materials for the first time in Inside Scientology." "Letter to Rolling Stone" by R. Sorrell (Church of Scientology) was originally published in Rolling Stone on 5 December 1972. Sorrell wrote on behalf of the Church of Scientology to Rolling Stone, asserting that statements made by Burroughs in his review of Inside Scientology were inaccurate. Sorrell noted that the book had been involved in legal controversy and commented: "I have included here an itemization of these inaccuracies with documentation to show that Mr. Burroughs may be a writer but cannot always be trusted to be an accurate one." "Answer to R. Sorrell's Letter" by William Burroughs is a point-by-point response to Sorrell's letter in Rolling Stone. In total, Burroughs addresses 28 issues, including "Scientology's security checks", fair gaming, excommunication, the financial dealings of Scientology, Scientology terminology such as "Wog", and the efficacy of the E-meter as a lie detector. "Ali's Smile" by William Burroughs is a short story originally published by Unicorn in 1971 and later republished in Burroughs's collection of short stories, Exterminator! (1973). At the opening of the story, Clinch Smith, a former colonial official, is living in an English town overshadowed by a giant slag heap. He is upset when he receives a letter from a Scientologist friend saying that he will "disconnect" from Smith, describing him as a "suppressive person". A kris hanging on the wall of his room reminds Smith of Ali, whom he had met 30 years ago in Malaya. Ali had been put under a latah spell by an old woman, forcing him to dance in the marketplace. Smith rescued Ali, making the young man his houseboy. Ali returned to the market, however, and ran amok, killing several of the women with the kris. Smith was forced to shoot Ali, and kept the kris as a souvenir. Back in the present, Smith feels compelled to take the kris from the wall and goes to town, where there is a fight going on between hippies and locals, with members of Scientology's Sea Org in the crowd as well. Smith goes on a killing spree with the kris, which seems to have a life of its own. He stabs Lord Westfield, a Home Office official who has asked a private investigator to infiltrate a Scientology organization, a woman, and several Sea Org members, and then a bystander shoots him dead. Police and more combatants prepare to join the fight. As they do so, the slag heap collapses and buries everyone. At the end, the "ghost face" of Ali smiles over all. ## Reception In Michael B. Goodman and Lemuel B. Coley's 1990 bibliography of the works of and criticism on Burroughs, described as "the most comprehensive and up-to-date guide to Burroughs' primary and secondary materials", there are no contemporary reviews listed for Ali's Smile: Naked Scientology.	[ "## Background", "## Publication and contents", "## Reception" ]	2,419	14,212
32,676,956	Hurricane Eugene (1987)	1,171,124,775	Category 2 Pacific hurricane in 1987	[ "1987 Pacific hurricane season", "Category 2 Pacific hurricanes", "Hurricanes in Aguascalientes", "Hurricanes in Colima", "Hurricanes in Michoacán", "Hurricanes in Querétaro", "Hurricanes in Tlaxcala", "Hurricanes in Zacatecas", "Tropical cyclones in 1987" ]	Hurricane Eugene was the only tropical cyclone to make landfall in Mexico during the 1987 Pacific hurricane season. The eighth tropical cyclone, fifth named storm, and first hurricane of the season, Eugene developed on July 22 from a tropical disturbance centered well offshore of Mexico. Later that day, the system intensified into a tropical storm while moving northwestward. Eugene reached hurricane status on July 24; it briefly peaked as a Category 2 hurricane the next day. Hurricane Eugene weakened back to a Category 1 hurricane; subsequently, the hurricane made landfall near Manzanillo. Shortly after landfall, Eugene rapidly weakened inland, and was only a tropical storm when it re-emerged into open water, where it quickly dissipated. Throughout southwestern Mexico, the storm produced high winds, especially in the southwestern portion of the country. The hurricane deluged the southwest Mexican coastline, resulting in the highest rainfall totals from a tropical cyclone in five Mexican states. Over 5,000 people were left homeless, including 60 in Manzanillo. The city's airport control tower was also damaged, requiring closure. Elsewhere, 200 to 300 houses were destroyed in Colima. In all, Eugene injured 18 people, and caused three fatalities and \$142.12 million (1987 USD) in damage. ## Meteorological history Hurricane Eugene originated from a tropical disturbance that formed in the southwest Caribbean Sea on July 18. Over the next two days, the wave moved across Central America and on July 20, it was located off the coast of Nicaragua. Over the next few days, the system was steered westward due to easterly flow. By 0000 UTC July 22, the Eastern Pacific Hurricane Center had classified the system as a tropical depression while centered 745 mi (1,200 km) south of Manzanillo. Subsequently, the depression slowly began curving to the north-northwest, towards a stationary inverted trough over central Mexico. That day, the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Eugene. The storm slowed down on July 24, and located on the southwest side of an upper-level low, the system turned northwestward. Eugene was upgraded into a hurricane later that day, the first of the season. Further intensification occurred, and Eugene attained its peak intensity of 100 mph (160 km/h) the next day. Shortly after its peak, the hurricane began to interact with land. The hurricane weakened to a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale later that day. At 1200 UTC on July 25, Eugene made landfall near Manzanillo with winds of 90 mph (145 km/h), making Hurricane Eugene the only tropical system to move ashore during the season, though one hurricane and one tropical storm came close to land in September and October respectively. Because of the topography of Mexico, the storm weakened rapidly, and Eugene was downgraded to a tropical storm six hours after landfall. After briefly moving inland, Eugene emerged into the southern Gulf of California. However, re-intensification did not occur; instead, Eugene continued weakening due to its close proximity to land. The weakening system was downgraded to a tropical depression early on July 26, and Eugene dissipated at 1200 UTC that day. ## Preparations and impact When the storm first posed a threat to Mexico on July 24, several ports such as the port of Zihuatanejo and Manzanillo. In Acapulco, navigation classes were suspended. The Mexican navy was put on alert for a total distance of 945 mi (1,520 km) spanning from Acapulco to Guaymas. The Servicio Meteorologico Nacional issued navigation warnings for three coastal states. Hurricane Eugene caused extremely heavy rains in coastal parts of Mexico. Rainfall peaked at 20.68 in (525 mm) in Aqulia. The cyclone is responsible for the highest tropical cyclone rainfall in the Mexican states of Aguascalientes, Michoacán, Querétaro, Tlaxcala, and Zacatecas. Waves of 15 ft (4.6 m) were also reported. Hurricane Eugene brought widespread flooding, heavy rain, and high winds to Colima, which leveled homes and palm trees. Numerous poorly built homes lost their roofs, though well-built structures did not sustain any significant damage. In Puerto Vallarta, Hurricane Eugene was responsible for extensive damage to homes and for knocking out power to most of the city, which, along with surrounding areas, was also flooded with 1.5 ft (0.46 m) of water. In Manzanillo, the storm knocked down trees and beach huts and power was knocked out for most of the city. The Manzanillo Airport was closed for a few days after the airport's control tower was damaged. A highway from Manzanillo to Colima was closed to thru traffic because of the storm. Throughout the state of Colima, crop damage was severe and 200-300 homes were destroyed statewide. Several hundred miles further south, in Tecoman and Pueblo Capos, many homes and public buildings received damage. In Michoacán, the Grande River spilled over its banks, flooding five villages and leaving at least 10,000 people without transportation or communication services. Several landslides were reported along a number of main highways, making travel in the area difficult. Overall, crop damage in the state was severe. The hurricane destroyed about 15 sq. mi (39 km<sup>2</sup>) of fruit crop. A total of 18 people were injured during the storm. The storm destroyed 3,107 acres of mango trees and 5,662 acres of bananas were destroyed, with the worst crop damage occurring in Jalisco. Moreover, 540 acres of cocoa, 580 acres of papaya, and at least 382 acres of lemon trees were also destroyed by Eugene. Due to a combination of Eugene and Hurricane Greg, the region registered rainfall amounts four times the average. In addition, three people were killed; two of the deaths occurred in Michoacán. One man died in Venustiano Carrazano when a palm tree was blown over. Another man perished in Manzanillo when he was struck by a fallen palm tree. Over 5,000 people were left homeless (mostly from poor and rural areas), including 60 people in Manzanillo. Total crop damage amounted to \$142 million (1987 USD); fruit crop damage alone amounted to more than \$2.6 million (1987 USD). Damage to eight beach houses totaled to \$120,000. ## Aftermath During the aftermath of the storm, the navy, army, and local government devised a cleanup plan. Three hundred government employees (with guidance of the military) worked to clear debris. They quickly restored water and power service, and within a few days streets had been cleaned for most of the impacted area. Authorities in Manzanillo asked for medicine, clothing and food from nearby areas while the red cross treated the injured. Many of the displaced were evacuated to government offices. Within a few days after the storm, the ports of Manzanillo, Acapulco, Zihuatanejo and Lazaro Cardenas were reopened. The remnants of the storm later brought rain to the Rocky Mountains and the Southwestern United States. Eugene is one of three known July Pacific hurricane strikes, defined as when hurricane-force winds are estimated to have occurred over land. The other two hurricanes were Hurricane Calvin in 1993 and a hurricane that struck Baja California Sur in 1954. ## See also - Other storms of the same name - List of Pacific hurricanes - Hurricane Calvin (1993) – another rare landfalling July hurricane	[ "## Meteorological history", "## Preparations and impact", "## Aftermath", "## See also" ]	1,590	22,273
12,531,307	Idaho pocket gopher	1,161,327,746	Species of rodent in the family Geomyidae	[ "Endemic mammals of the United States", "Fauna of the Northwestern United States", "Least concern biota of the United States", "Mammals described in 1901", "Rodents of North America", "Taxonomy articles created by Polbot", "Thomomys" ]	The Idaho pocket gopher (Thomomys idahoensis) is a species of rodent in the family Geomyidae. It is rather small, with a lightly built skull. Its fur color varies through the body and between individuals. Found in the western United States, it inhabits savannas, shrubland, and grasslands. Individuals live alone in burrows, staying active year-round. Many aspects of its behavior and biology are not well understood. The species is classified as being of least-concern by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature. ## Taxonomy Thomomys idahoensis was first described by Clinton Hart Merriam in 1901. The type locality was given as Birch Creek, Idaho, and the type specimen was a male collected in 1890. It has no recent synonyms, although its two of its subspecies (T. i. idahoensis and T. i. pygmaeus) were once considered subspecies of Thomomys talpoides, the northern pocket gopher. It belongs to the genus Thomomys, which is distributed throughout western North America. This genus is part of the family Geomyidae. ### Subspecies Three subspecies are recognized: - T. i. idahoensis (Merriam, 1901) — high variance in size and coloration in different populations within the subspecies, found in eastern Idaho and nearby parts of Montana. The largest are found in the Snake River Plain. - T. i. pygmaeus (Merriam, 1901) — small and dark brown, found in southwestern Wyoming, southwestern Idaho, and northern Utah. It is the only subspecies found in Utah. - T. i. confinus (Davis, 1937) — found in western Montana. ## Description The size, weight, and hindfoot length of the Idaho pocket gopher are variable, although typically no more than 150 millimetres (5.9 in), 90 grams (3.2 oz), and 26 millimetres (1.0 in) for each, respectively. The color of the back ranges from yellowish brown with dark brown tipped hair to grayish brown or fully dark brown, fairly uniform overall. Most are dark gray around the nose. The ventral area is light gray and usually mixed with yellow and yellow-brown. The feet are whitish in appearance, with tail color varying between specimens. It is paler in winter than summer. The gopher's skull is small and lightly built, with incisors that are slender and not procumbent (inclined towards the lips). Its baculum (a bone present in the penis of many mammals) is rather long, from 17.8 to 23.4 millimetres (0.70 to 0.92 in), and the bullae (bony structures in the back of the skull) are large. It has either 56 or 58 chromosomes (the difference is due to Robertsonian translocation, a condition where a chromosome becomes attached to another). The ears are small. ## Distribution and habitat The Idaho pocket gopher is found in the western United States, from central Idaho to the southern and western parts of Montana. A separate population exists in southwestern Wyoming, southeastern Idaho, and northeastern Utah. It resides in savanna, shrubland, and grassland habitats. ## Behavior and ecology Individuals live in burrows, with each gopher creating and living in its own burrow. They remain active for the entire year, and store excavated soil in their burrows, which stays after the snow has melted. It is sympatric in certain areas with the northern pocket gopher, which it does not interbreed with. The former species prefers shallower, rockier soils, while the latter prefers deeper soil with fewer rocks. It is not known what the Idaho pocket gopher eats, although related species consume parts of plants from vegetation below and above ground level, mainly forbs and grasses. ## Reproduction and life cycle Little is known about the life history of this species, with no known data on breeding season and litter size. It most likely breeds in spring after the snow has melted. It is likely similar to the northern pocket gopher with regards to breeding behavior: the latter species gestates for 19 to 20 days and bears between four and seven offspring. Its lifespan is also unknown, although pocket gophers usually live for less than two years. ## Conservation There is no known existence of this species in protective areas or captivity. It is protected by the US state of Montana. The IUCN has evaluated it as being of least-concern, as no major threats are present, it has a large range, and its population is not declining fast enough to warrant a more threatened listing (although the population trend is unknown). It is listed in the Utah Wildlife Action Plan as a species greatly needing conservation.	[ "## Taxonomy", "### Subspecies", "## Description", "## Distribution and habitat", "## Behavior and ecology", "## Reproduction and life cycle", "## Conservation" ]	1,016	24,359
27,152,999	SM UB-50	1,172,001,420	German Type UB III submarine	[ "1917 ships", "German Type UB III submarines", "Ships built in Hamburg", "U-boats commissioned in 1917", "World War I submarines of Germany" ]	SM UB-50 was a German Type UB III submarine or U-boat in the German Imperial Navy (German: Kaiserliche Marine) during World War I. The U-boat was ordered on 20 May 1916. She was commissioned into the Pola Flotilla of the German Imperial Navy on 12 July 1917 as SM UB-50. The submarine conducted seven patrols and sank 40 ships during the war for a total loss of 97,922 gross register tons (GRT) and 16,499 tons. She operated as part of the Pola Flotilla based in Cattaro. UB-50 surrendered on 16 January 1919 with the remainder of the Pola Flotilla following an order by Admiral Reinhard Scheer to return to port. During her passage through the Straits of Gibraltar, she managed to sink the battleship HMS Britannia. UB-50 was later broken up at Swansea. ## Construction UB-50 was ordered by the German Imperial Navy on 20 May 1916. She was built by Blohm & Voss, Hamburg and following just under a year of construction, launched at Hamburg on 6 January 1917. UB-50 was commissioned later that same year under the command of Kapitänleutnant (Kptlt.) Franz Becker. Like all Type UB III submarines, UB-50 carried 10 torpedoes and was armed with an 8.8 cm (3.5 in) SK L/30 deck gun. UB-50 could carry a crew of up to 34 men and had a cruising range of 9,040 nautical miles (16,740 km; 10,400 mi). UB-50 had a displacement of 516 t (508 long tons) while surfaced and 651 t (641 long tons) when submerged. Her engines enabled her to travel at 13.6 knots (25.2 km/h; 15.7 mph) when surfaced and 8 knots (15 km/h; 9.2 mph) when submerged. ## Service history ### First patrol Soon after she left Pola, UB-50 encountered the William H. Crawford, a 1,593 GRT American sailing ship. It sank after an attack from the U-boat stopped her. Four days later, UB-50 sighted the 800 GRT British barge R.B.40. UB 50 launched a torpedo which instead hit the British tug towing the ship, the 121 GRT H.s.3. The tug sank, but the barge was not sunk. The following day, UB-50 found two Portuguese sailboats Correiro De Sines and Comizianes Da Graca at 32 GRT and 32 GRT respectively. They were sunk 6 nautical miles (11 km; 6.9 mi) north of Cape Sines. A day later, she found the Portuguese 196 GRT ship Sado, which she sank about 16 nautical miles (30 km; 18 mi) south of her prey the day before. Four days later, UB-50 finally encountered and sank a merchant, this being the 3,611 GRT British Polar Prince, carrying coal for Malta. Two days later, she sank the Fabian, a 2,246 GRT British steamer going to Liverpool, killing three. Later that day, she sank the Gioffredo Mameli, a 4,124 GRT ton Italian steamer carrying ore. The 2,464 GRT coal carrying Greek steamer Alkyon was attacked two days later by UB-50, sinking close off Oran. The UB 50 followed up with the sinking of the 1,670 GRT Norwegian steamer John Knudsen, killing one. Four days later, the 296 GRT Italian sailboat Ciro was scuttled after being hit by UB-50, the last ship she would sink before returning to base. ### Second patrol SM UB-50 began her second patrol with the sinking of the Marc Fraissinet, a 3,060 GRT French steamer carrying wood, munitions, and hay to Bizerte. It sank 15 nautical miles (28 km; 17 mi) north of Tabarca after being torpedoed by UB-50. Later that day UB 50 encountered the Senegal, an 845 GRT Italian steamer, sinking her off the coast of Algeria with no casualties. Three days after that, the Margram Abbey, a 4,367 GRT British steamer carrying coal, was found and torpedoed by UB-50. It was beached off the coast of Algeria, but the torpedo damage, which killed two, had wrecked the ship. UB 50 attacked the Antaeus, a 3,061 GRT British steamer, three days later off Cape Bon. There were no casualties, but the captain was taken prisoner. On the following day, UB 50 torpedoed the Amberton, a 4,556 GRT British steamer, but she was only damaged. Four days later, the submarine found her last target of her second patrol, the 2,774 GRT American steamer Rizal, which sank 9 nautical miles (17 km; 10 mi) from Cape Cavallo. ### Third patrol UB-50 started out her third patrol by finding and sinking the 96 GRT Italian sailboat S. Giuseppe B. off the coast of Africa. She sank the 8,293 GRT British steamer City of Lucknow two days later 50 nautical miles (93 km; 58 mi) northeast of the Cani Rocks. On Christmas Day, 1917, UB-50 sank the Sant’ Antonio, an 843 GRT Italian sailing vessel, by gunfire near Bizerte. On New Year's Day, 1918, the Egyptian Transport, a 4,648 GRT British steamer, was damaged during an attack by UB-50, which killed five men. It was later beached but refloated. Two days later, the Allanton, a 4,253 GRT British steamer carrying coal, was sunk by UB-50, which also sunk the Steelville, a 3,649 GRT British steamer also carrying coal later that day. Four days later, UB-50 torpedoed the Arab, a 4,191 GRT British steamer coal off the coast of Cape Serrat, killing 21. ### Fourth patrol UB-50's fourth patrol was very successful. In less than a month, she sank six vessels. The first victim was the 2,457 GRT French steamer Saint Jean Ii, which went down 22 March 1918 off Cap Bon. That same day, UB-50 managed to damage the British steamer Shadwell off Bizerta. Four days later UB-50 sank the 11,495 GRT Italian steamer Volturno off Bone (Annaba), Algeria. On 6 April, UB-50 sank the French vessel Madeleine Iii and on 11 April, she sank the Italian sailing ship Carmela G and the British vessel Highland Prince. ### Fifth patrol UB-50 began her fifth war patrol by damaging the 3,926 GRT British steamer Elswick Grange carrying coal off the coast of Oran, killing one. Two days later, she ran across the 3,152 GRT British steamer Mavisbrook carrying coal. She was torpedoed south east of Cabo de Gata, killing 18. On that same day, she came upon the 168 GRT Danish three-masted iron-hulled schooner Kirstine Jesen, sinking after being fired upon from UB-50's deck gun with no deaths. Two days later, the New Sweden, a 5,319 GRT Swedish steamer, was hit by UB-50 and sank. Two days later, UB-50 found the 180 GRT Spanish steamer Maria Pia, which sank with no casualties. Three days after that, the 117 GRT French sailboat Animal Lafont and 257 GRT Italian sailboat Santa Teresa were torpedoed by the U-boat with no casualties. ### Sixth patrol Shortly before her sixth patrol, Oberleutnant zur See Heinrich Kukat took over command from Kptlt. Becker. On her sixth patrol, UB-50 encountered the Imber, a 2,514 GRT British steamer and torpedoed her south of Cape St. Maria di Leuca, though she survived. Three days later, UB-50 sank the War Swallow, a 5,216 GRT British merchant ship carrying coal from the River Tyne to Port Said. Another three days passed before UB-50 found her next target, the Italian steamer Adria 1, a ship carrying cotton from Palermo to Tunis. It sank, but there were no deaths. Two days later, the 5,257 GRT British steamer Upada was torpedoed by UB-50 killing three, but was only damaged. UB-50 sank the Messidor, a 3,883 GRT British coal steamer two days later, sinking the ship and killing one. The following day, she torpedoed the Rutherglen, a 4,214 GRT British steam merchant carrying coal. That was followed by an attack on the Magellan, a 3,642 GRT British steamer on the following day. She sank with one man. The last ship sunk on the patrol was the Antonio S., a 175 GRT Italian sailboat sunk off the coast of Tunisia. ### Seventh patrol On 9 November 1918, two days before the Armistice with Germany, UB-50 sank the British battleship HMS Britannia. The Britannia was on a voyage to Gibraltar when she was torpedoed off Cape Trafalgar. After the initial explosion, the ship began listing ten degrees to port. A few minutes later, another explosion started a fire in a 9.2 in (230 mm) magazine, which resulted in a cordite explosion in the magazine. The Britannia stayed at 10-degrees for 21⁄2 hours before sinking. Its 16,350-tons made it the largest ship the U-boat ever sank, and the only one UB-50 would sink during her last patrol. ## Summary of raiding history	[ "## Construction", "## Service history", "### First patrol", "### Second patrol", "### Third patrol", "### Fourth patrol", "### Fifth patrol", "### Sixth patrol", "### Seventh patrol", "## Summary of raiding history" ]	2,156	5,164
902,898	USS Harding (DD-91)	1,134,779,352	American Wickes-class destroyer	[ "1918 ships", "Ships built in San Francisco", "Wickes-class destroyers" ]	USS Harding (DD-91) was a Wickes-class destroyer in the United States Navy during World War I. She was the first ship named in honor of Seth Harding. Launched in 1918, she undertook training exercises off the East Coast of the United States sporadically for several years. In 1919, she escorted a major transatlantic flight of Curtiss NC seaplane. Later that year, she was selected to be converted into a seaplane tender, and was then used to support naval aviator training off Naval Air Station Pensacola. She took one trip to Veracruz with emergency medical supplies, and was also on hand during aircraft bombing tests against decommissioned German ships, including the sinking of SMS Ostfriesland. She was decommissioned in 1922 and sold for scrapping in 1936. ## Design and construction Harding was one of 111 Wickes-class destroyers built by the United States Navy between 1917 and 1919. She, along with seven of her sisters, were constructed at Union Iron Works shipyards in San Francisco, California using specifications and detail designs drawn up by Bethlehem Steel. She had a standard displacement of 1,060 tonnes (1,040 long tons; 1,170 short tons) an overall length of 315 feet 5 inches (96.1 m), a beam of 31 feet 8 inches (9.7 m) and a draft of 8 feet 6 inches (2.6 m). On trials, Harding reached a speed of 35 knots (65 km/h). She was armed with four 4"/50 caliber guns, three .30 caliber machine guns, and twelve torpedo tubes 21-inch (533 mm) Mark 15 torpedoes. She had a regular crew complement of 122 officers and enlisted men. She was driven by two Curtis steam turbines powered by four Yarrow boilers. Specifics on Harding's performance are not known, but she was one of the group of Wickes-class destroyers known unofficially as the 'Liberty Type' to differentiate them from the destroyers constructed from detail designs drawn up by Bath Iron Works, which used Parsons or Westinghouse turbines. The 'Liberty' type destroyers deteriorated badly in service, and in 1929 all 60 of this group were retired by the Navy. Actual performance of these ships was far below intended specifications especially in fuel economy, with most only able to make 2,300 nautical miles (4,260 km) at 15 knots (28 km/h) instead of the design standard of 3,100 nautical miles (5,741 km) at 20 knots (37 km/h). The class also suffered problems with turning and weight. Harding was the first ship to be named for Seth Harding. The second Harding was a Gleaves-class destroyer, commissioned in 1943. ## Service history Harding was launched on 4 July 1918 from Union Iron Works. She was sponsored by the wife of George A. Armes, and embarked under the command of Commander Henry D. Cooke. On 3 February 1919, she was assigned to the United States Atlantic Fleet and sailed for Newport, Rhode Island via Santa Cruz, California. Transiting the Panama Canal, she arrived on 18 February. Two days later she moved to Boston, Massachusetts and stood out of that harbor on 21 February, to escort George Washington which was transporting President Woodrow Wilson from the Versailles Conference. Two days later she participated in ceremonies in Boston harbor celebrating the arrival of that ship. Next, she put in for repairs at Norfolk, Virginia until 8 March, when she left for fleet exercises near Cuba. Following this, Harding left for New York, arriving there on 14 April. On 1 May, she departed as part of a group of destroyers acting as a guide for a flight of Navy Curtiss NC seaplanes across the Atlantic Ocean. Harding provided searchlight illumination by night during the first part of the flight; NC-1 and NC-3 made forced landings near the Azores and Harding rendered assistance to NC-1 before it sank. NC-4, the remaining seaplane, arrived at Ponta Delgada 20 May and as she took off for the last leg of her journey, Harding got underway to provide radio compass signals at sea. After the seaplanes landed at Plymouth, England, to complete the flight on 31 May 1919, Harding visited Brest, France and the Azores before returning to Newport 18 June. For several months, Harding was based out of Newport and Norfolk on training exercises. After the end of World War I, the U.S. Navy began to convert surplus ships to support its growing seaplane tender program. Several steamers and minelayers were selected in 1919, but Harding was the only destroyer, because it was determined that she would require minimal modifications. Following this success, and as aircraft carrier designs advanced, more ships were designed specifically to support naval aviation. Fourteen Clemson-class destroyers were converted to seaplane tenders in 1938 when it was determined that aircraft production was outpacing the development of these ships. During the conversion of Harding, her three .30 caliber machine guns were removed and her crew complement was reduced to 100 officers and enlisted men. Her torpedo tubes may also have been removed. On 13 December 1919, she reported to the Philadelphia Navy Yard for conversion to a seaplane tender. She completed the conversion at Charleston Navy Yard and on 20 May 1920, she sailed for duty at Pensacola Naval Air Station. Immediately after this, though, Harding was loaded with medical supplies from the American Red Cross and was ordered to Veracruz, Mexico, where an outbreak of bubonic plague necessitated serum and other supplies. She reached Veracruz on 9 June 1920 and unloaded her supplies. She then steamed for Pensacola, Florida, stopping at Tampico on the way, and arrived in Florida on 13 June. At Pensacola, Harding was assigned to a seaplane pilot training program. She remained there until 4 August 1920, after which she operated in the Caribbean area tending seaplanes until 23 February 1921. She stopped briefly at Philadelphia before heading to Hampton Roads to support bombing tests on surrendered German ships, leaving Norfolk on 21 June. She was present during the bombing tests on SM U-117 and remained assigned to the tests until the sinking of the German battleship SMS Ostfriesland on 21 July 1921. Harding was detached from this duty the next day. Harding subsequently conducted training exercises out of Newport and other East Coast ports until 27 December 1921, when she arrived at Charleston, South Carolina. Remaining there until 3 April 1922, she sailed to Philadelphia where she decommissioned 1 July 1922. Harding was then sold for scrap on 29 September 1936, to Schiavone-Bonomo Corporation in New York City.	[ "## Design and construction", "## Service history" ]	1,464	18,562
2,363,414	Minnesota State Highway 610	1,094,200,220	State highway in Minnesota, United States	[ "Freeways in the United States", "State highways in Minnesota", "Transportation in Anoka County, Minnesota", "Transportation in Hennepin County, Minnesota", "U.S. Route 10" ]	Minnesota State Highway 610 (MN 610) is an east–west freeway in the Twin Cities region of Minnesota. The freeway connects Interstate 94 (I-94), County Road 81 (CR 81), and CR 130 in northern Hennepin County to U.S. Highway 10 (US 10) in southern Anoka County. MN 610 crosses the Mississippi River on the Richard P. Braun Bridge between suburban Brooklyn Park and Coon Rapids. The highway is 12.3 miles (19.8 km) long. The freeway was authorized in 1975, and most of the sections were completed by 2000 (7.2 mi or 11.6 km); the 2.6-mile (4.2 km) section westward to CR 81 in Maple Grove was completed and opened in 2011. The Minnesota Department of Transportation (MnDOT) opened the last segment extending to I-94 on December 9, 2016. ## Route description MN 610 starts at a partial interchange with I-94/US 52 in Maple Grove; eastbound traffic on I-94/southbound US 52 can exit to MN 610, and westbound traffic on MN 610 merges onto westbound I-94/northbound US 52. From there, the freeway continues eastward through an interchange with Maple Grove Parkway, and it turns southeasterly to its interchange with CR 81 in Maple Grove. From this point, the freeway runs eastbound through the northern suburbs of the Twin Cities. MN 610 is four lanes in width and has several interchanges with local streets and county roads before expanding to six lanes and meeting the northern terminus of MN 252 on the west bank of the Mississippi River. After MN 252 interchange, the MN 610 freeway turns to the northeast and crosses the Mississippi River on the dual-span, eight-lane Richard P. Braun Bridge. Across the river, the freeway runs along the south side of the Coon Rapids Dam Regional Park before curving around to the east. It continues through suburban Coon Rapids as a six-lane freeway to a partial interchange with northbound MN 47. This interchange is used by eastbound traffic transitioning to westbound US 10. The final section east to US 10 in Blaine is four lanes. The second interchange along this section of the freeway with University Avenue is used to connect with MN 47 southbound. The last interconnected interchange is at the eastern terminus as traffic defaults onto US 10 eastbound. Legally, MN 610 is defined as Route 333 in the Minnesota Statutes § 161.115(264). The highway is not marked with this legislative route number along the actual highway. The entire route of MN 610 has been listed on the National Highway System, a system of roads important to the nation's economy, defense, and mobility. ## History MN 610 was proposed in the middle of the 1960s as a "North Crosstown" freeway. Studies for the highway started in the 1970s. The highway was first authorized on June 2, 1975. The westbound span of the Mississippi River bridge was built in 1985, and, along with the existing freeway east of MN 252, was opened in October 1987. Officials in Minnesota proposed tolls as a means to fund the construction on the highway in 1989. Local officials supported the highway construction, but opposed the tolling plans. West of MN 252, the freeway construction started in June 1997. The freeway was opened to traffic in 2000, with a traffic light at the intersection of MN 610 and US 169 initially. Construction on the second bridge over the Mississippi River for eastbound traffic started in 1999, to be completed in 2002. Construction of the portion between US 169 and CR 81 was estimated to cost \$48 million in 2010, of which \$27 million is being funded by federal stimulus money. The project began in October 2009, and it was scheduled to be completed in July 2011. The remainder of the highway to I-94 was not on a MnDOT schedule to be built. The new western terminus was to be located at Elm Creek Boulevard in Maple Grove. The freeway continued westward from this point in the median of CR 81, but this section was to be an unused stub end past the ramps that connect to CR 81 During the 2011 Minnesota state government shutdown, construction on MN 610 was halted for 20 days. Until work stopped on July 1, 2011, a ribbon-cutting ceremony had been scheduled to open the new freeway section on July 12. The ribbon cutting ceremony was on August 17 and the road opened on August 19. MN 610 was originally planned to extend west to I-94 in Maple Grove, and the freeway's mile markers reflected these plans, with the zero point calibrated to this terminus. A portion of this section is very unusual; it is routed down the middle of the median of CR 81 in Maple Grove, forming a roadway within a roadway. On April 4, 2016, construction started on an interchange with Maple Grove Parkway. The final segment to I-94 opened on December 9, 2016. ## Future MnDOT officials have plans to extend MN 610 westward to connect to CR 30 in Corcoran, and officials are working to secure funding to build the missing ramps at the I-94/US 52 interchange. ## Exit list ## See also	[ "## Route description", "## History", "## Future", "## Exit list", "## See also" ]	1,155	27,494
1,375,614	Tapeworm (band)	1,166,126,412	Nine Inch Nails-associated side project	[ "American rock music groups", "American supergroups", "Musical groups disestablished in 2004", "Musical groups established in 1995", "Rock music supergroups" ]	Tapeworm was an American side project of Nine Inch Nails which existed in various forms from 1995 to roughly 2004. Tapeworm never released any recordings, but was frequently referenced in interviews. The band started as a side-project between Nine Inch Nails frontman Trent Reznor and live-band members Danny Lohner and Charlie Clouser. Through the years the group expanded and evolved numerous times to include artists such as Maynard James Keenan, Atticus Ross, and Alan Moulder, effectively turning the project into a supergroup. After many years of rumors and expected release dates, Reznor announced the end of the project in 2004. ## History Tapeworm's genesis occurred during Nine Inch Nails recording sessions following The Downward Spiral tours circa 1996. While working on Nine Inch Nails material, Danny Lohner and Charlie Clouser, both Nine Inch Nails live band members, would often come up with ideas that Reznor felt did not fit in with his vision for the band. Tapeworm developed as an outlet for this material—a democratic group in which Lohner and Clouser could act as equals with Reznor, as opposed to Nine Inch Nails, in which Reznor maintained sole artistic control. As time went on, Tapeworm evolved into a supergroup, with guest musicians such as Maynard James Keenan, Page Hamilton, and Phil Anselmo recording material ostensibly to be used by the group. In 1999 Lohner reported that three tracks had been completed, and described the various materials featuring Anselmo as "heavy NIN-meets-Pantera" and "mellow Pink Floyd The Wall-type songs", and the material featuring Keenan as "psychedelic, groove-oriented verses and anthemic choruses." Tommy Victor recorded material with the band as well, and later told Rolling Stone that the continued delays on Tapeworm contributed to his decision to take a hiatus from music, as well as accusing Reznor of giving his Tapeworm guitar contribution to Marilyn Manson. In a statement issued to MTV News, Reznor reflected on his collaborations with Keenan: > It has been an interesting experiment for Maynard and I to peek around in each other's heads, shining flashlights in some shadowy corners ... We've realized we're each in somewhat similar places in our respective lives and outlook, so it's been great to collaborate on that level. By 2001, long-time Nine Inch Nails collaborator Alan Moulder had tracked "more than an album's worth" of demos. Moulder further described the rough tracks as "very unlike The Fragile" and were a deviation from most Nine Inch Nails material. By 2002, Clouser had left Nine Inch Nails and was no longer associated with Tapeworm. The group, which now consisted of Reznor, Lohner, Keenan, and Atticus Ross, booked time in a recording studio in hopes of producing an album. An official website, tapeworm.net (now offline), was created to showcase pictures from various recording sessions, including images of Josh Freese behind a drum kit. In September 2003, Lohner told Kerrang! magazine that the album was "ready to mix" but had been held up by legal issues stemming from conflicts between Reznor and Keenan's record labels. The Tapeworm material was reported numerous times as completion neared, most notably by MTV News and Kerrang!, and was slated to be released on Reznor's Nothing Records label. Initial recording sessions for the band were staged in the Nothing Studios in New Orleans, though were later reported as being moved to Southern Tracks Studios in Atlanta, Georgia. In 2004, Reznor announced that Tapeworm was "dead for the foreseeable future", citing label issues, Keenan's A Perfect Circle obligations, and Reznor's own waning enthusiasm for the project. Reznor summarized the project's demise by saying "the bottom line is this: if the music had been great, all of this probably could have been worked out." During an interview with digg founder Kevin Rose in 2009, Reznor further commented that he thought the material was not as good as could have been given his and Keenan's respective backgrounds and it was unlikely that the material would ever surface, but went on to say that he would like for the two of them to work together again at some point in the future. ## Contributors Musicians who have been cited as recording material for Tapeworm, in alphabetical order: - Dimebag Darrell (Pantera, Damageplan) - Phil Anselmo (Pantera, Down, Superjoint Ritual) - Charlie Clouser (Nine Inch Nails) - Jerome Dillon (Nine Inch Nails) - Robin Finck (Nine Inch Nails, Guns N' Roses) - Josh Freese (Nine Inch Nails, A Perfect Circle, Devo, The Vandals) - Toni Halliday (Curve) - Page Hamilton (Helmet) - Maynard James Keenan (Tool, A Perfect Circle, Puscifer) - Danny Lohner (Nine Inch Nails, A Perfect Circle, Black Light Burns, Skrew) - Alan Moulder (producer) - Richard Patrick (Nine Inch Nails, Filter, Army of Anyone) - Trent Reznor (Nine Inch Nails, How to Destroy Angels) - Atticus Ross (Nine Inch Nails, 12 Rounds, Error, How to Destroy Angels) - Erik Schrody (House of Pain) - Tommy Victor (Prong, Danzig, Ministry) - Chris Vrenna (Nine Inch Nails, Stabbing Westward, Die Warzau) - Alexander Wilke-Steinhof (Atari Teenage Riot) ## Songs Only two songs, "Vacant" and "Potions," have ever been identified as Tapeworm songs. Neither has been released, though cover versions by Maynard James Keenan's other projects have surfaced. The first, "Vacant" was initially conceived during the Tapeworm sessions; the track being written by Lohner and re-arranged by Clouser, with lyrics and melody by Keenan and chorus and backing vocals by Reznor. The song was first performed live by A Perfect Circle throughout their 2001 tour. MTV reported that Reznor was apparently not happy that Keenan performed the song: "I have to admit I find it mildly irritating for "Vacant" to debut in this fashion before feeling it has been properly realized," Shortly after the dissolution of the Tapeworm project, Keenan released a reworked version on A Perfect Circle's 2004 cover album Emotive under the title "Passive". Another side-project of Maynard James Keenan, Puscifer, released an album titled "C" Is for (Please Insert Sophomoric Genitalia Reference HERE) with a song, "Potions (Deliverance Mix)," which had writing credits given to Trent Reznor. In response to rumors that Keenan released a Tapeworm song without any changes made, a blog was posted on the home page of the main Puscifer website on November 18, 2009 saying that: > Ok. Let's use an APC album as an example. eMOTIVe. APC did a song called "Imagine." If you view the credits for the song you'll find various bits of info. Generally speaking the writers name appears in parenthesis next to the track. The performer info may or may not be listed in the album credits. If you see performer info it may be broken down to instruments. For example ... "Billy Howerdel - Guitars and Back-up Vocals. Josh Freese - Drums and percussion, etc... Or it may be a given that the people who performed on this project/album/track are the band in question. So it will just say "B Howerdel - guitars, Josh Freese - drums, M J Keenan - vocals, etc. ... But Writing credits are different. Next to "Imagine" you'll see the name John Lennon. Because he wrote the song. You may want to sit down for the next bit. Ready? John Lennon didn't perform or sing or play on the APC version of "Imagine." He didn't produce it, direct it, co-produce it, or grab us Latte's during the recording of it. Why? Because he's dead. he just wrote it. And we performed a version of it. If you visit the Project Credits of this site now, you'll start to see what we mean. Hope that helps. Later Keenan delved further into the issue on his Twitter account only nine hours after the initial blog had been posted. Keenan essentially confirmed the song's origins in the Tapeworm project while also confirming that the song was covered and released by Puscifer in the same fashion as A Perfect Circle did with "Passive," saying the following: > [To] conclude if [I] may. If [you] HATE Potions, hate US not Trent. We wrote it together, but PUSCIFER produced it. It was my wedding present [to] him.	[ "## History", "## Contributors", "## Songs" ]	1,901	34,709
61,597,386	Squatting in the Netherlands	1,166,276,681	Occupation of unused land or derelict buildings in the Netherlands	[ "Anarcho-punk", "DIY culture", "Housing in the Netherlands", "Social centres in the Netherlands", "Squats in the Netherlands", "Squatting in the Netherlands" ]	Squatting in the Netherlands (Dutch: kraken) is the occupation of unused or derelict buildings or land without the permission of the owner. The modern squatters movement (Dutch: kraakbeweging) began in the 1960s in the Netherlands. By the 1980s, it had become a powerful anarchist social movement which regularly came into conflict with the state, particularly in Amsterdam with the Vondelstraat and coronation riots. Some squats in cities have successfully legalised into still extant social centres and housing cooperatives such as ACU in Utrecht, the Grote Broek in Nijmegen, the Landbouwbelang in Maastricht, ORKZ in Groningen, the Poortgebouw in Rotterdam and Vrankrijk in Amsterdam. There have also been squats in the countryside such as Fort Pannerden and the Ruigoord village. Squatting was criminalised in October 2010. Between then and November 2014, 529 people were arrested. Some recent high-profile evictions have included ADM, the Tabakspanden and De Vloek. The social movement continues in diminished form, with squatting still being used by certain groups, for example the migrant collective We Are Here. ## Beginnings During the Great Depression of the 1930s, many workers lost their jobs and were unable to pay rent. This resulted in people occupying houses in order to force a rental agreement, although they did not see themselves as a housing movement. Their legal justification was based on a 1914 decision by the Supreme Court which ruled that in order to show residential use in a property, all that was needed was a chair, a table and a bed. Squatting in the Netherlands in its modern form has its origins in the 1960s, when the country was suffering a housing shortage whilst at the same time many properties stood derelict. Property owners kept buildings empty in order to speculate and drive the market price upwards. As youth protest movements burgeoned, in particular Provo movement, squatting became seen as a political, anti-speculation protest. Marking the emergence of a squatters movement (Dutch: kraakbeweging) which focused upon collective action rather than individual initiatives, the term for squatting changed from "secret occupation" (Dutch: clandestien bezetten) to "cracking" (Dutch: kraken) and squatters became known as krakers. As well as mobilising the 1914 decision, squatters employed a 1971 Supreme Court ruling that the concept of domestic peace (Dutch: huisvrede) required permission from the current occupant for anybody else to enter a property. This meant that property owners were required to evict squatters by taking them to court, instead of forcing entry. This came about after squatters in Nijmegen were evicted from a property and prosecuted by the owner, who claimed that since the house was for sale it was in use. The squatters were convicted of an offence but appealed the decision and ultimately the Supreme Court ruled that a "on the basis of normal language use, 'a house in use' can only mean 'a house in use as a house'". ## Consolidation The squatting movement took on an increasingly anarchist tone during the 1980s. In the Vondelstraat Riots, police moved to evict residents from a squatted building on the corner of Vondelstraat in Amsterdam, but it was immediately reoccupied and barricades erected. Street fights ensued between riot police and the squatters, with the building only being cleared when a military tank demolished the street barricades. Queen Beatrix's coronation later that year saw more riots when squatters chanted "No home, no coronation" (Dutch: Geen woning, geen kroning). In Groningen the eviction of the WNC (Wolters-Noordhoff Complex) squat in 1990 led to 137 arrests and the mayor called it war. Some squats have gone through a process of legalisation, in which the building becomes owned or rented by the former squatters. In Amsterdam, the city council bought 200 buildings in the early 1980s, handing them over to housing associations which then made contracts with individual tenants. The Poortgebouw in Rotterdam was squatted in 1980 and two years later the inhabitants agreed to pay rent to the city council, forming a housing cooperative of 30 people with a bar and alternative venue on the ground floor. In Amsterdam, OCCII, OT301 and Vrankrijk are all examples of legalised social centres. In the 2010s, Vrankrijk hosts mainly punk and queer parties. The NDSM former shipyard zone was recognised as a cultural hotspot and breeding place, successfully institutionalising in the early 2000s. The Grote Broek in Nijmegen was squatted in 1984 and legalised in the 2000s. The ACU in Utrecht was squatted in 1976 and bought by the squatters in 1994. It provides a venue space for benefit concerts, an anarchist library, a bar and a vegan restaurant. ORKZ, or the Old Roman Catholic Hospital (Dutch: Oude Rooms-Katholieke Ziekenhuis), is located in Groningen on the Verlengde Hereweg. The hospital was squatted in August 1979 and legalised in 1986. As of 2004, 250 people lived there in 235 apartments. Another 150 people made use of the ateliers. A derelict parking lot was taken over and made into a guerilla garden. Herbs and vegetables were grown in raised beds, fruit bushes were planted and an apiary was set up. The garden was legalised by the city council in 2012. There are also squats which refused or were unable to legalise such as De Blauwe Aanslag in The Hague, Het Slaakhuis in Rotterdam, ADM in Amsterdam and the Landbouwbelang in Maastricht. The Landbouwbelang is a former grain silo beside the Meuse (Dutch: Maas) river which houses 15 people and provides space for art exhibitions, music events and various festivals. Vrijplaats Koppenhinksteeg in Leiden was occupied in 1968 and eventually evicted in 2010. The complex, which included a bar, a freeshop, a library meeting rooms and offices for a group supporting illegal migrants, had been negotiating with the city council in order to legalise its activities until the talks stalled in 2008. There are also some squats in the countryside such as a squatted village called Ruigoord near Amsterdam. Fort Pannerden (a military fort built in 1869 near to Nijmegen) was occupied in 2000 by people concerned about the state of the building. It was evicted on November 8, 2006, by a massive police operation which used military machinery and cost one million euros. The fort was then re-squatted and the occupiers discussed a settlement with the local council and Staatsbosbeheer, the owner. ## Developments In 1987, the law was changed so that an owner could take anonymous squatters to court, rather than being required to know their names. A law was passed in 1994 which made it illegal to squat a building which had been empty for less than one year. After this, it became conventional for squatters to call the police after occupying a building and if the police were satisfied that the building had been empty for more than a year and that the squatters were living there (as evidenced by having a chair, a table and a bed) then the owner would need to make a court case to regain possession. Thus, squatting became a tactic to provide housing and also to fight speculation, conserve monumental buildings, provide groups with spaces and so on. An example of conservational squatting is Huize Ivicke in Wassenaar, a building which the owner refuses to repair. The villa was placed on a list of the most endangered monuments in Europe and it was squatted in 2018 by people wanting to prevent further dilapidation. Squatting in the Netherlands, particularly in Amsterdam, became a rather institutionalised process, although the squatters movement continued to evolve with one development being the occupation of large office buildings by refugee collectives. One such group, We Are Here was established in 2012 and the collective had squatted over 30 buildings and parks by the end of 2017. In a different development, squatting was used as a tool to contest the construction of the Betuweroute, a freight railway route from Rotterdam to Germany. GroenFront! [nl] and other environmental protestors occupied several houses due to be demolished. This included a failed attempt to squat a building in Angeren. ## Criminalisation Squatting in the Netherlands became a criminal offence on 1 October 2010. In 2016, a report was published by the Dutch Government which stated that between October 2010 and November 2014, 529 people had been arrested for the new crime of squatting, in 213 separate incidents. Of these arrested, 210 received convictions and 42 were found not guilty. Following criminalisation, in Amsterdam an estimated 330 squats were evicted in two years. Contested evictions included ADM, the Tabakspanden on Spuistraat, the Valreep and Villa Friekens. ADM was a former shipyard squatted for 21 years before its eventual eviction in 2019. Around 130 people lived there in buildings, boats and temporary structures. De Vloek social centre in The Hague was evicted in September 2015 after long political struggle. There were seven arrests. In Utrecht, the disused Amsterdamsestraatweg Water Tower was occupied repeatedly in protest at the criminalisation of squatting. In 2019, a resquat was unsuccessful. ## Table of notable squats ## See also - Squatting in Australia - Squatting in England and Wales - Squatting in the United States	[ "## Beginnings", "## Consolidation", "## Developments", "## Criminalisation", "## Table of notable squats", "## See also" ]	2,132	10,788
1,157,492	Bugchasing	1,173,506,378	Seeking HIV infection through sex	[ "HIV/AIDS", "LGBT slang", "Self-harm", "Sexual health", "Suicide methods" ]	Bugchasing (alternatively bug chasing) is the particularly rare practice of intentionally seeking human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection through sexual activity. Bugchasers—those who eroticize HIV—are a subculture of barebackers, men who have unprotected sex with other men. It is statistically rare for men to self-identify as bugchasers, and many of those who do never participate in sexual acts that can lead to HIV infection. There are some explanations for the behavior and fantasies of bugchasing, ranging from sexual excitement at the idea of HIV-positive status, to finding a shared sense of community with other HIV-positive people, to suicidality. By 2003, the concept had entered the public consciousness after Rolling Stone published "Bug Chasers: The men who long to be HIV+", an article—since widely disputed for its statistical methods—describing the practice. It may have existed since the AIDS crisis began. It has since been mentioned in or the focus of pieces of media and popular culture. As of 2021, bugchasing behavior still persists as a niche behavior, in spite of the widespread availability of effective PrEP and HAART treatments that protect against HIV transmission in otherwise unprotected sex. ## Origins The precise origins of bugchasing—the pursuit of HIV infection—are largely unknown, with its inception located either at the beginning of the AIDS crisis or closer to the 1990s. But it existed by at least 1997, when Newsweek published an article about the subject, followed by Rolling Stone in 2003. The Rolling Stone article, "Bug Chasers: The men who long to be HIV+", written by Gregory Freeman, was the first to bring widespread concern and attention to the practice. That article claimed that around 25 percent of all new HIV infections in the United States (10,000 of 45,000) were linked to bugchasing activity. Freeman's statistics erroneously counted all men who engaged in barebacking, regardless of motivation or attempts to seek out HIV infection, as bugchasers. Authorities that Freeman cited have since claimed he fabricated their statements, and his data have been widely criticized. In the estimation of sexuality studies scholar Octavio R. Gonzalez, Freeman's article was perhaps most responsible for bringing the term bugchasing to a mainstream audience, and public interest in and understanding of the practice increased following Freeman's article. ## Motivation and activity Bugchasers are men who have sex with men (MSM) who eroticize HIV infection, particularly through engaging in online sexual fantasies of being infected with HIV, or who actually pursue infection with the virus. Since little is understood about the practice in general, the motivations for developing bugchasing identity and behavior remain largely undefined. However, at least four motivations have been suggested. First, some men may become bugchasers as a result of fear of HIV infection, which had previously altered their sexual behavior, such as men abstaining from sex entirely, committing to one partner, or using preventative measures such as condoms. In this way, bugchasers may view their actions as empowering, both sexually and personally; the transformation of bugchasers from HIV-negative to HIV-positive status is understood by the group as masculinizing, which grants them additional status. Second, some men view HIV-positive status as erotic or sexually stimulating. It may be a subject of pleasure or the ultimate taboo to overcome. Third, bugchasers may understand HIV-positive status (or its pursuit) as granting a shared identity and sense of community. And fourth, bugchasing has been described as a political device and action against social norms (such as those tied to heteronormativity) through transgression of—or rebellion against—popular sentiments about gay life. There is a fifth possible motivation—suicide—but this remains an unclear or imprecise explanation for bugchasing behavior. Bugchasing is a rare sexual taboo. It is described as "statistically rare". Many self-identified bugchasers do not deliberately seek out sex with HIV-positive people, and their identities frequently do not align with their actions. Many men who self-identify as bugchasers never attempt to become HIV-positive. There are many self-identified bugchasers on the internet, using sites such as Twitter and (formerly) Tumblr. The widespread availability of pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP), capable of preventing HIV infection in otherwise unprotected sexual encounters, has not resulted in the disappearance of bugchasing. Some men incorporate taking PrEP alongside bugchasing behavior, others experiment with bugchasing while on PrEP, and others view it as emasculating and refuse to use it. ## Group dynamics While barebacking and bugchasing are both centered in risky sexual activity, they are distinct activities. Bugchasing is a subculture of barebacking, and intent is a distinguishing characteristic between bugchasers and barebackers: most barebackers do not intend to be infected (or infect others) with HIV, which is the apparent focus of bugchasing behavior. In the view of ethnologist Jamie García-Iglesias and researcher Tim Dean, bugchasers circulate several metaphors that distinguish their identity from other MSM communities: insemination, pregnancy, and paternity. According to Dean and the psychological researcher Hugh Klein, since HIV is able to spread and reproduce through the sexual activity belonging to bugchasing, its cultural dimensions—institutions, norms, practices, and forms of kinship that, taken together, form a community situated around HIV status—may be transmitted through viral infection, similar to cultural propagation through birth and paternity. It is this sense of community—at once built but also destroyed by the consequences of HIV infection—that is described by García-Iglesias as both "queer world-making and world-shattering". Similarly, bugchasing spaces may reinforce certain notions of masculinity. The sex researcher Ellie Reynolds writes that HIV-positive men who purposely seek out others to infect with HIV—known as giftgivers—are constructed as hypermasculine through a penetrative sexual role, while bugchasers are understood to lack masculinity: penetrated (rather than penetrating), having their rectums described with words relating to women such as "pussy" and "mancunt", they occupy a feminine role in the social order. Whether giftgivers continue to exist is uncertain, given what García-Iglesias calls their "statistically rare" population and "biological implausib[ility] (on the basis of widespread successful treatment)". ## Media and culture American filmmaker Louise Hogarth released a documentary, The Gift, in the same year the Rolling Stone piece was published. It focused on narratives of bugchasers, emphasizing the self-reported positive aspects of HIV infection. Three years later, Ricky Dyer, an HIV-positive man, released a documentary through BBC3 entitled "I love being HIV+", suggesting that most bugchasing activity is simply fantasy. In 2009, gay playwright Erik Patterson ran the tragicomedy He Asked For It, dealing with bugchasing and HIV-positive status in contemporary Hollywood. Bugchasing was also a part of the show Queer as Folk. In 2012, Canadian Steven Boone was tried and convicted of three counts each of attempted murder and aggravated sexual assault after having unprotected sex with four men after previously contracting HIV. A self-described "poz vampire"—the word poz referring to acquiring HIV—he was immersed in bugchasing culture. His convictions on attempted murder have since been quashed after appealing to the Court of Appeal for Ontario, while the aggravated sexual assault convictions remain. The appeals court said it was not proven in the original case that he intended to kill his sexual partners; it offered the government the possibility of a new trial. Other cases of people being charged for the willful transmission of HIV have been reported.	[ "## Origins", "## Motivation and activity", "## Group dynamics", "## Media and culture" ]	1,593	44,333
1,944,832	Heinrich event	1,172,816,785	Large groups of icebergs traverse the North Atlantic.	[ "1988 in science", "Geology of the Atlantic Ocean", "Historical geology", "Icebergs", "Paleoclimatology", "Pleistocene events" ]	A Heinrich event is a natural phenomenon in which large groups of icebergs break off from the Laurentide Ice Sheet and traverse the Hudson Strait into the North Atlantic. First described by marine geologist Hartmut Heinrich, they occurred during five of the last seven glacial periods over the past 640,000 years. Heinrich events are particularly well documented for the last glacial period but notably absent from the penultimate glaciation. The icebergs contained rock mass that had been eroded by the glaciers, and as they melted, this material was dropped to the sea floor as ice rafted debris (abbreviated to "IRD") forming deposits called Heinrich layers. The icebergs' melting caused vast quantities of fresh water to be added to the North Atlantic. Such inputs of cold and fresh water may well have altered the density-driven, thermohaline circulation patterns of the ocean, and often coincide with indications of global climate fluctuations. Various mechanisms have been proposed to explain the cause of Heinrich events, most of which imply instability of the massive Laurentide Ice Sheet, a continental ice sheet covering most of northeastern North America during the last glacial period. Other northern hemisphere ice sheets were potentially involved as well, such as the (Fennoscandic and Iceland/Greenland). However, the initial cause of this instability is still debated. ## Description The strict definition of Heinrich events is the climatic event causing the IRD layer observed in marine sediment cores from the North Atlantic: a massive collapse of northern hemisphere ice shelves and the consequent release of a prodigious volume of icebergs. By extension, the name "Heinrich event" can also refer to the associated climatic anomalies registered at other places around the globe, at approximately the same time periods. The events are rapid: they last probably less than a millennium, a duration varying from one event to the next, and their abrupt onset may occur in mere years. Heinrich events are clearly observed in many North Atlantic marine sediment cores covering the last glacial period; the lower resolution of the sedimentary record before this point makes it more difficult to deduce whether they occurred during other glacial periods in the Earth's history. Some researchers identify the Younger Dryas event as a Heinrich event, which would make it event H0 (table, right). Heinrich events appear related to some, but not all, of the cold periods preceding the rapid warming events known as Dansgaard-Oeschger (D-O) events, which are best recorded in the NGRIP Greenland ice core. However, difficulties in synchronising marine sediment cores and Greenland ice cores to the same time scale raised questions as to the accuracy of that statement. ## Potential climatic fingerprint of Heinrich events Heinrich's original observations were of six layers in ocean sediment cores with extremely high proportions of rocks of continental origin, "lithic fragments", in the 180 μm to 3 mm (1⁄8 in) size range. The larger size fractions cannot be transported by ocean currents, and are thus interpreted as having been carried by icebergs or sea ice which broke off glaciers or ice shelves, and dumped debris onto the sea floor as the icebergs melted. Geochemical analyses of the IRD can provide information about the origin of these debris: mostly the large Laurentide Ice Sheet then covering North America for Heinrich events 1, 2, 4 and 5, and on the contrary, European ice sheets for the minor events 3 and 6. The signature of the events in sediment cores varies considerably with distance from the source region. For events of Laurentide origin, there is a belt of IRD at around 50° N, known as the Ruddiman belt, expanding some 3,000 km (1,900 mi) from its North American source towards Europe, and thinning by an order of magnitude from the Labrador Sea to the European end of the present iceberg route (Grousset et al., 1993). During Heinrich events, huge volumes of fresh water flow into the ocean. For Heinrich event 4, based on a model study reproducing the isotopic anomaly of oceanic oxygen 18, the fresh water flux has been estimated to 0.29±0.05 Sverdrup with a duration of 250±150 years, equivalent to a fresh water volume of about 2.3 million cubic kilometres (0.55 million cubic miles) or a 2 ± 1 m (6 ft 7 in ± 3 ft 3 in) sea-level rise. Several geological indicators fluctuate approximately in time with these Heinrich events, but difficulties in precise dating and correlation make it difficult to tell whether the indicators precede or lag Heinrich events, or in some cases whether they are related at all. Heinrich events are often marked by the following changes: - Increased δ<sup>18</sup>O of the northern (Nordic) seas and East Asian stalactites (speleothems), which by proxy suggests falling global temperature (or rising ice volume) - Decreased oceanic salinity, due to the influx of fresh water - Decreased sea surface temperature estimates off the West African coast through biochemical indicators known as alkenones (Sachs 2005) - Warming of the subsurface ocean in the subpolar North Atlantic - Changes in sedimentary disturbance (bioturbation) caused by burrowing animals - Flux in planktonic isotopic make-up (changes in δ<sup>13</sup>C, decreased δ<sup>18</sup>O) - Pollen indications of cold-loving pines replacing oaks on the North American mainland (Grimm et al. 1993) - Decreased foraminiferal abundance – which due to the pristine nature of many samples cannot be attributed to preservational bias and has been related to reduced salinity - Increased terrigenous runoff from the continents, measured near the mouth of the Amazon River - Increased grain size in wind-blown loess in China, suggesting stronger winds - Changes in relative Thorium-230 abundance, reflecting variations in ocean current velocity - Increased deposition rates in the northern Atlantic, reflected by an increase in continentally derived sediments (lithics) relative to background sedimentation - Expansion of grass and shrubland across large areas of Europe The global extent of these records illustrates the dramatic impact of Heinrich events. ## Unusual Heinrich events H3 and H6 do not share such a convincing suite of Heinrich event symptoms as events H1, H2, H4, and H5, which has led some researchers to suggest that they are not true Heinrich events. That would make Gerard C. Bond's suggestion of Heinrich events fitting into a 7,000-year cycle ("Bond events") suspect. Several lines of evidence suggest that H3 and H6 were somehow different from the other events. - Lithic peaks: a far smaller proportion of lithics (3,000 vs. 6,000 grains per gram) is observed in H3 and H6, which means that the role of the continents in providing sediments to the oceans was relatively lower. - Foram dissolution: Foraminifera tests appear to be more eroded during H3 and H6 (Gwiazda et al., 1996). That may indicate an influx of nutrient-rich, hence corrosive, Antarctic Bottom Water by a reconfiguration of oceanic circulation patterns. - Ice provenance: Icebergs in H1, H2, H4, and H5 are relatively enriched in Paleozoic "detrital carbonate" originating from the Hudson Strait region; while H3 and H6 icebergs carried less of this distinctive material - Ice rafted debris distribution: Sediment transported by ice does not extend as far East during H3/6. Hence some researchers have been moved to suggest a European origin for at least some H3/6 clasts: America and Europe were originally adjacent to one another; hence, the rocks on each continent are difficult to distinguish, and the source is open to interpretation. ## Causes As with so many climate related issues, the system is far too complex to be confidently assigned to a single cause. There are several possible drivers, which fall into two categories. ### Internal forcings—the "binge–purge" model This model suggests that factors internal to ice sheets cause the periodic disintegration of major ice volumes, responsible for Heinrich events. The gradual accumulation of ice on the Laurentide Ice Sheet led to a gradual increase in its mass, as the "binge phase". Once the sheet reached a critical mass, the soft, unconsolidated sub-glacial sediment formed a "slippery lubricant" over which the ice sheet slid, in the "purge phase", lasting around 750 years. The original model proposed that geothermal heat caused the sub-glacial sediment to thaw once the ice volume was large enough to prevent the escape of heat into the atmosphere. The mathematics of the system are consistent with a 7,000-year periodicity, similar to that observed if H3 and H6 are indeed Heinrich events. However, if H3 and H6 are not Heinrich events, the Binge-Purge model loses credibility, as the predicted periodicity is key to its assumptions. It may also appear suspect because similar events are not observed in other ice ages, although this may be due to the lack of high-resolution sediments. In addition, the model predicts that the reduced size of ice sheets during the Pleistocene should reduce the size, impact and frequency of Heinrich events, which is not reflected by the evidence. ### External forcings Several factors external to ice sheets may cause Heinrich events, but such factors would have to be large to overcome attenuation by the huge volumes of ice involved. Gerard Bond suggests that changes in the flux of solar energy on a 1,500-year scale may be correlated to the Dansgaard-Oeschger cycles, and in turn the Heinrich events; however the small magnitude of the change in energy makes such an exo-terrestrial factor unlikely to have the required large effects, at least without huge positive feedback processes acting within the Earth system. However, rather than the warming itself melting the ice, it is possible that sea-level change associated with the warming destabilised ice shelves. A rise in sea level could begin to corrode the bottom of an ice sheet, undercutting it; when one ice sheet failed and surged, the ice released would further raise sea levels, and further destabilizing other ice sheets. In favour of this theory is the non-simultaneity of ice sheet break-up in H1, H2, H4, and H5, where European breakup preceded European melting by up to 1,500 years. The Atlantic Heat Piracy model suggests that changes in oceanic circulation cause one hemisphere's oceans to become warmer at the other's expense. Currently, the Gulf Stream redirects warm, equatorial waters towards the northern Nordic Seas. The addition of fresh water to northern oceans may reduce the strength of the Gulf stream, and allow a southwards current to develop instead. This would cause the cooling of the northern hemisphere, and the warming of the southern, causing changes in ice accumulation and melting rates and possibly triggering shelf destruction and Heinrich events. Rohling's 2004 Bipolar model suggests that sea level rise lifted buoyant ice shelves, causing their destabilisation and destruction. Without a floating ice shelf to support them, continental ice sheets would flow out towards the oceans and disintegrate into icebergs and sea ice. Freshwater addition has been implicated by coupled ocean and atmosphere climate modeling, showing that both Heinrich and Dansgaard-Oeschger events may show hysteresis behaviour. This means that relatively minor changes in freshwater loading into the Nordic Seas, such as a 0.15 Sv increase or 0.03 Sv decrease, would suffice to cause profound shifts in global circulation. The results show that a Heinrich event does not cause a cooling around Greenland but further south, mostly in the subtropical Atlantic, a finding supported by most available paleoclimatic data. This idea was connected to D-O events by Maslin et al. (2001). They suggested that each ice sheet had its own conditions of stability, but that on melting, the influx of freshwater was enough to reconfigure ocean currents, and cause melting elsewhere. More specifically, D-O cold events, and their associated influx of meltwater, reduce the strength of the North Atlantic Deep Water current (NADW), weakening the northern-hemisphere circulation and therefore resulting in an increased transfer of heat polewards in the southern hemisphere. This warmer water results in melting of Antarctic ice, thereby reducing density stratification and the strength of the Antarctic Bottom Water current (AABW). This allows the NADW to return to its previous strength, driving northern hemisphere melting and another D-O cold event. Eventually, the accumulation of melting reaches a threshold, whereby it raises sea level enough to undercut the Laurentide Ice Sheet, thereby causing a Heinrich event and resetting the cycle. Hunt & Malin (1998) proposed that Heinrich events are caused by earthquakes triggered near the ice margin by rapid deglaciation. ## See also - Ice sheet dynamics - Bond event	[ "## Description", "## Potential climatic fingerprint of Heinrich events", "## Unusual Heinrich events", "## Causes", "### Internal forcings—the \"binge–purge\" model", "### External forcings", "## See also" ]	2,739	15,171
