Split (3)

train · 18.2k rows

pageid int64 1.39k 74.6M	title stringlengths 2 102	revid int64 962M 1.17B	description stringlengths 4 100 ⌀	categories listlengths 0 61	markdown stringlengths 1.23k 15.9k	sections listlengths 0 33	token int64 258 3k	__index_level_0__ int64 0 44.8k
28,433,807	HSwMS Thordön (1865)	1,037,427,877	Swedish John Ericsson-class monitor	[ "1865 ships", "John Ericsson-class monitors of the Swedish Navy", "Ships built in Norrköping" ]	HSwMS Thordön was the second ship of the John Ericsson-class monitors, built for the Royal Swedish Navy in the mid-1860s. She was designed under the supervision of the Swedish-born inventor, John Ericsson, and built in Sweden. Thordön made one foreign visit to Russia in 1867, but remained in Swedish or Norwegian waters (at the time, Sweden and Norway were united in personal union) for the rest of her career. The ship was reconstructed between 1903 and 1905, but generally remained in reserve. She was mobilized during World War I, and sold in 1922 for conversion to a barge. ## Design and description The John Ericsson-class ironclads were designed to meet the need of the Swedish and Norwegian navies for small, shallow-draft armored ships capable of defending their coastal waters. The standoff between USS Monitor and the much larger CSS Virginia during the Battle of Hampton Roads in early 1862 roused much interest in Sweden in this new type of warship, as it seemed ideal for coastal defense duties. John Ericsson, designer and builder of the Monitor, had been born in Sweden, although he had become an American citizen in 1848, and offered to share his design with the Swedes. In response they sent Lieutenant John Christian d'Ailly to the United States to study monitor design and construction under Ericsson. D'Ailly arrived in July 1862 and toured rolling mills, gun foundries, and visited several different ironclads under construction. He returned to Sweden in 1863 having completed the drawings of a Monitor-type ship under Ericsson's supervision. The ship measured 60.88 meters (199 ft 9 in) long overall, with a beam of 13.54 meters (44 ft 5 in). She had a draft of 3.4 meters (11 ft 2 in) and displaced 1,522 metric tons (1,498 long tons). John Ericsson was divided into nine main compartments by eight watertight bulkheads. Over time a flying bridge and, later, a full superstructure, was added to each ship between the gun turret and the funnel. Initially her crew numbered 80 officers and men, but this increased to 104 as she was modified with additional weapons. ### Propulsion The John Ericsson-class ships had one twin-cylinder vibrating lever steam engines, designed by Ericsson himself, driving a single four-bladed, 3.74-meter (12 ft 3 in) propeller. Their engines were powered by four fire-tube boilers at a working pressure of 40 psi (276 kPa; 3 kgf/cm<sup>2</sup>). The engines produced a total of 380 indicated horsepower (280 kW) which gave the monitors a maximum speed of 6.5 knots (12.0 km/h; 7.5 mph) in calm waters. The ships carried 110 tonnes (110 long tons) of coal, enough for six day's steaming. ### Armament Thordön, and her sister ship Tirfing, were briefly armed with a pair of 267-millimeter (10.5 in) M/66 smoothbore guns before being rearmed in 1873 with two 240-millimeter (9.4 in) M/69 rifled breech loaders, derived from a French design. They weighed 14,670 kilograms (32,340 lb) and fired projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 397 m/s (1,300 ft/s). At their maximum elevation of 7.5° they had a range of 3,500 meters (3,800 yd). An improved version was developed in the 1870s; the guns were heavier, 16,688 kilograms (36,791 lb), but had a higher muzzle velocity of 413 m/s (1,350 ft/s). Coupled with the increased elevation of 11.29°, this gave them a range of 5,000 meters (5,500 yd). Thordön received her guns in 1882. In 1877 each monitor received a pair of 10-barreled 12.17-millimeter (0.479 in) M/75 machine guns designed by Helge Palmcrantz. Each machine gun weighed 115 kilograms (254 lb) and had a rate of fire of 500 rounds per minute. Its projectiles had a muzzle velocity of 386 m/s (1,270 ft/s) and a maximum range of 900 meters (980 yd). These guns were replaced during the 1880s by the 4-barreled 25.4-millimeter (1.00 in) M/77 Nordenfeldt gun, which was an enlarged version of Palmcrantz's original design. The 203-kilogram (448 lb) gun had a rate of fire of 120 rounds per minute and each round had a muzzle velocity of 490 m/s (1,600 ft/s). Its maximum range was 1,600 meters (1,700 yd). ### Armor The John Ericsson-class ships had a complete waterline armor belt of wrought iron that was 1.8 meters (5 ft 11 in) high and 124 millimeters (4.9 in) thick. The armor consisted of five plates backed by 91 millimeters (3.6 in) of wood. The lower edge of this belt was 74.2 millimeters (2.9 in) thick as it was only three plates thick. The maximum thickness of the armored deck was 24.7 millimeters (1.0 in) in two layers. The gun turret's armor consisted of twelve layers of iron, totalling 270 millimeters (10.6 in) in thickness on the first four monitors. The inside of the turret was lined with mattresses to catch splinters. The base of the turret was protected with a 127-millimeter (5.0 in) glacis, 520 millimeters (20.5 in) high, and the turret's roof was 127 millimeters thick. The conning tower was positioned on top of the turret and its sides were ten layers (250 millimeters (9.8 in)) thick. The funnel was protected by six layers of armor with a total thickness of 120 millimeters (4.7 in) up to half its height. ## Service Thordön had her keel laid down on November 1865 and was launched 1 December 1865. She was commissioned on 14 August 1866. In July 1867 Crown Prince Oscar, later King Oscar II, inspected Thordön, John Ericsson, Tirfing, the steam frigates Thor and Vanadis, and the Norwegian monitor Skorpionen in the Stockholm archipelago before they departed for port visits in Helsingfors, later known as Helsinki, and Kronstadt in August, where they were visited by Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolayevich of Russia, head of the Imperial Russian Navy. This was the only foreign visit ever made by the ship. Thordön (later spelled Tordön) was laid up in reserve in 1868 and 1869. She was rearmed with 240-millimeter M/69 guns (serial numbers 5 and 6) in 1872, but was laid up again from 1874 to 1882. The ship ran aground and sank on Lilla Rimö Island, off Norrköping, on 23 July 1883. She was salvaged on 4 August and managed to proceed under her own power to Karlskrona Naval Dockyard for repairs. The subsequent court-martial ordered the ship's captain to pay for the costs of the salvage and repairs, despite a misplaced buoy that caused the ship to ground. She was recommissioned in 1885 and 1888–89 before being placed back in reserve. Tordön was reconstructed in 1903–05; she received a pair of new 120-millimeter (4.7 in) Bofors M/94 guns that were given elevation limits of −7° and +15°. The ship also received eight 57-millimeter guns and new boilers. She was reactivated during World War I and assigned to the Gothenburg local defense flotilla in company with her sister Tirfing. Both ships were decommissioned in 1922 and sold the following year. Their new owner converted them into barges and used them in Stockholm harbor.	[ "## Design and description", "### Propulsion", "### Armament", "### Armor", "## Service" ]	1,770	32,835
8,716,827	Mr. Monk and the Airplane	1,092,524,604	null	[ "2002 American television episodes", "Monk (TV series) episodes" ]	"Mr. Monk and the Airplane" is the first season finale of the American comedy-drama detective television series Monk, and the show's 13th episode overall. The series follows Adrian Monk (Tony Shalhoub), a private detective with obsessive–compulsive disorder and multiple phobias, and his assistant Sharona Fleming (Bitty Schram). In this episode, Monk is obligated to fly with Sharona and is faced with a murder case on the airplane. The episode was written by David M. Stern and directed by Rob Thompson. It guest starred several actors, including Brooke Adams, Tim Daly, and Garry Marshall. When the episode first aired in the United States on USA Network on October 18, 2002, it was watched by 4.2 million viewers. "Mr. Monk and the Airplane" was well received by critics, and earned Shalhoub a Primetime Emmy Award in 2003. ## Plot Practical nurse Sharona Fleming (Bitty Schram) leaves to fly to New Jersey to visit her aunt. Her client and detective Adrian Monk (Tony Shalhoub) is forced to go with her, as he fears not being able to live without Sharona. While at San Francisco International Airport, a woman named Barbara Chabrol (Jennifer Dale) stands on her toes to kiss her husband Stefan (Carl Marotte). Aboard the plane, an annoying extension cord salesman named Warren Beach (Garry Marshall) does little to assuage Monk's fears. Monk quickly becomes suspicious of Stefan Chabrol after he notices that Barbara no longer needs to stand on her toes to kiss him, has "forgotten" that she ordered the vegetarian meal, knows nothing about air travel despite a frequent-flyer lapel, and claims to have "forgotten how to" speak French when an old family friend, Bernard, meets them on board. More digging convinces Monk he is on to something. Monk quickly annoys everyone and a fellow passenger informs Stefan of Monk's suspicions. Meanwhile, Bernard appears dead, probably because of a heart attack but Monk cannot guarantee it. So Monk asks Sharona to steal Bernard's wine glass and, with a lighter borrowed from Beach, proceeds to burn away the wine to reveal a mysterious liquid at the bottom. However, the flight attendant, Leigh Harrison (Brooke Adams), is alerted to Monk's use of a lighter on board, and confiscates both the lighter and the glass, dumping the liquid down the sink. Monk calls Lieutenant Disher and explains what he thinks happened. Stefan and his mistress murdered Barbara and the mistress disguised herself as Barbara. Stefan, being a pilot, then used his valid identification card and its virtually unlimited access to hide the body at a construction site at the airport. The construction workers poured concrete over the corpse, unwittingly destroying the evidence. When Monk and Sharona's flight lands at Newark Liberty International Airport, Monk stalls Stefan's connecting flight to Paris by wittingly saying that the captain of the Paris flight is drunk. This allows Disher and the construction crew to excavate and find the body. The Newark Police Department shows up, and Stefan and his mistress are led away in handcuffs. ## Production "Mr. Monk and the Airplane" was written by David M. Stern and directed by Rob Thompson. Both were credited for the second time in the series, as Stern previously worked on "Mr. Monk and the Other Woman" and Thompson on "Mr. Monk Meets Dale the Whale". There were various discussions between series creator Andy Breckman and writer Tom Scharpling with USA Network's producers over the setting for the episode. The network required to have only half of the scenes on the plane, but the writing staff wanted it to be completely set on the plane. There was also discussion over the repetition of a "Pete and Repeat" joke; ultimately, USA's executives "were crying from laughing so hard" and agreed to include the scene. Tim Daly guest starred as himself; he and Tony Shalhoub were in the NBC TV show Wings. To further explore the in-joke of his casting, Monk's comment about Wings—"Never saw it. Was it good?"—was added. Another guest star, Garry Marshall himself created Warren Beach's trademark line—"If it doesn't reach, call Warren Beach"—as he was allowed to improvise; Breckman further stated, "He was improvising all the way". Marshall appeared in the episode after telling Monk's producer David Hoberman that it was his wife's favorite show. Brooke Adams, the real-life wife of Shalhoub, also starred in this episode as the flight attendant Leigh. Breckman appeared as the passenger who enters the plane just ahead of Monk and Sharona, just as his credit as executive producer appears on screen. ## Reception "Mr. Monk and the Airplane" was first broadcast in the United States on the USA Network at 10 pm EST on October 18, 2002. According to Nielsen Media Research, the episode was viewed by an estimated number of 4.25 million viewers with a 2.5 household rating. Jason Gray-Stanford listed "Mr. Monk and the Airplane" among his three favorite episodes of the series. Moreover, it was positively received by critics. In The Futon Critic's ranking of the fifty best episodes of 2002, it was placed 32nd, with Brian Ford Sullivan stating, "The title of the episode says it all for us." New York Daily News's David Bianculli declared "It seems that lots of people are getting on board with Monk, which is as it should be", referring to the guest stars of the episode. The guests were said to be one of the "many subtle and silly pleasures" of the episode by Kevin McDonough, a critic for the United Feature Syndicate, while a TelevisionWeek reviewer praised Marshall's performance as a "tour de force guest shot". Austin Smith of the New York Post deemed it "a true classic" and said it put "Mr. Monk Takes Manhattan" "to shame". Chris Hicks from Deseret News qualified it as "perfection," and Bianculli stressed "the writing team for Monk made the most" of it. On the other hand, Joy Press of The Village Voice called it "a Seinfeld-like device" in which Monk's fear of flying was explored "to the point of exhaustion." At the 55th Primetime Emmy Awards, Shalhoub won a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series for this episode.	[ "## Plot", "## Production", "## Reception" ]	1,349	947
59,045,714	Climate change in Madagascar	1,170,126,130	Effects and responses to climate change in the African island country	[ "Climate change by country", "Climate change in Africa", "Climate change in Madagascar", "Environmental issues in Madagascar" ]	Climate change is a significant threat to Madagascar's environment and people. Climate change has raised temperatures, made the dry season longer and has resulted in more intense tropical storms. The country's unique ecosystems, animal and plant life are being impacted. Climate change is projected to drive declines in coral reefs and forest habitats, and threaten native species such as lemurs. The human population is highly vulnerable due to severe impacts on water and agriculture, with implications for food security. Infectious diseases are also expected to increase. Madagascar is a signatory to the Paris Agreement and has set out goals for climate change adaptation, although their implementation faces challenges due to country's relative poverty. ## Effects on the natural environment Climate change is projected to lead to an increase in temperatures for the entire island of Madagascar in the 21st century. A 2008 estimate using a regional climate model put the increase at 1.1–2.6 °C, varying depending on topography, for the period 2046–2065. The south of Madagascar is projected to warm the most, with the north and coastal areas warming the least. This would have significant impacts for the fragmented eastern forests. Madagascar has the highest risk of cyclones in Africa, experiencing three to four per year. Cyclones are expected become more intense due to climate change but less frequent, greatly impacting the country and increasing flood risk. By 2018, the number of violent cyclones with superior wind speeds up to 150 km/h doubled in the prior 25 years. Madagascar's dry season is becoming longer. Vegetation cover correlates strongly with the El Niño–Southern Oscillation, with this relationship indicating climate change is likely to further degrade Madagascar's environment. Madagascar's unique wildlife and flora are threatened by the changing climate. In a 2008 study, suitable climatic space for nearly all 80 endemic Malagasy plant species was impacted by climate change. Madagascar's forests are projected to be greatly affected during the 21st century. Lemurs are also likely to be impacted, with expected severe shifts in species distribution and by the spread of parasites across a wider distribution with warmer temperatures. Lemur survivorship and fruit production declined in Ranomafana National Park between 1960–1985 and 1986–2005, along with winters becoming drier in the park, and Montane-endemic amphibians and reptiles are threatened by higher temperatures. Suitable eastern rainforest habitat for ruffed lemurs is projected to decline considerably due to the interacting impacts of climate change and deforestation in Madagascar. The fecundity and reproduction of the Milne-Edwards's sifaka is significantly impacted by changes in precipitation and increased cyclones. Coral reefs in Madagascar are likely to decline in the 21st century due to climate change, although deforestation is thought to have a greater impact. Coral bleaching events are projected to increase and cyclones damage them directly, leading to declines in fish populations and increasing coastal erosion. ## Effects on people Agriculture in Madagascar is being affected by climate change, with smallholder farmers extremely vulnerable to its impacts. The effects of climate change on agriculture, such as increased drought, greatly threatens Madagascar's population, 80% of which relies on agriculture for livelihood. Heating and flooding has been proposed as driving a decline in farm production between 1990 and 2015. The severe 2021–2022 Madagascar famine, which followed the worst drought in four decades, has been linked to climate change by the United Nations and media commentators, although an attribution study found that "while climate change may have slightly increased the likelihood of this reduced rainfall [over 2019–21], the effect is not statistically significant", with poverty, poor infrastructure and high dependence on rain-fed agriculture being primary factors. Water supply in Madagascar is poor, with a 2018 estimate suggesting that 66% of the population in rural areas and 49% in urban areas lack access to drinking water. Madagascar was facing one of the world's most severe water crises as of 2021 due to poor water management infrastructure, deforestation, erosion and saltwater intrusion. Decreases in annual rainfall, increased evapotranspiration and sea level rise are projected to further reduce water availability across much of the country. This includes the capital Antananarivo, where water availability may not be able to meet demand by 2025. Water in Southern Madagascar, where groundwater is the primary water source during the dry season, are likely to also be severely affected as water becomes further limited. Climate change also has significant implications for health in Madagascar. The incidence of respiratory infections and diarrhea is increasing and these, along with malaria and malnutrition, are expected to increase in the 21st century due to climate change. Cholera outbreaks and malnutrition have been linked to climate change. ## Mitigation and adaptation Madagascar is a signatory to the Paris Agreement. On average, each Malagasy emits less than 2 tonnes of greenhouse gas (GHG) a year, compared to the global average of over 6 tonnes. Biomass is the primary source of energy, and this use of firewood and charcoal for cooking is contributing to deforestation. Only a fraction of the population have access to electricity, but some solar power has been built, such as Ambatolampy Solar Power Station. In its nationally determined contribution, with the help of reforestation, the country aims to absorb more GHG than it emits in 2030. President Andry Rajoelina urged tougher international action on climate change at the 2021 United Nations General Assembly: > Madagascar finds itself a victim of climate change. There are recurrent waves of drought in the south. The water sources dry up and all the means of subsistence become almost impossible. My compatriots in the south are bearing the weight of climate change which they did not participate in creating. Madagascar is a poor country, and climate change adaptation is costly. Protecting the country's unique ecosystems is considered a central adaptation strategy. Proposed measures using conservation in Madagascar include expanding protected areas and generating income by selling carbon offsets for reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD+). However, as of 2021 a government strategy for REDD+ was unclear, as it banned the sale of all carbon credits and moved to nationalise carbon ownership. In 2022, the country was considering selling 1.8 billion tonnes of carbon offsets under the World Bank's Forest Carbon Partnership Facility. Mangrove restoration is another proposed strategy to adapt to sea level rise. Building climate resilience in the population can be achieved through reducing poverty and improving water access and infrastructure, particularly in rural areas. At COP26, environment minister Baomiavotse Vahinala Raharinirina called for \$100bn in climate finance from rich countries to poorer countries like Madagascar to implement adaptation measures, highlighting a proposed water pipeline from the north to the south of the island requiring funding. ## See also - Climate of Madagascar - Food security in Madagascar - Climate change and gender in Madagascar - Climate change in Africa	[ "## Effects on the natural environment", "## Effects on people", "## Mitigation and adaptation", "## See also" ]	1,440	35,325
24,551,515	Pseudoplectania nigrella	1,166,598,676	Species of fungus	[ "Fungi described in 1801", "Fungi of Asia", "Fungi of Europe", "Fungi of New Zealand", "Fungi of North America", "Inedible fungi", "Pezizales", "Taxa named by Christiaan Hendrik Persoon" ]	Pseudoplectania nigrella, commonly known as the ebony cup, the black false plectania, or the hairy black cup, is a species of fungus in the family Sarcosomataceae. The fruit bodies of this saprobic fungus are small blackish cups, typically up to 2 cm (0.8 in) broad, that grow in groups on soil, often amongst pine needles and short grass near coniferous trees. Pseudoplectania nigrella has a worldwide distribution, and has been found in North America, the Caribbean, Britain, Europe, India, Madagascar, New Zealand, and Japan. The fungus produces a unique chemical compound, plectasin, that has attracted research interest for its ability to inhibit the growth of the common human pathogenic bacterium Streptococcus pneumoniae. ## Taxonomy and naming Christian Hendrik Persoon named the species Peziza nigrella in his Systema Mycologia in 1801, and it was sanctioned under this name in Elias Magnus Fries' Systema Mycologicum in 1821. In 1870, German mycologist Fuckel transferred it to his newly described genus Pseudoplectania, and made it the type species. The species was ulteriorly placed in Crouania by Friedrich August Hazslinszky von Hazslin, and in Plectania by Petter Karsten (1885), but neither placement is considered correct. The fungus is commonly known as the "ebony cup", the "black false plectania", or the "hairy black cup". ## Description The fruit bodies (technically called apothecia) typically grow in groups, or sometimes crowded closely together, with small stems or missing them entirely. Initially, the fruit bodies are closed and roughly spherical, but as they develop they expand to become cup-shaped, or almost flat. The inner surface of the cups bear the reproductive spore-bearing layer, or hymenium; it is brownish-black, with an edge that is often wavy and curved slightly inwards, and covered with fine hairs. The cups may reach up to 2 cm (0.8 in) in diameter. The hairs are long but usually closely coiled and twisted, which gives to the exterior of the cup a slightly tomentose appearance of nearly uniform thickness throughout their entire length. They are pale brown and 4–6 μm in diameter. The asci are roughly cylindrical with a long stem-like base; the entire ascus is often as long as 300–325 μm and about 15 μm in diameter at the thickest point. The spores are round, smooth, translucent (hyaline), and have diameters of about 12–14 μm. They are filled with many small oil droplets. The paraphyses (sterile filamentous hyphae in the hymenium) are enlarged at their tips and filled with brown colored matter, about 4 μm thick. ### Similar species Pseudoplectania sphagnophila resembles P. nigrella, but has a more deeply and persistently cup-shaped fruit body, a short but distinct stem, and only grows amongst sphagnum moss. Plectania melastoma has elliptical to spindle-shaped spores measuring 20–28 by 8–12 μm, while Pseudoplectania milleri has elliptical spores, and the margin of its cups have star-shaped points. ### Edibility Pseudoplectania nigrella is considered inedible. It has no distinctive taste or odor. ## Habitat and distribution This species is saprobic, and is found growing in groups on the ground or on moss-covered decaying wood, especially amongst fallen pine needles. In North America, fruit bodies appear in the spring and summer, and are fairly common; in Britain, the fungus fruits from winter to spring, and is rare. Its small size and dark color makes it easy to overlook. Pseudoplectania nigrella has a worldwide distribution, and has been found in North America, the Caribbean, Europe, India, Madagascar, New Zealand, Israel, and Japan. ## Bioactive compounds Defensins are antibiotics made from peptides and are typically found in animals and higher plants. Plectasin, found in Pseudoplectania nigrella, is the first defensin to be isolated from a fungus. Plectasin has a chemical structure resembling defensins found in spiders, scorpions, dragonflies and mussels. In general, defensins have commonalities in their molecular structure, such as cysteines in the peptide stabilized with disulfide bonds. In particular, defensins from P. nigrella, invertebrates, and plants and share a conformation that has been named the CSαβ motif. In laboratory tests, plectasin was especially active in inhibiting the growth of the common human pathogen Streptococcus pneumoniae, including strains resistant to conventional antibiotics. Plectasin has a low toxicity in mice, and cured them of peritonitis and pneumonia caused by S. pneumoniae as efficiently as vancomycin and penicillin, suggesting that it may have therapeutic potential. In 2010, Chinese scientists announced a method for high-level production of plectasin using transgenic E. coli.	[ "## Taxonomy and naming", "## Description", "### Similar species", "### Edibility", "## Habitat and distribution", "## Bioactive compounds" ]	1,098	35,107
74,114,482	Quintin Johnstone	1,172,597,551	American legal scholar (1915–2014)	[ "1915 births", "2014 deaths", "20th-century American lawyers", "Academics from Chicago", "American legal scholars", "Cornell Law School alumni", "University of Chicago Laboratory Schools alumni", "University of Chicago alumni", "University of Kansas faculty", "Willamette University College of Law faculty", "Yale Law School alumni", "Yale Law School faculty" ]	Quintin Johnstone (March 29, 1915 – June 27, 2014) was an American legal scholar. He served as the Justus S. Hotchkiss Professor Emeritus of Law at Yale Law School, where he was an authority on property law and land transactions, and was later an academic at the New York Law School. Johnstone received his undergraduate and legal education at the University of Chicago. After beginning a career in academia, he obtained additional degrees from Cornell and Yale Law School. The majority of Johnstone's tenure as a law professor was spent at Yale University, where he advocated for the teaching of property law and took an active role in recruiting international students. Johnstone also co-founded the law school of Addis Ababa University in 1967, establishing the first of such institution in Ethiopia. At Yale, Johnstone assumed major administrative positions. He was remembered for being a "strong supporter of empirical work and interdisciplinary approaches to law" and "more concerned with the relation of legal education to the professor than any other member of the faculty". Upon his death in 2014, Robert Post, the dean of Yale Law School, described him as "an iconic figure" at the institution. ## Early life and education Johnstone was born in Chicago, Illinois, on March 29, 1915. He was raised in Hyde Park and enrolled in the University of Chicago Laboratory Schools for primary and secondary education. Due to the close proximity of his home to the University of Chicago, he became acquainted with professors who inspired him to enter academia. Johnstone matriculated at the university, where he obtained his Bachelor of Arts and served as co-captain of the track team, then attended the University of Chicago Law School, graduating with a Juris Doctor (J.D.) degree. Regarding his time as law student, Johnstone later recalled his experience as "typical". He was admitted to the bar of Illinois in 1939. After a year of study, Johnstone obtained a Master of Laws (LL.M.) from Cornell Law School in 1941. He subsequently went to Yale Law School, becoming one of six students in the J.S.D. program to have already taught at domestic law schools, and graduated in 1951 with his Doctor of Juridical Science. ## Career After graduating from Cornell Law, Johnstone worked briefly in private practice before becoming an attorney in the Office of Price Administration. In 1947, he became an assistant professor at the Willamette University College of Law, later joining the faculty of the University of Kansas as an associate professor in 1950. After five years of teaching, Johnstone became a visiting professor at Yale Law School in 1955, with President Alfred Whitney Griswold announcing his appointment as an associate professor on August 10, 1956, alongside future-judge Ellen Ash Peters. He rose to a full-time professorship in 1959, and received the Law School's appointment as the Justus S. Hotchkiss Professor of Law in 1964. From 1967 until 1969, Johnstone took a leave from Yale to move to Ethiopia, where he co-founded the Haile Selassie I University Law School of Addis Ababa University and served as its dean. Having previously been stationed in Tanzania, he grew concerned that African legal education too closely mirrored the West and advocated for relinquishing control of the American-governed law school to native Ethiopians. Johnstone also aimed to train future students for government office at the university, replacing foreign professors on the faculty with Ethiopian ones. Johnstone achieved emeritus status at Yale Law in 1985, and assumed a professorship at the New York Law School (NYLS) that same year, becoming a professor emeritus at NYLS in 2000. He chaired the Graduate Committee at Yale, efficiently managing a controversial program, and oversaw the school's admissions for a period. He was alone in teaching the specialty of property law, and made multiple unsuccessful efforts to increase the number of faculty in the field, though succeeded on only one occasion. During a meeting of the Yale Governing Board, he persuaded the faculty to hire Charles A. Reich, who expressed interest in teaching property law, and argued for the importance of teaching property. Johnstone was also noted for his concern regarding the legal profession, which had been a focus of his scholarly works as a legal academic. Johnstone gained a reputation for being among the toughest graders at Yale Law. With no class rankings at the school, he remembered its absence as meaning "less push for top grades than there might be at other places". Both Anita Hill and future-Justice Clarence Thomas were among his students. Johnstone taught Thomas in three classes, remembering him as a serious student that "performed very well" and who "[took] stands and aggressively [defended] them" in class. In considering the importance of Johnstone's teaching of the essentials of law, Judge Ralph K. Winter Jr. likened his and Joseph W. Bishop Jr.'s eventual retirement to being "the equivalent of a loss of 20% of the faculty" at Yale Law School. Throughout his career, Johnstone received multiple accolades for his legal service. He was awarded an honorary degree by Quinnipiac University in 1993. In 1996, the Connecticut Bar Association awarded him its John Eldred Shields Distinguished Professional Service Award for outstanding service to the legal community. Johnstone was also a member of the Connecticut Bar Foundation's board of directors and served as its president from 1987 until 1991. On June 2, 2011, Johnstone was given the Service to the Profession Award by the Connecticut Law Tribune, where he previously had been the chair of the editorial board from 1999 to 2011, and the Tribune renamed it in his honor afterwards. The Connecticut Bar Association presented him its Tapping Reeve Legal Educator Award on April 4, 2014, in recognition of his longstanding contributions to legal education. The CATIC Foundation established two memorial prizes in his honor: the Quintin Johnstone Scholarship, presented to students interested in property law, and the Quintin Johnstone Prize in Real Property Law, awarded to a student of Yale Law "who has demonstrated excellence in the area of real property law". ## Personal life and death Johnstone had a wife, Nancy, and two children: Robert Dale Johnstone and Katherine Mary Johnstone. He died at 99 years of age on June 27, 2014, within his home in Hamden, Connecticut. A memorial service was held at Yale Law School on November 9, 2014. Robert Post, then the dean of the school, said of him: > Quintin Johnstone was an iconic figure at the Yale Law School [...] He taught here for more than 55 years, and perhaps instructed more students than any other teacher in the School’s history. His mastery of the intricacies of property law was treasured by generations of students, as were his insights into the legal profession. He was still actively teaching at 96 years of age. We shall miss him deeply. A treasured landmark has passed away. ## Selected publications ### Books ### Journals ### Reviews	[ "## Early life and education", "## Career", "## Personal life and death", "## Selected publications", "### Books", "### Journals", "### Reviews" ]	1,486	32,449
53,900,753	My Man (Tamar Braxton song)	1,169,934,363	null	[ "2010s ballads", "2017 singles", "2017 songs", "Contemporary R&B ballads", "Songs about heartache", "Songs about infidelity", "Songs written by Cory Rooney", "Songs written by Tamar Braxton", "Soul ballads", "Tamar Braxton songs", "Torch songs" ]	"My Man" is an R&B and soul song recorded by American singer Tamar Braxton for her fifth studio album Bluebird of Happiness (2017). Braxton and Cory Rooney wrote the song, which was produced by Bob Robinson. It was released for digital download and streaming on April 27, 2017, as the album's lead single. "My Man" was the first single from Braxton's independent record label, Tamartian Land, created with the support of eOne Entertainment. The song's lyrics concern infidelity and were based on Braxton's parents and their divorce after her father's affair. Braxton wrote the song from her mother's perspective on the relationship. Describing "My Man" as her most personal song, Braxton used one of her past relationships as additional inspiration. Critics considered "My Man" as one of the highlights of Bluebird of Happiness and praised Braxton's vocals. The song peaked at No. 3 on Billboard's Adult R&B Songs chart and No. 21 on the Hot R&B Songs chart. "My Man" was featured on an episode of the reality television series Braxton Family Values. Braxton's performance at the BET Awards 2017 was praised as one of the event's highlights, although some critics believed she was lip syncing. Laurieann Gibson directed the music video, which features Braxton confronting her lover and his mistress in a hotel room. ## Background and release Tamar Braxton co-wrote "My Man" with Cory Rooney for her fifth studio album Bluebird of Happiness (2017). The song was produced by Bob Robinson, who worked with Braxton on her eponymous debut album in 2000. Braxton based "My Man" on her parents' marriage and their divorce following her father's infidelity. While developing the lyrics, she imagined her mother's perspective to convey her emotions "as a woman and not just as [a] mom". Additional inspiration came from one of Braxton's past relationships that caused her to question her self-worth. According to Braxton, the single was written and recorded quickly; she explained that it "just rolled out of me". She identified "My Man" as her most personal song and said the single and overall album was "the first time you see an X-ray vision of Tamar and everything I've been through". Braxton co-wrote every song on Bluebird of Happiness. Prior to the song's release, Braxton had played it for her father, whom she told that she had forgiven for his past affair. He was initially flattered that she wrote a song about him, although he did not pay attention to the lyrics. "My Man" premiered in late April 2017 on Braxton Family Values, a reality television series about the five Braxton sisters (Toni, Traci, Towanda, Trina, and Tamar). In Entertainment Tonight, Latifah Muhammad said Braxton's frank discussion about her parents' divorce and her current relationship with them showed how the Braxton family include "some tough moments on camera for their reality show". Braxton released "My Man" on April 27, 2017, as the album's lead single for digital download and streaming. The single was sent to urban radio stations on July 18, 2017. It was the only song on Bluebird of Happiness to be marked for explicit content. "My Man" was the first song from Braxton's independent record label, which she created in partnership with eOne Entertainment. She left Epic Records, which released three of her albums, to have more control over her career. When discussing this decision, Braxton said she was happy about not having to "sell people on things that I want to do". For the release of "My Man", Braxton named her label Tamartian Land, a reference to her fans' nickname as "Tamartians". The name changed to Logan Land for Bluebird of Happiness as a reference to her son, Logan. ## Music and lyrics "My Man" is an R&B and soul ballad, performed in the style of a slow jam and a torch song. The album version of the song lasts four minutes and eleven seconds, and a radio edit version shortens it by twenty-four seconds. In an Uproxx article, Elias Leight cited the single as an example of how R&B music uses "updates of the Southern soul sound", and in Rolling Stone, he said it "draws on a long line of fraught, theatrical soul ballads". Critics described its overall tone as sad, especially when compared to the more upbeat composition of "Pick Me Up", another track from Bluebird of Happiness. The lyrics for "My Man" are about infidelity; Mikael Wood of the Los Angeles Times said its central message was "never trust a lonely woman with the one you love". Vibe'''s Da’Shan Smith described the lyrics as "suspiciously auto-biographical" for Braxton. Discussing the first verse, "Stood right by your side through everything that you went through...Why is she around", SoulTracks' Justin Kantor compared Tamar's voice to her sister Toni Braxton's "rich low alto". For the lyrics, "Is this my life? It cuts me like a knife", Kantor described Braxton as "belting grittily on the higher end of the scale". The chorus is "I don't want to hear no bullshit stories about my man, I just can't believe that you're with her / I just can't believe she stole my man", which is the moment Rap-Up's Andres said Braxton "breaks it all down" for the listener. At one point, Braxton refers to her man's mistress as a "heifer", which critics said added more emotion to the song; the Los Angeles Times' Libby Hill viewed this moment as a highlight: "It's really the heifer aside that seals the deal in the fiery torch song about a man who done her wrong." ## Reception Critics ranked "My Man" as one of the highlights of Bluebird of Happiness. AllMusic's Andy Kellman wrote that the album "crest[ed] with the two-timed belter" and its final track "Empty Boxes". In the Houston Chronicle, Joey Guerra praised "My Man", along with "Blind", "How I Feel", and "Empty Boxes", as "searing, tear-your-heart-out ballads". Arielle Chester from We TV said the lyrics were relatable, calling the song "the next best break-up remedy since ice cream". In an article about the 60th Annual Grammy Awards nominations, Da’Shan Smith said "My Man" was snubbed. Braxton's vocals were the subject of praise. Justin Kantor commended her for conveying the song's varying emotions, and Andres highlighted her ability to express the "heartache of deception" with her voice. "My Man" peaked at number three on the Adult R&B Songs Billboard chart for the week of August 19, 2017, and stayed on the chart for 22 weeks. The song reached number 21 on the Hot R&B Songs Billboard chart for the week of August 26, 2017. According to the Houston Chronicle, the single was successful on adult R&B stations. However, Elias Leight said although songs like "My Man" are popular on R&B radio, they are never able to crossover to be played on pop radio or in feature films. ## Music video and live performance The music video for "My Man" was released on June 25, 2017. Filmed in black and white by Laurieann Gibson, it depicts Braxton confronting her lover and his mistress over his infidelity. After finding her lover's hotel room, Braxton sees him in bed with another woman. She pushes the mistress to the bathroom floor before confronting him, taking back her coat, and leaving the hotel. Devin from Rap-Up believed a future music video would continue the story. The video's production was shown in a docuseries focused on Gibson's creative process. Braxton performed "My Man" on the BET Awards 2017 accompanied by back-up dancers. She had a band, but she performed the song without a backing track. Critics praised the performance as one of the award show's highlights. Mikael Wood said that it added energy to the event, which was criticized as having technical and pacing issues. Describing Braxton as a "glorious drama queen", Elias Leight enjoyed her "series of well-honed, highly dramatic gestures"; he wrote that "the force of her stagecraft" kept the attention on her rather than the dancers. In an article for Billboard, Dan Rys praised Braxton's vocals and highlighted her mic drop as a "fitting exclamation point" to the performance. Despite this positive response, Twitter users believed Braxton was lip syncing; Michael Arceneaux also thought this and jokingly asked why she kept "aggressively moving her wig like it was dipped in a fire ant bed before she glued it to her head". During an appearance on the game show Hip Hop Squares, Braxton had an argument with host DeRay Davis when he joked that she had lip-synced for the BET performance. Lil Mama, one of the episode's celebrity contestants, had informed Braxton about the joke since she did not hear it the first time. In an interview with the radio show The Breakfast Club, Braxton said she is close friends with Davis and that Lil Mama "needs the spirit of the hush sometimes". ## Credits and personnel Credits adapted from the liner notes of Bluebird of Happiness''. - Songwriting – Tamar Braxton, Cory Rooney - Production – Bob Robinson ## Charts ## Release history	[ "## Background and release", "## Music and lyrics", "## Reception", "## Music video and live performance", "## Credits and personnel", "## Charts", "## Release history" ]	2,046	39,444
30,271,971	Pilophorus acicularis	1,134,152,545	Species of fungus	[ "Cladoniaceae", "Lichen species", "Lichens described in 1803", "Lichens of Asia", "Lichens of North America", "Lichens of the Arctic", "Taxa named by Erik Acharius" ]	Pilophorus acicularis, commonly known as the nail lichen or the devil's matchstick lichen, is a species of matchstick lichen in the family Cladoniaceae. P. aciculare has both crustose (crust-like) and fruticose thallus (shrub-like) body parts. The lichen starts out as a granular crust on the rock surface, and develops fruticose stalks, or pseudopodetia, up to 3 cm (1.2 in) tall and about 1 mm thick that have rounded black apothecia at the tips. The stalks are erect and curved so as to appear combed. It grows directly on silicate rocks in dense clusters. It is found on the west coast of North America up to Alaska, and in eastern Eurasia. In addition to green algae, the lichen contains cyanobacteria that help contribute to soil fertility by supplying fixed nitrogen. It was originally described in 1803, and transferred to the genus Pilophorus in 1857. ## History, taxonomy and phylogeny The species was first described in 1803 as Baeomyces acicularis by the Swedish botanist and "father of lichenology" Erik Acharius. The taxon was transferred to several different genera in the next few decades resulting in several synonyms, including Cenomyces acicularis (by Acharius in 1810), Cladonia acicularis (Elias Magnus Fries in 1831), and Stereocaulon aciculare (Edward Tuckerman in 1845). Elias Fries's son Thore Magnus transferred the species to his then newly created genus Pilophorus in 1857. William Nylander also published the combination Pilophorus acicularis in 1857, but later analysis suggested that Fries's combination was published first, and under the Principle of Priority, the correct citation of the species is Pilophorus acicularis (Ach.) Th.Fr. (1857). The genus Pilophorus was until recently considered to be a member of the family Stereocaulaceae by some authors. Analysis of small subunit ribosomal DNA sequences showed P. acicularis to be more closely related to the Cladoniaceae, rather than the Stereocaulaceae. The specific epithet aciculare is derived from the Latin acicularis, meaning "needle-like". The lichen is commonly known as the "devil's matchstick"; the common name for the genus—"nail lichen"—is also used. ## Description The thallus is the vegetative body of a lichen that contains the lichen mycobiont (fungus) and the photobiont (algae and/or cyanobacteria). In P. acicularis, the primary thallus (thallus horizontalis) is spread out like a granular crust on the surface of its substrate. It is light green when young, but becomes gray in age or when dry. The pseudopodetia (upright stalk-like extensions of the thallus made of vegetative tissue) range from 0.5 to 3 cm (0.2 to 1.2 in) high, and are about 1 mm thick; they grow in dense clusters. Most pseudopodetia are either unbranched or forked into two branches, with the stalks curved so as to appear as if combed; less frequently, they are erect like pins, and up to 1 cm (0.4 in) tall. Some specimens are highly branched in the upper part of the pseudopodetia, causing them to bear some resemblance to P. robustus, although this morphology is uncommon. Internally, the pseudopodetia are solid when young, becoming hollow with age, and are composed of long, thin, highly gelatinized hyphae with narrow cavities about 0.5 μm wide. The lower part of older pseudopodetia becomes blackened internally. The algal layer is not continuous—contrasting with lichen species that have thalli that stratify into discrete tissue types, including a photobiont layer—and occurs with the mycobiont in the form of granules. These granules may be absent from some parts of the thallus surface. Pycnidia (flask-like structures, resembling perithecia, in which conidia are produced) occur in the tips of small sterile pseudopodetia or in the tips of small lateral branches of older pseudopodetia. The conidiophores of P. acicularis are 30 μm long, and unbranched. They have terminal sickle-shaped conidia that measure 6 by 1 μm. The apothecia (reproductive structures covered with the spore-producing asci) are abundant, usually with one or several on the tips of the pseudopodetia. They are black, hemispherical or roughly triangular, and measure up to 1.5 mm in diameter. The hymenium (the fertile spore-bearing layer of cells containing the asci) is up to 240 μm thick, and about two-thirds of it is pigmented; the lower part of the hymenium is sterile, consisting of only paraphyses. The asci are eight-spored. The ascospores are rounded when young, becoming spindle-shaped when mature, with dimensions of 21.0–29.5 by 4.5–5.5 μm. The generative tissue (hyphae that eventually forms the thallus) is closely interwoven with short, broad cells that have large cavities. The generative tissue is pigmented black-brown, with the color being most intense below the paraphyses, becoming less so towards the stalk region. Pilophorus acicularis is a tripartite lichen—containing a fungus, a green alga, and a cyanobacterium. Cephalodia (lichenized aggregations of nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria) are present on the primary thallus; smaller cephalodia are also on the pseudopodetia. Hemispherical to irregularly shaped, and light to dark brown in color, they contain species from the genus Nostoc. The green algal photosynthetic symbiont (photobiont) associated with P. acicularis is Asterochloris magna (formerly Trebouxia magna). ### Similar species Pilophorus acicularis can be separated from similar species by its tall pseudopodetia. It may be confused with P. robustus, especially in material from Alaska where both species occur together. Usually, the different branching (umbellate in P. robustus versus dichotomous in P. acicularis) and the lack of a columella (an internal, column-shaped structure) in longitudinal sections of the pseudopodetia of P. acicularis make it relatively easy to distinguish between the two. Pilophyllus clavatus, a species found in Western North America, Japan, Taiwan and South Korea, resembles P. acicularis, but it has much shorter pseudopodetia—up to 1.5 cm (0.6 in) long. ## Habitat and distribution The lichen typically grows on silicate stone, rarely on decaying wood. It is usually in partial shade in openings in low to mid-elevation moist forests, and is also frequently found in rocky roadcuts. Lichens with cephalodia are capable of fixing nitrogen, and contribute nitrogen to the ecosystem. P. acicularis is probably the most abundant species of the genus. Most specimens have been found on the west coast of North America as far north as Alaska, but it has been reported most frequently from British Columbia and Washington. The species is found in China, Japan, and Taiwan, and has also been reported from the Russian arctic. In general, P. acicularis seems to prefer an oceanic climate without extremely low temperatures, at least in comparison with other species of the genus. This assumption is supported by the fact that P. acicularis is found more southerly (34 findings in California) than all other species and is less frequently found in northern Alaska where, for example, P. robustus and P. vegae are more common. P. acicularis is rare east of the Rocky Mountains.	[ "## History, taxonomy and phylogeny", "## Description", "### Similar species", "## Habitat and distribution" ]	1,775	10,877
45,197,813	Hold Tight (Madonna song)	1,105,453,785	null	[ "2010s ballads", "2014 songs", "2015 singles", "Interscope Records singles", "Madonna songs", "Pop ballads", "Song recordings produced by Madonna", "Songs written by Ariel Rechtshaid", "Songs written by Diplo", "Songs written by MNEK", "Songs written by Madonna", "Songs written by Mozella", "Songs written by Toby Gad" ]	"Hold Tight" is a song recorded and produced by American singer Madonna from her thirteenth studio album, Rebel Heart (2015). She co-wrote the track with Diplo, MoZella, Toby Gad, Ariel Rechtshaid, and MNEK. A demo of "Hold Tight" was leaked onto the internet on December 22, 2014, while its final version was released by Madonna on February 9, 2015 on the iTunes Store. The song was later sent to Italian radio on July 24, 2015, as the third single from Rebel Heart in that country. "Hold Tight" is a midtempo pop song, incorporating military drums, atmospheric keyboards, and flourishes of electronics in its instrumentation. Lyrically, the song talks about love triumphing through tough times, with a message of holding onto one another and being strong. The song received mixed reviews from music critics: some praised its chorus and picked it as a standout track, while others named it dull and generic. The song charted in several European territories, reaching the top 40 in Finland, Hungary, and Spain. ## Background and release Initially, Madonna was set to release her thirteenth studio album, Rebel Heart, in March 2015, with its lead single set to premiere on Valentine's day of the same year. However, fifteen demos of her songs were leaked to the Internet between November and December 2014, which led the singer to release six completed tracks on iTunes as pre-order for the album on December 20, 2014. Three days later, fourteen other tracks leaked online, including the demo version of "Hold Tight". On February 9, 2015, Madonna released three more tracks from the album, including the finished version of "Hold Tight", "Iconic" and "Joan of Arc", as well as the album's track list. After its full release, some websites suggested that Ryan Tedder was the song's producer, since he had confirmed that he was working on material for Rebel Heart, claiming that the songs were "[Madonna's] best stuff in over a decade" and that "[t]he tracks [he did] with her are really hard to explain". However, Tedder's productions were not used in the album's final track list, although rumors claimed him to be the producer of "Hold Tight". Later, Diplo was rumored to be its producer, but eventually it was confirmed on Madonna's official website that she produced the track herself. "Hold Tight" was selected as the third single from Rebel Heart in Italy, and was added to the country's radio stations on July 24, 2015. ## Recording and composition "Hold Tight" was written and produced by Madonna, with additional writing by Diplo, Toby Gad, MoZella, Ariel Rechtshaid and MNEK; the latter also provided background vocals. Demacio "Demo" Castellon and Nick Rowe were the song's engineers, while Castellon and Mike Dean did the song's mixing. Additional recording was done by Angie Teo, while additional Pro Tools editing was made by Ron Taylor. "Hold Tight" was recorded in four different places: The Ritz (Moscow), Grand Marina Hotel (Barcelona) and Patriot Studios (Denver, Colorado / Venice, California). MNEK, who co-wrote and provided background vocals on the track, remembered that he was working with English duo Gorgon City in 2014, when they recommended him to Diplo, for working on Rebel Heart. Together they started out with an idea for "Hold Tight", and Madonna loved it. After finishing writing the lyrics, she invited MNEK to the recording studio to finish its production. The rapper was satisfied with the outcome and described the sessions as "cool" and recalled Madonna giving him chocolate peanut butter sweets in the studio. "Hold Tight" is a "reflective and sombre" midtempo pop and electro ballad, having atmospheric keyboards, military drums and flourishes of pastel electronics as its main instrumentation. Its "tribal" chorus "gallops euphorically over twinkling arpeggio, picked out by a Juno whistle", which according to The Quietus' Amy Pettifer, is "reminiscent of Kate Bush's "Running Up That Hill"". John Marrs of Gay Times noted the song's synths remind of Confessions on a Dance Floor'''s "Forbidden Love" and the "euphoric instrumentals" of British electronica band Faithless. Lyrically, the song talks about holding on and being strong, with Madonna singing about being "scarred and bruised". For Adam R. Holz of Plugged In, the song permeates in the same lyrical content of "Living for Love", while Pettifer noted that it's "a galvanising anthem of shoulder-to-shoulder survival that's collective and communal, rather than intimate and romantic." ## Critical response Joe Lynch of Billboard described the song as "an immediately familiar track with an epic, arresting chorus." Lewis Corner of Digital Spy gave emphasis to "the space Madonna's voice is given to shine—something we'd like to hear more often". Lauren Murphy of The Irish Times described it as an "old-school pop" song and picked it as a standout track, whilst John Marrs of Gay Times claimed that "the mid-tempo track underpinned by a dirty bass bears little resemblance to the sparse, pedestrian demo," also noting that "when the melody is lush as this, she could be singing a recipe from Mary Berry's cookbook as far as we care." Amy Pettifer of The Quietus saw it as "Shakira's 'Whenever, Wherever' as seen through the murky lens of a lost generation." Sam C. Mac of Slant Magazine called it a "perfectly acceptable album filler: innocuous, lyrically platitudinous pop that briefly works itself up into something exciting when it threatens to become a gospelized stomp." However, Mac noted that "[i]t wouldn't be particularly lamentable were it not for the fact that there are so many better choices for the standard edition of the album that have been relegated to bonus tracks." Ludovic Hunter-Tilney of Financial Times called it a "dull ballad", while for Saeed Saeed of The National the song "is the first of a few tracks that should have been cut," criticizing its "atmospheric keyboards" for being "sleep-inducing." Evan Sawdey of PopMatters named it one of the album's "forgettable jams" and a "generic thump," meanwhile Lydia Jenkins of The New Zealand Herald'' opined that "Hold Tight" has "so little substance [that] it seems wrong to call it a song." ## Chart performance Following its digital release on February 9, 2015 as "instant grat" for pre-ordering the album, "Hold Tight" entered the record charts of several countries. In the United Kingdom, the song was unable to enter the UK Singles Chart, but it reached number 97 on its download chart. It also charted at number 92 on the singles chart compiled by Syndicat National de l'Édition Phonographique in France. "Hold Tight" had top 40 entries in Spain and Hungary, as well as on the digital charts of Finland and Sweden. ## Credits and personnel Personnel adapted from Madonna's official website. ### Management - Webo Girl Publishing, Inc. (ASCAP) / Songs Music Publishing, LLC o/b/o I Like Turtles Music, Songs of SMP (ASCAP) / EMI April Music, Inc. and Mo Zella Mo Music (ASCAP). - Atlas Music Publishing o/b/o itself and Gadfly Songs (ASCAP) / Digital Teddy Ltd. (Copyright Control) (PRS) / Jack Russell Music Limited (PRS). - Recorded at The Ritz (Moscow), Grand Marina Hotel (Barcelona) and Patriot Studios (Denver, Colorado / Venice, California). - MNEK appears courtesy of Virgin EMI Records, a division of Universal Music Operations. ### Personnel - Madonna – vocals, songwriter, producer - Diplo – songwriter - MoZella – songwriter - Toby Gad – songwriter - Ariel Rechtshaid – songwriter - Jimmy Austin- songwriter - MNEK – songwriter, background vocals - Demacio "Demo" Castellon – engineer, audio mixer, recording - Mike Dean – audio mixer - Nick Rowe – engineer - Angie Teo – additional recording - Ron Taylor – Pro Tools ## Charts ## Release history	[ "## Background and release", "## Recording and composition", "## Critical response", "## Chart performance", "## Credits and personnel", "### Management", "### Personnel", "## Charts", "## Release history" ]	1,776	29,181
27,558,974	Underwater camouflage	1,154,374,330	Camouflage in water, mainly by transparency, reflection, counter-illumination	[ "Antipredator adaptations", "Biological evolution", "Camouflage", "Predation" ]	Underwater camouflage is the set of methods of achieving crypsis—avoidance of observation—that allows otherwise visible aquatic organisms to remain unnoticed by other organisms such as predators or prey. Camouflage in large bodies of water differs markedly from camouflage on land. The environment is essentially the same on all sides. Light always falls from above, and there is generally no variable background to compare with trees and bushes. Near to the sea surface reflectivity and blue coloration are the most common form of camouflage. Below, countershading is more common, with blue coloration on the dorsal side and white on the ventral side. Below the epipelagic zone transparency is more frequent. In the aphotic zone red and black coloration are common, often in combination with bioluminescence. At the very deepest areas such as the benthic regions of the hadal zone, most animals use pale red and cream colors. Camouflage in relatively shallow waters is more like terrestrial camouflage, where additional methods are used by many animals. For example, self-decoration is employed by decorator crabs; mimicry by animals such as the leafy sea dragon; countershading by many fish including sharks; distraction with eyespots by many fish; active camouflage through ability to change colour rapidly in fish such as the flounder, and cephalopods including octopus, cuttlefish, and squid. ## Context The ability to camouflage oneself provides a survival advantage in the constant struggle between predators and prey. Natural selection has produced a wide variety of methods of survival in the oceans. In Ancient Greece, Aristotle commented on the color-changing abilities, both for camouflage and for signalling, of cephalopods including the octopus, in his Historia animalium: The octopus ... seeks its prey by so changing its colour as to render it like the colour of the stones adjacent to it; it does so also when alarmed. ## Methods Three main camouflage methods predominate in the oceans: transparency, reflection, and counterillumination. Transparency and reflectivity are most important in the top 100 metres of the ocean; counterillumination is the main method from 100 metres down to 1000 metres; while camouflage becomes less important in the dark waters below 1000 metres. Most animals of the open sea use at least one of these methods to camouflage themselves. Camouflage in relatively shallow waters is more like terrestrial camouflage, where additional methods are used by animals in many different groups. These methods of camouflage are described in turn below. ### Transparency Transparency is common, even dominant, in animals of the open sea, especially those that live in relatively shallow waters. It is found in plankton of many species, as well as larger animals such as jellyfish, salps (floating tunicates), and comb jellies. Many marine animals that float near the surface are highly transparent, giving them almost perfect camouflage. However, transparency is difficult for bodies made of materials that have different refractive indices from seawater. Some marine animals such as jellyfish have gelatinous bodies, composed mainly of water; their thick mesogloea is acellular and highly transparent. This conveniently makes them buoyant, but it also makes them large for their muscle mass, so they cannot swim fast. Gelatinous planktonic animals are between 50 and 90 per cent transparent. A transparency of 50 per cent is enough to make an animal invisible to a predator such as cod at a depth of 650 metres (2,130 ft); better transparency is required for invisibility in shallower water, where the light is brighter and predators can see better. For example, a cod can see prey that are 98 per cent transparent in optimal lighting in shallow water. Therefore, transparency is most effective in deeper waters. Some tissues such as muscles can be made transparent, provided either they are very thin or organised as regular layers or fibrils that are small compared to the wavelength of visible light. Familiar examples of transparent body parts are the lens and cornea of the vertebrate eye. The lens is made of the protein crystallin; the cornea is made of the protein collagen. Other structures cannot be made transparent, notably the retinas or equivalent light-absorbing structures of eyes — they must absorb light to be able to function. The camera-type eye of vertebrates and cephalopods must be completely opaque. Finally, some structures are visible for a reason, such as to lure prey. For example, the nematocysts (stinging cells) of the transparent siphonophore Agalma okenii resemble small copepods. Examples of transparent marine animals include a wide variety of larvae, including coelenterates, siphonophores, salps, gastropod molluscs, polychaete worms, many shrimplike crustaceans, and fish; whereas the adults of most of these are opaque and pigmented, resembling the seabed or shores where they live. Adult comb jellies and jellyfish are mainly transparent, like their watery background. The small Amazon river fish Microphilypnus amazonicus and the shrimps it associates with, Pseudopalaemon gouldingi, are so transparent as to be "almost invisible"; further, these species appear to select whether to be transparent or more conventionally mottled (disruptively patterned) according to the local background in the environment. ### Reflection Many fish are covered with highly reflective scales, giving the appearance of silvered mirror glass. Reflection through silvering is widespread or dominant in fish of the open sea, especially those that live in the top 100 metres. Where transparency cannot be achieved, it can be imitated effectively by silvering to make an animal's body highly reflective. At medium depths at sea, light comes from above, so a mirror oriented vertically makes animals such as fish invisible from the side. Most fish in the upper ocean such as sardine and herring are camouflaged by silvering. The marine hatchetfish is extremely flattened laterally (side to side), leaving the body just millimetres thick, and the body is so silvery as to resemble aluminium foil. The mirrors consist of microscopic structures similar to those used to provide structural coloration: stacks of between 5 and 10 crystals of guanine spaced about 1⁄4 of a wavelength apart to interfere constructively and achieve nearly 100 per cent reflection. In the deep waters that the hatchetfish lives in, only blue light with a wavelength of 500 nanometres percolates down and needs to be reflected, so mirrors 125 nanometres apart provide good camouflage. In fish such as the herring which live in shallower water, the mirrors must reflect a mixture of wavelengths, and the fish accordingly has crystal stacks with a range of different spacings. A further complication for fish with bodies that are rounded in cross-section is that the mirrors would be ineffective if laid flat on the skin, as they would fail to reflect horizontally. The overall mirror effect is achieved with many small reflectors, all oriented vertically. Silvering is found in other marine animals as well as fish. The cephalopods, including squid, octopus and cuttlefish, have multi-layer mirrors made of protein rather than guanine. ### Counter-illumination Counter-illumination through bioluminescence on the underside (ventral region) of the body is found in many species that live in the open ocean down to about 1000 metres. The generated light increases an animal's brightness when seen from below to match the brightness of the ocean surface; it is an effective form of active camouflage. It is notably used by some species of squid, such as the midwater squid, Abralia veranyi. These have light-producing organs (photophores) scattered all over their undersides, creating a sparkling glow that prevents the animal from appearing as a dark shape when seen from below. Counter-illumination camouflage is the likely function of the bioluminescence of many marine organisms, though light is also produced to attract or to detect prey and for signalling. ### Countershading Top/bottom countershading is common in fish including sharks, marlin, and mackerel, and animals in other groups such as dolphins, turtles and penguins. These animals have dark upper sides to match the ocean depths, and light undersides to avoid appearing dark against the bright sea surface. ### Mimesis Mimesis is practised by animals such as the leafy sea dragon, Phycodurus eques, and the leaf scorpionfish, Taenianotus triacanthus, which resemble parts of plants, and gently rock their bodies as if swayed by a current. In the fish species Novaculichthys taeniourus, the rockmover or dragon wrasse, there is a striking difference in appearance between the adults and the juveniles. A juvenile Rockmover resembles a loose piece of sea weed. It swims in a vertical position with its head pointing downwards, and behaves in a way that perfectly resembles the movement of a piece of seaweed: moving back and forth in the surge, as if it was inanimate. ### Self-decoration Self-decoration is employed by animals in different groups, including decorator crabs, which attach materials from their environment, as well as living organisms, to camouflage themselves. For example, the Japanese hermit crab, Eupagurus constans, has the hydroid Hydractinia sodalis growing all over the shell that it lives in. Another hermit crab, Eupagurus cuanensis, has the aposematic orange sponge Suberites domuncula which is bitter-tasting and not eaten by fish. Similarly, sea urchins use their tube feet to pick up debris from the bottom and attach it to their upper surfaces. They use shells, rocks, algae and sometimes sea anemones. ### Distraction Many fish have eyespots near their tails, a form of automimicry, to distract attacks away from the vulnerable head and eye. For example, Chaetodon capistratus has both a (disruptive) eyestripe to conceal the eye, and a large eyespot near its tail, giving the impression that the head is at the tail end of the body. ### Disruption of outlines Fish such as Dascyllus aruanus have bold disruptive patterns on their sides, breaking up their outlines with strong contrasts. Fish like Heniochus macrolepidotus have similar bands of colour that extend into fins projecting far from the body, distracting attention from the true shape of the fish. Some fish which mimic seaweeds such as the frogfishes Antennarius marmoratus and Pterophryne tumida have elaborate projections and spines which are combined with complex disruptive coloration. These have the effect of destroying the signature "fish" outline of these animals, as well as helping them to appear as pieces of algae. ### Adaptive coloration A variety of marine animals possess active camouflage through their ability to change colour rapidly. Several bottom-living fish such as the flounder can hide themselves effectively against a variety of backgrounds. Many cephalopods including octopus, cuttlefish, and squid similarly use colour change, in their case both for camouflage and signalling. For example, the big blue octopus, Octopus cyanea, hunts during the day, and can match itself to the colours and textures of its surroundings, both to avoid predators and to enable it to approach prey. It can perfectly resemble a rock or a coral it is hiding beside. When necessary, in order to scare away a potential predator, it can display markings which resemble eyes. Like all flounders, Peacock flounders, Bothus mancus, have excellent adaptive camouflage. They use cryptic coloration to avoid being detected by both prey and predators. Whenever possible rather than swim, they crawl on their fins along the bottom while constantly changing colours and patterns to match their background. In a study, some flounders demonstrated the ability to change pattern in eight seconds. They were able to match the pattern of checkerboards that they were placed on. Changing pattern is an extremely complex process involving the flounder's vision and hormones. If one of the fish's eyes is damaged, or covered by the sand, the flounder has difficulties in matching its pattern to its surroundings. Whenever the fish is hunting or hiding from predators, it buries itself into the sand, leaving only the eyes protruding. ### Ultra-blackness In the deep sea at depths greater than 200 metres, very little sunlight filters down from the ocean surface. However, predators may use bioluminescence to illuminate prey, and vice versa, detecting them by the light that they reflect. At least 16 species of deep-sea fish have a skin so extremely black that it reflects less than 0.5% of the light that falls on it at a wavelength of 480 nm. The blackest species was in the predatory genus Oneirodes (dreamers) which reflected only 0.044% of ambient light, and was almost as black across the range 350 to 700 nm. The ultra-blackness is achieved with a thin but continuous layer of particles in the dermis, melanosomes. These particles both absorb most of the light, and are sized and shaped so as to scatter rather than reflect most of the rest. The optimum size was predicted to be 600 to 800 nm. The optimum shape was similarly predicted to be bean-shaped with the long axis 1.5 to 3.0 times as long as the short axes. 14 of 16 species met these requirements. Modelling suggests that this camouflage should reduce the distance at which such a fish can be seen by a factor of 6 compared to a fish with a nominal 2% reflectance. Species with this adaptation are widely dispersed in the phylogenetic tree of bony fishes (Actinopterygii), being found in at least one species in each of the orders Anguilliformes, Stomiiformes, Myctophiformes, Beryciformes, Ophidiiformes, Perciformes, and Lophiiformes. This distribution in turn implies that natural selection has driven the convergent evolution of ultra-blackness camouflage independently many times. ## See also - Deception in animals	[ "## Context", "## Methods", "### Transparency", "### Reflection", "### Counter-illumination", "### Countershading", "### Mimesis", "### Self-decoration", "### Distraction", "### Disruption of outlines", "### Adaptive coloration", "### Ultra-blackness", "## See also" ]	2,958	35,068