232,997	HMS Ben-my-Chree	1,142,095,347	British ship	[ "1908 ships", "Ferries of the Isle of Man", "Maritime incidents in 1917", "Passenger ships of the United Kingdom", "Royal Navy ship names", "Seaplane carriers of the Royal Navy", "Ships built in Barrow-in-Furness", "Steamships", "Steamships of the United Kingdom", "World War I aircraft carriers of the United Kingdom", "World War I shipwrecks in the Aegean Sea" ]	HMS Ben-my-Chree (Manx: "Woman of My Heart") was a packet steamer and a Royal Navy (RN) seaplane carrier of the First World War. She was originally built in 1907 by Vickers for the Isle of Man Steam Packet Company and was intended for use on the England–Isle of Man route. She was the third vessel to bear her name. To this day Ben-my-Chree holds the crossing speed record from Liverpool to Douglas for a steamship at under three hours. She was chartered by the RN at the beginning of 1915 and participated in several abortive attacks on Germany in May. The ship was transferred to the Dardanelles in June to support the Gallipoli Campaign. One of her aircraft made the first ship-launched aerial torpedo attack on a ship in August. After Gallipoli was evacuated at the end of the year, Ben-my-Chree became flagship of the East Indies and Egypt Seaplane Squadron that operated in the Eastern Mediterranean, performing reconnaissance missions and attacking Turkish facilities and troops. She was sunk by Turkish artillery while anchored at the recently occupied island of Kastellorizo in early 1917, five members of her crew being injured. The ship was salvaged in 1920 and broken up in 1923. Ben-my-Chree was the only aviation vessel of either side sunk by enemy action during the war. ## Description and construction SS Ben-my-Chree had a tonnage of 2,651 GRT. The ship was 390 feet (118.9 m) long overall and 375 feet (114.3 m) long between perpendiculars. She had a beam of 46 feet (14.0 m) and a depth of 18 feet 6 inches (5.64 m) from her main deck to the top of her keel. Ben-my-Chree had five decks and a capacity of 2,549 passengers with a crew of 119. The ship was powered by three license-built Parsons direct-drive steam turbines, each driving one propeller shaft. They were powered by steam provided by four cylindrical boilers at a working pressure of 170 psi (1,172 kPa; 12 kgf/cm<sup>2</sup>) that gave her a speed of 24.2 knots (44.8 km/h; 27.8 mph). Her engines burnt up to 95 long tons (97 t) of coal a day, which made her an expensive ship to run. She was ordered in 1907 by the Isle of Man Steam Packet Company and was built at the Vickers shipyard in Barrow-in-Furness at a cost of 112,000. The ship was launched on 23 March 1908 and completed on 8 August. Ben-my-Chree was normally laid up, because of her expense, except for the three busiest months of the year when she had a full complement of passengers. ## Royal Navy modifications and service SS Ben-my-Chree was chartered by the Royal Navy on 1 January 1915 and she began her conversion into a seaplane carrier at the Cammell Laird shipyard in Birkenhead the following day. Part of her aft superstructure was removed and replaced by a hangar, aft of her rear funnel, that housed four to six seaplanes. The aircraft were lifted in and out of the water by derricks fore and aft. A dismountable 60-foot-long (18 m) flying-off platform was installed forward of her superstructure; it was equipped with a trolley and rails to allow a seaplane to take off. In RN service the ship displaced 3,888 long tons (3,950 t), was 387 feet (118.0 m) long overall, and had a draught of 16 feet (4.9 m). Ben-my-Chree's turbines generated 14,500 shaft horsepower (10,800 kW) and she was credited with a speed of 24.5 knots (45.4 km/h; 28.2 mph) although that speed was exceeded in service. The ship could carry 502 long tons (510 t) of coal. Her crew consisted of approximately 250 officers and ratings. Her armament consisted of four quick-firing (QF) 12-pounder 18 cwt guns, and two Vickers three-pounder AA guns. Ben-my-Chree carried 130 rounds per 12-pounder and 64 rounds for each three-pounder. In May 1916, one 12-pounder AA gun, a three-pounder, and a 2-pounder pom-pom, each on army carriages, were added. She was initially assigned to the Harwich Force, under the command of Commander Cecil L'Estrange Malone, where on 3 May she took part in an abortive air raid on Norddeich that had to be abandoned because of thick fog. On 6 May, while on another unsuccessful mission to attack Norddeich, she was accidentally rammed by the destroyer Lennox in thick fog, although damage was slight. Another attempt was made on 11 May, but was again abandoned because of heavy fog. During this raid, Ben-my-Chree attempted to launch her Sopwith Schneider from a trolley off the fore deck, but the engine backfired, wrecking its starter, and breaking the pilot's wrist as the starter handle was in the cockpit. ### To the Dardanelles In May 1915, she sailed for the Dardanelles, carrying two Short Type 184 torpedo bombers, and arrived at Lesbos on 10 June. Her aircraft were mainly involved in spotting for ships providing naval gunfire support for troops ashore, although they also conducted reconnaissance missions of the area. On 11 August, one of these missions had spotted a Turkish ship off the north coast of the Sea of Marmora and, on the following day, Flight Commander Charles Edmonds attacked it flying a Short 184 seaplane. He left his observer behind and flew with a reduced fuel load to lighten his aircraft enough to carry a 14-inch (356 mm), 810-pound (370 kg) torpedo. He successfully dropped his aerial torpedo at a distance of about 800 yards (730 m) and an altitude of 15 feet (4.6 m). It turned out that his target had been beached after having been torpedoed by the British submarine E14. This was followed by a successful attack on 17 August against a 5,000-long-ton (5,100 t) ship by Edmonds. Flight Lieutenant George Dacre accompanied Edmonds on his flight in his own aircraft, but suffered engine troubles and had to land in the Dardanelles. He was taxiing on the water when he encountered a large steam tugboat, which he promptly torpedoed. After taxiing for several miles he was able to get airborne again and was within gliding distance of Ben-my-Chree when his engine failed permanently. On 2 September, she helped to rescue Australian troops from the torpedoed troopship HMT Southland off Lemnos. The ship was transferred to Port Said, Egypt after the end of the Gallipoli Campaign. Ben-my-Chree became the flagship of the East Indies and Egypt Seaplane Squadron when it was formed in January 1916. The squadron was under the command of the General Officer Commanding, Egypt and its primary duty was to watch Turkish positions and movements in southern Palestine and the Sinai. SS Uganda collided with her on 11 February and badly damaged the ship's bow. Permanent repairs took were made at Suez from 13 March to 25 April. Commander Charles Samson replaced L'Estrange Malone as captain on 14 May. A few days later, Lieutenant William Benn joined the ship as an observer. Ben-my-Chree was based at Aden later in 1916. ### Loss French troops occupied the Greek island of Kastellorizo, off the southwest coast of Turkey, on 20 December 1916 to use it as an advance base against the Turks. Not pleased at the presence of the French, the Turks secretly deployed an artillery battery of four 155-millimetre (6.1 in) and twelve 77-millimetre (3.0 in) guns within range of the island. The French commander requested a seaplane carrier to conduct reconnaissance in the area and Ben-my-Chree was sent in response. She arrived on 11 January 1917 and anchored in the harbour which faced the mainland. The Turkish guns opened fire about two hours later, hitting the carrier with their third shot. Subsequent shells disabled her steering and started a fire in her hangar that spread across her upper deck. (See Mustafa Ertuğrul Aker) The crew was ordered to abandon ship after about forty minutes of the bombardment using the only remaining operable motor lifeboat of the three stowed on board. One officer and four ratings were injured, but no one was killed. The Turks continued their bombardment for five hours until Ben-my-Chree listed to starboard and sank in shallow water. Later in the day, the captain and the chief engineer returned to the wreck to rescue the ship's mascots, a cat and dog which had both survived the attack. Ben-my-Chree's wreck remained in place until 15 August 1920 when it was refloated by the salvage ship Vallette. The wreck was immediately beached before the tow to the port of Piraeus began on 4 September. The ship proved to be a constructive total loss and was towed to Venice, Italy, in 1923 to be demolished. During her short career she operated Sopwith Type 860, Schneider, and Baby aircraft, the Wight Pusher Seaplane, as well as Short Type 830 and Type 184 floatplanes.	[ "## Description and construction", "## Royal Navy modifications and service", "### To the Dardanelles", "### Loss" ]	2,037	16,064
1,482,114	Riya Sen	1,173,202,975	Indian actress	[ "1981 births", "20th-century Indian actresses", "21st-century Indian actresses", "Actresses from Kolkata", "Actresses from Tripura", "Actresses in Bengali cinema", "Actresses in Hindi cinema", "Actresses in Malayalam cinema", "Actresses in Odia cinema", "Actresses in Tamil cinema", "Actresses in Telugu cinema", "Female models from Kolkata", "Indian film actresses", "Living people", "Tripuri actors", "Tripuri people", "University of Calcutta alumni" ]	Riya Sen (born Riya Dev Varma; 24 January 1981) is an Indian actress and model who predominantly appears in Hindi, Bengali, English, Telugu and Tamil films. Sen comes from a royal background; her father Bharat Dev Varma hails from the royal family of Tripura. He was the son of Ila Devi, a princess of Cooch Behar and nephew of Maharani Gayatri Devi of Jaipur. Sen's mother Moon Moon Sen and grandmother Suchitra Sen were reputed veteran actresses. She began her acting career when she was 5 years old, playing her mother's daughter on screen for the first time. Later in 1991 she worked as a child actress in the film Vishkanya. Her first commercial success in her film career was with Style, a 2001 Hindi low-budget comedy directed by N. Chandra. Some of her other notable films include producer Pritish Nandy's musical film, Jhankaar Beats (2003) in Hinglish, and Malayalam horror film Ananthabhadram (2005). She won the Star Guide Award as best actress for her performance in Noukadubi. Sen was first recognised as a model when she performed in Falguni Pathak's music video Yaad Piya Ki Aane Lagi at the age of seventeen in 1998. Since then, she has appeared in music videos, television advertisements, fashion shows, and on magazine covers. Sen has worked as an activist and appeared in an AIDS awareness music video with the aim of dispelling popular myths about the disease. She also helped raise funds for pediatric eye-care and underprivileged children. ## Acting career Riya first appeared as a child artist in the film when she was 5 years old later in 1991 she worked as a child actress in the film Vishkanya., where she played the role of the young Pooja Bedi. At the age of 19, she did National Film Awards winning director Bharathiraja's Tamil film, Taj Mahal (2000) which was written by Mani Ratnam while music was composed by A. R. Rahman, which did not achieve commercial success. She was scheduled to make her Bollywood film debut in Love You Hamesha, opposite actor Akshaye Khanna; however, the film was stalled, and she finally made her debut in N. Chandra's Style in 2001. This low-budget comedy was the first commercial success in over a decade for the director. A launch pad for Riya, cast in the female lead along with fellow-newcomers, Sharman Joshi, Sahil Khan and Shilpi Mudgal, the film pioneered a trend of commercial success for small budget films in India. Riya and the second female lead of the film were replaced by aspirant actresses Sonali Joshi and Jaya Seal in Xcuse Me. Her next success was Jhankaar Beats, comedy revolving around the music of legendary composer R D Burman, which saw her playing a small and glamorous role alongside Shayan Munshi, Juhi Chawla, Rahul Bose, Rinke Khanna and Sanjay Suri. Produced by Pritish Nandy, publishing director of The Times of India, the film was made on a budget of Rs. 25 million (US\$525,000), marking the sixth in a row of small to medium budget films made by Pritish Nandy Communications (PNC). Despite being part of a wave of offbeat films that mostly failed to make an impact at the box office, it drew public attention upon its release, which led to a commercial success among a restricted audience targeted by a selective release in twenty cities. It was one of the first films made in Hinglish, a mixture of Hindi and English. Her films Style and Jhankar Beats have done wonders commercially. Her latter films Harry Baweja's Qayamat and Subhash Ghai's Apna Sapna Money Money were also box office hits and that ran for 150 days. These films were 4 consecutive hits in a row. While many of her appearances have been item numbers and cameos, few of her leading roles have been in Low-budget films. Though she had small roles in Dil Vil Pyar Vyar (2002), Qayamat (2003) and Plan (2004), attention was drawn to her item numbers in all three, especially the one in Qayamat that featured her in a bubble-bath. Besides this, she performed another item number in James (2005) on director-producer Ram Gopal Varma's behest, who has a history of casting aspirant actress-models like Sameera Reddy, Isha Koppikar and Koena Mitra in similar roles. Furthermore, she took part in a dance number for Sajid Khan's Heyy Babyy (2007) that featured several mainstream Bollywood actresses. ### Non-Hindi films Riya has, in addition to Hindi films, appeared in Bengali, Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam and English films. Her film career began in the earnest with Tamil films such as Bharathi Raja's Taj Mahal, co-starring Manjoj Bharatiraja in the male lead, and Manoj Bhatnaghar's Good Luck, opposite Prashanth. Both of the films failed commercially, she also did a dance number for N. Maharajan's Arasatchi. Her first English language movie was It Was Raining That Night, a remake of the Bengali film Hei Brishtir Raat, scripted by Sudeshna Roy and directed by Mahesh Manjrekar. In the film, she collaborated with her mother Moon Moon Sen. Riya was slated to appear in Anjan Dutt's Bengali-English bilingual film The Bong Connection with her sister, but she was eventually dropped from the project and replaced by Peeya Rai Chaudhary. The two sisters were later cast together in director Ajai Sinha's 3 Bachelors, a Bengali film that started as The Bachelor in 2002 and was released in 2012. Her most successful non-Hindi film has been director Santhosh Sivan's Ananthabhadram (2005). The first Malayalam venture for both Riya and Sivan, was both a critical and commercial success. It won five Kerala State Film Awards and surfaced as one of the biggest Malayalam successes that year. She played the role of Bhama in the film, a village girl who is lured by Digambaran, the evil magician portrayed by Manoj K. Jayan. In a song-and-dance sequence showing Digambaran turning Bhama into a medium for demonic rituals, the choreographer Aparna Sindoor made abundant use of Kathakali movements. The use of Kathakali has been a high point in the resurgence of the classical dance form in other major Indian films as well, including Shaji Karun's Vanaprastham (1999) and Adoor Gopalakrishnan's Kalamandalam Ramankutty Nair (2005). She made her Telugu debut with Nenu Meeku Telusa?, in which she was paired opposite Manoj Manchu. In 2012 Sen won the Star Guide Award as best actress for her performance in Noukadubi. She was also featured in video song of Kamaal Khan album Suno To Deewana Dil in song Jaana. ## Modeling career Riya became a popular model when she appeared in numerous music videos for songs by popular singers, including Falguni Pathak's Yaad Piya Ki Aane Lagi (alternative title: Chudi Jo Khankayi), Asha Bhosle's Jhumka Gira Re, Jagjit Singh and Bhosle's Jab Samne Tum and Kahin Kahin Se, Lata Mangeshkar, Bhonsle and Singh's Dil Kahin Hosh Kahin, Sonu Nigam's Jeena Hai Tere Liye and Shaan's Sutta Maro. She shot for her first music video, Yaad Piya Ki Aane Lagi, at the age of sixteen. This led to her being identified primarily as a performer for music videos early in her career, an image she aimed to shed in 2005. Riya has appeared on several magazine covers, including Femina, Elaan, Man's World, Gladrags, Savvy and Indian versions of Elle, Maxim and Cosmopolitan, as well as on the ramp of major fashion shows like Lakmé Fashion Week (2005–07) and Wills Fashion Week (2006–2007). She participated in fashion shows along with her elder sister, Raima Sen. Besides modelling, Riya has ventured into the advertisement world as well. A high point of her modelling career came in 2006, when she became the soft drink, Limca's brand ambassador, replacing Deepika Padukone. Her other notable assignments include Colgate, Dabur Vatika, Reliance Industries, Cadbury Dairy Milk Chocolate, and Nirma. In 2004, she was featured partially nude in leading Indian photographer Dabboo Ratnani's annual calendar, which is a major happening in the Indian glamour industry. According to Daboo, "Her mother saw it much later, after the calendar released. She thought it was too sexy, and Riya shouldn't have done it. But the response to the photograph was superb. Riya was so thrilled that for her next ad campaign, she asked me to light her up like I did in this." A career highlight for the model, it led to a three-year contract with Ratnani to feature her on his annual calendar. She is the only female face to be featured on the calendar for five consecutive years (2003–07). ## Personal life and family Born on 24 January 1981 in Kolkata, West Bengal, Riya is the daughter of Moon Moon Sen, a former actress, and granddaughter of Suchitra Sen, a legend in Bengali cinema. Before leaving for Mumbai, she lived in Kolkata with her parents and sister Raima Sen, also an actress. Her father Bharat Dev Varma is a member of the royal family of Tripura. Her paternal grandmother, Ila Devi, was a princess of Cooch Behar, whose younger sister Gayatri Devi was the Maharani of Jaipur. Her paternal great-grandmother Indira was the only daughter of Maharaja Sayajirao Gaekwad III of Baroda. Riya's maternal great-grandfather Adinath Sen was a prominent Kolkata businessman, whose father Dinanath Sen – a relative of former Union Law Minister Ashoke Kumar Sen- was the Diwan or a Minister of the Maharaja of Tripura. The sisters are credited on-screen under their mother's maiden name, although their official papers carry the surname Dev Varma. Riya completed her schooling in ICSE from Loreto House in Kolkata. She went on to studying philosophy in a Bengali uccha madhyamik school Rani Birla Girls' College (a University of Calcutta affiliate). Riya had a degree from the National Institute of Fashion Technology NIFT Mumbai in fashion designing and information technology. She went to London to the Pinewood Actors Studio for acting course and simultaneously did voice and dubbing classes. She also did a couple of private acting workshops with renowned British teachers. She learnt the Queens English -British accent with renowned voice coach Barbara Berkeley. She studied in New York at the TV1 acting studio in Times Square. Riya has also done a course in Paris at the Institute Marangoni for fashion and image styling. Riya also did a course at the University of Arts in London in ‘branding' and a cooking course in Thailand at the blue elephant culinary school. Riya briefly practiced kickboxing and karate. She is passionate about painting and has been painting since she was a baby. She's a certified yoga teacher. She did her 200 hours Teacher training course in Rishikesh for hatha vinyasa, Yin yoga teacher training course in dharamsala at the Trimurti school and Aerial yoga teacher training course from Ulu yoga in Bali. During the filming of Shaadi No. 1 in France, she was knocked unconscious after being accidentally run over by a stuntman's motorbike, but she was not seriously injured. In August 2017, Sen married her boyfriend Shivam Tewari in a private Bengali Hindu ceremony. ### Public persona Riya's on-screen performances have established her as a bold youth icon in India. Since entering the film industry, she has gained attention for wearing a bikini in Shaadi No. 1 and sharing on-screen kisses with co-stars Ashmit Patel in Silsiilay and Sharman Joshi in Style, respectively. Such performances garnered negative attention because of the relatively conservative outlook of Indian cinema at that time and her own statements about such practices. Riya's public persona is compared to her mother Moon Moon, who was seen as a sex symbol of her time,. Although her film career has yet to achieve large-scale success, Riya has generated considerable media attention. She was ranked ninth on Femina 50 Most Beautiful Women, published in the magazine's September 2007 issue. She was a jury member for the 2008 Final of the Mr. India contest. Riya appeared in Haath Se Haath Mila, an HIV/AIDS awareness music video. She made charity appearances at McDonald's India to raise money for paediatric eye-care during World Children's Week (14–20 November) in 2003 and also for underprivileged children during the Corona virus pandemic in 2020. ## Filmography ## Web series ## See also - List of Indian film actresses - List of Bollywood Clans: The Sens	[ "## Acting career", "### Non-Hindi films", "## Modeling career", "## Personal life and family", "### Public persona", "## Filmography", "## Web series", "## See also" ]	2,868	14,537
67,646,877	View (Shinee song)	1,171,085,086	2015 song by Shinee	[ "2015 singles", "2015 songs", "Deep house songs", "Gaon Digital Chart number-one singles", "Korean-language songs", "Music videos directed by Shin Hee-won", "SM Entertainment singles", "Shinee songs", "Songs written by Kim Jong-hyun (singer)", "Songs written by Ryan S. Jhun" ]	"View" is a song recorded by South Korean boy band Shinee for their fourth Korean-language studio album Odd (2015). Band member Jonghyun wrote the lyrics, while LDN Noise, Ryan S. Jhun, and Adrian McKinnon handled the composition and production. The song was released on May 18, 2015, as the album's lead single by SM Entertainment. The song incorporates deep house and pop, featuring stripped-down instrumentation. The lyrics are about how people's senses are intensified by love. "View" received generally positive reviews from music critics, who regarded it as K-pop's first foray into deep house. In 2019, Billboard placed the song on its decade-end list of the greatest K-pop songs of the 2010s. It was nominated for Song of the Year at the 2015 Mnet Asian Music Awards. The song reached number one on the Gaon Digital Chart, and has sold over 724,000 digital copies in South Korea as of December 2015. An accompanying music video was released to YouTube on May 19, 2015, and features Shinee going on an adventure with female fans and performing choreography to the song. To promote the song, the band performed "View" on several South Korean music programs, including Music Bank, Show! Music Core and Inkigayo. ## Music and lyrics The lyrics of "View" were written by Shinee's lead vocalist Jonghyun. For the composition and production, the band's label SM Entertainment enlisted British production duo LDN Noise, including Greg Bonnick and Hayden Chapman, who had previously written and produced songs for K-pop groups Red Velvet, Got7, and Shinhwa. South Korean composer Ryan S. Jhun and Adrian McKinnon are also credited as writers and producers of the song. "View" is an uptempo 1990s-inspired deep house and pop song, a departure from the group's signature R&B sound. Some music critics have also characterized its sound as Italo house and UK garage. Regarding the choice of the genre, Jonghyun told Dazed, "On the musical side, deep house is a genre that's been developing internationally for a long time, but I think our song 'View' is the first song within K-pop to weave in that sound, and bring it to the masses. We wanted it to feel new and sophisticated." Ahead of its release, member Minho stated that he was worried how the new sound would be received by the audience. "View" incorporates a light synth production and relies on stripped-down instrumentation. The chorus has a repetitive, saccharine structure and employs bass over Disclosure-esque beats, similar to the band's 2013 single, "Everybody". Having a sensual sound, the song portrays the beauty of love as a "mixture of diverse senses". In the lyrics, the group discuss how people's senses are intensified by love. The lyrics are noted for their use of synesthetic imagery. ## Critical reception "View" received generally positive reviews from music critics who praised the group for experimenting with deep house and considered the song K-pop's first foray into the genre. Scott Interrante of PopMatters praised the song's production, writing that the house beat was "as infectious as any big pop hook despite its simplicity". Interante further wrote that "'View' floats along unpretentiously in a way that seems boring on first listen but which is increasingly appealing the more time you spend with it." Alexis Hodoyan-Gastelum of MTV described it as "a great, laid back summer jam" even though "the song fools us into thinking it's an uptempo ballad before reaching its techno peak at the chorus". IZM's Lee Ki-seon said that the song's production blended with the group's vocal performance and deemed "View" as an album highlight. Billboard writer Jeff Benjamin lauded the track, saying, "By going against what's expected, Shinee actually ends up taking more of a risk by doing less and it pays off handsomely". In another review for the same magazine, Jessica Oak and Benjamin hailed it as "another ambitious release to add to the boy band's discography". Idolator listed "View" at number three on its list of "Best K-Pop Songs of 2015". On behalf of the publication, Peterson wrote: "'View' sounds like it was lifted straight out of a gay New York nightclub in the early nineties, which is about the highest possible praise one can give a record like this." Billboard also ranked it on the magazine's year-end list and as one of the greatest K-Pop songs of the 2010s. ### Accolades "View" achieved the top spot on various South Korean weekly music programs, winning nine music show awards. At the 2015 Mnet Asian Music Awards, the song received nominations for Song of the Year and Best Dance Performance – Male Group, winning the latter. It was also nominated for the Digital Bonsang at the 30th Golden Disc Awards. ## Release and commercial performance In May 2015, Shinee announced the release of their fourth Korean-language studio album, Odd. It marked their first Korean release in one and a half years since Everybody (2013). The band released the full track list on May 10, which revealed "View" as the third track on the album. In the lead-up to the release of "View", the group released photo and video teasers for the track, which served as a promotional tool for their return. Shinee premiered the song at their three-day concerts held at Seoul Olympic Park Gymnastics Gymnasium between May 15 and 17. It was released for digital download and streaming by SM Entertainment on May 18, 2015, the same day as the release of the album. Upon release, the song debuted at number two on the Gaon Digital Chart on the chart issue dated May 23, 2015, and sold 180,319 digital units within its first week of release. The following week, it climbed to the number one spot, selling another 77,304 digital units. It was the fourth best-performing song on the Gaon Monthly Chart for May 2015, selling 267,582 downloads. As of December 2015, the song has sold over 724,659 digital units in South Korea, becoming the 78th best-selling single of 2015. Additionally, it became the 41st best-performing single on the Gaon Digital Chart of 2015, based on digital sales, streaming, and instrumental track downloads. "View" peaked at number two on the Billboard World Digital Song Sales chart. ## Promotion The music video for "View" was released to YouTube on May 19, 2015. It was directed by Shin Hee-won and was filmed in Thailand. For the video, choreography by American choreographer Ian Eastwood was commissioned. The visual utilizes a light, Instagram-like filter and shows the group performing before being kidnapped by a legion of female fans. The video is interspersed with scenes showing the members lifting beers from stores, using strangers' pools, and breaking into deserted warehouses to party with their fans. There are also a few scenes where they perform choreography to the song. According to Shinee, the fashion styles featured in the video were inspired by various retro trends. Benjamin praised the video's fashion styles, writing that "the guys very well may boast the best fashion they've ever rocked in their K-pop videos too with fit muscle shirts and sportswear." Meanwhile, Taylor Glasby from Dazed interpreted the video as "creepy, fanfic-style". It was the most viewed music video on YouTube by a South Korean music act in May 2015. To promote the song and Odd, Shinee performed "View" on several South-Korean music programs, including KBS's Music Bank, MBC's Show! Music Core, and SBS' Inkigayo.	[ "## Music and lyrics", "## Critical reception", "### Accolades", "## Release and commercial performance", "## Promotion" ]	1,646	314
59,033,886	French submarine Y	1,173,007,438	Experimental vessel launched in 1905	[ "1904 ships", "Experimental submarines", "Submarines of France" ]	The French submarine Y was an experimental submarine built for the French Navy (Marine nationale) in the first decade of the 20th century. She was launched in 1905, but was only commissioned for her sea trials and remained in experimental status because her diesel engine could not be used underwater. A planned refit, which included adding an electric motor and batteries for underwater use in 1907 was cancelled as too expensive. Y was stricken from the navy list in 1909, but was retained for experimental purposes until 1911 when she was sold for scrap. ## Background and description Louis-Émile Bertin, the Director of Naval Construction (Directeur des Constructions Navales), proposed in 1900 to adapt the design of the Gustave Zédé to accept an experimental closed-cycle diesel engine that could propel the boat both underwater and on the surface. The four-cylinder engine was designed to use one of two methods underwater: it could use either two or four cylinders using compressed air and exhausting its combustion gases underwater, or it could use a single cylinder with the exhaust gases being stored under pressure and intermittently released. His proposal was accepted by the Board of Construction (Conseil des travaux) and approved by Navy Minister Jean Marie Antoine de Lanessan. The single-hulled submarine Y had an overall length of 44.9 m (147 ft 4 in), a beam of 3 metres (9 ft 10 in) and a draught of 2.75 metres (9 ft 0 in). The boat had a surfaced displacement of 213 long tons (216 t) and a submerged displacement of 226 long tons (230 t). She had a complement of 15 men. Her armament comprised two superimposed 450-millimetre (17.7 in) torpedo tubes in the bow, two external 450 mm Drzewiecki drop collar torpedo launchers and one external 450 mm cradle aft. The submarine was powered by a 250-horsepower (186 kW) diesel engine that drove a single propeller shaft. It was intended to give Y a maximum speed of 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph) on the surface and 6 knots (11 km/h; 6.9 mph) while submerged. Tests conducted by the builder, Compagnie française des moteurs à gaz et des constructions mécaniques, between 18 July 1904 and 13 February 1905 revealed that the engine could not use compressed air while submerged. Further testing in March 1907 aboard the submarine showed that the engine's exhaust could not be discharged underwater, limiting the submarine to traveling on the surface. ## Construction and career Y was ordered with the budget number Q37 from the Arsenal de Toulon on 12 August 1901 and was laid down on 22 May 1902. The boat was authorized to be commissioned for her trials on 23 July 1905, the day before she was launched. Y cost F924,300. Gaston Thomson, the Navy Minister, ordered the shipyard to study reconstructing Y with an electric motor and batteries for submerged running on 31 October 1906 and approved the resulting design on 12 December 1907. Repeated mechanical failures of the diesel engine during the boat's trials caused Thomson to suspend the refit on 24 April 1908 and cancelled it entirely on 16 May. He authorized the shipyard to initiate proceedings to condemn the submarine as she would not be worth the high cost of the reconstruction. Y was decommissioned on 1 March 1909 and stricken from the navy list on 22 April, although she was retained by the shipyard for crush testing. The submarine was stripped of some parts, included her Drzewiecki launchers and periscope, that were incorporated into the submarine Argonaute then building. She was offered for sale on 1 August 1911 and was sold the following day for scrap. ## See also - List of submarines of France	[ "## Background and description", "## Construction and career", "## See also" ]	829	13,093
67,610,108	Coventry City 2–2 Bristol City (1977)	1,170,565,686	Football match	[ "1976–77 in English football", "Bristol City F.C. matches", "Coventry City F.C. matches", "Football League First Division matches", "May 1977 sports events in the United Kingdom" ]	On 19 May 1977, the English association football clubs Coventry City and Bristol City contested a match in the Football League First Division at Highfield Road, Coventry. It was the final game of the 1976–77 Football League season for both clubs, and both faced potential relegation to the Second Division. A third club, Sunderland, were also in danger of relegation and were playing their final game at the same time, against Everton at Goodison Park. As a result of many Bristol City supporters being delayed in traffic as they travelled to the game, the kick-off in the Coventry–Bristol City game was delayed by five minutes, to avoid crowd congestion. Coventry took a 2–0 lead with goals in the 15th and 51st minutes, both scored by midfielder Tommy Hutchison. Bristol City then scored through Gerry Gow and Donnie Gillies to level the match at 2–2 after 79 minutes. With five minutes remaining, the supporters and players received the news that Sunderland had lost to Everton and that a draw would be sufficient for both Coventry and Bristol City to escape relegation at Sunderland's expense. As a result, the last five minutes were played out with neither team's players attempting to score and the match finished as a 2–2 draw. Sunderland made a complaint about the incident, and the Football League conducted an investigation, but both Coventry and Bristol City were eventually cleared of any wrongdoing. ## Background Coventry City were playing their tenth season in the Football League First Division, the then-highest tier in English football, having achieved promotion under former manager Jimmy Hill in 1966–67. Hill left the club after only a few games in the top flight, having decided to pursue a career in broadcasting with London Weekend Television, and the club survived relegation battles on the final day of the season in both of their first two seasons. They had also achieved some success with a top-six finish in 1969–70, which earned them a place in the European Fairs Cup for the 1970–71 season. Hill had returned to the club as managing director in 1975 but he sold several key players and both bookmakers and the club's supporters believed that Coventry were favourites for relegation prior to the 1976–77 campaign. They lost the opening two games, but a victory against Leeds United, with Coventry's line-up featuring new signings Terry Yorath, Ian Wallace and Bobby McDonald, as well as a breakthrough performance by young striker Mick Ferguson, marked the start of a better run of form. By early December, they had risen to 10th position. A series of poor results followed after the new year, however, leaving the team in the bottom three going into the final game. Bristol City had been promoted to the top flight from the Second Division in the 1975–76 season, finishing second behind Sunderland. They started the 1976–77 campaign with a surprise win against Arsenal at Highbury followed by a draw against Stoke City and a victory over Sunderland. The good start was tainted by a career-ending injury to striker Paul Cheesley against Stoke, and a 2–1 defeat against Manchester City marked the start of a dramatic fall down the table from second to twentieth between September and October. Lacking a quality forward, Bristol City failed to score goals and their slide down the table included a run of six defeats with only two goals scored. Their manager Alan Dicks was unable to find a striker on the transfer market, but his signing of veteran Leeds United defender Norman Hunter briefly revived the club's fortunes. Wins over Tottenham Hotspur and Norwich City took them briefly out of the relegation zone to 17th place, but Bristol City's form was poor after Christmas. Although they achieved a second win of the season against Arsenal, they suffered defeat to then-bottom-placed Sunderland at Roker Park, and a run of just one win in nine games up to early April left Bristol City themselves at the bottom of the table. A better run followed, including another win over Tottenham, and a surprise win over Liverpool at Ashton Gate in the penultimate game left Bristol City needing only a draw against Coventry to guarantee survival. In addition to Coventry and Bristol City, Sunderland were the third team involved in the last-day relegation fight. They had been promoted from the Second Division as champions the previous season, but they performed poorly in the first half of the campaign and were bottom of the table in mid-January. They performed much better thereafter, and by the last week of the season had secured nine wins and seven draws from their previous eighteen games. Coventry and Bristol City had played each other twice in the 1976–77 season. The first meeting was at Ashton Gate in late August in the second round of the Football League Cup, the fourth cup match between the two clubs in just three years. For the fourth time in those encounters, it was Coventry who prevailed, winning the game 1–0 with a Ferguson goal after 41 minutes. Bristol City had numerous chances to score throughout the game, but Coventry kept a clean sheet as a result of a string of saves by goalkeeper Jim Blyth. The sides met again at Ashton Gate in the league fixture on 6 November 1976. It was a match of few shots on goal as both sides failed to establish sustained attacks. The limited chances that did materialise were wasted, and the game finished 0–0. The league fixture at Coventry's Highfield Road ground was originally scheduled for New Year's Day, but was postponed until the end of the season due to a frozen pitch. ## Pre-match Tottenham and Stoke had completed all their league fixtures by the previous Saturday and Monday respectively. Tottenham were already confirmed as relegated, while Stoke's goal difference was so inferior to that of Coventry, Bristol City and Sunderland, that pundits regarded their chances of survival as nonexistent. West Ham United had also finished all their matches, but were mathematically safe. This left Bristol City, Coventry and Sunderland battling to avoid the final relegation position. A draw would have been sufficient for Sunderland to achieve safety, by finishing ahead of at least one of the other two clubs. Similarly, Bristol City could avoid relegation by drawing the game, as that would guarantee their finishing above Coventry. Coventry needed a win to guarantee their safety, but they could also survive by drawing the game if Sunderland were to lose. Sunderland's final game of the season was away against Everton, at Goodison Park, and was to be played at the same time as Coventry City's match against Bristol City. Approximately 10,000 of the 36,892 supporters were Bristol City fans, many of whom were delayed in traffic as they travelled to Coventry. As a result of this, to avoid crowd congestion, the kick-off was put back by five minutes. This was to prove very significant as the evening progressed, although club historians are not certain whether it was initiated by Coventry City, by the West Midlands Police or by the referee, Ron Challis. Hill later wrote in his autobiography that the decision had been made by the referee, whereas The Guardian's Rob Smyth maintained in a 2012 article that it was "generally perceived that [the delay] was the doing of Hill". ## Match ### Summary Coventry began the match in attacking style, seeking to secure the win which for them was the only way to be certain of survival. Committing several players to attack left Coventry vulnerable, and Bristol City twice found themselves with the ball behind Coventry's defence. The two chances fell to Chris Garland and Jimmy Mann, but neither was able to beat Coventry goalkeeper Les Sealey. Two minutes after Mann's miss, Coventry took the lead. A free kick by Mick Coop was parried weakly by Bristol City goalkeeper John Shaw and fell to Tommy Hutchison, who scored his second goal of the season with a powerful shot. Bristol City had several chances to equalise just before half-time – first through a goal-line clearance by McDonald, then through Trevor Tainton, whose 20-yard shot was saved by Sealey. The final Bristol City chance of the half resulted from a Coventry defensive mix-up; Yorath allowed a pass from Donnie Gillies through to Sealey, but the goalkeeper was not expecting it and the ball only narrowly missed the Coventry goal. The score remained 1–0 to Coventry at half-time. Seven minutes into the second half, Coventry scored again to double their lead to 2–0. Barry Powell hit the goalpost with a shot, and when it rebounded, Hutchison scored his second goal of the game with a shot which went in off the crossbar. Bristol City's historian David Woods wrote that "it looked all up" for them at this point, with the club apparently heading for relegation, but he noted that "fortunately, the players did not give up the ghost". They pulled a goal back just a few minutes after Coventry's second, when Gerry Gow received the ball from Gillies and fired a shot past Sealey from 12 yards. From that moment, Bristol City began to dominate the game, doing all the attacking as Coventry's defence struggled. Peter Cormack came on as a substitute to replace the injured Clive Whitehead, and Bristol City continued to seek the equaliser. That arrived in the 79th minute, when Garland headed the ball across to Gillies who struck it into the far corner of the Coventry goal. With the match level, it was once again Coventry who needed to score again to be certain of survival, but their players were exhausted and it was Bristol City who continued to press, looking for a winner. With five minutes remaining, news reached the Coventry directors' box that the game at Goodison Park was over, the earlier finish a consequence of the delayed start in the Coventry–Bristol City game. Everton had beaten Sunderland 2–0, which meant that should the game at Highfield Road remain a draw, both sides would be safe at Sunderland's expense. Conversely, if either side were to lose, that side would be relegated. Jimmy Hill immediately went to speak to the scoreboard operator, asking for the Everton–Sunderland score to be displayed across the ground. Seeing this, and realising its significance, the two sides called an unofficial truce. Coventry retreated to their own half, making no further attempt to gain the ball or to score, while Bristol City passed the ball around between their defence and goalkeeper, similarly making no attempt to advance up the field. The final five minutes were played out in this fashion, in what authors Geoff Harvey and Vanessa Strowger later described as "a good-natured kickabout". Referee Challis called a halt to the game without playing any injury time, and it finished as a 2–2 draw. ### Details Source: ## Post-match and legacy When the match concluded, the players embraced each other, while the supporters of both teams began to celebrate their mutual survival together. Hundreds of supporters invaded the pitch after the game, while some climbed onto the roofs of the executive boxes. Supporters of both teams went to Coventry City centre after the game to continue the celebrations, with some causing damage to infrastructure. Seventeen Bristol City and three Coventry supporters were arrested for assaulting police officers, threatening behaviour and drunkenness. At Goodison Park, many Sunderland supporters had remained in the ground after the conclusion of their match to await news from Coventry. The result was announced on the public-address system, bringing the news that their team would be relegated. Sunderland made a complaint about the incident, and the Football League conducted an investigation. Coventry were eventually cleared of any wrong-doing, although the secretary Alan Hardaker sent a letter to the club "reprimanding Coventry City for their actions". Supporters of Sunderland maintained a grudge against Hill and Coventry City for decades after the match. At a 2008 game between Sunderland and Fulham – a club for which Hill had worked as both player and chairman – the visiting Sunderland fans made angry chants towards Hill when he entered the pitch as part of a pre-match tribute to Johnny Haynes. Hill waved to the fans in response, but he had to receive a police escort for his safety. Coventry and Sunderland were involved in another last-day relegation battle 20 years later, at the end of the 1996–97 FA Premier League season. Coventry, managed at the time by Gordon Strachan, required a win against Tottenham Hotspur at White Hart Lane to survive, in addition to favourable results in games involving Sunderland and Middlesbrough. David Lacey of The Guardian mentioned the 1977 events in advance of the game, commenting that "should Sunderland survive at Coventry's expense ... Wearside will feel that an ancient wrong ... has been put right". As in 1977, Coventry's game started late, by 15 minutes, as a result of their travelling fans being delayed in traffic following an accident. Sunderland lost their game, while Middlesbrough drew, at which point Coventry were leading 2–1 with 15 minutes remaining. Manchester United manager Alex Ferguson later labelled this situation a "disgrace", but Strachan thought that the delay had hindered his players. He told reporters that knowing the outcome was in their hands, and that conceding a goal would relegate them, caused them to lose control of a game they had been dominating. Coventry held on for the win, consigning both Sunderland and Middlesbrough to relegation. Discussing the late kick-off, The Independent journalist Glenn Moore commented that it evoked "memories of the notorious escape of 1977". ## See also - West Germany 1–0 Austria, 1982 World Cup result which saw both teams proceed at the expense of Algeria - 2021 Los Angeles Chargers–Las Vegas Raiders game, the final NFL game where both teams would have reached the playoffs with a tie	[ "## Background", "## Pre-match", "## Match", "### Summary", "### Details", "## Post-match and legacy", "## See also" ]	2,892	40,576
29,630,791	In Freundschaft	1,167,565,597	Composition by Karlheinz Stockhausen	[ "1977 compositions", "20th-century classical music", "Compositions by Karlheinz Stockhausen", "Compositions for bassoon", "Compositions for clarinet", "Compositions for flute", "Compositions for horn", "Compositions for oboe", "Compositions for recorder", "Compositions for saxophone", "Compositions for trombone", "Compositions for trumpet", "Compositions for viola", "Compositions for violin", "Music dedicated to ensembles or performers", "Process music pieces", "Serial compositions", "Solo cello pieces", "Solo clarinet pieces", "Solo flute pieces", "Solo oboe pieces", "Solo violin pieces" ]	In Freundschaft (In friendship) is a composition by Karlheinz Stockhausen, number 46 in his catalogue of works. It is a serial composition for a solo instrument, first for clarinet, and later arranged by the composer for many other instruments, often in friendship to specific performers. In Freundschaft was first conceived in 1977 as a birthday present for clarinetist Suzanne Stephens, and was first performed at her birthday party in Aix-en-Provence on 28 July that year in a version for the flute. It was later reprised on other instruments as the composer adapted it to nearly every standard orchestral instrument at the request of performers. The work is an example of formula composition, with a basic motif first being presented and then varied in two contrasting, cyclical layers; interrupted by cadenzas. The work has been recorded multiple times, including under the supervision of its composer. ## Background The works by the prolific composer Karlheinz Stockhausen have been grouped in four phases, with the first two matching the decades of the 1950s and the 1960s, the third phase ranging from 1970 to 1977, and finally the rest of his life, dedicated mainly to the composition of Licht, an opera cycle in seven parts begun in 1977. During the third phase, Stockhausen composed in a technique that he termed "formula technique" (Formeltechnik), with works including Mantra (1970), Inori (1974), Jubiläum and In Freundschaft (both 1977). He included the formula method in other compositions of the time such as Tierkreis (1975/76). ## Composition history The first version of In Freundschaft was composed on Sunday, 24 July 1977 in Aix-en-Provence as a birthday gift for Suzanne Stephens. This version was written for the clarinet, but Stockhausen immediately made a fair copy transposition for flute, and it was this version that was first performed, one time each by two American flautists, Lucille Goeres and Marjorie Shansky, for Stephens's birthday party in Aix on 28 July 1977. The first public performance, also of the flute version, was given by Lucille Goeres on 6 August 1977, in a concert by course participants of the Centre Sirius at the Aix Conservatory. Stockhausen reworked the composition on 27 April 1978, at which time he also made versions for oboe, trumpet, violin, and viola. The premiere of the version for clarinet was given by Suzanne Stephens on 30 November 1978 as part of a concert Hommage à Olivier Messiaen, in the Salle Wagram, Paris, and the version for oboe was premiered by Heinz Holliger on 6 July 1979 in a concert themed Music of the 20th Century in the large hall of the broadcaster Saarländischer Rundfunk in Saarbrücken. At around this time, Stockhausen adapted the clarinet version for the basset horn, with extended range to low C3, and this version was first performed by Stephens at a private gathering at the composer’s house on the occasion of his fifty-first birthday on 22 August 1979. Both the clarinet and basset-horn versions are authorised for performance on bass clarinet, and the first public performance of the extended-range version was given by the Dutch bass clarinetist Harry Sparnaay on 10 January 1981 in Haarlem. In the following years, Stockhausen adapted the work for most of the other standard orchestral instruments. Between 7 and 10 January 1981, in collaboration with Warren Stewart, Stockhausen made a version for cello, which Stewart premiered at the Eastman School of Music on 23 April 1981. Even before this premiere, Stockhausen had adapted it, from 16 to 19 April 1981, as a new version for violin. A version for bassoon followed the next year, composed on 19 and 20 April 1982 for Kim Walker. During rehearsals, Stockhausen came to imagine the piece being played by a teddy bear, like the one he had had as a small child, only much larger. Walker had a costume made, and gave the premiere in the Wigmore Hall in London on 10 May 1982 under the title "In Freundschaft, for a teddy bear with bassoon". A version for trombone was requested by Mark Tezak, who finalized the details with Stockhausen during rehearsals in August and September 1982. Around the same time, John Sampen requested and performed a version for soprano saxophone, though Stockhausen made further adjustments the next year with the saxophonist Hugo Read. At the request of the hornist Alejandro Govea Zappino, a version for his instrument was prepared during rehearsals on 17 November 1983, but further changes were carried out up to 11 September 1984 and the premiere was only finally given by Jens McManama, hornist with the Ensemble InterContemporain, at a concert in Baden-Baden celebrating Pierre Boulez’s 60th birthday on 31 March 1985. Even a version for alto recorder came into existence, at the instigation of Geesche Geddert, first in an exchange of letters, then in rehearsal with Stockhausen on 6 April 1984. The published score of the cello version can also be played on double bass, and a version for tuba also exists. In response to a suggestion by his trumpet-player son, Markus (who had put off attempting the work for 20 years), he replaced the original trumpet version with a new one for trumpet in E with a special fourth valve. Markus gave the world premiere of this new version in Kürten on 31 August 1997. ## Analysis In Freundschaft begins with a basic musical formula (transcribed below), which defines the musical parameters: pitch, duration, dynamics, and timbre. It is used as a motif for further variation. The basic formula consists of five segments, containing 1, 3, 2, 5, and 8 notes—therefore 19 notes in all—occupying durational units of approximately 1, 2, 3, 5, and 8 quarter-notes' duration, though the ending is altered in the introductory statement—a "reduced formula" ending with a slow oscillation between two notes a semitone apart. This formula is then presented in two registrally separated and permuted alternating statements, similar to the arrangement in Stockhausen’s Mantra, so that the work may be said to be monothematic. Initially, the separation of the two layers is emphasized through the dynamics: the higher level is consistently ', the lower one '. Each layer consists of five segments, and the rests separating the segments in the upper layer correspond to the lengths of the sounding segments in the lower one. Measured in sixteenth notes (and therefore on average a quarter the lengths of the upper-layer segments), these are: 4, 7, 2, 11, and 0 (= grace note). The segment statements are separated by a middle-register semitone trill (A to B in the clarinet version), which first emerges from a gradual acceleration of the last interval of the fifth segment in the introduction. After the initial presentation, the opposing characters of the two layers are gradually evened out, in a process of development over seven cyclical statements of the formula, until the two layers are merged into a single melody. This is accomplished by progressively transposing the upper level downward by one semitone per cycle, and the lower level upward by the same degree. In this way, the entirely separate ranges in the first cycle (F<sub>5</sub>–F<sub>6</sub> and F<sub>4</sub>–F<sub>5</sub>) are brought into the single octave C<sub>5</sub>–B<sub>5</sub> in the seventh. The overall form is interrupted by two cadenzas, the first between the third and fourth cycles, the second at the point of union between the two layers, beginning near the end of the sixth cycle and leading to the seventh. ## Discography There are recordings of In Freundschaft for various instruments. Some versions have been recorded multiple times. Stockhausen-Verlag issued a series of recordings under the composer's supervision, as part of the complete recordings of his works beginning in 1991. ## Reception In an obituary by the CBC summarised in 2007: > In the 1970s, he took up "formula composition" and created a simple style that became a model for a new generation of German composers. Tierkreis (Zodiac) and In Freundschaft (In Friendship) are his most recorded works from this period.	[ "## Background", "## Composition history", "## Analysis", "## Discography", "## Reception" ]	1,862	9,386
2,555,620	Porcelain (song)	1,165,525,634	2000 single by Moby	[ "1999 songs", "2000 singles", "Moby songs", "Music videos directed by Jonas Åkerlund", "Music videos directed by Nick Brandt", "Mute Records singles", "Song recordings produced by Moby", "Songs written by Moby", "V2 Records singles" ]	"Porcelain" is a song by American electronic musician Moby. It was released as the sixth single from his fifth studio album Play on April 25, 2000. Written by Moby, who also performs vocals on the recording, "Porcelain" is a melancholic song with lyrics reflecting on the breakup of a relationship. It features a lush musical backing that incorporates reversed strings and various synthesized elements. While Moby initially expressed disdain over the song and its production, he was eventually talked into including it on Play. One of the most successful singles from Play, "Porcelain" became a top five hit in the United Kingdom and entered various other national record charts. Contributing to the song's commercial exposure was its use in several forms of media, including a notable placement in the 2000 film The Beach. Music critics have highlighted "Porcelain" as a standout track on Play, and it has also been included on several year-end and all-time lists of the best songs. Two different music videos were produced for "Porcelain", directed by Jonas Åkerlund and Nick Brandt. ## Background and composition "Porcelain" was written and produced by Moby for his fifth studio album Play (1999). Moby recorded the song, and the rest of Play, in his apartment in Manhattan's Little Italy neighborhood. According to him, the song's lyrics were inspired by a personal experience: "I was involved with this really, really wonderful woman, and I loved her very much. But I knew deep in my heart of hearts that we had no business being romantically involved. So, it's sort of about being in love with someone but knowing you shouldn't be with them." Moby initially disliked "Porcelain", finding his production "mushy" and his vocals "really weak". He recalled that he "couldn't imagine anyone else wanting to listen to it" and had to be talked into including the song on Play. Andy Gensler of The Hollywood Reporter described "Porcelain" as a "lush" downtempo track. The song features vocals performed by Moby, and introspective, wistful lyrics that describe "loving someone, but having to break up with them anyway." Composed in the key of E major and running at a tempo of 96 beats per minute, "Porcelain" follows a constant four-chord progression (Gm−B−Fm−A) in the B mixolydian mode, with the exception of a bridge midway through the song. The music incorporates several layered elements, including a reversed sample of strings from the Ernest Gold composition "Fight for Survival" (from his soundtrack for the 1960 film Exodus), synthesizer chords, piano and cello lines, vocal samples, and a drum machine rhythm. Pilar Basso performs additional vocals on the song. ## Release The sixth single from Play, "Porcelain" was first released to radio on April 25, 2000, then issued as a physical single on June 12, 2000. Like other tracks from the album, "Porcelain" was licensed for use in numerous commercials and films. English director Danny Boyle featured "Porcelain" in his 2000 film The Beach, with Moby later crediting the film with significantly raising exposure of the song. "Porcelain" was also notably featured in commercials for the Volkswagen Polo, Bosch, and France Télécom. "Porcelain" became one of the most successful singles from Play, and Moby has since referred to it as "probably the most signature song" on the album. It debuted at its peak position of number five on the UK Singles Chart. The single also charted in numerous other European countries, including France, Germany, Ireland, the Netherlands, and Switzerland. In Canada, "Porcelain" peaked at number 50 on the RPM national singles chart, while in the United States, it placed on several genre-specific Billboard charts tracking popular records in dance and rock markets. Surprisingly, the song could be heard in Playing by Heart film released in 1998. ## Critical reception and legacy Entertainment Weekly's David Browne deemed "Porcelain" a standout track on Play, praising it as a "gorgeous" song anchored by Moby's "plaintive" vocal performance. Chicago Sun-Times critic Jim DeRogatis found the song "emotional and gripping" and remarked that if it "didn't move you (in every sense of the word), then you probably had no pulse." Alexandra Marshall of MTV described "Porcelain" as "a lush little snippet which sounds like a basement tape from a Magnetic Fields EP." The Birmingham Evening Mail said that the song's "sweeping melody and atmospheric vocals" create a "distinctive soundscape". Naming it the 26th best single of 2000, Playlouder referred to "Porcelain" as Play's "most crushingly heavenly track" and stated that "familiarity made it no less of a glorious single." It was voted by critics as the 56th best single of 2000 in The Village Voice's year-end Pazz & Jop poll. In 2003, Q listed "Porcelain" as one of the 1,001 best songs of all time. The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame featured the track in its exhibit "The Songs That Shaped Rock and Roll". Liana Jonas of AllMusic referred to "Porcelain" as "a groundbreaking recording", noting that the song's commercial success "helped bring electronica music into the limelight." Moby named his 2016 memoir after the song. Later, "Porcelain" was prominently sampled on rapper ASAP Rocky's 2018 song "ASAP Forever", with Moby being credited as a featured artist on the track. For his 19th studio album Reprise (2021), Moby recorded a new version of "Porcelain" featuring Jim James of My Morning Jacket on vocals, which was released as the first single from the album on March 26, 2021. ## Music videos Two separate music videos were produced for "Porcelain". The first version, directed by Jonas Åkerlund, is primarily a simple closeup of a human eye; various images are reflected onto the eye throughout the entire video, including Moby performing the song, people smiling, and a piano being played. This version only aired in European markets and was not released in the US until its inclusion on the 2001 video album Play: The DVD. The second video, directed by Nick Brandt, follows a driverless 1972 Cadillac DeVille, in which Moby is a passenger, as it travels through a city and a countryside, passing various people in slow motion. The car drives through a field, a forest, past cattle, and finally down a hillside going into the distance. ## Track listing - CD single (CDMute252) 1. "Porcelain" (single version) – 3:32 2. "Flying Over the Dateline" – 4:48 3. "Summer" – 5:55 - Cassette single (CMute252) 1. "Porcelain" (single version) – 3:32 2. "Porcelain" (Torsten Stenzel's Vocaldubmix) – 8:22 3. "Summer" – 5:55 - CD single – remixes (LCDMute252) 1. "Porcelain" (Clubbed to Death version by Rob Dougan) – 6:36 2. "Porcelain" (Futureshock instrumental) – 8:21 3. "Porcelain" (Torsten Stenzel's edited remix) – 4:49 - 12-inch single – remixes (12Mute252) 1. "Porcelain" (Torsten Stenzel's remix) – 9:05 2. "Porcelain" (Force Mass Motion remix) – 8:32 - 12-inch single – remixes (L12Mute252) 1. "Porcelain" (Futureshock instrumental) – 8:21 2. "Porcelain" (Futureshock beats) – 3:59 3. "Porcelain" (Clubbed to Death variation by Rob Dougan) – 6:36 - 12-inch single (63881-27650-1) 1. "Porcelain" (Clubbed to Death variation by Rob Dougan) – 6:36 2. "Porcelain" (album version) – 4:01 3. "Porcelain" (Futureshock remix) – 8:35 4. "Porcelain" (Futureshock beats) – 3:59 - "Honey" / "Porcelain" CD single (MUSH019852) 1. "Honey" (remix edit; featuring Kelis) – 3:13 2. "Porcelain" (album mix) – 4:01 3. "Honey" (Fafu's 12" mix; featuring Kelis) – 6:19 4. "Porcelain" (Clubbed to Death variation by Rob Dougan) – 6:36 5. "Honey" (Moby's 118 mix) – 4:48 - Digital single – remixes (ANJ396D) 1. "Porcelain" (Above & Beyond remix) – 6:41 2. "Porcelain" (Arty remix) – 3:31 - Digital single – remix (SHA120S1) 1. "Porcelain" (Pola & Bryson remix) – 5:27 - Digital EP – remixes (ROCKD025) 1. "Porcelain" (Timo Maas & James Teej's Broken China dub) – 9:16 2. "Porcelain" (Sebastian Mullaert's Transformation mix) – 13:27 ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ## Certifications ## Release history	[ "## Background and composition", "## Release", "## Critical reception and legacy", "## Music videos", "## Track listing", "## Charts", "### Weekly charts", "### Year-end charts", "## Certifications", "## Release history" ]	2,094	2,419
40,407,811	Glutinoglossum glutinosum	1,077,857,720	Species of fungus	[ "Fungi described in 1796", "Fungi of Africa", "Fungi of Asia", "Fungi of Europe", "Fungi of Macaronesia", "Fungi of North America", "Geoglossaceae" ]	Glutinoglossum glutinosum, commonly known as the viscid black earth tongue or the glutinous earthtongue, is a species of fungus in the family Geoglossaceae (the earth tongues). Widely distributed in the Northern Hemisphere, it has been found in northern Africa, Asia, Europe, and North America. Although previously thought to exist in Australasia, collections made from these locations have since been referred to new species. G. glutinosum is a saprophytic species that grows on soil in moss or in grassy areas. The smooth, nearly black, club-shaped fruitbodies grow to heights ranging from 1.5 to 5 cm (0.6 to 2.0 in). The head is up to 0.7 cm (0.3 in) long, and the stipes are sticky. Several other black earth tongue species are quite similar in external appearance, and many can be reliably distinguished only by examining differences in microscopic characteristics, such as spores, asci, and paraphyses. First described in 1796 as a species of Geoglossum, the fungus has gone through several changes of genera in its taxonomic history. It was placed in its current genus, Glutinoglossum, in 2013. ## Taxonomy The fungus was first officially described in 1796 as Geoglossum glutinosum by Dutch mycologist Christiaan Hendrik Persoon, who proposed several defining characteristics, including the black color; the smooth, compressed, club-shaped head (clavula) with grooves; and the somewhat curved and glutinous stipe. In 1908, Elias Judah Durand transferred it to Gloeoglossum, a genus he circumscribed to contain species with paraphyses (filamentous, sterile cells interspersed between the asci) present as a continuous gelatinous layer on the stipe; Gloeoglossum has since been reduced to synonymy with Geoglossum. In 1942 Japanese mycologist Sanshi Imai thought the species should be in Cibalocoryne, a genus name used earlier by Frigyes Ákos Hazslinszky, and so published Cibalocoryne glutinosa. Later authors thought Cibalocoryne to be ambiguous, and the name was synonymized with Geoglossum. Persoon also described the species Geoglossum viscosum (1801) and the variety Geoglossum glutinosum var. lubricum (1822), but both of these taxa were placed into synonymy with G. glutinosum by Elias Judah Durand in 1908. The species was transferred by Vincent Hustad and colleagues to the newly created genus Glutinoglossum in 2013 when molecular analysis revealed that it and the species G. heptaseptatum formed a well-defined clade in the Geoglossaceae. In 2015, Hustad and Andrew Miller published an emended description of G. glutinosum with a narrower range of spore dimensions, suggesting that material collected in Australia and New Zealand represent unique species, which they referred to G. australasicum and G. exiguum. These species, along with G. americanum and G. methvenii, were added to Glutinoglossum in 2015. Hustad and Miller noted their new spore size range for G. glutinosum were more closely aligned with those given by Durand in his measurements of Persoon's type specimen. The specific epithet glutinosum is derived from the Latin word gluten, meaning "glue". The species is commonly known as the "viscid black earth tongue" or the "glutinous earthtongue". ## Description The club-shaped fruitbodies, which have a distinct blackish head and a more lightly colored stipe (dark brown), grow to heights ranging from 1.5 to 5 cm (0.6 to 2.0 in). The head is up to 0.7 cm (0.3 in) tall and ranges in shape from fuse-shaped to narrowly ellipsoidal to nearly cylindrical, and is somewhat compressed on the sides. The nearly black, somewhat waxy head has a vertical groove down the middle. The stipe has a glutinous, dark grey-brown surface. The spores are smooth and cylindrical, sometimes with a slight swelling in the middle, and sometimes slightly curved; they measure 59–65 by 4–5 μm. G. glutinosum spores have between two and seven septa, although three is most typical in mature specimens. The thin-walled asci (spore-bearing cells) are cylindrical to narrowly club-shaped, eight-spored, and typically measure 200–265 μm long by 12–16 μm wide. Ascospores occupy about the upper two-thirds to three-quarters of the ascus, leaving a hyaline (transparent) base. The paraphyses, hyaline at the base and brown in the upper regions, are 4–11 μm wide, and longer than the asci. Cells at the end of the paraphyses are pear-shaped (piriform) or spherical, brownish, and measure 8–10 μm wide. The sticky material on the stipe is a gelatinous matrix made of a layer of paraphyses. Although black earth tongue species are generally not worth eating, Charles McIlvaine opined in his 1902 work One Thousand American Fungi that, if stewed, G. glutinosum is "delicious." ### Similar species Geoglossum nigritum is similar in appearance to Glutinoglossum glutinosum, but lacks a slimy stipe. Trichoglossum species, such as the common T. hirsutum, have a velvety surface texture acquired from thick-walled bristles called setae. Several other earth tongue species are roughly similar in external appearance to G. glutinosum, and can be difficult to distinguish from that species without considering distribution and microscopic characteristics such as the size and shape of the asci, ascospores, and paraphyses. Geoglossum peckianum and G. uliginosum can develop a glutinous stipe; the former has spores measuring 90–120 by 6–7 μm with 14 septa, while the latter has spores that are 60–80 by 4.5–6 μm with 7 septa. The Australasian species Glutinoglossum methvenii is distinguished from G. glutinosum by its short, stout ascospores (mostly measuring 70–80 by 5–6 μm) and the presence of curved to hooked paraphyses tips. G. australasicum, the most abundant Glutinoglossum species in Australasia, has asci measuring 205–270 by 17–20 μm, while those of G. exiguum are 165–260 by 13.5–17 μm. The latter species tends to have smaller fruitbodies, up to 3.5 cm (1.4 in) tall. ## Habitat and distribution Glutinoglossum glutinosum is a saprophytic species. Its fruitbodies grow scattered on soil in moss beds or in grassy areas. North American collections are typically associated with hardwoods, while European collections are often made in pasture and dune slacks. The fungus has been used as an indicator of medium-quality grassland in the UK. In India, it has been encountered on the soil of oak forests, and among mosses on stony slopes at an elevation of 2,000 m (6,600 ft). A widely distributed species, Glutinoglossum glutinosum has been recorded from northern Africa (Macaronesia), Asia (Bhutan, China, India, Japan, and the Philippines) and Europe. It is listed as vulnerable in Switzerland. In Bulgaria, where it is considered critically endangered, threats to G. glutinosum include "habitat changes as result of agriculture activities (crops, livestock), atmospheric and land pollution, drought, global warming." In a preliminary Regional Red List of Dutch macrofungi, G. glutinosum was considered threatened, and it was noted that before 1970, the fungus was "rather common", compared to "rather rare" after that year. The North American distribution includes Canada, the United States, and Mexico. Although G. glutinosum was previously thought to have occurred in Australia and New Zealand, later examination and genetic analysis of collections from these locations showed the material to belong to what have since been described as the new species G. australasicum or G. exiguum.	[ "## Taxonomy", "## Description", "### Similar species", "## Habitat and distribution" ]	1,825	15,034