34,456,801	United Arab Emirates at the 2012 Summer Olympics	1,156,376,780	null	[ "2012 in Emirati sport", "Nations at the 2012 Summer Olympics", "United Arab Emirates at the Summer Olympics by year" ]	The United Arab Emirates participated in the 2012 Summer Olympics in London, United Kingdom, which were held from 27 July to 12 August 2012. The country's participation at the London Olympics marked its eighth appearance in the Summer Olympic Games since its début at the 1984 Summer Olympics. The delegation sent by the United Arab Emirates National Olympic Committee consisted of 26 athletes in six different sports: athletics, association football, judo, shooting, swimming and weightlifting. Two of the 26 athletes were women, which included the first Emirati Olympic weightlifter, Khadija Mohammed. The nation also made its Olympic debut in association football with its national under-23 team. None of the athletes won any medals at the Games, with the best result being a ninth-place finish for Khadija Mohammad in the women's heavyweight (–75 kg) weightlifting event. ## Background The United Arab Emirates National Olympic Committee was recognised by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) on 1 January 1980. The nation debuted at the Olympics four years later at the 1984 Summer Games. The nation has taken part in every Summer Olympics since, making the 2012 Games their eighth appearance at a Summer Olympiad. They have never participated in a Winter Olympic Games. The 2012 Summer Olympics were held from 27 July to 12 August 2012; a total of 10,568 athletes represented 204 National Olympic Committees (NOC). The United Arab Emirates named part of its Olympic team at the Dubai Aquarium on 21 June 2012. It sent 26 athletes to complete in the London Summer Olympics: 2 in track and field, 18 football players, 3 shooters, and 1 each in judo, swimming and weightlifting. This was the largest Olympic team that the nation had sent to the Olympic Games. Along with the athletes, the United Arab Emirates sent the president of its NOC, Shaikh Ahmed bin Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum, various government delegates and sport executives to the Games. Shooter Saeed Al Maktoum was chosen as the flag bearer for the parade of nations during the opening ceremony, and a LOCOG Games Maker held it for the closing ceremony. ## Athletics Betlhem Desalegn was 20 years old at the time of these Games, and was making her only appearance in Olympic competition as of 2012. She qualified for the women's 1500 metres event by setting a personal best of 4 minutes, 8.87 seconds at a meet in Casablanca on 9 June 2012. Desalegn trained in Addis Ababa as preparation for the Olympics. Her coach said she could advance beyond the first round due to her light weight and fitness. On 6 August, Desalegn entered the first round of the women's 1500 metres at the Olympic Stadium, and was assigned to run in heat three. She finished the race in a time of 4 minutes, 14.07 seconds, placing 10th out of 11 finishing athletes in her heat. Since the top three in each heat plus the next fifteen fastest runners could make the semi-finals, Deslaegn was eliminated from the competition because she was 28th overall. She said she was disappointed with the result because of a cold slowing her. At the age of 26, Mohamed Abbas Darwish was the only male athlete in the sport of athletics. He was making his debut at the Olympic Games in London. He used a wild card invite to enter the men's triple jump since his personal best was 5 cm (2.0 in) away from 16.85 m (55.3 ft), the "B" qualifying standard for the event. Darwish trained barefooted prior to the London Olympics. On 7 August, he took part in the qualifying round of the men's triple jump at the Olympic Stadium. On his first try, Darwish fouled, before achieving his best mark of 16.06 m (52.7 ft) on his second attempt, which put him 13th in Group B and 24th overall. Only the top 12 overall finishers were allowed to progress from the qualifying round to the final, and therefore, he was eliminated from the competition. Darwish said post-event that he did not know what happened to him because he felt nothing wrong before the competition and was unsure what had occurred to him afterwards. Men Women ## Football The United Arab Emirates under-23 team qualified for the men's football tournament by leading Group B in the third preliminary round of the men's Asian qualifying rounds. It was the first time that the nation had qualified for an Olympic football competition. The 18-player squad and 4 alternate players included those from the UAE Pro League and three players aged over 23. The country was drawn to play Great Britain, Senegal and Uruguay in Group A. Its first match was against Uruguay at Old Trafford, Manchester on 26 July. Ismail Matar took the lead for the UAE with a 23rd minute goal from an Omar Abdulrahman left footed pass. Uruguay took a 2–1 win with goals from Gastón Ramírez at 42 minutes and Nicolás Lodeiro at 56 minutes with involvement from Luis Suárez both times. They faced the Great Britain side three days later at Wembley Stadium, London. Ryan Giggs headed in a Craig Bellamy cross to take the lead for the home team in the 16th minute. The UAE had tied the match at 1–1 with a goal from Rashed Eisa, but Scott Sinclair restored his team's lead from another Bellamy cross at 73 minutes. The home team took a 3–1 victory when Daniel Sturridge's shot went over UAE goalkeeper Ali Khasif. At the City of Coventry Stadium on 1 August, the UAE drew 1–1 to Senegal in its final match of the tournament, finishing fourth with one point in Group A and advancing no further. ### Roster ### Group play ## Judo Humaid Al-Derei was 21 years old at the time of the Games. He was making his Olympic debut and was the second Emirati Olympic judoka. Al-Derei received a wild card entry to the London Summer Olympics by participating in the 2011 World Judo Championships in Paris, but this was upgraded to a direct entry through earning enough points by entering the Abu Dhabi Grand Prix over the years. He trained in Belarus, Jordan and the United Arab Emirates as preparation for the Games; he was required to wear sunglasses due to an eye disease giving him a high degree of light sensitivity. Al-Derei said his objective for the Games was to perform to the best of his ability, "I will do what I can and the rest I will leave up to God." After he received a bye for the Round of 64, he took part in the Round of 32 of the men's 66kg competition, at ExCeL London on 29 July. He faced 10th ranked judoka in the world Ahmed Awad of Egypt. Awad caused an elbow injury to Al-Derei, which restricted the latter's movement after the game commenced, and performed an ippon to win at 2 minutes, 37 seconds. Al-Derei said post-match that Awad had too tight of a grip and that his opponent was worthy of his win. ## Shooting Aged 35 at the time of the London Olympics, Saeed Al-Maktoum was making his fourth appearance at the Olympic Games. He attained qualification for the Games after winning two bronze medals at the 2012 Asian Shooting Championships in January. Al-Maktoum trained in the United Arab Emirates and went to a camp in Italy to train for the Games. Ahmad Al Kamali, the UAE Athletics Federation president, said Al-Maktoum's experience gave him an opportunity to win. On 31 July, Al-Maktoum took part in the qualification round of the skeet tournament at the Royal Artillery Barracks. He finished 13th of the 36 participants with a score of 118 points. Al-Makotum was thus eliminated at the qualification round since he scored two points less than the two lowest scoring qualifiers. He said afterwards that some errors in the qualification round and hurrying himself on occasion led to his elimination. Juma Al-Maktoum was 27 years old at the London Games, and was debuting in Olympic competition. He qualified for the Olympic double trap tournament after winning the gold medal in the discipline at the 2012 Asian Shooting Championships. Al-Maktoum went to a camp outside Milan to train before the Games. He said he was happy to participate at the Olympics and that he had no issues in his training. On 2 August, Al-Maktoum competed in the qualification round of the men's double trap at the Royal Artillery Barracks. He finished 13th out of 23 finishers with a score of 133 points after he scored 42, 45 and 46 points in all three rounds. Al-Maktoum scored four less points than the two lowest qualifiers and was not able to advance to the final. The oldest member of the team at the age of 39, Dhaher Al-Aryani debuted at the Olympics. He qualified for the men's trap event by using a quota place from scoring enough points delegated by the International Shooting Sport Federation at the 2012 Asian Shooting Championships. Al-Aryani partook in the men's trap qualification round at the Royal Artillery Barracks between 5 and 6 August. The team's trap shooting coach Rustam Yambulatov said on 6 August that Al-Aryani would be helped if the weather was hot. Al-Aryani placed 32nd out of the 34 entrants with a two-day score total of 107. He accumulated 15 points less than the two lowest ranked qualifiers and his competition ended at the qualification round. After the Games, Al-Aryani said, "Now after finishing this competition against some of the world's best champion shooters, I have learnt so much that I feel confident for the future." ### Men ## Swimming Mubarak Al-Besher was aged 24 and competing in his first Olympic Games. FINA granted the nation a universality place, after Al-Besher's personal best of 1 minute, 4.60 seconds recorded at the 2011 Arab Games was 1.68 seconds slower than the FINA/Olympic Invitation qualifying standard for the men's 100 metre breaststroke. He trained in Málaga and swam the first leg of the Mare Nostrum meets as preparation for the Games. Al-Besher said he would perform to the best of his ability. He added, "My first goal is to break an Arab record and accomplish something no other Arab has done. So God willing, if I clock 1min 3sec or 1min 2sec, I will be very happy in London." On 28 July, he competed in the first heat of the contest at the London Aquatics Centre, finishing second out of four swimmers, with a time of 1 minute, 5.26 seconds. Al-Besher came 42nd out of 44 swimmers overall and failed to advance to the semi-finals since the quickest 16 competitors could enter the semi-finals. After he was eliminated, he commented on his result, "I was very nervous today because it was my first time at the Olympics but still I’m happy I got the chance to compete against the best in the world." ### Men ## Weightlifting Khadija Mohammed participated on the United Arab Emirates's behalf in the sport of weightlifting. At age 17, she was the youngest athlete to represent the nation at the 2012 London Games, and was making her debut in the Olympics. Mohammed was chosen to be the nation's only entrant in weightlifting by the Emirates Weightlifting Federation, after it finished fifth at the 2012 Asian Weightlifting Championships. She was the first Olympic woman athlete from the UAE to earn automatic qualification, the first Gulf female Olympic weightlifter and the first head scarf or hijab wearing athlete in her Olympic sport. While she had trained prior to the Games, financial issues and postponed payment of salaries were reasons that it became worse. Mohammed said that she wanted to venture to the Olympics with the goal to create an impression for Emirati and Gulf women and inspire girls to get into weightlifting. On 3 August, she partook in the women's heavyweight (–75 kg) weightlifting competition at ExCel London. During the event's snatch phase, Mohammed was given three attempts. She successfully lifted 51 kg (112 lb) of weight before she could not lift 53 kg (117 lb). Mohammed then successfully lifted up to 62 kg (137 lb) during her three tries in the clean and jerk phase. Overall, the combination of her highest scores in snatch and clean and jerk yielded a score of 113 points. Mohammed ranked ninth in the event. Afterwards she said, "I would never trade this feeling for anything else in the world. This was my time to do something for my country and I think I did the UAE proud. There is nothing more than this feeling and I want to go on and bring medals for my country." ## See also - United Arab Emirates at the 2012 Summer Paralympics	[ "## Background", "## Athletics", "## Football", "### Roster", "### Group play", "## Judo", "## Shooting", "### Men", "## Swimming", "### Men", "## Weightlifting", "## See also" ]	2,793	9,496
36,415,817	Ontario Highway 43	1,105,341,745	Former Ontario provincial highway	[ "Ontario provincial highways" ]	King's Highway 43, also known as Highway 43, was a provincially maintained highway in the Canadian province of Ontario. On January 1, 1998, the entire route was transferred to the county that each section resided in, resulting in the current designations of Lanark County Road 43, Leeds and Grenville Road 43 and Stormont, Dundas and Glengarry Road 43. Highway 43 ran somewhat parallel to and between Highway 401 and Highway 417 from Highway 7 in Perth to Highway 34 in Alexandria, passing through several small towns along the way. At 154.2 km (95.8 mi), it is the longest highway in Ontario to be decommissioned entirely during the mass transfer of Highways in 1997 and 1998. ## Route description Highway 43 began in the west at Highway 7 on the edge of Perth. It travelled eastward north of the Tay Canal and Lower Rideau Lake into Smiths Falls. After a brief concurrency with Highway 15 southwards, the route continued east nearby the Rideau Canal through Merrickville and Kemptville, meeting what was then a soon-to-open interchange with Highway 416 east of the latter. The highway continued east, bypassing the communities of Winchester and Chesterville, jogging southwards several times. After bisecting Finch and skirting south of Avonmore, the route encountered Ontario Highway 138 before entering Monkland. After passing north of Loch Garry, Highway 43 entered Alexandria, ending at an intersection with Highway 34 (Main Street) in the centre of the town. ## History Highway 43 was established in 1934, travelling between Highway 31 near Winchester to Highway 34 in Alexandria. In 1961, the Department of Highways extended Highway 43 westward 39 mi (63 km) to Highway 7 in Perth. East of Smiths Falls, the new highway was created using existing county roads. To the west, it assumed the previous route of Highway 15 to Perth. The route remained unchanged for the next 36 years until it was decommissioned entirely on January 1, 1998 as part of a series of budget cuts initiated by premier Mike Harris under his Common Sense Revolution platform. It was the longest King's Highway to be removed entirely from the system during these cuts, known as downloading (although Highway 2 lost significantly more of its length). Jurisdiction over the roadway was transferred to the counties and city that Highway 43 crossed: Lanark County, Smiths Falls, the United Counties of Leeds and Grenville and the United Counties of Stormont, Dundas and Glengarry. The United Counties of Leeds and Grenville is awaiting federal funding approval to begin an expansion of the roadway to four-lanes in Kemptville. A campaign was launched in November 2019 by the Municipality of North Grenville. ## Major intersections	[ "## Route description", "## History", "## Major intersections" ]	599	29,924
28,083,839	John Doukas (megas doux)	1,153,901,387	Byzantine admiral	[ "1060s births", "11th-century Byzantine military personnel", "12th-century Byzantine military personnel", "12th-century deaths", "Aaronios family", "Byzantine generals", "Byzantine governors of Dyrrhachium", "Byzantine people of the Byzantine–Seljuk wars", "Christians of the First Crusade", "Doukid dynasty", "Eastern Orthodox monks", "Generals of Alexios I Komnenos", "Komnenos dynasty", "Medieval Aegean Sea", "Megaloi doukes" ]	John Doukas (Greek: Ἰωάννης Δούκας, c. 1064 – before 1137) was a member of the Doukas family, a relative of Byzantine emperor Alexios I Komnenos (r. 1081–1118) and a senior military figure of his reign. As governor of Dyrrhachium, he secured the imperial possessions in the western Balkans against the Serbs. Appointed megas doux, he scoured the Aegean of the fleets of the Turkish emir Tzachas, suppressed rebellions in Crete and Cyprus, and then recovered much of the western coast of Anatolia for Byzantium. ## Biography ### Early life John Doukas was born c. 1064, the second son of the domestikos ton scholon Andronikos Doukas, son of the Caesar John Doukas, and his wife, Maria of Bulgaria, the granddaughter of Ivan Vladislav (r. 1015–1018), the last ruler of the First Bulgarian Empire. John was thus the brother-in-law of Alexios I Komnenos, who had married his sister Irene Doukaina. In 1074, during the rebellion of the Norman mercenary Roussel de Bailleul, John, along with his elder brother Michael, was at his grandfather the Caesar'''s estates in Bithynia. Roussel demanded that the Caesar give up the two as hostages in return for releasing their wounded father, whom he held captive. The elder Doukas agreed, and the two were imprisoned by Roussel; Michael managed to escape, but the younger John remained with Roussel until the latter's defeat and capture by the Turks of Artuk later in the year. After his father died in 1077, John remained in his grandfather's estates in Thrace, and was raised by him. It was there that he learned of the rebellion of Alexios Komnenos against Nikephoros III Botaneiates (r. 1078–1081) in 1081, and it was he who informed the Caesar of it. Together, they departed and joined Alexios's forces at Schiza, where the latter was officially proclaimed emperor. ### Governor of Dyrrhachium In 1085, when Alexios recovered the strategically important Adriatic port city of Dyrrhachium from the Italo-Normans who had occupied it, John Doukas was installed as the military governor (doux) of the local province. John remained there until 1092, when he was replaced by John Komnenos, the son of the emperor's brother, the sebastokrator Isaac. His tenure was apparently very successful. John repelled the Serbian incursions from Duklja and inner Serbia, and even, according to Anna Komnene, captured the Dukljan king Constantine Bodin (r. 1081–1101), before restoring him to power as a client of the Byzantine Empire. Thus John managed to restore order in the region of Albania and Dalmatia, which had suffered greatly during the Byzantine–Norman wars of the previous years. Surviving correspondence from the archbishop Theophylact of Ohrid is a testimony to his success; after John's departure from the post, Theophylact expressed nostalgia for the time of his governorship and asked for his advice. ### Appointment as megas doux and campaigns against the Turks After being recalled to Constantinople in 1092, John was appointed to the post of megas doux, i.e. commander-in-chief of the Byzantine navy. Although he is the first known megas doux and hence usually credited as the first to hold the post, there is evidence of its existence already in late 1085, although its holder is not named. As megas doux, John was tasked with countering the naval threat posed by the Turkish emir Tzachas of Smyrna. Tzachas, formerly a Byzantine vassal, had built a fleet of his own and had seized several Aegean islands, raided others, and even had himself proclaimed basileus (emperor). John set forth to take back the island of Lesbos. His troops marched along the Anatolian coast to the point opposite the island, whence they crossed over. The fleet, which under Constantine Dalassenos had already recovered Chios, was to meet him there. The combined Byzantine force laid siege to the capital of Lesbos, Mytilene, for three months, when Tzachas offered to cede the island in exchange for safe passage back to Smyrna. John agreed, but as the Turks set sail, Dalassenos, who with his ships had just arrived, attacked them. Tzachas managed to escape, but most of his fleet was captured or sunk. After this victory, John Doukas reinforced the defences of Mytilene and then led his fleet to recover the islands Tzachas had conquered, before returning to Constantinople. Upon his return to Constantinople, he was tasked (late 1092/early 1093), along with Manuel Boutoumites, with the suppression of the revolts in Crete by Karykes and in Cyprus by Rhapsomates. The rebellion of Karykes was subdued easily, as the news of the imperial fleet's approach caused a counter-coup that overthrew him. At Cyprus, Rhapsomates's initial resistance was overcome, and he himself was captured soon after. Eumathios Philokales was installed as the island's new governor, and the fleet returned to Constantinople. In 1094, he participated in the Council of Blachernae that condemned Leo of Chalcedon. In 1097, after the surrender of Nicaea to the Byzantines, Alexios named John as commander-in-chief of the Byzantine army in Anatolia, and tasked with recovering the Aegean littoral from the Turks. To avoid conflict and facilitate negotiations, he was given custody of the wife of the Seljuk sultan of Rûm Kilij Arslan I (r. 1092–1107) and the daughter of Tzachas, who had been captured at Nicaea. John gave command of the fleet to Kaspax, and marched against Smyrna. After a short siege, Tzachas agreed to surrender the city in exchange for his safe departure and guarantees of the inhabitants' safety. The megas doux readily accepted and took possession of the city, naming Kaspax as its governor. Even before Kaspax could assume his duties however, he was murdered by a Muslim, and the enraged sailors of the fleet massacred the people of the city. John Doukas was unable to restrain them, and restored order only after the massacre had run its course. He then left the experienced general Hyaleas behind as doux of the city along with the entire fleet to secure the city, and continued his campaign. From Smyrna, John marched south to Ephesus. There, he defeated the Turkish garrison after a long battle, and took 2,000 captives, who were resettled in the Aegean islands. Petzeas was installed as doux of Ephesus, and John with his army turned inland. He took the cities of Sardeis and Philadelphia, which he entrusted to Michael Kekaumenos, and reached Laodicea, which opened its gates to him. From there, he marched to the fortresses of Choma and Lampe, installing Eustathios Kamytzes as governor, and reached Polybotos, where most of the Turks who had survived at Ephesus had fled. Having caught them by surprise, Doukas's army defeated them and took much booty. ### Later life John Doukas is not mentioned in the Alexiad after his 1097 campaign. It is, however, known from monastic documents that at some point he retired to a monastery and assumed the monastic name Antony. The date of his death is also not known, but in a typikon dated to 1110–1116 he is mentioned as being alive, while in another typikon'' of 1136, he is explicitly mentioned as having died.	[ "## Biography", "### Early life", "### Governor of Dyrrhachium", "### Appointment as megas doux and campaigns against the Turks", "### Later life" ]	1,721	29,418
10,376,901	Washington Park Court District	1,056,494,265	Neighborhood in Chicago, Illinois	[ "1890s architecture in the United States", "1900s architecture in the United States", "Architecture in Chicago", "Chicago Landmarks", "Historic districts in Chicago", "South Side, Chicago" ]	The Washington Park Court District is a Grand Boulevard community area neighborhood on the South Side of Chicago, Illinois. It was designated a Chicago Landmark on October 2, 1991. Despite its name, it is not located within either the Washington Park community area or the Washington Park park, but is one block north of both. The district was named for the Park. The district includes row houses built between 1895 and 1905, with addresses of 4900–4959 South Washington Park Court and 417–439 East 50th Street. Many of the houses share architectural features. The neighborhood was part of the early twentieth century segregationist racial covenant wave that swept Chicago following the Great Migration. The community area has continued to be almost exclusively African American since the 1930s. ## Architecture Washington Park Court, which runs one-way northbound from East 50th Street to East 49th Street, is a one-city block-long street located at 432 east in the Chicago street numbering system. Officially, it runs from 4900 south to 5060 south in the numbering system. The street and several adjacent homes at one end are recognized as a distinct district within the city, according to the City of Chicago Department of Planning and Development. In May 1990, the district was one of ten that were under consideration for Chicago Landmark status, and it was designated a Chicago Landmark on October 2, 1991. The district was named for the Park, which was designed by landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted. The T. G. Dickinson Real Estate Company, which created the subdivision in 1892, mandated 10-foot (3.0 m) setbacks for all properties and originally sold lots in small groups of two or three. Between 1895 and 1905, the tone of the district became clear with the development of its row houses. In 1990, the district contained forty-nine row houses that span a wide variety of architectural styles including Classical Revival and Romanesque. As of 2004, the district contained fifty-one properties. The street hosts residential designs of architect Henry Newhouse and of developers Andrew and John Dubach. At least twenty-five of the lots were developed by the Dubaches and at least twelve of the properties were designed by Newhouse. Their architectural contributions set the tone for the block, which uses mostly brick and limestone houses that share porch and cornice lines. Most houses have mansards or recessed roofs with bay fronts. ## Demographic change Between 1900 and 1934 the African American population in Chicago grew from 30,000 to 236,000. The population was initially diluted in scattered places, but during this time, due to the change in the demographics of Chicago, it became concentrated in two large strips of land. The racial concentration was enforced by violence for few decades, until restrictive covenants became the preferred way to enforce segregation. Although they were previously rare, racially restrictive covenants among property owners that outlawed the purchase, lease, or occupation of their properties by African Americans became common in Chicago in the 1920s following the Great Migration, especially after the 1926 United States Supreme Court upheld racially restrictive covenants in Corrigan v. Buckley (). During the first half of the 20th century, The Black Belt was the term for the African-American neighborhood from 22nd Street to 31st Street along State Street on Chicago's South Side. South Side local businessmen and the University of Chicago became alarmed at the prospect of poorer blacks moving from the Black Belt due to a combination of racial succession and economic decline. Because 85% of Chicago was covenanted, most black neighborhoods were bounded by covenanted areas. The Washington Park Court Improvement Association changed its focus from neighborhood improvement projects, such as planting shrubs and cleaning streets, to upholding segregationist policies. When necessary, the organization resorted to violence to pursue its segregationist purpose, and between 1917 and 1921, bombs were used to discourage encroachment into majority white neighborhoods. The bombs were used at the residences of African Americans as well as the properties of real estate agents and bankers. Eventually the term Black Belt included the region from 39th Street to 95th Street between the Dan Ryan Expressway and Lake Michigan. Since the 1930 United States Census, the Grand Boulevard community area has been over 90% African American. In both the 1960 and 1990 Census, the community area was over 99% African American. As of the 2000 Census, the area was 98.2% African American and 0.8% Hispanic.	[ "## Architecture", "## Demographic change" ]	956	20,770
6,597,141	Pennsylvania Route 434	1,103,508,558	State highway in Pike County, Pennsylvania, US	[ "State highways in Pennsylvania", "Transportation in Pike County, Pennsylvania" ]	Pennsylvania Route 434 (PA 434, designated by the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation as SR 0434) is a 12.47-mile-long (20.07 km) state highway located in northeast Pennsylvania. The western terminus of the route is at PA 739 in the Blooming Grove Township community of Lords Valley. The eastern terminus of the route is at the New York-Pennsylvania border in Shohola Township, where PA 434 crosses the Delaware River and enters New York, becoming New York State Route 55 (NY 55) at an intersection with NY 97 in the town of Highland. PA 434 used to be part of PA 37 and PA 137. ## Route description PA 434 begins at an intersection with PA 739 and State Route 4004 (SR 4004) in Lords Valley, a community in Blooming Grove Township. PA 434 heads to the northeast, passing businesses and homes before leaving the community. The highway then gets into a more scenic rural region, with trees surrounding the highway. PA 434, which makes several curves for the next few miles, passes to the south of a lake. The highway continues on for several miles in this way. A short time later, the highway passes a couple homes and crosses Shohola Creek. Just north of the creek, the area becomes somewhat urbanized with homes beginning to surround the road again. However, this does not last long, with forests returning once more. Just north of the community, PA 434 intersects U.S. Route 6 (US 6). After the intersection with US 6, the surroundings around the highway become a mix of homes and forests. This lasts for much of the distance on PA 434 until Greeley, where it becomes urbanized again. In downtown Greeley, PA 434 splits at an intersection where PA 590 begins. The highway makes a curve, turning to the southeast for a distance north of Greeley. Soon afterwards, PA 434 parallels Shohola Creek, heading northeastward. PA 434 begins to become urbanized for a third time, passing some large buildings along with homes and forests. The creek continues to parallel, with the highway turning in several different directions. The forests begin to recede as PA 434 enters Shohola Township. Twin Lakes Road, a quadrant route, terminates at PA 434 before the route passes under the Southern Tier Line owned by Norfolk Southern and operated by the Central New York Railroad and crosses the Delaware River, where the road becomes NY 55 and Sullivan County Route 11 at the border. ## History In 1928, what is now PA 590 between Lackawaxen and present-day PA 434 in Greeley was designated PA 37. From Greeley, PA 37 continued south along the PA 434 alignment to its southern terminus at US 6. In 1946, PA 37 was removed from the PA 590 alignment. While PA 37 occupied the 1.5-mile (2.4 km) segment of modern PA 434 from US 6 to Greeley, a spur of PA 37, PA 137, occupied the remainder of PA 434 from Greeley to the state line from 1928 to 1946. In 1946, however, PA 37 was realigned to follow the entire alignment of PA 434 from US 6 to New York, decommissioning PA 137 in the process. PA 37 remained in existence until 1967 when PA 37 was replaced by PA 434. In 2004, PA 434 was extended from its southern terminus down to an intersection with PA 739 in Lords Valley. PA 434 shared a brief 0.1-mile (0.16 km) concurrency with US 6 after its extension to PA 739 was created. A new unsignalized intersection was built between 2005 and 2008 eliminating this concurrency. ## Major intersections ## See also	[ "## Route description", "## History", "## Major intersections", "## See also" ]	817	21,341