27,063,024	Glee: The Music, The Power of Madonna	1,173,636,371	null	[ "2010 debut EPs", "2010 soundtrack albums", "Columbia Records EPs", "Covers EPs", "Glee (TV series) albums", "Madonna tribute albums", "Tribute albums" ]	Glee: The Music, The Power of Madonna is the debut extended play (EP) by the cast of the musical television series Glee. It contains eight songs from the season one Glee episode, "The Power of Madonna", which was a tribute episode dedicated to American recording artist Madonna. She had sold the rights to her entire catalog of music to Glee in 2009, and producers of the show developed the episode called "The Power of Madonna"; the show featured a number of cover versions of Madonna's songs by the cast. The accompanying EP released with the airing of the show was called Glee: The Music, The Power of Madonna. After its release, it received generally positive reviews from the critics, who frequently cited Glee's cover version of Madonna's "Like a Prayer" as a stand-out track from the album. The EP debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 albums chart, with 98,000 copies in the first week in the United States, the highest debut for a Glee soundtrack. It also reached the top of the chart in Canada, and the top ten in Australia, Ireland and the United Kingdom. The release of the EP saw an increase in the catalog sales of Madonna's albums too. All songs from The Power of Madonna were released as singles with the exception of "Burning Up". "Like a Prayer" charted highest in all regions, reaching number 27 on the US Billboard Hot 100, and selling 87,000 digital downloads there. ## Background In 2009, Madonna granted Glee the rights to her entire catalogue of music, and the producers planned an episode which would feature Madonna songs exclusively. Series creator Ryan Murphy had worked with Madonna in the past, and wished to produce a Glee tribute to her. Madonna agreed and "cooperated in every way possible", for the episode "The Power of Madonna". The episode featured the show's fictional glee club director Will Schuester, portrayed by actor Matthew Morrison, assigning the students in the club to sing Madonna songs because the girls were being subjected to sexist treatment by the boys; he hoped the entire glee club would learn from the messages of girl-power and equality in such Madonna songs as "Express Yourself". Glee: The Music, The Power of Madonna, an extended play (EP) containing studio recordings of songs performed in the episode, was released on April 20, 2010. Its track list encompasses "Express Yourself", a mash-up of "Borderline" and "Open Your Heart", "Vogue", "Like a Virgin, "4 Minutes", "What It Feels Like for a Girl", and "Like a Prayer". The iTunes edition featured a bonus track, "Burning Up", which was not performed in the episode. Although they were not performed by the show's cast, Madonna's "Ray of Light", "Burning Up", "Justify My Love", and "Frozen" were also used as backing tracks in the episode. ## Reception ### Critical response The album has received generally positive reviews from critics. Fraser McAlpine of the BBC wrote: "At its best, it's a loving homage; at worst it's like the re-made pop music retailers play in shops to avoid paying proper royalties." He felt that: "As they are essentially photocopies of the originals, the songs depend on the context of the show to make sense. So listening to the album on musical merits alone is close to pointless." AllMusic's Andrew Leahey rated the album 3.5/5, writing: "It's a short release, but it also holds its ground against the two albums that preceded it, namely because the material is so compatible with the show itself. Madonna's music has always thrived on drama, and it lends itself well to Glee's theater-pop approach, which tends to bring out the cheese in even the most serious of songs." Nick Levine of Digital Spy rated the EP 4/5, praising the "imaginative reworking" of "What It Feels Like For a Girl", and noting: "if the Glee treatment encourages a few younger pop fans to invest in Madonna's stellar recent hits collection, it can only be viewed as a good thing. And for those in the know, hearing five members of this thoroughly likable cast trilling "Like A Virgin" in harmony is so downright gleeful, well, it's almost like being touched for the very first time." Sahar Ghosh from Seattle Post-Intelligencer felt that the best songs on the EP were "What It Feels Like for a Girl" and "Like a Prayer", saying that "the lyrics Madonna sang in 2001 [for 'What It Feels Like for a Girl'] still (unfortunately) ring true today, but they acquire a new poignancy as they are sung by the boys in Glee Club. [...] But the best performance of the album is definitely 'Like a Prayer'. The talented voices of the Glee cast, backed by a full choir, masterfully carry the lyrics to greater heights." Mikael Wood from Entertainment Weekly gave it an "A" rating, explaining "Sue hilariously revises the spoken-word bit on 'Vogue', and the Glee guys give a surprisingly tender reading of 'What It Feels Like for a Girl'. Go ahead — open your heart." David Hiltbrand from Star Tribune gave a negative review of the EP saying that "things go downhill as soon as Jane Lynch starts camping up the spoken portion of 'Vogue'. By the time you get to 'Like a Virgin' and '4 Minutes', the songs sound overproduced and melodramatic, more show tune than disco." ### Commercial performance In its first week of release in the United States, Glee: The Music, The Power of Madonna reached number one on the Billboard 200, with 98,000 copies sold. It became the first album by the Glee cast to debut at the top of the chart, also the first number one album consisting totally of covers of one artist's songs, since the all-ABBA Mamma Mia! The Movie Soundtrack reigned for a week in August 2008. According to Nielsen SoundScan, 75 percent of the sales were due to digital downloads from online stores. It was also the Top Digital and Top Soundtrack album of the week. The release of the EP also had its impact on Madonna's own catalog. Her Celebration greatest hits album re-entered Billboard 200 at number 86 with sales of 6,000 (up 219%). Her total catalog of albums saw a 44% jump in sales, selling 17,000 that week. Her digital song download tally also got a boost with total tracks sold being 108,000, up 169% compared to the week previous (40,000). Her two biggest-selling songs of the week were "4 Minutes" and "Like a Prayer"—each selling 12,000 with gains of 183% and 267%, respectively. In Canada, the album debuted at the top of the Canadian Albums Chart, with sales of 23,000 according to Nielsen SoundScan. In Australia, the EP debuted at number 14 on the Australian Albums Chart. After two weeks it reached a peak of number 10, and was present for a total of seven weeks on the chart. In Belgium's Wallonia region and in the Netherlands, the EP charted at the lower strata of the chart. It was more successful in Mexico, where it debuted at number 47 on the Mexican Albums Chart, and reached a peak of 34, the next week, staying on the chart for a total of eight weeks. After its release in United Kingdom, Glee: The Music, The Power of Madonna entered The Official UK Albums Chart at number four. However, it had sharp drops for the next weeks, and was present for a total of eight weeks. In Ireland the EP debuted at number 22 on the Albums Chart, and moved to its peak of number five the next week. ## Singles All songs on the EP, apart from the bonus track, were also released as singles, available for digital download. Among the releases, Glee's version of "Like a Prayer" became the highest selling song of the bunch. It sold 87,000 copies of digital downloads to enter the Hot Digital Songs chart at number 10, also charting on the Billboard Hot 100 at number 27. "Like a Prayer" also charted at number 27 on the Canadian Hot 100, and number 28 in Australia. "Like a Prayer" was also successful in the United Kingdom, where it reached number 16 on the UK Singles Chart, and was present for four weeks. Other songs charting there included "4 Minutes", "Like a Virgin" and "Borderline / Open Your Heart" at positions 42, 58 and 66 respectively. ## Track listing Information is taken from Liner Notes ## Credits and personnel - Dianna Agron – vocals - Adam Anders – arranger, engineer, producer, soundtrack producer - Peer Åström – engineer, mixing, producer - Dave Bett – art direction, design - PJ Bloom – music supervisor - Stephen Bray – composer - Geoff Bywater – executive in charge of music - Madonna Ciccone – composer - Gardner Cole – composer - Chris Colfer – vocals - Tim Davis – arranger, vocal contractor - Dante Di Loreto – soundtrack executive producer - Brad Falchuk – soundtrack executive producer - Jonathan Groff – vocals - Floyd Nathaniel Hills – composer - Tom Kelly – composer - Michael Lavine – cover photo - Jane Lynch – vocals - Dominick Malta – mastering - Maria Paula Marulanda – art direction, design - Jayma Mays – vocals - Kevin McHale – vocals - Lea Michele – vocals - Cory Monteith – vocals - Timothy Mosley – composer - Ryan Murphy – producer, soundtrack producer - Ryan Peterson – engineer - Shep Pettibone – composer - Peter Rafelson – composer - Amber Riley – vocals - Naya Rivera – vocals - Mark Salling – vocals - Guy Sigsworth – composer - Billy Steinberg – composer - Justin Timberlake – composer - David Torn – composer - Jenna Ushkowitz – vocals Credits adapted as per Allmusic credit notes. ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ## Certification ## Release history ## See also - List of number-one albums of 2010 (Canada) - List of Billboard 200 number-one albums of 2010	[ "## Background", "## Reception", "### Critical response", "### Commercial performance", "## Singles", "## Track listing", "## Credits and personnel", "## Charts", "### Weekly charts", "### Year-end charts", "## Certification", "## Release history", "## See also" ]	2,195	26,200
21,525,238	SM UB-44	1,172,007,891	German Type UB II submarine	[ "1916 ships", "German Type UB II submarines", "Maritime incidents in 1916", "Missing U-boats of World War I", "U-boats commissioned in 1916", "U-boats sunk in 1916", "World War I submarines of Germany" ]	SM UB-44 was a Type UB II submarine or U-boat for the German Imperial Navy (German: Kaiserliche Marine) during World War I. UB-44 operated in the Mediterranean and disappeared in August 1916. UB-44 was ordered in July 1915 and was laid down at the AG Weser shipyard in Bremen in September. UB-44 was about 37 metres (121 ft 5 in) in length and displaced between 270 and 305 tonnes (266 and 300 long tons), depending on whether surfaced or submerged. She was equipped to carry a complement of four torpedoes for her two bow torpedo tubes and had an 5-centimeter (2.0 in) deck gun. As part of a group of six submarines selected for Mediterranean service, UB-44 was broken into railcar sized components and shipped to Pola where she was assembled and launched in April 1916 and commissioned in May. In two patrols in her three-month career, UB-44 sank one ship of 3,409 gross register tons (GRT). In early August 1916, UB-44 departed from Cattaro for Hersingstand and never arrived. Her fate is officially unknown, but she may have been sunk by a torpedo boat near the island of Paxoi on 8 August. ## Design and construction The German UB II design improved upon the design of the UB I boats, which had been ordered in September 1914. In service, the UB I boats were found to be too small and too slow. A major problem was that, because they had a single propeller shaft/engine combo, if either component failed, the U-boat became almost totally disabled. To rectify this flaw, the UB II boats featured twin propeller shafts and twin engines (one shaft for each engine), which also increased the U-boat's top speed. The new design also included more powerful batteries, larger torpedo tubes, and a deck gun. As a UB II boat, U-47 could also carry twice the torpedo load of her UB I counterparts, and nearly ten times as much fuel. To contain all of these changes the hull was larger, and the surface and submerged displacement was more than double that of the UB I boats. The Imperial German Navy ordered UB-44 from AG Weser on 31 July 1915 as one of a series of six UB II boats (numbered from UB-42 to UB-47). UB-44 was 36.90 metres (121 ft 1 in) long and 4.37 metres (14 ft 4 in) abeam. She had a single hull with saddle tanks and had a draught of 3.68 metres (12 ft 1 in) when surfaced. She displaced 305 tonnes (300 long tons) while submerged but only 272 tonnes (268 long tons) on the surface. The submarine was equipped with twin Daimler diesel engines and twin Siemens-Schuckert electric motors—for surfaced and submerged running, respectively—that drove one propeller shaft. UB-44 had a surface speed of up to 8.82 knots (16.33 km/h; 10.15 mph) and could go as fast as 6.22 knots (11.52 km/h; 7.16 mph) while underwater. The U-boat could carry up to 27 tonnes (27 long tons) of diesel fuel, giving her a range of 6,940 nautical miles (12,850 km; 7,990 mi) at 5 knots (9.3 km/h; 5.8 mph). Her electric motors and batteries provided a range of 45 nautical miles (83 km; 52 mi) at 4 knots (7.4 km/h; 4.6 mph) while submerged. UB-44 was equipped with two 50-centimeter (19.7 in) bow torpedo tubes and could carry four torpedoes. The U-boat was also armed with one 8.8 cm (3.5 in) Uk L/30 deck gun. UB-44 was laid down by AG Weser at its Bremen shipyard on 3 September 1915. As one of six U-boats selected for service in the Mediterranean while under construction, UB-44 was broken into railcar-sized components and shipped overland to the Austro-Hungarian port of Pola. Shipyard workers from Weser assembled the boat and her five sisters at Pola, where she was launched on 20 April 1916. ## Service career SM UB-44 was commissioned into the German Imperial Navy on 11 May 1916 under the command of Oberleutnant zur See Franz Wäger. UB-44, Wäger's fourth U-boat command, was assigned to the Navy's Pola Flotilla (German: Deutsche U-Halbflotille Pola). Although the flotilla was based in Pola, the site of the main Austro-Hungarian Navy base, boats of the flotilla operated out of the Austro-Hungarian base at Cattaro which was located farther south and closer to the Mediterranean. German U-boats typically returned to Pola only for repairs. On 30 June, Wäger and UB-44 achieved their only success when they sank the steamer Moeris 46 nautical miles (85 km; 53 mi) southeast of Cape Sidero, Crete. The 3,409-gross register ton British steamer was carrying a general cargo from Glasgow for Alexandria when she went down with the loss of three men. After Germany's conquest of Romania (see Romania during World War I), the German Imperial Navy had sufficient fuel oil for submarines located in the Black Sea. UB-44 and three of her sister ships in the Pola Flotilla were ordered to Constantinople and, en route, had to navigate through the Dardanelles, which had been heavily mined by the Allies in the middle of 1916. UB-44 departed from Cattaro on 8 August for Hersingstand (located on the Gallipoli peninsula) to pick up a pilot for the trip through the Dardanelles, but never arrived. UB-44's fate is unknown. Two British post-war reports list UB-44 as falling victim to the Otranto Barrage on 30 July but, as author Dwight Messimer points out, German records record UB-44's departure from Cattaro nine days after that. Messimer reports that it is possible that UB-44 was sunk by the torpedo boat HMS 368 (probably the French TB368, based at Brindisi), which was reported by an Athenian newspaper as sinking a U-boat 6 nautical miles (11 km; 6.9 mi) on 8 August off Paxoi with a lance bomb. ## Summary of raiding history	[ "## Design and construction", "## Service career", "## Summary of raiding history" ]	1,420	2,032
10,528,017	Fran (Final Fantasy)	1,171,078,579	Fictional character in Final Fantasy	[ "Black characters in video games", "Characters designed by Akihiko Yoshida", "Female characters in video games", "Female soldier and warrior characters in video games", "Fictional archers", "Fictional hunters in video games", "Final Fantasy XII", "Final Fantasy characters", "Kemonomimi", "Square Enix protagonists", "Video game characters introduced in 2006" ]	Fran (Japanese: フラン, Hepburn: Furan) is a character in the Final Fantasy series of video games. She is a member of the Viera race, a group of rabbit-like humanoid people. She appears in Final Fantasy XII, having left her tribe and worked as a copilot to the pirate Balthier. Her character design was created by Akihiko Yoshida. She is voiced by Nicole Fantl in English and by Rika Fukami in Japanese. Her English voice performance took inspiration from Icelandic singer Björk, which left Square Enix skeptical but eventually sated with their explanations. Fran later appears in the Nintendo DS sequel Final Fantasy XII: Revenant Wings. Fran has received mostly popular reception since her debut and is noted for having popularized the fictional Viera race. She is often regarded as one of the highlights of Final Fantasy XII's cast and in the series in general and has been praised for her design by multiple critics. She is considered a rare example of a non-white female character in video games, though this assessment is considered by some to be problematic due to racial implications. ## Concept and creation Fran's visual appearance was designed by Akihiko Yoshida and her story was written by Daisuke Watanabe for Final Fantasy XII, which had a development period of 2001 to 2006. She is a Viera, a humanoid species that resembles rabbits. She is also co-pilot to her friend Balthier and the mechanic to their ship, the Strahl. Like all Viera, she is exceptionally sensitive to the magical mist that permeates Ivalice, the setting of Final Fantasy XII, which can send her into a rage. The decision to feature non-human species in the world of XII was due to wanting to feature different races and social classes and to represent real-world history. Characters' outfits in XII were made to show more skin due to the setting being hot. Fran was voiced by Nicole Fantl in English and by Rika Fukami in Japanese, while her motion capture work was performed by Hiroko Harada and Kouhei Takeda. Fukami had her speak in a "straightforward, slightly gruff" fashion. Localizer Alexander O. Smith took inspiration in writing Fran's English dialogue from Icelandic singer Björk, casting for people who can actualize that inspiration. Smith said that he ideally wanted Björk to be cast. Square Enix was initially skeptical of the direction they were taking with Fran's voice as it was significantly different from the Japanese version to a larger extent than the other lead characters, but the staff was able to convince them by explaining that they were trying a new take on her Viera race. Smith identified Fran and the other Viera as some of his favorite characters to write in Final Fantasy XII due to their Icelandic accents. ## Appearances Before the events of Final Fantasy XII, Fran lived with her sisters Jote and Mjrn in Eruyt Village, a secluded Viera settlement in Golmore Woods, but became restless and desired to see the outside world. This was a major source of conflict between her and the other Viera, especially her sister Jote, who served as the village matriarch. Fran argued that although all Viera begin their lives in the forest, they are not necessarily bound to remain there to the end. When the party encounters an impassable Viera barrier, Fran is forced to return to her former village and ask for help. She learns from Jote that their sister Mjrn has run off. When Fran finds her and brings her back, Mjrn reveals she wishes to leave Golmore, but Fran advises her against doing so, relating how her own independence has cost her her family and her spirituality with Golmore. After Fran departs, she feels as though Jote cares for her, despite her reluctance to say as much. She later appears in the Nintendo DS sequel Revenant Wings alongside Balthier, which is set on a place called the Sky Continent. She and Balthier initially work to destroy the auralith, one of multiple crystals that keep the Sky Continent afloat that protagonists Vaan and Penelo are trying to protect, though it is later explained that they were trying to prevent the souls of a people called the aegyl which reside in the auralith from being taken. In battle, Fran uses status effects against opponents, a unique combat ability among the playable cast. She also appears as a playable character in Itadaki Street Portable. She was included in Dissidia Final Fantasy Opera Omnia as a playable character, where she has the unique ability Viera Commandments. ## Reception Fran has received mostly positive reception. She is credited with popularizing the Viera race by PCGamesN. Chris Carter and Joe Juba, writing for Game Informer and Destructoid respectively, both enjoyed Fran, regarding her and Balthier as standout characters among Final Fantasy XII's cast. David Lozada and Aoife Wilson, writing for Game Revolution and Vice respectively, regarded her as a standout character in the Final Fantasy series, with the latter regarded a scene of her going into a rage as one of the most memorable in the series. She did not rank among a list of favorite female Final Fantasy characters by Japanese fans, which caused Mollie L. Patterson of Electronic Gaming Monthly disappointment. The Verge said that Fran is their favorite character in the series' 35-year history. Writers for IGN and Complex found her design attractive, with the former drawing a comparison between Fran and the Playboy bunny. Emma Boyes for IGN and Nadia Oxford for USGamer both enjoyed Fran's design in spite of the impracticality of her armor and heels. Jef Rouner for Houston Press found her design attractive as well, identifying her as the hottest furry character. He noted her height, accent, and figure as highlights. Rouner also noted her as a rare example of black women in games, though he noted that she seemed to be more of an example of "exotic flavoring" due to her species. Responding to this assessment, Alisha Karabinus of NYM Gamer expressed discomfort at the idea of identifying a non-human character as black, commenting that "there's a lot to unpack" with this. Philip Boyes of Eurogamer took issue with Fran's portrayal, particularly how her design demonstrates "othering" and a "male fantasy". Greg Vallentin of Video Gamer found her voice acting to be "cringey", while writer Mattie Brice discussed how her accent is meant to differentiate her from the rest of the cast. Brice found her exotic, citing her accent, skin color, and species, though she felt that she had the least personality of the main cast. Rémi Lopez in the book La Légende Final Fantasy XII et Ivalice noted that while anthropomorphic characters were not uncommon in the series, Fran was possibly the most intimidating character of the game. He further added that while some sources compared her relationship with Balthier to that of Star Wars characters Chewbacca and Han Solo respectively, their relationship seemed to be one more of mutual respect with the suggestions of a "forbidden romance". Lopez noted that Fran also represents a different idea of the concept of freedom compared to the rest of the cast, shown as a poisoned gift in that it severs her roots with her people, and that while it emphasizes her strength of her character the cost is compounded more by her longer lifespan. This is further reflected in her encouraging her sister to remain with her people, and moreso cold attitude towards Balthier, as she would undoubtedly end up seeing him grow old and die. Lastly Lopez noted that while her appearance in Revenant Wings offered little in ways of expanding her character, he enjoyed that her dialogue reflected on her choices regarding freedom how it affected her view on others to live their own lives.	[ "## Concept and creation", "## Appearances", "## Reception" ]	1,613	2,098
6,300,132	Harriet Arbuthnot	1,168,395,819	English diarist (1793–1834)	[ "1793 births", "1834 deaths", "19th-century English women writers", "19th-century diarists", "Arbuthnot family", "English diarists", "English political hostesses", "Fane family", "Women diarists", "Women of the Regency era" ]	Harriet Arbuthnot (; 10 September 1793 – 2 August 1834) was an early 19th-century English diarist, social observer and political hostess on behalf of the Tory party. During the 1820s she was the closest woman friend of the hero of Waterloo and British Prime Minister, the 1st Duke of Wellington. She maintained a long correspondence and association with the Duke, all of which she recorded in her diaries, which are consequently extensively used in all authoritative biographies of the Duke of Wellington. Born into the periphery of the British aristocracy, her parents were Henry Fane and his wife, Anne, née Batson; she married a politician and member of the establishment, Charles Arbuthnot. Thus well connected, she was perfectly placed to meet many of the key figures of the Regency and late Napoleonic eras. Recording meetings and conversations often verbatim, she has today become the "Mrs. Arbuthnot" quoted in many biographies and histories of the era. Her observations and memories of life within the British establishment are not confined to individuals but document politics, great events and daily life with an equal attention to detail, providing historians with a clear picture of the events described. Her diaries were themselves finally published in 1950 as The Journal of Mrs Arbuthnot. ## Early life Harriet Arbuthnot was born Harriet Fane on 10 September 1793, the daughter of the Hon. Henry Fane, second son of Thomas Fane, 8th Earl of Westmorland. As a young man, Henry Fane had been described as "very idle and careless and spending much time in the country". However, he found time to be the Member of Parliament for Lyme and in 1772 was appointed Keeper of the King's Private Roads. In 1778, he married Arbuthnot's mother, Anne Batson, an heiress, the daughter of Edward Buckley Batson. The couple had 14 children: nine sons and five daughters. The young Harriet spent much of her childhood at the family home at Fulbeck Hall in Lincolnshire, sited high on the limestone hills above Grantham. The house, which had been given to Henry Fane by his father, was a not over-large modern mansion at the time of Arbuthnot's childhood. It was rebuilt following a fire in 1733, and further extended and modernised in 1784 by Henry Fane. Harriet Fane's father died when she was nine years old, on 4 June 1802, but the family fortunes improved considerably in 1810 when her mother inherited the Avon Tyrrell estate in Hampshire and the Upwood Estate in Dorset. This yielded the widowed Mrs Fane an income of £6,000 per annum (equivalent to £ per year as of ). ## Marriage Harriet Fane married Rt Hon Charles Arbuthnot, member of Parliament, at Fulbeck on 31 January 1814. Born in 1767, her husband was 26 years older than she was, an age difference which had initially caused her family to object to the marriage. She was 20. Another of the principal obstacles to finalising the arrangements for the marriage was financial. Her widowed mother delegated the arrangements for the marriage of her 20-year-old daughter to her elder son Vere, who was considered qualified in these matters as he worked at Child's Bank. It seems that Vere Fane and his mother were not initially prepared to settle enough money on his sister to satisfy her future husband, causing the prospective bridegroom to write to his fiancée: "How can you and I live upon £1000 or £1200 and Fane [her mother] finds it so impossible to live upon her £6000 that she can offer you no assistance whatsoever?" Charles Arbuthnot was a widower with four children; his son Charles was a mere nine years junior to his new wife. His first wife Marcia, a lady in waiting to the notorious Princess of Wales, had died in 1806. Like the other two men his second wife so admired, Viscount Castlereagh and Wellington, Charles Arbuthnot was a member of the Anglo-Irish aristocracy. He had been a member of parliament since 1795, when he became the member for East Looe. At the time of his marriage to Fane, he was the member for St Germans. He had briefly interrupted his political career to become Ambassador Extraordinary to the Ottoman Empire between 1804 and 1807. Marriage to such a pillar of the establishment as Charles Arbuthnot opened all doors to his young new wife, who, as one of the 14 children of a younger son of an aristocratic family possessed of no great fortune, would otherwise have been on the periphery of the highest society. However, as the debate and wrangling over her dowry proved, money was tight. Throughout her marriage, Mrs Arbuthnot, the former Harriet Fane, formed close friendships with powerful older men. She described Castlereagh as her "dearest and best friend" until his death in 1822, when she transferred her affections to the other great 19th-century Anglo-Irish peer, the Duke of Wellington. All social commentators of the time, however, agree that her marriage was happy; indeed, her husband was as close a friend of Wellington's as was his wife. Married to a politician, she was fascinated by politics and enjoyed success as a political hostess while exerting her energies to promote Tory causes. However, while she was the dominant partner, her conservative outlook ensured her continued favour among her elderly Tory admirers. During the early part of her marriage, her husband served as an Under-Secretary at the Treasury. Later, in 1823, he was given the Department of Woods and Forests, a position which gave him charge of the Royal parks and gardens. The subsequent access to the Royal family this allowed increased not only his status but also that of his wife. When remarking in her diaries on other women who shared their affections with great men of the day, Arbuthnot displayed a sharp, ironic wit. Of Wellington's one-time mistress Princess Dorothea Lieven, wife to the Imperial Russian ambassador to London from 1812 to 1834, she wrote "It is curious that the loves and intrigues of a femme galante should have such influence over the affairs of Europe." Her political observations are clearly written from her own Tory viewpoint. However, her detailed description of the rivalry for power between the Tories and Liberals which took place between 1822 and 1830 is one of the most authoritative accounts of this struggle. ## Relationship with Wellington It is likely that Arbuthnot first came to the attention of Wellington during 1814 in the re-opened salons of Paris following the exile of Napoleon to Elba. Wellington had been appointed the British Ambassador to the Court of the Tuileries, and the city was crowded with English visitors anxious to travel on the continent and socialise after the Napoleonic Wars. Amongst those sampling the rounds of entertainment in this lively environment were the newly married Arbuthnots. Charles Arbuthnot was known to Wellington, as he had been a strong supporter of Wellington's younger brother Henry during his divorce, and it is possible Wellington had met, or at least heard of, Mrs Arbuthnot—she was a first cousin to his favourites the Burghersh family. However, it was only after the death of Castlereagh in 1822 that the Wellington–Arbuthnot friendship blossomed. It is unlikely any close friendship developed before this time. Wellington, ensconced in the Hotel de Charost (recently vacated by Napoleon's sister Princess Pauline Borghese) and fêted by the whole of Restoration Paris, had already found himself a close female companion, Giuseppina Grassini. This woman, known, due to her close friendship with Napoleon as "La Chanteuse de l'Empereur", scandalised Parisian society both English and French by appearing on Wellington's arm, especially after the arrival in Paris of the Duchess of Wellington. The story of a "ménage à trois" between Mrs Arbuthnot, her husband Charles, and Wellington, widely speculated upon, has been rejected by some biographers. However, it has been said that the unhappily married Duke enjoyed his relationship with Mrs Arbuthnot because he found in her company "the comfort and happiness his wife could not give him." Arbuthnot was certainly the Duke's confidante in all matters, especially that of his marriage. He confided to her that he only married his wife because "they asked me to do it" and that he was "not the least in love with her." In fact, Wellington had not seen his wife for ten years before their wedding day. Following the marriage, the bride and groom found they had little if anything in common. Despite producing two sons, they led mostly separate lives until the death of the Duchess of Wellington in 1831. Harriet had a rather poor opinion of the Duchess ("she is such a fool"), although she disagreed with Wellington when he said that his wife cared nothing for his comfort: in Harriet's view the Duchess longed to make her husband happy, but had no idea how to go about the task. As a consequence of his unsatisfactory marriage, Wellington formed relationships with other women, but it was for Arbuthnot that "he reserved his deepest affection." Her husband at this time was working at The Treasury and Arbuthnot in effect became what would today be termed Wellington's social secretary during his first term of premiership between January 1828 and November 1830. It has been suggested that the Duke of Wellington allowed her "almost unrestricted access to the secrets of the cabinet". Whatever her knowledge and access, however, it appears she was unable to influence the Duke, but even his refusal to bring her husband into the Cabinet in January 1828 failed to shake the intimacy of the trio. Wellington made no attempts to conceal his friendship with Arbuthnot. An indication that their relationship was platonic and accepted as such in the highest echelons of society can be drawn from the Duchess of Kent permitting Wellington to present Arbuthnot to her infant daughter, the future Queen Victoria, in 1828. Arbuthnot noted that the young princess was "the most charming child I ever saw" and that "the Duchess of Kent is a very sensible person, who educates her (Victoria) remarkably well." Arbuthnot's impressions of the Duchess were less than candid, and not shared by Wellington and other establishment figures. However, had Arbuthnot's own character not been judged respectable an audience with the infant princess would not have been permitted. Many references in Arbuthnot's diary, however, are less respectful than those she accorded to the Duchess of Kent. Wellington and Arbuthnot often travelled together, and a visit to Blenheim Palace they shared in 1824 provoked a scathing entry in her journal concerning Wellington's fellow duke the 5th Duke of Marlborough, of whom she wrote: "The family of the great General is, however, gone sadly to decay, and are but a disgrace to the illustrious name of Churchill, which they have chosen this moment to resume. The present Duke is overloaded with debt, is very little better than a common swindler". When Wellington and the Tories fell from power in November 1830, Arbuthnot lost interest in her diary, writing: "I shall write very seldom now, I dare say, in my book, for, except the Duke, none of the public men interest me." Her account of the break-up of the Tory party is a thoroughly partisan narration, accurate as to happenings outside the Tory inner circle, but on a broader scale and not so completely political as that of Henry Hobhouse. ## Death and legacy Arbuthnot died suddenly of cholera on 2 August 1834, age 40, at Woodford Lodge, her home near the Arbuthnots' seat, Woodford House, Northamptonshire. Immediately after her death an express message was sent to Apsley House, Wellington's London house. The messenger, however, had to divert to Hatfield House, where Wellington was dining with the Marquess and Marchioness of Salisbury. After Arbuthnot's death, it was revealed she had been on a civil list pension of £936 per annum (£ per year as of 2023) since January 1823, for 11 years. After her death, her husband, Charles, left Woodford House and lived with his close friend Wellington in Apsley House. He died there in 1850, aged 83. Arbuthnot was buried in the Fane family plot at St Nicholas' parish church, Fulbeck. She is one of a number of notable women with a connection to Grantham honoured by South Kesteven District Council in 2023. ## See also - List of diarists	[ "## Early life", "## Marriage", "## Relationship with Wellington", "## Death and legacy", "## See also" ]	2,707	43,542
31,931,558	Turahan Bey	1,172,070,175	Ottoman military commander and governor	[ "1456 deaths", "14th-century Ottoman military personnel", "14th-century births", "15th-century governors", "15th-century people from the Ottoman Empire", "City founders", "Military personnel of the Ottoman Empire", "Muslims of the Crusade of Varna", "Ottoman Thessaly", "Ottoman people of the Byzantine–Ottoman wars", "People of the Ottoman Interregnum", "Prisoners and detainees of the Ottoman Empire", "Year of birth missing" ]	Turahan Bey or Turakhan Beg (Turkish: Turahan Bey/Beğ; Albanian: Turhan Bej; Greek: Τουραχάνης, Τουραχάν μπέης or Τουραχάμπεης; died in 1456) was a prominent Ottoman military commander and governor of Thessaly from 1423 until his death in 1456. He participated in many Ottoman campaigns of the second quarter of the 15th century, fighting against the Byzantines as well as against the Crusade of Varna. His repeated raids into the Morea transformed the local Byzantine despotate into an Ottoman dependency and opened the way for its conquest. At the same time, his administration of Thessaly, where he settled new peoples, founded the town of Tyrnavos and revitalized the economy, set the groundwork for Ottoman rule in the area for centuries to come. ## Life Nothing is known of Turahan's birth date or early life, except that he was the son of Pasha Yiğit Bey. His father was a prominent general of Yörük origin who conquered Skopje in 1392 and was the first Ottoman governor of Bosansko Krajište. Turahan is first mentioned in 1413 as governor of Vidin, and then again in 1422, when he fought against the Byzantine governor of Lamia, Kantakouzenos Strabomytes. During the Ottoman Interregnum he was one of the supporters of Mustafa Çelebi during the latter's struggle against Mehmed I and Murad II. He became governor of Thessaly in early 1423, and led his first major expedition in May–June of the same year, against the Byzantine and Latin domains in the Peloponnese peninsula in southern Greece. His cavalry breached the recently rebuilt Hexamilion wall on 21/22 May and ravaged the interior of the peninsula unopposed. He attacked some Byzantine towns and settlements, such as Mystras, Leontari, Gardiki and Dabia. Aside from the plunder, the expedition was also probably a reconnaissance mission ultimately aimed against Venetian possessions in the area, as Venice was the main driving force behind attempts to unite the various Christian rulers of Greece against the Ottoman advance in the Balkans. Soon after, the Byzantine historian Doukas reports Turahan's presence on the shores of the Black Sea. At about the same time, he also campaigned in Epirus, defeated local Albanian tribes and made them tributary to the Ottoman state. In the 1430s, along with Ali Bey and Ishak Bey, he participated in the campaigns that suppressed an Albanian revolt led by Gjergj Arianiti and Andrew Thopia. Despite the devastation visited upon the Peloponnese, Turahan's 1423 expedition was only a raid, and the Byzantine Despots of the Morea were able to restore their position and gradually over the next few years bring the entire peninsula under their control. In 1431, Turahan again breached and destroyed the Hexamilion and took Thebes in 1435, to prevent it from falling into the hands of the Moreot Byzantines. The Despotate of the Morea, under the constant threat of renewed Turkish invasion, clung on to a precarious independence only through continuous gifts and payment of tribute to Turahan. In November 1443 Turahan participated in the Battle of Niš against John Hunyadi, which ended in an Ottoman defeat. During their retreat from Niš, Turahan Bey and Kasim Pasha burned all villages between Niš and Sofia. Turahan persuaded Sultan Murad II to abandon Sofia as well, and follow a consequent scorched earth strategy against the Hungarian advance. Although the Hungarians were badly mauled in the Battle of Zlatitsa, in a subsequent action at Kunovica they were able to capture Mahmud Bey, the Sultan's son-in-law, creating the impression of an overall victorious campaign. Contemporary Ottoman sources blame rivalry between Kasim and Turahan for the defeat at Kunovica, while some claim that the Serbian Despot Đurađ Branković bribed Turahan not to participate in the battle. Turahan fell from favour as a result and was banished by the Sultan to a prison in Tokat. Nevertheless, he was soon restored to his position, as he was present in Murad's 1446 campaign against the Despotate of the Morea. Murad was reportedly disheartened by the strength of the Hexamilion, but Turahan insisted on an assault. Aided by an artillery bombardment, the Ottomans again breached the Byzantine defences and ravaged the Peloponnese at will. As a result, the Despotate of the Morea was now officially reduced to an Ottoman vassal state. In early October 1452, Turahan and his sons Ahmed and Ömer led a large force into the Peloponnese. Sultan Mehmed II ordered them to remain there during the winter in order to prevent despots Thomas and Demetrios from assisting their brother, Emperor Constantine XI, during the Siege of Constantinople in 1453. Turahan again stormed the Hexamilion and penetrated into the Morea, raiding from Corinth through the Argolid and Arcadia to Messenia. The Byzantines put up little resistance after Hexamilion, although Turahan's son Ahmed was captured in an ambush at Dervenakia and imprisoned in Mystras. The fall of Constantinople on 29 May 1453 had great repercussions in the Peloponnese. The two despots, the brothers Demetrios and Thomas, heartily detested each other and were unpopular among their own subjects. A rebellion broke out against them in autumn, supported both by the local Albanian immigrants and the native Greeks, and spread quickly. As the Sultan's vassals, the despots called upon Turkish aid, and Turahan's son Ömer arrived in December. After a few successes, he departed after securing the release of his brother from captivity. The revolt did not subside, and in October 1454 Turahan himself was forced to intervene. After sacking a few fortresses, the rebellious populace capitulated. Turahan advised the two despots to compose their differences and rule well, and then departed the peninsula. The two brothers were however unable to reconcile themselves, and soon reverted to quarreling and conspiring with Western powers against the Sultan. In retaliation, Mehmed II campaigned in the Peloponnese in 1458 and seized the northwestern half of the peninsula, which became an Ottoman province under Ömer. The rest of the despotate followed in 1460. Turahan himself was recalled to Adrianople in October 1455 and died ca. August 1456. He was buried at Kirk Kvak near Uzun Köprü in Thrace, but his memorial tomb (türbe) survives to this day in the city. His descendants, the Turahanoğlu, were wealthy landowners in Thessaly until the end of the Ottoman rule there in the late 19th century; with the exception of his sons however, they did not rise to any wider prominence. ## Legacy Turahan Bey ranked among the great, practically semi-autonomous Ottoman "marcher-lords" (uç beyi) of the 15th-century Balkans, along the likes of Evrenos. He was instrumental in the establishment of Ottoman rule in Thessaly and central Greece in general. Aside from his campaigns of conquest, he brought in 5,000 Turkish settlers (Yörüks and Koniars) whom he settled in a string of twelve villages across the province to strengthen Ottoman military control. In addition, according to Turahan's Arab-language biography, which the Scottish traveller David Urquhart reported to be still extant in the 1830s in Tyrnavos, he was also the first to institute a Greek militia for the lawless mountainous regions of central Greece, the forerunners of the later Armatoloi. Turahan also took several measures to restore order and prosperity in his province, most notably the foundation (or re-foundation) of the town of Tyrnavos, which before was a small pastoral settlement. To attract and protect the local Greek Orthodox population, he granted it special privileges, such as special administrative status as a waqf (a religious endowment) of the Sharif of Mecca, tax exemptions and the prohibition of Ottoman troops from passing through the town. He also endowed it with both a mosque (destroyed after the Greek annexation of Thessaly in 1881) and a church, St Nicholas Turahan, which survives to this day. Turahan also endowed many other public buildings such as mosques, monasteries, madrasas, schools, caravanserais, bridges and baths across the province. He also took care to maintain and foster the Thessalian cotton, silk and wool textile industry, to the extent that later generations attributed to him the introduction of new dye techniques based on yellow berries, madder and the kali plant, used in the manufacture of potash. From there these materials spread to the rest of Rumelia and thence to Western Europe. ## Family tree After Franz Babinger in the Encyclopedia of Islam:	[ "## Life", "## Legacy", "## Family tree" ]	1,956	21,820
22,867,588	Bill Schmeisser	1,163,042,041	Lacrosse player, coach, and patron (1880–1941)	[ "1880 births", "1941 deaths", "20th-century American lawyers", "American lacrosse players", "Baltimore City College alumni", "Johns Hopkins Blue Jays men's lacrosse coaches", "Johns Hopkins Blue Jays men's lacrosse players", "Lacrosse players from Baltimore", "Maryland lawyers", "Mount Washington Lacrosse Club players", "University of Maryland Francis King Carey School of Law alumni", "YMCA leaders" ]	William Christian Schmeisser (August 4, 1880 – July 1, 1941), known widely as "Father Bill", was an American lacrosse player, coach, and patron. He served as the head coach of the Johns Hopkins Blue Jays for ten non-consecutive years, and won eight national championships. He was also an active patron of the sport and promoter of its development. He helped found the highly successful amateur Mount Washington Lacrosse Club. Schmeisser viewed his role in the sport as altruistic, and he never received monetary compensation for coaching. ## Education He was born on August 4, 1880, in Baltimore, Maryland, and attended high school at Baltimore City College, from which he graduated in 1899. He received his undergraduate college education at Johns Hopkins University and received a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1902. While at Hopkins, Schmeisser played as a defenseman on the lacrosse team from 1900 to 1902. He was also a member of the Beta Mu chapter of Phi Gamma Delta. Schmeisser returned to Johns Hopkins for graduate study in the field of political economy, and played an additional year of lacrosse, in 1905. In 1907, he graduated from the school of law at the University of Maryland, Baltimore. ## Role in lacrosse In 1902, he served as team captain and as a co-coach for Johns Hopkins alongside Ronald T. Abercrombie. That season, the team was awarded the Intercollegiate Lacrosse Association (ILA) national championship. The following year, Schmeisser became the sole head coach, and the team again garnered the ILA championship. He returned to Hopkins as its head lacrosse coach from 1905 to 1909. Schmeisser took the position again from 1923 to 1925, and Johns Hopkins secured the United States Intercollegiate Lacrosse Association (USILA) championships in 1923 and 1924. Schmeisser helped organize and played on the Mount Washington Lacrosse Club, a highly successful Baltimore-based amateur team. Since there was no professional league, many former college lacrosse stars played for Mount Washington. The club regularly participated in exhibition games against the top intercollegiate programs and very rarely lost. In 1904, Schmeisser and Abercrombie co-authored Lacrosse: From Candidate to Team, a book which became the sport's standard text for the next fifty years. He also helped promote lacrosse at the University of Maryland and the Naval Academy. Schmeisser was known to often carry a furled umbrella on the sidelines, regardless of the weather, and he stated that his reason for doing so was, "This way I know it won't rain." In 1919, he helped start the tradition in which flags bearing gold stars are attached to the goals prior to the season opener. This was first done to honor three former Hopkins players who were killed in action during the First World War. The tradition has continued to date and additional stars have been added for players killed in the Second World War and Viet Nam. In 1928, Johns Hopkins won a postseason tournament to represent the United States in a lacrosse exhibition event during the Summer Olympics in Amsterdam, and Schmeisser accompanied the team as an assistant coach. He also traveled to England in 1937 alongside the all-star team. In 1941, just two months before his death, Schmeisser convinced the undefeated Johns Hopkins team to accept a challenge from the likewise undefeated Mount Washington Club. The Blue Jays edged their opponents, 7–6. Schmeisser was a long-time official of the USILA, and he held positions that included member of the rules committee, chief referee, and president. US Lacrosse, the American sport's governing body, inducted him into the National Lacrosse Hall of Fame in 1957. He was inducted into the Johns Hopkins University Athletic Hall of Fame in 1995. He is also the namesake of the William C. Schmeisser Award, which is given annually to the most outstanding defenseman in NCAA Division I men's lacrosse. ## Professional life Schmeisser was an attorney by trade and never accepted payment for his coaching. After earning his undergraduate degree, he worked first as a bank clerk and then as a law clerk. His next job was as an attorney for the Willis and Homer firm. Later in his career, he ran his own law firm and was a member of the American Bar Association, the Maryland State Bar Association, and the Bar Association of Baltimore City. Schmeisser also served sixteen years on the board of directors of the YMCA's Baltimore Branch and as president from 1938 to 1941. He married Isabel Wooldrige, with whom he had two children, a son and a daughter. Schmeisser died on July 1, 1941, at Union Memorial Hospital in Baltimore after a month-long illness.	[ "## Education", "## Role in lacrosse", "## Professional life" ]	1,014	6,665
21,605,855	Myrmecia nigriceps	1,169,028,754	Species of ant	[ "Endemic fauna of Australia", "Hymenoptera of Australia", "Insects described in 1862", "Myrmeciinae", "Taxa named by Gustav Mayr" ]	Myrmecia nigriceps, also known as the black-headed bull ant, is a species of ant endemic to Australia. A member of the genus Myrmecia in the subfamily Myrmeciinae, it was first described by Austrian entomologist Gustav Mayr in 1862. These ants are large, varying from 19 to 23 millimetres (0.75 to 0.91 in) in length. However, colonies contain workers that are much smaller, usually half the size of normal workers. The queens are the largest while the males are the smallest, which can be easily identified due to their small mandibles. Mainly nocturnal M. nigriceps is found in hot hilly areas and woodland, nesting underground in mounds. The ant's diet consists of sweet liquids from flowering plants and invertebrate prey, which are fed to the carnivorous larvae. Spiders are known to eat these ants, and echidnas consume the larvae and pupae. Like other Myrmecia species, M. nigriceps ants possess a powerful and painful sting, and the venom is capable of inducing allergic reactions in sensitive people. ## Taxonomy First identified by Gustav Mayr in 1862, Mayr provided the first description of M. nigriceps in his journal Myrmecologische Studien. The species was described under the binomial name Myrmecia nigriceps, based on syntype workers collected from Gayndah and Sydney. In 1907, Swiss myrmecologist Auguste Forel treated M. nigriceps as a variant of M. vindex, but he eventually treated it as a synonym in 1910. M. nigriceps was revived as a full species in 1933 by American entomologist William Morton Wheeler, on the basis that it is distributed throughout Australia and its average size is greater than M. vindex. Scottish born Australian entomologist John S. Clark published one synonym – Myrmecia fasciata, now considered a junior synonym. M. nigriceps is a member of the genus Myrmecia, a part of the primitive subfamily Myrmeciinae; most ancestors of the genus are only found in fossils, with the exception of the dinosaur ant (Nothomyrmecia macrops). Myrmecia nigriceps is a member of the M. gulosa species group, which is the largest species group of the nine groups described. The specific name, nigriceps, is a combination of the Latin words niger, meaning "black", and caput, meaning "head". This references the distinctive black head of the ant. With this said, M. nigriceps is commonly known as the black-headed bull ant. ## Description The size of worker ants varies from 19 to 23 millimetres (0.75 to 0.91 in). However, colonies contain very small workers, usually less than half the size of normal sized workers. Despite this, it is not known if M. nigriceps is polymorphic, due to little differences in morphology between the workers in comparison to Formicinae ants and Pheidole, with soldiers having enormous heads. The queens are the largest, measuring around 24 to 26 millimetres (0.94 to 1.02 in), and males being around similar sizes to worker ants at 18 to 20 millimetres (0.71 to 0.79 in). The head and gaster are black, and the thorax, node, and postpetiole are either red or yellowish red, while the antennae and legs are either yellow or testaceous. The mandibles and clypeus are also yellow. The hair is short and yellow in colour, erect on the body and suberect on the legs. The pubescence (short, fine, soft hair) is white and abundant all over the postpetiole and gaster. The head is almost as broad as its total length, and the mandibles are longer than the head with 13 teeth present. The queen is similar in appearance to the worker, but they are the largest members of the colony. The hair is more abundant, and the head is broader. The mandibles are shorter and broader, although they are still as long as the head. The wings are yellowish in colour and translucent in appearance. Males are the smallest members of the colony and can be easily identifiable by their perceptibly smaller mandibles. The hairs on males are the longest and most abundant among the worker and queen castes, with a long and broad head. Myrmecia nigriceps is similar in appearance to M. vindex, but several morphological characters distinguish these two species from each other. For example, M. nigriceps is generally larger than M. vindex, and its head is either black or dark brown; the head is broader and more rectangular in workers. The thorax and pedicel are noticeably darker and brownish red. The nests and behaviour, however, of both ants are similar to each other. ## Distribution and habitat Myrmecia nigriceps is distributed throughout Australia, but the ant is absent from areas in central Australia and the northern Australian coast. The range of M. nigriceps extends from Queensland and down into New South Wales, the Australian Capital Territory and Victoria. It is also found in South Australia and Western Australia. Colonies are found in deserts, coastal areas, plateaus, woodland, native vegetation, hot hilly areas covered with scrubby vegetation and in rehabilitated sites, at elevations ranging from 300 to 460 metres (1,000 to 1,500 ft). Myrmecia nigriceps is a mound constructing species, although colonies can be found under logs. Workers decorate the nest with a variety of items, including lateritic pebbles and soil crumbs, in a similar fashion of meat ant (Iridomyrmex purpureus) nests. Other items used for nest decorating include small stones and plant material. ## Behaviour and ecology Myrmecia nigriceps ants are crepuscular and nocturnal foragers, searching for food during the night. Workers are found foraging on Eucalyptus trees and is sympatric with many species. Adults are nectarivores, feeding on sweet liquids from plants and the larvae are carnivorous, feeding on captured invertebrates and other ants such as Camponotus workers and males. Cockroaches, such as Platyzosteria castanea and Platyzosteria ruficeps, can repel attacks by M. nigriceps by discharging a secretion that disorientates the attacking workers. Workers begin to forage one hour before sunset, with peak activity occurring during the twilight hours. These ants have excellent vision, having the largest eye lenses and photoreceptors than any other Myrmecia ant. These ants are capable of discriminating the distance and size of objects moving nearly a metre away, sensitive to motion and will rapidly charge towards any moving objects to attack it. These ants are preyed on by the short-beaked echidna (Tachyglossus aculeatus), and by spiders in the genus Zenodorus, particularly Zenodorus metallescens. Blindsnakes are known to consume the larvae and pupae of these ants. Colonies are also a host for M. inquilina, a social parasite that lays its eggs inside the colony. Myrmecia nigriceps is an extremely aggressive ant, and larger colonies may rival other colonies of a different Myrmecia species (such as M. gulosa) in terms of fierceness and pugnacity. While the mandibles cause little to no pain in humans, the ant is equipped with a painful and powerful sting that is found at the end of the gaster. Like other ants, the sting is not barbed, and workers are able to sting multiple times without injuring themselves. With a median lethal dose (LD<sub>50</sub>) of 7.3 mg/kg, the venom is relatively weak in comparison to other Myrmecia ants, whose LD<sub>50</sub> is much lower. However, in a 2011 study, at least one patient had an allergic reaction to M. nigriceps venom. This study also concluded that many other Myrmecia species can cause anaphylaxis, as well as the Green-head ant (Rhytidoponera metallica). In the Starr sting pain scale, a scale which compares the overall pain of hymenopteran stings on a four-point scale, the sting of M. nigriceps was ranked as two in pain, described as "painful". M. nigriceps ants are able to enter colonies they do not reside in without being attacked; this may be due to these ants failing to recognise foreigners, or the consequences of ignoring workers from other colonies is low. Nuptial flight occurs after rain for several days, taking place between December and March. The males and virgin queens emerge from their nest, and unlike other species who mate on the ground or climb onto nearby trees or branches to fly off from, the reproductive alates will fly from the nest. Recorded nuptial flights usually took place on hilltops. M. nigriceps queens are not known to seal up their entrance during colony foundation, unlike other Myrmecia species such as M. regularis. Workers can live exceptionally long, with an average lifespan of 2.2 years; maximum longevity in workers varied from 2.1 to 2.4 years. ## See also - List of Myrmecia species - List of ants of Australia	[ "## Taxonomy", "## Description", "## Distribution and habitat", "## Behaviour and ecology", "## See also" ]	2,009	7,698
865,560	Pac-Land	1,173,448,733	1984 video game	[ "1984 video games", "Amiga games", "Amstrad CPC games", "Arcade video games", "Atari Lynx games", "Atari ST games", "Commodore 64 games", "Fantasy video games", "Hamster Corporation games", "IOS games", "MSX games", "Midway video games", "Multiplayer and single-player video games", "NEC PC-8001 games", "Namco arcade games", "Nintendo Switch games", "Pac-Man arcade games", "Platform games", "PlayStation 4 games", "Side-scrolling platform games", "TurboGrafx-16 games", "Video games based on Hanna-Barbera series and characters", "Video games developed in Japan", "Video games scored by Yuriko Keino", "Virtual Console games", "Virtual Console games for Wii U", "X68000 games", "ZX Spectrum games" ]	is a 1984 side-scrolling arcade platform game developed and released by Namco. It was distributed in North America by Bally Midway, and in Europe by Atari Games. Controlling Pac-Man, the player must make it to the end of each stage to return a lost fairy back to its home in Fairyland. Pac-Man will need to avoid obstacles, such as falling logs and water-spewing fire hydrants, alongside his enemies, the Ghost Gang. Eating large flashing Power Pellets will cause the ghosts to turn blue, allowing Pac-Man to eat them for points. Pac-Land was created by Namco Research and Development 1 programmer Yoshihiro Kishimoto, who was tasked with creating an arcade game based on the American Pac-Man cartoon television series by Hanna-Barbera. The backgrounds were made to be vibrant and colorful, and the characters to be detailed and move smoothly to match the show's animation style. The control scheme was inspired by Konami's Track & Field (1983), using buttons instead of a traditional joystick to make it stand out among other games at the time. A new Namco Pac-Land arcade system was created to make it easier to develop the game and was used for several later Namco games, including Baraduke (1985) and Metro-Cross (1985). Pac-Land was a commercial success in arcades, becoming one of the top five highest-grossing arcade games of 1985 in the United States. It was well-received by critics for its colorful graphics, stage designs, and soundtrack, although was often criticized for its difficulty. It is cited as an important and influential game in the platform genre, paving the way for many games to follow such as Super Mario Bros., Ghosts'n Goblins, Alex Kidd and Wonder Boy. It was ported to several home consoles and computers, including the Family Computer, PC Engine/TurboGrafx-16, Commodore 64 and Atari Lynx. It is the first platform game in the Pac-Man series, and was followed by Pac-Man 2: The New Adventures (1994). ## Gameplay Controlling Pac-Man, the player is tasked with reaching the end of each level while avoiding enemies and other obstacles. Stages are known in-game as "trips" and are broken into four sections — the first three have Pac-Man running to return a lost fairy back to "Fairyland", and the last having Pac-Man return home to his family. Pressing either of the directional buttons will make Pac-Man walk in that direction, and repeatedly tapping either button will make him run. Pac-Man can also jump over pits and obstacles by pressing the jump button. In each stage, Pac-Man will encounter the four ghosts from the original game — Blinky, Pinky, Inky, and Clyde — alongside a purple ghost named Sue, originally a replacement for Clyde in Ms. Pac-Man. Eating large flashing Power Pellets will cause the ghosts to turn blue for a short time, allowing Pac-Man to eat them for bonus points. The ghosts are often seen driving vehicles, such as airplanes, buses, cars, pogo-sticks, and flying saucers, and will sometimes drop miniature ghost enemies from the air to try and hit Pac-Man. Other types of obstacles are also present in stages, such as water-spewing fire hydrants, springboards, falling logs, quicksand, and geysers. Trips consist of cities, forests, deserts, and abandoned castles. Most trip sections end with a large sign saying "BREAK TIME" with a church on a hill in the background, and bonus points are awarded for jumping at certain points at the end of each section. The final section of a trip gives Pac-Man a special pair of boots that will allow him to jump infinitely into the air, and tasks the player with returning home to Pac-Man's family. The player can find hidden items by pushing against specific objects in certain stages, including a helmet that protects Pac-Man from falling mini ghosts, an item that makes Pac-Man temporarily invincible, and a Galaxian flagship that awards the player a large sum of points. Jumping in certain spots will reveal fruit items that can be consumed for points. The game features the theme song from the Pac-Man cartoon series, which plays in a constant loop throughout. The North American version of the game by Midway features the characters being re-designed to more closely resemble the designs found in the show, while the Japanese Namco version has the characters modeled after Pac-Man marketing material and cabinet artwork. It's currently unknown what version the European version looks like. ## Development and release Pac-Land was programmed by Yoshihiro Kishimoto of Namco Development Division 1, who would later work on the Family Stadium franchise. After seeing the success of the American Pac-Man cartoon series, Namco requested Kishimoto that he create an arcade game based on the show. Kishimoto stated that the hardest part of development were Pac-Man's animations. Most arcade games in Japan at the time simply used two or three frames to convey movement, which he found unconvincing. The team wanted the game's backgrounds to be vibrant and colorful, and to have the characters move smoothly to replicate the show's animation style. Pac-Man himself was given 24 different frame patterns, alongside several facial expressions and clothing swaps. Kishimoto cited Konami's sports video game Track & Field (1983) as the "number one influence" on Pac-Land. The game's controls were heavily influenced by Track & Field, a game that allowed the player to become faster by constantly tapping the button in succession; Kishimoto thought the idea was interesting and that it would make it stand out among other games. To allow for two-layer scrolling backgrounds, more sprites, and more colors, the team created the Namco Pac-Land arcade board, which was used for several later Namco games including Baraduke (1985) and Metro-Cross (1985). The game was tested in Yokohama, where Kishimoto recalls the springboards being difficult for new players. The arcade game was released in Japan in 1984, but there are conflicting release dates. Arcade TV Game List, a Japanese-language book of arcade release dates authored by Masumi Akagi and published by the Amusement News Agency in 2006, lists the Japanese release date as August 1984. However, the United States Copyright Office and John Szczepaniak in the second volume of The Untold History of Japanese Game Developers (2015), when including biography details taken from Kishimoto's resume, lists the release date as October 1984. The game was later released in North America by Bally Midway in December 1984, and in Europe by Atari Games in early 1985. ### Conversions The first home port of Pac-Land was for the Nintendo Family Computer, released in Japan on November 21, 1985. Versions for the Amstrad CPC, ZX Spectrum, Commodore 64, MSX, Atari ST and Commodore Amiga were published by British company Grandslam Entertainment in 1988, and developed by Gannon Designs and Mr. Micro (Atari ST and Commodore Amiga versions.) Namco released a PC-Engine version in June 1989, which was later released for the TurboGrafx-16 by NEC in January 1990. Atari Games developed and published an Atari Lynx portable version in 1992, and Dempa Softworks released an X68000 conversion in 1994. Pac-Land is in the 1996 compilation Namco Museum Vol. 4 for the PlayStation alongside five other Namco arcade games from the 1980s, and later in the iOS game Namco Arcade. In 2014, it was ported to the Xbox 360, PlayStation 3, and PC as part of Pac-Man Museum, and the Famicom version was digitally re-released for the Wii U Virtual Console and Namco Museum Archives Volume 2. Aside from the Namco Arcade version, all home ports of the game are based on the Japanese Namco version. On March 31, 2022, it was announced that the arcade version of Pac-Land would be released on the Nintendo Switch and PlayStation 4 as part of Hamster Corporation's Arcade Archives lineup, which was released on April 7, 2022. Though based on the original arcade version, this re-release was modified by Bandai Namco to replace the graphics of Ms. Pac-Man and Baby Pac-Man, who greet Pac-Man at the end of each trip. In their place is two new characters named "Pac-Mom" and "Pac-Sis"; which were created for the then-upcoming compilation Pac-Man Museum +, which also replaced the characters in all the games featured in the collection. Bandai Namco has remained silent on the removal of the characters, though news outlets assumed the character replacements to be related to Ms. Pac-Man's ongoing dispute with AtGames. The game is included in the Pac-Man Museum + game compilation, which released on May 27, 2022. The version in this collection uses the same edited version as seen in the Arcade Archives release, which replaces Ms. Pac-Man and Baby Pac-Man for Pac-Mom and Pac-Sis. ## Reception Pac-Land was a commercial success in arcades. In Japan, it entered the Game Machine arcade charts at number-two on the table arcade cabinet chart in September 1984. In North America, it was in the top 20 RePlay upright arcade game charts through November 1985. It ended the year as one of the top five highest-grossing arcade games of 1985 in the United States. The game well received by critics for its colorful graphics, level structure, and challenge. Mike Roberts gave the arcade game a positive review in the May 1985 issue of Computer Gamer. He called it an "interesting game" where Pac-Man is an "animated character that moves along a horizontally scrolling landscape" while praising the "very colouful" graphics and stating it is "easy to play once you've got the hang of it." Japanese publication Famitsu praised the PC Engine version's graphics and overall challenge, awarding it the "Silver Hall of Fame" badge. Computer + Video Games called the PC Engine version a "marvelous conversion" for its vibrant visuals, stage layouts, gameplay, and accuracy to the coin-op game; they had a similar response for the Atari Lynx version, claiming its accuracy to the original would entice fans of the arcade release. Reviewing the Lynx conversion, IGN praised the game's colorful graphics, controls, and faithfulness to the arcade original. Raze magazine echoed a similar response, saying the visuals, stage layouts, and soundtrack added replay value to the game. Raze disliked the Lynx port's limited amount of lives and lack of continues, saying that the high difficulty would repel younger players. IGN stated it provided little replay value for veteran players, adding that it could be easily finished. AllGame was particularly critical of the TurboGrafx-16 version, lambasting its poor graphics, bland stage layouts, and lack of challenge, jokingly saying it was only recommended to collectors interested in "the most morbidly poor games in existence". In a retrospective review for the TurboGrafx-16 conversion, IGN disliked the game's difficulty for lacking any real challenge, and said the game seems to have been made simply to keep Pac-Man relevant at the time instead of as a "real deal" game. ## Legacy It is considered an important and influential game in the platform genre, paving the way for games such as Ghosts'n Goblins, Alex Kidd, and Wonder Boy. Pac-Man creator Toru Iwatani has since labeled it as his favorite Pac-Man sequel for its interesting concept and gameplay. He said Shigeru Miyamoto told him it had a profound influence on the creation of Super Mario Bros. Shigeru Miyamoto himself also says that Pac-Land had an influence on Super Mario Bros, but to a lesser extent, saying that while he was in Tokyo seeing Namco has developed a platforming game he decided that he should follow suit. The only feature of Pac-Land Miyamoto cites as a direct inspiration was the blue background of the game as opposed to the black ones he typically would put in his games. Shortly after the game's release, Namco produced a board game adaptation for its Fantasy Board Game series, based on the player reaching the end of the board without losing the "fairy chip". A Japanese LCD handheld game was released in 1990. Many of Pac-Man's moves in the Super Smash Bros. series are directly based on Pac-Land, such as his fire hydrant attack. Super Smash Bros. for Wii U and Super Smash Bros. Ultimate include a stage based on the game, featuring automatic scrolling.	[ "## Gameplay", "## Development and release", "### Conversions", "## Reception", "## Legacy" ]	2,654	3,005