28,680,133	Stony Brook (Charles River tributary, Boston)	1,068,074,791	Buried river in Boston, Massachusetts	[ "Rivers of Suffolk County, Massachusetts", "Subterranean rivers of the United States" ]	Stony Brook is a 8.5-mile (13.7 km)-long subterranean river in Boston. The largest tributary stream of the lower Charles River, it runs mostly through conduits. Stony Brook originates at Turtle Pond in the Stony Brook Reservation and flows through Hyde Park, Roslindale, Jamaica Plain, and Roxbury. It empties into the Charles River Basin just upstream of the Harvard Bridge. Stony Brook is fed by four tributaries, all of which are partially or entirely in conduits as well. Stony Brook originally meandered across a flat valley and fed into the Back Bay; as the Back Bay was filled, it was directed into the Muddy River in the Back Bay Fens. It powered industries and its clear waters attracted breweries, but the surrounding lands tended to flood during heavy rains and freshets. A section in Roxbury was placed in a conduit in 1851; by 1867, all of Stony Brook north of Roxbury Crossing was in conduits. Additional channelization took place in Jamaica Plain and Roslindale in the 1870s and 1880s, and a conduit built in 1881–82 allowed heavy flows to be directed directly to the Charles River. An 1886 flood demonstrated a need for greater capacity in the downstream conduits. A new conduit was built from Roxbury Crossing to the Fens in 1887–89, for use with Frederick Law Olmsted's plan to use the Fens as a holding basin for Stony Brook overflows. Due to upstream sanitation issues, storm flow was directed along a new conduit to the Charles in 1905. Conduits were extended south from the 1890s to the 1950s, leaving only the first 1 mile (1.6 km) of Stony Brook above ground. Sewer improvements in the 21st century reduced sewage flow into the Stony Brook during storms, in turn improving water quality in the Charles. ## Route Stony Brook originates at Turtle Pond in the Stony Brook Reservation. It flows about 1 mile (1.6 km) southeast through the park, then enters a conduit near the intersection of Enneking Parkway and Gordon Avenue. The conduit zig-zags under residential areas, then follows the Northeast Corridor railroad line north for about 0.8 miles (1.3 km). It wanders north through residential areas of Hyde Park, Roslindale, and Jamaica Plain, largely paralleling the railroad line. Several streets are located on top of the conduit in this section, including American Legion Highway, Brookway Road, Stonley Road, and Meehan Street. From Green Street to Tremont Street, the conduit is adjacent to the railroad alignment. North of Tremont Street, the conduit is located under Gurney Street, Parker Street, and Forsyth Way. A pair of stone gatehouses (one disused) are located on the north side of the Fenway in the Back Bay Fens. A conduit runs from the gatehouses north along the Fenway and Charlesgate East to a third gatehouse at Back Street. The Stony Brook discharges into the Charles River Basin north of the gatehouse, just upstream of the Harvard Bridge. Normal dry-weather flow is about 10 cu ft/s (0.28 m<sup>3</sup>/s), though it can exceed 100 times that during storms. Stony Brook originally had four major tributaries, all of which are now partially or entirely buried in conduits. The two branches of Goldsmith Brook run between Jamaica Pond and Arnold Arboretum, combining near the Arborway and meeting the main conduit near Boylston Street. Bussey Brook runs parallel to the VFW Parkway and through the Arboretum, meeting the main conduit at Forest Hills; it runs on the surface except at its ends. The Roslindale Branch runs from West Roxbury roughly parallel to the Needham Line, meeting the main conduit east of Roslindale Square. Canterbury Brook runs west from near Codman Square, meeting Stony Brook near Neponset Avenue. It is partially fed from Scarborough Pond in Franklin Park and has a surface segment along American Legion Highway. ## History ### Early changes Stony Brook originally fed into the Muddy River and the Back Bay in a windy channel. It was known for its unusually clear water; a number of breweries including the Haffenreffer Brewery were located along its banks. The flow also powered industry including mills and tanneries. The Norfolk and Boston Turnpike was constructed along the Stony Brook valley in 1803, followed by the Boston and Providence Railroad in 1834. (That section of the railroad is now the Southwest Corridor, which includes Stony Brook station.) The Stony Brook valley is very flat; during heavy rain and freshets, the brook would overflow its banks and inundate surrounding meadows. As development increased around the brook, this flooding became problematic (partially due to increased surface runoff from cleared land). A section near Forest Hills station was placed in a culvert by 1845; this was extended in 1873. In 1851, a segment in Roxbury east of Tremont Street was placed into a conduit. Culvert Street (now Whittier Street) was built over part of the conduit; other sections of the filled land were sold for development. The segment from Tremont Street to the Back Bay basin was diverted into a conduit under Rogers Avenue and Bryant Street (now Forsyth Street) in 1865. The segment from Roxbury Crossing (Tremont Street at Pynchon Street) to Vernon Street was channelized and covered in 1866–67, completing improvements north of Roxbury Crossing. In 1873, the city of West Roxbury channelized Stony Brook through the Roslindale and Jamaica Plain neighborhoods. After the 1873 annexation of Hyde Park, a similar channel was extended south from Roxbury Crossing to Jamaica Plain in 1880–84. In 1881–82, a 7-by-7-foot (2.1 m × 2.1 m) conduit was constructed from Bryant Street under the east bank of the Muddy River to the Charles River. The Stony Brook Gatehouse controlled the flow of the Stony Brook; under normal conditions, the full flow was directed into the new conduit. The four decades of channelizing and culverting the river were done haphazardly, with varying cross sections and slopes resulting in inconsistent attainable flow rates along the river. Heavy rain and melting snow in February 1886 resulted in flows of 500 cu ft/s (14 m<sup>3</sup>/s), overwhelming the capacity of the culvert north of Roxbury Crossing. This resulted in flooding of 63 acres (25 ha) and 1,437 buildings, showing the inadequacy of the existing culverts. ### Sanitary channels In 1887–89, a bypass conduit (the Commissioner's Channel) was constructed from Roxbury Crossing to Huntington Avenue, largely under Parker Street. It was built at a cost of \$650,000 (equivalent to \$ in ) and was among the largest storm sewers in the country. From Huntington Avenue to the Muddy River, Stony Brook ran in a 42-foot (13 m)-wide open canal. In the 1880s and 1890s, the Muddy River channel was reconstructed in the Fens under the direction of Frederick Law Olmsted to serve as a holding basin for storm overflow from the Muddy River and Stony Brook. Connected to the tidal Charles River, it would be sanitized by seawater with the twice-daily tides. The railroad was raised onto an embankment through the Stony Brook Valley in the 1890s to eliminate grade crossings, and Columbus Avenue was widened around the same time. The railroad project built a deeper conduit under Forest Hills, plus a new 2,600-foot (790 m) conduit between Boylston Street and Centre Street, while the Columbus Avenue project extended the conduit from Centre Street to Roxbury Crossing. In 1896, the Boston Globe asserted that the "apparently inconsequential waterway has in its history cost more money to control and provide for than probably anything of its size in this part of the country". In 1897, the full flow of Stony Brook (rather than merely storm overflow) was redirected into the Commissioner's Channel and into the Fens. Although a separate sewer had been built in the Stony Brook valley by the 1890s, it was inadequately sized to handle even small storms and was prone to breakage, resulting in sewage often entering the Stony Brook. In 1898, the city was forced to dredge accumulated sewage from the Fens. A new 12-by-12-foot (3.7 m × 3.7 m) conduit, paralleling the 1881-built conduit, was built in 1903–05 to carry the whole Stony Brook flow directly to the Charles River. A second gatehouse was built to control flow into the new conduit. The bridge carrying the Fenway over the no-longer-used canal was demolished with explosives in October 1905; the canal was filled in (partially with the bridge rubble) to create Forsyth Way. The construction of the Charles River Dam, which effectively changed the Charles River Basin from saltwater to freshwater, necessitated a conduit extension along the Charles River Esplanade in 1909. A third gatehouse was built at the connection point near Back Street and Charlesgate East. By the time this work was complete, the city had spent over \$5 million (equivalent to \$ in ) controlling Stony Brook. During the 1912–1914 construction of the Boylston Street subway, the Muddy River was temporarily redirected through the Stony Brook conduit. Flow from the Stony Brook was later directed into the Charles River at the gatehouse (as had been the case from 1881 to 1909), as the Esplanade conduit (Boston Marginal Conduit) is a combined sewer that is routed to the Deer Island Waste Water Treatment Plant. Work in the 20th and 21st centuries gradually reduced industrial pollution and sewage flows into Stony Brook. A \$45 million project, lasting from 2000 to 2006, installed 14 miles (23 km) of new storm drains and reduced sewage flows into Stony Brook during storms by 99.7%. This in turn has contributed to improved water quality in the Charles River. ### Southern section Stony Brook Reservation, which includes Turtle Pond and the first 1 mile (1.6 km) of Stony Brook, was established as a park in 1894. The remaining part of the river from Hyde Park to Jamaica Plain was gradually placed in conduits. Work began to extend the conduit south from Boylston Street in 1897, and reached Green Street in 1901. The conduit was extended south through Forest Hills Yard to Forest Hills Square in 1910–11. Work around 1921 added a section of conduit south of Forest Hills, plus a conduit for the Roslindale Branch as far as Roslindale Square. The remaining surface sections in Roslindale and Hyde Park (outside the Stony Brook Reservation) were placed in conduits in the 1930s to 1950s. The conduit under the Arborway was replaced in the early 1950s for construction of the Casey Overpass. In 1951, Brookway Road was constructed over the culvert south of Forest Hills. Three years later, a former Stony Brook culvert under the railroad (disused decades before when the river was placed underground) at the end of the street was reused as a pedestrian underpass. When the new underground Forest Hills station was constructed in the 1980s, the conduit there was relocated even deeper.	[ "## Route", "## History", "### Early changes", "### Sanitary channels", "### Southern section" ]	2,469	35,698
10,494,706	Fragile Allegiance	1,158,581,876	1996 real-time strategy video game	[ "1996 video games", "4X video games", "DOS games", "Fiction about asteroid mining", "Gremlin Interactive games", "Real-time strategy video games", "Science fiction video games", "Video games developed in the United Kingdom", "Video games scored by Patrick Phelan", "Video games set in the 25th century", "Windows games" ]	Fragile Allegiance is an open-ended 4X real-time strategy (RTS) game from Gremlin Interactive, released in 1996 for MS-DOS and Windows 95. The game begins on May 25, 2496, as the player begins their employment with TetraCorp (a large interstellar megacorporation) who have set up a new asteroid mining franchise operation in the Fragmented Sectors. There are six alien races competing with Tetracorp for these resources. Beginning with one building and one million credits, the player is tasked with building up a successful mining operation to sell as much ore as possible to the Federation. Diplomacy is crucial to the success or failure of this franchise operation as the players' colonies begin to encroach on one another. The game features complex diplomacy between players and includes real-time lip-synced animations for in-game actors. Described as a combination of SimCity 2000, Civilization and Risk, Fragile Allegiance uses an icon based GUI for all menus and game commands. Unlike other RTS games, there is no defined tech tree, with technology being unlocked by the purchase of 36 blueprints at any time during the course of the game. Fragile Allegiance is the spiritual successor to K240 and there are many similarities between the two. Fragile Allegiance generally scored well with reviewers, with PC Gamer UK giving the game the Game of Distinction award and it was praised for its graphics, interface and sound. The game has problems running on Windows XP and later Windows versions, as it was designed for MS-DOS and ported to Windows 95. ## Gameplay Gameplay takes place in the Fragmented Sectors, an area of outer space filled with asteroids that are rich in mineral resources. The aim of the game is to colonise and mine the asteroids for the various ores found on them and then sell the ore to the Federation. The player can use the proceeds for empire expansion, purchasing new technologies, construction of buildings, ships and missiles, spying, trading and also to pay fines should the Federation impose any. Construction of the various missiles and ships requires quantities of different ores, so the decision to sell to the Federation is not straightforward. The game has a stock market where commodities can be bought and sold. There is also a black market offering unauthorised information regarding individual spies and colony supervisors, and illicit trade in rare ores and missiles. The manual states that any TetraCorp employee caught selling ore on the black market will be terminated. Fragile Allegiance has a simplistic combat system with the player having no direct control over units when a fleet enters combat. Enemy asteroids can be attacked using ships, missiles and agents. During a battle, laser beams criss-cross the screen and buildings catch fire before being destroyed. Ground turrets fire back at attacking ships and anti-missile turrets shoot out incoming missiles. Small ships are built in a shipyard while the larger ships require a space dock for construction. Ships range from the small Scoutship (used to discover new asteroids), to the gigantic Command Cruiser (which is used for transporting combat fleets over vast distances that they would otherwise be unable to travel without refueling). Each ship has a limited number of hardpoints to which weapons and other devices can be attached, and ships can be grouped together into fleets. There are a total of seven races in the game, but only TetraCorp (representing the human race) is playable. Upon discovering an alien race, diplomacy can be initiated in order to arrange actions such as non-aggression pacts and joint-combat treaties, as well as accuse them of spying or trading with the Mauna (Trading with the Mauna is illegal under Federation law). If a faction is found to be trading with the Mauna, Jane Fong (Federal minister for trade relations in addition to her role as Terran ambassador for the Fragmented Sectors) can be informed, who will in turn tell the Federation, which could result in increased hostility towards the offending faction from all others or, they can be threatened with blackmail and forced to pay a tribute in return for the players silence. Each race has a unique look and diplomatic strategies and everything happens in real time with highly detailed characters that are well animated and lip-synced. One of the factions—The Mauna—are not members of the Federation and are unable to be negotiated or traded with. As the player's empire expands, agents and supervisors will make themselves available for employment. Agents are used for gathering intelligence on alien asteroids and can also be deployed on the players own asteroids for counter-intelligence. Other uses for agents include deploying APV's and destroying various buildings such as defense installations, life support, production, and other various installations. The chances of an agent successfully completing their mission and escaping detection are increased if there is a spy satellite orbiting the asteroid they are assigned to. Colony Supervisors are able to be employed to help manage the building and maintenance of asteroid colonies. There is no research in the game, as this popular mechanic is replaced with the Sci-Tek blueprint system which allows players to buy new technologies as needed. Multiplayer is available over an IPX network with TetraCorp being the only playable race. ## Plot The player begins the game as the latest recruit to TetraCorp's mining franchise operation and is tasked with selling as much ore as possible to the Federation, which is a coalition of six of the seven known alien cultures: the Terrans, the Artemia, the Mikotaj, the Achean Gatherings, the Braccatia and the Rigellians. The Federation was inaugurated in 2439 following a coup deposing the last Terran Emperor Dramon Salaria in 2437 and was established to encourage commercial competition rather than full-scale wars between its constituent parties. The authority of the Federation is constantly challenged — in part by those who helped to create it, and the further away from the Federal center a person is, the less the Federation can influence their day-to-day lives. The seventh alien culture, the Mauna, are not members of the Federation and it is revealed in the game that they are an untrustworthy and cruel species. It is not known if the Mauna were consulted with prior to the creation of the Federation, and trading with the Mauna is frowned upon by the Federation. Numerous megacorporations exist within the Federation and TetraCorp is one of the largest and oldest. Their sister company is Sci-Tek, which manufactures and supplies most of the technology that the player has access to. Sci-Tek also has blueprints for advanced technologies that the player can purchase. The opening cinematic plays like a corporate recruitment video and at one point is interrupted by a Terran male who tells the viewer that TetraCorp has a history of exploiting workers of all races and cultures with low pay and wretched working conditions. The movie is interrupted a second time by an Artemian who tells the player that Terran progression was responsible for 68% of all alien mortalities during the past three centuries and that the reason for this high percentage is due to megacorporations such as TetraCorp. ## Development Fragile Allegiance is essentially a remake of Gremlin Interactive's 1994 Amiga game K240, with the graphics and user interface revamped for the improved PC hardware available at the time. The core gameplay elements of K240 are retained; the game is set in an asteroid belt, the Sci-Tek blueprint system replaces research and the player is tasked with building up a successful mining operation. Many of the buildings, ships and missiles have the same names and functions as those in K240 and in both games there are six alien races competing against the player. The soundtrack for the game was composed by Patrick Phelan who also composed the soundtrack for K240. The game was released in 1996 and competed against other empire building titles such as Ascendancy and Master of Orion 2. Fragile Allegiance was marketed as an intense deep space real-time strategy game complete with complex face-to-face diplomacy. It was the first game to use Gremlin Interactive's facial motion capture technology which allowed for highly detailed and realistic looking alien ambassadors, giving depth and adding atmosphere to the games diplomacy. Two versions of the game were released — a European version and a North American version, with each region having different box art. There were two different demo versions, one with audio and one without audio. A cheat code is available for the game and is entered slightly differently between the two versions. For the European version the code is "FRAGILE /cKim.Jon.fmsti", while "FRAGILE /c.Osiris.fmsti" must be entered for the North American version. These codes reward the player with decreased construction time, extra money, the ability to see all asteroids in play, the ability to change the game speed in-game and gives the player access to all of the information in the game. Historically, people reported that Fragile Allegiance did not work properly on Windows XP and later Windows platforms, as the game was designed for MS-DOS and ported to Windows 95. The most common issues being reported are no audio, the game failing to start, and the game crashing when trying to rename anything, including saved games. As no patch was ever released for the game, people have had to use emulators such as VDMSound or DOSBox in order to get the game to function properly but it may still crash when trying to rename a saved game. The game is now however available for purchase from Steam and is packaged with a Dosbox build, making it compatible with Windows 7 and later versions of Windows. ## Reception Fragile Allegiance was generally well received, achieving average to good scores from reviewers. It was praised for its graphics and icon driven interface which was considered slick and well integrated but a little confusing at first. Reviewers noted that after figuring out what all the icons did the game was immensely engrossing, with the player always having something to do. The game was criticised for its difficulty, its simplistic combat model, the time spent transporting ore between asteroids, and the large amount of micromanagement involved when the player's empire got large — although reviewers noted that the latter two could be countered by the "Ore Teleporter blueprint" and Colony Supervisors respectively. There were mixed feelings regarding the replacing of research with the Sci-Tek blueprint system, which meant that any blueprint could be bought in any order provided the player had the money to do so. The game was also criticised for only having one playable race (TetraCorp). Despite these criticisms PC Gamer UK gave it the Game of Distinction award for Christmas of 1996 stating that the game takes a lot of work and concentration to play, but called the title a "completely engrossing", and awarded it a score of 91%. Users of internet gaming site GameSpot rated Fragile Allegiance significantly higher than the site reviewer, rating it 8.6/10. Gamezilla's review rated it at 75% while GameRankings gave the game a score of 65%.	[ "## Gameplay", "## Plot", "## Development", "## Reception" ]	2,268	11,651
13,135,716	Forge Park/495 station	1,161,224,294	Rail station in Franklin, Massachusetts, US	[ "MBTA Commuter Rail stations in Norfolk County, Massachusetts", "Railway stations in the United States opened in 1988", "Stations along New York and New England Railroad lines" ]	Forge Park/495 station is a Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority (MBTA) commuter rail station on the Franklin Line located off Route 140 near Interstate 495 in Franklin, Massachusetts, United States. A park and ride station serving southwestern Boston suburbs and northeastern Rhode Island, it is the outer terminus of the Franklin Line. The station has two side platforms serving a single track, with an accessible mini-high platform and a station building on the south platform. The Milford, Franklin and Providence Railroad opened in 1883, with a station built at Unionville soon after. The line was soon acquired by the Milford and Woonsocket Railroad, which became part of the New York and New England Railroad in 1887 and the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad in 1898. Service on the line, by then down to a single daily mixed train, ended in 1920. It resumed in 1926 (likely without Unionville station) and lasted until 1938, with a brief revival in 1940. In 1986, the MBTA agreed to build a new MBTA Commuter Rail station, near the former Unionville site, to serve an industrial park in Franklin. Forge Park/495 station, named for the industrial park and Interstate 495, opened on June 2, 1988. A second parking lot, the mini-high platform, and the station building were added in 1989. ## Station design Franklin/Forge Park station is located off Massachusetts Route 140 in the Forge Park industrial park, about 2 miles (3.2 km) west of downtown Franklin, Massachusetts. Its name also reflects nearby Interstate 495, which has an interchange with Route 140 about 1⁄2 mile (0.80 km) to the east. The station has two side platforms serving a single track — a layout unique on the MBTA system – to provide access from parking lots on both sides of the track. A mini-high platform on the south platform makes the station accessible. A brick station building with a canopy is located on the south side of the track. Forge Park/495 serves as a park and ride station for the Blackstone Valley area, including portions of northeast Rhode Island, with around 700 parking spaces in the two lots. ## History ### Former service The Milford, Franklin and Providence Railroad, under control of the Providence and Worcester Railroad (P&W), was charted in 1882. It opened in August 1883, connecting Bellingham Junction (where the Milford and Woonsocket Railroad met the Charles River Branch Railroad) to Franklin Junction on the New York and New England Railroad (NY&NE). Unionville station was built soon afterwards at Central Street in the Unionville village in Franklin, near where the modern station is located. The small station building was located on the north side of the tracks. The newly independent Milford and Woonsocket obtained control of the Milford, Franklin and Providence Railroad in 1884. The Milford and Woonsocket was leased by the NY&NE in September 1887. The NY&NE entered bankruptcy in 1893; its 1895 successor New England Railroad was leased by the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad in 1898 as its Midland Division. Service between Milford and Franklin was reduced to a mixed train and ended in 1920. Service between Bellingham Junction and Franklin resumed on June 13, 1926, as some Charles River Branch trains were rerouted to Franklin. Unionville station was no longer served by the time the 88 stations case ended that service on July 18, 1938, nor was it served when the service was briefly revived from March to May 1940. The line continued in use by freight, eventually becoming the CSX Milford Secondary. The Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority (MBTA) was created in 1964 to subsidize suburban commuter rail service; the Midland Division was cut back to Franklin station in 1966 and became the Franklin Line. The former Unionville station building is no longer extant. ### Forge Park/495 In September 1985, the National Development investment firm purchased 382 acres (155 ha) of land to build an industrial park called Forge Park near I-495 in Franklin – one of many such developments on the state's circumferential highways that decade. By March 1986, the MBTA had agreed to build a new station with a 1,000-car garage on the Milford Secondary to serve the development, and the state had committed \$8 million (equivalent to \$ million in ) for the project. The developer donated 8 acres (3.2 ha) of land to build parking lots for the station. It was intended to serve as a park and ride location to reduce crowding at other lots elsewhere in the MBTA system. The MBTA leased the Milford Secondary from Conrail for the extension, with the possibility of future purchase. The station opened on June 2, 1988, as a 2.8-mile (4.5 km) extension of the Franklin Line. Built at a total cost of \$10 million (equivalent to \$ million in ), it had a 381-space surface parking lot rather than the originally planned garage. Later that month, the MBTA board approved construction of an additional 365-space parking lot at a cost of \$2.3 million (equivalent to \$ million in ). The station was not accessible upon opening; the mini-high platform was added in 1989 along with the additional parking and the brick station building. The MBTA initially leased the ticket booth and concession stand to the town for \$1 annually; Franklin Youth Services operated the franchise and retained the profits to support its programs. Another new station on the Franklin Line, , was constructed by National Development to support a different development; it was opened in January 1990. A further extension of the Franklin Line from Forge Park/495 to Milford was approved by the MBTA board in March 1989. This extension was studied in 1997 and 2011, and a potential extension to Woonsocket, Rhode Island, via the Milford Secondary and Charles River Branch was studied in 2007, but Forge Park/495 has remained the terminal.	[ "## Station design", "## History", "### Former service", "### Forge Park/495" ]	1,290	2,175
52,453,830	Motor Girl	1,129,866,168	Comics by Terry Moore	[ "2016 comics debuts", "American comics titles", "Comics publications", "Science fiction comics" ]	Motor Girl is an American comic book series created by Terry Moore and published through Abstract Studio. It was initially serialized in ten issues between November 2016 and November 2017 with new installments approximately six weeks apart. It has since been collected into two softcover volumes containing five issues each, released in May and December 2017, and a single omnibus edition in March 2018. The story is about Sam, an Iraq War veteran with posttraumatic stress disorder. She works alone in a junkyard and talks to her imaginary friend Mike, who is a gorilla. When she learns the junkyard's owner might sell it, she begins to see friendly aliens visiting the junkyard. When the prospective buyer threatens the aliens, Sam resists him. The series received generally positive reviews. Critics noted how different the tone in Motor Girl is from Moore's other comic work. The ending was praised for being well-planned. ## Publication history Terry Moore began developing the concept as early as 2007, when he completed work on his series Echo. The concept developed from a sketch Moore made showing a female mechanic and a gorilla riding a motorcycle in the background. Moore wanted to do a Calvin and Hobbes type story that involved an invisible friend. When another creator told him they were already doing something with a similar premise, Moore chose to work on Rachel Rising instead and included some elements of the original Motor Girl character in a supporting character for that comic. When Rachel Rising concluded in 2016, the other creator had not followed through with the idea, so Moore decided to move forward with it. The first issue was released on November 2, 2016. New issues were released approximately six weeks apart. The series concluded with issue 10 in November 2017. The series was reprinted in two paperback volumes that collected five issues each. The first was released in March 2017, followed the second in December. A single-volume omnibus was released in soft and hardcover in March 2018 along with a special edition hardcover version limited to 1000 copies that was only available directly from Moore. The junkyard owner, Libby, played a minor role in Moore's first comic work, Strangers in Paradise. Moore has confirmed that Motor Girl is also set in the same fictional universe as his other works, Echo and Rachel Rising. The characters had cameo appearances in the 2018 series Strangers in Paradise XXV. ## Plot As a US Marine serving three tours in the Iraq War, Samantha "Sam" Lockyear survives two IED attacks and spends a lengthy time being tortured as a prisoner of war. Returning home, she lives and works at Libby's scrap yard, located in a remote part of a southwestern US desert. Due to her war experience, she suffers from posttraumatic stress disorder and severe headaches. She spends her days talking to Mike, her imaginary friend who is a gorilla. One afternoon, Libby stops by to let Sam know a wealthy man has offered to buy the property. That night, a flying saucer experiences engine trouble and crashes in the scrap yard. Sam believes it is a hallucination, but plays along and repairs the UFO's engine. The proposed buyer, a government scientist named Walton, has developed a weapon capable of shooting down UFOs and wants the land because of the high amount of extraterrestrial activity in the area. When Libby refuses, he hires two mercenaries, Victor and Larry, to strongarm her into changing her mind. Sam stops them, breaking Larry's nose. After a few more attempts at coercion, Victor and Larry learn Sam is a veteran and regret causing her trouble. Sam collapses, and Libby takes her to a hospital where they learn she still has some shrapnel in her brain. She will die if it is not removed, but doing so will cause Mike to go away. When Walton captures an alien, Sam, Victor, and Larry decide to free it. When they put their plan into action, a large number of flying saucers descend and attack. Walton is killed. During the battle, Sam begins to hallucinate and imagines herself back in Iraq. As she realizes what is happening is impossible, she wakes up in a hospital room. Libby explains how Sam collapsed upon hearing the scrap yard might be sold and has been in the hospital ever since. Walton, the mercenaries, and the aliens were all a dream sequence. When Sam leaves the hospital, she decides to return to society. ## Reception The first issue debuted to positive reviews, averaging 8.6/10 based on six critical reviews according to review aggregator Comic Book Roundup. The series as a whole was ranked number 13 on io9'''s top 15 comics of 2017. Multiple critics noted how different the writing and art were from Moore's previous works. Writing for ComicWow, Huck Talwar said the series was well-paced. Hassan Otsmane-Elaou agreed in an analysis of the artwork at Comics Alliance, where he attributed Moore's control of timing to the lack of collaborators. He went on to praise Mike as a narrative device, noting how the amount of space he occupies in a panel represents the degree of Sam's unease in the scene. Halfway through the series, Newsarama reviewer Kat Calamia said the series was good when it "focus[ed] on Sam and the psychological aspects of the story", but felt Moore had not built a strong voice for Walton's group. In a review of the final issue for Multiversity Comics, Nicholas Palmieri said the last minute revelations felt planned and that "Motor Girl'' [#10] delivered everything you could want out of a concluding issue". ## Prints ### Issues ### Collected editions	[ "## Publication history", "## Plot", "## Reception", "## Prints", "### Issues", "### Collected editions" ]	1,169	36,381