36,092,028	Horse rings in Portland, Oregon	1,159,239,194	History of horse rings in Portland, Oregon, U.S.	[ "Art in Portland, Oregon", "Culture of Portland, Oregon", "History of Portland, Oregon", "Horses in art", "Street culture" ]	Horse rings, remnants of a time when horses and horse-drawn vehicles provided the primary mode of transportation, can be found throughout Portland, Oregon. They were removed from curbs and sidewalks for safety purposes until the late 1970s, when one Portland resident complained about the rings disappearing. Today, the city of Portland helps to preserve the rings by requiring them to be replaced following sidewalk construction or repair. In recent years Portland residents have started tethering model horses to the rings, sparking interaction, and drawing attention to part of the city's history. The Horse Project, started by one resident of the Woodstock neighborhood in 2005, encourages participation in the urban art movement. The rings and art installations have become a tourist attraction. ## Background and history Horse rings, often made of iron or brass, are remnants from the 1800s, when horses, and horse-drawn vehicles, provided the primary mode of transportation. In 1978, The Register-Guard suggested that the rings might only be as old as the early 1900s. The rings allowed residents to tether their horses to sidewalks. Prior to the late 1970s, rings were removed during sidewalk reconstruction or repair for safety purposes. In 1978, after one Portland resident complained about the disappearance of rings, Connie McCready, then a City Commissioner, announced that rings could be replaced at a homeowner's request, likely for a fee of \$5. Today, the city of Portland is committed to preserving the horse rings, which are reinstalled following curb and sidewalk construction or repair. An ordinance requires rings to be replaced at their original location (or "as close as practical"). Original street names are also reset or restamped into new concrete. The ring supply is monitored by the Bureau of Maintenance. Portland is not the only city to preserve horse rings. City officials in Oak Harbor, Washington, confirmed that the last in a series of horse rings would be preserved during a February 2011 sidewalk construction project. ## Horse Project In September 2005, Woodstock resident Scott Wayne Indiana tied his first plastic toy horse to a horse ring located in the Pearl District. Of his attempt to draw attention to the rings, and to celebrate Portland's history, Indiana said: "I loved the rings, and felt that people just weren't noticing them. This was an attempt to shake people out of their routines and get them to notice their surroundings." Since then, the Horse Project has gained momentum and participation; horses can be found tied to rings throughout the city, especially in east Portland. The installations have sparked interaction with residents, who have left hay, lassoes, riders, saddles, water, wool blankets, and other "treats" for the horses. Horses are often defaced or go missing. The Horse Project has an official website, which encourages participation, and offers instructions for tethering. The project accepts donations and volunteer support. Participants considered selling kits for consumers interested in tethering horses. One Portland resident has reportedly installed more than 150 horses. Horses are the most frequent animal to be tied to rings, but pigs, dolls, and other animals have also appeared throughout the city. Willamette Week included the Horse Project in its Best of Portland list for 2006 under the category Best Horse of a Different Color. In 2007, The Oregonian's Anna Griffin mentioned the project in an article about the "Keep Portland Weird" slogan, writing: "The 'Horse Project' comes up anytime the subject of Portland weirdness arises." Project participation continues despite Indiana's move out of state in 2008. In 2011, the documentary film It's a Ring Thing: The Portland Horse Project premiered at NW Documentary's Homegrown DocFest. In 2012, The Oregonian highlighted the engagement of a couple who attribute the start of their relationship to a horse ring installation in the Pearl District. The city's "Sustainable Stormwater Management" calendar for 2012 called the installations "stormwater art", which "highlights healthy watersheds and demonstrates that stormwater is a resource and an asset". The horse rings, and urban art installations, have become a tourist attraction. ## See also - Equestrian statue - Horses in art - Model horse showing - Street art - Mounting block	[ "## Background and history", "## Horse Project", "## See also" ]	881	18,081
43,002,988	Howard Llewellyn Swisher	1,107,215,696	American businessperson, real estate developer, orchardist, editor, writer, and historian	[ "1870 births", "1945 deaths", "19th-century American historians", "19th-century American male writers", "19th-century American writers", "20th-century American businesspeople", "20th-century American writers", "American businesspeople in the oil industry", "American male non-fiction writers", "American male poets", "American orchardists", "American people of French descent", "American people of Swiss-German descent", "American publishers (people)", "Burials at Oak Grove Cemetery (Morgantown, West Virginia)", "Businesspeople from Morgantown, West Virginia", "Deaths from hypertension", "Editors of West Virginia newspapers", "Education in Hampshire County, West Virginia", "Educators from West Virginia", "Fairmont State University alumni", "Historians of West Virginia", "Local historians", "People from Hampshire County, West Virginia", "Poets from West Virginia", "Real estate and property developers", "West Virginia Democrats", "West Virginia University alumni", "Writers from West Virginia" ]	Howard Llewellyn Swisher (September 21, 1870 – August 27, 1945) was an American businessperson, real estate developer, orchardist, editor, writer, and historian. As a prominent businessman, he established several companies responsible for the development of businesses and real estate in Morgantown, West Virginia. Swisher was born in 1870 near Levels, West Virginia. He became a schoolteacher there at the age of 18, then graduated from Fairmont State Normal School (present-day Fairmont State University) and West Virginia University. He then remained in Morgantown, where he established a bookstore and stationery shop. Following the success of his bookstore, Swisher organized the Main Street Building Company, the Howard L. Swisher Company, and the Morgantown Building Association, each of which constructed a large number of residences in the city. He was also the inaugural secretary-treasurer of the West Virginia Real Estate Dealers' Association. Swisher was secretary of the Royalty Oil Company, which owned mining rights for approximately 16,000 acres (65 km<sup>2</sup>) of prospective oil lands throughout the United States. He also held prominent leadership and management roles in the Valley Wood Working Company, the Monongahela Valley Posting and Distributing Plant, the Federal Savings and Trust Company, and the West Virginia Tri-Products Company. In Hampshire County, Swisher maintained fruit growing interests and served as the president of the South Branch Merchandising Company. He was an active member of the West Virginia Democratic Party and was selected as a delegate from West Virginia to the 1936 Democratic National Convention. In 1897, Swisher co-authored History of Hampshire County, West Virginia: From Its Earliest Settlement to the Present with West Virginia historian Hu Maxwell. The book was the first comprehensive history of Hampshire County ever compiled. He composed a collection of poetry and short stories, Briar Blossoms, in 1899, and was the editor of The Ghourki, a literary journal of poetry, short stories, and aphorisms. In 1908, Swisher published Book of Harangues, a selection of passages from The Ghourki. ## Family background Howard Llewellyn Swisher was born on September 21, 1870, on a farm near the unincorporated community of Levels, West Virginia. He was the son of David Warner Swisher and his wife, Mary Katherine Bonnifield Swisher. David was born in Augusta County, Virginia on April 29, 1822, and was of Swiss German and French ancestry. David moved to Preston County in present-day West Virginia in 1838, and a few years later, he purchased land near present-day Levels in Hampshire County and relocated there. He then established a farm on this land, known as "The Levels," and remained there for the remainder of his life. The Swisher family owned and operated one of the largest orchard operations in the Levels community. In 1846, David married his wife, Mary Katherine Bonnifield, the daughter of Dr. Arnold Bonnifield of St. George, West Virginia. ## Early life and education Swisher spent his early years and adolescence on his father's farm, until he became a schoolteacher in Hampshire County at the age of 18. He began his post-secondary education at Fairmont State Normal School (present-day Fairmont State University) in Fairmont, which he graduated from in 1892. While enrolled there, Swisher became affiliated with the Mu Mu Chapter of the Sigma Chi fraternity. Following his graduation, he traveled throughout the northwestern United States and the Canadian provinces and territories of Alberta, Assiniboia, British Columbia, and Manitoba. Swisher then moved to Fresno, California, where he worked as a public schoolteacher for two years. He then returned to West Virginia and attended West Virginia University in Morgantown. While at the university, he aspired to become a journalist and edited The Athenaeum, the institution's official student newspaper. In 1897, after three years of studies, Swisher graduated from the university with a Bachelor of Arts degree. ## Business career As a prominent businessman, Swisher established several corporations and companies responsible for the development of businesses and commercial and residential real estate in Morgantown. He remained in Morgantown after his graduation from West Virginia University, and in 1897 with \$700 in capital, he opened a book and stationery store known as the Acme Book Store. The business prospered, and in April 1898, Swisher established the Acme Publishing Company, which he served as president of for several years. Swisher subsequently organized the Main Street Building Company, which became responsible for building the Strand Building, a business and commercial block in Morgantown. He established and incorporated the Howard L. Swisher Company in November 1914. He also organized the Morgantown Building Association in November 1918 with an authorized capital of \$250,000 and himself serving as its general manager. The Morgantown Building Association undertook extensive construction of residences in the city. In December 1914, following its organization in Parkersburg, Swisher was named the secretary-treasurer of the West Virginia Real Estate Dealers' Association. The association was formed in cooperation with the West Virginia Department of Agriculture and other state agencies for the promotion and development of the states's agricultural resources, real estate, and investments. In addition to his real estate and construction ventures, Swisher was an organizer and secretary of the Royalty Oil Company, which owned mining rights to approximately 16,000 acres (65 km<sup>2</sup>) of prospective oil lands throughout the southern and southwestern United States. He built and operated the Swisher Theater in Morgantown. Swisher was also a director of the Valley Wood Working Company, the owner of the Monongahela Valley Posting and Distributing Plant, and the secretary of the Federal Savings and Trust Company prior to 1903. By 1913, he was the president of the West Virginia Tri-Products Company, which invested in coal and oil production, glass manufacturing, and the production of timber and fruit. Swisher maintained fruit growing interests on South Branch Mountain (known as Jersey Mountain) in Hampshire County, and served as the president of the South Branch Merchandising Company. ## Writing career During his travels, Swisher contributed articles and poetry to newspapers throughout the Northwest. While attending West Virginia University, he published a small book containing approximately 600 lines of poetry, which he dedicated to his classmates. In 1897, Swisher co-authored History of Hampshire County, West Virginia: From Its Earliest Settlement to the Present with West Virginia historian Hu Maxwell. The book was the first comprehensive history of Hampshire County ever compiled. He composed a collection of poetry and short stories titled Briar Blossoms, which was published by his Acme Publishing Company in 1899. Swisher was the editor of The Ghourki, a literary journal of poetry, short stories, and aphorisms. He began each issue with an introductory commentary entitled "Harangues to the Ghourki" in which he referred to himself as the "Chief of the Tribe". In 1908, Swisher published Book of Harangues, a selection of passages from The Ghourki. ## Politics Swisher was an active member of the West Virginia Democratic Party. In 1900, he was selected as a candidate for State Superintendent of Free Schools. In the 1902 general election, he ran as the Democratic candidate for the Eleventh District of the West Virginia State Senate. Despite his loss, Swisher received the largest number of Democratic votes ever amassed in Monongalia County up until that time. Swisher was a delegate at the 1936 Democratic National Convention in Philadelphia, and was selected as an alternate delegate to the Democratic National Conventions of 1912 and 1924. ## Personal life In August 1897, Swisher married Mary Dering of Morgantown, daughter of Edward A. Dering and his wife, Cordelia Walker Dering of Morgantown. Both the Dering and Walker families, from which Swisher's wife descended, had arrived in the Colony of Virginia during its earlier periods of settlement. Swisher was a member of the Morgantown Union Lodge No. 4 of the Free and Accepted Masons, Morgantown Lodge No. 411 of the Benevolent and Protective Order of Elks, the Morgantown Chamber of Commerce, the Kiwanis Club, the Country Club, and the Old Colony Club. Swisher served on the Old Colony Club's National Advisory Council. On August 27, 1945, Swisher died of a cerebral hemorrhage due to hypertension at his residence at 80 Donley Street in Morgantown. Swisher was interred on August 30, 1945, at Oak Grove Cemetery in Morgantown's Chancery Hill Historic District. ## Selected works - History of Hampshire County, West Virginia: From Its Earliest Settlement to the Present. 1897. Co-authored with Hu Maxwell. - Briar Blossoms: Being a Collection of a Few Verses and Some Prose. 1899. - Book of Harangues. 1908.	[ "## Family background", "## Early life and education", "## Business career", "## Writing career", "## Politics", "## Personal life", "## Selected works" ]	1,916	1,869
2,647,863	Baroque pop	1,172,108,401	Music genre	[ "1960s in music", "1970s in music", "20th-century music genres", "American styles of music", "Baroque pop", "British rock music genres", "British styles of music", "Rock music genres" ]	Baroque pop (sometimes called baroque rock) is a fusion genre that combines rock music with particular elements of classical music. It emerged in the mid 1960s as artists pursued a majestic, orchestral sound and is identifiable for its appropriation of Baroque compositional styles (contrapuntal melodies and functional harmony patterns) and dramatic or melancholic gestures. Harpsichords figure prominently, while oboes, French horns, and string quartets are also common. Although harpsichords had been deployed for a number of pop hits since the 1940s, some record producers in the 1960s increasingly placed the instrument in the foreground of their arrangements. Inspired partly by the Beatles' song "In My Life" (1965), various groups were incorporating baroque and classical instrumentation by early 1966. The term "baroque rock" was coined in promotional material for the Left Banke, who used harpsichords and violins in their arrangements and whose 1966 song "Walk Away Renée" exemplified the style. Baroque pop's mainstream popularity faded by the 1970s, partially because punk rock, disco and hard rock took over; nonetheless, music was still produced within the genre's tradition. Philadelphia soul in the 1970s and chamber pop in the 1990s both reflected the spirit of baroque pop, while the latter incorporated much of the period's low fidelity musical aesthetic. ## Characteristics In classical music, the term "Baroque" is used to describe the art music of Europe approximately between the years 1600 and 1750, with some of its most prominent composers including J. S. Bach and Antonio Vivaldi. Much of the instrumentation of baroque pop is akin to that of the late Baroque period or the early Classical period, chronologically defined as the period of European music from 1690 to 1760 and stylistically defined by balanced phrases, clarity and beauty. Baroque pop, stylistically, fuses elements of rock with classical music, often incorporating layered harmonies, strings, and horns to achieve a majestic, orchestral sound. Its prominent characteristics are the use of contrapuntal melodies and functional harmony patterns. It was intended to be a more serious and mature outgrowth of rock music. Journalist Bob Stanley uses the term "English baroque" to describe a subset that existed between 1968 and 1973, after the genre's more widespread presence in rock and pop. "Baroque rock" may be invoked as a synonym of "baroque pop" or as its own distinct term. ## History ### Precursors (early 1960s) The Boston Globe's Matthew Guerrieri credits the origins of baroque pop to American pop musicians and record producers like Phil Spector and the Beach Boys' Brian Wilson placing the harpsichord in the foreground of their arrangements. Harpsichords were widely available in recording studios, and had been used in popular music since as early as the 1940s, but the instrument did not gain prominence until the 1960s. One of the first pop rock hits to use a harpsichord was the Jamies' "Summertime, Summertime" (1958). Later examples cited by Guerrieri range from the Beach Boys' "I Get Around" (1964) and "When I Grow Up (To Be a Man)" (1965) to the Righteous Brothers "You've Lost That Lovin' Feelin'" (1964) and the Mamas & the Papas' "Monday, Monday" (1966). Guerrieri speculates that the harpsichord may have been desirable for its buzzing, stinging timbre, which suited "the treble-heavy pop soundscape" of the time. The 1964 single "She's Not There" by the English band the Zombies marked a starting point for baroque pop, according to Stanley. He writes that the song "didn't feature any oboes but stuck out rather dramatically in 1964, the year of 'You Really Got Me' and 'Little Red Rooster'", and its refined qualities were emphasised by singer Colin Blunstone having an enunciation that was "pure St Albans grammar". Along with Burt Bacharach, Spector melded pop music with classical elements before they were combined with rock. Music historian Andrew Grant Jackson states that "the era of baroque pop", in which "rock melded with classical elements", began with the Rolling Stones' "Play with Fire" (February 1965) and Brian Wilson's work on The Beach Boys Today! (March 1965). In Jackson's view, baroque pop and chamber pop were one and the same. Slate's Forrest Wickman credits the Beatles' producer, George Martin, along with Paul McCartney and Wilson, as some of the men "most responsible" for the move into baroque pop. Author Bernard Gendron says that, further to American composer and conductor Leonard Bernstein's public approval of the band's music, the Beatles were feted in the "art-music world" in the summer of 1965 through the arrival of "'Beatles à la Baroque' or more generically 'baroque rock'". He also writes that since this phenomenon preceded the release of Beatles recordings such as "Yesterday" (which used a baroque-style string quartet), it is likely that the band did not instigate the link between their music and its classical components, but were in fact responding to classical and baroque readings of their work. These readings also included the 1965 album The Baroque Beatles Book, where their songs were reimagined in a tongue-in-cheek Baroque setting. A classically trained musician, Martin played what sounded like a baroque harpsichord solo on the Beatles' "In My Life", released on their December 1965 album Rubber Soul. Author Joe Harrington comments that due to the Beatles' influence in all areas of pop music's development, "In My Life" led to the arrival of "baroque-rock". Producer Tommy LiPuma recalled that "Once the Beatles featured that harpsichord sound on 'In My Life,' pop producers began working it in." ### Emergence (mid to late 1960s) The genre originated in the United Kingdom and the United States. By early 1966, further to Rubber Soul, various groups began using baroque and classical instrumentation, described as a "baroque rock" movement by Gendron. Among these recordings was the Rolling Stones' "Lady Jane". The popularity of harpsichords in pop, rock and soul arrangements at this time reflected a desire for unusual sounds and, in the case of many American producers, a sought-for association with the retrospective focus that informed London's fashion scene and the psychedelic music scene there. The Zombies' "She's Not There", together with a predilection for all things British through the Beatles' international success, inspired New York musician Michael Brown to form the Left Banke. Stanley considers the band's "Walk Away Renée" (1966) to be the first recognizable baroque pop single. "Baroque rock" was the label devised by the Left Banke's publicists and the music press. According to music critic Richie Unterberger, "the sobriquet may have been ham-fisted, but certainly there were many Baroque elements in the Left Banke's pop—the stately arrangements, the brilliant use of keyboards and harpsichords, the soaring violins, and the beautiful group harmonies." The band's follow-up single, "Pretty Ballerina", continued their absorption in the genre. Guitarist Rick Brand later described their lyrics as "rather self-consciously beautiful musical whimsy, as you find in the latter 18th-century Romantic music, pre-Beethoven". Although the Beach Boys' Pet Sounds (1966) has been advanced in later years as baroque pop, or even the first example of the genre, no contemporary press material referred to the album as "baroque", and instead commentators focused on the album's "progressive" traits. The album's baroque-pop aesthetics were limited to only one track, "God Only Knows", a song that The Record's Jim Beckerman deemed "baroque rock" in the same "retro instrumentation and elegant harmonies" vein as the Beatles' "Eleanor Rigby" (1966) and Procol Harum's "A Whiter Shade of Pale" (1967). Gendron's "baroque rock" examples include "Walk Away Renée" with Spanky and Our Gang's "Sunday Will Never Be the Same" (1967), and the Stone Poneys' "Different Drum" (1967) – all of which used harpsichord and strings – and the Rolling Stones' "Lady Jane" (harpsichord and dulcimer) and the Lovin' Spoonful's "Rain on the Roof" (1966, harpsichord-sounding guitars). Music journalist Steve Smith highlights the Moody Blues and Procol Harum as "major practitioners" of baroque pop. He recognizes "For No One", "She's Leaving Home" and "Piggies" as other examples of the Beatles' forays in the genre, and "Ride On, Baby" and "Ruby Tuesday" as further examples of the Rolling Stones' baroque pop. According to Stanley, the period of sustained commercial success for pop and rock recordings with harpsichords and string quartets climaxed with the Beatles' 1967 album Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band, "which mixed everyday lyrics with music hall and Edwardiana to create lysergically enhanced parlour music". At this time, the development in musical arrangements presented by baroque pop was challenged by the breakthrough of psychedelic rock bands from the San Francisco scene. In a climate equally informed by political radicalism in 1968, Stanley writes, "English baroque" continued as a combined simulacrum of the Zombies' album Odessey and Oracle (1968), McCartney's contributions to The Beatles (1968), Honeybus' single "I Can't Let Maggie Go" (1968), Scott Walker's chamber pop, and Crosby, Stills & Nash vocal harmonies. English baroque survived into the early 1970s, as record labels sought to capitalize on the singer-songwriter phenomenon by offering lavish string arrangements to unknowns. Among these artists were Nick Drake and individual members of Honeybus. ### Dissipation and revival (1970s–present) The "quaintness" of baroque pop and the use of violins and classical guitar became the target of parody at the end of the psychedelic era. In the 1990s, chamber pop derived from the "spirit" of baroque pop, characterized by an infusion of orchestral arrangements or classical style composition. It originated as a response to the lo-fi production that dominated in the 1990s. Between the 1990s and 2010s, baroque pop enjoyed a revival with bands like the Divine Comedy.	[ "## Characteristics", "## History", "### Precursors (early 1960s)", "### Emergence (mid to late 1960s)", "### Dissipation and revival (1970s–present)" ]	2,287	33,708
33,103,482	The Man in the Blue Flannel Pants	1,118,254,208	null	[ "2011 American television episodes", "Mad Men", "The Simpsons (season 23) episodes" ]	"The Man in the Blue Flannel Pants" is the seventh episode of the twenty-third season of the American animated television series The Simpsons. It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on November 27, 2011, and was seen by around 5.6 million people during this broadcast. In the episode, Homer becomes an account manager for Mr. Burns after successfully hosting a viral marketing event for Krusty the Clown. Meanwhile, Lisa is teaching Bart how to read classic novels like Little Women. Homer's new job affects his family as he becomes more distant and in the end he has to choose between his family or his new job. The episode's title references The Man in the Gray Flannel Suit. The episode was written by Jeff Westbrook and directed by Steven Dean Moore. It functions mainly as a parody of the television show Mad Men, and features the guest voices of Mad Men actor John Slattery and creator Matthew Weiner. Critics found the episode to be average in quality, receiving criticism for the wasted opportunities with the Mad Men parody. ## Plot Krusty the Clown is about to perform a stunt when his agents mention that there is trouble with Krusty's own brand of vodka, Absolut Krusty. To make it popular, the agents insist that Krusty hold a tastemaker party at the home of a Springfield trendsetter. At the party, the adults are having a fantastic time until Mr. Burns arrives and frightens the guests. Homer ends up saving the party by singing karaoke with Burns. Based on the party's success, Burns promotes Homer to "Accounts Man" for the Springfield Nuclear Plant. Robert Marlow, a seasoned account veteran, takes Homer under his wing and shows Homer what the high life is like in the corner office. The job changes Homer into a sad individual, who drinks in the dark and complains about the meaninglessness of his job. When Homer's long hours at the office become the norm and Homer becomes distant from his family, a family vacation with Marge and the children help him realize that family always comes before work. Meanwhile, Lisa introduces Bart to a new literary world, which sparks his interest in reading classic novels. In the beginning, Bart struggles with reading and suggests that he should just get a job where he does not have to read. Lisa insists and Bart eventually learns to read properly. When the bullies watch him reading a classic novel at school, they force him to read Little Women to them. Meanwhile, both Marge and Burns want Homer to go on the same rafting trip. Homer starts with being on his family's raft, and then swims back and forth between that and Burns' raft. Marge discovers that he has double-booked the weekend while both rafts float near a waterfall, and is upset that he chose to do work on a family outing. Homer can only save one raft, and he saves the one containing his family. As Burns and the nuclear regulators are about to go over the waterfall, Marlow rides up on a jetski and carries Burns to safety, while the regulators fall over the edge. Though he is annoyed at the incident, for cutting expenses by six percent, Burns calls it even with Homer, who then decides to spend the rest of the trip with his family, but trips and goes over the waterfall by himself, though he is completely unharmed and finds gold. Later, at their house, Homer tells Marge that he is a safety inspector again. Fireworks go off outside, and it is revealed that they were caused by a fire at the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant, presumably because Homer failed at his job. ## Production "The Man in the Blue Flannel Pants" was written by Jeff Westbrook and directed by Steven Dean Moore. It featured John Slattery, Matthew Weiner, and Kevin Michael Richardson as guest voices. Weiner is the creator, writer, and showrunner of the television show Mad Men, in which Slattery portrays the character Roger Sterling. The entire A-Plot of the episode was a parody of Mad Men. Homer transforms into the lead character from Mad Men, Don Draper, and Slattery's character Robert Marlowe shares similarities with Roger Sterling. Weiner's role in the episode was a brief cameo as one of the businessmen on the rafting trip with Mr. Burns. The lead actor of Mad Men, Jon Hamm, did not appear in the episode, but previously appeared in the season 22 episode "Donnie Fatso" as a different character. "The Man in the Blue Flannel Pants" even recreated a scene from Mad Men, in which a lawnmower runs loose in an office. In an interview with IGN in 2011, the showrunner of the episode, Al Jean, named Mad Men as one of the two television shows he always makes time to watch. The music in the episode was edited by Chris Ledesma. In his own blog, he explains that this episode required very little musical scoring. In some cases, the musical score is used to take away focus from the scenes that did not work as well as planned. If the episode on the other side is well-scripted and features strong performances from the voice cast, then the music becomes a distraction. Ledesma thought that the "episode offers a nice balance of dialogue and music." Of the music that was used, the theme from the 1965 film Moment to Moment, which was scored by Henry Mancini, was featured during the montage of Homer working at his new job. The episode ends with a piece of music, which is the music composer Alf Clausen's version of the Mancini theme. In total five minutes of music was used for the episode. The episode featured several references to the character Mr. Burns's old age. When Burns is requesting a song from the discjockey, he asks for "anything by Prince... Wilhelm, of Prussia?". Prince Wilhelm of Prussia was second in line to the German throne and lived from 1906 to 1940. Instead, the discjockey plays "Come Josephine in My Flying Machine" from 1910. Other Mr. Burns quotes include "How ironic. I survived the Titanic by making a raft out of steerage passengers... and now this." and the RMS Titanic sank in 1912. ## Release The episode originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on November 27, 2011. It was watched by approximately 5.61 million people during this broadcast. The show received a 2.6 Nielsen rating in the demographic for adults aged 18–49, which was a 4% drop from the previous episode "The Book Job", and a six percent audience share. It was preceded by The Cleveland Show and became the highest-rated program in Fox's Animation Domination lineup that night in terms of total viewers, finishing higher than Family Guy (5.50 million), American Dad! (4.48 million), The Cleveland Show (3.67 million), and Allen Gregory (3.18 million). The episode did, however, not rate higher than Family Guy in the 18–49 demographic. Seven days after the initial airing, the episode had a 19.2% increase in the 18–49 demographics from DVR viewings, raising the overall ratings to 3.1. The overall viewership increased with 15.7% to 6.49 million viewers. For the week of November 21–27, 2011, "The Man in the Blue Flannel Pants" finished in 21st place in the ratings among all network prime-time broadcasts in the 18–49 demographic. Since airing, "The Man in the Blue Flannel Pants" has been generally received as being average in quality by television critics. The A.V. Club's Hayden Childs gave the episode an overall rating of B- and found that the episode "wasn’t particularly funny but neither was it particularly bad." He praised the episode for "a strong storyline" and "elements that often crop up in the better episodes, like a focus that does not stray too far from the Simpson family and a B-plot that works". Despite this, he felt that the "jokes are so low-key and mild that the episode zooms by without raising a single chuckle or smirk." Similarly, Jason Hughes of AOL TV commented that "[w]hile it was a charming enough episode, there were no stand-out moments of clever satire or unexpected twists." Ology's Josh Harrison was slightly more negative and thought the episode was "charming but a bit of a comic flop". He concluded that the episode was nothing special and gave the episode a rating of six out of ten. On the Mad Men parody, Childs found comedic potential in Homer's transformation into Don Draper, but concluded that this was "where the episode could have gotten very funny very fast, but it doesn’t bring any of these jokes home." He further elaborated that "Don Draper is a sad character, true, but there is some real comic potential in his pretensions and vanity. The writers are tapping into this aspect of his characterization to a small degree, but they aren’t really satirizing it." Hughes was not impressed with the Mad Men parody and sarcastically stated that the spoof was "so sharp, you'll swear it's 2008".	[ "## Plot", "## Production", "## Release" ]	1,895	18,862
4,938,828	Maryland Route 33	1,155,655,567	State highway in Talbot County, Maryland, US	[ "Roads in Talbot County, Maryland", "State highways in Maryland" ]	Maryland Route 33 (MD 33) is a state highway in the U.S. state of Maryland. The state highway runs 23.17 mi (37.29 km) from Tilghman Island east to Washington Street in Easton. MD 33 connects Easton, the county seat of Talbot County, with all communities on the peninsula that juts west into the Chesapeake Bay between the Miles River and Eastern Bay on the north and the Tred Avon River and Choptank River on the south. The state highway passes through the historic town of Saint Michaels, home of the Chesapeake Bay Maritime Museum, and enters Tilghman Island by passing over Knapps Narrows on the busiest bascule drawbridge in the United States. MD 33 between Easton and Saint Michaels was one of the original state roads outlined by the Maryland State Roads Commission in 1909. The state highway was constructed between Easton and Claiborne, the terminus of a ferry to Annapolis, in the late 1910s and early 1920s, and was originally designated MD 17. The portion of the highway between Claiborne and Tilghman Island was constructed as MD 451 in the early 1930s. The state highway was extended north to MD 404 in Matapeake on Kent Island when the western terminus of the ferry from Claiborne was moved to Romancoke in the late 1930s. MD 33 received its present number in a 1940 number swap with present MD 17. Following the shutdown of the ferry, MD 33 was extended west along MD 451 to Tilghman Island and the Romancoke–Matapeake highway was redesignated MD 8. In Easton, MD 33 was extended north along Washington Street in the late 1940s and then along Easton Parkway, now MD 322, in the mid-1960s, before the eastern terminus returned to its present location in the late 1970s. ## Route description MD 33 begins at the start of state maintenance 0.10 mi (0.16 km) south of Wharf Road and Phillips Road on Tilghman Island. The roadway continues south as Black Walnut Point Road, a county highway that leads to the namesake point at the south end of the island. MD 33 heads north through the village of Tilghman Island as two-lane undivided Tilghman Island Road, passing Tilghman Elementary School and many businesses before leaving the island by crossing Knapps Narrows on a single-bascule drawbridge that is the busiest of its type in the United States in terms of bridge openings. Shortly after leaving Tilghman Island, the state highway runs through a mix of forest and farmland, passing the hamlets of Sherwood and Wittman and several pieces of old alignment of the highway. MD 33 curves to the east around the head of Harris Creek and passes through McDaniel before reaching Claiborne Road, which was formerly MD 451 and heads northwest to the village of Claiborne. MD 33 continues southeast as St. Michaels Road. The state highway passes the northern terminus of MD 579 (Bozman Neavitt Road) and around the head of Broad Creek before curving south and passing through the town of Saint Michaels and its namesake historic district. MD 33 is known as Talbot Street within the town, where the highway passes the entrance to the Chesapeake Bay Maritime Museum, marked by the previous drawbridge over Knapps Narrows. The state highway curves to the southeast within the town and passes southwest of St. Michaels Middle/High School before it continues straight out of town through a mix of farmland and forests until the hamlet of Newcomb, where MD 329 (Royal Oak Road) splits to the south toward Royal Oak and Bellevue, the latter location being where the seasonal Oxford–Bellevue Ferry crosses the Tred Avon River to the town of Oxford, while MD 33 curves east to cross Oak Creek along the shore of the Miles River. MD 33 continues northeast, collecting the other end of MD 329 before passing a few riverfront subdivisions ahead of the intersection with the southern terminus of MD 370 (Unionville Road). A park and ride lot is located at the northwest corner of this intersection. Shortly after entering the town limits of Easton, the state highway crosses Tanyard Branch at the intersection with MD 322 (Easton Parkway), a bypass of the town that connects with US 50 in both directions. MD 33 continues east as Bay Street toward downtown Easton, where the highway reaches its eastern terminus at Washington Street. MD 33 is a part of the National Highway System as a principal arterial from the west town limit of Easton to Washington Street. ## History The portion of present-day MD 33 between Easton and Saint Michaels was designated one of the original state roads when the Maryland State Roads Commission laid out the original state road system in 1909. However, the Easton–Saint Michaels road was not considered a necessary component of the system, so construction in its modern form was delayed in favor of the Easton–Wye Mills road. A 2-mile (3.2 km) section of the road between the eastern intersection with MD 329 and MD 370 was paved by 1910. The first sections of modern MD 33 constructed by the State Roads Commission were between Saint Michaels and Claiborne, which became the terminus of the Claiborne–Annapolis Ferry in 1919. Sections were completed between the two villages in 1919 and 1920. A section of the highway was also completed between Easton and the MD 370 intersection in 1920. The Easton–Claiborne Road was completed in 1924. When numbers were assigned to certain state highways beginning in 1927, the road was designated MD 17. The next section of present-day MD 33 was constructed between Claiborne and the highway's present western terminus on Tilghman Island as MD 451. The sections from Claiborne to a point between Wittman and Sherman and on Tilghman Island were completed around 1930. The gap between Knapps Narrows and Sherman was filled in 1933. MD 451 was completed when a new single bascule drawbridge was completed over Knapps Narrows in 1934. MD 17 was extended from Claiborne across Eastern Bay along Romancoke Road to MD 404 in Matapeake on Kent Island in 1938. This section was added in response to the replacement of the Claiborne–Annapolis ferry route with a Claiborne–Romancoke route in 1938, with traffic following the new section of MD 17 to Matapeake to take a second ferry across the Chesapeake Bay to Annapolis. MD 17 switched numbers with MD 33, the highway connecting Brunswick and Wolfsville in Frederick County that is now MD 17 in 1940. After a new, straighter US 213 (replaced by US 50 in 1949) was completed from south of Easton to Wye Mills in 1948, MD 33 was extended north along Washington Street within Easton to the new bypass. Following the closing of the Claiborne–Romancoke ferry in 1953, MD 33 and MD 451 switched alignments in 1957; MD 33 achieved its present western terminus at Tilghman Island while MD 451 became a short highway from MD 33 to Claiborne. MD 33 between Romancoke and Matapeake was redesignated MD 8 in 1960. MD 451 was removed from state maintenance in 1998. Easton Parkway was constructed as a western bypass of Easton in the 1960s. MD 33 was moved from Washington Street to the part of the bypass north of present MD 33 when that section of Easton Parkway opened in 1965. MD 322, which was assigned to the southern part of Easton Parkway, replaced MD 33 on Bay Street between Easton Parkway and Washington Street, the latter of which became a northern extension of MD 565. In 1978, MD 322 was assigned to all of Easton Parkway and MD 33 assumed its present eastern terminus. The Knapps Narrows drawbridge was replaced by a new drawbridge in 1998. The 1934 drawbridge was transferred to the entrance of the Chesapeake Bay Maritime Museum in Saint Michaels. ## Junction list ## See also	[ "## Route description", "## History", "## Junction list", "## See also" ]	1,778	9,785
852,019	Halo: The Flood	1,141,814,493	2003 novel by William C. Dietz	[ "2003 novels", "2003 science fiction novels", "Del Rey books", "Military science fiction novels", "Novels based on Halo (franchise)", "Novels set on fictional planets" ]	Halo: The Flood is a military science fiction novel by William C. Dietz, based on the Halo series of video games and based specifically on the 2001 video game Halo: Combat Evolved, the first game in the series. The book was released in April 2003 and is the second Halo novel. Closely depicting the events of the game, The Flood begins with the escape of a human ship Pillar of Autumn from enemy aliens known as the Covenant. When the Pillar of Autumn unexpectedly discovers a massive artifact known as "Halo", the humans must square off against the Covenant and a second terrifying force in a desperate attempt to uncover Halo's secrets and stay alive. Though the book roughly follows the same events of the Xbox game, featuring identical dialogue, Dietz also describes events not seen by the game's protagonist, the super-soldier Master Chief. After the success of the first Halo novel, Halo: The Fall of Reach, publisher Del Rey and Halo publisher Microsoft signed a deal for new books based on Xbox games, including another entry in the Halo series. Del Ray approached author Dietz to write the next book. Dietz incorporated his first-hand experience in the military for the additional scenes of The Flood not found in the game. Upon release, Halo: The Flood cracked the Publishers Weekly Top Ten Bestsellers List for Paperbacks, but critical reception to the novel was less positive than Eric Nylund's Fall of Reach or other Halo novels. The repetitive fight scenes and dramatically different characterization of the protagonist compared to Nylund's work were seen as major flaws, and Dietz's style of writing was alternatively praised and lambasted. The next Halo novel, Halo: First Strike, would serve to bridge the gap between Combat Evolved and its sequel, Halo 2. The book was re-released on October 12, 2010, with new content and editorial corrections. ## Background The first Halo book, Halo: The Fall of Reach, sold more than 1,000,000 copies and prompted an extended agreement between Del Rey Books and Microsoft to produce more Halo novels. Science fiction writer Larry Niven, author of the Ringworld series of novels, was initially approached by Del Rey Books to pen a novelization of Halo: Combat Evolved. Niven declined, citing his inability to write for a "fully programmed universe". William C. Dietz, a Seattle-based science fiction author, was then approached to write the next Halo novel. Though he had never played the game, he immediately bought an Xbox console and a copy of Halo. When he learned that the game was selling rapidly at his local retailer, he agreed to pen the book. Dietz, a former United States Navy Hospital Corpsman, incorporated elements of what he fondly called "The Green Machine" into his work; despite being in the 26th century, the marines of The Flood are very similar to their modern counterparts. To assist Dietz in writing, Bungie provided what Dietz referred to as "a tremendous" amount of background information on the Halo universe. Once Dietz had finished his draft, Bungie checked it over to make sure it complied with the plot established in the games and novels, as Bungie considers all Halo novels canon. ## Synopsis ### Setting Halo: The Flood is set in the year 2552. Humanity has colonized hundreds of worlds across the galaxy, using faster-than-light drives and cryonic sleep to travel between worlds. Without warning, a collective of alien races known as the Covenant began attacking the outlying colonies, brutally exterminating all life by vitrifying the surface of the planets. Humanity, outnumbered and outclassed by the alien's superior technology, wages a losing war against the enemy. After the human bastion of Reach falls to the Covenant, the human ship Pillar of Autumn jumps into Slipspace to lead the Covenant away from Earth. ### Plot The novel, like the video game it is based on, begins as the Pillar of Autumn exits slipspace, discovering an unexpected massive ringworld hidden by a moon in orbit around a gas giant. In the system are a host of Covenant, who notice the lone ship. A Covenant leader forbids the fleet to fire on the Autumn, for fear of damaging the ring. Instead, they board and capture the ship. Meanwhile, technicians on the Autumn prepare for battle and awaken a single soldier from cryo sleep—a Spartan known as the Master Chief. The Covenant board the Autumn; deprived of defensive options, the Autumn's captain, Jacob Keyes, tells the crew to abandon ship. The Master Chief is entrusted with the artificial intelligence Cortana; given the wealth of tactical information the A.I. contains, Keyes cannot allow Cortana to fall into enemy hands. The Master Chief leaves for the surface of Halo in a lifeboat; other soldiers, including a squad of shock troops led by Antonio Silva and his second-in-command, Melissa McKay, land by special drop pods, and take a strategic bluff from the Covenant to use as a base of operations. Captain Keyes is captured by the Covenant, and taken aboard the Covenant cruiser Truth and Reconciliation; the Master Chief and a squad of Marines board the Truth and Reconciliation, rescuing the captain. Keyes has learned that the ringworld they are on has vast significance to the Covenant- they believe that "Halo", as they call the ring, is a weapon of unimaginable power. Escaping from the Covenant cruiser, Keyes gives the Master Chief the mission of finding the Control Room of Halo before the Covenant. The Master Chief and Cortana discover the location of the Control Room, and with the help of some Marines, insert Cortana into Halo's computer network. However, Cortana realizes that the ring is not a weapon as they understood at all- but before the Chief can press her with questions, Cortana tells the Master Chief to find Captain Keyes. Dropped into the swamp where Keyes and his squad disappeared, the Master Chief discovers that the Captain has been captured and both human and Covenant soldiers have been turned into zombie-like creatures by bulbous aliens. One soldier, Private Wallace Jenkins, is left still semi-conscious and painfully aware of his predicament, unable to control his movement or actions as his former friends and he attack McKay's troops. Jenkins intends on ending his life, but is instead captured by McKay for study. The Chief is approached by Halo's resident A.I., 343 Guilty Spark, who informs the Chief that the creatures he has encountered are called the Flood, a virulent parasite that infects hosts and converts them into either forms for combat, or for reproduction. To activate Halo's defenses, Guilty Spark needs the Master Chief's help. In Halo's Control Room, Guilty Spark gives the Master Chief the key to activate Halo, but is stopped by a furious Cortana. Cortana explains that Halo is a weapon, but it doesn't kill the Flood- it kills their food, meaning humans, Covenant, and any other sentient life. Realizing that they have to stop Guilty Spark from activating Halo, Cortana and the Master Chief decide to destroy Halo by detonating the crash-landed Pillar of Autumn's fusion reactors. In order to do this, they need Captain Keyes' neural implants. Cortana discovers the Captain is still alive, held prisoner once again aboard the Truth and Reconciliation, now in the hands of the Flood who are trying to escape Halo. The Chief fights Covenant and Flood to the Captain, but finds out he is too late—the Captain has been assimilated into the parasite. The Chief retrieves the implants and leaves the Truth for the Autumn. While the Chief and Cortana head to the Autumn, Alpha Base is evacuated. Silva decides to retake the Truth and Reconciliation and pilot the ship away in order to avoid being on Halo when the Autumn blows. The ship is taken successfully, but McKay realizes that Silva is blinded by the thought of promotion and glory to the danger of the Flood; if even one Flood specimen escaped containment on Earth, the entire planet could fall. Jenkins draws McKay's attention to a vital energy line on the ship, and realizing that the destruction of the Flood is more important than Silva's promotion, cuts the cable, sending the Truth and Reconciliation crashing into Halo, killing all aboard. At the Autumn, the Master Chief is forced to destabilize the fusion reactors manually as 343 Guilty Spark and his robotic drones try to stop them. Once the countdown until detonation has begun, Cortana directs the Chief to a fighter still docked in the Pillar of Autumn hangar. Gunning the engines, the Chief and Cortana escape the ring just as the Autumn explodes, ending the threat of the Flood. Cortana scans for survivors and realizes that they are seemingly the only two who have survived. Cortana tells the Master Chief that the fight is finished, to which the Chief replies, "No. The Covenant is still out there, and Earth is at risk. We're just getting started." ## Reception Reception to the book was mixed. Some reviewers found William C. Dietz's style of writing subpar when compared to that of Eric Nylund, differing greatly. Other critics took issue with how the novel did not depart enough from the game's storyline; Fans complained about inconsistencies with the other novels and the game itself. Responding to criticism about the book, including his interpretation of the Chief, Dietz replied: > ...of [the book reviews] that I have read, the negative ones often say something to the effect that the book is just like the game, so why read it? What those readers may not realize is that I was hired to novelize the game. That means taking the game and turning it into a book [...] or, put another way, I did what I was hired to do. ...there must be some folks who feel that I wrote the Chief out of character. That's news to me. All I can tell you is that the Bungie folks, who care deeply about the character and the universe never raised that issue, and approved the book as written. However, there's no doubt that every author is different, and will approach characters differently. So if Nylund's rendition of the Chief is different from my own in subtle ways that would be understandable. Despite the less enthusiastic response The Flood garnered than its predecessor, the book still sold well. Soon after release, The Flood made the Publishers Weekly top ten bestsellers paperback list. The next book in the series, Halo: First Strike, would be written by Eric Nylund and bridge the gap between Halo: Combat Evolved and Halo 2. ## See also - Halo: Combat Evolved	[ "## Background", "## Synopsis", "### Setting", "### Plot", "## Reception", "## See also" ]	2,188	36,105
57,690,839	Tropical Storm Carlotta (2018)	1,171,672,475	Tropical Storm in the Pacific of 2018	[ "2018 Pacific hurricane season", "2018 in Mexico", "Eastern Pacific tropical storms", "June 2018 events in Mexico", "Pacific hurricanes in Mexico", "Tropical cyclones in 2018" ]	Tropical Storm Carlotta was a moderately strong tropical cyclone that caused flooding in several states in southwestern and central Mexico. Carlotta, the third named storm of the 2018 Pacific hurricane season, formed as the result of a breakdown in the Intertropical Convergence Zone. On June 12, a broad area of low pressure developed several hundred miles south of Mexico and strengthened into a tropical storm by June 15. The next day, the system stalled unexpectedly within a favorable environment, which led to more intensification than originally anticipated. Early on June 17, Carlotta reached peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 65 mph (100 km/h) and a minimum central pressure of 997 mbar (29.44 inHg) while located only 30 mi (50 km) south-southeast of Acapulco. The system then began to interact with land and experience wind shear, which resulted in the storm weakening to tropical depression status later in the day. The system weakened to a remnant low early on June 19 and dissipated several hours later. Carlotta prompted the issuance of multiple watches and warnings for the southern coast of Mexico. The storm caused three deaths, two of which were in Aguascalientes and the other in Oaxaca. Flooding and landslides also occurred throughout the states of Aguascalientes, Guerrero, Michoacán, Oaxaca, and Puebla, as well as in the Yucatán Peninsula. Damage from the system was reported to be minor. ## Meteorological history Tropical Storm Carlotta formed as the result of a breakdown in the Intertropical Convergence Zone to the south of Mexico. A tropical wave that traversed Central America around June 11 may have contributed to the storm's formation as well. On June 12, the Miami-based National Hurricane Center (NHC) reported that a broad area of low pressure had formed several hundred miles south of southeastern Mexico. The NHC continued to monitor the disturbance over the next two days as it drifted northward. Initially, strong upper-level winds prevented development, but the system increased in organization unexpectedly on June 14. Following further structural improvements, the NHC upgraded the system to tropical depression status at 18:00 UTC while it was located about 140 mi (220 km) south of Acapulco. Around that time, the NHC forecast that a mid-level ridge over Mexico would weaken the following day, and would leave the depression in an area of light steering currents. Despite being located in a favorable environment with low to moderate wind shear and sea surface temperatures exceeding 86 °F (30 °C), the depression experienced minimal change in intensity over the next 18 hours. After the system's center reformed farther north, the NHC amended its intensity forecast to indicate reduced strengthening, citing the fact that the system would spend less time over water. Around 18:00 UTC on June 15, the system strengthened into a tropical storm, after which it was assigned the name Carlotta. The system's intensity then leveled off for about twelve hours. Early on June 16, Carlotta's forward motion began to fluctuate, changing from northeast to southeast in six hours. The storm began to intensify again around 06:00 UTC as it stalled off the coast of Mexico. Soon after, the cyclone began moving in a northerly direction. Over the next twelve hours, Carlotta experienced little change in organization before peaking at 00:00 UTC on June 17, with maximum sustained winds of 65 mph (100 km/h) and a minimum central pressure of 997 mbar (29.44 inHg) while located only 30 mi (50 km) south-southeast of Acapulco. Around that time, the NHC noted that the system's structure had improved significantly, with a contracting eye and more symmetric eyewall. As the system started tracking towards the northwest, Carlotta began to weaken because of increasing interaction with land and northerly wind shear. Around 18:00 UTC on the June 17, the storm weakened into a tropical depression after lacking organized deep convection for several hours. Over the next day, the depression continued to weaken before degenerating into a remnant low on June 19 at 00:00 UTC. Shortly afterwards, Carlotta's upper-level circulation decoupled entirely and drifted towards the southwest, while the low- and mid-level remnants remained. The system's remnants dissipated around 06:00 UTC while located offshore of the Mexican coast between Manzanillo and Zihuatanejo, having never made landfall as a tropical cyclone. ## Preparations and impact On June 14 at 21:00 UTC, the Government of Mexico issued a tropical storm watch for Tecpan de Galeana to Punta Maldonado [es], which was upgraded to a tropical storm warning six hours later. At 15:00 UTC, the next day, the tropical storm warning was extended to Lagunas de Chacahua. Six hours later, the warning was discontinued for Tecpan de Galeana to west of Acapulco. On June 17 at 03:00 UTC, the warning was extended westward from Acapulco to Tecpan de Galeana and cancelled to the east of Punta Maldonado. At 09:00 UTC, the warning was discontinued east of Tecpan de Galeana and extended westward to Lazaro Cardenas. The tropical storm warning was canceled at 18:00 UTC, after the storm weakened into a tropical depression. Tropical Storm Carlotta caused flooding in southern Mexico, with the states of Aguascalientes, Guerrero, Michoacán, Oaxaca, and Puebla, being affected, as well as the Yucatán Peninsula. In the Yucatán Peninsula, Carlotta, a tropical wave, and another low-pressure system dropped 70–400 mm (3–20 in) of rain, causing severe flooding. In the Tizimín Municipality, the Popolnáh police station was inundated and the DN-III-E Plan, a plan for the coordination of search and rescue operations and disaster aid, was activated to help with recovery efforts. In Oaxaca, severe flooding killed one individual. Fishermen recovered the body of a 29-year-old man about 10 mi (20 km) off the coast after he was dragged away by flood waters and drowned. The proximity of the storm prompted the closure of the ports of Huatulco, Puerto Ángel, and Puerto Escondido as well as the suspension of fishing operations. Multiple landslides also occurred as a result of the extreme rainfall. Only minor damage was reported in Guerrero. In the Costa Chica region, the storm damaged several palapas on a beach and the fishing equipment of at least 80 families, preventing them from working. In the municipalities of Tecpan de Galeana, Zihuatanejo and Petatlán, 42 homes were inundated by flood waters. A total of 138 trees were downed in Acapulco and several other municipalities. In Acapulco, a hospital sustained damage to its windows and four injuries were reported. Additionally, 32 neighborhoods lost power, nine houses lost their roofs, and 11 roads collapsed. In Tehuacán, Puebla, homes and businesses were flooded, multiple cars were stranded, and several trees fell. Nearby, a state highway and a bridge collapsed, cutting off several towns in the area. In Michoacán, multiple cities along the coast experienced severe flooding. In Melchor Ocampo, a peak rainfall total of 285.0 mm (11.2 in) occurred. Approximately 211 mm (8.31 in) of rain fell in La Villita while 195 mm (7.68 in) was recorded in Presa La Villita. Rainfall caused the Acalpican River to overflow its banks. In the Tiquicheo Municipality, 10 houses were flooded after a river near the city overflowed its banks. Multiple homes were inundated in the Zamora Municipality. In Pátzcuaro, multiple landslides occurred, damaging roads in the region. In Nuevo Urecho, the overflow of the Los Hervores River damaged water pumps, resulting in a water shortage throughout the municipality. Throughout the storm, 35 temporary shelters were in operation in Michoacán. The insurance claims statewide reached MX\$156 million (US\$7.6 million). In Aguascalientes, Carlotta caused infrastructural damage and two indirect deaths in Aguascalientes City. Rainfall from the system flooded streets, sweeping away dozens of cars and prompting the rescue of several people. Two women became trapped in their vehicle because of rising flood waters and died of carbon monoxide poisoning. After 57 mm (2.2 in) of rain fell, the city's drainage system failed, 12 houses were flooded, and 12 trees fell. A waterspout was reported in the state. Mexican authorities alerted the public that the El Cedazo dam had the potential to overflow because of the heavy rainfall, although this did not occur. ## See also - Weather of 2018 - Tropical cyclones in 2018 - List of Eastern Pacific tropical storms - Other storms of the same name - Hurricane Dolores (1974) - Tropical Storm Beatriz (1993) - Tropical Storm Cristina (1996) - Tropical Storm Boris (2014)	[ "## Meteorological history", "## Preparations and impact", "## See also" ]	1,958	40,828
25,354,112	Stephen J. Chamberlin	1,173,763,445	United States general	[ "1889 births", "1971 deaths", "Burials at Arlington National Cemetery", "Commanders of the Order of the Crown (Belgium)", "Grand Officers of the Legion of Honour", "Grand Officers of the Order of Orange-Nassau", "Honorary Commanders of the Order of the British Empire", "Military personnel from Kansas", "People from Spring Hill, Kansas", "Recipients of the Croix de guerre (Belgium)", "Recipients of the Distinguished Service Medal (US Army)", "Recipients of the Navy Cross (United States)", "Recipients of the Order of the Phoenix (Greece)", "Recipients of the Silver Star", "United States Army Command and General Staff College alumni", "United States Army Infantry Branch personnel", "United States Army War College alumni", "United States Army generals", "United States Army generals of World War II", "United States Army personnel of World War I", "United States Military Academy alumni" ]	Stephen Jones Chamberlin (23 December 1889 – 23 October 1971) was a lieutenant general in the United States Army who served during World War II as General of the Army Douglas MacArthur's Assistant Chief of Staff, G-3, the staff officer in charge of plans and operations. Born in Spring Hill, Kansas on 23 December 1889, he was a 1912 graduate of the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York. During World War I, he was aide-de-camp to Major General David C. Shanks, the New York Port of Embarkation commander at Hoboken, New Jersey, for which he was one of twelve army officers who received the Navy Cross. After the war, he attended the Command and General Staff School at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, and served on the staff of the Chief of Infantry in the War Department. He attended the Army War College and was posted to the staff of the Army's Hawaiian Division at Fort Shafter, Hawaii, as Assistant Chief of Staff, G-3. In 1938, he became assistant chief of the Construction Branch in the G-4 Division of War Department General Staff. He became involved in the vast construction program of arsenals, depots, airbases and coastal defenses as the United States rearmed prior to its entry into World War II. In January 1942, he was sent to Australia, where he became Assistant Chief of Staff, G-3, at General MacArthur's General Headquarters (GHQ), Southwest Pacific Area. In this role, he was responsible for planning and overseeing the execution of MacArthur's major operations, including the New Guinea, Philippines and Borneo campaigns. Chamberlin was director of the Intelligence Division, G-2, on the War Department General Staff from 1946 to 1948, when he became commander of the Fifth Army. He retired in September 1951, and was then employed as chief of security for the US Air Force's Arnold Engineering Development Center at Arnold Air Force Base, Tennessee. He died on 23 October 1971. ## Early life Stephen Jones Chamberlin was born in Spring Hill, Kansas on 23 December 1889, the son of Clark and Minnie (Hare) Chamberlin. He was raised and educated in Spring Hill and graduated from Spring Hill High School in 1907. After graduation, he was appointed to the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York by U.S. Representative Charles Frederick Scott. He began attendance in 1908 and graduated in 1912 ranked 63rd of 95. Chamberlin was commissioned a second lieutenant in the 16th Infantry, which was then stationed at the Presidio of San Francisco. In May 1914, the regiment moved to El Paso, Texas. He transferred to the 8th Infantry on 1 February 1915 and served at Fort William McKinley in the Philippines. He was promoted to first lieutenant on 1 July 1916, becoming a battalion adjutant on 14 October. He was assistant to the post quartermaster from 31 October 1916 to 1 January 1917, and then Post Exchange Officer from 20 December 1916 to 9 June 1917. He was promoted to captain on 15 May 1917, a few weeks after the American entry into World War I, and was acting regimental adjutant from 9 June to 1 September 1917. ## World War I With the United States now involved in the war, Chamberlin became aide-de-camp to Major General David C. Shanks, the New York Port of Embarkation commander at Hoboken, New Jersey. Chamberlin was also the officer in charge of troop movements. On 2 March 1918, Chamberlin married Shank's daughter, Sarah Chapman, at St. Bartholomew's Episcopal Church, New York on the corner of Madison Avenue and East 44th Street, in a simple ceremony attended only by Sarah's sister Katherine and Captain Maxwell Sullivan as best man. Chamberlin was promoted to major on 7 June 1918. For his "distinguished service in the line of his profession as dispatch officer at the Port of Embarkation, Hoboken, New Jersey", he became one of only twelve Army officers to receive the Navy Cross during World War I. He was also awarded the Distinguished Service Medal. His citation read: > The President of the United States takes pleasure in presenting the Army Distinguished Service Medal to Stephen J. Chamberlin, Major (Infantry), US Army, for exceptionally meritorious and distinguished services to the Government of the United States, in a duty of great responsibility during World War I. As Acting Dispatch Officer at Port of Embarkation, Hoboken, New Jersey, from November 15, 1917 to September 6, 1918, Major Chamberlin displayed marked ability in handling the movements of troops through the port, assigning units and detachments to camps, convoys, and ships, and by foresight, thorough organization, and hard work arranged for the smooth working of troop movements, prevented congestion at the camps and piers, thus enabling the transports to sail at the appointed time with the appropriate number of troops. In September 1918, Shanks was appointed commander of the 16th Division at Camp Kearny, California, and Chamberlin was appointed the division's Assistant Chief of Staff. To prepare for the role, he attended a course at the Army War College. Following the Armistice with Germany in November 1918, he was sent on a tour of the battlefields in France and Belgium. ## Between the wars In the aftermath of World War I, Chamberlin was reduced in rank to captain on 9 February 1919, but was promoted to major again on 1 July 1920. A year later he was posted to the Panama Canal Zone, initially as transportation officer, and then with 33rd Infantry. On returning to the United States in January 1922, he joined the staff of 19th Infantry Brigade at Fort McPherson, Georgia. He was transferred to the 22nd Infantry at Fort Benning, Georgia, on 17 February 1923. From 1924 to 1925, he attended the Command and General Staff School at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, graduating as an Honor Graduate. Duty then followed with the Third Corps Area from 30 June to 5 July 1925; with the National Guard at Staunton, Virginia from 5 July 1925 to 1 July 1926; in the Office Chief of Infantry at Washington, D.C.; and at Camp Perry, Ohio as Publicity Officer. He served on the staff of the Chief of Infantry in the War Department from 1926 to 1930, and then commanded a battalion of the 22nd Infantry from 1930 to 1932. Chamberlin attended the Army War College from July 1932 to June 1933. Upon graduation, he was posted to the staff of the Army's Hawaiian Division at Fort Shafter, Hawaii, serving as Assistant Chief of Staff, G-3. After more than 15 years as a major, he was finally promoted to lieutenant colonel on 1 August 1935. On returning to the United States in July 1936, he became Assistant Professor of Military Science and Tactics for the high schools of Los Angeles. ## World War II In 1938, Chamberlin became Assistant Chief of the Construction Branch in the G-4 Division of War Department General Staff. At this time, the United States was embarking on a military buildup in response to a worsening international situation, which culminated in the outbreak of World War II on 1 September 1939. A major component of this build up was a vast construction program of arsenals, depots, airbases and coastal defenses. Some \$175 million was allocated to construction under the Expansion Program, as it became known. On 7 May 1940, the Assistant Chief of Staff, G-4, Major General Richard C. Moore, G-4 of the War Department General Staff, asked for an estimate of the cost to house an additional 1,200,000 men and balked at the estimate he received of \$800 per head. To save on the cost of cantonments, Moore decided not to paint them. Chamberlin disagreed on the grounds that paint would reduce maintenance costs. President Franklin Roosevelt intervened and directed that the buildings be painted. As a result, an order was placed for 96,500 US gallons (365,000 L; 80,400 imp gal) of paint, resulting in an \$11 million budget shortfall. Chamberlin was promoted to colonel on 14 February 1941. Commenting after the war on the construction program, he wrote: > Actually a phenomenal standard was set, one in which all Americans can glory. As far as wasting a few dollars was concerned, the construction effort cannot hold a candle to Lend-Lease, the Marshall Plan, or the Military Assistance Program. Had it not been for the courageous performance of those in charge of the War Department in the emergency, we might well have been defeated, and how then would the expenditure of a few millions have loomed in the long-range picture? In January 1942, Chamberlin was appointed Assistant Chief of Staff, G-4, of US Army Forces in Australia, arriving by air from Washington, D.C., on 9 January. He soon became Chief of Staff of US Army Forces in Australia, first under Major General Julian F. Barnes, and then under his successor, Lieutenant General George H. Brett. Chamberlin was promoted to brigadier general on 15 February 1942. General Douglas MacArthur arrived in Australia on 17 March to become Supreme Commander of the newly established Southwest Pacific Area (SWPA), which now included the US Army Forces in Australia. On 19 April, MacArthur formally established his General Headquarters (GHQ), and Chamberlin was appointed its Assistant Chief of Staff, G-3. As G-3, Chamberlin was one of the most highly rated members of the GHQ staff, although not being part of the "Bataan Gang" – the group of officers who had escaped with MacArthur from the Philippines – made him something of an outsider at GHQ. Chamberlin was responsible for planning and overseeing the execution of MacArthur's major operations, including the New Guinea, Philippines and Borneo campaigns. One member of the staff later recalled: > Chamberlin, G-3, was an outstanding staff planner: quiet, unassuming, methodical, determined, aggressive in defending his position when challenged. He had a fine sense of timing and integration. He manipulated his three separate planning teams to move down parallel paths toward the same objective, or, when necessary, to move along divergent paths to map out a change of direction. Once an objective had been defined in long-run terms, Chamberlin and his planners set the basic sequence of events. All major commanders participated in the planning process, with Chamberlin coordinating and adjusting to smooth out conflicts. Considering the huge distances involved and the necessity for working in the humid heat of equatorial islands, the performance was stupendous. The apparent ease that characterized the operations reflected the thoroughness of the planning process. On those occasions when MacArthur required a sudden and pressing shift of direction, Chamberlin delivered, not always with great patience. The deadlines were met with a finely turned operational plan. Chamberlin jealously guarded his position. In late 1943, Chamberlin differed with one of his planners, Brigadier General Bonner Fellers, over a proposed landing at Hansa Bay. Fellers thought that Hansa Bay could be bypassed, but Chamberlin felt that this would be too risky. While Fellers was a newcomer to GHQ, he had known MacArthur for many years, and Fellers took his proposal directly to MacArthur, who approved it. A furious Chamberlin had Fellers fired from G-3. MacArthur made him his military secretary. One of Chamberlin's challenges was working with the Australians. Their decentralized mode of planning was entirely different from the top-down approach used by GHQ, and Chamberlin found this a source of frustration, as it was difficult to extract information from them. Nonetheless, he established a good working relationship with the Australian Deputy Chief of the General Staff, Lieutenant General Frank Berryman. When MacArthur began looking for a new chief of staff to replace Lieutenant General Richard K. Sutherland in 1945, he considered but rejected giving the post to Chamberlin. Chamberlin became Deputy Chief of Staff in February 1946, and was briefly acting as chief of staff from 2 May to 10 June 1946. For his services in the Southwest Pacific and the Occupation of Japan, Chamberlin was awarded three Army Distinguished Service Medals and the Silver Star. In September 1946, he was one of five American major generals who was made an honorary Commander of Order of the British Empire in the Military Division for his work with US Army Forces in Australia and GHQ SWPA. ## Later life From June 1946 to October 1948 Chamberlin was director of the Intelligence Division, G-2, on the War Department General Staff. He commanded the Fifth Army from 1948 to 1951, receiving promotion to lieutenant general on 24 January 1948. In 1949, he was chairman of a general officer committee which researched the role of race in the Army, and produced a report favoring the continuation of segregation and the maintenance of a quota limiting the number of African-Americans who could serve in uniform. He retired in September 1951, and was then employed as chief of security for the US Air Force's Arnold Engineering Development Center at Arnold Air Force Base, Tennessee. He died at Hoag Memorial Hospital in Newport Beach, Orange, California on 23 October 1971. He was buried in Section 3, Site 1968 A WH of Arlington National Cemetery. His wife Sarah was subsequently interred with him in 1975. His papers are in the US Army Heritage and Education Center in Carlisle, Pennsylvania. ## Awards	[ "## Early life", "## World War I", "## Between the wars", "## World War II", "## Later life", "## Awards" ]	2,931	2,228
2,226	Ad hominem	1,170,796,680	Attacking the person rather than the argument	[ "Genetic fallacies", "Informal fallacies", "Latin logical phrases", "Latin words and phrases", "Propaganda techniques", "Rhetoric" ]	Ad hominem (Latin for 'to the person'), short for argumentum ad hominem, is a term that refers to several types of arguments, most of which are fallacious. Typically this term refers to a rhetorical strategy where the speaker attacks the character, motive, or some other attribute of the person making an argument rather than attacking the substance of the argument itself. This avoids genuine debate by creating a diversion to some irrelevant but often highly charged issue. The most common form of this fallacy is "A makes a claim x, B asserts that A holds a property that is unwelcome, and hence B concludes that argument x is wrong". The valid types of ad hominem arguments are generally only encountered in specialized philosophical usage. These typically refer to the dialectical strategy of using the target's own beliefs and arguments against them, while not agreeing with the validity of those beliefs and arguments. Ad hominem arguments were first studied in ancient Greece; John Locke revived the examination of ad hominem arguments in the 17th century. Many contemporary politicians routinely use ad hominem attacks, which can be encapsulated to a derogatory nickname for a political opponent. ## History The various types of ad hominem arguments have been known in the West since at least the ancient Greeks. Aristotle, in his work Sophistical Refutations, detailed the fallaciousness of putting the questioner but not the argument under scrutiny. His description was somewhat different from the modern understanding, referring to a class of sophistry that applies an ambiguously worded question about people to a specific person. The proper refutation, he wrote, is not to debate the attributes of the person (solutio ad hominem) but to address the original ambiguity. Many examples of ancient non-fallacious ad hominem arguments are preserved in the works of the Pyrrhonist philosopher Sextus Empiricus. In these arguments, the concepts and assumptions of the opponents are used as part of a dialectical strategy against them to demonstrate the unsoundness of their own arguments and assumptions. In this way, the arguments are to the person (ad hominem), but without attacking the properties of the individuals making the arguments. This kind of argument is also known as "argument from commitment". Italian polymath Galileo Galilei and British philosopher John Locke also examined the argument from commitment, a form of the ad hominem argument, meaning examining an argument on the basis of whether it stands true to the principles of the person carrying the argument. In the mid-19th century, the modern understanding of the term ad hominem started to take shape, with the broad definition given by English logician Richard Whately. According to Whately, ad hominem arguments were "addressed to the peculiar circumstances, character, avowed opinions, or past conduct of the individual". Over time, the term acquired a different meaning; by the beginning of the 20th century, it was linked to a logical fallacy, in which a debater, instead of disproving an argument, attacked their opponent. This approach was also popularized in philosophical textbooks of the mid-20th century, and it was challenged by Australian philosopher Charles Leonard Hamblin in the second half of the 20th century. In a detailed work, he suggested that the inclusion of a statement against a person in an argument does not necessarily make it a fallacious argument since that particular phrase is not a premise that leads to a conclusion. While Hablin's criticism was not widely accepted, Canadian philosopher Douglas N. Walton examined the fallaciousness of the ad hominem argument even further. Nowadays, except within specialized philosophical usages, the usage of the term ad hominem signifies a straight attack at the character and ethos of a person, in an attempt to refute their argument. ## Terminology The Latin phase argumentum ad hominem stands for "argument against the person". "Ad" corresponds to "against" but it could also mean "to" or "towards". The terms ad mulierem and ad feminam have been used specifically when the person receiving the criticism is female. ## Types of ad hominem arguments Fallacious ad hominem reasoning is categorized among informal fallacies, more precisely as a genetic fallacy, a subcategory of fallacies of irrelevance. Ad hominem fallacies can be separated into various types, such as tu quoque, circumstantial ad hominem, guilt by association, and abusive ad hominem. All of them are similar to the general scheme of ad hominem argument, that is instead of dealing with the essence of someone's argument or trying to refute it, the interlocutor is attacking the character of the proponent of the argument and concluding that it is a sufficient reason to drop the initial argument. ### Tu quoque Ad hominem tu quoque (literally: "You also") is a response to a personal attack (or ad hominem argument) that itself is a personal attack. Tu quoque appears as: - A makes a claim a. - B attacks the character of A by saying they hold a property x, which is bad. - A defends themself by attacking B, saying they also hold the same property x. Here is an example given by philosophy professor George Wrisley to illustrate the above: A businessman and politician is giving a lecture at a University about how good his company is and how nicely the system works. A student asks him "Is it true that you and your company are selling weapons to third world rulers who use those arms against their own people?" and the businessman replies "is it true that your university gets funding by the same company that you are claiming is selling guns to those countries? You are not a white dove either". The ad hominem accusation of the student is relevant to the narrative the businessman tries to project thus not fallacious. On the other hand, the attack on the student (that is, the student being inconsistent) is irrelevant to the opening narrative. So the businessman's tu quoque response is fallacious. Canadian philosopher Christopher Tindale approaches somewhat different the tu quoque fallacy. According to Tindale, a tu quoque fallacy appears when a response to an argument is made on the history of the arguer. This argument is also invalid because it does not disprove the premise; if the premise is true, then source A may be a hypocrite or even changed their mind, but this does not make the statement less credible from a logical perspective. A common example, given by Tindale, is when a doctor advises a patient to lose weight, but the patient argues that there is no need for him to go on a diet because the doctor is also overweight. ### Circumstantial Circumstantial ad hominem points out that someone is in circumstances (for instance, their job, wealth, property, or relations) such that they are disposed to take a particular position. It constitutes an attack on the bias of a source. As with other types of ad hominem attack, circumstantial attack could be fallacious or not. It could be fallacious because a disposition to make a certain argument does not make the argument invalid; this overlaps with the genetic fallacy (an argument that a claim is incorrect due to its source). But it also may be a sound argument, if the premises are correct and the bias is relevant to the argument. A simple example is: a father may tell his daughter not to start smoking because she will damage her health, and she may point out that he is or was a smoker. This does not alter the fact that smoking might cause various diseases. Her father's inconsistency is not a proper reason to reject his claim. Philosopher and pundit on informal fallacies Douglas N. Walton argues that a circumstantial ad hominem argument can be non-fallacious. This could be the case when someone (A) attacks the personality of another person (B), making an argument (a) while the personality of B is relevant to argument a, i.e. B talks as an authority figure. To illustrate this reasoning, Walton gives the example of a witness at a trial: if he had been caught lying and cheating in his own life, should the jury take his word for granted? No, according to Walton. ### Guilt by association Guilt by association, that is accusing an arguer because of his alleged connection with a discredited person or group, can sometimes also be a type of ad hominem fallacy when the argument attacks a source because of the similarity between the views of someone making an argument and other proponents of the argument. This form of the argument is as follows: 1. Individual S makes claim C. 2. Individual S is also associated with Group G, who has an unfavorable reputation 3. Therefore, individual S and his views are questionable. Academic Leigh Kolb gives as an example that the 2008 US vice‐presidential candidate Sarah Palin attacked Barack Obama for having worked with Bill Ayers, who had been a leader in the Weather Underground terrorist group in the 1960s. Despite Obama denouncing every act of terrorism, he was still associated by his opponents with terrorism. Guilt by association is frequently found in social and political debates. It also appears after major events (such as scandals and terrorism) linked to a specific group. An example, given also by Leigh Kolb, is the peak of attacks against Muslims in the US after the September 11 attacks. ### Abusive ad hominem Abusive ad hominem argument (or direct ad hominem) is associated with an attack to the character of the person carrying an argument. This kind of argument, besides usually being fallacious, is also counterproductive, as a proper dialogue is hard to achieve after such an attack. Key issues in examining an argument to determine whether it is an ad hominem fallacy or not are whether the accusation against the person stands true or not, and whether the accusation is relevant to the argument. An example is a dialogue at the court, where the attorney cross-examines an eyewitness, bringing to light the fact that the witness was convicted in the past for lying. If the attorney's conclusion is that the witness is lying, that would be wrong. But if his argument would be that the witness should not be trusted, that would not be a fallacy. ### Argument from commitment An ad hominem argument from commitment is a type of valid argument that employs, as a dialectical strategy, the exclusive utilization of the beliefs, convictions, and assumptions of those holding the position being argued against, i.e., arguments constructed on the basis of what other people hold to be true. This usage is generally only encountered in specialist philosophical usage or in pre-20th century usages. This type of argument is also known as the ex concessis argument (Latin for "from what has been conceded already"). ## Usage in debates Ad hominem fallacies are considered to be uncivil and do not help creating a constructive atmosphere for dialogue to flourish. An ad hominem attack is an attack on the character of the target who tends to feel the necessity to defend himself or herself from the accusation of being hypocritical. Walton has noted that it is so powerful of an argument that it is employed in many political debates. Since it is associated with negativity and dirty tricks, it has gained a bad fame, of being always fallacious. Author Eithan Orkibi, having studied Israeli politics prior to elections, described two other forms of ad hominem attacks that are common during election periods. They both depend on the collective memory shared by both proponents and the audience. The first is the precedent ad hominem, according to which the previous history of someone means that they do not fit for the office. It goes like this: "My opponent was (allegedly) wrong in the past, therefore he is wrong now". The second one is a behavioral ad hominem: "my opponent was not decent in his arguments in the past, so he is not now either". These kinds of attacks are based on the inability of the audience to have a clear view of the amount of false statements by both parts of the debate. ## Criticism as a fallacy Walton has argued that ad hominem reasoning is not always fallacious, and that in some instances, questions of personal conduct, character, motives, etc., are legitimate and relevant to the issue, as when it directly involves hypocrisy, or actions contradicting the subject's words. The philosopher Charles Taylor has argued that ad hominem reasoning (discussing facts about the speaker or author relative to the value of his statements) is essential to understanding certain moral issues due to the connection between individual persons and morality (or moral claims), and contrasts this sort of reasoning with the apodictic reasoning (involving facts beyond dispute or clearly established) of philosophical naturalism. ## See also - "And you are lynching Negroes" - Appeal to authority - Appeal to emotion - Appeal to motive - The Art of Being Right - Character assassination - Ergo decedo - Fair game (Scientology) - Fake news - Fundamental attribution error - Gaslighting - Hostile witness - Negative campaigning - Poisoning the well - Presumption of guilt - Race card - Red herring - Reputation - Shooting the messenger - Smear campaign - Straw man - Tone policing - Whataboutism	[ "## History", "## Terminology", "## Types of ad hominem arguments", "### Tu quoque", "### Circumstantial", "### Guilt by association", "### Abusive ad hominem", "### Argument from commitment", "## Usage in debates", "## Criticism as a fallacy", "## See also" ]	2,734	89
35,037,015	John Marley (mining engineer)	1,173,559,995	English mining engineer and geologist	[ "1823 births", "1891 deaths", "British geologists", "British mining engineers", "People from Heighington, County Durham", "People from Shildon" ]	John Marley (11 November 1823 – 4 April 1891) was an English mining engineer from Darlington who together with ironmaster John Vaughan made the "commercial discovery" of the Cleveland Ironstone Formation, the basis of the wealth of their company Bolckow Vaughan and the industrial growth of Middlesbrough. He was an effective leader of engineering operations at Bolckow Vaughan's mines and collieries. He ended his career as a wealthy independent mine-owner and president of the North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers (NEIMME). ## Life and career Marley was born at Middridge Grange, by Shildon, County Durham, England, not far from the town of Heighington. He was educated at Denton near Darlington. From 1840 he served as assistant at several Durham collieries (coal mines). In 1845 he worked as a surveyor for the Stockton and Darlington Railway. In 1846 he became resident viewer at Woodifield Colliery, the start of his career at Bolckow & Vaughan. Over the next two decades, he became the head of engineering operations for Bolckow and Vaughan's mines and collieries, capably organising a wide range of mining operations. In 1850, Vaughan and Marley made their famous "discovery" of the main seam of Cleveland Ironstone. The existence of iron in the Cleveland hills was in fact well known, possibly since ancient times and certainly since at least 1811, as repeated attempts had been made to sell it, but without success. In 1852, Marley, then at Bishop Auckland, became a founding member of the North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers (NEIMME); he joined the NEIMME council in 1856, giving his address as Mining Offices, Darlington. He became Vice-President in 1872. He served as President from 1888 to 1890. In 1863, Marley discovered a deposit of rock salt at Middlesbrough while drilling for water. He resigned from Bolckow Vaughan in 1867, but continued to consult with them until 1869. In 1870, Marley became chairman of his own company, the newly registered North Brancepeth Coal Co. Ltd. It grew to include 4 collieries. ## Family By 1881, John Marley was living at Thornfield House, Darlington with his wife Sarah, four daughters, Caroline, Florence, Ethel and Isabel, and a son, Hugh. Another son J.W. Marley wrote a posthumous biographical note about Marley for the Institution of Mining Engineers. His nephew, Thomas William Marley followed him as chairman of the North Brancepeth Coal company. ## "Discovery" ### History and geology Iron has been worked in Cleveland on a small scale since before Roman times. The Cleveland Ironstone Formation consists of seams of marine ironstone alternating with shale and siltstone, of Lower Jurassic age. The Cleveland Ironstone Formation represents the Middle Lias or Upper Pliensbachian-Domerian. Two Ammonite zones (rock layers identified by particular fossils) are (largely) included: those indexed by Pleuroceras spinatum and Amaltheus margaritatus. ### Legend The local newspaper The Northern Echo records the legend of Marley's discovery: "Legend has it that on June 8, 1850, the two men were out shooting rabbits in the Cleveland Hills. Marley tripped over a burrow. As he sprawled down the hole, his hand landed on the purest ironstone he had ever seen. "Eureka!" he shouted." The Echo at once adds "This does the men a disservice." ### Commercial reality The discovery was no serendipitous accident. Marley was asked by his employer, John Vaughan, co-founder of the company Bolckow Vaughan to study the geology of Cleveland, to help him locate a profitably thick seam of ironstone, conveniently close to Middlesbrough. Bolckow Vaughan had already in 1848 "collected and shipped to Middlesbrough several thousand tons found on the coast between Redcar and Skinningrove"; Vaughan guessed that the same thick seams including the main bed might be found inland, in the Eston and Upleatham hills near the railway. On 8 June 1850, Marley and Vaughan walked the coast to survey it for workable iron ore, expecting to find places where they could "bore" down to find useful amounts. They discovered seams of the ironstone running from the North Yorkshire coast at Staithes inland to the Eston Hills, outcropping at the surface. This find was swiftly exploited, and Middlesbrough grew very rapidly to support the new ironworks developed by Bolckow Vaughan and others in the area. The main ironstone seam (see illustration) in the Eston Hills is 16 feet thick. Marley is recorded as doubting "whether the Romans or the Monks [of Rievaulx] ever smelted any part of the main bed of ironstone, which has in recent years proved such a source of wealth to the North, because in the various remains of slag and refuse left by them in Bilsdale, Bransdale, Rosedale, Furnace House in Fryupdale, Rievaulx Abbey, and other places, no traces of the main seam of ironstone have been found, although 'dogger band' (or thin clay bands of ironstone) and 'nodules' have been so found along with the charcoal and slag." Marley described his discovery as follows: "Mr. Vaughan and myself, having gone to examine the hills for the most suitable place for boring, we decided to ascend to the east, adjoining Sir J. H. Lowther's grounds, and so walk along to Lady Hewley's grounds on the west. In ascending the hill in Mr. C. Dryden's grounds, we picked up two or three small pieces of ironstone. We, therefore, continued our ascent until we came to a quarry hole, from whence this ironstone had been taken for roads, and next, on entering Sir J. H. Lowther's grounds to the west, a solid rock of ironstone was lying bare, upwards of sixteen feet thick." The legend about the rabbit-hole did have some basis in reality: the many rabbit and fox holes provided the prospecting geologists with samples of the underlying rock (away from surface exposures of the geology at natural cliffs) at intervals along the ironstone outcrop. Marley stated "I need scarcely say that, having once found this bed, we had no difficulty in following the outcrop in going westward, without any boring, as the rabbit and fox holes therein were plentiful as we went." The commercial benefit of the "discovery" was simple: the ironstone was exposed at the surface, "which rendered boring unnecessary." The rock could simply be quarried, and rolled in tramway wagons down to a 2-mile extension of the railway. The rate of growth of ironstone production was prodigious. In 1850, just 4,000 tons of Cleveland Ironstone were extracted. The railway extension opened on 6 January 1851, and in that year, 187,950 tons were extracted. In 1857, Marley published a paper in the Transactions of the Institution of Mining Engineers on the Cleveland Ironstone, which begins: "To the members of this Institute, this ironstone cannot but be an interesting subject, whether they be mining engineers, coal owners, iron masters, or simply a part of the public personally disinterested, as I believe that nothing has been discovered, within the last twenty years, having so direct an influence on the landed, railway, and mineral wealth, in the North of England, on the South Durham coal field, and on the iron trade generally, as the discovery and application of this large ironstone district." Marley continued: "I suppose it may now be taken as an admitted fact, that the prosperity or depression of the iron and coal trades regulates, in a very material degree, the prosperity or depression of nearly all other commercial pursuits in the same locality." Marley was correct. In 1864, just 14 years after the discovery of the rich source of ironstone, Bolckow, Vaughan and Company Ltd was registered with capital of £2,500,000, making it the largest company ever formed up to that time. Middlesbrough more than doubled in population from 7600 in 1851 to 19,000 in 1861, and then doubled again to 40,000 in 1871, driven by the iron industry.	[ "## Life and career", "## Family", "## \"Discovery\"", "### History and geology", "### Legend", "### Commercial reality" ]	1,811	11,363
26,990,497	Droungarios of the Fleet	1,138,749,346	Commander of the Imperial Fleet of the Byzantine navy	[ "Byzantine admirals", "Byzantine military offices", "Lists of admirals", "Lists of office-holders in the Byzantine Empire", "Naval ranks" ]	The droungarios of the Fleet (Greek: δρουγγάριος τοῦ πλοΐμου/τῶν πλοΐμων, droungarios tou ploïmou/tōn ploïmōn; after the 11th century δρουγγάριος τοῦ στόλου, droungarios tou stolou), sometimes anglicized as Drungary of the Fleet, was the commander of the Imperial Fleet (βασιλικὸς στόλος, basilikos stolos, or βασιλικὸν πλόϊμον, basilikon ploïmon), the central division of the Byzantine navy stationed at the capital of Constantinople, as opposed to the provincial (thematic) fleets. From the late 11th century, when the Byzantine fleets were amalgamated into a single force under the megas doux, the post, now known as the Grand droungarios of the Fleet (μέγας δρουγγάριος τοῦ στόλου, megas droungarios tou stolou), became the second-in-command of the megas doux and continued in this role until the end of the Byzantine Empire. ## Background and history of the office In response to the Muslim conquests, some time in the latter half of the 7th century, the bulk of the Byzantine navy was formed into a single command, the great fleet of the Karabisianoi (Greek: Καραβισιάνοι, "the Ships' Men"), commanded, like the land themes that appeared around the same time, by a stratēgos (stratēgos tōn karabōn/karabisianōn, "general of the ships/ships' men"). The Karabisianoi, however, proved inadequate and were replaced in the early 8th century by a more complex system composed of three elements, which, with minor alterations, survived until the 11th century: a central fleet based at Constantinople; a few regional naval commands, namely the maritime Theme of the Cibyrrhaeots and a number of independent commands under a droungarios, which eventually evolved into the maritime themes of the Aegean Sea and of Samos in the course of the 9th century; and a greater number of local squadrons in the land themes, charged with purely defensive and police tasks and subordinate to the local thematic governors. A fleet was based in Constantinople at least since the 7th century, and indeed played a central role in the repulsion of the two Arab sieges of Constantinople in 674–678 and 717–718, but the exact date of the establishment of the Imperial Fleet (βασιλικὸς στόλος, basilikos stolos, or βασιλικὸν πλόϊμον, basilikon ploïmon) as a distinct command is unclear. The Irish historian J. B. Bury, followed by the French Byzaninist Rodolphe Guilland, considered it "not improbable" that the Imperial Fleet existed as a subordinate command under the stratēgos tōn karabisianōn already in the 7th century. Certainly the droungarios of the Fleet first appears in the Taktikon Uspensky of ; and as there is little evidence for major fleets operating from Constantinople during the 8th century, the Greek Byzantinist Hélène Ahrweiler dated the fleet's creation to the early 9th century. From that point on, the Imperial Fleet formed the main naval reserve force and provided the core of various expeditionary fleets. In the Taktikon Uspensky, the droungarios of the Fleet is positioned relatively lowly in the hierarchy, coming after all the senior military and civilian officials, placed between the prōtostratōr and the ek prosōpou of the themes. By the time of the 899 Klētorologion of Philotheos, however, he had risen considerably in importance, being placed variously either immediately before or after the logothetēs tou dromou and in the 35th or 38th position of the overall hierarchy, ahead of the domestikoi of the guard regiments (tagmata) of the Hikanatoi and the Noumeroi, as well as of the various chartoularioi (civil department heads). Indeed, he was not classed with the other military commanders, whether of the themes or of the tagmata, but in the special class of military officials, the stratarchai, where he is listed second, after the hetaireiarchēs, the commander of the imperial bodyguard. This rise coincided with the revival in the Byzantine navy's fortunes, begun under Michael III (r. 843–867) but carried to fruition under the first two emperors of the Macedonian dynasty, Basil I the Macedonian (r. 867–886) and Leo VI the Wise (r. 886–912). The Klētorologion further lists his subordinate officials as comprising his deputy or topotērētēs (τοποτηρητής), the secretary or chartoularios (χαρτουλάριος), the head messenger or prōtomandatōr and the other messengers (μανδάτορες, mandatores), the commanders of squadrons or komētes (κόμητες; sing. κόμης, komēs), and the centurions of the individual ships (κένταρχοι, kentarchoi; sing. κένταρχος, kentarchos). In addition, there was a komēs tēs hetaireias (κόμης τῆς ἑταιρείας), whose function is disputed: according to Bury, he probably commanded the foreign mercenaries, especially Rus' or Scandinavians, who served as marines, but the Greek historian Nicolas Oikonomides considered him the head of the droungarios' personal guard. According to the De Ceremoniis of Emperor Constantine VII (r. 913–959), he also had a role in imperial ceremonies, often in association with the droungarios tēs viglēs. Typical dignities associated with the post where the senior ranks of prōtospatharios, patrikios, and anthypatos. The office reached its heyday during the 10th century, when several important personages held it, most notably Emperor Romanos I Lekapenos (r. 920–944), who used it as a springboard to the throne. The office continued in the 11th century, but as the fleet was no longer very active, the droungarios chiefly commanded the Constantinopolitan fleet instead of leading expeditions; the title was now usually referred to as droungarios tou stolou (δρουγγάριος τοῦ στόλου). With the accession of Alexios I Komnenos (r. 1081–1118) a major reorganization of the navy took place. With the great naval themes having suffered a long decline as military formations, Alexios gathered the remnants of the provincial fleets and amalgamated them with the Imperial Fleet into a single force based in Constantinople, and placed it under the command of the megas doux. The post of the droungarios of the Fleet remained in existence, now with the addition of the prefix megas ("grand"). According to the mid-14th century Book of Offices of Pseudo-Kodinos, he "has the same relation to the megas doux as the megas droungarios tēs viglēs had to the megas domestikos", i.e., he was the second in command. He was apparently in charge of subordinate droungarioi, who however were of very lowly rank and are rarely mentioned in the sources. Although reduced in significance in comparison to its heyday, the megas droungarios tou stolou remained important, ranking 32nd in the overall hierarchy in the Book of Offices. Pseudo-Kodinos gives his ceremonial costume at the time as follows: a gold-embroidered skiadion hat, a plain silk kabbadion kaftan, and a skaranikon (domed hat) covered in golden and lemon-yellow silk and decorated with gold wire and images of the emperor in front and rear, respectively depicted enthroned and on horseback. He bore no staff of office (dikanikion). ## List of known holders Note: Uncertain entries are marked in italics. A number of holders are known only by their surviving seals of office, and can only approximately be dated:	[ "## Background and history of the office", "## List of known holders" ]	1,958	4,668
28,670,930	Coprinopsis variegata	1,134,269,978	Species of fungus	[ "Coprinopsis", "Fungi described in 1873", "Fungi of the United States", "Fungi without expected TNC conservation status", "Inedible fungi", "Taxa named by Charles Horton Peck" ]	Coprinopsis variegata, commonly known as the scaly ink cap or the feltscale inky cap, is a species of fungus in the family Psathyrellaceae. Distributed in eastern North America, it has a medium-sized, bell-shaped to flattened cap up to 7.5 cm (3.0 in) in diameter, with felt-like, patchy scales. The gills, initially white, turn black in maturity and eventually dissolve into a black "ink". Fruit bodies grow in clusters or groups on leaf litter or rotted hardwood, although the wood may be buried, giving the appearance of growing in the soil. The fungus is found in the United States, in areas east of the Great Plains. Coprinus ebulbosus and Coprinus quadrifidus are names assigned by Charles Horton Peck to what he believed were species distinct from C. variegata; they were later shown to represent the same species, and are now synonyms. The mushroom is not recommended for consumption, and has been shown to cause allergic reactions in susceptible individuals. ## History and taxonomy American mycologist Charles Horton Peck described three similar species over the course of a 24-year time period. The first, Coprinus variegata (1873), followed later by C. ebulbosus (1895), and finally C. quadrifidus (1897). C. ebulbosus was initially considered a variety of the European species Coprinus picaceus (Bull. ex Fr.) S.F.Gray (currently known as Coprinopsis picacea). Four years later, Peck published a more complete description of var. ebulbosus and raised it to species rank, having found it to differ consistently from C. picaceus in its smaller stature, lack of a bulbous stem base, and much smaller spores. The three species described by Peck were distinguished on the basis of physical features that were later found to be somewhat overlapping. In terms of microscopic characters, spore sizes were not sufficiently different between them to be used as discriminating taxonomic characters. Subsequent investigators of North American mushroom flora had difficulties in interpreting Peck's concepts of these three taxa and in confirming their presence in their regional investigations. For example, McIlvaine (1902), Hard (1908), and McDougall (1925) reported (as variety or species) only C. ebulbosus. Bisby (1938), Christensen (1946), Smith (1958), and Groves (1962) mentioned only C. quadrifidus. Both Kauffman (1918) and Graham (1944) described C. ebulbosus and C. quadrifidus; Graham, however, only included C. quadrifidus in his key to his descriptions of Coprinus species. In 1979, W. Patrick published a comparative analysis of the three taxa from material collected by Peck, and, after concluding that the three were not sufficiently distinct to be considered separate species, reduced them to synonymy with Coprinopsis variegata, the earliest name. The specific epithet variegata derives from the Latin passive verb participle variegatus meaning "to have different colors, to variegate". The synonym name quadrifidus refers to the four segments into which the cap frequently split when mature, while ebulbosus means "not being bulbous". The mushroom is commonly known as the "scaly ink cap" or the "feltscale inky cap". ## Description The cap of C. variegata is thin, initially oval-shaped then bell-shaped, and then flattened with the margin turned upward; it reaches diameters of up to 12 in (30.5 cm). When young, the surface of the cap is covered with a woolly whitish or yellowish veil that breaks up into short-lived flakes or scales; this process reveals the radially striate (grooved) gray to grayish-brown cap surface. The gills are broad, thin, crowded closely together, and free from attachment to the stem. They are initially white but turn to dark purplish-brown as the spores mature. The stem is 4 to 12 in (10.2 to 30.5 cm) and up to 1 cm (0.4 in) thick, hollow, and whitish. It is roughly the same width throughout the length of the stem, and may have a wispy, cotton-like ring present near the base. Clusters of fruit bodies have a mass of rhizomorphs at the base called an ozonium. In deposit, the spores are dark brown. A light microscope may be used to reveal more features of the spores, including smooth surfaces, a dark brown color, an ellipsoid shape in face view and an egg shape in side view, and dimensions of 7.5–9.5 by 4–4.5 μm. The apex of the spore appears truncated because of the presence of a germ pore. The basidia (spore-bearing cells) are hyaline (translucent), with dimensions of 14–16 by 6.5–7.5 μm. The paraphyses are 9–11 by 8–10 μm, hyaline, and collapse readily. The pleurocystidia (cystidia present on the gill face) are abundant, roughly cylindrical, hyaline, and measure 100–150 by 20–35 μm. Cheilocystidia (cystidia on the edge of an gill) are present in young specimens, and are roughly ellipsoid, measuring 50–80 by 15–25 μm. Clamp connections are abundant in the hyphae in all tissues through the fruit body. The edibility of Coprinopsis variegata has not been clearly established, and opinions differ as to its desirability. One 1987 field guide to North American species warns against consumption, calling it "not recommended", a conclusion shared in a 2006 field guide to Pennsylvanian and mid-Atlantic mushrooms, but not before describing it as "the best of the inky caps, with a richer flavor and better texture than the famous shaggy mane". The bitter-tasting mushroom is not considered poisonous. However, the fruit bodies are suspected to contain the Antabuse-like chemical coprine, which causes a poisoning reaction when consumed with alcohol. Coprine has also been linked to testicular lesions in rats and dogs. Additionally, cases of allergic reactions against extracts from mushroom tissues have been reported in skin tests. Cases of gastric upset have also been reported. ### Similar species Coprinopsis atramentaria is a cosmopolitan species that is roughly similar in size, color, and stature, but does not have patchy woolly tufts on the cap like C. variegata. ## Ecology, habitat and distribution The species is saprobic—deriving nutrients by decomposing and digesting organic matter—and grows in clusters or in groups on decaying leaf litter or well-decayed wood. It typically fruits in a narrow window from June to July; this spring and early summer fruiting distinguishes it from the more common Coprinus comatus and Coprinopsis atramentaria, which produce fruit bodies in late autumn. It is found in the United States, in areas east of the Great Plains. Coprinopsis variegata can attack soil bacteria, such as species of Pseudomonas and Agrobacterium, and use them as nutrient sources. The fungus achieves this by growing specialized hyphae in the direction of the bacteria, sensing them with some chemoattractive mechanism not yet fully understood. The fungus then secretes compounds to digest the bacteria while growing assimilative hyphae to absorb the nutrients. The process is relatively rapid, and bacterial colonies can be assimilated in less than 24 hours. ## See also - List of Coprinopsis species	[ "## History and taxonomy", "## Description", "### Similar species", "## Ecology, habitat and distribution", "## See also" ]	1,649	9,106
14,279,625	Nikki Jean	1,170,961,780	American singer-songwriter (born 1983)	[ "1983 births", "20th-century African-American people", "20th-century African-American women", "21st-century African-American women singers", "21st-century American singers", "21st-century American women singers", "African-American women singer-songwriters", "American neo soul singers", "American rhythm and blues singer-songwriters", "American women hip hop singers", "American women singer-songwriters", "Living people", "Musicians from Saint Paul, Minnesota", "Rhymesayers Entertainment artists", "Singer-songwriters from Minnesota" ]	Nicolle Jean Leary (born August 25, 1983), better known as Nikki Jean, is an American singer-songwriter. Born in Saint Paul, Minnesota, Jean started out as a lead singer of a short-lived Philadelphia band called Nouveau Riche. She was introduced to rapper Lupe Fiasco when he was working on his 2007 album Lupe Fiasco's The Cool and achieved initial success as the featuring artist on his single "Hip Hop Saved My Life". She continues to collaborate frequently with him. After two years of co-writing songs with many different songwriters for her debut album, including Bob Dylan and Carole King, Jean released Pennies in a Jar in 2011. The album received positive reviews but commercially underperformed. Her solo career continued with three extended plays: the X-Mas EP (2013), the Champagne Water EP (2014), and Beautiful Prison (2019). ## Early life Nicolle Jean Leary was born in Saint Paul, Minnesota on August 25, 1983. Her father was a government aid agency worker and her mother was a labor lawyer. Jean developed an early interest in songwriting after watching Irving Berlin's 100th birthday in 1983, and started learning the piano aged eight. Her mother's interest in folk music led her to learn the importance of writing lyrics that are easy to sing along to. Jean was also influenced by her mother's taste in Paul Simon and Stevie Wonder, and grew up watching old musicals. She took the name "Nikki Jean" while in high school to distinguish herself from other people who shared her name. While attending Howard University, Jean met singer Nona Hendryx. Hendryx recommended she listen to Joni Mitchell and Laura Nyro, which opened her up to chord structure. She also studied acting. ## Career ### 2005–2008: Nouveau Riche and Lupe Fiasco's The Cool After graduating in 2005, Jean was invited to perform at a Labor Day barbecue in Philadelphia by The Roots. Their member Dice Raw asked Jean to join his new band called the Disease (renamed Nouveau Riche two weeks later) after hearing her play piano in a studio. Jean accepted the offer and moved to the city, where she lived in the neighborhood of Manayunk. The five-member Nouveau Riche released two extended plays (EPs) when it was active from 2005–2008. As the lead singer, Jean co-wrote many of the band's songs. She uploaded videos on her YouTube channel "nikkijeanproject". Jean was working with producers Chris & Drop, who played one of Jean's songs to rapper Lupe Fiasco. Fiasco invited her to collaborate with him. She featured on two tracks on his album Lupe Fiasco's The Cool (2007): "Little Weapon" and the single "Hip Hop Saved My Life", which she co-wrote. She later went on the tour for the album. Jean's collaborations with Fiasco helped her gain wider recognition: a Billboard journalist wrote in 2011 that she was "previously best-known for her singing/writing stints on [The Cool]." Jean and Fiasco performed as one of the opening acts in Kanye West's 2008 Glow in the Dark Tour. ### 2008–2011: Pennies in a Jar In 2008, Jean sought out producer Sam Hollander for his work on Carole King's 2001 album Love Makes the World to discuss a direction for a future solo career. For her debut album, Hollander suggested that she travel around the United States to co-write songs with "the greatest songwriters" for her debut album. For two years, Jean wrote songs with writers such as King, Burt Bacharach and Bob Dylan, many of which were popular during the 1970s and 1980s. She believed her lack of mainstream success helped her secure collaborations, which allowed her to approach each writer as a fan. Dylan permitted her to complete "Steel and Feathers (Don't Ever)", a song of his that had been unfinished for over thirty years. She was originally signed to Columbia Records but was let go in late 2010 as her music seemed "more mature" than they anticipated; the album was instead released on July 12, 2011 by indie label S-Curve Records, titled Pennies in a Jar. She appeared on the Late Show with David Letterman, Tavis Smiley, Weekend Edition Saturday and Live from Daryl's House to promote it. While the album received positive reviews from music journalists, its songs failed to chart except in Japan, where it reached the Top 10 singles. Hollander would later write in his autobiography, "In my mind, I'd totally failed Nikki. [...] I'd under-thought the greatest idea ever and hung her out to dry in the process. She deserved better. This was easily the biggest miss of my career, and man, it stung." ### 2011–present: Extended plays and further collaborations Jean later moved to Los Angeles. She released the X-Mas EP in 2013, and was a featuring artist on Ab-Soul's 2014 song "World Runners". On October 22, 2014, Jean released the first single from her second solo EP, "Champagne Water", featuring Ab-Soul. Vibe premiered the extended play of the same name on November 19, 2014, containing six songs which concern topics such as police shootings, heartbreak and religion. Jake One, Like, Double-O, Donnie Trumpet and Nate Fox serve as producers. She featured on several songs on Lupe Fiasco's 2015 album Tetsuo & Youth. Jean, Fiasco and The Roots performed "Little Death" on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon in February 2015. She and Fiasco also appeared for the first season of Why? with Hannibal Buress (2015). Jean later featured on songs from Fiasco's 2018 album Drogas Wave. In 2019, Jean released the seven-track EP Beautiful Prison through Rhymesayers Entertainment, with Fiasco featuring on the Jake One-produced single "Mr. Clean". She also released a short film called Be Free. ## Musical style and influences A soul and pop artist and songwriter who often features on hip-hop songs, Alison Stewart of The Washington Post described Jean as a "parallel universe's offspring of Carole King and Janelle Monae". Pennies in a Jar featured pop and soul music reminiscent of the 1960s–80s era in which many of her co-writers flourished. AllMusic's Andy Kellman said that the songs contained, perhaps, "a modernized hip-hop spin". He added that Jean had "a lithe, quietly potent voice", which other critics characterized as sincere. Her 2014 EP Champagne Water touched on contemporary societal issues, including police shootings and religion. Jean said that since childhood she listened to songwriters rather than singers: "Songwriters were my rock stars." ## Discography ### Albums - Pennies in a Jar (2011) ### EPs - X-Mas EP (2013) - Champagne Water EP (2014) - Beautiful Prison (2019)	[ "## Early life", "## Career", "### 2005–2008: Nouveau Riche and Lupe Fiasco's The Cool", "### 2008–2011: Pennies in a Jar", "### 2011–present: Extended plays and further collaborations", "## Musical style and influences", "## Discography", "### Albums", "### EPs" ]	1,503	386
70,141,181	HMS Topaze (1903)	1,145,788,618	Topaze-class cruiser	[ "1903 ships", "Ships built on the River Mersey", "Topaze-class cruisers", "World War I cruisers of the United Kingdom" ]	HMS Topaze was a Topaze-class protected or third-class cruiser which served in the Royal Navy during the First World War. The vessel was the lead ship of the class, also known as the Gem class, which had a more powerful armament and were faster than preceding protected cruisers. Launched on 23 June 1904, Topaze joined the Channel Fleet and often acted as a flotilla leader for the destroyers of the Navy. At the beginning of the First World War, the cruiser operated with the Fifth Battle Squadron, but was transferred to the Mediterranean Fleet in 1915. There, the cruiser operated with ships of the Italian Regia Marina to enforce the blockade on Albania and to escort ships carrying Italian troops and supplies across the Adriatic Sea. Topaze escorted shipping in the Indian Ocean and captured the Ottoman Army garrison on the island of Kamaran in 1917, but returned to the Mediterranean before the end of the year. After the Armistice in 1918, the cruiser returned to the United Kingdom and was decommissioned on 7 October 1919. ## Design and development Topaze was the first of two Topaze-class protected cruisers, or Gem-class third-class cruisers ordered by the British Admiralty under the 1902/1903 Programme. The design followed the same philosophy as the preceding Pelorus class, but had more armour, mounted more guns, was faster and had improved seakeeping. The cruiser had an overall length of 373 feet 9 inches (113.92 m) and a length of 360 ft (110 m) between perpendiculars, with a beam of 40 feet (12.19 m) and a draught of 14 feet 6 inches (4.42 m). Displacement was 3,000 long tons (3,048 t) at deep load. Power was provided by ten Normand boilers venting through three funnels which fed two 4-cylinder triple-expansion steam engines rated at 98,000 shaft horsepower (73,000 kW) and drove two propeller shafts to provide a design speed of 21.75 knots (40.28 km/h; 25.03 mph). On trials, the engines peaked at more than 10,000 shaft horsepower (7,500 kW) to give a maximum speed exceeding 22 knots (41 km/h; 25 mph). A total of 450 long tons (457 t) of coal was carried to give a design range of 7,000 nautical miles (13,000 km; 8,100 mi) at 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph) and 2,000 nautical miles (3,700 km; 2,300 mi) at 20 knots (37 km/h; 23 mph). The ship had a complement of 296 officers and ratings. Armament consisted of twelve QF 4 in (102 mm) Mark III guns, one mounted fore and another aft, the remainder lining the sides to give a broadside of seven guns. Each mount had a gun shield with 1 in (25 mm) of armour. A secondary armament of eight QF 3-pdr (47 mm) guns and four Vickers 0.303 in (8 mm) Maxim guns was carried for protection against torpedo boats and other light craft. The original design had no torpedo tubes. However, two tubes for 18 in (457 mm) torpedoes were fitted before the ship was launched. Deck armour varied from 0.75 mm (0 in) to 2 in (51 mm). Fire control was undertaken from conning towers which were fitted with 3 in (76 mm) of armour. ## Construction and career Laid down by Laird Brothers at Birkenhead on 14 August 1902 and launched on 23 June the following year, Topaze was completed in November 1904. The vessel was the fourth of the name in Royal Navy service. The first had been a frigate of the French Navy named after the topaz gemstone that had been captured in 1793 and the French spelling was continued in subsequent ships. This incarnation was commissioned on 6 December into the Cruiser Squadron of the Channel Fleet. On 4 December 1906, the cruiser was given a new commission and attached to support the battleships of the Channel Fleet Battle Squadron. On 10 August 1909, the cruiser joined the newly formed Fourth Destroyer Flotilla based at Portsmouth as the flotilla leader. On 1 April 1913, the cruiser was recommissioned at Chatham and reassigned back to Portsmouth as part of the Sixth Battle Squadron. At the start of the First World War, Topaze was serving with the Fifth Battle Squadron under the battleship Prince of Wales. The squadron was allocated to the Channel Fleet. The cruiser remained with the squadron as it declined in size, warships being transferred to other postings. On 2 November, the ship joined the remaining battleships as part of the Channel Fleet based at Portland. On 28 December, the cruiser was escorting the battleship Formidable out on gunnery exercises. The small flotilla had no destroyer escort and was therefore vulnerable to submarine attack. The German submarine U-24 took advantage of this vulnerability and torpedoed the battleship on 1 January 1915. Topaze saw the larger vessel list to starboard as the sailors starting to evacuate the stricken ship. Heavy sea hindered the rescue, but 43 were saved by the cruiser before the battleship finally sank. The escalating warfare in the Mediterranean in 1915 led to the gradual transfer of the Channel Fleet to the theatre. By 8 April, Topaze was the only vessel remaining, alongside the battleship Exmouth, in the command. Initially, it was envisaged that the cruiser would join the newly formed Sixth Light Cruiser Squadron, but Topaze proved too slow to keep up with the more modern ships. Instead, the cruiser left Dover to join the Mediterranean Fleet on 23 June. There, British vessels operated with the Regia Marina against the forces of the Austro-Hungarian Navy. On 28 July, the cruiser joined three Italian destroyers in hunting a raiding force at Pelagosa. The allies then enforced a blockade in the Adriatic Sea from 6 October. The importance of the blockade was such that even when more modern light cruisers arrived, Topaze remained on station. After 27 November the arrangement was systematised so that a typical patrol would involve the cruiser and one or two destroyers spending 30 hours off the coast of Albania. The cruiser was also used on occasion to monitor the line of drifters that the navy had deployed to monitor potential blockade runners. In addition, the cruiser was involved in escorting Italian troops and supplies to serve in the Balkans theatre, including 20,000 soldiers carried to Vlorë. It was during one of these sailings, on 4 December, that the cruiser was attacked by a submarine along with the Italian destroyer Ardente. The submarine launched three torpedoes but neither ship was damaged. Such action was rare and the cruiser spent the next year cruising far from the enemy. On 4 March 1917, Topaze was reposted to the East Indies Station. The cruiser was sent, along with protected cruiser Doris and Exmouth, to perform escort duties in the Indian Ocean in exchange for the Japanese sending the protected cruiser Akashi and eight destroyers to the Mediterranean. Topaze was based at Aden. The reinforcements proved invaluable in providing safety to shipping navigating crucial trade routes, from Freemantle to Colombo, the Red Sea and Cape Town, and between Mumbai and the Persian Gulf. The cruiser also supported the South Arabian Campaign, helping with the blockade and participating in the attack on the Ottoman Army on the island of Kamaran. On 10 June, Topaze left Aden to attack the Ottoman forces there. Two days later, the ship was stationed off the port of As-Salif, remaining so close to the coast that the defenders could not get the warship's range and their guns overshot. The cruiser then dispatched a landing party that captured the garrison there. Soon after, the ship returned to the Mediterranean, joining the Egyptian Division of the Mediterranean Fleet based at Alexandria. The need at the time was for escorts to protect convoys as the routes across the Mediterranean grew from seven in November 1917 to nineteen in June 1918. After the Armistice of 11 November 1918 and the end of the First World War, the Royal Navy no longer needed as many vessels in service. By the middle of the following year,Topaze was the only light cruiser remaining at the Royal Navy base in Egypt. The ship sailed to Portsmouth and was decommissioned on 7 October 1919. On 22 September 1921, the cruiser was sold to G Cohen to be broken up in Germany. ## Pennant numbers	[ "## Design and development", "## Construction and career", "## Pennant numbers" ]	1,845	17,959
1,738,054	Death (South Park)	1,169,421,146	null	[ "1997 American television episodes", "Portrayals of Jesus on television", "South Park (season 1) episodes", "Television episodes about birthdays", "Television episodes about censorship", "Television episodes about euthanasia", "Television episodes about ghosts", "Television episodes about personifications of death", "Television episodes about suicide", "Television episodes set in New York City" ]	"Death" is the sixth episode of the first season of the American animated television series South Park. It first aired on Comedy Central in the United States on September 17, 1997. In the episode, Grandpa Marvin tries to convince Stan to kill him, while the parents of South Park protest the crude cartoon Terrance and Phillip. Death himself arrives to kill Kenny, and presents a warning to Grandpa Marvin against forcing others to help him commit suicide. "Death" was written by series creators Trey Parker and Matt Stone and directed by Stone on his first solo directorial work for an episode in the show. The episode, along with the Terrance and Phillip show, were inspired by early criticism that South Park was little more than flatulence jokes and primitive animation. The episode portrays the parents as being so invested in protesting television programs that they fail to pay any attention to what is going on in their children's lives. They want to make television clean and wholesome so the entertainment industry can raise their kids, while they themselves do not have to make the time and effort to be full-time parents. The episode also advocates against censorship and addresses the morality and ethics of euthanasia. "Death" was the last of the original six South Park episodes ordered by Comedy Central before the network committed to a full season. The episode's plot heavily influenced the screenplay of the 1999 feature film adaptation South Park: Bigger, Longer & Uncut, which also involves the parents of South Park protesting Terrance and Phillip. In addition to Terrance and Phillip, the episode introduced recurring characters Grandpa Marsh and Sheila (then known as Carol), Kyle's mother. ## Plot The Marsh family celebrates Grampa Marsh's 102nd birthday, but he is tired of living and tries unsuccessfully to commit suicide. He tries to convince Stan to kill him, but Stan refuses because he fears he might get in trouble. Meanwhile, Kyle watches the cartoon Terrance and Phillip, which revolves largely around fart jokes. Kyle's mother gets outraged by the foul language and crude humor, and contacts other South Park parents to organize a boycott at the Cartoon Central headquarters in New York City. Later at school, Stan asks Mr. Garrison, Chef and Jesus whether he should help his grandpa kill himself, but they avoid discussing the issue, much to Stan's anger. Meanwhile, Kenny suffers from a bout of "explosive diarrhea", which spreads to others in the town, including the adults protesting Terrance and Phillip. Despite objecting to the show, the adults themselves laugh and make jokes at their own real-life toilet humor. Carol proclaims that if Cartoon Central does not take the show off the air, the protesters will kill themselves, and they start using a slingshot to send themselves flying into the building. With the adults out of town for the protest, the boys are free to watch Terrance and Phillip at their leisure. Grandpa Marvin continues asking Stan to kill him, and demonstrates how terrible his life is by locking Stan in a room and forcing him to listen to a song in the style of Enya's "Orinoco Flow". Now convinced that his life is excruciating, Stan finally agrees to kill his grandpa, and tries to do so by rigging a cow on a pulley and dropping it on him. Just as the boys are about to do it, Death himself arrives, but starts chasing after the boys instead of Grandpa Marvin. While fleeing, Stan calls his mother, who is too busy protesting Terrance and Phillip to listen to his problems. More than a dozen people have killed themselves against the headquarters building. Eventually, the network agrees to take the show off the air, not because of the deaths but because of the stench of the protesters' explosive diarrhea. Meanwhile, Death continues chasing the boys, but stops in front of a television playing Terrance and Phillip. Death and the boys start laughing together, but after it is taken off the air, Death angrily touches and kills Kenny. Angered, Grandpa Marvin demands that Death kill him, but Death refuses. Death then brings in the spirit of Stan's great-great-grandfather (Marvin's grandfather), who was killed by Marvin when he was Stan's age; the ghost warns Marvin that he must die of natural causes and not place the burden of his suicide on anybody else's shoulders or else he will spend his eternity after death in limbo. Terrence and Phillip is replaced by the Suzanne Somers show She's the Sheriff which also contains obscenities. Furious about all this, the parents go back to the Cartoon Central network building to protest again. Grandpa Marvin decides to visit Africa, where over 400 people are "naturally" eaten by lions every year. The episode ends with the boys laughing, and then laughing harder when Kyle farts. ## Production "Death" was written and directed by series co-creators Trey Parker and Matt Stone. It was the last of the original six South Park episodes ordered by Comedy Central before the network committed to a full season of 13 episodes. Parker long wanted to feature a Grim Reaper-like death character in South Park, as he had enjoyed drawing cartoon images of Death riding on a tricycle since his childhood. This was the inspiration behind a scene in which Death inexplicably rides a tricycle while chasing the South Park boys through the streets. The subplot of Kenny's diarrhea problems came from a real-life high school experience from Stone, who said students used to offer each other \$20 if they would pass a note to the teacher explaining they had "explosive diarrhea", like Kenny did in the episode. The image of Kenny sitting on a toilet in "Death" became a popular South Park poster. "Death" included a consistency error in that Mr. Garrison's classroom had its own separate bathroom, which has never again been seen on the show. During one scene, Cartman moons Kyle while making fun of Kyle's mother. Comedy Central censors forced Parker and Stone to remove the image of Cartman's bare bottom, although such images would be allowed in future episodes. A man named Mr. McCormick was killed in "Death" after he was flung via slingshot into the Cartoon Central building. The character's name led many to mistakenly believe it was Kenny's father, Stuart McCormick, but Parker denied this and said the similar character names were just a coincidence. The character appears again very briefly in a later episode, "Starvin' Marvin". ## Themes During the first few weeks of South Park's run, Parker and Stone received criticism from some commentators and media outlets that the series was little more than flatulence jokes and primitive animation, and thus must be a simple show to produce. "Death" was written in response to that criticism. The episode introduced Terrance and Phillip, a comedy duo with a popular cartoon series within the South Park universe, whose show is literally nothing but a series of flatulence jokes, with even cruder animation than South Park itself. The episode's script parodied parents who voiced strong opposition to South Park, portraying them as so invested in fighting the television program that they fail to pay attention to what is going on in their children's lives. This is illustrated in the episode when Stan calls his mother seeking help because Death is chasing him, only for his mother to ignore him because she is too busy protesting the Terrance and Phillip show. This is also demonstrated by the line Kyle says, "I think that parents only get so offended by television because they rely on it as a babysitter and the sole educator of their kids." "Death" warns against such misplaced values and condemns the practice of censorship, as well as demonstrating there can be value in a show often dismissed as juvenile and immature, like South Park or Terrance and Phillip. The episode also takes the position that parents who blame their children's behavior entirely on television are evading true responsibility for problems that likely have roots elsewhere. The plot of "Death" heavily influenced the screenplay Parker and Stone wrote for their 1999 film, South Park: Bigger, Longer & Uncut. The plot and theme of both scripts revolve heavily around the parents of South Park protesting Terrance and Phillip due to the perceived negative influence it has over their children. Parker said, "After about the first year of South Park, Paramount already wanted to make a South Park movie, and we sort of thought this episode would make the best model just because we liked the sort of pointing at ourselves kind of thing." "Death" also touches upon the issue of euthanasia, and whether it is morally or ethically wrong to commit suicide. The episode's script indicates it is wrong for someone wishing to kill oneself to place the burden of that decision on a loved one: in this case, Grandpa Marvin demanding that Stan kill him, without considering how traumatizing an experience it would be for Stan. This is most strongly illustrated at the end of the episode, in which the ghost of Marvin's grandfather (who had Marvin kill him long ago) tells Marvin he must not force Stan to commit such a traumatizing act. Although the ghost tells Grandpa Marvin he must die of "natural causes", Marvin nevertheless continues seeking ways to kill himself, but without involving other people. Parker said this reflects his opinion that, "Basically, it is OK to kill yourself, but you shouldn't ask someone else to do it and put someone else through the trip." ## Cultural references and impact "Death" introduced several characters who would maintain important recurring roles throughout the rest of the series. Among them were Sheila Broflovski and Grandpa Marvin Marsh. Sheila and Gerald Broflovski, Kyle's parents, were named after Stone's parents, although he insists the characters are nothing like his real parents. Marvin Marsh was not based on any real-life person, but Parker and Stone wanted to create a rude and unlikeable grandfather character because they felt most elderly people were portrayed as sweet and lovable on television. Originally, they wanted Marvin Marsh to be known as the "molesting grandpa" who kept making sexual comments to Stan and attempting to play inappropriate games with him, but Comedy Central refused to allow it, which Parker said was "probably the right call". Terrance and Phillip are loosely based on Parker and Stone themselves, and were also inspired by the Itchy & Scratchy characters from The Simpsons, as well as the protagonists from the MTV cartoon Beavis and Butt-Head. Although "Death" marked the first appearance of Terrance and Phillip, Parker said the duo "took on a life of their own". They have made frequent appearances throughout the rest of the series, and played a major role in South Park: Bigger, Longer & Uncut. The episode refers to Jack Kevorkian, the right-to-die activist best known for his advocacy of physician-assisted suicide, although Kyle mistakenly refers to him as "Jack Leborkian". When Terrance and Phillip is cancelled in "Death", it is replaced by She's the Sheriff, a sitcom starring actress Suzanne Somers. The Cartoon Central network in "Death" is based on a mix between Cartoon Network and Comedy Central, the latter the real-life television network that broadcasts South Park. Cartoon Network was originally a sister channel to Comedy Central, given that Time Warner, Cartoon Network's parent company, co-owned Comedy Central until 2003, when Viacom gained full ownership of Comedy Central. John Warsog, the man who runs Cartoon Central in "Death", is based on Doug Herzog, the Comedy Central executive who was responsible for bringing South Park to the network. Herzog was excited to be featured in the episode and enjoyed the portrayal. During one scene, Stan's grandfather locks him in a room and plays music by the Irish vocalist Enya as a form of torture to show Stan what it is like to be his age, and convince Stan to kill him. The parody of Enya's Orinoco Flow used in "Death" was sung by Toddy Walters, who played protagonist Polly Pry in Trey Parker's 1996 film, Cannibal! The Musical. "Death" marked the first appearance of Snacky Cakes, one of Cartman's favorite snack foods. ## Reception In the book Leaving Springfield, author William J. Savage, Jr. said the episode "reveals a fine edged attack on censors and a thoughtful and subtle consideration of issues regarding assisted suicide." In the book The Deep End of South Park, Anne Gossage complimented the ambition of the episode's themes of censorship and the morality of assisted suicide, which she called "a great deal of ground to cover in 20 minutes". Gossage also said the episode shared many of the same characteristics of William Shakespeare's play Hamlet, comparing Stan's contemplation of killing his grandfather to Hamlet's dilemmas after encountering his father's ghost. ## Home media "Death" was released alongside five other episodes in a three-VHS set on May 5, 1998, marking the first time South Park was made available on video. The episode was released on the "Volume III" video along with "An Elephant Makes Love to a Pig"; other featured episodes included "Cartman Gets an Anal Probe", "Volcano", "Weight Gain 4000", and "Big Gay Al's Big Gay Boat Ride". "Death", along with the other twelve episodes from the first season, was also included in the DVD release "South Park: The Complete First Season", which was released on November 12, 2002. Parker and Stone recorded commentary tracks for each episode, but they were not included with the DVDs due to "standards" issues with some of the statements; Parker and Stone refused to allow the tracks to be edited and censored, so they were released in a CD separate from the DVDs. In 2008, Parker and Stone made "Death" and all South Park episodes available to watch for free on the show's official website, "South Park Studios".	[ "## Plot", "## Production", "## Themes", "## Cultural references and impact", "## Reception", "## Home media" ]	2,838	17,534