43,004,293	Primary Colours (Eddy Current Suppression Ring album)	1,148,321,243	null	[ "2008 albums", "Eddy Current Suppression Ring albums", "Goner Records albums" ]	Primary Colours is the second album by Australian garage punk band Eddy Current Suppression Ring. The album was recorded in a suburb of Melbourne over a 24-hour period in August 2007. The album was first released on Aarght! Records in Australia only on 5 May 2008, then on 9 September 2008 on Goner Records in the United States, and finally in the United Kingdom on Melodic Records on 17 August 2009. "Which Way to Go" was the only single released from Primary Colours. At the J Awards of 2008, the album was nominated for Australian Album of the Year. Primary Colours peaked at No. 13 on the ARIA Hitseekers Chart in June 2008. It received generally positive reviews from critics, who praised the album's minimalistic sound and warm, personable lyrics. It won the Australian Music Prize in 2008, and was nominated for the ARIA Award that same year for best rock album, but lost to The Living End's entry, White Noise. ## Background and recording Eddy Current Suppression Ring formed in 2004, as a group of friends writing and performing songs together for fun. They decided to keep making their music when they discovered that other people liked it. The band recorded their first song as a trio, at a vinyl pressing plant where Eddy Current (real name Mikey Young) was working at the time. After they took a liking to the resulting song, they recruited Rob Solid (real name Brad Barry) to play bass guitar. The group recorded their debut self-titled album in four hours in a rehearsal studio, and released it in 2006 on the Australian label Dropkick Records. They recorded Primary Colours over the night of 3 August 2007 and part of the following day, in the Melbourne suburb of South Yarra on an 8-track, a form of multi-track recording. The process of recording it took 24 hours and cost \$1500. The day after recording finished, the band and their engineer, Lachlan Wooden, added overdubs to the ten tracks. After recording, Eddy Current Suppression Ring toured the US for three weeks, after which Eddy Current, the band's guitarist, mixed the album during November and December 2007. The four members self-produced Primary Colours. Eddy Current Suppression Ring's lead singer, Brendan Suppression (real name Brendan Huntley), explained the choice of Primary Colours as its title, saying that the band chose it because they "believe...that something beautiful can be made through simple colours or notes or lyrics". In an interview with The Age, Suppression also said that Primary Colours's title refers to the way that everything is made up of a combination of simple things, as all colours are made by combining primary colours. Primary Colours was originally released in Australia on 5 May 2008 on Eddy Current Suppression Ring's own label, Aarght! Records, before being issued on 9 September 2008 in the United States on Goner Records. In Australia it was distributed by Shock Records. "Which Way to Go" was released as the only single. The following year, on 17 August, Primary Colours was re-released on Melodic Records in the United Kingdom, in conjunction with the band's eponymous debut album. On this release, the album's title was stylised with a "+" symbol at the end, with Primary Colours denoted as "CD1". Primary Colours was originally presented in one of three different album covers – one red, one yellow, and one blue. ## Music and lyrics The lyrics on Primary Colours often focus on mundane topics pertaining to the lives of ordinary people, including watching TV and eating ice cream, while its music often features shredding power chords. According to The Washington Post's Chris Richards, the music represents a new, gentler type of punk rock in the vein of No Age and Abe Vigoda. Richards also wrote that Suppression "[keeps] these upbeat rock tunes from becoming too saccharine with a nervy delivery that's part David Byrne, part Iggy Pop". A similar sentiment was expressed by David Bevan of Pitchfork Media, who wrote "there's a softening of edges taking place throughout, a band testing limits after having already refined them". He also described it as an "artfully polished extension of its predecessor". Current described the album as "a bit more '82ish than the '76ish sound of our first LP, slightly less frantic and maybe a bit more palatable". The album's opening track, "Memory Lane", begins with guitar chopping described by Emily Mackay as "Stones-meets-Stooges rifforama". The second track on the album, "Sunday's Coming," is an "all-out skronkfest" featuring "whiplash guitars" and "so-nonchalant-they’re-muffled vocals". "Wrapped Up" contains "ribbons of guitar melody" matched with an "equally warm refrain". "Colour Television" consists of "five minutes of unhurried, snaky buildups" resembling the sound of The Pixies and Future of the Left. "That's Inside of Me" is a "Feelies-esque instrumental" with a "herky-jerky funk groove". The "glumly confessional" "I Admit My Faults" focuses on the same mood for its entire duration. "Which Way to Go", the album's single, begins with heavy riffage, then segues to the verse, then the chorus, then repeats from the beginning. The song's "sharp riffs, fiery speak-sing vocals and constant forward momentum" exemplify the band's typical sound. "You Let Me Be Honest with You" is centred on a lead guitar solo from Current. "We'll Be Turned On" sees Eddy Current Suppression Ring using an organ, and Suppression making an especially "goofy turn". "I Don't Wanna Play No More" features a single-note piano riff that recalls "I Wanna Be Your Dog". ## Reception Primary Colours received generally positive critical reception, so much so that Eddy Current Suppression Ring's front man, Current, remarked that it was "weird" because he didn't "know if anyone's said a bad word about it". Bevan awarded Primary Colours a rating of 8.2 out of 10. Robert Christgau gave the album a rating of A−, which, according to him, corresponds to "the kind of garden-variety good record that is the great luxury of musical micromarketing and overproduction". He also wrote that they do "the same thing punk bands have always done" and described the album as a "recurring miracle." Chris Richards compared the album to many early punk and post-punk bands such as "a breezier Stooges" or "The Fall with less squall". He concluded that the album was "the most righteous rock-and-roll moment of 2008". A more mixed review written by Emily Mackay awarded Primary Colours a rating of 7 out of 10 and criticised it for its lack of originality. Many critics also praised Current's guitar work on the album, with Richards writing that his riffs "come ripping from his amplifier like sunbeams through a smog of distortion". Writing for Spin, Chuck Eddy wrote that Current's guitar chords "soar Byrds-like or surf Ventures-like out of melodic stomps that seem basic, but aren't". K. Ross Hoffman, writing for Allmusic, praised the song "Wrapped Up" for its "strong, slinky riff", while Bevan praised it for the way it "runs along some really beautiful ribbons of guitar melody". ### Accolades and commercial performance On 20 March 2009, Primary Colours won the \$30,000 Australian Music Prize for the previous year, defeating eight other nominees, including Cut Copy and the Presets. Eddy Current Suppression Ring told Triple J that they didn't expect their recording plans to change significantly as a result of the win, but that they might be able to do them more quickly. At the ARIA Music Awards of 2008, it was nominated in the category "Best Rock Album", but lost to The Living End's entry, White Noise. Current described this nomination as "nice, but mainly hilarious". Primary Colours was featured on several critics' year-end lists, including the 2008 Pazz & Jop (No. 73), the Washington Post's David Malitz's top 10 albums of 2008 (No. 5), and The Guardian's 2009 critics' poll (No. 28). Primary Colours peaked at No. 13 on the ARIA Hitseekers Chart on 2 June 2008. ## Track listing ## Personnel - Brendan Suppression (real name Brendan Huntley) – vocals - Eddy Current (real name Mikey Young) – guitar, keyboards, mixing, tambourine - Danny Current (real name Danny Young) – drums - Rob Solid (real name Brad Barry) – bass guitar - Joseph Carra – mastering - Lachlan Wooden – engineer - Eddy Current Suppression Ring – producer	[ "## Background and recording", "## Music and lyrics", "## Reception", "### Accolades and commercial performance", "## Track listing", "## Personnel" ]	1,922	5,784
65,919,499	If Found...	1,151,744,777	2020 visual novel	[ "2020 video games", "Annapurna Interactive games", "Apocalyptic video games", "IOS games", "MacOS games", "Nintendo Switch games", "Single-player video games", "Transgender-related video games", "Video games developed in Ireland", "Video games featuring female protagonists", "Video games set in 1993", "Video games set in Ireland", "Visual novels", "Windows games" ]	If Found... is a visual novel developed by Dreamfeel and published by Annapurna Interactive in May 2020 for Microsoft Windows, macOS, and iOS and October 2020 for the Nintendo Switch. The game has the player advance through two interleaved stories by erasing journal entries or images. One story follows a space explorer named Cassiopeia trying to prevent a black hole from destroying the Earth, while the other follows a young transgender woman named Kasio in a small Irish village in December 1993 as she navigates her relationships with her family and friends. The two stories alternate chapters, connecting metaphorically. Design for the game by Dreamfeel founder Llaura McGee started in 2016, with the eventual development of the game by a small team taking two years. Elements of the story's emotional arc were taken from McGee's personal experiences, though the game features concepts from several developers and is not autobiographical. The primary goal for the game was to connect players to the emotions of the story, with the mechanics of the game chosen to further that aim. Critics praised the game's artwork and story, especially for its emotional connection to the player via the erasing mechanic. It was nominated for the "Games for Impact Award" at the 2020 The Game Awards and for Outstanding Video Game at the 32nd GLAAD Media Awards. ## Gameplay If Found... is a visual novel, wherein the player advances through scenes by erasing journal entries or images using their cursor or finger as the eraser. While the player in some scenes chooses the order to erase elements, such as different parts of a journal entry, and decides how quickly to erase, the game progresses linearly through scenes without deviation with the exception of a few choices in an epilogue chapter. The narrative is split between two interleaved stories, with alternating chapters: a science fiction story of a space explorer named Doctor Cassiopeia discovering a black hole that will destroy the Earth, and the journal entries following the story of Kasio, a student in Dublin returning to her hometown in Achill Island, Ireland for December 1993. Both stories take place over the course of four weeks. ## Plot The science fiction chapters of the story follow Doctor Cassiopeia as she journeys towards Planet X, only to discover a black hole that is rapidly expanding and will soon destroy the Earth. Cassiopeia investigates the black hole to try to find a way to stop it, assisted by occasional messages from an unknown source who names himself "Control". Cassiopeia discovers that the black hole is creating wormholes that she can use to jump to Earth ahead of the black hole, while Control finds that the black hole was created due to an image in the future sending a signal back in time. Control reveals his name to be McHugh, and tells her that when she makes it to Earth, they will have less than a day to make it to Ireland where the image sends the signal. The journal chapters follow Kasio, a transgender woman who has just completed her Master's degree at a university in Dublin and is returning to her hometown in Achill Island during December 1993. Kasio has a strained relationship with her older brother Fergal and her mother Brid, which she attributes both to the stress on the family after her father's death some years prior as well as her own inability to conform to the social norms of the islanders. After a fight with her mother over Kasio's feminine clothes and appearance, Kasio runs away. She meets a friend, Colum, who invites her to stay with him and the rest of his band in the abandoned, decrepit house that the band is squatting in. Kasio lives with Colum, his boyfriend Jack, and their younger bandmate Shans for several weeks, slowly adjusting to the feeling of being with people who seem to accept her as she is despite their limited resources and tenuous living situation. She begins to grow close to Shans, bonding over their shared difficulties in fitting in with Achill culture—Kasio due to her gender expression, and Shans due to his race and uneasiness with traditional Achill masculinity. They break into Kasio's family's house to get her clothes, but are discovered by her brother, who berates her for upsetting her mother and shaming the family by failing to fit in. After the band's first show, Kasio and Shans take drugs and alcohol and watch the stars through a hole in the abandoned house's roof. The next morning, Shans informs Kasio that she had agreed to run away together to Dublin as a couple. When Kasio declines, Shans leaves the house and the band. Kasio, Colum, and Jack are evicted from the increasingly decrepit house and stay with Colum's aunt Maggy, despite Colum and Jack's being upset with Kasio. Kasio attempts to reconcile with her family for Christmas dinner, but is berated by her brother for living in an abandoned house with social misfits and then moving to stay with the quietly gay Maggy instead of coming home to her family, while her mother continues to express confusion about Kasio's choices. Kasio feels distraught by her estrangement from her family and unworthy to stay with Maggy. She is rejected by Shans, who tells her he wants to be "normal", and Kasio breaks into the abandoned house again. Depressed, she stays there despite the freezing temperatures, not responding to searches by her brother or friends who approach the house but do not enter the now dangerous building. She burns her journal for warmth before succumbing to illness and hypothermia. As the science fiction story concludes, Cassiopeia reaches Earth, only to discover that McHugh is an accountant who accidentally managed to talk to her. They take the image, a child's drawing of a space scene previously shown to have been drawn by Kasio as a child, and put it in the letterbox for a woman who looks like Brid to find before waiting for the black hole to hit the Earth. Kasio awakens in the abandoned house on December 31, having been found by her mother. The epilogue covers a series of journal entries constructed by the player covering scattered details of the next years, such as Kasio and her mother growing closer, Maggy learning to live without hiding being a lesbian, and Shans changing their name to Anu and coming out as non-binary. The science fiction story has scenes of Cassiopeia traveling and bringing scattered people together after the destruction of the black hole. The player chooses how Kasio feels about each development from a few options. ## Development The game was developed as the first game by Irish developer Dreamfeel. Studio director Llaura McGee was the lead writer and designer. It was published by Annapurna Interactive. Initial development on the game began in 2016. McGee sent a proposed design for "a swashbuckling space opera starring cats" to artist Liadh Young, who responded with concept art, and the two began developing game concepts. McGee wanted to create a game with a team rather than as a small solo project like her previous games, but wanted to keep it focused on the strengths of the people involved, such as Young's comics art background, and began to build a small team. Some early concepts included an "anti-dating sim" or a game set in a "witch's academy" based around completing a diary through different tasks, but McGee and the other developers felt it was better to create a story and then let the game mechanics serve it to create a "complete experience". She was interested at the time with notebooks and marginalia, and the team focused on that idea for the game. McGee and lead writer Eve Golden Woods describe the development process for If Found..., once the design was decided on, as taking two years, with a team of "four or five core people" plus additional help working on it. Ideas were contributed from the whole team; the final credits list nine contributors from Dreamfeel. The team created a demo for the game to demonstrate at events, but found it difficult to finish the project, which McGee says was a consistent pattern for them. They credit publisher Annapurna, who signed on to the project partway through, with pushing them to complete it in a polished fashion. The first part of the final design for the game was about a diary that the player would erase, and the studio then developed the idea of a woman in her 20s and her difficulties with her relationships. McGee, a trans woman from a coastal village in Ireland, drew heavily on her emotions growing up there in the 90s, though the story itself is not autobiographical. The interleaved science fiction story was intended to add an element of magical realism, as well as express the emotional feeling of a personal world falling apart with as a more direct metaphor. The role of the black hole changed during development; while the final version has been described as "the physical manifestation of the terror, loneliness, shame and self-hatred that she encounters, all-consuming and impossible to outrun", earlier drafts had it as being a dark hole within Kasio preventing her from having relationships, or missing the relationships altogether. McGee felt that the game "missed its emotional gravity" without it, however. McGee has said that the game, which is about two hours long, is intended to be short and not play longer than necessary for the story. The game initially did not have the epilogue; it, along with extra scenes and artwork, were added to all versions of the game for the release for the Switch. McGee stated in an interview that her primary goal for the game was to get players to relate to the feelings of the story, and to recognize that expressing love for people is more important than fully understanding them. The game was released for Microsoft Windows, macOS, and iOS devices on May 19, 2020, and for the Nintendo Switch on October 22, 2020. ## Reception If Found... was nominated for the "Games for Impact Award" at the 2020 The Game Awards and for Outstanding Video Game at the 32nd GLAAD Media Awards. An early short demo was exhibited in several events in 2016, winning awards for best Game Design, emerging talent, and the Grand Prix overall award at the Irish Design Awards in November. Critics were largely positive towards the game, focusing primarily on the way the writing and artwork, combined with the act of erasing, formed an emotional connection with the player. Michael Higham of GameSpot praised the "stunning yet minimal" art style. Hirun Cryer of USGamer similarly described the art style as "brilliant", while Cameron Bald of Pocket Gamer praised both the art style and sound design for drawing in the player and Ellen Causey of GamesRadar+ said that the artwork and sound effects at times had her "transfixed". The erasing mechanic was also praised by reviewers, with USGamer's reviewer commenting on the way it allowed for transitions between scenes, while Nicole Carpenter of Polygon focused on how erasing connected the player to Kasio's story and caused the player to decide how fast to advance due to how the story was making them feel. CJ Andriessen of Destructoid said that the mechanic had a "profound effect" on them, forcing them to acknowledge that not only could they not change Kasio's past, they also had to erase the good with the bad. The story of If Found... was largely praised; Destructoid's Andriessen said that "no other game has spoken to my personal experience" as being transgender. GamesRadar+'s Causey said that the writing gave her a "whirlwind of emotions", while Alessandro Baravalle of Eurogamer Italy said that it moved him and caused him to cry. Higham of GameSpot praised the writing's "heartening adherence to the game's Irish setting", saying that the use of Irish terms, slang, and culture, along with the footnotes explaining them, helped pull the player into Kasio's experience. The Eurogamer Italy review found the game overall to be a little short and the science fiction story to be unnecessary, though Pocket Gamer said that the erasing felt like Kasio's past being swallowed by the black hole, connecting the two parts. USGamer said the game's "true beauty is in examination of life", while Bald of Pocket Gamer claimed that it was its "overwhelming empathy – the game's unconditional love for its people and setting – that carries it towards excellence". Bald concluded that the game was "an essential visual novel", and Andriessen of Destructoid said that it was "the most brilliant game I've played this year".	[ "## Gameplay", "## Plot", "## Development", "## Reception" ]	2,610	18,988
2,413,962	Nokota horse	1,065,132,012	American breed of horse	[ "Feral horses", "Horse breeds", "Horse breeds originating from Indigenous Americans", "Horse breeds originating in the United States", "Horse landraces" ]	The Nokota horse is a feral and semi-feral horse breed located in the badlands of southwestern North Dakota in the United States. The breed developed in the 19th century from foundation bloodstock consisting of ranch-bred horses produced from the horses of local Native Americans mixed with Spanish horses, Thoroughbreds, harness horses and related breeds. The Nokota was almost wiped out during the early 20th century when ranchers, in cooperation with state and federal agencies, worked together to reduce competition for livestock grazing. However, when Theodore Roosevelt National Park was created in the 1940s, a few bands were inadvertently trapped inside, and thus were preserved. In 1986, the park sold off many horses, including herd stallions, and released several stallions with outside bloodlines into the herds. At this point, brothers Leo and Frank Kuntz began purchasing the horses with the aim of preserving the breed, and founded the Nokota Horse Conservancy in 1999, later beginning a breed registry through the same organization. Later, a second, short-lived, registry was begun by another organization in Minnesota. In 2009, the North Dakota Badlands Horse Registry was created, which registers the slightly different type of horses which have been removed from the park in recent years. Today, the park conducts regular thinning of the herd to keep numbers between 70 and 110, and the excess horses are sold off. The Nokota horse has an angular frame, is commonly blue roan in color, and often exhibits an ambling gait called the "Indian shuffle". The breed is generally separated into two sections, the traditional and the ranch type, which differ slightly in conformation and height. They are used in many events, including endurance riding, western riding and English disciplines. ## Breed characteristics The Nokota horse has an angular frame with prominent withers, a sloped croup, and a low set tail. Members of the breed are often blue roan, which is a color rare in other breeds, although black and gray are also common. Less common colors include red roan, bay, chestnut, dun, grullo and palomino. Pinto patterns such as overo and sabino occur occasionally. There are two general types of the Nokota horse. The first is the traditional Nokota, known by the registry as the National Park Traditional. They tend to be smaller, more refined, and closer in type to the Colonial Spanish Horse, and generally stand between high. The second type is known as the ranch-type or National Park Ranch, more closely resemble early "foundation type" Quarter Horses, and generally stand from . Members of the breed often exhibit an ambling gait, once known as the "Indian shuffle." Nokota horses are described as versatile and intelligent. Members of the breed have been used in endurance racing and western riding, and a few have been used in events such as fox hunting, dressage, three-day eventing and show jumping. Sources vary on the etymology of the breed's name, with one source stating that the Nokota derives its name from the Nakota people who inhabited North and South Dakota, while another says that the name was a combination of North Dakota created by the Kuntz brothers. ## History The Nokota horse developed in the southwestern corner of North Dakota, in the Little Missouri River Badlands. Feral horses were first encountered by ranchers in the 19th century, and horses from domestic herds mingled with the original feral herds. Ranchers often crossbred local Indian ponies, Spanish horses from the southwest, and various draft, harness, Thoroughbred and stock horses to make hardy, useful ranch horses. Theodore Roosevelt, who ranched in the Little Missouri area between 1883 and 1886, wrote: > In a great many —indeed in most— localities there are wild horses to be found, which, although invariably of domestic descent, being either themselves runaways from some ranch or Indian outfit, or else claiming such for their sires and dams, yet are quite as wild as the antelope on whose domain they have intruded. In 1884, the HT Ranch, located near Medora, North Dakota, bought 60 mares from a herd of 250 Native American-bred horses originally confiscated from the Lakota leader Sitting Bull and sold at Fort Buford, North Dakota in 1881. Some of these mares were bred to the Thoroughbred racing stallion Lexington, also owned by the HT Ranch. By the early 20th century, the feral horse herds became the target of local ranchers looking to limit grazing competition for their livestock. Many horses were rounded up, and either used as ranch horses, sold for slaughter, or shot. From the 1930s through the 1950s, federal and state agencies worked with ranchers to remove horses from western North Dakota. However, when Theodore Roosevelt National Park was established in the 1940s, during construction, a few bands of horses were accidentally enclosed within the Park fence, and by 1960 these bands were the last remaining feral horses in North Dakota. Nonetheless, the park sought to eliminate these horses. The National Park Service was declared exempt from the Wild and Free-Roaming Horses and Burros Act of 1971 that covered free-roaming horses and burros on other federal lands. This allowed them to view the herds as nuisances and deal with them as such, including sending many to slaughter. In the late 1970s, growing public opposition to the removal of feral horses prompted management strategy changes, and today the herds within the Theodore Roosevelt National Park are managed for the purposes of historical demonstration. However, in 1986 the park added outside bloodlines with the aim of modifying the appearance of the Nokota. Park management felt that the horses created with the outside bloodlines would sell better at subsequent auctions. The dominant herd stallions were removed and replaced with two feral stallions from Bureau of Land Management Mustang herds, a crossbred Shire stallion, a Quarter Horse stallion and an Arabian stallion. At the same time that the stallion replacements took place, many horses from the park were rounded up and sold. At the 1986 auction, concerned about the welfare of the Nokota horse, Leo and Frank Kuntz purchased 54 horses, including the dominant stallion, a blue roan. This was in addition to smaller numbers of horses purchased in 1981, 1991 and 1997. After researching the history of the breed, the Kuntzs stated that they had found evidence that the horses in the park were probably related to the remaining horses from the band of 250 Sitting Bull horses, who had been range-bred by the Marquis de Mores, who founded the town of Medora. However, the short-lived Nokota Horse Association stated that there was no evidence for this claim. ### 1990s to today By 1993, the Kuntz brothers had a herd of 150 horses, including those purchased from the park over the course of several auctions and their descendants. They used the horses mainly for ranching and endurance races. In 1993, the Nokota was declared the Honorary State Equine of the state of North Dakota. In 1994, researchers conducted a study of the horses in the park and on the Kuntz's ranch, and discovered that none of the horses in the park, and only about 20 on the ranch, had characteristics consistent with the Colonial Spanish Horse. Since then, the horses on the Kuntz ranch have been bred to maintain and improve their Spanish characteristics. In 1999, the Kuntz brothers founded the Nokota Horse Conservancy to protect and conserve the Nokota horse. The Nokota Horse Conservancy tracks around 1,000 living and dead horses, and Nokota horses can be found throughout the United States. Theodore Roosevelt National Park has continued thinning the herd, with several roundups conducted throughout the 1990s and first decade of the 21st century. In 2000, the last horses to be considered of "traditional" Nokota type was removed from the wild, with some being purchased by supporters of the Nokota Horse Conservancy. The National Park Service currently maintains a herd of 70 to 110 horses. In 2006, the breed was chosen to be the beneficiary of Breyer Animal Creations' annual "Benefit Horse" Campaign for the following year; a Breyer model was created, manufactured, and marketed in 2007, with a portion of the proceeds going to the Nokota Horse Conservancy. As of 2006, the Kuntz family owned approximately 500 Nokota horses, with the Nokota Horse Conservancy owning an additional 40. At that point, there were less than 1,000 living Nokotas in the world. The Nokota Horse Registry is the breed registry, organized by the Nokota Horse Conservancy. There was briefly a second registry: a Minnesota-based organization called the Nokota Horse Association. In October 2009, the two registries disputed which had the right to the Nokota breed name, with the Association claiming that they own the legal trademark to the name. The Registry sued, contending that they created the name and had a longer history with the breed. A US District Court ordered that the Association cease registering horses until the matter was settled, and the association disappeared from public view soon after. In the fall of 2009, another organization, the North Dakota Badlands Horse Registry, was created. This organization registers horses that have been removed from the park in recent years, stating that these horses are not accepted by the Nokota Horse Registry. As of March 2011, approximately 40 horses had been registered. These horses tend to be of a slightly different phenotype and genotype than the horses registered by the Nokota Horse Registry due to the additional blood from different breeds released into the park.	[ "## Breed characteristics", "## History", "### 1990s to today" ]	2,088	22,380
35,182,845	The American Bible Challenge	1,162,323,711	2012–2014 American television series	[ "2010s American game shows", "2012 American television series debuts", "2014 American television series endings", "English-language television shows", "Game Show Network original programming", "Games based on the Bible", "Television series about Christianity", "Television series based on the Bible", "Television series by Embassy Row (production company)", "Television series by Sony Pictures Television" ]	The American Bible Challenge is an American biblical-themed television game show created by Game Show Network. The series is hosted by comedian Jeff Foxworthy, with gospel musician Kirk Franklin joining Foxworthy as co-host and announcer in the second season. The series debuted on August 23, 2012. Each season of the series is played as a nine-episode tournament with six episodes of opening rounds, two semi-finals, and a final. Each opening round starts with three teams of three contestants answering questions about the Bible. The teams then nominate their strongest contestants to answer questions by themselves without any assistance from their teammates. After this part of the round, the third-placed team is eliminated and the two highest-scoring teams compete in a final round with the scores being reset to zero. The remaining teams answer as many questions correctly as possible within one minute, and the highest-scoring team from this round wins a \$20,000 prize which is given to the team's nominated charity. The winning team then advances to a semi-final game against two other winning teams, the winning team from this game advances to a final game where the grand prize is raised to \$100,000. Thus, the team that wins the season-long tournament earns a total of \$140,000 for their charity. The show became the highest-rated original program in the history of the Game Show Network. In 2014, The American Bible Challenge received two nominations at the 41st Daytime Emmy Awards: one for the series as Outstanding Game Show and the other for Foxworthy as Outstanding Game Show Host, they lost to Jeopardy! and Steve Harvey (host of Family Feud) respectively. ## Gameplay ### Main game To begin the game, a category is revealed and the three teams of three contestants are asked multiple-choice questions under that category, with each question having four possible answers. The contestant who "buzzes in" (sounds the buzzer indicating he or she is ready to answer) with the correct answer earns the respective team 10 points, an incorrect answer loses 10 points and opens up the question to the other teams. Contestants must wait until after the host reads the entire question (including the choices) to buzz in. Each team then participates in a physical stunt that involves teams using common household items to answer questions about biblical figures. For example, in the game Stick a Fork In It, the teams must answer the question by using a spoon to catapult a fork into one of several glasses labeled with different possible answers. Where teams compete individually, each team is given 60 seconds, occasional games where teams compete at the same time are either untimed (with the first team to complete the game winning) or played in 90 seconds. In all cases, the team that wins the stunt receives 20 points, in case of a tie, each of the teams involved in the tie receives the points. The next round, titled Kirk's Righteous Remix, features Grammy Award–winner Kirk Franklin and a choir singing songs relating to various books of the Bible. Each team is then given one question based on an announced subject worth 30 points, no penalty is assessed for an incorrect answer. The teams then set their strongest respective contestants aside for the final round of main gameplay, titled The Chosen Three. These contestants move to an area behind the teams, and cannot participate in this round. The host then asks each team, in turn, a question based on an announced category. Each question in this round is worth 50 points, with no penalty assessed for an incorrect answer. Only the two contestants standing at the podium may confer and answer the question. Two questions are asked to each team in this round. In the Chosen Three round, the contestants who were set aside from the previous round stand alone at their podiums, with their teammates standing in the area behind them. The host asks each contestant, in turn, a question with six possible answers, three of which are correct. The contestants then make three selections without conferring with the rest of their respective teams. Each individual correct answer is worth 100 points, thus, a total of 300 points are available to each team in this round. The two teams with the highest total scores advance to the final round, while the third-place team is eliminated and leaves with \$2,500 for their charity. ### The Final Revelation Before the final round of regular gameplay, titled The Final Revelation, both teams' scores from the main game are discarded. The host announces the category for the final round and gives each team a copy of the Bible. The teams then move to a backstage area, and are permitted up to ten minutes to study the Bible for information based on that category. In season two, while backstage, the teams also have the option to use the YouVersion mobile app of the Bible on an electronic tablet along with their physical copy of the Bible. After ten minutes, the first team comes on stage, while the second team is placed in a soundproof booth. The host then asks the team questions from the announced category. Each question is given, in rotation, to one player, who cannot confer with teammates. Both teams play the same set of questions. Each team has a total of 60 seconds to answer as many questions as possible, and the team that answers more questions correctly wins \$20,000 for their charity; the runners-up win \$5,000 for their charity. Teams that win this round advance to a semi-final game; the winners of that episode advance to the season finale, where the team that wins this round wins \$100,000 for their charity as well as all winnings from previous episodes. ### Previous rules Immediately following the first round in season two, each team had a chance to earn 25 additional points. Before the show, a question was asked to 100 YouVersion users (e.g. "Would you rather fast for 40 days or eat manna for 40 years?"). A question with three possible choices was then asked about the percentage of people who answered (e.g. "What percentage said they would rather fast for 40 days than eat manna for 40 years?"). During the break, each team wrote their answer on a tablet computer, and each team that submitted the correct answer earned 25 points. This round was removed from the game in the third season and replaced with another opening round-style game played for ± 10 points a question. Following the second round in season one, teams had to choose the apocryphal verse from three true Bible verses. Since the scoring was disappointingly low, this round was eliminated in later shows. ## Production The series began development with production staff approaching Troy Schmidt, a pastor at First Baptist Church in Windermere, Florida, to work as both a writer and a consultant for the show. One of Schmidt's initial roles was to be an "on-camera Bible expert" for the series, one of many aspects of the pilot episode that a test audience rejected, and one with which Schmidt himself later admitted he was not comfortable. In response to the early criticism from the test audience, Game Show Network (GSN) took a six-week period to bring in several new staff members and make various changes to the show's format. After these changes were made, the test audience became more appreciative of the series, and GSN announced its development to the public at an upfront presentation in New York City on March 21, 2012, for the network's upcoming programming. By this time, a pilot episode had already been shot; which was hosted by American stand-up comedian and television personality Jeff Foxworthy. When first asked if he was interested in hosting the show, Foxworthy was hesitant; he agreed to take on the role after learning that contestants would be playing for charity rather than on their own behalf. Casting for the series was held in various cities from May to June 2012. On July 7, 2012, GSN confirmed the show would premiere on August 23, 2012, alongside the premiere of Beat the Chefs. ### Season one The first season of The American Bible Challenge premiered its first of nine episodes on August 23, 2012. An audience of 1.73 million viewers watched the debut episode, making it GSN's highest-rated original program in its history. In total, when combined with a rerun of the episode later that evening, the show brought in over 2.3 million viewers (1.730 million at 8:00 p.m., 571,000 at 11:00 p.m.) for the night. On October 18, 2012, Team Judson's Legacy, consisting of married couple Drake and Christina Levasheff of Irvine, California and their friend Dean Bobar, were crowned champions of the inaugural season's tournament, winning a total of \$140,000 for Hunter's Hope, a leukodystrophy charity, chosen in honor of the Levasheffs' son, Judson, who had died in 2007 of late-onset Krabbe disease. By the end of the first season, the series had become GSN's most successful original program ever, garnering a total of over 13 million total viewers. ### Season two A second nine-episode season of the series was announced on October 9, 2012. GSN advertised that auditions would be held nationwide in November and December, and that the season would also feature the addition of Franklin to the series. The second season premiered on GSN March 21, 2013, debuting to 1.152 million viewers. On May 23, 2013, Team Wagner Warriors, consisting of brothers Joshua, Jesse, and Daniel Wagner from Owasso and Tulsa, Oklahoma, were crowned champions of the second season, winning a total of \$140,000 for Wagner Ministries International, a missionary organization founded by their father. A portion of the winnings was used for Wagner Ministries' involvement in the "One Nation One Day" evangelical event in Honduras in July 2013. The Wagners had previously won the national championship of Assemblies of God Teen Bible Quiz three times in four years. ### Season three On August 8, 2013, GSN announced plans to renew The American Bible Challenge for a third season, with both Foxworthy and Franklin returning as hosts. The third season once again consisted of nine episodes, which began airing May 22, 2014. On July 17, 2014, Team Bible Belts, consisting of Jonathan King, Matt Phipps and Brad Harris from Otway, Ohio, were crowned as the third season's champions, winning a total \$140,000 for Kicks for Jesus, a nonprofit which combines Bible study and taekwondo. While GSN never canceled the series, the third season remains the most recent season to air given the lack of production and series announcements since 2014. ## Reception David Hinckley of the New York Daily News gave The American Bible Challenge a positive review, saying, "Anyone who knows even a little about the Bible will be unable to resist playing along and matching answers with the teams on the screen." Neil Genzlinger of The New York Times was also pleased, calling the show "nothing if not magnanimous, sending even the losing teams home with a little something for their charities. A spirit of good will prevails." Hank Stuever of The Washington Post was critical, calling the series "just as dull as it sounds," and arguing that "weariness" could be detected in Foxworthy's hosting. Rebecca Cusey of Patheos recommended the series for Christians in particular, saying, "Those that take the Bible as the word of God will enjoy this show." Additionally, Bounce TV expressed excitement when announcing their acquisition of the series in 2013, network chief operating officer Jonathan Katz commented, "We are very confident that the broadcast premieres of The American Bible Challenge and Catch 21 will add fuel to Bounce TV's skyrocketing growth." The series was honored with two Emmy Award nominations at the 41st Daytime Emmy Awards in 2014. The series received a nomination for Outstanding Game Show, while Foxworthy received one for Outstanding Game Show Host. Both the show and Foxworthy lost to Jeopardy! and Steve Harvey of Family Feud respectively. ## Merchandise In an effort to promote the show's second season, Schmidt released a study book titled The American Bible Challenge: A Daily Reader, Volume 1 in 2013. An online Bible study was also launched on GSN's website at the start of the second season. In addition to the Bible studies, GSN released a mobile game based on the show for Facebook, iOS devices, and Android devices in 2012, while Talicor released a board game based on the series in 2014.	[ "## Gameplay", "### Main game", "### The Final Revelation", "### Previous rules", "## Production", "### Season one", "### Season two", "### Season three", "## Reception", "## Merchandise" ]	2,628	38,586
21,213,405	SM U-30 (Austria-Hungary)	1,143,984,803	Austro-Hungarian U-27 class submarine	[ "1916 ships", "Ships built in Fiume", "U-27-class submarines (Austria-Hungary)", "U-boats commissioned in 1917", "World War I shipwrecks in the Adriatic Sea", "World War I submarines of Austria-Hungary" ]	SM U-30 or U-XXX was a U-27 class U-boat or submarine of the Austro-Hungarian Navy. U-30, built by the Hungarian firm of Ganz Danubius at Fiume, was launched in December 1916 and commissioned in February 1917. U-30 had a single hull and was just over 121 feet (37 m) in length. She displaced nearly 265 metric tons (261 long tons) when surfaced and over 300 metric tons (295 long tons) when submerged. Her two diesel engines moved her at up to 9 knots (17 km/h) on the surface, while her twin electric motors propelled her at up to 7.5 knots (13.9 km/h) while underwater. She was armed with two bow torpedo tubes and could carry a load of up to four torpedoes. She was also equipped with a 75 mm (3.0 in) deck gun and a machine gun. U-30 sank no ships during her brief service career. She departed from Cattaro on 31 March 1917 and was never heard from again. She may have succumbed to a mine in the Otranto Barrage but her fate remains a mystery. ## Design and construction Austria-Hungary's U-boat fleet was largely obsolete at the outbreak of World War I. The Austro-Hungarian Navy satisfied its most urgent needs by purchasing five Type UB I submarines that comprised the U-10 class from Germany, by raising and recommissioning the sunken French submarine Curie as U-14, and by building four submarines of the U-20 class that were based on the 1911 Danish Havmanden class. After these steps alleviated their most urgent needs, the Austro-Hungarian Navy selected the German Type UB II design for its newest submarines in mid 1915. The Germans were reluctant to allocate any of their wartime resources to Austro-Hungarian construction, but were willing to sell plans for up to six of the UB II boats to be constructed under license in Austria-Hungary. The Navy agreed to the proposal and purchased the plans from AG Weser of Bremen. U-30 displaced 264 metric tons (260 long tons) surfaced and 301 metric tons (296 long tons) submerged. She had a single hull with saddle tanks, and was 121 feet 1 inch (36.91 m) long with a beam of 14 feet 4 inches (4.37 m) and a draft of 12 feet 2 inches (3.71 m). For propulsion, she had two shafts, twin diesel engines of 270 bhp (200 kW) for surface running, and twin electric motors of 280 shp (210 kW) for submerged travel. She was capable of 9 knots (16.7 km/h) while surfaced and 7.5 knots (13.9 km/h) while submerged. Although there is no specific notation of a range for U-30 in Conway's All the World's Fighting Ships 1906–1921, the German UB II boats, upon which the U-27 class was based, had a range of over 6,000 nautical miles (11,000 km) at 5 knots (9.3 km/h) surfaced, and 45 nautical miles (83 km) at 4 knots (7.4 km/h) submerged. U-27-class boats were designed for a crew of 23–24. U-30 was armed with two 45 cm (17.7 in) bow torpedo tubes and could carry a complement of four torpedoes. She was also equipped with a 75 mm/26 (3.0 in) deck gun and an 8 mm (0.31 in) machine gun. After intricate political negotiations to allocate production of the class between Austrian and Hungarian firms, U-27 was ordered from Ganz Danubius on 12 October 1915. She was laid down on 9 March 1916 at Fiume and launched on 27 December. ## Service career U-30 began diving trials on 8 January 1917, and made her first underwater cruise on 27 January. On 1 February, she successfully reached a depth of 30 metres (98 ft) in compression tests. Four days later she took on a crew for a training voyage, and made her way to Pola. At that port, on 21 January 1917, SM U-30 was commissioned into the Austro-Hungarian Navy under the command of Linienschiffsleutnant Friedrich Fähndrich. Fähndrich, a 29-year-old native of Budapest, had previously served as commander of U-15. U-30 departed on her first patrol on 26 February, for duty off Cape Matapan and the Gulf of Taranto. During the patrol, U-30 did not encounter any hostile ships, but did encounter a storm that caused extensive damage. Cutting short her cruise with damage to the parapet on her conning tower, a missing radio aerial, and a broken gyrocompass, U-30 arrived in Cattaro on 16 March for repairs. With the repairs complete, U-30 set out from Cattaro on 31 March and was never heard from again. Author Paul Halpern suggests that a mine in the Otranto Barrage might have been responsible. Authors R. H. Gibson and Maurice Prendergast report that there is no evidence in Allied records to indicate the possible fate of the U-boat, and conclude that the fate of U-30 remains a mystery, and "is likely to remain so for ever [sic]". U-30 was not credited with the sinking of any ships in her brief career. She was also the only member of the U-27-class to be lost during the war.	[ "## Design and construction", "## Service career" ]	1,213	3,541
4,941,611	1979 World Snooker Championship	1,169,539,234	Professional snooker tournament, held April 1979	[ "1979 in English sport", "1979 in snooker", "April 1979 sports events in the United Kingdom", "Sports competitions in Sheffield", "World Snooker Championships" ]	The 1979 World Snooker Championship (officially known as the 1979 Embassy World Snooker Championship) was a ranking professional snooker tournament that took place from 16 to 28 April 1979 at the Crucible Theatre in Sheffield, England. Promoted by Mike Watterson for the World Professional Billiards and Snooker Association, it was the third consecutive World Snooker Championship to be held at the Crucible, the first tournament having taken place in 1977. A qualifying event for the championship was held from 25 March to 7 April, producing eight qualifiers who joined the eight invited seeded players in the main event staged from 16 to 28 April. The main tournament was broadcast in the United Kingdom by the BBC, and was sponsored by the Embassy cigarette company. The winner received £10,000 from the total prize fund of £35,000. Steve Davis, Terry Griffiths and Kirk Stevens all qualified for the Crucible stage for the first time. The defending champion was Ray Reardon, who had won the title for a sixth time by defeating Perrie Mans by 25 to 18 in the 1978 final. Reardon was eliminated in the quarter-finals after losing 8–13 to Dennis Taylor. Griffiths met Taylor in the final, which was a best-of-47-frame match. Griffiths won 24–16, to become the first player to proceed from the qualifying competition and win the title at the Crucible. There were 13 century breaks compiled during the championship, the highest of which was a championship record-equalling 142 by Bill Werbeniuk. ## Background The World Snooker Championship is the preeminent tournament in professional snooker. Joe Davis won the first edition, in 1927 at Camkin's Hall in Birmingham, England. Since 1977, the venue for the tournament, held annually, has been the Crucible Theatre, Sheffield. The 1979 tournament was promoted for the World Professional Billiards and Snooker Association by Mike Watterson and featured professional players competing in one-on-one snooker matches in a single-elimination format, each match played over a defined number of . The eight highest-ranked players from the Snooker world rankings 1978/1979 were placed directly into the last-16 round of the main tournament in 1979, whilst all other entrants were required to participate in a qualifying competition to produce the eight players to play the exempted seeds. The defending champion was Ray Reardon, who had won his sixth world title by defeating Perrie Mans 25–18 in the 1978 final. The 1979 tournament was a ranking event. It received daily BBC television coverage, and was sponsored by cigarette brand Embassy. Following the qualifying competition that was held from 25 March to 7 April, the main tournament took place from 16 to 28 April. ## Prize fund The breakdown of prize money for this year is shown below: - Winner: £10,000 - Runner-up: £5,000 - Third place: £3,000 - Fourth place: £2,000 - Quarter-final: £1,250 - Last 16: £1,000 - Highest break: £500 - Maximum break: £10,000 (not awarded) - Total: £35,500 ## Tournament summary ### Qualifying The qualifying competition took place from 25 March to 7 April at Romiley Forum, Stockport, and the Northern Snooker Centre, Leeds. Played over two rounds, with each match a best-of-17 frame contest, it produced eight qualifying players who joined the top eight seeded players in the main competition. There were 11 matches in the preliminary round. Bernard Bennett took a 2–0 lead against Terry Griffiths, but lost 2–9. Pat Houlihan won five consecutive frames from 4–5 behind against John Barrie to progress to the next round. Willie Thorne compiled a 131 break in the second frame of his 9–3 victory against Jim Charlton. John Virgo recorded a breaks of 137 in the seventh frame of his whitewash of Maurice Parkin. Veteran Jackie Rea took the first two frames against John Dunning, but then lost the from his during the third frame, and, using a borrowed cue, saw Dunning level the match at 2–2. He reverted to using his own cue, now retipped, but the tip came off again and he eventually lost 5–9. Roy Andrewartha won the against Ray Edmonds. Tournament debutants Steve Davis and Kirk Stevens both achieved 9–1 wins, against Ian Anderson and Roy Amdor respectively. In the qualifying round, Virgo won the last four frames, which included a break of 120 in frame 15, to eliminate Thorne 9–8. In a match that lasted over nine hours, David Taylor won the deciding frame against Dunning. Stevens whitewashed former champion John Pulman. In the other matches, Bill Werbeniuk defeated Andrewartha 9–2, Doug Mountjoy won 9–6 against Houlihan, Davis eliminated Patsy Fagan 9–2, Jim Meadowcroft lost 6–9 to Griffiths, and Rex Williams lost 5–9 to Graham Miles. Davis, Griffiths, and Stevens all qualified for the Crucible stage for the first time. ### First round Before the main competition started, Coral made Reardon their bookmaker's favourite, at odds of 2–1, followed by Eddie Charlton at 5–1, and John Spencer and Alex Higgins who were each priced at 6–1. The first round took place between 16 and 20 April, with matches scheduled three over sessions as the best of 25 frames. Fred Davis made a break of 109, the first century break in that year's main competition, to level at 3–3 with Stevens, but finished their first session 3–5 behind. Aged 65 years and 247 days, he became the oldest ever player to win a match at the Crucible when he defeated Stevens 13–8. Werbeniuk defeated Spencer 13–11, and said that he was treating a nerve-related trembling in his cue arm by drinking lager. Cliff Thorburn, runner-up in 1977, compiled a break of 125 in the second session against Virgo, but lost the match 10–13. David Taylor, who had defeated Higgins earlier in the season at the 1978 UK Championship, lost 5–13 to him. Charlton made a 95 break to complete a 13–6 win against Mountjoy. Defending champion Reardon trailed Miles 3–5 after their first session, but then won eight of the nine frames in the second session. Griffiths defeated Mans 13–8, and Steve Davis lost 11–13 to Dennis Taylor. ### Quarter-finals The quarter-finals were played as best-of-25-frames matches over three sessions between 19 and 21 April. Higgins made breaks of 105 and 112 in the second and third frames respectively of his match against Griffiths, and finished the first session leading 6–2. Griffiths drew level at 8–8 in the second session, aided by a 121 break. Griffiths took the final frame with a 107 break to win won 13–12; it was the third world championship in a row where Higgins was defeated in a deciding frame. Charlton defeated Fred Davis 13–4, after taking a 5–0 lead. Davis compiled a 110 break in the eighth frame. Reardon took an early lead of 5–2 against Dennis Taylor; the players were later level at 7–7 when Reardon was distracted by applause from spectators at the other table at the venue, and missed an attempt to pot a brown. Taylor won that frame, and the next, to lead 9–7 after two sessions. He won only one further frame, as Taylor achieved victory at 13–8. Virgo built an 8–1 lead against Webeniuk in their first session, and was six frames clear after the second session, at 11–5. Werbeniuk won the initial frame of the third session, and in the next frame equalled the record championship break of 142 that had been set by Williams in 1965. The prize money for the tournament's highest break was £500, whilst beating the record would have earnt an additional £5,000. Werbeniuk received a further £500 donated jointly from tournament promoter Watterson, Harmsworth, manufacturers of the cloth used on the snooker tables at the event, and tournament table makers Karnehm and Hillman. Virgo won 13–9. ### Semi-finals and third place playoff The semi-finals took place between 22 and 25 April as best-of-37-frames matches played over four sessions. Griffiths recorded a 101 break in the second frame against Charlton, and after leading 4–3 after one session, increased his advantage during the second session to 10–4. Despite a highest break of just 46, Charlton won the next six frames to draw level. Griffiths won the last frame of the second day to take an 11–10 lead into the concluding day; at the close of the fifth session he was two frames up, at 15–13. The last session ended at 1:40 a.m., having taken five hours and 25 minutes to play, and set a record for the latest finish of any match. This duration was just eight minutes less than the longest world championship session on record, which occurred during Reardon and Fred Davis's match in 1969. Charlton led for the first time in the match at 16–15, and was again a frame ahead at 17–16. Griffiths took the next two frames, and completed his passage into the final at 19–17 after Charlton, who was leading by 48 points, missed an attempt to pot a red while using the . Griffiths compiled a 97 break to secure victory. In a post-match interview with David Vine, Griffiths said "I'm in the final now, you know", with what snooker historian Clive Everton described as "an engaging mixture of pride and disbelief". Taylor led after each session against Virgo, with his three frame advantage after the initial session increasing by an additional frame after each of the following three sessions, from 5–2 to 9–5, 13–8, and 17–11. According to Snooker Scene, Taylor displayed the "more mature match temperament" throughout, while Virgo "fumed visibly" after he made errors or was unlucky. Taylor won 19–12. Charlton defeated Virgo 7–3 in the third-place playoff match. ### Final The final, between Dennis Taylor and Terry Griffiths, took place from 26 to 28 April, as a best-of-47 frames match scheduled over six sessions, and was refereed by John Williams. Griffiths three times in four shots during the first frame, but won it on the final . Griffiths led 3–1 when in the fifth frame he recorded a break of 120 which broke down on the final ; had he potted the four remaining colours he would have equalled the championship record break of 142. Having increased his lead to 5–1 before the last frame of the first session, he made a break of 65 in the seventh frame, but Taylor countered with a 71 break win the frame on the final and make it 5–2. In the second session, Griffiths took the 15th frame after the pair had been tied at 7–7. The next day, Taylor took an 11–9 lead, and later led 14-12, before Griffiths won twelve of the following 14 frames. With the pair level at 15-15 at the start of the final day of play, Griffiths added two of the next three frames for a 17–16 lead, then won seven consecutive frames, to secure victory at 24–16. Griffiths became the first qualifier to win the title at the Crucible. After the match, he commented that he "didn't really feel I was playing for the championship until the last day ...Once I saw the winning post, Dennis did seem to fade a bit." Fred Davis hailed Griffith's victory as "the greatest achievement the game's ever known", adding that for a player without experience of long matches to win the title was "just remarkable". Everton wrote that Griffiths was "the first authentic television age champion, a working class hero". ## Main draw The results for the tournament are shown below. The numbers in brackets denote players seedings, whilst players in bold are match winners. ## Qualifying The results from the qualifying competition are shown below, with match winners denoted in bold: ## Century breaks There were 13 century breaks at the championship, the highest being 142 by Werbeniuk. There was also a £5,000 bonus for compiling a higher break than the championship record of 142. - 142 – Bill Werbeniuk - 125 – Cliff Thorburn - 121, 120, 107, 101 – Terry Griffiths - 112, 105 – Alex Higgins - 112 – John Spencer - 110, 109 – Fred Davis - 106 – Eddie Charlton - 106 – Dennis Taylor	[ "## Background", "## Prize fund", "## Tournament summary", "### Qualifying", "### First round", "### Quarter-finals", "### Semi-finals and third place playoff", "### Final", "## Main draw", "## Qualifying", "## Century breaks" ]	2,831	32,321
150,139	Eurovision Song Contest 1960	1,168,533,433	International song competition	[ "1960 in London", "1960 in music", "1960 in the United Kingdom", "Eurovision Song Contest 1960", "Eurovision Song Contest by year", "Events in London", "March 1960 events in the United Kingdom", "Music festivals in the United Kingdom", "Royal Festival Hall" ]	The Eurovision Song Contest 1960 was the fifth edition of the annual Eurovision Song Contest, held on Tuesday 29 March 1960 at the Royal Festival Hall in London, United Kingdom, and hosted by British television presenter and actress Catherine Boyle. Organised by the European Broadcasting Union (EBU) and host broadcaster the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), the United Kingdom was offered the rights to stage the contest after the , which had won the , declined the opportunity after having organised the event in . `returned to the competition after an absence of one year, and made its first contest appearance, bringing the total number of participating countries to thirteen. ` The winner was with the song "Tom Pillibi", performed by Jacqueline Boyer, composed by André Popp and written by Pierre Cour. This marked France's second contest victory, having also won in 1958. The placed second for the second consecutive year and earned their first top three finish by placing third. ## Location The contest took place in London, United Kingdom. Although the had won the in Cannes, the Dutch broadcaster Nederlandse Televisie Stichting (NTS) declined to stage the event for a second time in three years, after hosting the in Hilversum. The rights to staging the contest subsequently passed to the United Kingdom's British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), following the UK's second place finish in the previous year's event, a decision which was announced in October 1959. The Royal Festival Hall was chosen to stage the 1960 contest. Situated on the South Bank of the River Thames, the venue was first opened in 1951 and was originally conceived for use during that year's Festival of Britain; it is now part of the Southbank Centre, a complex of several artistic venues. ## Participating countries The number of entries grew to thirteen for this edition, with the eleven competing countries from the 1959 contest being joined by , returning after a one year absence, and , making its first appearance. Fud Leclerc made his third appearance at the contest for , having represented the country in with "Messieurs les noyés de la Seine" (one of the two Belgian entries in that year's contest) and in with "Ma petite chatte". The song from Luxembourg was the first contest entry to be performed in Luxembourgish, and one of only three entries to be performed in the language (alongside the country's entries from and ). ## Format The contest was organised and broadcast by the BBC, with Harry Carlisle serving as producer, Innes Lloyd as director, Richard Levin as designer, and Eric Robinson as musical director, leading the orchestra during the event. Each country was allowed to nominate their own musical director to lead the orchestra during the performance of their country's entry, with the host musical director, Eric Robinson, also conducting for those countries which did not nominate their own conductor. As had been the case since the 1957 contest, each country, participating through a single EBU member broadcaster, was represented by one song performed by up to two people on stage. The results of the event were determined through jury voting, with each country's jury containing ten individuals who each gave one vote to their favourite song, with no abstentions allowed and with jurors unable to vote for their own country. A new innovation for this year's event was to allow the national juries to listen to the final rehearsal of each country, which was also recorded to allow jury members to listen to the entries ahead of the live contest. The draw to determine the order in which each country would perform was conducted on 28 March in the presence of the performers. Performance and technical rehearsals involving the artists and orchestra were held on 28 and 29 March ahead of the live transmission. ## Contest overview The contest was held on 29 March 1960, beginning at 21:00 GMT (21:00 UTC) and lasted 1 hour and 20 minutes. The contest was presented by British television presenter and actress Catherine Boyle, the first of four contests in which she participated as host. Boyle presided over the opening of the contest and the voting process, while the various national broadcasters that carried the show provided commentary between each act, with the United Kingdom's commentator David Jacobs also being heard by the assembled audience of over 2,500 people in the hall. The winner was represented by the song "Tom Pillibi", composed by André Popp, written by Pierre Cour and performed by Jacqueline Boyer. Boyer is the daughter of Jacques Pills, who had represented Monaco in the and placed last with "Mon ami Pierrot". France's victory was their second in the contest, following their win in 1958, and brought them level on number of victories with the Netherlands. The United Kingdom gained their second consecutive second place finish, while Monaco considerably improved upon their debut performance the previous year with a third place finish. It was originally planned for the top three songs to be performed again following the voting, as had occurred in the 1959 contest, however this was ultimately scrapped and only the winning song received its traditional reprise performance. The winning artist was presented with a silver gilt vase, which was awarded by Teddy Scholten; this marked the first time that the previous year's winning artist awarded the prize to the next contest winner, which has since become Eurovision tradition. ### Spokespersons Each country nominated a spokesperson who was responsible for announcing the votes for their respective country via telephone. Known spokespersons at the 1960 contest are listed below. - – Siebe van der Zee [nl] - – Tage Danielsson - – Nick Burrell-Davis ## Detailed voting results The announcement of the results from each country was conducted in reverse order to the order in which each country performed. ## Broadcasts Each participating broadcaster was required to relay the contest via its networks. Non-participating EBU member broadcasters were also able to relay the contest as "passive participants". Broadcasters were able to send commentators to provide coverage of the contest in their own native language and to relay information about the artists and songs to their television viewers. Known details on the broadcasts in each country, including the specific broadcasting stations and commentators are shown in the tables below.	[ "## Location", "## Participating countries", "## Format", "## Contest overview", "### Spokespersons", "## Detailed voting results", "## Broadcasts" ]	1,273	12,074