41,256,943	Clint Grant	1,172,108,805	JFK-era photojournalist from Dallas, Texas	[ "1916 births", "2010 deaths", "American photojournalists", "Journalists from Nashville, Tennessee", "Mass media people from Dallas", "The Dallas Morning News people", "Vanderbilt University alumni", "Witnesses to the assassination of John F. Kennedy" ]	Donald Clinton Grant (August 17, 1916April 21, 2010) was an American photographer and photojournalist based in Dallas, Texas. He was a staff photographer with The Dallas Morning News from 1949 to 1986. He was particularly known for his images of animals and children. Grant's photographs were published in numerous newspapers and magazines, including Paris Match, Newsweek and Time; five of his feature photos were published on the back page of issues of Life magazine. Grant was on assignment in November 1963 to cover President John F. Kennedy's trip from Washington, D.C., to Dallas. One of his photographs made the front page of the November 22 edition of the Morning News; a copy is believed to be the last thing Kennedy ever signed. Grant also would make several pictures at Parkland Memorial Hospital within minutes after Kennedy's motorcade arrived following the shooting in Dealey Plaza. Grant was the recipient of multiple photojournalism awards during his career, including the Medallion for Excellence in Photojournalism. He retired from The Dallas Morning News in 1986, but continued working in a semi-retired capacity for more than a decade thereafter. He died in Dallas of heart failure at age 93. ## Early life Clint Grant was born in Nashville, Tennessee. During his time at Vanderbilt University, economic troubles brought on by the Great Depression forced Grant's family to move from Nashville; they settled in Dallas, Texas, where his father was asked to lead the Art Department at the Morning News. Grant got a job with the Photo Department, but he was drafted into the United States Army before he could report to work. Grant served during World War II in Europe, where he never used a camera. Grant married Myrtis Ann Halliburton in 1939 after a brief courtship; they had known each other for ten months before they walked down the aisle. When they met, he worked behind the dairy counter at the local A&P market where she was a customer. ## Photography and photojournalism When Grant returned from overseas to Dallas in 1945, all Morning News staff photographers resumed their duties, leaving him without a job. He ran a photography studio until 1949, when a position at the newspaper became available. During his early years with the News, Grant was one of a group of staff photographers that included Jack Beers, Tom Dillard, Doris Jacoby and Joe Laird. He gained a reputation for generosity as a mentor while with the newspaper, accompanying many young photographers on their early assignments; one of them later recalled that whenever the Morning News needed a feature photograph, they would send "the trusty Clint Grant" to the zoo to work with an animal. His evocative photographs often featured animals and children, and his editor said Grant's knack for putting subjects at ease came largely because he "had the patience of Job." Grant's work also accompanied sports stories. A photograph of a boxing fan and a fallen fighter was named one of the best sports pictures of 1956. Grant taught classes in photography in the 1950s and '60s at North Texas University, where he served on the journalism advisory board. He was also the official photographer for the Dallas Zoo and the State Fair of Texas. In an interview, Grant said he had his own tricks for making photos, especially of unwilling subjects at the sites of news stories. He would pre-focus, pretend to not aim the camera, and "shoot from the hip." He believed that any good photojournalist should have the skills necessary to do the job without needing to use the viewfinder. One of Grant's photos was blown up to eight feet and displayed for one year in Grand Central Terminal in New York City. He also photographed the culinary creations of some of the top chefs in Dallas, who all knew Grant and respected his work. A menu item at the Casa Dominguez restaurant in Dallas was named for Grant. Two collections of Grant's work have been published: Moments from Life: An Exhibition of Photographs from the Grant Estate in 2000, and 50 Years of the Best Photos of Clint Grant in 2001. Moments from Life was published to accompany a traveling exhibit of 55 of Grant's images. One of his photographs was included in Humor in News Photography, a collection published in 1961. Grant was assigned to photograph some new cars and laid his hat atop one of the taillights; the resulting image resembled "a Halloween spook, a Martian or the pilot of a satellite." A Grant picture published by Life magazine was included in its 1988 compilation Life Smiles Back. In addition to his feature photographs, Grant was known for his work accompanying hard news stories. Grant photographed every U.S. president and vice president starting with Harry S. Truman and through the administration of George H. W. Bush. He was present for the 1961 funeral for three-time House Speaker Sam Rayburn, where he captured former Presidents Truman and Dwight D. Eisenhower, President Kennedy, House Parliamentarian Clarence Cannon, and Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson standing together. ### John F. Kennedy #### Dallas, 1960 John F. Kennedy and his running mate, Lyndon B. Johnson, were close to securing their spots on the Democrats' ticket when they took a two-day swing through the Dallas–Fort Worth area in September 1960. Landing at Meacham Airport, the candidates rode in a motorcade through Dallas to the Chance Vought Aircraft factory, where Kennedy made an address. Grant accompanied Kennedy and Johnson, making numerous photographs of the trip; the pictures were developed, but kept in storage until their publication in 2013. #### Dallas, 1963 Several days before President Kennedy made his November flight to Texas, Grant had been assigned to cover the state's delegation in Washington, D.C., then fly back with the White House press corps; he was the only photographer to make the trip. At Dallas Love Field, Grant made the only published photograph from that visit of the president and Jacqueline Kennedy, Lyndon Johnson and Lady Bird Johnson, and Texas Governor John Connally and Nellie Connally, all in the same image. Another of Grant's photos, from San Antonio's Aerospace Medicine Center, was published on the front page of the Dallas Morning News on November 22; a copy was signed that morning by President Kennedy—across the photo, to Jan White—and is believed to be the last item he signed before he climbed aboard the presidential limousine for his intended trip to the Dallas Trade Mart. Grant tried to find a seat in the third camera car in the motorcade—the one reserved for local photographers—but it was full; he was then given a spot in the second camera car. Too far back to capture the shooting in Dealey Plaza, Grant's car had just turned onto Houston Street from Main Street "when we heard one shot—pause—two shots in rapid succession." Thinking someone was playing a prank, he gave it no further thought until he saw bystanders on the ground along Elm Street, where he made a photograph from the moving camera car of Bill and Gayle Newman lying atop their children on the grass. Afterward, Grant suggested to his colleagues that they should catch up with the presidential limousine. Since he was the only Dallas-based member of the press in camera car two, Grant directed his driver to the Trade Mart, where they saw no activity. A worker across the street said he saw a limousine speed past, accompanied by motorcycles with their sirens blaring; Grant knew immediately that they were headed to Parkland Memorial Hospital. Once at Parkland, Grant started snapping pictures of anything he could, including Vice President Johnson's car, and a man and a police officer delivering what Grant believed was blood plasma. Grant later covered the trial of Jack Ruby. On the day the verdict was read, he believed his assignment was to photograph the jurors, but they were shielded from his view. Twenty-five years after the assassination, Grant wrote that the events did not really sink in until after he had finished his work that day. "Then I was stunned, disappointed and embarrassed that it had happened—especially in my home town. I felt like crawling under a log. Although I wasn't a great admirer, he was my President and I have great respect for whoever holds the office." #### Reporters' panel, 1993 Grant took part in "Reporters Remember 11-22-63" at Southern Methodist University in Dallas in November 1993. The panel discussion, broadcast on C-SPAN as Journalists Remember the JFK Assassination, featured members of the press who spoke of their experiences on the day 30 years earlier that Kennedy was killed. From the dais, Grant offered his memories of the motorcade, and recalled asking his boss afterward if he should go back to Washington, D.C., with Kennedy's body and being told no. Grant said he returned to Love Field to retrieve his luggage ahead of a planned visit to Vice President Johnson's ranch nearby; just as he reached the planes he saw Judge Sarah T. Hughes leaving Air Force One. "I'd just missed her swearing in the new president." ## Later life and death Grant retired his position with The Dallas Morning News in 1986; he stayed on in a semi-retired capacity until 1997. Five years later, Grant was awarded an honorary degree from Knox College in Illinois, which congratulated Grant for more than 100 photojournalism honors at the state, regional and national levels, including the Medallion for Excellence in Photojournalism from the Southwest Journalism Forum. Associate Professor of Art Lynette Lombard lauded Grant for his body of work starting in 1963. "Clint Grant's work for the Dallas Morning News made him one of this country's most important photojournalists. Through his photography, he has helped establish photojournalism as one of our most important forms of documentation of the public record". Clint Grant died of heart failure in his Dallas home in 2010. Myrtis Grant, his wife of nearly 71 years, died in Dallas six months later. ## See also - Ike Altgens - Mal Couch - Robert H. Jackson - Cecil W. Stoughton	[ "## Early life", "## Photography and photojournalism", "### John F. Kennedy", "#### Dallas, 1960", "#### Dallas, 1963", "#### Reporters' panel, 1993", "## Later life and death", "## See also" ]	2,098	13,590
4,582,725	200 (Stargate SG-1)	1,161,162,688	null	[ "2006 American television episodes", "Stargate SG-1 episodes" ]	"200" is the sixth episode of the science fiction television series Stargate SG-1's tenth season, and the 200th episode of the series overall. Unlike the more serious nature of the season's story arc, "200" is a light-hearted parody of both Stargate SG-1 and other sci-fi shows, as well as popular culture like The Wizard of Oz. "200" won the 2007 Constellation Award for Best Overall 2006 Science Fiction Film or Television Script, and was nominated for the 2007 Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation, Short Form. The episode also marks the first time original SG-1 member Jack O'Neill (Richard Dean Anderson) is seen since the beginning of Season 9. The episode received a 1.9 average household rating, one of the few episodes of the season that surpassed the average rating of Stargate SG-1's previous season. "200" also received near-universal praise for its humor and writing. Despite the strong performance of the episode, the Sci-Fi Channel announced soon after the episode's airing it would not be renewing the series for another season. ## Plot Martin Lloyd (Willie Garson), an extraterrestrial turned Hollywood writer, returns to Stargate Command looking for assistance from SG-1 with his script for the movie adaptation of the television show Wormhole X-Treme, based on the exploits of the Stargate Program. The team, especially Lt. Colonel Mitchell (Ben Browder), is reluctant to help. Mitchell is excited about his next off-world mission because it marks his 200th trip through the Stargate. Technical glitches prevent the team from setting off on their mission. General Landry (Beau Bridges) orders SG-1 to help Lloyd, as the government believes a successful science fiction film about intergalactic wormhole travel will serve as a good cover story to keep the real Stargate program a secret. The notes session devolves into the team members pitching their own versions of a successful sci-fi film, including a zombie invasion (from Mitchell), a previously unseen mission where O'Neill became invisible (from Carter), "tributes" to The Wizard of Oz and Farscape (from Vala), and Teal'c as a private investigator (from Teal'c himself). Also featured are a vignette of the team's mental image of a "younger and edgier" SG-1 (sparked by the studio's suggestion to replace the original Wormhole X-Treme cast), a suggested scene by Martin that turns out to be both scientifically inaccurate and highly derivative of Star Trek, a re-imagined version of the SG-1 pilot episode where all the characters are marionettes in the style of the television series Thunderbirds, and an imagined wedding that features the return of General O'Neill (Richard Dean Anderson). The studio decides to cancel the movie in favor of renewing the series. The end of the episode shifts ten years into the future, where the Wormhole X-Treme cast and crew celebrate their 200th episode, as well as renewed plans for a movie. ## Production "200" follows up on the events of the Season 4 episode "Point of No Return" and the Season 5 episode "Wormhole X-Treme"; the episodes feature the character of Martin and are self-referentially written. In comparison, "200" riffs on science fiction and genre television more broadly. In comparison to attitudes that fans are largely powerless and in opposition to producers, the episode posits fans as empowered shapers of entertainment. Executive producer Robert C. Cooper originally proposed they write a normal script for the 200th episode. However it soon became clear that deciding who would have the privilege of writing the 200th episode would be awkward. This led to the idea to create a sketch episode in the manner of Saturday Night Live, with each writer creating a vignette. The episode took shape when the writers thought to bring back Wormhole X-Treme and the character of Martin, and frame the whole episode as a notes session. By the end of the writing process the episode had turned into "an homage to the cast, crew, and die-hard fans." Stargate producers were not sure actor Richard Dean Anderson would return for the episode, so they devised many scenes where Anderson was "in" the episode but not actually shown. However, Anderson was willing to return and appeared in several scenes. In the DVD special Stargate SG-1: Behind the 200th Cooper said, "it was a big deal for us to have [him] back for the 200th episode. We obviously didn't think we could do it without him." Despite the markedly different content of the episode, "200" took no longer to shoot than a normal episode, mainly because much of the filming took place on the briefing room set. On the other hand, the episode was much more expensive than a typical one, due to the unusual sequences. For example, the marionettes used in an elaborate spoof of the series were created by the Chiodo brothers, who also made the puppets for Team America: World Police; each puppet was expensive, and the wires pulling each puppet had to be readded by CGI in post production because they didn't show up well enough. Several existing sets were used as stand-ins; for example, the bridge of the Odyssey was used for a Star Trek: The Original Series spoof, while a set from the sister production Stargate: Atlantis was used as the chamber of the Wizard of Oz. In an interview about the tenth season of Stargate, Cooper and series co-creator Brad Wright stated that there was a fine line between the humor of regular episodes turning into camp. While jokes for the joke's sake are usually limited in normal episodes, the line between humor and camp is deliberately crossed frequently in "200". The producers even talked about recreating a part of Blazing Saddles that breaks the fourth wall, but they could not afford the horses. The producers made sure that the episode was well-publicized, dropping hints that Anderson's character O'Neill would return for the episode. Joe Mallozzi, executive producer for the series, also hinted that series fans would finally meet the Furlings, an enigmatic race referenced in the second-season episode "The Fifth Race" but never seen. Despite the outlandish scenes filmed for the episode, many of the writers' favorite moments did not make it to production due to time constraints. For example, Cooper noted that a Gilligan's Island skit was cut from the script. ## Cultural references Most of the episode is devoted to references and allusions to other works, as well as the show itself. The title sequence is deliberately shorter than most other episodes, poking fun at shows like Lost as well as the Sci-Fi Channel itself, which had shortened SG-1's Season 9 opening but changed it back after fans demanded it. When Martin learns that his main actor has backed out of the movie, the SG-1 team offers various suggestions for how to replace him or work around his non-availability—a reference to Michael Shanks's absence from the sixth season of Stargate SG-1. Anderson himself also pokes fun at the ending of the eighth-season episode "Moebius", which was intended to be the series finale before the ninth season was announced. The final scene of "200", which features interviews with the Wormhole X-Treme cast, was added as an afterthought, and contains comments from the real cast which were used out of context as an inside joke. The episode also riffs on other science fiction shows. Early in the episode, Dr. Jackson asks why anyone would make a movie version of a TV series that lasted only three episodes—Teal'c responds that it had strong DVD sales. This is a reference to the series Firefly, which Fox executives decided to cancel after airing only three episodes (although 14 episodes had been filmed, and 11 of them were actually aired—8 more after the cancellation announcement had been made). The high number of DVDs of these episodes that sold afterwards justified making a feature film based on the series, Serenity. (Firefly is again referenced when Lloyd refuses to use footage from the Wormhole X-Treme series for the movie, saying that "it's a movie, not a clip show." This is an allusion to Joss Whedon's insistence that the movie Serenity would not use footage from the original series because it is "not a clip show".) In addition, one of the sequences is a parody of the original Star Trek series, with SG-1 standing in for the crew of the Enterprise. Brad Wright, the co-creator of the series, fills in as the engineer Montgomery Scott. The episode also pokes good-humored fun at the series Farscape, including its habit of inventing swear words. The Farscape sequence itself is an in-joke, since the Stargate: SG-1 actors Ben Browder and Claudia Black had both starred in the earlier series (and indeed Black reprises her original role of Aeryn Sun, though Browder plays a different character, Stark, while Michael Shanks portrays Browder's Farscape character, John Crichton). Several other shows and movies are parodied, including The Wizard of Oz (the story is re-told with the members of the SG-1 team as the adventurers in Oz. The writers based the parody on a fan painting they had hanging in their office). The episode also makes fun of 24's "ticking clock of jeopardy", and an entire sequence is enacted with all the characters played by marionettes, in the style of Thunderbirds and Team America: World Police. ## Reception The episode won the 2007 Constellation Award for Best Overall 2006 Science Fiction Film or Television Script, and was nominated for the 2007 Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation, Short Form. Richard Dean Anderson also won a SyFy Genre Award for his guest appearance in the episode. The episode was generally well received. IGN declared the episode "one of the smartest and funniest hours of television to grace the small screen yet this season." They went on to applaud the decision not only to parody other works but the show itself. Maureen Ryan of the Chicago Tribune agreed, but also noted that "you don't need to be a longtime fan of the long-running program to enjoy its jibes at sci-fi clichés or expedient writing." Eclipse Magazine noted that although the episode was "not a work of comic genius", "200" was the best comedy episode of the series. The highly publicized debut of the episode garnered a 1.9 average household rating, a 36% jump from the previous episode, and the first episode of the tenth season to reach or exceed the previous season's rating of 1.8; Stargate SG-1 at that point was averaging about 3.3 million viewers per regular episode in the United States. ### Cancellation Shortly after this episode was aired, Gateworld announced that the Sci-Fi Channel had decided to not renew Stargate SG-1 for the coming year. The Channel later confirmed this decision, at the same time announcing that Stargate Atlantis had been picked up for another season. Many fans denounced Gateworld's cancellation announcement, both the timing of it (apparently it had been made while the cast and crew were celebrating the episode's airing)—and the decision itself, on the ground that, while ratings were not as high as they had been in previous seasons, the series was still drawing an audience of a respectable size. (For example, it had a season average of 2 million viewers in Australia, half of them in the 18–49 demographic.) Sci Fi responded that the cancellation decision had not been based on ratings so much as a feeling the series had run its course. Some of the main characters in SG-1 re-appear later in episodes of Atlantis and Universe and in the direct-to-DVD sequel films, Stargate: The Ark of Truth and Stargate: Continuum.	[ "## Plot", "## Production", "## Cultural references", "## Reception", "### Cancellation" ]	2,487	39,268
2,374,943	These Words	1,156,351,785	2004 single by Natasha Bedingfield	[ "2004 singles", "2004 songs", "2005 singles", "Irish Singles Chart number-one singles", "Music videos directed by Chris Milk", "Music videos directed by Sophie Muller", "Natasha Bedingfield songs", "Number-one singles in Scotland", "Phonogenic Records singles", "Songs written by Andrew Frampton (songwriter)", "Songs written by Natasha Bedingfield", "Songs written by Steve Kipner", "Songs written by Wayne Wilkins", "UK Singles Chart number-one singles" ]	"These Words" (also known as "These Words (I Love You, I Love You)") is a song by British singer-songwriter Natasha Bedingfield. It was written by Steve Kipner, Andrew Frampton, Wayne Wilkins and Bedingfield for her 2004 debut album, Unwritten. The song is the album's opening track, and was released as its second single. "These Words" details Bedingfield's lack of inspiration and her reaction to pressure from her record label to produce a hit song. "These Words" was released as the album's second international single and as the lead single in North America. The single sold well, reached the top forty worldwide, and topped the charts in both Ireland and the United Kingdom. It was certified platinum in the United States and Australia, and was nominated for "Best British Single" at the 2005 BRIT Awards. The song was very well received by music critics, and was frequently cited as a highlight of the album. ## Background and writing Bedingfield began recording her debut album in mid-2003, following the signing of a recording contract with Sony BMG earlier that year. She was determined not to be shaped into "some music biz pigeonhole" and wanted to write songs that were "organic, different and real". Bedingfield began collaborating with Steve Kipner, Andrew Frampton and Wayne Wilkins in London and Los Angeles, but their sessions were largely unproductive due to Bedingfield's writer's block and the pressure that she felt to produce a hit song. Frustrated, she began to sing "I love you, I love you, I love you" over and over. She was at "wit's end and just wanted to say what I meant in a simple way, without using all those flowery words." The line that Bedingfield sang out of frustration became the song's hook and its subject matter inspired by her real life difficulty writing a love song. ## Critical reception "These Words" was generally very well received by contemporary pop music critics. PlayLouder's Daniel Robson described the song as a "compelling chunk of popply joy", while AllMusic wrote that the track was "near-perfect" and merged "the rhythms and flavors of hip-hop and R&B with unique melodies and Bedingfield's vocal confidence". The BBC called it a "classic love song" with a "really catchy tune", and commented that it was worthy of reaching number one on the UK singles chart. Josh Timmermann of Stylus Magazine called it "best single so far this year", and David Welsh of musicOMH.com wrote that the song had a "virally-infectious chorus and (relatively) clever wordplay." Stylus Magazine's Colin Cooper ranked "These Words" at number thirteen on his list of the Top 20 Singles of 2004 and About.com ranked the song at number five on its list of the Top 10 Most Memorable Pop Song Lyrics 2005. The website wrote that Bedingfield's naming of the famous poets George Byron, Percy Bysshe Shelley, and John Keats in the song enables the listener to "almost hear the classic poetry over a drum machine" as Bedingfield sings. Bedingfield's mispronunciation of "hyperbole" as "hyperbowl" has been regularly pointed out throughout the years, including in The Guardian ten years after the song's release. ## Commercial performance "These Words" entered the UK Singles Chart on 22 August 2004 at number one, remaining on the chart for thirteen weeks. It maintained the number one position for two weeks. In the United Kingdom, Bedingfield and her brother, pop-singer Daniel Bedingfield, became the first sister and brother to achieve separate number one singles. The track also charted at number one in Ireland, remaining on the singles chart for seventeen weeks. Across Europe, "These Words" was largely successful, reaching number one in Poland, number two in Austria, Germany and Norway, and the top ten in the Netherlands, Sweden and Switzerland. Elsewhere, the song peaked within the top ten on the majority of the charts it entered. In Australia, "These Words" debuted at number six and reached a peak position of number five three weeks later. On the 2004 ARIA end of the year chart, the song charted at number forty-nine and was certified gold. In New Zealand the single performed stronger, reaching number two on the singles chart. "These Words" performed moderately well in North America. The single debuted at number one hundred on the Billboard Hot 100 on 2 July 2005 and reached a peak position at number seventeen, remaining on the chart for twenty weeks. The song did well on pop-oriented charts, reaching number nine on the Pop 100 and number ten on the Top 40 Mainstream. "These Words" was helped on the Hot 100 by its strong digital downloads, peaking at number seven on the Hot Digital Songs chart. The single had crossover success in the dance charts, reaching number one on the Hot Dance Airplay chart and number thirty-five on the Hot Dance Club Play chart. ## Music videos Two music videos were produced for the international and North American markets. ### International version The song's international music video was directed by Scott Lyon and Sophie Muller and premiered in July 2004. The video features several sequences. It opens with Bedingfield sitting at a table in her Spanish villa, in Málaga, frustrated by her inability to find inspiration to write a song. Afterwards, there are multiple scenes which include her walking and dancing through the villa in colorful outfits, sitting by the swimming pool, lying on the beach and being surrounded by dancing chairs, dancing radios, dancing books in the library, and multiple versions of herself on a sofa. The video concludes with Bedingfield scribbling in her notebook on the roof of her villa. Her scribblings lead her boyfriend to her home where she goes to the balcony, telling him "I love you, is that okay?". During each sequence of the video, Natasha is wearing different outfits and haircuts, with the only constant being that she is always barefoot. ### North American version The North American music video was directed by Chris Milk and filmed in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in March 2005. The music video, however, was discarded by the record label, though this version won four Annual MVPA Awards. The video begins with Bedingfield waking up next to a boombox, dressing, brushing her teeth and leaving her home with the boombox. While performing on Copacabana beach, she kicks her boombox, which comes alive and begins to dance, and she leaves the beach and walks down the street. The video concludes with Bedingfield arriving back home to a house full of dancing boomboxes in the bedroom. An alternate version of the North American video was directed by Jim Gable using much of the footage from the original. The boomboxes featured in the video are animated to look like drawings and a performance by Bedingfield in a room with flowing white drapery has been added. The video debuted in June 2005 and proved successful on US video chart programs. It debuted on MTV's Total Request Live on 28 July 2005 at number ten and remained on the program for a total of six days. VH1 ranked the video at number twenty-two on its Top 40 Videos of 2005 countdown. ## Formats and track listings Enhanced CD single 1. "These Words" – 3:34 2. "These Words" (Bimbo Jones Remix) – 6:56 3. "The One That Got Away" – 4:16 4. "Single" (Radio 1's Live Lounge Recording) – 3:19 5. "These Words" (Video) 6. "These Words" (The Making of the Video) CD single 1. "These Words" – 3:34 2. "Single" (Radio 1's Live Lounge Recording) – 3:19 ## Personnel The following people contributed to "These Words". - Natasha Bedingfield – guitar, lead and backing vocals - Wayne Wilkins – keyboards, engineering, programming - Andrew Frampton – keyboards, programming - Mark "Spike" Stent – mixing - David Treahearn, Rob Haggart – mixing assistant - Herb Powers – mastering - Katherine Lanson – drums ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ## Certifications ## Release history	[ "## Background and writing", "## Critical reception", "## Commercial performance", "## Music videos", "### International version", "### North American version", "## Formats and track listings", "## Personnel", "## Charts", "### Weekly charts", "### Year-end charts", "## Certifications", "## Release history" ]	1,766	17,887
24,640,501	Until the Whole World Hears (song)	1,152,335,075	null	[ "2009 singles", "2009 songs", "Casting Crowns songs", "Songs written by Bernie Herms", "Songs written by Jason McArthur", "Songs written by Mark Hall (musician)" ]	"Until the Whole World Hears" is a song by Christian rock band Casting Crowns. Written by Mark Hall, Bernie Herms, Jason McArthur and Roger Glidewell and produced by Mark A. Miller, it was released as a digital download on August 20, 2009 and to Christian radio on August 29, 2009 as the lead single from the band's 2009 album of the same title. Musically, Until the Whole World Hears is an arena rock song with a crunchy guitar lick accompanied by blasting guitar chords and the "throaty growl" of Mark Hall's vocals. Lyrically, it revolves around speaking the truth into a culture that doesn't want to hear it. Part of the chorus references the Biblical character of John the Baptist. "Until the Whole World Hears" received positive reception from critics and was nominated for Pop/Contemporary Recorded Song of the Year at the 41st GMA Dove Awards. Casting Crowns has performed the song as both an opening and closing song at live concerts. It peaked atop the Billboard Hot Christian Songs, Hot Christian AC and Christian AC Monitored charts. It also peaked at number four on the Billboard Christian CHR chart, number ten on the Billboard Christian Digital Songs chart and number twenty-three on the Billboard Heatseekers Songs chart. ## Production "Until the Whole World Hears" was written by Mark Hall, Bernie Herms, Jason McArthur, and Roger Glidewell. It was produced by Mark A. Miller and recorded, mixed, and edited digitally by Sam Hewitt at Zoo Studio in Franklin, Tennessee. The song was mastered by Andrew Mendelson, Shelley Anderson, Natthaphol Abhigantaphand and Daniel Bacigalupi at Georgetown Masters in Nashville, Tennessee. Crowd vocals were recorded after a Sunday morning worship service at Eagles Landing First Baptist Church in McDonough, Georgia by Carter Hassebrock, Darren Hughes and Billy Lord. ## Composition "Until the Whole World Hears" is a song with a length of five minutes and two seconds. It is set in common time in the key of D♭ major and has a tempo of 100 beats per minute. Mark Hall's vocals in the song span from the low note of F<sub>3</sub> to the high note of G♭<sub>4</sub>. The song has been pegged as an arena rock song, while the guitar riff, melody, and chorus have been compared to what was "once associated with secular bands like Bon Jovi and Journey". It is guitar-driven and features a guitar lick that has been described as "crunchy" and "uncustomary", Along with the "throaty growl" of Mark Hall's vocals and "blasting" guitar chords, a backing chorus that emphasizes the "rock vibe" of the song is also present. Casting Crowns' lead vocalist, Mark Hall, commented on the lyrical content of the song, stating that: "For believers, in context with our other songs, the messages are that God wants to use you, He wants you to grow and He wants you to have a purpose". Hall elaborated that: "There are a trilogy of songs and messages that go together on the album. ["Until the Whole World Hears"], “Glorious Day,” and “To Know You.” ["Until the Whole World Hears"] reminds me to be more intentional about what I do. I may not be able to get on a plane and fly to China and give out Bibles and preach the gospel, but how can I witness to my co-workers and my friends and my family." The portion of the chorus that says "like voices in the wilderness we're crying out" is a reference to John the Baptist; Hall said that one of his favorite characters in the New Testament was John the Baptist, and commented that "he [John the Baptist] was so black and white. This is wrong, and this is right. And he was speaking into a grey world, saying black and white things, and it cost him his life". He elaborated on that, commenting that: "Until the whole world hears are the lines and the things that John the Baptist said into a culture that did not want to hear it. And we've got to be in a place in our walk with Jesus that he's filled us to where we step into something that's unpopular and we can speak the truth, but that we can also speak it in love. We've got to live in such a way that I have the purpose that John had". ## Critical reception and accolades Upon its release, "Until the Whole World Hears" met with positive critical reception. Andrew Greer of CCM Magazine noted that "Uncustomary electric guitar licks infuse ["Until the Whole World Hears"] with a real rock vibe, emphasized by a backing chorus that will become a perfect sing-along for live audience", while Roger Gelwicks of Jesus Freak Hideout commented that the song is "probably the best on ["Until the Whole World Hears"]. Roger Ham of Christianity Today regarded "Until the Whole World Hears" as a "meat and potatoes bruiser overrun with blasting guitar chords and topped off with [Mark] Hall's throaty growl". "Until the Whole World Hears" was nominated for Pop/Contemporary Record Song of the Year at the 41st GMA Dove Awards. ## Chart performance "Until the Whole World Hears" debuted at number 36 on the Billboard Hot Christian Songs chart for the chart week of September 12, 2009, and advanced to number 15 in its second chart week. In its fourth chart week, "Until the Whole World Hears" moved to number 10., and in its seventh chart week it jumped to number five. In its 10th chart week, it reached a new peak position of number two. It held that spot for a total of eight consecutive weeks before dropping to number five in its 18th chart week. After returning to the number two spot in its 19th chart week and holding that spot for two consecutive weeks, "Until the Whole World Hears" ascended to the top spot in its 21st chart week. It dropped to number three in its 22nd chart week, but returned to the number one position the following week. It was supplanted from the top spot the following week, dropping to number two. It dropped out of the top five in its 30th week on the chart, and out of the top 10 in its 35th week on the chart. In total, "Until the Whole World Hears" spent 41 weeks on the Hot Christian Songs chart. "Until the Whole World Hears" also peaked atop the Billboard Hot Christian AC chart, on which it spent 42 weeks, and the Christian AC Indicator chart, on which it spent 28 weeks. It spent 22 weeks on the Billboard Christian CHR chart, peaking at number four, and 26 weeks on the Billboard Christian Digital Songs chart, peaking at number 10. On the Billboard Heatseekers Songs chart, "Until the Whole World Hears" peaked at number 23; it spent a total of seven weeks on that chart. On the 2009 year-end charts, "Until the Whole World Hears" ranked at number 23 on the Hot Christian Songs chart and at number 31 on the Hot Christian AC chart. On the 2010 year-end charts, it ranked at number five on the Hot Christian AC chart, number seven on the Hot Christian Songs chart, number 40 on the Christian Digital Songs chart and number 50 on the Christian CHR chart. ## Live performances At the 41st GMA Dove Awards, Casting Crowns performed Until the Whole World Hears along with a children's choir. At a concert at the Sprint Center in Kansas City, Missouri on February 5, 2010, Casting Crowns opened with the song. At concerts in Hershey, Pennsylvania (February 28, 2010), Johnson City, Tennessee (March 8, 2012), and Grand Rapids, Michigan (February 16, 2012), Casting Crowns closed their set list with the song. ## Charts ## Release history	[ "## Production", "## Composition", "## Critical reception and accolades", "## Chart performance", "## Live performances", "## Charts", "## Release history" ]	1,700	23,090
356,429	Metroid Fusion	1,171,105,637	2002 video game	[ "2002 video games", "D.I.C.E. Award winners", "Experimental medical treatments in fiction", "Extinction in fiction", "Game Boy Advance games", "Games with GameCube-GBA connectivity", "Metroid games", "Metroidvania games", "Nintendo Research & Development 1 games", "Nintendo Switch Online games", "Single-player video games", "Video games about impact events", "Video games about shapeshifting", "Video games developed in Japan", "Video games featuring female protagonists", "Video games set in outer space", "Video games set on fictional planets", "Virtual Console games", "Virtual Console games for Nintendo 3DS", "Virtual Console games for Wii U" ]	is an action-adventure game developed and published by Nintendo for the Game Boy Advance in 2002. It was developed by Nintendo Research & Development 1, which had developed the previous Metroid game, Super Metroid (1994). Players control the bounty hunter Samus Aran, who investigates a space station infected with shapeshifting parasites known as X. Like previous Metroid games, Fusion is a side-scrolling game with platform jumping, shooting, and puzzle elements. It introduces mission-based progression that guides the player through certain areas. It was released the day before the GameCube game Metroid Prime in North America; both games can be linked using the GameCube – Game Boy Advance link cable to unlock additional content for Prime. Fusion was acclaimed for its gameplay, controls, graphics and music, though its shorter length and greater linearity received some criticism. It received several awards, including "Handheld Game of the Year" from the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences, "Best Game Boy Advance Adventure Game" from IGN, and "Best Action Game on Game Boy Advance" from GameSpot. It was rereleased on the Nintendo 3DS's Virtual Console in 2011 as part of the 3DS Ambassador Program, the Wii U's Virtual Console in 2014, and the Nintendo Switch Online + Expansion Pack in 2023. A sequel, Metroid Dread, was released in 2021 for the Nintendo Switch. ## Gameplay Metroid Fusion is an action-adventure game in which the player controls Samus Aran. Like previous games in the series, Fusion is set in a large open-ended world with elevators that connect regions, which each in turn contains rooms separated by doors. Samus opens most doors by shooting at them, while some only open after she reaches a certain point. Fusion is more linear than other Metroid games due to its focus on storyline; for example, Fusion introduces Navigation Rooms, which tell the player where to go. The gameplay involves solving puzzles to uncover secrets, platform jumping, shooting enemies, and searching for power-ups that allow Samus to reach new areas. Samus can absorb X Parasites, which restore health, missiles, and bombs. Power-ups are obtained by downloading them in Data Rooms or absorbing a Core-X, which appears after defeating a boss. New features include the ability to grab ledges and climb ladders. The player can use the GameCube – Game Boy Advance link cable to connect to Fusion and unlock features in Prime: after completing Prime, they can unlock Samus's Fusion Suit, and after completing Fusion, they can unlock an emulated version of the first Metroid game. In Metroid: Zero Mission (2004), players can connect to Fusion using the Game Boy Advance Game Link Cable to unlock a Fusion picture gallery, which includes its ending images. ## Plot Bounty hunter Samus Aran explores the surface of the planet SR388 with a survey crew from Biologic Space Laboratories (BSL). She is attacked by parasitic organisms known as X. On returning to the BSL station, Samus loses consciousness, and her ship crashes. The BSL ship she was escorting recovers her body and transfers it to the Galactic Federation for medical treatment, who discover that the X has infected Samus' central nervous system. They cure her with a vaccine made from cells taken from the infant Metroid that Samus adopted on SR388. The vaccine gives her the ability to absorb the X nuclei for nourishment, but burdens her with the Metroids' vulnerability to cold. Portions of Samus's infected Power Suit is sent to the BSL station for examination, although the entire suit was too integrated with her body to remove during surgery. When Samus recovers consciousness, she discovers an explosion occurred at the BSL station. She is sent to investigate. The mission is overseen by her new gunship's computer, whom Samus nicknames "Adam" after her former commanding officer, Adam Malkovich. Samus learns that the X parasites can replicate their hosts' physical appearances, and that the X have infected the station with the help of the "SA-X", an X parasite mimicking Samus at full power. Samus avoids the SA-X and explores the space station, defeating larger creatures infected by the X to recover her abilities. She discovers a restricted lab containing Metroids, and the SA-X sets off the labs' auto-destruct sequence while also attacking the released Metroids, who also devour the SA-X. Samus escapes, but the lab is destroyed. The computer berates Samus for ignoring orders and admits that the Federation was secretly using the lab to breed Metroids. It also reveals that the SA-X has asexually reproduced, subsequently cloning itself. The computer advises Samus to leave the station. On her way to her ship, the computer orders Samus to leave the rest of the investigation to the Federation, which plans to capture SA-X for military purposes. Knowing that the X would only infect the arriving Federation troops and absorb their spacefaring knowledge to conquer the universe, Samus states her intention to destroy the station. Although the computer initially intends to stop Samus, she calls it "Adam", and reveals that Adam died saving her life. The computer suggests that she should alter the station's propulsion to intercept with SR388 and destroy the planet along with all X populations. Samus realizes that the computer is the consciousness of Adam, uploaded after death. En route to initiate the propulsion sequence, Samus confronts an SA-X, defeats it, and sets the BSL station on a collision course with SR388. As Samus prepares to leave, she is attacked by an Omega Metroid. The SA-X appears and attacks it, but is destroyed; Samus absorbs its nucleus and uses her newly restored Ice Beam to destroy the Omega Metroid. Her ship arrives, piloted by creatures Samus rescued from the station's Habitation Deck. They escape before the station crashes into the planet, destroying it. ## Development Nintendo confirmed a Metroid game for the Game Boy Advance in March 2001. Ken Lobb, Nintendo of America's director of game development, said that it is a new game and not a port of the 1994 Super NES game Super Metroid. Early footage was shown at the 2001 E3 convention under the name Metroid IV. The footage showed Samus in a dark suit, running on walls and ceilings, with simpler, more "Game Boy Color-like" graphics. At E3 2002, Nintendo demonstrated the game again, now under the title Metroid Fusion, with updated graphics. IGN awarded Metroid Fusion Best of Show and Best Action Game. Metroid Fusion was developed by Nintendo Research & Development 1 (R&D1), the same team that created Super Metroid. Fusion's gameplay, screen layout, and controls mimic those of Super Metroid, with enhancements. Metroid Fusion is the first 2D Metroid game with animated cutscenes; the story is revealed through text and close-ups. It was written and directed by series designer Yoshio Sakamoto, and produced by Takehiro Izushi. Sakamoto decided to create an original story instead of remaking a Metroid game because he wanted to do "something really unprecedented", and looked forward to the response. Fusion introduces new gameplay mechanics, such as a more direct, almost mission-based structure that supports the player to explore areas. Objectives are also flexible in how they can be completed, acting "more as a guide for what the player should do instead of giving a completely blank map and saying 'Here you go, figure out what to do and how to do it'". According to the lead programmer, Katsuya Yamano, Nintendo R&D1 did not consult previous Metroid games for programming techniques, and instead used their previous game Wario Land 4 as a reference. Samus's suit design was revamped; the canonical explanation is that this was because an X Parasite had attacked Samus and made her lose all her abilities. Missiles were expanded with two "upgrades", much like the various beam upgrades: the Ice Missile which has a similar effect to the Ice Beam, and the Diffusion Missile which greatly increases the blast radius. Other minor abilities were added to Fusion, such as climbing walls and ceilings. The health and missile drops are replaced by X Parasites that are similarly released after defeating enemies. The music was composed by Minako Hamano and Akira Fujiwara. According to Hamano, Sakamoto wanted her to create music in accordance with Adam's dialogue. Hamano aimed for "serious, ambient music rather than melody" because she did not want the exploration themes to be "annoying". She also rearranged jingles from Super Metroid for Fusion. As Nintendo of America wanted the developers to look for "Hollywood-like" voice actors, Hamano added a voice of an announcer. The developers planned to feature voice acting, but the voices were only used for warning announcements due to ROM cartridge limitations. ## Release Metroid Fusion was released in North America on November 18, 2002. Fusion can be connected to Metroid Prime for the GameCube, a Metroid game that was released on the same day as Fusion. In Europe, Fusion was released on November 22, followed by the Australian release on November 29. It was released in Japan on February 14, 2003, and in China on March 2, 2006. A two-disc soundtrack album, Metroid Prime & Fusion Original Soundtracks, was published by Scitron on June 18, 2003. The second disc contains tracks from Fusion, along with an additional track arranged by Shinji Hosoe. Metroid Fusion was released on the Nintendo 3DS Virtual Console in December 2011 as part of the "3DS Ambassadors" program, one of ten Game Boy Advance games for those who purchased their 3DS consoles before a price drop. Metroid Fusion was among the first three Game Boy Advance games to be released on the Wii U Virtual Console in April 2014. It was released on the Nintendo Switch Online + Expansion Pack service in March 2023. A sequel, Metroid Dread, was released in 2021 for the Nintendo Switch, developed by Nintendo and MercurySteam. ## Reception Metroid Fusion received "universal acclaim" according to review aggregator Metacritic. The Japanese magazine Famitsu gave it 34 out of 40. X-Play said it was a "pleasure to play", and praised its "beautiful" graphics and audio. IGN praised it as an "outstanding achievement on the Game Boy Advance". GamesRadar and GamePro felt that Fusion was too short, but "love[d] every minute of it", finding the hidden secrets and new power-ups "sublimely ingenious". GameSpot was disappointed that the game ended so soon, but said that Metroid fans would enjoy it. Nintendo World Report and Eurogamer called it the best 2D Metroid game and the best Game Boy Advance game so far. Game Informer agreed, describing it as "everything you could want from a Game Boy Advance game" from beginning to end, giving it a perfect review score. Play described it as a "magnified, modified, and improved" version of everything great from Metroid and Super Metroid. GameSpot thought that Metroid Fusion offered Super Metroid's best qualities packaged in a new adventure. Nintendo Power heralded it as a return to the classic Metroid action gameplay. The "perfect" controls were praised by Electronic Gaming Monthly. Fusion did not feel new to GameSpy, which complained that even the final enemy encounter draws heavy inspiration from Super Metroid. GameZone found that the small screen of the Game Boy Advance was a poor environment in which to play Metroid Fusion, but they found it an exciting game. Metroid Fusion received several accolades. It was awarded "Handheld Game of the Year" by the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences at the 6th Annual Interactive Achievement Awards. It was also chosen as "Best Game Boy Advance Adventure Game" by IGN and "Best Action Game on Game Boy Advance" by GameSpot, which had named it the handheld's best game of November 2002 earlier in the year. It was a runner-up for GameSpot's annual "Best Sound", "Best Graphics", "Best Story" and overall "Game of the Year" awards among Game Boy Advance games. In 2009, Official Nintendo Magazine called Fusion "sleek, slick and perfectly formed", ranking it the 62nd-best Nintendo game. ### Sales Metroid Fusion has sold over 1.6 million units worldwide. In its debut week, Fusion sold more than 100,000 units in North America. It finished the month of November 2002 with 199,723 copies sold in the United States alone, for total revenues of 5,590,768, making it the third best-selling Game Boy Advance game that month, and the tenth best-selling game across all platforms. It sold 940,000 copies by August 2006, with revenues of 27 million. During the period between January 2000 and August 2006, in the United States it was the twenty-first highest-selling game for the Game Boy Advance, Nintendo DS or PlayStation Portable. As of November 2004, Fusion had sold 180,000 units in Japan.	[ "## Gameplay", "## Plot", "## Development", "## Release", "## Reception", "### Sales" ]	2,741	31,085
25,249,750	Carcinosomatidae	1,173,431,363	Extinct family of arthropods	[ "Carcinosomatoidea", "Devonian extinctions", "Ordovician first appearances", "Prehistoric arthropod families" ]	Carcinosomatidae (the name deriving from the type genus Carcinosoma, meaning "crab body") is a family of eurypterids, an extinct group of aquatic arthropods. They were members of the superfamily Carcinosomatoidea, also named after Carcinosoma. Fossils of carcinosomatids have been found in North America, Europe and Asia, the family possibly having achieved a worldwide distribution, and range in age from the Late Ordovician to the Early Devonian. They were among the most marine eurypterids, known almost entirely from marine environments. Carcinosomatids varied considerably in size, from species only a few centimetres in length to some of the largest known arthropods. The largest carcinosomatid species, Carcinosoma punctatum, reached lengths of at least 2.2 metres (7.2 ft) and rivalled the largest eurypterid of all, Jaekelopterus, in size. Morphologically, carcinosomatids were highly distinct from other eurypterids, known for their powerful and spiny set of forelimbs, a broad and rounded central body and a slender and tubular tail ending in a telson (the posteriormost division of the body) that was typically curved in some way. With these adaptations, the carcinosomatids were quite similar to scorpions, and the group may have helped contribute to the common name of eurypterids becoming 'sea scorpions'. The family contains four, possibly five, genera: Carcinosoma, Eocarcinosoma, Eusarcana, Rhinocarcinosoma and possibly the problematic genus Holmipterus. It is unlikely that the carcinosomatids were strong and active swimmers, given their non-streamlined shape. It is more probable that they were nektobenthic (swimming near the bottom), possibly being top predators (given their size) or scavengers, digging for food or perhaps even burrowing and lying in wait as ambush predators. ## Description Carcinosomatid eurypterids differed considerably in size depending on the genus and species, though most species were quite large. The largest species was Carcinosoma punctatum at 2.2 metres (7.2 ft), one of the largest eurypterids of all, with some specimens suggesting that it may even have reached lengths of 2.5 metres (8.2 ft), rivalling Jaekelopterus, the largest eurypterid, in size. The smallest carcinosomatid species was Eusarcana obesus, at 4 centimetres (1.5 in) in length. Morphologically, the carcinosomatids were highly distinct among the eurypterids. They were swimming eurypterids (belonging to the suborder Eurypterina), with large swimming paddles, a set of powerful and spiny forelimbs, a broad and rounded preabdomen (central body) and a slender, tubular abdomen, which ended in a telson (the posteriormost division of the body) of variable morphology, often curved. In a sense, the carcinosomatids were rather scorpion-like in appearance, and may have contributed to the common name of eurypterids having become 'sea scorpions'. There was considerable variety in morphology within the group. The carapace was triangular to subtriangular in shape in all members of the group, through the exact shape could vary. In Rhinocarcinosoma, there was a distinctive, shovel-shaped protrusion at the front of the carapace. The preabdomen was wide in all species, but the width also differed from species to species. The widest species, relatively speaking, was Eusarcana obesus, in which the fourth segment was as wide as the first eight segments combined were long. The spinosity (how many spines) and size of the forelimbs also varied from genus to genus, with the forelimbs of Eusarcana for instance being more powerful than those of Rhinocarcinosoma. The telson varied considerably between genera: in Rhinocarcinosoma it was robust and flattened, curving slightly upwards, in Eusarcana it was cylindrical and fashioned into a sharp, scorpion-like tail spike and in Carcinosoma it was flattened, ending in an expanded and segmented structure unseen in other eurypterids. ## History of research The earliest carcinosomatid species to be described was Carcinosoma punctatum, first described under the name Pterygotus punctatus by John William Salter in 1859. The earliest genus later seen as a carcinosomatid to be described was Eusarcus (and its type species E. scorpionis), described by August R. Grote and William Henry Pitt in 1875 based on fossils recovered from the Pridoli-age Buffalo Waterlime of New York State. The description of the genus was lacking and seemingly based only on the outline and shape of the fossil, which led Henry Woodward to refer E. scorpionis to Eurypterus on the grounds that it was similar in shape to Eurypterus punctatus (Pterygotus punctatus having been reclassified as a species of Eurypterus). Unbeknownst to Grote and Pitt, Eusarcus had already been named as a genus of extant (currently living) laniatorid harvestmen of the family Gonyleptidae, in 1833 and as such constituted a preoccupied name. The name being preoccupied went unnoticed until the 1930s. Also described in the late 19th century was the genus Eurysoma, named alongside its type species, E. newlini, by Edward Waller Claypole in 1890. When Claypole discovered later in 1890 that the name was preoccupied by a genus of modern beetles, he replaced the name Eurysoma with the name Carcinosoma. In 1912, John Mason Clarke and Rudolf Ruedemann declared that the differences between Eusarcus and all related forms of eurypterids were so great that it was "entirely evident" that Eusarcus was distinct from other eurypterids. Clarke and Ruedemann referred several new species to Eusarcus, including new species that would later be seen as species of the genus Rhinocarcinosoma, and also concluded that Eusarcus was sufficiently similar to Carcinosoma to be synonymised. Because Eusarcus had been named earlier than Carcinosoma, the taxonomical laws of priority dictated that Eusarcus would be the name of the taxon. Eusarcus was finally recognised as a preoccupied name by Leif Størmer in 1934. Størmer substituted the name for the next oldest available non-preoccupied synonym, Carcinosoma. Størmer also introduced the family Carcinosomatidae, initially under the name 'Carcinosomidae', in 1934, to contain the four genera Carcinosoma, Mixopterus, Echinognathus and Megalograptus. The family was amended by Erik N. Kjellesvig-Waering in Størmer's 1955 Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology, with the name changed to the correct Carcinosomatidae and the genera other than Carcinosoma transferred to their own families (Mixopterus to the Mixopteridae and Megalograptus and Echinognathus to the Megalograptidae). In 1942, Embrik Strand proposed another replacement name for Eusarcus, Eusarcana, despite the matter having been dealt with by Størmer eight years prior. Rhinocarcinosoma was split off from Carcinosoma in 1962 by Nestor Ivanovich Novozhilov, based on its carapace being different from that of other Carcinosoma. When revising the carcinosomatids in 1964, Kenneth Edward Caster and Erik N. Kjellesvig-Waering recognised Eusarcus and Carcinosoma to be distinct genera, determining the 1912 synonymisation to have been erroneous. Since Eusarcus was preoccupied, Caster and Kjellesvig-Waering, likely unaware of Strand's Eusarcana, coined the replacement name Paracarcinosoma for the species previously referred to Eusarcus. Also in 1964, Caster and Kjellesvig-Waering named the new genus Eocarcinosoma to account for Ordovician specimens of Eusarcus/Paracarcinosoma. Though most of those specimens have since been identified as pseudofossils, the type specimen of Eocarcinosoma is an authentic fossil and the earliest record of the family. The known geographical range of the carcinosomatids was considerably extended with the discovery of Rhinocarcinosoma fossils in Vietnam in the late 20th century, named as the species R. dosonensis in 2002. Though Paracarcinosoma was frequently used by later researchers, Eusarcana, named earlier, was recognised by Jason A. Dunlop and James Lamsdell in 2012 as the valid replacement name of Eusarcus, transferring the species assigned to Paracarcinosoma to that genus and designating Paracarcinosoma as a junior synonym. A 2015 phylogenetic analysis by Lamsdell and colleagues recovered Holmipterus, a problematic eurypterid genus of uncertain affinities, as a basal carcinosomatid. The position of Holmipterus, on account of incomplete fossil material and an apparent combination of traits from different families, is far from certain within the eurypterid family tree and its fossils may even represent two different genera, mistakenly grouped together. ## Classification The carcinosomatids are classified as part of the superfamily Carcinosomatoidea, within the infraorder Diploperculata. The Carcinosomatoidea also contains the families Mixopteridae and Megalograptidae. Carcinosomatidae was previously, from 1989 to the early 2000s, grouped with the family Hughmilleriidae in the superfamily 'Hughmillerioidea', on account of the spined limbs and all limbs, with the exception of the swimming paddles, being of a consistent type. The Hughmilleriidae is today regarded as basal members of the superfamily Pterygotioidea. The internal phylogeny of the Carcinosomatoidea is poorly resolved (unclear). The first cladogram below follows a 2007 study by eurypterid researcher O. Erik Tetlie, which was in turn based on results from various phylogenetic analyses on eurypterids conducted between 2004 and 2007, whereas the second cladogram follows a 2015 study by James Lamsdell and colleagues. Both cladograms have been simplified to only display the Carcinosomatoidea. Tetlie (2007) recovered the Carcinosomatidae as a paraphyletic grouping, accounting for basal members of the Carcinosomatoidea, whereas Lamsdell et al. (2015) recovered the carcinosomatids as a monophyletic group. Tetlie (2007) Lamsdell et al. (2015) ## Palaeoecology Carcinosomatid eurypterids were among the most marine eurypterids, known from deposits that were once reefs, some in lagoonal settings, and deeper waters. This is in sharp contrast to their closest relatives, the mixopterids, which are not known from deeper waters. The only other eurypterid family known from deeper waters are the pterygotids, which had a similar distribution to the carcinosomatids, albeit more successful. Based on the distribution of the pterygotids, it is possible that carcinosomatids ranged worldwide. They are, alongside the pterygotids, the only eurypterid family known from the southern continent of Gondwana in the Silurian and Devonian. The only carcinosomatid genus known from non-marine deposits is Rhinocarcinosoma (though it is also known marine deposits), which has been found in fluvial (river) and lacustrine (lake) settings as well. Because of their bodies not being as streamlined as those of many other swimming eurypterids, and on account of the unique morphologies of their telsons, it is considered likely that the carcinosomatids were not very active swimmers, probably adopting a more nektobenthic (swimming near the bottom) lifestyle. This lifestyle is especially exemplified in Rhinocarcinosoma, where the shovel-like protrusion at the front of its carapace may have been used for digging, or "mud-grubbing", and the swimming paddles were reduced in size compared to those of other carcinosomatids. Given their size, carcinosomatids may have been top predators or scavengers, digging for food or perhaps even burrowing and lying in wait as ambush predators. They may have fed on worms, other arthropods, brachiopods and fish, using their forelimbs to push food into their mouths. ## See also - List of eurypterid genera - Timeline of eurypterid research - Megalograptidae - Mixopteridae	[ "## Description", "## History of research", "## Classification", "## Palaeoecology", "## See also" ]	2,863	8,599
70,137,560	Pelé!	1,167,607,579	null	[ "1993 video games", "Accolade (company) games", "Association football video games", "Cancelled Super Nintendo Entertainment System games", "Cultural depictions of Pelé", "Multiplayer and single-player video games", "Radical Entertainment games", "Sega Genesis games", "Sega Genesis-only games", "Video games based on real people", "Video games developed in Canada", "Video games scored by Marc Baril" ]	Pelé! is a 1993 sports video game developed by Radical Entertainment and published by Accolade for the Sega Genesis. The game is based on the sport of association football and puts the player in control of a football team in modes of play such as exhibitions, tournaments, and seasons. It is named after and endorsed by former Brazilian footballer Pelé, who also provided input on the game's design. Pelé! received mixed reviews from critics, who commended the graphics and amount of options, but criticized the controls and difficulty. A sequel, Pelé II: World Tournament Soccer, was released in 1994. ## Gameplay Pelé! is a simulation of association football in which the player can control one of 40 national teams. Gameplay takes place from an isometric perspective, and during a match, the player controls the selected player's movement with the D-pad, while the button commands vary depending on whether the player is on offense, defense, or whether the ball is in the air. On offense, the player can chip, shoot, or pass, while on defense, the player can check, tackle, or switch control to the player closest to the ball. If the ball is in the air, a player within its vicinity may perform a header or a bicycle kick. The usual rules of the sport apply, including fouls and the penalty box, corners, and offside; fouls can be triggered on or off in the options menu. The player can change formations at any time, with Pelé himself appearing to give advice on what formation to use. The game features four modes of play. In "Exhibition", players can play a match against a computer-controlled or human opponent. The player can also play through a 16-game "Tournament" or a 40-game "Season". The "Practice" mode allows players to perfect on-field moves without having to engage in a match. The player is capable of saving season and tournament progress, as well as compiling statistics for their team. ## Development and release In the years preceding the 1994 FIFA World Cup, which would be hosted in the United States, interest in the sport within the country had increased. In April 1993, Accolade announced that it had signed exclusive licensing agreements with former Brazilian footballer Pelé and American ice hockey player Brett Hull to endorse and help design sports games for the SNES, Sega Genesis, and MS-DOS. To this end, Pelé worked alongside Canadian game developer Radical Entertainment and Accolade project manager Robert Daly. Many of Pelé's playing strategies were incorporated by Radical into the gameplay's logic. Alan Price programmed the game, while Philip Bat Tse and Edgar Bridwell served as lead artists. The sound effects and music were respectively created by Paul Wilkinson and Marc Baril. As none of the teams featured in the game provided endorsement, generic names were given to the game's teams, and only the players' surnames are included. Pelé! was demonstrated at the 1993 Summer Consumer Electronics Show. It was released in North America in December 1993, and in Europe in January 1994. A version for the SNES was slated for a March 1994 release and reviewed by Diehard GameFan, but was not released. The game's Australian release was slated for the same date, but Sega Ozisoft was reportedly unimpressed by the game's quality and elected not to publish it in the region. ## Reception Pelé! received mixed reviews upon release. Arnie Katz of Electronic Games praised the large and detailed players, realistic artificial intelligence, and intuitive controls. Electronic Gaming Monthly stated that the game offered everything expected from the sports genre, but warned that the mechanic of switching players during play was confusing. Athletic Supporter of GamePro appreciated the amount of options and deemed the graphics and audio to be above average (singling out the large player sprites and crowd noises respectively), but was frustrated by the penalty-filled gameplay, and he faulted the lack of an in-game clock. Deniz Ahmet of Computer and Video Games felt that the focus on options came at the expense of the gameplay, which he said was marred by sluggish controls and lack of character between teams. Paul Glancey and Angus Swan of Mean Machines Sega condemned Pelé! as "an affront to the good name of soccer and the good name of Pelé"; while they acknowledged the large sprite size and fair amount of options, they derided the ropey controls and difficult goalkeepers, dismissed the music as "nauseating Hammond organ", and described the crowd sounds as "the spectators at a St Trinian's hockey match". Katz remarked that the full-motion video clips, while attractive on their own, did not blend well with the aesthetic presentation of the gameplay. Additionally, Swan considered the use of digitized video sequences to be "frankly irresponsible" due to the cartridge's size. Both Ahmet and the Mean Machines Sega reviewers noted the ball's habit of flickering during more frantic action. ## Sequel A sequel, Pelé II: World Tournament Soccer, was developed by Radical Entertainment and published by Accolade in June 1994. It features four-player gameplay with the use of the Team Player or 4 Way Play multitap peripherals, and includes 24 playable national teams and nine settings within the United States. The game received a middling response from Electronic Gaming Monthly's reviewers, who regarded the game as typical of the soccer genre with no significant innovations apart from customizable weather conditions.	[ "## Gameplay", "## Development and release", "## Reception", "## Sequel" ]	1,123	4,520
4,398,564	List of Puerto Rican flags	1,171,024,542	None	[ "Flags of the insular areas of the United States", "History of Puerto Rico", "National symbols of Puerto Rico" ]	This is a list of the flags of Puerto Rico. These flags represent and symbolize Puerto Rico and the Puerto Rican people. The most commonly used flags of Puerto Rico are the current flag, which represents the people of the commonwealth of Puerto Rico; municipal flags, which represent the 78 municipalities of the archipelago; political flags, which represent the different political beliefs of the people; and sports flags, which identify Puerto Rico as the country represented by its athletics during competitions. Each of the 78 municipalities of Puerto Rico has adopted flags which represent the municipality and its people, employing designs that oftentimes derive their symbolism from the municipality's coat of arms. Most of the political parties in Puerto Rico also have their own flags, which represent and symbolize the political ideals of its members. These political party flags are usually displayed in public during political rallies, meetings, or parades in a show of political strength and unity. Various sports associations in Puerto Rico have adopted flags which represent them and which are used during competitions and other sport events. ## First flags used in Puerto Rico The introduction of a flag in Puerto Rico can be traced to when Christopher Columbus landed on the island's shore and with the flag appointed to him by the Spanish Crown claimed the island, which he named "San Juan Bautista", in the name of Spain. Columbus wrote in his logbook that on October 12, 1492, he used the Royal Flag, and that his captains used two flags which the Admiral carried in all the ships as Ensign, each white with a green cross in the middle and an 'F' and 'Y', both green and crowned with golden, open royal crowns, for Ferdinand II of Aragon and Ysabel (Isabel I). The conquistadores under the command of Juan Ponce de León proceeded to conquer and settle the island. They carried as their military standard the "Spanish Expedition Flag". After the island was conquered and colonized, the flag of Spain was used in Puerto Rico, same as it was used in all of its other colonies. Once the Spanish armed forces established themselves on the island they began the construction of military fortifications such as La Fortaleza, Fort San Felipe del Morro, Fort San Cristóbal and San Gerónimo. The Spanish Army designed the "Burgundy Cross Flag" and adopted it as their standard. This flag flew wherever there was a Spanish military installation. ## The first flag of Puerto Rico The independence movement in Puerto Rico gained momentum with the liberation successes of Simón Bolívar and José de San Martín in South America. In 1868, local independence leader Ramón Emeterio Betances urged Mariana Bracetti to knit a revolutionary flag using the flag of the Dominican Republic as an example, promoting the then popular ideal of uniting the three caribbean islands into an Antillean Confederation. The materials for the flag were provided by Eduvigis Beauchamp Sterling, named Treasurer of the revolution by Betances. The flag was divided in the middle by a white Latin cross, the two lower corners were red and the two upper corners were blue with a white star in the upper left blue corner. According to Puerto Rican poet Luis Lloréns Torres the white cross on it stands for the yearning for homeland redemption; the red squares, the blood poured by the heroes of the rebellion and the white star in the blue solitude square, stands for liberty and freedom. The "Revolutionary Flag of Lares" was used in the short-lived rebellion against Spain in what became known as El Grito de Lares (The Cry of Lares). The flag was proclaimed the national flag of the "Republic of Puerto Rico" by Francisco Ramírez Medina, who was sworn in as Puerto Rico's first president, and placed on the high altar of the Catholic Church of Lares, thus becoming the first Puerto Rican Flag. The original Lares flag was taken by a Spanish army officer as a war prize. Many years later it was returned and transferred to the Puerto Rican people. It is now exhibited in the University of Puerto Rico's Museum. In 1873, following the abdication of Amadeus, Duke of Aosta, as King (1870–1873) and with Spain's change from Kingdom to Republic, the Spanish government issued a new colonial flag for Puerto Rico. The new flag, which was used until 1873, resembled the flag of Spain, with the difference that it had the coat of arms of Puerto Rico in the middle. Spain's flag once more flew over Puerto Rico with the restoration of the Spanish kingdom in 1873, until 1898 the year that the island became a possession of the United States under the terms of the Treaty of Paris (1898) in the aftermath of the Spanish–American War. ## Historical flags The following are historical flags related to Puerto Rico: ## Municipal flags of Puerto Rico Each of the municipalities of Puerto Rico, including the islands of Culebra and Vieques, have adopted a flag which represents the region and its people. The colors and designs may vary. Some flags contain a coat of arms or images of an object associated with the region, such as a bird, animal, or crop. In the case of Lares, in 1952, the town Municipal Assembly adopted the "Revolutionary Flag of Lares" as their official flag. The barrios of the municipality of Caguas also have their own flags. Many of the municipal flags of Puerto Rico pay tribute to the Cacíques of the Taíno tribes (the native Puerto Rican tribe) who ruled the island before the arrival of the Spaniards and who were the rulers of the land where the town now stands. The flag of Utuado for example has a Taino Sun in honor of the Supreme Taino Cacique Agüeybaná whose name means "The Great Sun". Other flags, such as San Germán's, contain a mural crown. The crown pays tribute to Spain and the Spanish who settled the area. ## Political flags Throughout Puerto Rico's political history various parties have designed and displayed flags representing their ideals. Political flags in Puerto Rico are usually displayed in public during rallies, meetings, or parades in show of political strength and unity. The Puerto Rican Nationalist Party flag has a white Calatrava Cross, also known as the Cross potent on the middle of a black background. The Cross of Calatrava was first used by the Crusaders of Calatrava and later by the French revolutionists. The black background symbolized the mourning of the Puerto Rican Nation in colonial captivity. It was usually displayed by the Cadets of the Republic, also known as the Black Shirts (Camisa Negras) because of their black shirt and white trousers uniform. On occasions the Nationalists would also carry the Puerto Rican flag with the light blue triangle, which was outlawed from 1898 to 1952. The three main political parties of Puerto Rico are the New Progressive Party, which favors statehood and whose flag has what might resemble a blue palm tree inside a round cornered square in the middle with a white background; the Popular Democratic Party of Puerto Rico, flag has a red image of what is supposed to resemble a Puerto Rican jíbaro (farmer) in the middle with a white background; and the Puerto Rican Independence Party, whose flag has a white cross symbolizing Christianity and purity, on a green background which symbolizes hope. Founded in 2003, the flag of the Puerto Ricans for Puerto Rico Party has a light brown colored "coqui" as its symbol with the words "Por Puerto Rico" (For Puerto Rico) in the middle. Another political flag is that of the Boricua Popular Army, also known as Los Macheteros an underground pro-independence group which believes and has often resorted to the use of violence. This ensign displays a green machete and a red star imposed on a black background. ## Sports flags The standard representative symbol carried by Puerto Ricans at international sports events, such as the Olympics, Pan American Games, Central American and Caribbean Games, and the World Cup of Baseball, is the Flag of Puerto Rico. However, various sports associations have adopted flags which are also used during sports events. Prior to the adoption of the Puerto Rican flag, athletes from the archipelago competed under both the United States flag and a special white banner containing a variation of the seal and the words "Puerto Rico" present above it. The symbolism in this ensign includes a green background that represents the main island's vegetation, the Lamb of God symbolizing Jesus of Nazareth, and a book with the seven seals where the lamb sits, in reference to the Book of Revelation. ## See also - Flag of Puerto Rico - List of municipal flags of Puerto Rico - Coat of arms of Puerto Rico - Seal of Puerto Rico - Flag of Cuba, a similar flag with the red and blue reversed, and longer length - Det Stavangerske Dampskibsselskap - A Norwegian shipping company with a virtually identical flag in its logo ## Primary sources - Act No.1, Approved July 24, 1952. - Regulations on the Use of the Puerto Rico flag. Núm. 5282, August 3, 1995	[ "## First flags used in Puerto Rico", "## The first flag of Puerto Rico", "## Historical flags", "## Municipal flags of Puerto Rico", "## Political flags", "## Sports flags", "## See also", "## Primary sources" ]	1,914	2,236