21,468,195	April 2014 lunar eclipse	1,152,919,775	Total lunar eclipse in April 2014	[ "2014 in science", "21st-century lunar eclipses", "April 2014 events" ]	A total lunar eclipse took place on 15 April 2014. It was the first of two total lunar eclipses in 2014, and the first in a tetrad (four total lunar eclipses in a series). Subsequent eclipses in the tetrad are those of 8 October 2014, 4 April 2015, and 28 September 2015. Occurring 6.7 days after apogee (Apogee on 8 April 2014), the Moon's apparent diameter was smaller. The Moon passed through the center of the Earth's shadow. This was the last central lunar eclipse of Lunar Saros 122. The eclipse was visible in the Americas and the Pacific Ocean region, including Australia and New Zealand. This eclipse occurred during the ascending phase of the Moon's orbit, part of lunar saros 122. Mars was near opposition. ## Background A lunar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes within Earth's umbra (shadow). As the eclipse begins, the Earth's shadow first darkens the Moon slightly. Then, the shadow begins to "cover" part of the Moon, turning it a dark red-brown color (typically - the color can vary based on atmospheric conditions). The Moon appears to be reddish because of Rayleigh scattering (the same effect that causes sunsets to appear reddish) and the refraction of that light by the Earth's atmosphere into its umbra. The following simulation shows the approximate appearance of the Moon passing through the Earth's shadow. The Moon's brightness is exaggerated within the umbral shadow. The northern portion of the Moon was closest to the center of the shadow, making it darkest, and most red in appearance. ## Description On 15 April 2014, the Moon passed through the southern part of the Earth's umbral shadow. It was visible over most of the Western Hemisphere, including east Australia, New Zealand, the Pacific Ocean, and the Americas. In the western Pacific, the first half of the eclipse occurred before moonrise. In Europe and Africa, the eclipse began just before moonset. Mars, which had just passed its opposition, appeared at magnitude -1.5 about 9.5° northwest of the Moon. Spica was 2° to the west, while Arcturus was 32° north. Saturn was 26° east and Antares 44° southeast. The Moon entered Earth's penumbral shadow at 4:53:40 UTC and the umbral shadow at 5:58:19. Totality lasted for 1 hour 17.8 minutes, from 7:06:46 to 8:24:34. The moment of greatest eclipse occurred at 7:45:39. At that point, the Moon's zenith was approximately 3,000 kilometres (1,900 mi) southwest of the Galápagos Islands. The Moon left the umbra shadow at 9:33:02 and the penumbra shadow at 10:37:33. The peak umbral magnitude was 1.2962, at which moment the northern part of the moon was 1.7 arc-minutes south of the center of Earth's shadow, while the southern part was 40.0 arc-minutes from center. The gamma of the eclipse was -0.3017. The eclipse was a member of Lunar Saros 122. It was the 56th such eclipse. ## Timing \* The penumbral phase of the eclipse changes the appearance of the Moon only slightly and is generally not noticeable. ## Viewing events Many museums and observatories planned special events for the eclipse. The United States National Park Service sponsored events at Great Basin National Park and Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore. The University of Hawaii's Institute for Astronomy held events at two locations on the islands. The Griffith Observatory in Los Angeles, California streamed the eclipse live on the Internet. NASA hosted two live question-and-answer sessions online. The first happened roughly 12 hours before the eclipse via Reddit's Ask Me Anything. The second was a web chat hosted on NASA's site just before the eclipse began. NASA also streamed the eclipse live on their website. NASA TV provided 3 hours of live coverage beginning at 2 a.m. EDT. ## Gallery ## Relation to prophecy Starting in 2008, Christian pastors John Hagee and Mark Biltz began teaching "blood moon prophecies": Biltz said the Second Coming of Jesus would occur at the end of the tetrad that began with the April 2014 eclipse, while Hagee said only that the tetrad is a sign of something significant. The idea gained popular media attention in the United States, and prompted a response from the scientific radio show Earth & Sky. According to Christian Today, only a "small group of Christians" saw the eclipse as having religious significance, despite the attention. ## Related eclipses ### Eclipses of 2014 - A total lunar eclipse on 15 April. - A non-central annular solar eclipse on 29 April. - A total lunar eclipse on 8 October. - A partial solar eclipse on 23 October. The 15 April 2014 eclipse was the first eclipse in a tetrad; that is, four consecutive total eclipses with no partial eclipses in between. There will be another eclipse every six lunar cycles during the tetrad – on 8 October 2014, 4 April 2015, and 28 September 2015. The lunar year series repeats after 12 cycles, or 354 days, causing a date shift when compared to the solar calendar. This shift means the Earth's shadow will move about 11 degrees west in each subsequent eclipse. This tetrad started during the ascending node of the Moon's orbit. It is the first tetrad since the 2003–04 series, which started in May. The next series will be from 2032 to 2033, starting in April. ### Half-Saros cycle A lunar eclipse will be preceded and followed by solar eclipses by 9 years and 5.5 days (a half saros). This lunar eclipse is related to two hybrid total/annualar solar eclipses of solar saros 129. ## See also - List of 21st-century lunar eclipses - List of lunar eclipses	[ "## Background", "## Description", "## Timing", "## Viewing events", "## Gallery", "## Relation to prophecy", "## Related eclipses", "### Eclipses of 2014", "### Half-Saros cycle", "## See also" ]	1,305	19,112
51,730,158	Pyromaniac (Oh Land song)	1,143,903,505	null	[ "2013 singles", "2013 songs", "Funk songs", "Oh Land songs", "Songs written by Jimmy Harry", "Songs written by Oh Land", "Soul songs" ]	"Pyromaniac" is a song by Danish singer-songwriter Oh Land, taken from her third studio album Wish Bone (2013). It was released digitally as the album's second single on 2 September 2013 by Tusk or Tooth and A:larm Music, exclusively in Denmark. The track was written by Oh Land and Jimmy Harry, and produced by David Andrew Sitek. A combination of funk, pop, and soul music, "Pyromaniac" features a hook with repetitive lyrics and was compared to the works of several artists, including the Cardigans, Robyn, and Phoenix. Receiving a mixed response from music critics, "Pyromaniac" was highlighted for being a strong track on Wish Bone but faulted for being inferior to her previous singles. A music video for the single was released on 13 September 2013 and directed by Rasmus Weng Karlsen and Jasper Carlberg. It features the singer in a variety of outfits. ## Background and composition "Pyromaniac" is taken from Oh Land's third studio album, Wish Bone (2013). The album's second single overall, "Pyromaniac" was released as a digital download on 2 September 2013 by Tusk or Tooth Records and A:larm Music; it was distributed exclusively in Denmark. It was written by Oh Land and Jimmy Harry, and produced by David Andrew Sitek. Additionally, several musicians contributed to the track, including drummer Nathaniel Morton, Todd Simon who played brass instruments, and Zeph Showers who served as the head audio engineer and mixer. The song itself was recorded at Federal Prism Studios in Glendale, California. Musically, "Pyromaniac" features a "sweet melody" and "occasional minor-key twists". Leonie Cooper from NME described the song's genre as "straight-up lo-fi funk" and claimed it "com[es] on like Robyn produced by Phoenix". Continuing, Michael Jose Gonzalez of Gaffa called it a mixture of pop, funk, and soul music. Throughout the song, Oh Land repeatedly sings "woo-hoo", which was considered reminiscent to some of her previous singles. Jennifer Joh from Neon Tommy compared it to the Cardigans' 1996 single "Lovefool". ## Critical reception "Pyromaniac" received a mixed to positive response from music critics. NME's Leonie Cooper called it "remarkable", while James Christopher Monger from AllMusic called the song a "better version" of Oh Land's "My Boxer" (2013); he also described it as "Studio 54-kissed". Gaffa's Michael Jose Gonzalez listed "Renaissance Girls", "My Boxer", and "Pyromaniac" as three potential hits from Wish Bone in his album review. In a highly positive review, Neon Tommy's Jennifer Joh called it "very quintessential Oh Land" and "different and clearly inspired by more classic songs". In a more mixed review, Christopher Monk from musicOMH felt that the song (and the parent album) was not "lacking in hooks" and considered it one of Wish Bone's strongest tracks, but overall said that it (along with "Bird in an Aeroplane" and "Cherry on Top") cannot match the quality or catchiness of her previous singles, listing "Sun of a Gun" and "White Nights" as two examples. Similarly, Hannah Eads from The Daily Nebraskan considered both "Pyromaniac" and "Renaissance Girls" to be "just as edgy and catchy as the first", but claimed that "the songs contribute nothing new to the genre". ## Music video An accompanying music video for "Pyromaniac" was directed by Rasmus Weng Karlsen and Jasper Carlberg. It was released on 13 September 2013 via Oh Land's official YouTube account. The video features the singer in a wide variety of outfits. Some of the scenes include Oh Land in front of several fire dancers, singing in front of a mirror, and skinny dipping with a group of friends. During the aforementioned scene where Oh Land appears swimming in the nude, censor bars are used. ## Personnel Personnel adapted from Wish Bone liner notes. - Nanna Øland Fabricius – vocals, lyrics, instruments - Jimmy Harry – lyrics - Nathaniel Morton – drums - Todd Simon – brass - David Andrew Sitek – production, instruments - Zeph Sowers – engineering, mixing ## Release history	[ "## Background and composition", "## Critical reception", "## Music video", "## Personnel", "## Release history" ]	929	30,353
31,783,384	Heather Chasen	1,170,510,704	English actress (1927–2020)	[ "1927 births", "2020 deaths", "Actresses from London", "Alumni of RADA", "English soap opera actresses", "English stage actresses", "English television actresses", "English voice actresses", "People from Singapore" ]	Heather Jean Chasen (20 July 1927 – 22 May 2020) was an English actress, known for her roles in soap operas; playing Valerie Pollard in the ITV soap opera, Crossroads, from 1982 to 1986 and guest roles in Doctors, Holby City and Family Affairs. Chasen also played many roles in BBC Radio 2's The Navy Lark from 1959 to 1977, and appeared in the television series Marked Personal from 1973 to 1974. She played the recurring role of Lydia Simmonds in the BBC soap opera EastEnders, a role which received positive reviews from critics and EastEnders crew and cast members. Furthermore, she appeared extensively in theatre productions and film; in 2012, she appeared in a film version of Les Misérables. ## Early and personal life Chasen was born on 20 July 1927, in Singapore to Agnes H. (née McCullock) and F.N. Chasen, an English ornithologist. Her father fought as a trooper with the Norfolk Yeomanry in World War I. In 1921, he left England to work at the Raffles Library and Museum in Singapore, marrying Chasen's mother, Agnes, in 1926. Chasen's sister, Christine Elizabeth, was born on 4 May 1931. Her parents split up in 1938, and both later remarried. Before the Japanese occupation, which led to the Battle of Singapore during World War II, Chasen and her mother left Singapore on the last boat before the occupation. Her father, however, on a separate ship, HMS Giang Bee, died when it was sunk by the Japanese on 12 February 1942. Chasen's stepfather, G.C.R. Franks, also died in fighting, on 22 March. Chasen and her mother moved to the UK and she trained at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art, where she acted on stage and went on tour with Frankie Howerd in Hotel Paradiso. She appeared with Sybil Thorndike in Call Me Jacky, and toured with Douglas Fairbanks Jr. in The Pleasure of his Company, in Toronto. Chasen was friends with, and previously had a relationship with, Amanda Barrie. In Call Me Jacky, she played an alcoholic lesbian, and later claimed to have based her characterisation partly on the novelist and playwright Patricia Highsmith, whom she knew well. In 1949, Chasen married John Webster, and they had one son, Rupert, who played in Lindsay Anderson's if.... He also appears with Chasen in a 2013 short documentary, A Stage of Development. Chasen died on 22 May 2020, aged 92. ## Career ### Crossroads and EastEnders > I did an episode where I played this journalist which they must have quite liked because they got back to me about a month later. [They asked me] 'Would you come back and join the cast and change the colour of your hair?' Well, I said okay and so I changed my [hair] colour from red to blonde and I looked exactly the same! I didn't look any different at all. And so then I came back as this naughty lady, Valerie Pollard. The most fun I had was when I was helping out behind the bar which is a very good place to be if you're in a soap because you're in every scene. I was very happy, it was a fun time, I enjoyed it. At the beginning, not at the very end. When I first joined it, for the first few months I was in, it was great fun but after Jack (the producer) went it became less good and less fun and I didn't enjoy it so much". In 2011, Chasen was cast as Lydia Simmonds, Janine Butcher (Charlie Brooks)'s maternal grandmother and Norman Simmonds' (George Layton) mother, in the BBC soap opera EastEnders, after the original actress Margaret Tyzack had to pull out of the role due to personal reasons. Two episodes featuring Tyzack had already been broadcast, and she featured in a further one on 14 April. Chasen was cast and replaced Tyzack in the role, beginning filming on 15 April for scenes broadcast from 21 April. EastEnders' executive producer, Bryan Kirkwood, added: "In order to continue the current storyline we've taken the decision for Heather Chasen to take over the role of Lydia." The character died on-screen and Chasen made her last appearance on 13 June 2011, and, though not credited for it, did a voice-over for the 14 and 28 June episodes. Kirkwood later said "Lydia's storyline was perfect" and that Chasen had made the part her own after Tyzack's departure. Brooks said of the storyline as a whole, "I absolutely loved exploring Janine's background. I was really proud with the scenes with Heather Chasen [Lydia]. It was really hard work, but worth it." ### Other work Chasen appeared in other television programmes such as The Bill and The Harry Hill Show. She had guest roles in Z-Cars and Dixon of Dock Green and voiced a number of characters in the radio show The Navy Lark, particularly WREN Heather Chasen and "battle axe" Ramona Povey. In soaps, she had four separate appearances in the BBC soap opera Doctors, with her most recent in 2014, reprising her role as Grace Barberry from 2012. She played Sylvie Leigh in Holby City and, for five episodes, Madge Bennet in the Channel 5 soap opera, Family Affairs. Earlier credits include, playing "rich bitches" Caroline Kerr, in The Newcomers and Isabel Neal in Marked Personal, alongside Stephanie Beacham. She also played the "evil" headmistress in Schoolgirls in Uniform at the Battersea Arts Centre. In stage and theatre, Chasen appeared in The Rat Trap. Michael Billington from The Guardian described Chasen's character, Burrage the maid, as "trundling", rating the play three stars. Other than this, she appeared in Pardon Ma Prime Minister alongside Gerald Flood and Paul Curran, written by Edward Taylor and John Graham who created the BBC radio series The Men from the Ministry. The Birmingham Mail described the play as "hilarious" and "promising". One of Chasen's last plays was My Three Angels in which she played Madame Parole, other plays included, The Man Who Came to Dinner, Who Bombed Birmingham playing Margaret Thatcher, and The Lizard of Rock, in which she played the main role, appearing alongside actor Jack Hawkins. Chasen opined that she had a "lovely time" playing Miss Marple in A Murder is Announced alongside Richard Todd and Barbara Murray. In 2009, Chasen appeared in the award-winning Anglo-Russian feature film Season of Mists, playing Jane. Chasen appeared alongside Marina Blake, Sergei Chonishvili, Ifan Huw Dafydd and ex-EastEnders actor Dudley Sutton. Other films she has appeared in include, The Kiss of Tosca in 2000, The Toybox in 2003 and Cat Run, a 2011 film. ## Awards and nominations Chasen was nominated for the Tony Award for Best Performance by a Featured Actress in a Musical, while she appeared in the New York adaptation of A Severed Head between 1963–1965. She appeared in the cast of the Seasons of Mists which won a number of awards internationally. ## Filmography Film Television Radio Stage/Theatre	[ "## Early and personal life", "## Career", "### Crossroads and EastEnders", "### Other work", "## Awards and nominations", "## Filmography" ]	1,627	33,137
1,768,949	The Great Money Caper	1,139,940,257	null	[ "2000 American television episodes", "Television episodes written by Carolyn Omine", "The Simpsons (season 12) episodes" ]	"The Great Money Caper" is the seventh episode of the twelfth season of the American animated television series The Simpsons. It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on December 10, 2000. In the episode, Homer, along with his son Bart, con people out of their money in order to pay for Homer's broken car. However, after having paid for the repairs, the two decide to continue grifting, which leads to some troublesome situations. The episode was written by Carolyn Omine and directed by Mike Frank Polcino. The episode's title is a parody on The Great Muppet Caper. The episode features American actor Edward Norton as con artist Devon Bradley. In its original American broadcast, the episode received a 9.7 rating, according to Nielsen Media Research. ## Plot The family goes to a magic-themed restaurant. While there, Marge gets drunk on Long Island Iced Teas and Bart becomes so fascinated with magic that he buys a magician's kit from the gift shop. On the way home, a sturgeon falls from the sky (implicitly from the Russian space station Mir) onto the family car's hood, which is severely damaged. At the squidport, Homer and Bart start their magic show as a way to make money, but the act becomes a failure as nobody gives money, and Homer leaves Bart to do the rest of the act on his own. Bart is left out on the street, and people begin giving him money so he can get home on public transportation. As Homer drives home, he sees Bart in a taxi, and when he gets home he sees him eating a steak dinner. They decide they can make money grifting; however, Marge and Lisa begin suspecting them after they "worked" without Bart's kit, which they both left behind at home. Homer and Bart continue to grift after they have fixed the car, and Grampa volunteers to help them grift, since he was a con-artist during the Great Depression. Grampa, Homer, and Bart grift the residents at the Springfield Retirement Castle. While performing the grift, they are arrested by an FBI agent; however, Grampa evades arrest by stealing a motorised wheelchair and escaping. When Homer and Bart put themselves in a police station cell, they realize that the FBI agent himself is a con man, and has conned them out of their money and the car. Homer and Bart say the car was stolen in the church parking lot. The next morning they are surprised however to learn that Groundskeeper Willie was arrested for stealing the car, as he matched the description they gave of the carjacker as a "foreign loner with wild, bushy hair". Not wanting to admit they were conned, Homer and Bart go along with Marge's theory. At the trial, the Blue Haired Lawyer leads Homer to say that it was Willie who stole the car. After Willie is proven guilty, he snatches Wiggum's gun and shoots Principal Skinner. At this point, Homer finally confesses that he got conned, but Marge and the townspeople themselves tell Homer and Bart that they set up the trial and the carjacking to teach them a lesson on conning people, revealing that Skinner was not really shot (it was a fake blood pack and the gun was loaded with blanks), the judge was Grampa wearing a latex mask, and the con man who stole their car was an actor called Devon Bradley. (Willie, however, was not privy to this scheme, as he angrily states.) As Lisa is ready to explain why the town, media and police officials had "nothing better to do" than show them the consequences of their actions, Otto runs through the courtroom doors, shouting, 'Surf's Up!'. The scene then cuts to Springfield at the beach, with characters from the episode surfing, including the waiter from the restaurant, the two astronauts from the Mir space station and the sturgeon swimming in the sea. ## Production "The Great Money Caper" was written by Carolyn Omine and directed by Mike Frank Polcino. It was first broadcast on the Fox network in the United States on December 10, 2000. Originally, the episode would be about pool hustling, however as writing ensued, the script went through several incarnations until the Simpsons writers settled on the grifting story seen in the episode. Omine read several books about grifters for preparation for writing the episode. The other writers also prepared themselves by watching several heist films, including House of Games, Paper Moon and The Sting, the latter two of which are referenced in the episode. For example, the revelation that Devon Bradley, the FBI agent in the episode who is revealed to be a con artist, was inspired by such films. In a scene in the episode, Homer and Bart exit the Magic Palace's gift shop, only to end up in another gift shop. The scene was based on an experience of the episode's show runner Mike Scully, who, in order to exit the Lance Burton Theatre after a magic show, had to pass through a gift shop. The ending scene of the episode went through several changes and was as a result completed late in the episode's production. The writers had conceived the courtroom scene, but they were stuck trying to come up with an ending after Skinner had been shot. They eventually decided that the trial was a scam staged by the townspeople, and Simpsons writer George Meyer pitched the surfing scene that closed the episode. ### Casting A scene that was eventually dropped from the episode featured Robby Krieger, guitarist of the American rock band The Doors, as himself. Krieger had been promised a guest role on The Simpsons after the staff were allowed to use the Doors song "The End" for the season 11 episode "Hello Gutter, Hello Fadder". However, during production, Scully thought that the scene stood out too much and that Krieger's cameo felt "too obviously shoe-horned in," so the scene ended up being cut from the episode. The scene was later included in The Simpsons: The Complete Twelfth Season DVD set. To this day, Krieger has not officially been featured in an episode of The Simpsons. The con artist Devon Bradley was portrayed by American actor and director Edward Norton. Scully hired Norton for the role after James L. Brooks, one of The Simpsons''' producers, told Scully that Norton was "a big fan of the show" and was willing to guest star in an episode. In the DVD audio commentary for the episode, Scully noted that Norton was very versatile and could imitate many Simpsons characters perfectly. The announcer at the "Magic Palace" who says the line "Folks, this is not part of the act" was voiced by Scully. According to him, the line was "a last-minute addition" to the episode. ## Cultural references The episode's plot is loosely based on the American comedy film Paper Moon, which was also the inspiration for Bart and Homer's swindle of Ned Flanders in the episode; Flanders himself compares Homer and Bart giving him a customised Bible to the film. The title of the episode is a parody of the 1981 film The Great Muppet Caper, and was pitched by Simpsons writer Matt Selman. The episode's ending lampoons the cliche of having twist endings at the end of heist films. ”Magic Palace”, the magic-themed restaurant that the Simpsons visit in the beginning of the episode, is a parody on The Magic Castle, a nightclub in the Hollywood district of Los Angeles, California. Marge's line "I didn't say that for clapping" is a reference to a speech given by John Wayne while he was intoxicated. Homer wants to buy a singing rubber fish after their first con. At the end of the episode, Bart exclaims “Cowabunga!”, a catch-phrase of the main characters in the animated television series Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles. In the scene where Grampa joins Bart and Homer, Grampa mentions the film The Sting II. ## Reception In its original American broadcast on December 10, 2000, "The Great Money Caper" received a 9.7 rating, according to Nielsen Media Research, meaning it was seen by 9.7% of the population at the time of its broadcast. Among children, the episode was watched by 2.8 million viewers. In his review of The Simpsons: The Complete Twelfth Season DVD box set, Colin Jacobson of DVD Movie Guide praised the episode. He wrote that, unlike other episodes in the season, "The Great Money Caper" did not "rely on too many gimmicks" and therefore felt more realistic, even though he does not consider grifting an "everyday activity." He concluded his review by writing that the episode "does well for itself." Jason Bailey of DVD Talk described the episode as being one of the season's highlights. However, Matt Haigh of Den of Geek cited "The Great Money Caper" as one of the worst episodes of the season, as well as the whole series. In his review, Haigh criticized the Simpsons'' writers for not making sense of the story, and denounced the episode's ending for being "abrupt".	[ "## Plot", "## Production", "### Casting", "## Cultural references", "## Reception" ]	1,898	21,647
33,779,421	Typhoon Alex (1987)	1,139,468,631	Pacific typhoon in 1987	[ "1987 Pacific typhoon season", "1987 in China", "1987 in Taiwan", "Tropical cyclones in 1987", "Typhoons", "Typhoons in China", "Typhoons in South Korea", "Typhoons in Taiwan" ]	Typhoon Alex, known in the Philippines as Typhoon Etang, affected the Taiwan, China, and South Korea during July 1987. Typhoon Alex developed from the monsoon trough that spawned a tropical disturbance late on July 21 southwest of Guam which organized into a tropical depression shortly thereafter. The system steadily became better organized, and the next day, a tropical depression had developed. Satellite intensity estimates gradually increased, and on July 23, the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Alex. After initially tracking west-northwest, Tropical Storm Alex started tracking northwest. An eye developed on July 24, and on the next day, Alex was classified as a typhoon, when Alex attained its peak intensity of 120 km/h (75 mph) and a minimum barometric pressure of 970 mbar (29 inHg). Alex weakened while tracking more northward, though interaction with Taiwan resulted in a more westward track starting on July 27. The storm struck near Shanghai as a tropical storm, and weakened over land, although it remained identifiable through August 2. Across Taiwan, the storm inflicted minor damage and one person was killed. In the province of Zhejiang, Alex damaged or destroyed over 200 fishing boats, wiped out 22 bridges, snapped 32 power lines, and flooded four reservoirs. Damage there exceeded US\$1.8 million. In Jiaxing, at least 121,405 hectares (300,000 acres) of farmland were flooded. Nation-wide, 125 people were killed and roughly 200 were wounded. Close to 700 homes were demolished while roughly 200 fishing boats were damaged. Across South Korea, the storm dumped heavy rainfall, with daily totals of 300 mm (12 in) in some places, triggering flooding and landslides. ## Meteorological history Typhoon Alex developed in the western edge of the Western Pacific monsoon trough which stretched 2,500 km (1,555 mi) near the 10th parallel north from the Carolina Islands to the International Date Line. Late on July 21, satellite imagery first detected a tropical disturbance 370 km (230 mi) to the southwest of Guam, which prompted the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) to upgrade the system to a tropical depression. At 06:00 UTC on the next day, the Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC) began to follow the system as the disturbance had developed curved banding features. A rapid increase in both convection and organization followed, and at 18:00 UTC on July 22, satellite imagery showed the development of a central dense overcast, with Dvorak intensity estimates supporting an intensity of 50 km/h (30 mph). At 19:30 UTC, the JTWC issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert despite satellite imagery only detecting a broad, ill-defined low-level circulation, with a minimum barometric pressure of 1005 mbar (29.68 inHg). By 00:00 UTC on July 23, Dvorak intensity estimates reached T2.5/65 km/h (40 mph) and a ship to the north of the system reported winds of 55 km/h (35 mph), which resulted in the JTWC declaring the system a tropical depression. Initially, the depression was tracking west and was forecast by the JTWC to track across the Philippine Islands. This was in agreement with most tropical cyclone forecast models showing the storm track across the archipelago and the turning northward in the general direction of China, although the JTWC eventually shifted the track further north into the Luzon Straits. At 06:00 UTC on July 23, the JTWC upgraded the depression into Tropical Storm Alex, with the JMA doing the same six hours later. Late the next evening, the JMA upgraded Alex to a severe tropical storm as satellite images showed the center of the storm moving under the deep convection after previously being exposed to its northeast. Continuing to slowly intensify, Alex turned northwest. It developed an eye between 15:00 UTC and 18:00 UTC on July 24. The next morning the JTWC declared Alex a typhoon while also estimating that the storm attained its peak intensity of 120 km/h (75 mph). Upon becoming a typhoon, Alex was located 220 km (135 mi) east of the northern tip of Luzon. By this time, most forecast models showed a northward movement east of Taiwan due to a weakness in a subtropical ridge south of Japan and the presence of a surface front across the east coast of Asia. On the evening of July 25, the JMA classified Alex as a typhoon while also reporting that Alex obtained its peak intensity of 120 km/h (75 mph) and a minimum pressure of 970 mbar (29 inHg). Although satellite images continued to depict a warm spot, suggesting the presence of an eye, both the JMA and JTWC estimated that Alex fell below typhoon intensity on July 26; however, according to the JMA, Alex briefly re-intensified back to a typhoon that evening. Alex turned north in response to the aforementioned front, passing 55 km (34 mi) east of Taipei. Interaction with the high terrain of Taiwan caused Alex to deflect west, striking Wenzhou as a weakening tropical storm on the evening of July 27. The storm rapidly dissipated over land according to the JTWC, although the JMA continued to track Alex as a minimal tropical storm when it moved back over open water in the Sea of Japan on the evening of July 28. Even though Alex failed to regenerate according to the JTWC, the JMA continued to track the system as a tropical depression through August 2. ## Impact and aftermath The typhoon first caused slight damage in Taiwan, becoming the second typhoon to affect the country in 1987. A 35-year-old man was crushed to death by a falling wall in Keelung due to strong winds. Air and train services were also disrupted. Typhoon Alex lashed the Chinese province of Zhejiang for fourteen hours. The storm damaged or demolished more than 200 fishing boats, wiped out 22 bridges, snapped 32 power lines, and flooded four reservoirs. The cities of Wenzhou and Jiaxing were the hardest hit, with as much as 290 mm (11.4 in) of rain falling. Damage in the area exceeded US\$1.8 million. In the former, 34 people were killed. In Jiaxing, a minimum of 121,405 ha (300,000 acres) of farmland were flooded. Throughout the suburbs of Shanghai, north of where the storm moved ashore 32 individuals sustained injuries and 400 homes were damaged or destroyed. More than 100 pigs were killed there. One person was killed in a tornado spawned by the typhoon in Shanghai. Overall, 125 people were killed and roughly 200 were wounded. Approximately 700 homes were destroyed along with 27,000 ha (66,720 acres) of crops. Around 200 fishing boats were damaged. Following the storm, local army troops and civilians assisted in rescue work in Zhejiang. Under the anticipation that Alex would directly strike South Korea, typhoon warnings were posted for the coastline. After forecasts shifted west, the warning was lowered to a high wind warning. Affecting a country inundated by a series of systems that started with Typhoon Thelma, the storm deluged the country with up to 300 mm (12 in) of rainfall in a single day. This resulted in serious flooding, landslides, and loss of life. ## See also - Typhoon Mamie (1985) - Typhoon Nelson (1985)	[ "## Meteorological history", "## Impact and aftermath", "## See also" ]	1,580	4,893
3,818,998	USS Ozark (1863)	1,114,351,836	American river monitor	[ "1863 ships", "Monitors of the United States Navy", "Ships built in Mound City, Illinois", "Ships of the Union Navy" ]	USS Ozark was a single-turreted river monitor built for the United States Navy during the American Civil War. The ship served in the Mississippi River Squadron during the war, and participated in the Red River Campaign shortly after she was commissioned in early 1864. Ozark patrolled the Mississippi River and its tributaries after the end of the campaign for the rest of the war. She was decommissioned after the war and sold in late 1865. The ship's activities or owner are not known after her sale, but Ozark transported Federal troops and New Orleans police attempting to apprehend the white supremacists who killed numerous blacks during the Colfax Massacre in 1873. She ferried witnesses back and forth to their homes on the Red River during the subsequent trials in 1874. Her ultimate fate is unknown. ## Description The ship was 180 feet (54.9 m) long overall and had a beam of 50 feet (15.2 m). She had a depth of hold of 7 feet 4 inches (2.2 m) and a draft of six feet. Ozark had a tonnage of 578 tons burthen. She was powered by a pair of two-cylinder steam engines, each driving two four-bladed, 7-foot (2.1 m) propellers, using steam generated by four boilers. The engines were designed to reach a top speed of 9 miles per hour (14 km/h). They had a bore of 15 inches (381 mm) and a stroke of 24 inches (610 mm). Ozark could carry about 100 long tons (102 t) of coal. All of the machinery was built by the Franklin Foundry of St. Louis, Missouri. The ship was fitted with three rudders, and the armored pilothouse was mounted on top of the gun turret. The officers' staterooms were built on deck out of light pine, and a hurricane deck was positioned between the turret and the deckhouse, between the two funnels. The hull was subdivided by three transverse and three longitudinal watertight bulkheads. Ozark's main armament initially consisted of two smoothbore, muzzle-loading 11-inch (279 mm) Dahlgren guns mounted in a twin-gun turret forward. The 11-inch gun weighed 16,000 pounds (7,300 kg) and could fire a 136-pound (61.7 kg) shell up to a range of 1,710 yards (1,560 m) at +5° elevation. By July 1864, her armament had been reinforced by the addition of one 10-inch (254 mm) Dahlgren gun and three 9-inch (229 mm) Dahlgrens, all on pivot mounts. One of these guns was mounted at the bow, another at the stern and the two others were abreast the deckhouse, one on each broadside. The 10-inch Dahlgren weighed 12,500 pounds (5,700 kg) and could fire a 103-pound (46.7 kg) shell up to a range of 3,000 yards (2,700 m) at +19° elevation. The nine-inch gun weighed 9,200 pounds (4,200 kg) and could fire a 72.5-pound (32.9 kg) shell to a range of 3,357 yards (3,070 m) at an elevation of +15°. Ozark was chosen as the testbed for an experimental "underwater battery" that consisted of a nine-inch Dahlgren gun firing through a pipe in the side of the hull below the waterline. Cost overruns caused the project to be cancelled in January 1863 before it could be tested. The cylindrical Ericsson-style turret was armored with six layers of wrought iron 1-inch (25 mm) plates. The forward 40 feet (12.2 m) of the hull was protected by two layers of 1.25-inch (32 mm) plates that extended 1 foot (0.3 m) below the waterline. Aft of the bow section, the hull's armor consisted of two layers of 1.125-inch (28.6 mm) plates. The ship's deck was protected by iron plates one inch thick. ## Construction and service The contract for Ozark, the first ship of that name in the United States Navy and named for the Ozark Tribe of the Quapaw Indians, was awarded to George C. Bestor on 14 May 1862. He subcontracted the ship's construction to Hambleton, Collier & Co. at their Mound City Marine Ways shipyard in Mound City, Illinois. Ozark was laid down in 1862 and launched on 18 February 1863. She was towed to St. Louis for fitting out and arrived there on 27 February. Ozark commissioned on 18 February 1864, with Acting Volunteer Lieutenant George W. Brown in command. She cost about \$215,000. Ozark spent her entire Union Navy career serving in the Mississippi River Squadron. From 12 March to 22 May 1864, she took part in the Rear Admiral David Porter's Red River Expedition to Alexandria, Louisiana. During the retreat down the Red River, Ozark was trapped above the falls at Alexandria, along with most of the other ironclads of the Mississippi Squadron, when the river's water level unexpectedly began to fall. Two temporary dams, known as Bailey's Dam, had to be built in April–May to raise the water level high enough to allow the ironclads to proceed downstream. After the end of the campaign, Ozark was assigned to the Third District, patrolling the Mississippi River between Morganza, Louisiana and Fort Adams, Mississippi. Following the end of the war, she was decommissioned at Mound City on 24 July 1865 and was sold 29 November. The identity of her purchaser is not known, nor are her activities after her sale, but Ozark was still in service in late 1873 and based at New Orleans. Louisiana governor William Pitt Kellogg used the ship to transport 35 soldiers of the 19th Infantry Regiment and 25 mounted members of the New Orleans Metropolitan Police to Colfax, Louisiana in October to apprehend the perpetrators of the Colfax Massacre. Due to widespread resistance by local whites, only a few men were arrested and transported to New Orleans by Ozark to stand trial in December. Prosecution witnesses were transported and housed in the ship during the trials in February–March 1874 to protect them from threats made by white supremacists. Nothing further is known about the Ozark's activities or fate.	[ "## Description", "## Construction and service" ]	1,380	10,967