25,096,248	Vaulx Carter	1,173,237,409	American football player and coach (1863–1930)	[ "1863 births", "19th-century players of American football", "Navy Midshipmen football coaches", "Navy Midshipmen football players", "Player-coaches", "Players of American football from Tennessee", "Year of death missing" ]	Vaulx Carter (August 14, 1863 – before 1930) was an American college football player and engineer who is best remembered as the first coach of the Navy Midshipmen football program. He was born in Tennessee and raised there for part of his childhood, until he was orphaned and adopted by family members in Pennsylvania. Starting in 1880, Carter attended the United States Naval Academy; he struggled academically at the school, only excelling in his art classes. Carter failed his final examinations in his final two years at the academy and was recommended for removal following the second failure. This did not happen, as he was forced to voluntarily resign from the school in 1883 due to permanent injuries received from an accident. Carter's time at the Naval Academy was not without success; in his second year, he singlehandedly managed to restart the school's football program after a two-year hiatus. Carter guided his team as a player-coach for the season, leading them to a victory over students from Johns Hopkins University, the first win in school history. Information about Carter following his resignation from the academy is scarce. One Navy football historian described him as having "disappeared from the historical record". He attended some classes at Swarthmore College in 1883, but he did not complete a course. During the late 1880s, Carter was an instructor at the Hebrew Technical Institute and also worked as an engineer; he designed a parachute and a model of a plan for the Nicaragua Canal, both of which attracted media attention. During the 1890s, he was an assignee for several corporations in New York City. Carter served as a lieutenant in the New York State Militia from 1902 to 1910. Later, during the 1920s, he lived with his sister on a farm in New York, occasionally writing articles for a magazine she edited. According to census records, Carter died sometime before 1930. ## Biography and career ### Early life and Naval Academy Vaulx Carter was born on August 14, 1863, in Davidson County, Tennessee, the sixteenth of seventeen children to Samuel Jefferson Carter, a Southern Unionist and prominent Nashville hotelier. His mother was Anne Vaulx, the elder Carter's second wife. Among Vaulx's siblings were William Harding Carter, a major general in the United States Army and Medal of Honor recipient, and Laura Carter Holloway, a writer, newspaper editor, and Theosophist figure. He was raised there for the early part of his life, but was orphaned along with two of his siblings following his father's death in March 1873 and his mother's the next year. The siblings remained without a guardian until February 1875, when they were adopted by a family member and spent the rest of their childhood in Pennsylvania. In September 1880, Carter passed the entrance examinations for the United States Naval Academy and on the twenty-second of that month, he was admitted into the school, one of four people selected to represent Pennsylvania at the academy in that year's class. In his second year at the school, Carter excelled in English and drawing, but had poor discipline and received 109 demerits; using a point evaluation system, the Naval Academy gave Carter fifty-three out of a possible seventy-six points for his conduct during the year. Between his second and third years, Cater sailed on the U.S.S. Constitution as a part of the Academy's summer cruise. His conduct worsened that year, and he only excelled in drawing. At the end of the year, Carter received ninety-nine of a possible one-hundred fifty-two points. Carter was scheduled to graduate from the Naval Academy in 1884, but was forced to resign in 1883. While performing his duties as a naval cadet, Carter became caught in a gale and fell. He received permanent injuries from the accident, which caused his resignation on June 14, 1883. #### 1882 football season In 1879, football began as a sport at the Academy. Student William John Maxwell organized a team made up of fellow students, without any support of faculty. He organized a game with the Baltimore Athletic Club, which ended in a scoreless tie. Maxwell graduated in 1880, and the football program ended in his absence. In 1882, Carter re-initiated and organized a new football team. He took a position as the team coach, the first in school history; he also functioned as a back when playing. He scheduled a single game for the season, which was played on Thanksgiving Day against the Baltimore-based Clifton Football Club. The Clifton team was made up of players from Johns Hopkins University, who were unable to play for their school due to the administrator's negative views towards the sport. Carter designed a maroon and white uniform for the squad and a strip of leather which was nailed to the bottom of their shoes to prevent slipping. It snowed heavily before the game, to the point where players for both teams had to clear layers of snow off of the field, making large piles of snow along the sides of the playing ground. The first half of the game was scoreless; the Baltimore American reported that "the visitors pushed Navy every place but over the goal line in the first half". During play, the ball was kicked over the seawall a number of times, once going so far out it had to be retrieved by boat before play could continue. The American described the second half in detail: After ten minutes interval the ball was again put in play, this time being kicked off by the Cliftons. The rest period had apparently stiffened the Cliftons, for the Academy making a vigorous spurt got the ball thru them, and Street, following it up well, scored a touchdown for the Academy. The try at goal failed, but the ball, instead of going to the Cliftons behind the line, fell into the field and into the hands of one of the Academy team. By a quick decisive run, he again got the ball over the Cliftons goal line and scored a touchdown. The Naval Academy won the contest 8–0, which made it the Academy's first ever football victory, and was the first match in which they recorded points. It would remain the school's only victory until the 1884 season, and would remain as the last shutout for the school until 1886, when a squad defeated Johns Hopkins 6–0. Carter's single win gives him the second fewest in Navy football history, behind interim coach Rick Lantz. However, his undefeated record and perfect win percentage remain the highest ever for the academy. ### After the Naval Academy Little is known of Carter after he left the Naval Academy. Sportswriter Jack Clary, in his history of the Navy Midshipmen football program, describes Carter as having "disappeared from the historical record", his establishment of the football team being Carter's "only claim to fame". Sometime between 1890 and 1893, Carter was hired as the treasurer and assignee for the Cowles Engineering Company. The organization was created in 1890 under official laws of the state of New Jersey, under the leadership of William Cowles. It served branches of the U.S. Government and the city of New York. The company went into bankruptcy and failed three years later, owing its creditors over \$30,000 (equivalent to \$ respectively in 2023). The year of Carter's death is unknown. ## Head coaching record team	[ "## Biography and career", "### Early life and Naval Academy", "#### 1882 football season", "### After the Naval Academy", "## Head coaching record" ]	1,546	37,852
28,643,611	1689 Boston revolt	1,156,604,236	1689 popular uprising in colonial New England against Governor Edmund Andros	[ "1689 in the Dominion of New England", "17th century in Boston", "Events in the Dominion of New England", "Glorious Revolution", "Rebellions in the Thirteen Colonies", "Rebellions in the United States" ]	The 1689 Boston revolt was a popular uprising on April 18, 1689 against the rule of Sir Edmund Andros, the governor of the Dominion of New England. A well-organized "mob" of provincial militia and citizens formed in the town of Boston, the capital of the dominion, and arrested dominion officials. Members of the Church of England were also taken into custody if they were believed to sympathize with the administration of the dominion. Neither faction sustained casualties during the revolt. Leaders of the former Massachusetts Bay Colony then reclaimed control of the government. In other colonies, members of governments displaced by the dominion were returned to power. Andros was commissioned governor of New England in 1686. He had earned the enmity of the populace by enforcing the restrictive Navigation Acts, denying the validity of existing land titles, restricting town meetings, and appointing unpopular regular officers to lead colonial militia, among other actions. Furthermore, he had infuriated Puritans in Boston by promoting the Church of England, which was rejected by many nonconformist New England colonists. ## Background In the early 1680s, King Charles II of England sought to streamline the administration of the American colonies and bring them more closely under crown control. He revoked the charter of the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1684, after its leaders refused to act on his demands for reforms in the colony. Charles died in 1685, but Roman Catholic James II continued the efforts, culminating in his creation of the Dominion of New England. He appointed former New York governor Sir Edmund Andros as dominion governor in 1686. The dominion was composed of the territories of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, Plymouth Colony, Connecticut Colony, the Province of New Hampshire, and the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations. In 1688, its jurisdiction was expanded to include New York, East Jersey, and West Jersey. Andros's rule was extremely unpopular in New England. He disregarded local representation, denied the validity of existing land titles in Massachusetts (which had been dependent on the old charter), restricted town meetings, and forced the Church of England into largely Puritan regions. He also enforced the Navigation Acts which threatened the existence of certain trading practices of New England. The royal troops stationed in Boston were often mistreated by their officers, who were supporters of the governor and often either Anglican or Roman Catholic. Meanwhile, King James became increasingly unpopular in England. He alienated otherwise supportive Tories with his attempts to relax the Penal Laws, and he issued the Declaration of Indulgence in 1687 which established some freedom of religion, a move opposed by the Anglican church hierarchy. He increased the power of the regular army, an action seen by many Parliamentarians as a threat to their authority, and placed Catholics in important military positions. James also attempted to place sympathizers in Parliament who he hoped would repeal the Test Act which required a strict Anglican religious test for many civil offices. Some Whigs and Tories set aside their political differences when his son and potential successor James was born in June 1688, and they conspired to replace him with his Protestant son-in-law William, Prince of Orange. The Dutch prince had tried unsuccessfully to get James to reconsider his policies; he agreed to an invasion, and the nearly bloodless revolution that followed in November and December 1688 established William and his wife Mary as co-rulers. The religious leaders of Massachusetts were led by Cotton and Increase Mather. They were opposed to the rule of Andros, and they organized dissent targeted to influence the court in London. Increase Mather sent an appreciation letter to the king regarding the Declaration of Indulgence, and he suggested to other Massachusetts pastors that they also express gratitude to him as a means to gain favor and influence. Ten pastors agreed to do so, and they sent Increase Mather to England to press their case against Andros. Dominion secretary Edward Randolph repeatedly attempted to stop him, including pressing criminal charges, but Mather clandestinely boarded a ship bound for England in April 1688. He and other Massachusetts agents were received by King James in October 1688, who promised that the colony's concerns would be addressed. The events of the revolution, however, halted this attempt to gain redress. The Massachusetts agents then petitioned the new monarchs and the Lords of Trade (predecessors to the Board of Trade that oversaw colonial affairs) for restoration of the Massachusetts charter. Mather furthermore convinced the Lords of Trade to delay notifying Andros of the revolution. He had already dispatched a letter to previous colonial governor Simon Bradstreet containing news of a report (prepared before the revolution) that the annulment of the Massachusetts charter had been illegal, and he urged the magistrates to "prepare the minds of the people for a change". Rumors of the revolution apparently reached some individuals in Boston before official news arrived. Boston merchant John Nelson wrote of the events in a letter dated late March, and the letter prompted a meeting of senior anti-Andros political and religious leaders in Massachusetts. Andros first received a warning of the impending revolt against his control while leading an expedition to fortify Pemaquid (Bristol, Maine), intending to protect the area against French and Indian attacks. In early January 1688/9, he received a letter from King James describing the Dutch military buildup. On January 10, he issued a proclamation warning against Protestant agitation and prohibiting an uprising against the dominion. The military force that he led in Maine was composed of British regulars and militia from Massachusetts and Maine. The militia companies were commanded by regulars who imposed harsh discipline that alienated the militiamen from their officers. Andros was alerted to the meetings in Boston and also received unofficial reports of the revolution, and he returned to Boston in mid-March. A rumor circulated that he had taken the militia to Maine as part of a so-called "popish plot;" the Maine militia mutinied, and those from Massachusetts began to make their way home. A proclamation reached Boston in early April announcing the revolution; Andros had the messenger arrested, but his news was distributed, emboldening the people. Andros wrote to his commander at Pemaquid on April 16 that "there is a general buzzing among the people, great with expectation of their old charter", even as he prepared to have the returning deserters arrested and shipped back to Maine. The threat of arrests by their own colonial militia increased tensions between the people of Boston and the dominion government. ## Revolt in Boston At about 5 a.m. on April 18, militia companies began gathering outside Boston at Charlestown just across the Charles River, and at Roxbury, located at the far end of the neck connecting Boston to the mainland. At about 8 a.m., the Charlestown companies boarded boats and crossed the river while the Roxbury companies marched down the neck and into the city. Simultaneously, men from the Ancient and Honorable Artillery Company entered the homes of the regimental drummers in the city, confiscating their equipment. The militia companies met at about 8:30, joined by a growing crowd, and began arresting dominion and regimental leaders. They eventually surrounded Fort Mary where Andros was quartered. Among the first to be arrested was Captain John George of HMS Rose who came ashore between 9 and 10 a.m., only to be met by a platoon of militia and the ship's carpenter who had joined the Americans. George demanded to see an arrest warrant, and the militiamen drew their swords and took him into custody. By 10 a.m., most of the dominion and military officials had either been arrested or had fled to the safety of Castle Island or other fortified outposts. Boston Anglicans were rounded up by the people, including a church warden and an apothecary. Sometime before noon, an orange flag was raised on Beacon Hill signaling another 1,500 militiamen to enter the city. These troops formed up in the market square, where a declaration was read which supported "the noble Undertaking of the Prince of Orange", calling the people to rise up because of a "horrid Popish Plot" that had been uncovered. The Massachusetts colonial leadership headed by ex-governor Simon Bradstreet then urged Governor Andros to surrender for his own safety. He refused and tried to escape to Rose, but the militia intercepted a boat that came ashore from Rose, and Andros was forced back into Fort Mary. Negotiations ensued and Andros agreed to leave the fort to meet with the council. He was promised safe conduct and marched under guard to the townhouse where the council had assembled. There he was told that "they must and would have the Government in their own hands", as an anonymous account describes it, and that he was under arrest. Daniel Fisher grabbed him by the collar and took him to the home of dominion official John Usher and held him under close watch. Rose and Fort William on Castle Island refused to surrender initially. On the 19th, however, the crew aboard Rose was told that the captain had planned to take the ship to France to join the exiled King James. A struggle ensued, and the Protestants among the crew took down the ship's rigging. The troops on Castle Island saw this and surrendered. ## Aftermath Fort Mary surrendered on the 19th, and Andros was moved there from Usher's house. He was confined with Joseph Dudley and other dominion officials until June 7, when he was transferred to Castle Island. A story circulated widely that he had attempted an escape dressed in women's clothing. This was disputed by Boston's Anglican minister Robert Ratcliff, who claimed that such stories had "not the least foundation of Truth" but were "falsehoods and lies" propagated to "render the Governour odious to his people". Andros did make a successful escape from Castle Island on August 2 after his servant bribed the sentries with liquor. He managed to flee to Rhode Island but was recaptured soon after and kept in what was virtually solitary confinement. He and others arrested in the wake of the revolt were held for 10 months before being sent to England for trial. Massachusetts agents in London refused to sign the documents listing the charges against Andros, so he was summarily acquitted and released. He later served as governor of Virginia and Maryland. ## Dissolution of the dominion The other New England colonies in the dominion were informed of the overthrow of Andros, and colonial authorities moved to restore the governmental structures which had been in place prior to the dominion's enforcement. Rhode Island and Connecticut resumed governance under their earlier charters, and Massachusetts resumed governance according to its vacated charter after being temporarily governed by a committee composed of magistrates, Massachusetts Bay officials, and a majority of Andros's council. New Hampshire was temporarily left without formal government and was controlled by Massachusetts and its governor Simon Bradstreet, who served as de facto ruler of the northern colony. Plymouth Colony also resumed its previous form of governance. During his captivity, Andros had been able to send a message to Francis Nicholson, his New York-based lieutenant governor. Nicholson received the request for assistance in mid-May, but most of his troops had been sent to Maine and he was unable to take any effective action because tensions were also rising in New York. Nicholson himself was overthrown by a faction led by Jacob Leisler, and he fled to England. Leisler governed New York until 1691 when a detachment of troops arrived followed by Henry Sloughter, commissioned governor by William and Mary. Sloughter had Leisler tried on charges of high treason; he was convicted and executed. No further effort was made by English officials to restore the shattered dominion after the suppression of Leisler's Rebellion and the reinstatement of colonial governments in New England. Once Andros' arrest was known, the discussion in London turned to dealing with Massachusetts and its revoked charter. This led to formation of the Province of Massachusetts Bay in 1691, merging Massachusetts with Plymouth Colony and territories previously belonging to New York, including Nantucket, Martha's Vineyard, the Elizabeth Islands, and parts of Maine. Increase Mather was unsuccessful in his attempts to restore the old Puritan rule; the new charter called for an appointed governor and religious toleration. ## See also - Leisler's Rebellion, a similar 1689 rebellion against the pro-Anglican governor of the Province of New York in the wake of the revolt - Gove's Rebellion	[ "## Background", "## Revolt in Boston", "## Aftermath", "## Dissolution of the dominion", "## See also" ]	2,576	44,064
1,460,205	Brush with Greatness	1,171,409,833	null	[ "1991 American television episodes", "Creative works in popular culture", "Ringo Starr", "The Simpsons (season 2) episodes" ]	"Brush with Greatness" is the eighteenth episode of the second season of the American animated television series The Simpsons. It originally aired on the Fox Network in the United States on April 11, 1991. In the episode, Marge enrolls in an art class after Lisa encourages her to revive her former interest in painting. When she wins first prize in a local art competition for a portrait of Homer on the couch in his underwear, Mr. Burns commissions her to paint his portrait. In the subplot, Homer is determined to lose weight after getting stuck in a water slide at an amusement park. The episode was written by Brian K. Roberts and directed by Jim Reardon. Beatles member Ringo Starr guest starred as himself, while Jon Lovitz starred as Marge's art teacher, Professor Lombardo. The episode features cultural references to films such as Rocky and Gone with the Wind. Since airing, the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics, who praised its central focus on Marge, as well as Starr's role. It acquired a Nielsen rating of 12.0 and was the second highest-rated show on Fox the week it aired. ## Plot The Simpsons go to the Mount Splashmore water park. The park's rescue crew is forced to close the water slide ride after Homer is stuck inside. The crew remove the blocked section of pipe using a large crane, with Homer still stuck inside. That night, the news media poke fun at Homer's massive size during their coverage of his mishap at the water park. After having found out that he weighs 260 pounds (120 kg), Homer vows he will diet and get more exercise. While Homer is looking for his weights in the attic, Bart stumbles upon several old paintings of the drummer Ringo Starr that Marge had made as a high school student. Marge reveals she was scolded by her art teacher for painting Starr, on whom she had a crush. She sent a painting to Starr for his "honest opinion", but she never got a response back. After Lisa suggests that Marge take a painting class at Springfield Community College, she paints Homer asleep on the couch in his underwear, earning praise from her teacher, Professor Lombardo. The painting wins the college art show, earning Marge fame and newspaper headlines. Mr. Burns asks Marge to paint his portrait for a new wing of the Springfield Art Museum. Marge agrees, although she resists Homer's plea to paint Burns as a beautiful man. While Burns is taking a shower at the Simpsons' house, Marge inadvertently sees him naked. Homer finds he has lost 21 pounds from his exercise regimen and now weighs 239 pounds (108 kg). After Burns disparages Homer's weight and his daughters, Lisa and Maggie, Marge throws Burns out of the house. She is ready to quit until she receives a response from Starr, who, though decades late, praises her portrait of him. Homer encourages Marge to finish the painting. Marge's painting of a naked, frail and weak Burns is unveiled at the opening of the museum wing, much to both Burns and the crowd's shock, causing Smithers to faint. She explains that the portrait shows that behind all of Burns's evil, he is a frail and vulnerable human being who is by extension just as beautiful as any other living creature in the world. With that in mind, the crowd praises Marge's portrait; even an impressed Burns does the same before thanking Marge for a job well done. ## Production Al Jean and Mike Reiss originally pitched the idea of Marge taking an art class and churning out depressing paintings, with the family realizing she was secretly unhappy. James L. Brooks took that pitch and came up with the Burns commission plot as well as the idea she would paint him as frail and naked. The script was written by Brian K. Roberts and directed by Jim Reardon. Prior to writing the episode, Roberts had been an audio and visual editor on the show. Musician Ringo Starr made a guest appearance in the episode as himself. He was the first Beatle to appear on the show; both George Harrison and Paul McCartney would later guest star in the season five episode "Homer's Barbershop Quartet" and the season seven episode "Lisa the Vegetarian" respectively. When the story of Marge's having a crush on Starr was pitched out, Roberts took the opportunity to write Starr into the script because he had always wanted to meet a Beatle. He then sent the script to Starr, who was then in southern France. Starr agreed to do the guest appearance after reading only two lines, and he told Roberts he would be able to do it when he visited Los Angeles a few weeks later. The staff was thrilled, and they immediately decided to expand his role. When Ringo arrived to record and saw the part was longer, he told the staff, “you’ve written me a bloody novel.” The Simpsons creator Matt Groening said of the guest appearance: "We were so excited that we got Ringo Starr coming in to do the show and we recorded him over at the Complex in West Los Angeles. We were given a list of rules about what we couldn't do to Ringo, such as 'Don't touch him', 'Don't approach him', and 'Don't ask for his autograph'. But of course when he shows up in this big limo, Brian brings out a big poster and asks him to sign it!" Roberts explained that he had not received the memo with the rules so he showed up with a copy of the script cover and asked Starr to sign it. Groening asked Starr if he wanted to be animated the way he was in Yellow Submarine or the way he was in the cartoon series The Beatles. Starr chose Yellow Submarine because he did not like his appearance in the cartoon. In addition to Starr, the episode features a guest appearance by Jon Lovitz as Lombardo and the doughnut delivery man who delivers doughnuts to the nuclear power plant. Lombardo's physical appearance was based on an art teacher Reardon had in art school. ## Cultural references The line for the H<sub>2</sub>WHOA! ride reproduces the staircases in the lithograph Ascending and Descending by M. C. Escher. The way Krusty removes the clown make-up from his face resembles the way The Joker removes his make-up in the 1989 film Batman. When Homer announces he is going on a diet, he says: "As God is my witness, I'll always be hungry again!", a reference to the famous line "As God is my witness ... I'll never be hungry again!" from the film Gone with the Wind. Homer exercises in a way similar to how Rocky exercises in the 1976 film Rocky. The music that plays as Homer approaches the scale is the main theme from the film The Good, the Bad and the Ugly. A copy of Andy Warhol's painting Campbell's Soup Cans is visible at the art gallery. ## Reception In its original broadcast, "Brush with Greatness" finished thirty-seventh in the ratings for the week of April 8–14, 1991, with a Nielsen rating of 12.0, equivalent to approximately eleven million viewing households. It was the second highest-rated show on Fox that week, following Married... with Children. The episode received positive reviews from television critics. Many lauded the use of Starr; for instance, IGN ranked his performance in the episode, along with Paul McCartney's performance in "Lisa the Vegetarian" and George Harrison's performance in "Homer's Barbershop Quartet", as the tenth best guest appearance in The Simpsons' history. They added that "Although none of these appearances were really large, the fact that the most popular band of all time appeared on The Simpsons is a large statement on the popularity and importance of the show." Doug Pratt, a DVD reviewer and Rolling Stone contributor, wrote that "Brush with Greatness" has a "well thought-out" plot and he enjoyed the use of Starr and Marge's previously undiscovered talents. Paul A. Cantor, author of the book Gilligan Unbound: Pop Culture in the Age of Globalization, said that "once again Brian K. Roberts proves his genius with 'Brush with Greatness' in a superb work where Marge cultivates her wonderful artistic side". DVD Movie Guide's Colin Jacobson wrote: "From the opening at Mt. Splashmore through Homer's diet and the unveiling of Mr. Burns' controversial portrait, the episode packed a lot of great material. It also expanded Marge's character in a pleasing way, as it avoided any semblance of sappiness; we needed a break from sentiment after 'Old Money'. Overall, 'Brush with Greatness' provided a terrific episode." The authors of the book I Can't Believe It's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide, Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood, wrote: "A superb episode, with Marge rightfully centre stage. Despite his general unpleasantness, Mr. Burns' gratitude to Marge is both welcome and unexpected. And the dig at Water Parks is spot on." In October 2008, Ringo Starr posted a video on his website in which he said he was too busy to answer fan mail and that all mail sent to him after October 20 would be thrown out. Although Starr did not mention "Brush with Greatness" in the video, several media sources compared his announcement to his portrayal in the episode.	[ "## Plot", "## Production", "## Cultural references", "## Reception" ]	1,940	1,491
3,206,833	Saint Lucia at the 2000 Summer Olympics	1,137,381,339	null	[ "2000 in Saint Lucian sport", "Nations at the 2000 Summer Olympics", "Saint Lucia at the Summer Olympics by year" ]	Saint Lucia competed at the 2000 Summer Olympics which were held in Sydney, Australia from 13 September to 1 October. Saint Lucia sent five athletes to the 2000 Summer Olympics, Ron Promesse, Dominic Johnson, Vernetta Lesforis, Jamie Peterkin, and Sherri Henry. While none of the athletes form Saint Lucia won an Olympic medal at the 2000 Summer Olympics, Jamie Promesse placed first in his heat for the men's 50-metre freestyle. ## History In the 17th and 18th centuries, Great Britain and France had a territorial dispute over Saint Lucia. Control of Saint Lucia passed between British and French possession an estimated 14 separate times. The nation finally ended up in the United Kingdom's possession in 1814. The United Kingdom granted Saint Lucia self rule in 1967, and eventually granted the nation independence in 1979. Saint Lucia formed its National Olympic Committee in 1987, and gained international recognition by the International Olympic Committee on 24 September 1993. Saint Lucia previously competed in the 1996 Summer Olympics. ## Athletics Saint Lucia was represented by two male athletes and one female athlete at the 2000 Summer Olympics in athletics: Ron Promesse, Dominic Johnson, and Vernetta Lesforis. This was the first Olympic appearance for both Promesse and Lesforis. This was the second Olympic appearance for Johnson who had previously competed in the 1996 Summer Olympics. Ron Promesse competed in the men's 100-metre, but did not finish the event. The medals in the event went to athletes from the United States, Trinidad and Tobago, and Barbados. Dominic Johnson competed in the men's pole vault, placing at 26th in the standings, in a three-way tie along with Pavel Gerasimov and Chad Harting. The medals in the event went to athletes from the United States, and Russia. Vernetta Lesforis competed in the women's 400-metre, finishing sixth in her heat and failed to advance to the next round. The medals in the event went to athletes from Australia, Jamaica, and Great Britain. ### Key ### Men ### Women ## Swimming Saint Lucia was represented by one male athlete and one female athlete in swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics, Jamie Peterkin and Sherri Henry, this was the first appearance at the olympics for both Peterkin and Henry. Jamie Peterkin competed in the men's 50-metre freestyle, finishing with a time of 25.33. Peterkin placed first in his heat, however he failed to advance to the next round. The medals in the event went to athletes from the United States and the Netherlands.Sherri Henry competed in the women's 50-metre freestyle, finishing with a time of 28.81. Henry placed fourth in her heat, however she failed to advance to the next round. The medals in the event went to athletes from the Netherlands, Sweden, and the United States. ### Men ### Women	[ "## History", "## Athletics", "### Key", "### Men", "### Women", "## Swimming", "### Men", "### Women" ]	626	25,599
47,457,167	BAP Unión	1,162,078,991	Training ship of the Peruvian Navy	[ "2014 ships", "Four-masted ships", "Full-rigged ships", "Naval ships of Peru", "Sail training ships", "Ships built in Peru", "Ships of the Peruvian Navy", "Training ships of the Peruvian Navy" ]	BAP Unión (BEV-161) is a training ship of the Peruvian Navy built between 2012–2015 by Shipyard Marine Industrial Services of Peru, known as SIMA. It is a four-masted, steel-hulled, class "A" barque, composed of 38 steel modules. It has a total length (including bowsprit) of 115.50 m (378 ft 11 in); a beam of 13.50 m (44 ft 3 in); a draft of 6.50 m (21 ft 4 in); an air draft of 53.50 m (175 ft 6 in); a displacement of 3,200 tonnes; a speed of 12 knots (22 km/h) and a crew of 250 officers and trainees. The ship's name honors a Peruvian corvette that took part in the first stage of the 1879–1883 War of the Pacific as part of a naval squadron under the command of Miguel Grau, a hero of the Peruvian Navy. Like other similar ships, Unión has been conceived not only for training purposes, but also to be a sailing ambassador for its home country. Due to its features and dimensions, it has been considered (as of the date it was commissioned) the largest sail vessel in Latin America. ## History For a long time, the Peruvian Navy desired a training ship for instruction of its cadets. Accordingly, the Peruvian government enacted 1985 Law N° 24094, which declared as a public necessity the navy having this kind of ship. However, due to the economic crisis of debt and hyper-inflation Peru suffered at the end of the 1980s, and later for public spending restraints, the project was postponed. Eventually, in 2010 the project was approved and the construction was authorized. In 2012 the Peruvian government announced its decision to order the ship's construction to the Shipyard Marine Industrial Services of Peru, known as SIMA; in cooperation with the Government of Spain, through the contractors Cypsa Ingenieros Navales and Navantia, which were responsible for the ship's structural design. The government named the ship Union to honor a Peruvian corvette that took part in the first stage of the 1879–1883 War of the Pacific as part of a naval squadron under the command of Miguel Grau, a hero of the Peruvian Navy. On December 8, 2012 Unión's construction began with a keel laying ceremony in the presence of Peruvian president Ollanta Humala. The hull was finished two years later and the ship was launched on December 22, 2014. In June 2015, the ship received its masts and propeller; and the interior fitout began in charge of contractors Acopafi and MO Contract. Also, according to an agreement between SIMA and Navantia, the ship was provided with an "Integrated Control System Platform, Navigation and Communications". While the ship was under construction, the Peruvian government arranged training for the future Unión's crew with the help of an instructor from the Spanish Navy and by sending personnel to serve on training ships of other countries, such as the Mexican sailing ship ARM Cuauhtémoc. Also, a Peruvian delegation was sent to take part in maintenance and repair works on Colombian sailing ship ARC Gloria. On January 27, 2016 BAP Unión was commissioned in an official flag raising ceremony held on its deck witnessed by the President Ollanta Humala, Jakke Valakivi, the Minister of Defense and Admiral Edmundo Deville, the Commander of the Navy. Captain Gianfranco Polar Figari was named to be the first captain of the ship, who conducted the sea trials of the vessel in June 2016. BAP Unión's first training cruise abroad began on July 27, 2016. The set sailing ceremony was attended by Pedro Cateriano, the President of the Council of Ministers, Jakke Valakivi, the Minister of Defense, Ana María Sanchez, the Minister of Foreign Affairs, and Admiral Edmundo Deville, the Commander of the Navy, among other authorities. As a sailing ambassador promoting the peruvian nation brand, since 2020 the ship flies a sail with the Peru brand logo and visits national and international ports providing information about peruvian flagship products like pisco, asparagus, tangerines, paprika, anchovies, among others; as well as Peruvian tourist destinations. ## Characteristics Although the main purpose of Unión is to serve as a training ship for the Peruvian Navy, it has also been conceived to be a sailing ambassador for her home country. Due to its features and dimensions, it has been considered (as of the date it was commissioned) the largest sail vessel in Latin America. ### Specifications BAP Unión is a four-masted barque with a hull composed of 38 steel modules. It has a total length (including bowsprit) of 115.50 m (378 ft 11 in); a beam of 13.50 m (44 ft 3 in); a draft of 6.50 m (21 ft 4 in); an air draft of 53.50 m (175 ft 6 in); a displacement of 3,200 tonnes; a speed of 12 knots (22 km/h) and a crew of 250 officers and trainees. The ship's propulsion is supported by a diesel Caterpillar 3516H engine, a BERG propeller, a Rolls-Royce maneuvering propeller and a Reintjes LAF-863L gearbox. Its sail rig is composed of 34 sails from sailmaking company Wienecke, arranged in bowsprit mast (5), foresail mast (9), mainmast (9), mizzenmast (8) and jiggermast (3), with a total sail area of approximately 3,402 m<sup>2</sup> (36,620 sq ft). BAP Unión is also equipped with AZCUE pumps for different applications including: BT-IL45D4-F, BT-HM25D4, KL30S40, LN-VP-40-160, CA-50-3, CA-40-1, MO-11/20, MO-19/20. ### Figurehead The ship's figurehead was made of bronze by the Peruvian sculptor Pilar Martínez Woodman, and it features several symbols of the Inca culture that previously existed in what is now Peru. As the main element it shows the image of the Sapa Inca (emperor) Tupac Yupanqui, known as "The Shining", who appears with his right arm raised to the image of the Inca sun god Inti; and who is placed over a representation of the archeological artefact known the twelve-angled stone. The Sapa Inca wears a checkered cloth and a cape that depicts ocean waves. He also wears two puma heads (the puma was a sacred animal in Inca culture) as knee guards. His head is adorned with the mascapaicha (the Inca crown); and the shield he holds has the image of two rhombuses that represent the Inca Empire, known as Tawantinsuyu. ### Escutcheon Unión's escutcheon depicts the ship sailing over the ocean with the motto Cudendum Character Nautarum ("forging sailors' character") written in Latin below. It also contains an image of the sky with representations of the constellations Ursa minor and Crux. Over the escutcheon is the image of a bright sun and the legend "Marina de Guerra del Perú" (Navy of Peru) and below the name and number of the ship. ### Interior equipment for training Due to its use as a training ship, Unión's interior includes an auditorium, a library, a computing platform and classrooms to instruct cadets in astronomic navigation; meteorology; oceanography; hydrography; and naval operations and maneuvers. ## Voyages and trophies Unión's first training cruise abroad was in July 2016. The journey, which was officially named as "VIEX 2016", acronym in Spanish of "Viaje de Instrucción al Extranjero 2016" (Training Trip Abroad 2016), had a length of three months, in which the Unión crew visited the ports of Guayaquil (Ecuador), Cartagena (Colombia), San Juan (Puerto Rico), La Habana (Cuba), Miami (United States), Veracruz (Mexico) and Balboa (Panama), before to returning to its base in Callao. The crew and navy cadets received instruction in naval exercises and maneuvers, as well as showing people abroad several elements of Peruvian culture. In 2017 the Peruvian Navy organized the "VIEX 2017". As a part of this journey, Unión participated in Rendez-Vous 2017 Tall Ships Regatta, a series of races organized by Sail Training International, where the vessel won the race from Boston to Charlottetown (Gulf of Saint Lawrence) in Canada. In this regatta the ship covered more than 450 nautical miles (830 km). In July 2017 Unión docked in South Quay in Canary Wharf, London, on a trip to foster Anglo-Peruvian relations, the visit coinciding with Peru's national day on 28 July. The Peruvian Ambassador to the Court of St James's attended the vessel. In 2018 Unión participated in the event "Velas Latinoamérica 2018" (Sails Latin America), an international sailing regatta held every four years for ships from some Latin American countries. As part of this, the vessel visited several ports including Valparaiso, Guayaquil, Balboa, Curazao, Cartagena and Veracruz. ## United States Postal Service honors BAP Unión Peru figured prominently in the history of the city of San Francisco with a strong relationship between San Francisco and Lima, Peru. The United States Postal Service issued a USPS Building Bridges Special Postal Cancellation Series on Feb 18, 2021 as part of a ceremony to celebrate The Bicentennial of the Independence of Peru. commemorating the Opening Ceremony on Feb 18, 1939 of the Golden Gate International Exposition on Treasure Island, San Francisco, California, United States of America. The pictorial special postal cancellation features an illustration of the Peruvian Tall Ship BAP Unión, Treasure Island Museum logo and the official logo for Peru Bicentario 2021. The signatory image of Building Bridges, which marks all USPS Building Bridges Special Postal Cancellations, was created by Karen Earle Lile and Kendall Ross Bean in 1994 and first used by USPS in 1996. The General Consul of Peru in San Francisco on Feb 19, 1939, Fernando Berckemeyer spoke at the Opening Ceremony of the Golden Gate International Exposition, also known as GGIE. As a commemoration of GGIE On Feb 18, 2021, the General Consul of Peru in San Francisco, Hernando Torres-Fernández, spoke at the USPS Building Bridges Special Cancellation of that ceremony, which was filmed for broadcast internationally on special event site. ## See also - List of large sailing vessels	[ "## History", "## Characteristics", "### Specifications", "### Figurehead", "### Escutcheon", "### Interior equipment for training", "## Voyages and trophies", "## United States Postal Service honors BAP Unión", "## See also" ]	2,370	9,107
59,078,011	Type 40 torpedo boat	1,138,303,775	Planned group of German ships in WWII	[ "Torpedo boats of the Kriegsmarine", "World War II torpedo boats of Germany" ]	The Type 1940 torpedo boats were a group of 24 torpedo boats that were intended to be built for Germany's Kriegsmarine during World War II. Although classed as fleet torpedo boats (Flottentorpedoboot) by the Germans, they were comparable to contemporary large destroyers. They were designed around surplus Dutch propulsion machinery available after the Germans conquered the Netherlands in May 1940 and were to be built in Dutch shipyards. Hampered by uncooperative Dutch workers and material shortages, none of the ships were completed before the Allies invaded Normandy (Operation Neptune) in June 1944. The Germans towed the three ships that were most complete to Germany to be finished, but one was sunk en route by Allied fighter-bombers and no further work was done of the pair that did arrive successfully. The remaining ships in the Netherlands were later broken up for scrap and the two that reached Germany were scuttled in 1946. ## Background and design When the Germans invaded the Netherlands on 10 May 1940, the Dutch were building four Gerard Callenburgh-class destroyers. was towed to Britain before the Germans could reach the shipyard, the Germans finished Gerard Callenburgh as ZH1 and neither Philips van Almonde nor Tjerk Hiddes could be finished and had to be broken up. Neither ship had had their propulsion machinery installed before the invasion and the Kriegsmarine decided to design a ship using them and taking advantage of surplus capacity in Dutch shipyards and factories. Although called torpedo boats by the Kriegsmarine, the Type 40 design was larger than any previous German torpedo boat design and were effectively destroyers. The ships had an overall length of 114.5 meters (375 ft 8 in) and were 110 meters (360 ft 11 in) long at the waterline. They had a beam of 11.3 meters (37 ft 1 in), and a maximum draft of 3.81 meters (12 ft 6 in) at deep load. The Type 40s displaced 1,931 long tons (1,962 t) at standard load and 2,566 long tons (2,607 t) at deep load. Their hulls were divided into 13 watertight compartments and they were fitted with a double bottom that covered 90% of their length. Their crew numbered 231 officers and sailors. The Type 40-class ships had two sets of license-built Parsons geared steam turbines, each driving a single three-bladed 3.15-meter (10 ft 4 in) propeller, using steam provided by three license-built Yarrow boilers that operated at a pressure of 28 kg/cm<sup>2</sup> (2,746 kPa; 398 psi) and a temperature of 380 °C (716 °F). The turbines were designed to produce a maximum of 49,500 shaft horsepower (36,900 kW) for a speed of 35 knots (65 km/h; 40 mph). The ships carried a maximum of 561 metric tons (552 long tons) of fuel oil which gave a range of 2,350 nautical miles (4,350 km; 2,700 mi) at 19 knots (35 km/h; 22 mph). ### Armament and sensors The main armament of the Type 40 class consisted four 42-caliber 12.7 cm (5.0 in) SK C/34 guns in single mounts with gun shields, two each superimposed, fore and aft of the superstructure, designated one to four from front to rear. Each mount had a range of elevation from -10° to +30° and the gun fired 28-kilogram (62 lb) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 830 m/s (2,700 ft/s). It had a range of 17,400 meters (19,000 yd) at maximum elevation. Each gun was provided with 150 rounds. The Type 40s were equipped with a 3-meter (9 ft 10 in) rangefinder for the gunnery director atop the bridge and a 4-meter (13 ft 1 in) rangefinder was mounted just forward of No. 3 gun. Anti-aircraft defense was provided by a pair of twin 80-caliber 3.7 cm (1.5 in) SK C/30 anti-aircraft (AA) gun mounts that were positioned on a platform abaft the funnel. The power-operated mount had a maximum elevation of 85° which gave the gun a ceiling of less than 6,800 metres (22,300 ft); horizontal range was 8,500 metres (9,300 yd) at an elevation of 35.7°. The single-shot SK C/30 fired 0.748-kilogram (1.65 lb) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 1,000 m/s (3,300 ft/s) at a rate of 30 rounds per minute. The ships were also fitted with sixteen 2 cm (0.8 in) C/38 guns in four quadruple mounts, two on a platform between the torpedo tube mounts and a pair on the upper bridge wings. The gun had an effective rate of fire of about 120 rounds per minute. Its 0.12-kilogram (0.26 lb) projectiles were fired at a muzzle velocity of 875 m/s (2,870 ft/s) which gave it a ceiling of 3,700 meters (12,100 ft) and a maximum horizontal range of 4,800 meters (5,200 yd). Each ship carried 2,000 rounds per gun. The Type 40s were also equipped with eight above-water 533 mm (21 in) torpedo tubes in two quadruple mounts amidships. They used the G7a torpedo which had a 300-kilogram (660 lb) warhead and three speed/range settings: 14,000 meters (15,000 yd) at 30 knots (56 km/h; 35 mph); 8,000 meters (8,700 yd) at 40 knots (74 km/h; 46 mph) and 6,000 meters (6,600 yd) at 44 knots (81 km/h; 51 mph). The ships could carry 50 mines. For anti-submarine work they were fitted with four depth charge launchers and six individual cradles for 32 depth charges. ## Construction The Kriegsmarine ordered T61–T68 on 19 November 1940, although T65–T68 were only provisional orders that were finalized on 6 January 1941. A batch of four more, T69–T72, were ordered on 3 May and the final batch of twelve, T73–T84, on 27 August. The contracts for T67, T68 and T72 were transferred from Nederlandsche Scheepsbouw Maatschappij to other builders in September 1943 before construction began. The Kriegsmarine originally estimated that the first six ships would be assigned to the 3rd Destroyer Flotilla which was expected to be formed in early 1943. The destroyers probably had a lower priority for labor and materials than the large numbers of minesweepers being built in Dutch shipyards, so that the first ships were not laid down until 1942. The Dutch workers hampered construction at every turn, but shortages of brass, copper and aluminum were such that construction of all ships except for two was suspended by April 1942, even though steel and machinery for the first dozen had either been assembled or was in production. Supposedly eight ships had been begun by the end of the year; by mid-1944 the Kriegsmarine was expecting only four ships to be finished before the end of the year, another four in 1945 and the last four in 1946, the last dozen ships having been cancelled earlier. T65 was the first of three Type 40s that the Kriegsmarine had towed to Germany for completion. She departed Vlissingen on 8 September 1944 and arrived at Borkum, a week later. The ship was in Bremen in October and was then towed to Elbing, East Prussia, in late December to be finished at the Schichau shipyard. After the yard was shut down on 22 January 1945 due to power failures, a lack of workers and the advancing Soviet forces which were approaching East Prussia, T65 was towed that day to Danzig and then back to Bremen. The incomplete ship was scuttled on 2 July 1946 after being loaded with chemical weapons. T61 was the next to leave, departing Schiedam on 12 September. Her convoy was attacked by Bristol Beaufighter fighter-bombers from No. 143 Squadron RAF that same day and she was sunk off Den Helder. T63 was towed from Rotterdam in November 1944 and arrived in Emden on the 29th and the Schillig Roads on 21 December. She was towed to Elbing for further work, but was towed back to Kiel in January 1945. Much like T65, the ship was loaded with chemical munitions before she was scuttled in the Skaggerak on 31 December 1946. ## Ships	[ "## Background and design", "### Armament and sensors", "## Construction", "## Ships" ]	1,954	32,532
347,723	Kingston Lacy	1,172,944,083	Country house near Wimborne Minster, Dorset, England	[ "1665 establishments in England", "Art museums and galleries in Dorset", "Bankes family", "Charles Barry buildings", "Country houses in Dorset", "Gardens in Dorset", "Grade I listed buildings in Dorset", "Grade I listed houses", "Grade II listed parks and gardens in Dorset", "Historic house museums in Dorset", "Houses completed in 1665", "Japanese gardens in England", "National Trust properties in Dorset" ]	Kingston Lacy is a country house and estate near Wimborne Minster, Dorset, England. It was for many years the family seat of the Bankes family who lived nearby at Corfe Castle until its destruction in the English Civil War after its incumbent owners, Sir John Bankes and Dame Mary, had remained loyal to Charles I. The house was built between 1663 and 1665 by Ralph Bankes, son of Sir John Bankes, to a design by the architect Sir Roger Pratt. It is a rectangular building with two main storeys, attics and basement, modelled on Chevening in Kent. The gardens and parkland were laid down at the same time, including some of the specimen trees that remain today. Various additions and alterations were made to the house over the years and the estate remained in the ownership of the Bankes family from the 17th to the late 20th century. The house was designated as a Grade I listed building in 1958 and the park and gardens are included in the National Register of Historic Parks and Gardens at Grade II. The house was bequeathed to the National Trust in 1982 after the death of Henry John Ralph Bankes, along with Corfe Castle. The house and gardens are open to the public. ## History The Kingston Lacy estate originally formed part of a royal estate within the manor of Wimborne. The original house stood to the north of the current house. It was built in the medieval period and was used as a hunting lodge in connection with the deer park to its northwest. Leased to those who found favour with the monarch, lessees included the de Lacys, Earls of Lincoln, who held it in addition to estates at Shapwick and Blandford Forum. In the 15th century the property was leased to John Beaufort, Duke of Somerset, whose daughter Lady Margaret Beaufort, mother of King Henry VII, was brought up at Kingston Lacy. By the 18th century the house was in ruins. In 1603 King James I gave the lands to Sir Charles Blount. In 1636, his son sold the estate to Sir John Bankes, who had been appointed attorney general to King Charles I in 1634. Sir John was born in Cumberland, but through his extensive legal works had acquired sufficient funds to purchase the Corfe estate. During the Civil War, the Bankes family remained loyal to the crown; Sir John died at Oxford in December 1644, the King having retired there for the winter. Left to fend for herself during two sieges, his wife Mary Bankes defended Corfe Castle, but it eventually fell to the Parliamentary forces. In March 1645 Parliament voted to slight the castle, and it was left in its present ruinous state. Although deprived of their castle, the Bankes family owned some 8,000 acres (3,200 ha) of the surrounding Dorset countryside and coastline. The masonry from the destroyed castle was used by local villagers to rebuild their own residences. Sir Ralph died in 1677, and his widow let the house to James Butler, 1st Duke of Ormond from 1686 until he died there on 21 July 1688. John Bankes the Elder regained the property in 1693, and with his wife Margaret, daughter of Sir Henry Parker of Honington Hall, completed most of his father's original development plan. In 1772 the house passed to his second son Henry who remodelled it, built a servants' wing, and enclosed the parkland for better agricultural management. The 1784 Enclosure Act allowed Henry Bankes the Younger, grandson of Ralph Bankes, to create the current estate and parkland footprint. He demolished the hamlet of Kingston which was situated adjacent to the 16th-century Keeper's Lodge, diverted the Blandford road (now the B3082) and converted former agricultural land to parkland. He undertook further minor alterations in the 1820s, before he became a Member of Parliament for the rotten borough of Corfe Castle. He was a trustee for the British Museum and its parliamentary advocate, and some of his collections which were once part of the house, are now in the museum. Bankes entertained his friends at the house, including William Pitt the Younger and Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington. Bankes' son, the explorer and adventurer William John Bankes, commissioned his friend Charles Barry to encase the red brick hall in stone, and enlarge his other property Soughton Hall. Barry remodelled Kingston Lacy between 1835 and 1838. The work involved facing the brick with Chilmark stone, adding a tall chimney at each corner, and lowering the ground level on one side to expose the basement level and form a new principal entrance. He planted beech tree avenues along the Blandford Road, of which some 2+1⁄4 miles (3.6 km) survives. William John Bankes collected most of the house's antiquities. He travelled extensively in the Middle East and Asia, amassing the world's largest individual collection of Ancient Egyptian antiques. Most notable is the Philae obelisk which stands prominently in the grounds of the house. When in Genoa he acquired the 1606 Portrait of Maria di Antonio Serra by Sir Peter Paul Rubens. In 1841, after being caught in a homosexual scandal that could have resulted in a trial and his execution, William John fled the country for Italy. His art collection was left at Kingston Lacy, where his notes and drawings remained for many years in a cabinet, unpublished and forgotten. During William John's absence the estate was managed by his brother, George Bankes, who inherited it on his brother's death just a year before his own in 1857. His youngest grandson Walter Ralph inherited the estate in 1869, and later in life married Henrietta, and had a son: Henry John Ralph Bankes. After Walter's death in 1902, his widow undertook the last major developments to the estate, including construction of the church (1907), new entrance lodges (1912–13) and numerous estate cottages. In 1923 control passed to Ralph Bankes, the seven times great-grandson of the original creator. During the Second World War an extensive military encampment was established in the south-east quarter of the park, which was only restored after the National Trust took ownership. Ralph Bankes died in 1981 and the Kingston Lacy estate, including 12 working farms, and Corfe Castle were bequeathed to the National Trust. The gift was formally accepted on 19 August 1982, the largest bequest that it had ever accepted. ## Architecture After the restoration of the monarchy in 1660, the Bankes family regained their properties. Rather than rebuild Corfe Castle, the eldest son Ralph Bankes built a house on their other Dorset estate near Wimborne Minster. In 1663, he commissioned Sir Roger Pratt to design a new house to be known as Kingston Hall on the current site, based on Clarendon House which he had visited several times. Construction started the same year, and was completed by 1665. The design, like Pratt's other large country house Horseheath Manor in Cambridgeshire, was much influenced by Chevening. Like that house, the hall is two storeys high, though the great stair has been moved from the centre of the house" Instead the great stair and the back stairs are situated symmetrically on either side of the hall, on the main long axis of the house. Pratt's original plans have been lost, but extensive notes on his intentions have survived. On each of the two main floors he placed identical apartments about 20 ft (6 m) square at the four corners, each with two 10 ft (3 m) square closets at their outer end. This provided flexibility of use for the rooms. Two of the inner closets housed servants' stairs. The two ends of the bedroom floor were connected by a balcony supported by columns which may have served the additional purpose of helping support the north side of the cupola. Built of red brick with Chilmark and Portland stone dressings, the house has a compact, rectangular plan and has two main floors, plus a basement and an attic floor lit by dormer windows. On the south façade, there are eight casement windows in the basement and nine sash windows on each of the ground floor and first floor. The bay with the three central windows projects forwards slightly, and the central ground floor window is pedimented. The lead-covered hipped roof has a central flat section, surrounded by a balustrade with a cupola rising from its centre. The dormer windows are in a central, balustraded terrace of three, with an outlying window on either side. The house is entered from the north through a later mid-19th-century porte-cochère, while to the south there is a stone-flagged terrace with balustrade extending the full width of the building, and broad shallow steps leading down to the lawns. The east façade has a triple-arched loggia with access to the garden, while to the west there is access to the later 18th-century laundry and kitchen garden. The interiors were influenced by Inigo Jones, but executed by his heir John Webb, a fact confirmed many years later when the National Trust discovered Webb's plans during their formal takeover of the estate. The interiors mostly date from about 1835. The hall has a barrel-vaulted high ceiling with painted decoration and the dining room has panelled walls, tapestries and a decorated plaster ceiling. The library has a ceiling painting attributed to Guido Reni. The staircase is of white marble with turned balusters and a relief frieze, its ornamented ceiling being attributed to Giorgione. Sited centrally within the 164-hectare (410-acre) grounds, externally the new house was provided with 5 hectares (12 acres) of formal gardens and pleasure grounds; some of these were enclosed by walls, while a series of wide avenues radiated throughout the surrounding 159 hectares (390 acres) of parkland. The house is a Grade I listed building having been so designated on 18 March 1955. ## Collections On display in the house is an important collection of fine art and antiquities built up by many generations of the Bankes family, the core having been assembled by Sir Ralph Bankes in Gray's Inn before the house was built. One of the rooms, the Spanish room (named by reason of the paintings of Bartolomé Esteban Murillo which hang there), has walls hung with gilded leather. It was recently restored at a cost of several hundred thousand pounds over a five-year period. Other important collections include paintings of the Bankes family stretching back over 400 years. Other artworks include The Judgement of Solomon by Sebastiano del Piombo and works by Diego Velázquez, Anthony van Dyck, Titian and Jan Brueghel the Younger. A portrait of Nicolò Zen the younger by Titian was discovered in the collection in 2008. Apart from the Spanish Room, the library is the most atmospheric of rooms, upon the wall of which are hung the huge keys of the destroyed Corfe Castle, handed back to Mary Bankes after her defence of Corfe Castle during the Civil War. The state bedroom is extremely ornate and has housed such important guests as Kaiser Wilhelm II who stayed with the family for a week in 1907. The main staircase is beautifully carved from stone and features three huge statues which look out onto the gardens from their seats. These depict Sir John Bankes and Lady Bankes, the defenders of Corfe Castle, and their patron, Charles I. ## Gardens The land surrounding Kingston Lacy was registered as being of special historic interest in the Register of Historic Parks and Gardens in 1986, it being "parkland developed in the seventeenth, late eighteenth, and nineteenth centuries, together with late nineteenth-century formal gardens and informal pleasure grounds." The estate comprises about 159 hectares (393 acres) of parkland and other ornamental land and about 5 hectares (12 acres) of gardens. The site slopes gently towards the southwest and includes the summit of the Iron Age hillfort of Badbury Rings towards its northwest extremity, and within the estate is part of the Roman road from Dorchester to Old Sarum. The estate has two main entrances on Blandford Road, each with a lodge and ornate gateway. The broad drives sweep round to a carriage-turning area by the north façade of the house. The park is mainly pastureland with informal plantings of specimen trees, designed to create pleasant vistas. There are two water features to the northeast of the house. The formal gardens and pleasure grounds are situated close to the house, with an area of informal pleasure grounds extending to the south-east. Two features are the Cedar Walk and the Lime Walk, both majestic avenues to the south of the house, as well as a plantation known as Blind Wood. There is a terrace in front of the house with urns and vases, overlooking an extensive lawned area. Other features include a Victorian fernery and a sunken garden. To the west of the house, there is a rose garden with a central circular lawn. The kitchen garden lies to the south of the pleasure grounds and is now a commercial nursery. The house and gardens are open to the public and in 2019 received about 410,000 visitors. ## Gallery	[ "## History", "## Architecture", "## Collections", "## Gardens", "## Gallery" ]	2,807	23,074
6,791,432	M-189 (Michigan highway)	1,167,474,171	State highway in Iron County, Michigan, United States	[ "State highways in Michigan", "Transportation in Iron County, Michigan" ]	M-189 is a north–south state trunkline highway in the Upper Peninsula of the US state of Michigan. It serves as the continuation of Highway 139 (WIS 139) from Wisconsin into Michigan, connecting to US Highway 2 (US 2) in Iron River. M-189 has been largely unchanged since being designated in the 1930s, although a new bridge over the Brule River at the state line was built in 1988. ## Route description M-189 starts at the Wisconsin state line in the middle of a bridge crossing the Brule River that connects to WIS 139. The highway runs to the northeast away from the river through forests. The trunkline turns north and curving to the east to run past Laurel Lake. The highway forks at the junction with Caspian Cutoff Road (County Road 651); M-189 takes the northwesterly fork and runs around the west side of Caspian. The roadway passes the Iron River County Club as the highway begins to parallel the Iron River. M-189 follows Selden Road north through the southside of the city of Iron River, continuing as 4th Street into downtown. The trunkline ends at a junction with US 2 (Adams Street) in the middle of town. No part of M-189 is listed on the National Highway System. In 2009, the Michigan Department of Transportation conducted a survey to determine the traffic volume along the highway, reported using a metric called average annual daily traffic (AADT). The department determined that 892 vehicles a day used the highway near the state line while 5,308 vehicles used the central section through Caspian. The northernmost segment near US 2 had an AADT of 4,079 vehicles. ## History The Michigan State Highway Department designated M-189 as a state trunkline highway in late 1932 or early 1933. During the latter half of 1936, the department paved the highway in its entirety. The route has remained the same since. The current bridge across the Brule River was built in 1988. ## Major intersections ## See also	[ "## Route description", "## History", "## Major intersections", "## See also" ]	443	5,176
72,322,205	Andrew Planta	1,164,102,974	Swiss pastor and librarian (1717–1773)	[ "1717 births", "1773 deaths", "Employees of the British Museum", "Fellows of the Royal Society", "Planta family", "Swiss Christian religious leaders", "Swiss emigrants to the United Kingdom", "Swiss translators", "Translators to Italian" ]	Andrew Joseph Planta, also known as Andreas Joseph von Planta (1717–1773) was a Swiss Reformed pastor who emigrated to England, where he became librarian at the British Museum. He was born in Susch, studied theology in Zürich and worked as pastor in the Italian-speaking Protestant parish of Castasegna. He published an Italian psalter and book of prayers in 1740. In 1745, he obtained an MA degree at the University of Erlangen. After working as an educator at the court in Ansbach, he moved to London in 1752 to take up the post of pastor of the German Reformed congregation. He became assistant librarian at the British Museum in 1758, reader and tutor to Queen Charlotte in the 1760s and was elected as a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1770. Several of his daughters worked as governesses at court or in noble families. His son Joseph Planta succeeded him at the British Museum and later became its principal librarian. ## Early life and family Planta was born on 4 August 1717 (O.S.) in Susch. His father was the Landammann Joseph Planta (1692–1729) and his mother was Elisabeth Conrad from Fideris. The Planta family [de; it] was at this time one of the most important families of the Engadin area. While there are unverified claims that the family is related to a Roman family of the same name that had dealings with Emperor Claudius, the family is more reliably documented since 1139 or 1244. Planta had four younger siblings; the youngest was Martin Planta [de] (1727–1772), a theologian, educator and scientist. ## Education and early career In 1734, Planta studied theology at the Schola Tigurina in Zürich; he passed an examination by the synod and was ordained in Ilanz in Grisons in 1735. In 1736 or 1737, he became pastor of the parish of Castasegna, one of very few parishes with an Italian-speaking Protestant population. In 1739, he translated the metrical psalter of Ambrosius Lobwasser into Italian as Li CL sacri Salmi di Davide, ed alcuni cantici ecclesiastici, which appeared together with an accompanying book of prayers (Preghiere sacre e divote) in 1740. He also translated Johann Hübner's children's bible into Italian, which appeared in 1743 as Due volte cinquant' e due Lezioni sacre without acknowledgment of the translator, but the second Italian edition of 1785 and the Ladin edition of 1770 both credit Planta. In 1745, Planta went to the recently founded University of Erlangen, where he obtained an MA degree with a dissertation entitled Exercitatio Docimastica, Exhibens Delineationem Philosophiae Generalis (A docimastical exercise showing an outline of general philosophy). Reports that he obtained a doctorate or that he was professor of mathematics in Erlangen are not correct. From 1745, Planta worked as educator of prince Alexander at the Ansbach court of Charles William Frederick, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach and his wife Princess Friederike Luise of Prussia. He likely also taught mathematics at the Gymnasium Carolinum. ## Life in London After travelling to London, where his brother Martin had lived 1749–1750, with the permission of the Ansbach court, Planta became pastor of the German Reformed congregation at the Savoy Chapel in London in 1752, serving until 1772. His inaugural sermon on 22 October 1752, Die Ordnung GOttes in der Gemeine. Das ist der Lehrer Pflicht und des Volcks Schuldigkeit was printed in London. The family lived in Bloomsbury. In 1757, Planta became French tutor to Mary Eleanor Bowes. From 1758, he worked as an assistant librarian at the British Museum. He was Assistant Keeper of Natural History 1758–1765 and Assistant Keeper of Printed Books 1765–1773. After 1761, he served as reader and taught Italian to Queen Charlotte. In 1765, during Leopold Mozart's journey to London with his family, Planta entertained the Mozart family at Montagu House and showed them around the museum, probably on the occasion of a gift of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's music to the museum. In his Natural History role at the museum, Planta was succeeded by Daniel Solander and in Printed Books by his son Joseph Planta. In 1768, Carl Gottfried Woide was appointed as assistant pastor; he later succeeded Planta as pastor of the German congregation. Planta was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society on 15 March 1770. The citation on his election certificate was "Andrew Joseph Planta of the British Museum MA, & Minister of the German Reformed Church at the Savoy, a Gentleman of good learning, and well versed in natural knowledge, being desirous of becoming a member of the Royal Society; we recommend him, of our Personal acquaintance, as likely to be a valuable & useful member". His proposers were Gregory Sharpe, Gowin Knight, Henry Baker, Jerome de Salis, Joseph Ayloffe, Matthew Duane, Charles Morton, Samuel Harper, Matthew Maty, Richard Penneck, Henry Putman, Joshua Kirby and John Bevis. Planta himself was one of the proposers when Johann Reinhold Forster was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in February 1772. Planta died on 25 February 1773. His burial was on 3 March 1773 in St George's, Bloomsbury. ## Personal life and children Planta married Margarete Scartazzini de Bolgiani from Bondo in 1738. They had six daughters and one son. Several of the daughters worked as governesses and educators for noble families; Wendy Moore later wrote "the Planta family had a seemingly endless supply of talented daughters." The family spoke Romansh at home also during their time in London. The oldest daughter Anna Planta was born in Castasegna. In 1762, she married Christian Minnick or Minnicks, and they emigrated to Pennsylvania. The second child was Elizabeth Planta, born in 1740 or 1741. In 1757, she became governess to Mary Eleanor Bowes. From 1777, she was married to John Parish, who was Superintendent of Ordnance at the Tower of London. The next child was the only son, Joseph Planta, born 10 February 1744 in Castasegna, who succeeded his father at the British Museum and became its principal librarian. He died in 1827. His younger sister Frederica Planta was born in 1750. She later served as governess and English teacher of the daughters of George III and Queen Charlotte but died in February 1778. She was succeeded by her sister Margaret Planta [la] ("Peggy") who died in 1834. The second youngest sister, Anna Elizabeth (Eliza) Planta, was born in London in 1757. She succeeded her sister Elizabeth as governess to Mary Eleanor Bowes' children from 1776, but soon after married Reverend Henry Stephens. She moved to Russia after 1789 to work for Catherine Shuvalova. Her daughter Elizabeth later married Mikhail Speransky but died soon after giving birth to a daughter, Elisabeth Bagréeff-Speransky in 1799. The youngest daughter Ursula Barbara Planta, who was left money in Mary Eleanor Bowes' will, died in 1834.	[ "## Early life and family", "## Education and early career", "## Life in London", "## Personal life and children" ]	1,636	6,763
34,334,124	Waxy (horse)	1,172,090,648	British Thoroughbred racehorse	[ "1790 racehorse births", "1818 racehorse deaths", "Epsom Derby winners", "Racehorses bred in the Kingdom of Great Britain", "Racehorses trained in the Kingdom of Great Britain", "Thoroughbred family 18" ]	Waxy (1790 – 18 April 1818) was a British Thoroughbred racehorse that won the 1793 Epsom Derby and was an influential sire in the late eighteenth and early part of the nineteenth century. Waxy was bred by Sir Ferdinando Poole and was foaled at Lewes in 1790. He was sired by Pot-8-Os, a son of the foundation stallion Eclipse, whose genetic lineage traced to the Darley Arabian. Waxy's dam, Maria, was sired by the influential stallion Herod and produced one full-brother to Waxy, who was named Worthy. Waxy derived his name from a variety of potato, a choice that was inspired by his sire's name. Trained by Robert Robson, Waxy won nine races out of 15 starts during his four-year racing career, retiring from racing at the age of seven in 1797 after sustaining an injury during his last start. Beginning in 1798, Waxy stood at stud at Sir Poole's estate in Lewes and remained there until Poole's death in 1804. After Poole's death, Waxy was acquired by the 3rd Duke of Grafton and stood at his Euston Hall stud. Waxy remained at Euston Hall for the remainder of his life and was used as a breeding stallion until his death on 18 April 1818. His most notable offspring were produced under the ownership of the 3rd Duke of Grafton and his son. Waxy produced 190 winners of races during his stud career, siring four Epsom Derby and three Epsom Oaks winners, becoming a leading sire in 1810. His most notable sons that achieved success in the stud were Whalebone and Whisker. Through the produce of these two sons, Waxy became the paternal ancestor of most of the world's male Thoroughbreds by the mid-twentieth century. ## Background Waxy was bred by Sir Ferdinando Poole, a baronet whose family seat was in Poole, Cheshire. Sir Ferdinando leased an extensive estate in Lewes that was built on land once owned by the Grey Friars and was called "The Friary." Waxy was foaled in 1790 at Poole's stable at The Friary. The colt was named "Waxy" to distinguish him from Poole's other colt sired by Pot-8-Os out of the mare Macaria, which was subsequently named "Mealy." Waxy and mealy were two types of potatoes available at the time and are a play on the name of the colts' sire Pot-8-Os, which is itself a pun on the name "Potatoes." A variant spelling, "Waxey," is mentioned in some publications. ### Ancestry Waxy's sire, Pot-8-Os, was a successful sire of racehorses that had won 34 races during his seven-year racing career. In addition to Waxy, Pot-8-Os produced the mare Parasol (the dam of Partisan) and the colt Lottery. Waxy was Pot-8-Os most successful son in the breeding shed, with Waxy's sons carrying on the direct-male line well into the 20th century. Waxy's dam, Maria, was bred by Lord Bolingbroke and was sired by the Thoroughbred foundation sire Herod. She produced ten foals between 1784 and 1797, with Waxy being her sixth foal and one of two by Pot-8-Os. Waxy's full-brother, Worthy (foaled in 1795), was a moderately successful racer and was later a breeding stallion for the East India Company. Maria died in 1797, about two weeks after foaling the filly Wowski, later the dam of Derby winner Smolensko, Sir Charles and Thunderbolt. ### Description In the words of jockey Sam Chifney, Waxy was a "handsome, rich bay, with a white stocking on the off-hind [right] leg, good length, and especially beautiful quarters." In the words of his exercise rider (who wrote an anonymous letter to The Sporting Magazine in 1828), Waxy was "one of the finest formed horses, perfect in symmetry, beautiful in colour, admirable in all his paces, and of the finest temper when in work." However, when Waxy was confined to a stall during the winter months, his temperament became unruly and unpredictable leading the anonymous writer to remark that, "Oft has he kicked the lappets of my coat over my head." One of the few, possibly only, surviving portraits of Waxy was painted by Francis Sartorius in 1794 or 1795, and the depiction was praised in commentary for Sporting Magazine for its "neatness" and for "the truth of representation it so evidently display[ed]." While most breeding stallions and racehorses of the era had stable companions, Waxy reportedly was fond of rabbits in his later years and "was never happy without a rabbit in his paddock" with one female rabbit making her nest in the middle of his stall and raising generations of rabbits at the site that were never harmed by Waxy. ## Racing career Waxy did not race at the age of two years, and his first turf appearance was at the spring meeting at Newmarket. Waxy was trained by Robert Robson, who worked for Sir Ferdinando Poole in Lewes for several years from about 1792. Waxy's main and most celebrated racing rival was Lord Egremont's colt Gohanna (first described as "Brother to Precipitate") who was called the "Pride of Petworth." Waxy raced Gohanna five times in his career, beating him in all but one race, a match race at Newmarket in 1794 where Waxy carried two more pounds than Gohanna and lost by half a head. Waxy was perceived as an excellent racehorse during his racing career. So much so that in one alleged incident, Waxy was mistakenly seized as a heriot after the proprietor of a Godstone inn where he was staying suddenly died. Being the finest horse in the stable, and assuming he was owned by the stablemaster he was briefly taken by the landowner. Waxy raced until he was seven years old and retired from racing after he was injured in his last start. He was then used as a breeding stallion by Poole at Lewes. ### 1793: three-year-old season The Epsom Derby occurred on 18 May and was attended by "as numerous a company as ever appeared on the course." Eleven horses lined up for the start, seven of them sired by Pot-8-Os. The starting odds for Waxy to win the Derby were 100 to 7 and 100 to 10 (depending on the bookmaking operation) and at the Tattersalls betting room he "was so little thought of, that he had never been mentioned" in the betting. The race favorite was Lord Egremont's colt "Brother to Precipitate" (later named Gohanna in 1795) with this horse taking the lead in the initial strides of the race. Waxy pushed Brother to Precipitate (a "bump" in modern racing terms) at the track's first turn, taking and maintaining the lead to become an "easy winner" of the Derby. Three of the top four finishers were sired by Pot-8-Os, with second-place finisher Brother to Precipitate being the exception. The meeting was also notable for a "dreadful accident," a collision between a servant on horseback with the colt Exiseman, the winner of the race after the Derby, and for the antics of John Lade dressed in a "loose undress of blue and white striped trowsers" asking the crowd to determine whether he was "the captain of a privateer or an ambassador from the Great Mogul." At Lewes on 1 August, Waxy won an 80-guinea sweepstakes race against Lord Egremont's colt Mercury while carrying seven pounds more than the other horses in the race as a handicap for his win in the Derby. At Abingdon on 11 September, Waxy won a two-mile 40-guinea sweepstakes race against the colt Rockingham. ### 1794: four-year-old season Waxy won the Jockey Club Plate at the Second Spring meeting at Newmarket in May. At the same meeting a few days later, Waxy was beaten by Lord Egremont's colt Brother to Precipitate in a match race. On At Ipswich on 1 July, Waxy won a match race against Charles Bunbury's colt Robin Gray. At Lewes in July, Waxy ran against his previous rival, Brother to Precipitate, and won both heats in the four-mile Duke of Richmond's Plate for horses bred in Suffolk. On the same day, Waxy was the only horse that presented for the 60-guinea Ladies' Plate and won by default (termed as a "walk over"). ### 1795: five-year-old season At Oxford on 18 August, Waxy was second in a 100-guinea cup race to Mr. Durand's filly Hermione. At Lewes on 6 August, Waxy was third in the four-mile Ladies' Plate to the colt Guildford and Lord Egremont's horse Gohanna. On 19 September at Salisbury, Waxy won two heats to win the 100-guinea His Majesty's Plate against the five-year-old horse Guatimozin. ### 1796: six-year-old season At the First Spring meeting, Waxy was second in the 100-guinea King's Plate to the colt Gabriel. In March at Newmarket, Waxy was third in the first class of the Oatland Stakes to the colts Viret and Pecker. In May, Waxy won His Majesty's Plate at Guildford against Gohanna and Guildford. On 31 August at Salisbury, Waxy won two four-mile heats against Gohanna for the 100-guinea His Majesty's Plate. ### 1797: seven-year-old season On 18 July at Oxford in the running for the Gold Cup, Waxy did not place and was noted to have "broke down" during the running. This was his last appearance on the turf and he was retired to stud the following season in 1798. ## Stud career Waxy first stood at Lewes for a fee of 10 guineas per mare and a groom fee of 10 shillings. In September 1803, Sir Ferdinando Poole offered to sell Waxy for 700 guineas to William Lightfoot, an agent sent to buy horses for Virginian turfman John Tayloe. Lightfoot refused to buy Waxy, writing to Tayloe, "he has lost an eye, and is thirteen years old, and I think his health bad." Instead Lightfoot purchased Waxy's half-sister Keren Happuch who was covered by Waxy that year. It is unclear how Waxy lost his eye, its loss occurring sometime between 1797 and 1803. Sir Ferdinando Poole died on 8 June 1804, and Waxy was then acquired by the Duke of Grafton and relocated to the Euston Hall stud near Newmarket. Under the Duke's ownership, his fee increased to 25 guineas per mare and he covered 40 mares per season. Waxy died on 18 April 1818 at the advanced age (for a Thoroughbred) of 28, having gone completely blind a few years before his death. He was buried at Newmarket, close to All Saints Church. ### Legacy Waxy produced 190 winners in his stud career, including four winners of the Epsom Derby and three winners of The Oaks. His first Derby winner, Waxy Pope, was foaled when Waxy was 16 years old and most of his notable offspring were produced in the last nine years of his life under the ownership of the Duke of Grafton and his son. Waxy was the leading sire in 1810, mostly due to the racing success of Pope and Whalebone. His importance to Thoroughbred genetics and prevalence in the General Stud Book led him to be likened to "the ace of trumps," the most powerful card in bridge, due in part to the success of his sons Whisker and Whalebone. In the mid-20th century, the paternal line of most of the world's male Thoroughbreds traced to the Darley Arabian through Waxy, and Waxy's line was one of only three male lines tracing to Eclipse that persisted into the 20th century (the others tracing through Hambletonian and Joe Andrews). In the words of 20th-century Thoroughbred pedigree analyst John Furman Wall, "with his advent, superb quality was a reality." ### Notable offspring Waxy produced four Epsom Derby winners: Waxy Pope (1809), Whalebone (1810), Blucher (1814) and Whisker (1815). He also sired three fillies that won The Oaks: Music (1813), Minuet (1815) and Corinne (1818). Corinne also won the 1,000 Guineas Stakes in 1818. His most productive offspring were produced by the mare Penelope (by Trumpator) and include Whalebone, Whisker, Web, Woful, Wire and Wilful. Penelope was bred and owned by the Duke of Grafton, and all of her foals were foaled at Euston Hall. Whisker was more notable for siring broodmares, and Whalebone was a good producer of colts. Waxy Pope was a leading sire in Ireland and Blucher was a marginally successful sire. ## Pedigree	[ "## Background", "### Ancestry", "### Description", "## Racing career", "### 1793: three-year-old season", "### 1794: four-year-old season", "### 1795: five-year-old season", "### 1796: six-year-old season", "### 1797: seven-year-old season", "## Stud career", "### Legacy", "### Notable offspring", "## Pedigree" ]	2,948	9,484
41,970,979	Belgium at the 2014 Winter Paralympics	999,432,538	null	[ "2014 in Belgian sport", "Belgium at the Paralympics", "Nations at the 2014 Winter Paralympics" ]	Belgium sent a delegation to compete at the 2014 Winter Paralympics in Sochi, Russia, held between 7–16 March 2014. This was Belgium's eighth time participating in the Winter Paralympic Games. The Belgian delegation consisted of two athletes, Jasper Balcaen in alpine skiing, and Denis Colle, a snowboarder, which was considered a discipline of alpine skiing for these Paralympics. Their best performance in any event was 6th by Colle in the snowboard cross. ## Background Belgium has competed at every Summer Paralympics, and most of the Winter Paralympic Games. After participating at the inaugural 1976 Winter Paralympics. The Belgians did not participate in the 1980, 1998, or 2002 editions, but have sent a delegation to every other Winter Paralympics. Their only medal at the Winter Paralympics coming into Sochi was a bronze in alpine skiing at the 1994 Winter Paralympics. The Belgian delegation consisted of two athletes, Jasper Balcaen in alpine skiing, and Denis Colle, a snowboarder. Colle was chosen as the flag bearer for the parade of nations during the opening ceremony, and for the closing ceremony. ## Disability classification Every participant at the Paralympics has their disability grouped into one of five disability categories; amputation, the condition may be congenital or sustained through injury or illness; cerebral palsy; wheelchair athletes, there is often overlap between this and other categories; visual impairment, including blindness; or Les autres. Les autres includes any physical disability that does not fall strictly under one of the other categories, for example dwarfism or multiple sclerosis. Each Paralympic sport then has its own classifications, dependent upon the specific physical demands of competition. Events are given a code, made of numbers and letters, describing the type of event and classification of the athletes competing. Events with "B" in the code are for athletes with visual impairment, codes LW1 to LW9 are for athletes who stand to compete and LW10 to LW12 are for athletes who compete sitting down. Alpine skiing events grouped athletes into separate competitions for sitting, standing and visually impaired athletes. ## Alpine skiing Jasper Balcaen was 21 years old at the time of these Paralympics. He was classified LW9-1, meaning he competes in a standing position, and he suffers from impairment in both his arms and legs. On 13 March he competed in the standing slalom, posting run times of 1 minute and 5 seconds and 1 minute and 8 seconds. His combined time of 2 minutes and 13 seconds saw him finish in 29th place, and he was nearly 35 seconds behind the gold medal winning time, set by Alexey Bugaev of Russia. Two days later, he participated in the standing giant slalom, where he posted run times of 1 minute and 29 seconds and 1 minute and 23 seconds, for a total time of 2 minutes and 52 seconds. He finished in 23rd place, 27 seconds behind the gold medallist, Vincent Gauthier-Manuel of France. ### Snowboarding For the 2014 Winter Paralympics, snowboard cross was considered a discipline of alpine skiing, rather than a separate sport. Snowboarding was offered only for athletes who competed in a standing position. The men's snowboard cross event was held on 14 March 2014. While each athlete made three attempts, only the two best times of each athlete counted towards the final result. Denis Colle, who acquired his disability through an accident, was 25 years old at the time of the Sochi Paralympics. He completed his first two runs in 55.83 and 54.49 seconds, however, he missed a gate in his third attempt. His combined time of his first two runs of 1 minute and 50 seconds put him in 6th place overall for the competition. ## See also - Belgium at the Paralympics - Belgium at the 2014 Winter Olympics	[ "## Background", "## Disability classification", "## Alpine skiing", "### Snowboarding", "## See also" ]	864	13,758
41,376,649	Adelaide Anne Procter	1,131,929,736	English poet and songwriter	[ "1825 births", "1864 deaths", "19th-century British philanthropists", "19th-century English poets", "19th-century English women writers", "19th-century English writers", "British LGBT writers", "Catholic feminists", "Converts to Roman Catholicism", "English Catholic poets", "English Roman Catholics", "English philanthropists", "English women poets", "LGBT feminists", "People associated with Gilbert and Sullivan", "People from Bloomsbury", "Proponents of Christian feminism", "Roman Catholic writers" ]	Adelaide Anne Procter (30 October 1825 – 2 February 1864) was an English poet and philanthropist. Her literary career began when she was a teenager, her poems appearing in Charles Dickens's periodicals Household Words and All the Year Round, and later in feminist journals. Her charity work and her conversion to Roman Catholicism seem to have influenced her poetry, which deals with such subjects as homelessness, poverty, and fallen women, among whom she performed philanthropic work. Procter was the favourite poet of Queen Victoria. Coventry Patmore called her the most popular poet of the day, after Alfred, Lord Tennyson. Few modern critics have rated her work, but it is still thought significant for what it reveals about how Victorian women expressed otherwise repressed feelings. Procter never married. Her health suffered, possibly due to overwork, and she died of tuberculosis at the age of 38. ## Life Adelaide Anne Procter was born at 25 Bedford Square in the Bloomsbury district of London, on 30 October 1825 to the poet Bryan Waller Procter and his wife Anne (née Skepper). The family had strong literary ties: novelist Elizabeth Gaskell enjoyed her visits to the Procter household, and Procter's father was friends with poet Leigh Hunt, essayist Charles Lamb, and novelist Charles Dickens, as well as being acquainted with poet William Wordsworth and critic William Hazlitt. Family friend Bessie Rayner Belloc wrote in 1895 that "everybody of any literary pretension whatever seemed to flow in and out of the house. The Kembles, the Macreadys, the Rossettis, the Dickens [sic], the Thackerays, never seemed to be exactly visitors, but to belong to the place." Author and actress Fanny Kemble wrote that young Procter "looks like a poet's child, and a poet ... [with] a preter-naturally [sic] thoughtful, mournful expression for such a little child". Dickens spoke highly of Procter's quick intelligence. By his account, the young Procter mastered without difficulty the subjects to which she turned her attention: > When she was quite a young child, she learnt with facility several of the problems of Euclid. As she grew older, she acquired the French, Italian, and German languages ... piano-forte ... [and] drawing. But, as soon as she had completely vanquished the difficulties of any one branch of study, it was her way to lose interest in it, and pass to another. A voracious reader, Procter was largely self-taught, though she studied at Queen's College in Harley Street in 1850. The college had been founded in 1848 by Frederick Maurice, a Christian Socialist; the faculty included novelist Charles Kingsley, composer John Hullah, and writer Henry Morley. Procter showed a love of poetry from an early age, carrying with her while still a young child a "tiny album ... into which her favourite passages were copied for her by her mother's hand before she herself could write ... as another little girl might have carried a doll". Procter published her first poem while still a teenager; the poem, "Ministering Angels", appeared in Heath's Book of Beauty in 1843. In 1853 she submitted work to Dickens's Household Words under the name "Mary Berwick", wishing that her work be judged on its own merits rather than in relation to Dickens's friendship with her father; Dickens did not learn "Berwick's" identity till the following year. The poem's publication began Procter's long association with Dickens's periodicals; in all, Procter published 73 poems in Household Words and 7 poems in All the Year Round, most of which were collected into her first two volumes of poetry, both entitled Legends and Lyrics. She was also published in Good Words and Cornhill. As well as writing poetry, Procter was the editor of the journal Victoria Regia, which became the showpiece of the Victoria Press, "an explicitly feminist publishing venture". In 1851, Procter converted to Roman Catholicism. Following her conversion, Procter became extremely active in several charitable and feminist causes. She became a member of the Langham Place Group, which set out to improve conditions for women, and was friends with feminists Bessie Rayner Parkes (later Bessie Rayner Belloc) and Barbara Leigh Smith, later Barbara Bodichon. Procter helped found the English Woman's Journal in 1858 and, in 1859, the Society for the Promotion of the Employment of Women, both of which focused on expanding women's economic and employment opportunities. Though on paper Procter was merely one member among many, fellow-member Jessie Boucherett considered her to be the "animating spirit" of the Society. Her third volume of poetry, A Chaplet of Verses (1861), was published for the benefit of a Catholic Night Refuge for Women and Children that had been founded in 1860 at Providence Row in East London. Procter became engaged in 1858, according to a letter that her friend William Makepeace Thackeray wrote to his daughters that year. The identity of Procter's fiancé remains unknown, and the proposed marriage never took place. According to her German biographer Ferdinand Janku, the engagement seems to have lasted several years before being broken off by Procter's fiancé. Critic Gill Gregory suggests that Procter may have been a lesbian and in love with Matilda Hays, a fellow member of the Society for the Promotion of the Employment of Women; other critics have called Procter's relationship with Hays "emotionally intense." Procter's first volume of poetry, Legends and Lyrics (1858) was dedicated to Hays and that same year Procter wrote a poem titled "To M.M.H." in which Procter "expresses love for Hays ... [Hays was a] novelist and translator of George Sand and a controversial figure ... [who] dressed in men's clothes and had lived with the sculptor Harriet Hosmer in Rome earlier in the 1850s." While several men showed interest in her, Procter never married. Procter fell ill in 1862; Dickens and others have suggested that her illness was due to her extensive charity work, which "appears to have unduly taxed her strength". An attempt to improve her health by taking a cure at Malvern failed. On 3 February 1864, Procter died of tuberculosis, having been bed-ridden for almost a year. Her death was described in the press as a "national calamity". Procter was buried in Kensal Green Cemetery. ## Literary career Procter's poetry was strongly influenced by her religious beliefs and charity work; homelessness, poverty, and fallen women are frequent themes. Procter's prefaces to her volumes of poetry stress the misery of the conditions under which the poor lived, as do poems such as "The Homeless Poor": > In that very street, at that same hour, > In the bitter air and drifting sleet, > Crouching in a doorway was a mother, > With her children shuddering at her feet. > > She was silent – who would hear her pleading? > Men and beasts were housed – but she must stay > Houseless in the great and pitiless city, > Till the dawning of the winter day. (51–58) Procter's Catholicism also influenced her choice of images and symbols; Procter often uses references to the Virgin Mary, for example, to "introduce secular and Protestant readers to the possibility that a heavenly order critiques Victorian gender ideology's power structure." Procter wrote several poems about war (the majority of poems published on this topic in Household Words were by Procter), although she rarely deals directly with the topic, preferring to leave war "in the background, something to be inferred rather than stated." Generally, these poems portray conflict as something "that might unite a nation that had been divided by class distinctions." According to critic Gill Gregory, Procter "does not overtly ponder the vexed question of the poet, particularly the woman poet and her accession to fame", unlike many other women poets of the time, such as Felicia Hemans and Letitia Elizabeth Landon. Procter is instead primarily concerned with the working classes, particularly working-class women, and with "emotions of women antagonists which have not fully found expression". Procter's work often embodies a Victorian aesthetic of sentimentality, but, according to Francis O'Gorman, does so with "peculiar strength"; Procter employs emotional affect without simplification, holding "emotional energy [in tension] ... against complications and nuances." Procter's language is simple; she expressed to a friend a "morbid terror of being misunderstood and misinterpreted", and her poetry is marked by "simplicity, directness, and clarity of expression". ### Reputation Procter was "fabulously popular" in the mid-19th century; she was Queen Victoria's favourite poet and Coventry Patmore stated that the demand for her work was greater than that for any other poet, excepting Alfred, Lord Tennyson. Readers valued Procter's poems for their plainness of expression, although they were considered "not so very original in thought; [their merit is that] they are indeed the utterances 'of a believing heart', pouring out its fulness." Procter herself expressed little ambition about her work: her friend Bessie Raynor Belloc thought that Procter was pained that her reputation as a poet had outstripped her father's, and quoted Procter as saying that "Papa is a poet. I only write verses." Procter's popularity continued after her death; the first volume of Legends and Lyrics went through 19 editions by 1881, and the second through 14 editions by the same year. Many of her poems were made into hymns or otherwise set to music. Among these was "The Lost Chord", which Arthur Sullivan set to music in 1877; this song was the most commercially successful of the 1870s and 1880s in both Britain and the United States. Composer Hermine Küchenmeister-Rudersdorf set Procter’s text to music in her song “Shadow.” Her work was also published in the United States and translated into German. By 1938, Procter's reputation had fallen so far that a textbook could mention her poems only to pronounce them "stupid, trivial and not worthy of the subject". Critics such as Cheri Larsen Hoeckley, Kathleen Hickok, and Natalie Joy Woodall argue that the demise of Procter's reputation is due at least in part to the way Charles Dickens characterized her as a "model middle-class domestic angel" and a "fragile and modest saint" rather than as an "active feminist and strong poet." Emma Mason argues that although Dickens's portrayal of Procter "extinguished modern interest" in her, it also "has helped rescue Procter from the kind of endless conjecture about her private life that has confused studies of women like Letitia Landon." Modern critics have given Procter's work little attention. The few critics who have examined Procter's poetry generally find it important for the way that she overtly expresses conventional sentiments while covertly undermining them. According to Isobel Armstrong, Procter's poetry, like that of many 19th-century women poets, employs conventional ideas and modes of expression without necessarily espousing them in entirety. Francis O'Gorman cites "A Legend of Provence" as an example of a poem with this kind of "double relationship with the structures of gender politics it seems to affirm." Other critics since Armstrong agree that Procter's poetry, while ladylike on the surface, shows signs of repressed emotions and desires. Kirstie Blair states that the suppression of emotion in Procter's work makes the narrative poems all the more powerful, and Gill Gregory argues that Procter's poetry often explores female sexuality in an unconventional way, while as often voicing anxiety about sexual desires. Elizabeth Gray criticizes the fact that the few discussions of Procter's poetry that do exist focus primarily on gender, arguing that the "range and formal inventiveness of this illuminatingly representative Victorian poet have remained largely unexplored." ## List of works - "Three Evenings in the House", a short story written for A House to Let (1858), one of the collaborative Christmas numbers of the journal Household Words that Charles Dickens published. - Legends and Lyrics, first series, 1858 - Legends and Lyrics, second series, 1861 - A Chaplet of Verses, 1862	[ "## Life", "## Literary career", "### Reputation", "## List of works" ]	2,620	42,811
1,923,352	National Airlines Flight 2511	1,164,112,677	1960 airplane crash	[ "1960 in North Carolina", "1960 murders in the United States", "20th-century mass murder in the United States", "Accidents and incidents involving the Douglas DC-6", "Airliner accidents and incidents in North Carolina", "Airliner bombings in the United States", "Aviation accidents and incidents in the United States in 1960", "Brunswick County, North Carolina", "Crimes in North Carolina", "Disasters in North Carolina", "January 1960 events in the United States", "Killings in North Carolina", "Mass murder in 1960", "Murder–suicides in the United States", "National Airlines (1934–1980) accidents and incidents", "Suicide bombings in the United States", "Unsolved airliner bombings", "Unsolved mass murders in the United States" ]	National Airlines Flight 2511 was a United States domestic passenger flight from New York City to Miami, Florida. On January 6, 1960, the Douglas DC-6 serving the flight exploded in midair. The National Airlines aircraft was carrying 5 crew members and 29 passengers, all of whom perished. The Civil Aeronautics Board investigation concluded that the plane was brought down by a bomb made of dynamite. No criminal charges were ever filed, nor was the blame for the bombing ever determined, though a suicide bombing is suspected. The investigation remains open. One of the victims was retired U.S. Navy Vice Admiral Edward Orrick McDonnell, a Medal of Honor recipient and veteran of both World Wars. ## Flight history National Airlines' New York-Miami route was usually flown by a Boeing 707 as Flight 601. On January 5, 1960, the 707 aircraft scheduled to fly to Miami was grounded due to cracks that were discovered in the cockpit windshield. The windshield replacement procedure would take eight hours to perform, so National Airlines transferred the passengers of Flight 601 to two propliner aircraft it had in reserve. Passengers were boarded on these two replacement planes on a first-come, first-served basis. Seventy-six passengers boarded a Lockheed L-188 Electra. This aircraft flew to Miami and arrived safely. The remaining 29 passengers boarded a Douglas DC-6B, which departed Idlewild Airport for Miami as Flight 2511. They were accompanied by two stewardesses, pilot Dale Southard (45), copilot Richard L. Hentzel (31), and flight engineer Robert R. Halleckson (34). The plane departed New York at 11:52 p.m. and was scheduled to arrive in Miami at 4:36 a.m. on January 6. The aircraft, registration was described as being in good condition. It had four Pratt and Whitney R-2800 CB-16 engines and had accumulated 24,836 hours of flight time. 2511's flight plan called for it to fly south from New York to Wilmington, North Carolina, where it would continue south over the Atlantic Ocean. It would fly south 550 miles (890 km) over the ocean to Palm Beach, Florida. The crew maintained radio contact with National Airlines' radio controllers and air traffic control, reporting clouds and instrument flying conditions. The crew checked in with Wilmington Airport at 2:07 a.m., and later reported flying over the Carolina Beach radio beacon at 2:31 a.m. This was the last radio contact with the airplane. ## Crash and recovery After losing contact with the DC-6 aircraft, National Airlines, the United States Coast Guard, and the United States Navy began an intensive search along the southeastern coast of the United States. The search was called off the following day, when National Airlines received word that there was a plane down in North Carolina. At about 2:45 a.m. a farmer, Richard Randolph, heard the sound of an engine cutting in and out, followed by tearing metal and an explosion. Later that morning, after his teenage son McArthur Randolph found airplane wreckage in one of his father's fields, Richard Randolph drove to Bolivia, North Carolina, which had the nearest phone. He called Wilmington Airport to report the downed plane at approximately 7:00 a.m. When Highway Patrol officers responded, he led them to the crash site. Bodies and wreckage were scattered over an area of 20 acres (8 ha) covering farm fields, marshland, and pine forests. During the first day of search and rescue, investigators located 32 bodies of the 34 persons on board. One of the missing bodies was later found at the main crash site. The remaining body was found at Snow's Marsh, approximately 16 miles (26 km) from the main site. Initial reports speculated that the aircraft had disintegrated in mid-flight. One newspaper reporter indicated that the largest piece of wreckage he observed was a portion of the wing. A fragment of aluminum, believed to be a piece of the airplane's skin, was found on Kure Beach, 25 miles (40 km) from the rest of the wreckage. ## Investigations The Civil Aeronautics Board (CAB), part of the Department of Transportation, were the primary investigators into the crash of Flight 2511. The wreckage of the DC-6 was taken to a hangar at nearby Wilmington Airport, where the fuselage was reassembled on a wood-and-chicken-wire frame. Investigators recovered approximately 90% of the fuselage, which was then assembled on the frame in the Wilmington hangar. Investigators identified the point of origin of the disintegration as an area immediately ahead of the leading edge of the aircraft's right wing. The material recovered from Kure Beach, including a portion of the wing fillet, was from this general area. Investigators did not recover material from an irregular, triangularly shaped area positioned above the leading edge and extending forward ahead of the wing. The bodies were taken to the local high school gymnasium to await autopsy and identification by a Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) fingerprinting team. The Brunswick County coroner ordered autopsies of the passengers and crew to determine the specific cause of death for each. One of the victims was Vice Admiral Edward Orrick McDonnell, U.S. Navy (retired), a recipient of the Medal of Honor and a veteran of both World Wars. Other victims included a vice president of the Continental Bank of Cuba, a pharmacist, a student at the University of Miami, and an insurance adjuster. Three of the victims had been standby passengers and only made the flight due to others cancelling their reservations. ### Julian Frank The only body not found at the main crash site was that of Julian Frank, a New York City lawyer. His body was recovered from Snow's Marsh, located on the west side of the Cape Fear River. Frank's body had sustained significant injuries, including the amputation of both legs, and debris was embedded in his body. Frank's injuries were significantly different from and much more extensive than the other passengers'. Furthermore, Frank's injuries were inconsistent with the type of injury usually incurred in an aircraft accident. Frank was autopsied twice, the second time to recover debris embedded in his body. The autopsy revealed that his lower extremities had been ripped off; his muscle tissue was extensively mutilated and torn; small pieces of wire, brass, and miscellaneous articles including a hat ornament were embedded in various limbs; the fingers of his right hand were fractured and the bones splintered; and the distal phalanx of each finger on his left hand was missing. The coroner also observed numerous patches of blackened areas, similar to close-range gunshot residue. Four human finger bones were discovered among the wreckage at the primary crash site. At the time of the crash, Frank had been accused of running a charity scam and was under investigation by the Manhattan district attorney's office. It was alleged that he had misappropriated up to a million dollars (roughly equivalent to \$ million in dollars) in a series of scams. ### Bombing The crash of National Airlines Flight 2511 came shortly after the crash of another National Airlines plane. National Airlines Flight 967 exploded over the Gulf of Mexico on November 16, 1959. The cause of the explosion was believed to be a bomb in the luggage of one of the passengers, Robert Vernon Spears, who enlisted a substitute to board the plane in his place. Spears was heavily insured, and the FBI indicated that his motive was insurance fraud. Similarly, Julian Frank was covered by almost \$900,000 (roughly equivalent to \$ million in dollars) in life insurance policies, including some purchased the day of the crash. The CAB sent the material recovered from Frank's body to the FBI laboratories for testing and analysis. Analysis determined that the many wire fragments that were found embedded in Frank's body, in the seats on the right-hand side, and in the carpeting, were low-carbon steel wire, 0.025 inches (0.64 mm) in diameter. One of the dismembered fingers recovered from the wreckage had been embedded in the face plate of a travel alarm clock. A life jacket from Kure Beach, found with parts of a flight bag embedded in it, tested positive for nitrate residue. A black "crusty" residue on Frank's right hand was found to be manganese dioxide, a substance found in dry cell batteries. In addition to the evidence collected from Frank's body, there were also samples of residue taken from the air vents and hat rack located on the right side of the aircraft near the leading edge of the wing. These samples contained sodium carbonate, sodium nitrate, and mixtures of sodium-sulfur compounds. The Civil Aeronautics Board concluded the severity of Frank's injuries and the numerous particulates found embedded in his body could only be attributed to his proximity to an explosion. Furthermore, the chemical compounds detected in the area around the explosion's point of origin were consistent with those generated by a dynamite explosion. The manganese dioxide samples collected from the seats near the focal point and from Frank's body indicated a dry cell battery was located very near the explosive. The CAB determined, based on the blast pattern, a dynamite charge had been placed underneath the window seat of row 7. The CAB's chief investigator, Oscar Bakke, testified before the Senate Aviation subcommittee to this effect on January 12, 1960. The same day, the FBI formally took over the criminal aspects of the investigation. ### Other theories One of the first theories considered by investigators was that Flight 2511 was involved in a collision with another airliner, given the crash site's proximity to Wilmington Airport. Investigators reviewed the flight plan and other documents to determine if other aircraft were in the area. There was no record of any other aircraft, or of any military missiles having been fired. Furthermore, wreckage of Flight 2511 was confined to two general locations, namely the primary crash scene near Bolivia and the secondary scene in Kure Beach. All debris was accounted for as belonging to the DC-6. Another theory presented by an expert shortly after the crash theorized that an engine fire could have been the catalyst of the accident. Under this theory, one of the two engines on the right wing may have caught fire. Shrapnel from the engine may have punctured the fuselage, causing explosive decompression. Alternatively, Julian Frank, who was known to be desperately afraid of flying, may have panicked and hit the window, weakening it in such a manner it subsequently blew out. Under this theory, the pilots and passengers would have been aware of an emergency aboard, which would have allowed them to begin making preparations for an emergency landing. This theory was supported by the wide right turn the aircraft appeared to make prior to disintegrating and crashing, as well as the fact some of the passengers were found wearing life jackets. Though the bombing and engine fire theories were the most commonly held, other theories were advanced during the investigation as well. Several days after the explosion, National Airlines pilots who were members of the Airline Pilots Association sent a telegram to the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). In the telegram, they made a claim that the routine proficiency flights performed by pilots caused unnecessary stress on the aircraft. These test flights, which pilots underwent every six months, required the pilots to put their aircraft through "violent maneuvers" which could damage the aircraft. In their final report, the Civil Aeronautics Board indicated it had investigated a variety of alternative theories, including: - metal fatigue failure of the cabin leading to explosive decompression - a propeller blade failing, striking, and rupturing the cabin - a malfunction in the cabin pressurization system leading to structural failure - a foreign object striking the plane and penetrating the cabin - lightning strike - fuel vapor explosion - oxygen bottle explosion The CAB ruled out each of these theories during the course of their investigation. ### Conclusions The Civil Aeronautics Board concluded Flight 2511 was brought down by a dynamite explosion in the passenger cabin. The explosive charge was located "beneath the extreme right seat of seat row No. 7." The report also pointed out that Julian Frank was close to the explosion, though it assigned no blame to him. The explosion occurred at approximately 2:33 a.m., significantly damaging the structural integrity of the aircraft and forcing it into a wide right-hand turn. As it descended, it suffered an in-flight disintegration and crashed at 2:38 a.m. The CAB concluded in their final report: > No reference is made in this report concerning the placing of the dynamite aboard the aircraft or of the person or persons responsible for its detonation. The malicious destruction of an aircraft is a Federal crime. After the Board's determination that such was involved, the criminal aspects of this accident were referred to the Department of Justice through its Federal Bureau of Investigation ... > > The Board determines that the probable cause of this accident was the detonation of dynamite within the passenger cabin. — Civil Aeronautics Board File No. 1-0002, pp. 1,12 The FBI assumed control of the criminal investigation on January 20, 1960. The case remains open and unsolved. ## See also - Comair Flight 206 - Continental Airlines Flight 11 - List of accidents and incidents involving airliners in the United States - List of unsolved deaths - National Airlines Flight 967	[ "## Flight history", "## Crash and recovery", "## Investigations", "### Julian Frank", "### Bombing", "### Other theories", "### Conclusions", "## See also" ]	2,774	1,561
13,517,330	Matsalu National Park	1,161,698,755	National park in Estonia	[ "Geography of Lääne County", "Landforms of Lääne County", "National parks of Estonia", "Protected areas established in 1957", "Ramsar sites in Estonia", "Tourist attractions in Lääne County" ]	Matsalu National Park (previously Matsalu Nature Reserve, Estonian: Matsalu rahvuspark, often just Matsalu) is a nature reserve and national park situated in Lääne and Pärnu Counties, Estonia. Matsalu National Park spans an area of 486.1 km<sup>2</sup> (187.7 sq mi), comprising Matsalu Bay, the Kasari River delta, the village of Matsalu and surrounding areas. Matsalu Bay is one of the most important wetland bird areas in Europe, due to its prime position on the East Atlantic Flyway. Large numbers of migratory birds use Matsalu as a staging area. Every spring over two million waterfowl pass Matsalu, of which around 1.6 million are long-tailed ducks. Matsalu National Park is a home for a number of endangered species, many of which are listed in the Estonian IUCN Red List, including the white-tailed eagle of the highest conservation category, a lot of bird species of the second and third protection categories, 22 strongly protected plant species, the natterjack toad, and ten species of mammals of the second conservation category. ## Description Matsalu National Park covers a total area of 486.1 km<sup>2</sup> (187.7 sq mi), encompassing Matsalu Bay along with the delta of the Kasari River and its surrounding areas — floodplains, coastal meadows, reedbeds, woodlands, wooded meadows, and the section of Väinameri around the mouth of the bay, which includes more than 50 islands. 224.3 km<sup>2</sup> (86.6 sq mi) of the protected area is terrestrial and 261.8 km<sup>2</sup> (101.1 sq mi) is aquatic. Matsalu Bay is shallow, brackish and rich in nutrients. The bay is 18 km (11.2 mi) long and 6 km (3.7 mi) wide, but has an average depth of only 1.5 metres (5 ft) and a maximum depth of 3.5 m (11 ft). Water salinity is approximately 0.7 per mil. Shoreline length of the bay is about 165 km (102.5 mi). The bay's shoreline lacks high banks and is populated mostly with shingle shores, with muddy and overgrown reed in the innermost, sheltered part of the bay. Kasari River is the biggest of several rivers that run into Matsalu Bay. The delta of the Kasari River is not in its natural condition due to dredging between 1930 and 1960; the alluvial meadow of the delta (40 km<sup>2</sup> (15 sq mi)), most of which is actively managed, is one of the biggest open wet meadows in Europe. Reeds and rushes surrounding the main channel expand westwards up to 100 m (328 ft) every year. Annual inflow into the Matsalu Bay from the Kasari River exceeds the volume of the bay itself approximately eight times; average seasonal variation of the Kasari River exceeds 1.7 metres (6 ft). The rivers carry large quantities of nutrient-rich sediments into the bay from an over 3,500 km<sup>2</sup> (1,350 sq mi) drainage basin. The sediments are deposited in river estuaries, allowing reedbeds to expand. A total of 282 bird species have been recorded in Matsalu, among which 175 are nesting and 33 are transmigrant waterfowl. 49 species of fish and 47 species of mammals are registered in the area of the nature reserve, along with 772 species of vascular plants. Every spring over two million waterfowl pass Matsalu, including 10,000—20,000 Bewick's swans, 10,000 greater scaups, common goldeneyes, tufted ducks, goosanders and many others. A colony of up to 20,000 barnacle geese, over 10,000 greylag geese and thousands of waders stop on the coastal pastures in spring. The most numerous birds of passage (around 1.6 million) are long-tailed ducks. Approximately 35,000—40,000 ducks feed in the reedbeds in spring. In autumn, about 300,000 migratory waterfowl pass Matsalu. The wetland is the biggest autumn stopping ground of common cranes in Europe. The highest recorded number of cranes at the park has been 23,000. ## History Scientific research in Matsalu started around 1870, when Valerian Russow, the curator of the Natural History Museum of the University of Tartu, gave a short overview of birds near Matsalu Bay. Between 1928 and 1936 Eerik Kumari researched birds in Matsalu and suggested a creation of the bird protection area there in 1936. In 1939, parts of the bay (Virtsu-Puhtu) were protected for mud used in mud-baths. Research in Matsalu became regular in 1945, when the Institute of Botany and Zoology of the Estonian Academy of Sciences established a research base in Penijõe. Matsalu Nature Reserve was founded in 1957, mainly to protect nesting, moulting and migratory birds. The first permanent workers (administrators and scientists) started in 1958 and the Penijõe research base became the administrative centre of the newly created nature reserve. The Estonian Bird Ringing Centre (Estonian: Rõngastuskeskus), the coordinator of bird ringing in Estonia, is also located in Penijõe. In 1976, Matsalu was included in the list of wetlands of international importance under the International Convention on the Protection of Wetlands (Ramsar Convention). The European Diploma of Protected Areas was awarded to Matsalu Nature Reserve in 2003 by the Council of Europe, in recognition of the park's success in preserving the diversity of habitats and the numerous species of birds and other biota groups in the nature reserve. Matsalu is the only nature reserve in Estonia to hold the European Diploma. The diploma was extended for five years in 2008. In 2004, Matsalu Nature Reserve, along with surrounding areas, became Matsalu National Park. Matsalu has seven bird-watching towers (Penijõe, Kloostri, Haeska, Suitsu, Jugasaare, Küdeva and Keemu) and three hiking trails. ## Matsalu International Nature Film Festival Matsalu International Nature Film Festival (Estonian: Matsalu loodusfilmide festival) is held every autumn in the nearby town of Lihula. The festival is organized by the non-profit organization MTÜ Matsalu Loodusfilmide Festival, which was set up in late 2003. In February 2010, MTÜ Matsalu Loodusfilmide Festival partnered with the Estonian State Forest Management Centre (RMK) and will jointly organize the film festivals in the future. The first Matsalu Nature Film Festival was held between October 3 and October 5, 2003, in Lihula with a competitive program of 23 films from 7 countries. More than 2,500 people visited the festival that year. The second festival was held between September 23, and September 25, 2004, with participants from 14 countries, a competitive program of 35 films and around 5,000 visitors. The third festival took place between September 22 and September 25, 2005, with a competitive program of 39 films from 16 countries and over 7,000 visitors. The fourth festival, held between September 21 and September 24 in 2006, had 21 participating countries and 41 competing films. The fifth Matsalu Nature Film Festival was held between September 19 and September 23, 2007, and had more than 7,000 visitors. Organizers admit that as the festival is held on a nature reserve, it cannot grow much larger in a little town and therefore plan to bring mostly European nature documentaries to the festival, at the same time not forgetting the human-related topics. In 2007, organizers of the Matsalu International Nature Film Festival received the Environmental Award of the Year from the Estonian Ministry of Environment. The ministry pointed out persistent and successful organization of the film festival over the years, which has popularized nature protection and contributed significantly to environmental awareness. ## Gallery ## See also - Protected areas of Estonia - Lääne County - List of national parks in the Baltics - List of protected areas of Estonia - List of Ramsar sites in Estonia	[ "## Description", "## History", "## Matsalu International Nature Film Festival", "## Gallery", "## See also" ]	1,838	3,243
5,772,791	New York State Route 59	1,147,366,956	State highway in Rockland County, New York, US	[ "State highways in New York (state)", "Transportation in Rockland County, New York" ]	New York State Route 59 (NY 59) is an east–west state highway in southern Rockland County, New York, in the United States. The route extends for 14.08 miles (22.66 km) from NY 17 in Hillburn to U.S. Route 9W (US 9W) in Nyack. In Suffern, it has a concurrency with US 202 for 0.05 miles (0.08 km). NY 59 runs parallel to the New York State Thruway its entire route. The routing of NY 59 became a state highway in 1911 and was signed as NY 59 in the late 1920s. When NY 59 was first assigned, it began at NY 17 in Suffern. A western bypass of Suffern was designated as New York State Route 339 c. 1932; however, it became part of a realigned NY 17 in the mid-1930s. NY 339 was reassigned to NY 17's former routing between Hillburn and Suffern, but it was replaced again c. 1937 by an extended NY 59. In the 1960s, proposals surfaced for the Spring Valley Bypass, a highway that would utilize the NY 59 corridor between NY 306 in Monsey and NY 45 in Spring Valley. The proposed highway was never built. ## Route description NY 59 begins at an intersection with NY 17 in Hillburn, just south of the village of Sloatsburg in southern Rockland County. It heads to the southeast as the Korean War Veterans Memorial Highway, crossing over the Ramapo River and the Metro-North Railroad's Port Jervis Line before following both into Suffern. The river leaves NY 59 just inside the village line; however, the railroad continues to run alongside NY 59 into the center of Suffern, where both pass under the New York State Thruway near where Interstate 87 (I-87) connects to I-287. Just south of the I-87 overpass, NY 59 meets US 202 at Wayne Avenue. US 202 joins NY 59 for a one block wrong way concurrency along Orange Avenue—as NY 59 eastbound is paired with US 202 westbound and vice versa—during which time both routes cross a Norfolk Southern Railway line at-grade. At the end of the overlap, US 202 continues south along Orange Avenue to the New Jersey state line while NY 59 forks eastward toward central Rockland County. As NY 59 leaves Suffern and enters Airmont, it passes Good Samaritan Hospital, a major hospital in Rockland County. While in Airmont, NY 59 intersects County Route 89 (CR 89) and CR 85. After leaving Airmont, NY 59 proceeds east through Monsey, where it intersects the southern terminus of NY 306. As NY 59 passes Spring Valley High School, it enters the village limits of Spring Valley. While in Spring Valley, NY 59 has an overlap with CR 35A for about a tenth of a mile and meets the Thruway at exit 14, with a pair of park and ride lots located at the interchange. The route continues eastward into Nanuet, where NY 59 passes through a heavy commercialized area, crossing under NJ Transit/Metro-North Railroad's Pascack Valley Line. Before its busy intersection with CR 33, NY 59 passes The Shops at Nanuet to its south and the Rockland Plaza to its north. Upon entering West Nyack, NY 59 intersects the Palisades Interstate Parkway (exit 8) and NY 304. The route proceeds onward, passing Palisades Center, one of the largest shopping malls in the country. Immediately after passing the Palisades Center, NY 59 briefly enters Central Nyack. Here it connects to NY 303 by way of an interchange. Before hitting the Nyack village line, NY 59 has its final interchange with the Thruway. The southbound entrance to the Tappan Zee Bridge is via Mountainview Avenue, and the northbound entrance is via Polhemus Street. At the Nyack line, NY 59 becomes known as Main Street. As Main Street, NY 59 runs under the Thruway one final time before the Thruway heads over the bridge. The route continues toward downtown Nyack; however, it ends at an intersection with US 9W before it reaches the central district. Main Street continues for several blocks into downtown Nyack. ## History ### Origins NY 59 originated as the Nyack Turnpike, which was the first major thoroughfare in Rockland County. A petition was filed in 1813 to construct the turnpike. Legislation stemming from the petition was passed on April 17, 1816, allowing construction to begin. The Nyack Turnpike was completed from Suffern to Nyack in the 1830s, despite many years of local opposition to the highway. Its charter was renewed multiple times throughout the 19th century, and it was designated as a toll road to help pay for its upkeep. In 1894, the turnpike was absorbed into the Rockland County road system. The turnpike was turned over from the county to the state of New York on July 14, 1911, and added to the state highway system as part of Route 39-b, an unsigned legislative route extending from Nyack (at Broadway) to Harriman via modern NY 59 and NY 17. The Route 39-b designation was eliminated on March 1, 1921, as part of a partial renumbering of New York's legislative route system. When the first set of posted routes in New York were assigned in 1924, the portion of former Route 39-b between Suffern and Harriman became part of NY 17. The remainder of the route from Nyack to Suffern was not given a number. ### Designation The Suffern–Nyack highway remained unnumbered until the late 1920s when was designated as NY 59. At the time, NY 59 was routed on West Nyack Road between Nanuet and Central Nyack. The route was rendered unchanged in the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York. A western bypass of Suffern was designated as NY 339 c. 1932. The north–south highway left NY 17 at the hamlet of Ramapo and followed the modern New York State Thruway and I-287 corridors south through Hillburn to the New Jersey state line. In the mid-1930s, the alignments of NY 17 and NY 339 south of Ramapo were swapped, placing NY 17 on the bypass and NY 339 on the Ramapo–Suffern route. In Suffern, NY 339 ended at a junction with US 202 just one block north of NY 59's western terminus. NY 339 was replaced by an extended NY 59 c. 1937. In the early 1950s, construction began on a bypass of West Nyack Road between Nanuet and West Nyack. The highway was completed c. 1955 and became part of a realigned NY 59. The portion of NY 59's former routing that did not overlap NY 304 was redesignated as NY 59A in February 1956. This designation was short-lived as it was removed from West Nyack Road in the late 1950s. In 1960, control of the highway was turned over to the town of Clarkstown, and parts of NY 59A's former routing were abandoned. A local company carried out work to convert the highway into a shopping center access road; however, Rockland County asserted that the town—and by extension the company—had no rights to perform this action. The county sued the company that helped improve the highway in 2002. ### Traffic problems In 1958, Ramapo town engineer Edwin Wallace noticed an increase in the amount of traffic passing through the village of Spring Valley, which had become the largest village in Rockland County by this time. This led Wallace to propose a 5-mile (8.0 km) bypass of NY 59 in Monsey and NY 45 in Hillcrest. Rockland County approved the proposed bypass two years later. In 1966, the Tri-State Transportation Commission released its long-term highway report for the area. The new study replaced the Spring Valley Bypass with the NY 45 expressway, a north–south bypass of Spring Valley connecting the Garden State Parkway to the Palisades Interstate Parkway. The road would serve a steadily growing area of commercial businesses along the NY 45 corridor. No action was taken on this proposal. With the Spring Valley Bypass plan shelved, traffic continued to pour through the Spring Valley–Nanuet area. In 1987, a task force was introduced to come up with a plan to solve this issue. Traffic became even worse when the Nanuet Mall expanded in 1994. NYSDOT tried to fix the worsening situation in 1995 when they reconstructed almost 3 miles (5 km) of NY 59 from the eastern border of Spring Valley to exit 8 of the Palisades Interstate Parkway. The project widened the road to six lanes, helping to move traffic through the area from Grandview to Middletown Roads in Nanuet. In 1997, the New York State Thruway Authority dropped the Spring Valley toll on the Thruway for all motorists except truckers. This helped reduce traffic on NY 59 between exits 14A and 14B. Shortly after the traffic problems in Nanuet were reduced, the focus was shifted to West Nyack where Palisades Center was being constructed. First proposed in the late 1980s, construction finally started in 1995. This caused major delays for motorists when a bridge was constructed from NY 59 to Palisades Center south parking lot. To keep this portion of NY 59 from being overloaded with mall goers, exit 12 of the Thruway with NY 303 was re-routed through Palisades Center via Palisades Center Drive. In coordination with the Lower Hudson Transit Link, new traffic signals, with transit priority, were built on NY 59, along with new bus shelters, ADA-compliant sidewalks and crosswalks. Integrated Corridor Management systems and Intelligent Traffic Signal technology were also installed on NY 59 to decrease travel times for Hudson Link buses going to and from New York City. ## Future The New York Metropolitan Transportation Council (NYMTC) has started the Route 59 Area Transportation & Land Use Study to study NY 59 between Airmont Road and the bridge over South Pascack Road. The study, taking place between Winter 2019 and Spring 2020, will investigate possible improvements to the road, such as new bicycle lanes and sidewalks. ## Major intersections ## See also	[ "## Route description", "## History", "### Origins", "### Designation", "### Traffic problems", "## Future", "## Major intersections", "## See also" ]	2,265	4,531
4,456,317	California State Route 282	1,171,614,799	State highway in Coronado, California, United States	[ "Coronado, California", "Roads in San Diego County, California", "State highways in California", "State highways in the United States shorter than one mile" ]	State Route 282 (SR 282) is an east–west state highway entirely within the city of Coronado, California. It is a spur of SR 75 and connects the rest of the state highway system with Naval Air Station North Island. The road is part of a link connecting to the metropolitan area of San Diego via SR 75 and the Coronado Bay Bridge. The entire route uses a one-way couplet, with Third Street in the westbound direction and Fourth Street in the eastbound direction. Third and Fourth streets, as part of the Coronado street system, have existed since the 19th century, and were paved in the early 20th century. SR 282 was designated in 1968, around the time the San Diego–Coronado Bridge was opened. Attempts to build first a highway, and later a tunnel, to allow base traffic to bypass the Coronado city streets, were rejected by voters in 1974 and 2010, respectively. ## Route description SR 282 begins at Alameda Boulevard as a one-way couplet consisting of Third and Fourth streets. The portion of Alameda Boulevard between Third and Fourth streets is also part of SR 282 westbound. McCain Boulevard and Tow Way continue west from the Fourth and Third street intersections with Alameda Boulevard into Naval Air Station North Island, respectively. Third and Fourth streets continue through the intersections of I–J avenues, Palm Avenue, and D–H avenues, passing through a residential area. Third Street goes by Palm Park, and Fourth Street by Triangle Park; both are at the intersections with Palm Avenue. SR 282 travels slightly southeast towards its terminus at SR 75 (Orange Avenue). SR 282 is part of the National Highway System (NHS), a network of highways that are considered essential to the country's economy, defense, and mobility by the Federal Highway Administration. In 2013, SR 282 had an annual average daily traffic (AADT) of 13,300 on Fourth Avenue between J Avenue and Alameda Boulevard, and 24,200 on Alameda Boulevard between Third and Fourth Streets, the latter of which was the highest AADT for the highway. ## History The intersection of Third Street and Orange Avenue dates back to at least 1890. Coronado began to commission the paving of much of its street system in the early 1910s. In November 1911, the board of trustees in Coronado approved the paving of Third Street from Orange Avenue to what was K Avenue. It soon became the goal of the city to have all streets paved before the 1915 San Diego World Exposition. The streets west of Orange Avenue were to be handled in one contract, using "decomposed granite and oil." Third Street had already been paved with this material by 1913. SR 282 was initially designated in 1967 solely along Fourth Street from SR 75 to the Naval Air Station; however, it was not to be in effect until the San Diego–Coronado Bridge was completed. Nevertheless, before the bridge opened, the designation was added in the 1968 legislative session, along with the portion of Orange Avenue from the Coronado Ferry landing to Fourth Street, which was to be removed once the Coronado Bay Bridge opened. The designation came into effect on February 21, 1969. In April, plans were under way to repave Fourth and Third Streets and add signals at the Orange Avenue intersections. The bridge opened on August 3, 1969. In September, the City of Coronado added Third Street as a truck route going westbound to the base, in addition to the already-existing Fourth Street truck route leaving the base. In 1974, Proposition N was proposed to attempt to resolve concerns regarding traffic in Coronado. The plan was to build another highway along the northern and eastern shore of Coronado Island, to bypass the busy residential and commercial districts and provide easy access to the North Island Naval Air Station from the western end of the bridge. The proposition asked voters whether the City Council should "actively pursue" the matter. Previous proposals had included widening Fourth Street to be able to handle traffic in both directions. Critics contended that the highway would block the view of the San Diego Bay. Coronado Mayor Rolland McNelly opposed the proposal in early November 1974 as it would require approval from over 30 government agencies and would force the city to continue with it, although some declared the road "impossible to build." The voters rejected this plan, and the City Council then voted to keep traffic along Third and Fourth streets, closing the gate at First and Second streets. The bridge and the resulting traffic continued to be a hotly debated issue in the early 1980s. A plan in 1981 to convert Fourth Street into an expressway leading to the naval station was strongly opposed by the public due to the required demolition of structures and a lack of evidence that the plan would succeed in reducing traffic; by this time, Third and Fourth streets had been converted into one-way streets between the bridge and the naval station. In April 2006, the Navy commenced construction on an entrance to the Naval Air Station from the intersection of Third Street and Alameda Boulevard. The new entrance was completed in July 2007, and the existing entrance and exit on Fourth Street was made an exit-only station. Before then, traffic entering the base had to continue southwest on Alameda Boulevard, making a left on Fourth Street. This change was expected to reduce congestion in downtown Coronado. The City of Coronado has attempted to have a tunnel built from the Coronado bridge to the San Diego Naval Base numerous times, and hired Ledford Enterprises to help with the lobbying process in 2002 and 2006. The city endorsed a proposed study in 2004 to determine possible alternatives to resolve the traffic issues, which included keeping the status quo. On June 8, 2010, Coronado voters decided against Proposition H, which would have advised the city to undergo further investigation into building a tunnel between the Coronado bridge and the San Diego Naval Base. This concluded ten years of studies and proposals by the city of Coronado to find a way to reduce traffic to the naval station during rush hour. Critics of the proposal did not believe that the tunnel would resolve the traffic issues. Following this, the Coronado City Council voted to abolish the Tunnel Commission. ## Major intersections ## See also	[ "## Route description", "## History", "## Major intersections", "## See also" ]	1,309	20,950
3,578,474	Tintinhull Garden	1,119,347,930	Grade I listed house in South Somerset, UK	[ "1630 establishments in England", "Arts and Crafts gardens", "Gardens in Somerset", "Grade I listed buildings in South Somerset", "Grade I listed houses", "Hamstone buildings", "Houses completed in 1630", "Houses completed in 1722", "National Trust properties in Somerset", "Tourist attractions in Somerset" ]	Tintinhull Garden, located in Tintinhull, near Yeovil in the English county of Somerset, is a small (less than an acre) 20th century garden surrounding a 17th-century Grade I listed house. The property is in the ownership of the National Trust. It is visited by around 25,000 people per year. The house started as a small farmhouse in 1630 but was enlarged into its current form in the 18th century. The house was the property of the Napper family for centuries. It was given to the National Trust in 1954. The garden is similar in style to that at Hidcote Manor Garden in Gloucestershire, with several garden rooms. It was originally laid out by Phyllis Reiss from 1933, and from 1979 to 1993 was in the charge of the garden writer and gardener Penelope Hobhouse. ## House The original farmhouse which forms the basis of the current Tintinhull House was built of Hamstone 1630. It was reshaped and enlarged around 1722 when the west façade was added. The house was the property of the Napper family, who acquired the manor after the dissolution of the monasteries and also owned Tintinhull Court, and was passed down in the family until they sold it sometime after 1814. The Nappers let it to the Pitt family until the death of John Napper in 1791. It passed through several hands until 1835, when it was bought by Jeremiah Penny. In 1898 the then owner, Arthur Cobbett, added a single-storey extension to the east front before selling it to his tenant the botanist, Dr. S.J.M. Price. In 1933 it was bought by Phyllis Reiss and her husband, Capt. F.E. Reiss. The house includes several paintings from the National Trust's collection, including a painting of the front of the house by John S. Goodall. The house is a Grade I listed building and can be booked for holiday lets from the National Trust. ## Garden The garden is laid out into areas separated by walls and hedges. The garden layout was developed in the early 20th century, by Dr. Price, including laying down triangular and diamond shaped flagstone paths. The ornamental domes of box were planted in the 1920s. The early landscaping was expanded and planted starting in 1933 by Phyllis Reiss in a "Hidcote" style. The 1.5 acres (0.61 ha) garden is separated into "garden rooms" by yew hedges and walls. The different areas include Eagle Court (the former courtyard), Middle Garden, Fountain Garden and Pool Garden. The pool garden is the site of a former tennis court. In 1954 Reiss gave the house and garden to the National Trust, but continued to live in the house and care for the garden until her death in 1961. From then on, the Trust let the house to a variety of tenants, including the garden designer and writer Penelope Hobhouse and her husband Prof John Malins from 1980 to 1993. The gardens are included in the National Register of Historic Parks and Gardens and include small pools and an azalea garden. ## See also - Grade I listed buildings in South Somerset - List of National Trust properties in Somerset	[ "## House", "## Garden", "## See also" ]	710	12,936

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