60,533,763	St Peter's Roman Catholic Church, Buckie	1,167,067,753	Catholic church in Buckie, Scotland	[ "1857 establishments in Scotland", "Buckie", "Category A listed buildings in Moray", "Gothic Revival church buildings in Scotland", "Listed churches in Scotland", "Religious organizations established in 1857", "Roman Catholic churches in Scotland" ]	St Peter's Roman Catholic Church is a large mid-nineteenth century church in Buckie, Moray, Scotland. Known locally as the Buckie Cathedral, it was built between 1851 and 1857, soon after the emancipation of Catholics in Scotland, to provide a place of worship for the local Catholic congregation. It was designed by James Kyle, Catholic bishop of Aberdeen, and built on land donated to the diocese by Sir William Gordon, Baronet of Letterfourie. It was extended and redecorated in the early twentieth century by Charles Ménart, and was designated a Category A listed building in 1972. It remains an active place of worship, under the governance of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Aberdeen. ## Description St Peter's is a large church, built in 13th century Gothic style. Its size and prominent location allow it to be seen from several miles away, and despite its status as a local parish church, it is known locally as the Buckie Cathedral. The church presents an imposing Gothic west frontage, which has been compared with St Patrick's Cathedral in Armagh. Twin squared towers flank the gabled centre with its main entrance, which is recessed within a point-headed arch beneath a four-light stained glass window with geometric tracery. The five-bay aisled nave is lit by triple lancet windows, and at the east end is a lower, rectangular chancel, incorporating a rose window, 13 feet (4 m) in diameter, in its gable end. ### Interior The interior of the church is richly decorated in a Gothic style. Its tall, narrow nave has arcaded aisles to either side, with thick columns supporting their pointed arches. At the west end is a corbelled gallery containing a large pipe organ, below which is an elaborate war memorial, commemorating soldiers killed in the First World War, and along the walls of the aisles are images of the Stations of the Cross in large, decorative wooden frames. The church's font, with its heavy stone base and elaborately carved wooden cover, is in a small baptistry in the south-west corner. The church's main focus is its chancel, which has ornately carved reredos of Caen stone and polished Languedoc marble, and a pulpit, altar and communion rail, all intricately designed in various kinds of marble. ### Presbytery and enclosing walls The presbytery is attached to the church at the north east corner. It is a two-storey, red sandstone house, with tooled ashlar detailing and a slate roof. The church and presbytery are surrounded by a high coped rubble wall, lowered at the west front with spearhead railings and a carriage gate. ## History In 1850, the Catholic bishop of Aberdeen James Kyle, eager to build a church to accommodate the growing Catholic congregation in Buckie, asked Sir William Gordon, the Baronet of Letterfourie and a prominent local Catholic, to donate land within the town on which to build a new church. An agreement was reached whereby Gordon would provide a plot of land sufficient for the church, a house for the priest and a school, and Gordon and his brother would be interred within the church upon their deaths. With the land secured, construction of the building started in 1851, according to designs drawn up by Kyle himself, with assistance from A & W Reid, an architectural firm from Elgin. The imposing west front of the building was based on the derelict Elgin Cathedral, and was intended to symbolise the respectability attained by Catholics following their recent emancipation in Scotland. The building was completed in 1857, heralded by the following announcement carried in the local Banffshire Journal: "Opening of New Catholic Cathedral". The new Catholic Cathedral at Buckie was opened by the Rt Rev Bishop Kyle assisted by Rev Wm Clapperton who was the first missionary therein. From 1906 to 1907, the building was extended by the Belgian architect Charles Ménart, with the addition of a chancel to the east end of the church, which preserved and reused the rose window from the original east gable. Ménart also added a small porch to the north west of the church, the baptistry to the south west, and the Italian marble high altar and surrounding murals, which were his own design. The ornate marble war memorial at the west end of the church, installed in 1922, was designed by Cameron McDonald and carved by Nicol Bros of Buckie. In 1972, the church was designated a Category A listed building. The church's organ was installed in 2000–2001. Made by Bryceson Bros in 1875 for Fort Augustus Abbey, it was rebuilt in St Peter's by Rushwood and Dreaper following the closure of the abbey. ## Current usage The church remains in use as a Catholic church, operated as part of the Parishes of Buckie, Fochabers, Tynet and Presholme, under the governance of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Aberdeen.	[ "## Description", "### Interior", "### Presbytery and enclosing walls", "## History", "## Current usage" ]	1,051	36,530
5,812,797	Mission House (Stockbridge, Massachusetts)	1,169,254,402	Historic house in Massachusetts, United States	[ "1742 establishments in the Province of Massachusetts Bay", "1930 establishments in Massachusetts", "Historic district contributing properties in Massachusetts", "Historic house museums in Massachusetts", "Houses completed in 1742", "Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in Berkshire County, Massachusetts", "Museums established in 1930", "Museums in Stockbridge, Massachusetts", "National Historic Landmarks in Massachusetts", "The Trustees of Reservations" ]	The Mission House is an historic house located at 19 Main Street, Stockbridge, Massachusetts. It was built between 1741 and 1742 by a Christian missionary to the local Mahicans. It is a National Historic Landmark, designated in 1968 as a rare surviving example of a colonial mission house. It is now owned and operated as a nonprofit museum by the Trustees of Reservations. The town of Stockbridge was established in the late 1730s as a mission community to the Mahicans. John Sergeant was the first missionary, formally beginning his service in 1735. His first house, built in the valley where the Indians lived, has not survived; this house was built in the white community on the hill above the town following his marriage in 1739. It remained in the Sergeant family until the 1870s, and survived Gilded Age developments of the late 19th century. In the 1920s the house was purchased by Mabel Choate, owner of the nearby Naumkeag estate, and moved down into the valley. She and landscape designer Fletcher Steele restored the building, furnished it with 18th century pieces, and designed gardens to Steele's vision of what a colonial landscape might have been. Choate opened the house as a museum in 1930, and donated it (and eventually Naumkeag as well) to the Trustees of Reservations, who operate both properties as museums. ## Background Before the arrival of British colonists, the area that is now southern Berkshire County, Massachusetts was inhabited by communities of the Mahican tribal confederation. The population of these communities changed over the 17th century as war (sometimes with European colonists and sometimes with the neighboring Iroquois), disease, and migration made them smaller and more diverse. By the 1720s they had sold off most of their tribal lands, and lived in relative peace in two remaining tracts of land on the Housatonic River. Beginning in the late 1720s the Mahicans became a point of interest to British missionary organizations, because they were seen as potential conversion targets and to counter the possibility of influence on them from Roman Catholic New France. This effort was managed in New England by a commission headed by the governor of the Province of Massachusetts Bay, Jonathan Belcher. Belcher suggested in 1730 that the province lay out a town in the Mahican lands, and that London missionary groups pay for a mission there. Funds were allocated for this effort in 1733. In 1734 Massachusetts residents in the Northampton area met to organize the mission. John Sergeant, a recent graduate of Yale College, agreed to take on the task, and spent some time that fall among the Mahicans. After negotiations involving Governor Belcher and Mahican leaders, it was agreed in 1735 that a mission would be established, and Sergeant was ordained to serve as a minister among them. He immediately moved to the Mahican lands and began preaching to and baptizing them. In 1736 a township of six square miles (16 km<sup>2</sup>) was formally granted to the Mahicans by the Province of Massachusetts Bay, which would be incorporated in 1739 as Stockbridge. Included in the grant were provisions that the minister and schoolteacher receive land grants, and that four English families settle the area, in part to set an example of Christian living for the natives. John Sergeant built a modest frontier house in the township, and the Indian village grew around this area, which included a meeting house used as a church and school. ## House history In 1739 Sergeant married Abigail Williams, the seventeen-year-old daughter of one of Stockbridge's English colonists. She wanted to live outside the village, so Sergeant had a new house, the subject of this article, built on Prospect Hill, overlooking the village. The date of its construction is uncertain: Sergeant received the land in 1739 after Stockbridge's incorporation, and the house is known to have been built by 1742. The Sergeants lived there until his death in 1749. Abigail remarried and eventually moved out of the house, but it remained in the family. She returned to it after her second husband's death, living with her son's family until her own death in 1791. Jonathan Edwards, a minister who rose to fame during the First Great Awakening, succeeded Sergeant as missionary to the Mahicans (who also became known as "Stockbridge Indians" and "Mohicans"), but occupied the first house Sergeant built. That house has not survived, but its site is now marked by a sundial near 23 Main Street. Sergeant's second house remained in the family until 1879, when the property was sold to David Dudley Field, Jr., a New York City lawyer. Field amassed an estate of some 115 acres (47 ha), on which he built a large summer house; the mission house he rented out for several summers to friends. It subsequently fell into disrepair, and was rescued in the 1920s by Mabel Choate, the daughter of New York lawyer Joseph Hodges Choate and owner of the nearby Naumkeag estate, who sought to establish it as a museum in memory of her parents. Sometime around 1926, Choate purchased the mission house. The house was then disassembled, and its pieces carefully numbered. In 1927 she purchased the lot at 19 Main Street where the house now stands, formerly the site of the Stockbridge Casino; the casino building she sold for \$1, and it was moved to its present location east of town, where it serves as the home of the Berkshire Theatre Festival. In 1928 the house was reconstructed at its present location under the guidance of landscape designer Fletcher Steele. The property on which it originally stood is now the site of the Roman Catholic National Shrine of The Divine Mercy. The house's gardens were created between 1928 and 1932 by Steele (who was also responsible for significant work on Naumkeag's gardens). The house was furnished under Choate's guidance with pieces appropriate to the Sergeant period, and opened as a museum in 1930. She donated the house and surrounding property to the Trustees of Reservations in 1948, and bequeathed it part of her collection. Included in Choate's bequest to the museum was a two-volume Bible that had been given to the Mahicans in 1745 by Francis Ayscough. Choate had in the 1930s convinced the elders of the Stockbridge-Munsee tribe (successors to the Mahicans) to sell her the Bible for display in the museum. Tribe members objected to the sale after it took place, but no action was taken, and the Bible's location was lost to the tribe until it was spotted by tribal members in the museum in 1975. Following negotiations, the Trustees of Reservations returned the Bible to the tribe in 1991. ## House and gardens The mission house now stands on a lot approximately 0.4 acres (0.16 ha) in size. The layout of the house is a standard Georgian center-hall plan, with fireplaced rooms (a parlor to the left, and kitchen to the right) on either side of a central hall, which has a stairway to the second floor. Behind the parlor is an office space where Sergeant would have met with Indians. A diversion from the typical Georgian plan is the presence of a second entrance on the right side of the house, and a narrow hallway running from that entrance to the office. This made it possible for Sergeant's Indian visitors to reach his office without passing through the front of the house. The front door is adorned with a remarkably well-preserved specimen of a Connecticut River valley front door pediment. The property features several outbuildings, generally dating from the time of the restoration. A small one-room frame building in the southwest corner serves as a visitor center. Behind the house is a long one-story building that houses museum exhibits, as well as a storage and utility area. It is connected to the house itself by a 25-foot (7.6 m) grape arbor. Northeast of the house is a large barn-like building housing function facilities and a caretaker's apartment. The gardens and outbuildings of the property were designed to Fletcher Steele's vision of what colonial garden should be. He drew on ideas seen in the gardens of George Washington's estate at Mount Vernon to design a property where "a hundred forms of industry were carried on". Rows of vegetables, fruit trees, and bushes, were lined with flowers for aesthetic appeal, and spaces for carved out that he envisioned would have been used for performing outdoor work such as chopping wood, churning butter, and preparing preserves. Echoing statements made in his Design of a Little Garden, published just a few years earlier, Steele laid out the outbuildings in such a way to provide the homeowners a private retreat. The house was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1968, and listed on the National Register of Historic Places. It contains a collection of eighteenth-century American furniture and decorative arts. It is open to the public on summer weekends or by appointment. ## See also - List of historic houses in Massachusetts - List of National Historic Landmarks in Massachusetts - National Register of Historic Places listings in Berkshire County, Massachusetts	[ "## Background", "## House history", "## House and gardens", "## See also" ]	1,924	7,729
56,740,932	Cima volcanic field	1,172,250,002	Volcanic field in San Bernardino County, California	[ "Mojave National Preserve", "Natural history of the Mojave Desert", "Protected areas of San Bernardino County, California", "Protected areas of the Mojave Desert", "Volcanic fields of California", "Volcanoes of California", "Volcanoes of San Bernardino County, California" ]	Cima volcanic field is a volcanic field in San Bernardino County, California, close to the border with Nevada. The volcanic field covers a surface area of 600 km<sup>2</sup> (230 sq mi) within the Mojave National Preserve west of the Cima Dome and consists of about 40 volcanic cones with about 60 lava flows. The volcanic cones range from simple cones over multi-cratered mountains to eroded hills, and lava flows are up to 9.1 km (5.7 mi) long. At least one lava tube exists in the field and can be visited. Volcanic activity in the field commenced in the Late Miocene and after a pause between 3 and 1 million years ago continued into the latest Pleistocene. The youngest cone is known as the Black Tank cone and formed about 15,000 years before present, although it is possible that it was formed through two separate eruption events; formerly it was considered to be of historical age. ## Geography and geology The Cima volcanic field lies in the eastern Mojave Desert of California, between the Shadow Valley in the northeast, the Cima Dome in the east and the Soda Lake Valley in the southwest. Southwest of the field is Kelbaker Road which crosses some lava flows, and dirt roads such as the Indian Springs Trail and the Aiken Mine Road crisscross between the volcanoes. Interstate 15 passes north of the field and just south of older volcanic units, while California State Route 127 runs west and southwest of the field, The city of Las Vegas is 120 kilometers (75 mi) northeast of the area. The Cima volcanoes are part of the Mojave National Preserve and since 1973 they make up the Cinder Cones National Natural Landmark. During the Holocene and until recent times, humans engraved petroglyphs into the lava flows. One cinder cone was quarried to obtain materials for road construction. The volcanic field has been the subject of soil sciences and landscape development research. ### Regional Volcanism is widespread in the western United States and occurs in various forms at various places. Among the better known are the Cascade volcanoes created by subduction off the western coast of North America, which include the caldera of Mount Mazama (created by a large eruption in the early Holocene) as well as stratovolcanoes such as Mount St. Helens and mafic volcanic fields. Other volcanic centres in the United States are those associated with Yellowstone Caldera and Snake River Plain, those along the margins of the Colorado Plateau, volcanoes linked to the Rio Grande Rift and Jemez lineament, and finally volcanoes in the western Basin and Range Province such as the Cima volcanic field. Generally, volcanic activity was widespread in the dry regions of the western United States during the Tertiary and Quaternary, forming several volcanic fields. An earlier phase of felsic volcanism during the Tertiary was followed during the Quaternary by more basaltic volcanism, often in the form of short-lived volcanic vents. Examples of this kind of volcanism are the Cima volcanic field, the San Francisco volcanic field (Arizona), the Southwest Nevada volcanic field (Nevada) and the Zuni-Bandera volcanic field (New Mexico). The Cima volcanic field is part of the Mojave Desert, which in turn belongs to the Basin and Range Province and features both mountains exceeding 2,000 meters (6,600 ft) height which trend in southeast–northwest direction, with broad valleys between the mountains. ### Local There are about 40 cones in the Cima volcanic field. The cones are as much as 890 meters (2,920 ft) wide and 170 meters (560 ft) high, and are concentrated between elevations of 1,400–790 meters (4,600–2,600 ft) on a south-southwest tilting slope. Some cones are well preserved with intact craters, while others have been reduced to hills by erosion. Some cones have more than one crater. North of the main field lie two outcrops of older volcanic rocks (Miocene to Pliocene); other than this separate older outcrop volcanic activity appears to have occurred without any preferential alignment. Several washes such as Willow Wash, Black Tank Wash and Indian Creek cross through the field and have eroded lava flows. The youngest cone () in the southwestern part of the field is called Black Tank cone. The Black Tank cone is the source of a 2-kilometer (1.2 mi) long lava flow, which at first forms a levee-bound channel and then narrows out into a lobate shape. It also shows traces of a lava tube and has a volume of 0.015 cubic kilometers (0.0036 cu mi). This flow may have been preceded by a previous lava flow which was later buried by the main flow. An older vent lies just south-southwest of the Black Tank Cone. The field presents black and red volcanic rocks in the form of cinders, exposed feeder dikes and lava bombs, as well as agglutinates which are exposed in gullies and eroded vents. Bombs and cinders cover the less eroded cones, which are also sometimes surrounded by base surge deposits. At some vents, tuff rings formed through phreatomagmatic activity. Erosion has dug gullies and larger valleys in the older cones, including one 150-meter (490 ft) deep gorge. Volcanic material covers a surface area of about 150 square kilometers (58 sq mi) within an area of c. 600 square kilometers (230 sq mi). The volcanic field was emplaced on a basement of Tertiary age, which comprises both crystalline bedrock and thick gravel deposits. Other rock formations in the area are of Proterozoic–Paleozoic to Mesozoic (Teutonia batholith) age, and the region is considered to be part of the Ivanpah uplift. #### Lava flows The cones have given rise to about 60 lava flows. Lava flows reach lengths of 9.1 kilometers (5.7 mi), thicknesses of 2.5–4 meters (8 ft 2 in – 13 ft 1 in) and have surface features similar to pahoehoe or aa lava depending on how steep the slopes they flowed down were. The lava flows display structures like levees, finger-like and lobe-like edges at the lava flow margins, spines and spires and material from the cones that was rafted away by the lavas. One can distinguish between long, gently sloping flows which dominate the field, and shorter, steeper rougher flows covered by blocks with sizes of up to 0.5 meters (1 ft 8 in). One major lava tube lies in the Cima field and is accessible through a skylight; it is 100 meters (330 ft) long and 5–3 meters (16.4–9.8 ft) wide. In some places flows surrounded basement outcrops, forming kipukas. In accordance to the slope of the area, most lavas flowed westward. Younger flows often show crisp lava flow features while older flows are almost always mantled with younger material and have lost their original surface features. The oldest flows have flat or gentle surfaces and their source vents are heavily degraded. Lava flows are also in part covered by wind-transported or erosional material and desert varnish. ### Composition The field has erupted alkali basalt, basanite and hawaiite. Phenocrysts include clinopyroxene, olivine and plagioclase. There are also xenoliths including dunite, gabbro, granite, and notably ultramafic to mafic xenoliths. The rock composition has not changed much during the history of the Cima volcanoes. Temperatures of 1,110 °C (2,030 °F) have been estimated for the lava erupted by the Black Tank cone. The magma erupted in the field ultimately appears to originate from the lithospheric or asthenospheric mantle with little contribution of crustal components, unlike earlier felsic volcanism. Upwelling of asthenosphere material appears to be responsible for the volcanism at the end, possibly associated with the change in the tectonics of the region from subduction-dominated to tectonics of a transform boundary. Fractional crystallization, magma ponding in the crust, differences in the mantle sources and partial melting processes have been invoked to explain certain compositional differences in the erupted rocks. ## Climate and vegetation The climate of the area is warm and dry with average temperatures of 18–16 °C (64–61 °F) and average precipitation amounting to 250–150 millimeters per year (9.8–5.9 in/year). Most precipitation falls during winter, with only small amounts of rain falling during summer as monsoonal rainfall. Before the beginning of the Holocene, the climate was wetter and this facilitated the development of soils on lava flows. During the Holocene, playas became sources for wind-blown dust which accumulates on the lava. Vegetation in the area is classified as scrub, with plants including brittle bush, creosote bush, Mormon tea and white bursage. Joshua trees grow at higher elevations. Some of these species arrived during the Holocene, while others became established during the Pleistocene or appeared and disappeared repeatedly. Vegetation grows in clusters separated by soil covered by desert pavement. The youngest cone is unvegetated and little vegetation has developed on other recent volcanic vents and lava flows. ## Eruptive history Early research postulated a Pleistocene age for the northern part of the field and a Holocene age for the southern; later radiometric dates indicated Miocene ages for the northern parts of the field. More recent research showed Miocene ages for the northern volcanics and Pleistocene ages for the southern. An eruption rate of 8 events per 100,000 years and a magma output of 0.001 cubic kilometers per millennium (0.00024 cu mi/ka) has been estimated for the Cima field. According to potassium-argon dating, volcanic activity started in the Miocene and continued to the end of the Pleistocene. Activity has been subdivided into five phases, the first between 7.6 and 6.5 million years ago, the second between 5.1 and 3.6 million years ago, the third between 1.1 and 0.6 million years ago, the fourth between 750,000 and 200,000 years ago and the fifth and last between 200,000 and 10,000 years ago. The radiometric ages have been corroborated by morphological and paleomagnetic information. Volcanic activity paused between 3 and 1 million years ago. The oldest volcanic phase left a heavily dissected volcano in the southeastern part of the field, while the subsequent phase involved lava flows in the northern part of the field that take the form of eroded mesas. The final three phases formed lava flows and the volcanoes in the southern part of the field. Eruptions commenced as maar-forming eruptions and continued with the growth of cinder cones and lava flows. Unlike regular cinder cones which usually erupt only once, some cones at Cima experienced more than one eruption and were active over hundreds of thousands of years. The Black Tank cone, the youngest cone in the field, has been dated to 15,000 ± 5,000 years before present by several methods. Some evidence suggested a historical age for one of the southern lava flows, with earlier radiocarbon dating yielding an age of 330–480 years. Several chronological data imply that the lava flow was formed during two separate eruptive episodes, one 20,000 years ago and the other 11,500 - 13,000 years ago. The lava flow was probably laid down in less than a week of time, and the growth of the cone was influenced by wind, which transported tephra east-southeastwards where it fell out and formed a tephra blanket. ## See also - Aiken's Wash - List of volcanoes in the United States	[ "## Geography and geology", "### Regional", "### Local", "#### Lava flows", "### Composition", "## Climate and vegetation", "## Eruptive history", "## See also" ]	2,542	37,095
43,087,234	Zorobabela Kaʻauwai	1,167,018,109	Hawaiian judge (c. 1799/1806–1856)	[ "1799 births", "1806 births", "1856 deaths", "19th-century judges", "19th-century politicians", "Converts to Protestantism", "Hawaiian Kingdom Protestants", "Hawaiian Kingdom judges", "Hawaiian Kingdom politicians", "Hawaiian nobility", "Justices of the Hawaii Supreme Court", "Lahainaluna School alumni", "Members of the Hawaiian Kingdom House of Representatives", "Native Hawaiian politicians", "People from Maui", "People from Wailuku, Hawaii" ]	Zorobabela Kaʻauwai (c. 1799/1806 – August 8, 1856) was an early politician and judge in the Kingdom of Hawaii. Beginning as an assistant to the Hoapili, Governor of Maui, he served many political posts including Assistant Judge of the first Supreme Court of Hawaii, an original member of the Board of Commissioners to Quiet Land Titles, a multiple-term representative in the Hawaiian legislature and circuit judge for Maui. An early convert to Christianity and devout adherent of the Protestant faith, his first name is a Hawaiian form of the Biblical name Zerubbabel. ## Early life Kaʻauwai was born around 1799 or 1806, in the district of Kona on the island of Hawaii. Although not of chiefly descent, his family belonged to the "old class of chief's right-hand men." Later historian Jon Kamakawiwoʻole Osorio stated he was a chief, of Maui lineage. At a young age, he attracted the attention of Kamehameha I and later came under the patronage of High Chief Hoapili, one of Kamehameha's advisor and loyal companion and later Governor of Maui. He worked in the household of Hoapili and became his loyal subject. Later writer noted that Kaʻauwai "must have been an extraordinary youth to secure, as he did, the confidence and love of this old chieftain." Kaʻauwai revered Hoapili as a father figure and accompanied him into battle and fought in the 1824 rebellion of Humehume, on the island of Kauai. He was present when the American missionaries, who arrived in Hawaii in 1820, established a mission station at Lahaina. After the converted Hoapili imposed a law requiring his household retainers to learn the Hawaiian alphabet or otherwise be deprived of food, the obedient Kaʻauwai abstained from food for two entire days and he learned to read and write. He and his friend David Malo became interested in Christianity at the same time and both served as early helpers to the missionaries in Lahaina, although unlike Malo, he was never licensed to preach. Under the order of Hoapili, he helped build the stone church of Kalaniʻohua, on Maui. With Malo, he attended the Lahainaluna became one of the first generation of Hawaiians to receive a western education by the American missionaries who arrived in Hawaii in 1820. Reginald Yzendoorn, author of History of the Catholic Mission in the Hawaiian Islands, later wrote that Kaʻauwai was a judge and Calvinist deacon who related the burning of the Roman Catholic chapel of Wailuku in 1843 to his mother-in-law Marie Leahi, an early Catholic female catechumen. In the early Hawaiian Protestant mission, deacons did not have to be licensed to preach. Kaʻauwai became an experienced fisherman, manager of the chief's canoes and an early physician. He worked as his headman or right-hand agent to Governor Hoapili and was effectively the Lieutenant Governor of Maui in all but name. In their first meeting in 1832, Reverend Richard Armstrong described how Hoapili trusted him with all his important business including accessing and collecting taxes, managing his property, and conducting tours of the island of Maui, and thus became a highly respected and well-loved official in the public view. In October 1851, the Privy Council of State, the advisory council for the king, recommended him as a candidate for the Governorship of Maui left vacant by the death of James Kānehoa Young, but the council eventually voted eight to three to recommended the appointment of Prince Lot Kapuāiwa (the future Kamehameha V) instead. However, Prince Lot never seem to have taken up this position either because Kānehoa's deputy Paul Nahaolelua remained acting governor until his own appointment in 1852. ## Political career In 1842, Kaʻauwai was elected by the Hawaiian legislature to serve as one of the four Assistant Judges of the Supreme Court of Hawaii, the first formed in the Kingdom of Hawaii between 1842 and 1848, which was headed by King Kamehameha III and the Kuhina Nui Kekāuluohi and after her death Keoni Ana. These four judges of the Supreme Court were not Associate Justices (like later individuals appointed after 1848) but served in the capacity of an assistant to the Chief Justice, i.e. the King. He sat as a judge from 1842 to 1846, before resigning in November, 1846. He was succeeded by Joshua Kaʻeo. In 1842, King Kamehameha III also appointed Kaʻauwai as one of the five original members of the Board of Commissioners to Quiet Land Titles, a government committee in charge of settling or quieting land claims of the Great Māhele. He served in this post from February 10, 1846 until his resignation on March 21, 1850; an experienced attorney Joshua Kekaulahao was appointed in his place after he resigned. According to historian Samuel Kamakau and contemporary legislative records, Kaʻauwai was one of the early "representatives of the people" who assembled with the king and the chiefs in the first session of the legislature of the Hawaiian Kingdom which met between April and May 1841, at Luaʻehu, in the early capital of Lahaina. Instead of a direct vote, these early representatives were appointed by recommendation or petitions from the people of the four main islands to the king. In 1842, Kamakau replaced him as one of the two representative for Maui in the next session. Records and legislative roster from the monarchy do not list him as a representative of the other sessions of the 1840s. After the expansion of representation in the 1850s and the introduction of direct suffrage in 1851, he was elected as a member of the House of Representatives, the lower house of the legislature, and sat for four terms in the legislative assemblies of 1851, 1852, 1854 and 1855. No records exist for his representation in 1851, but he represented the district of Makawao, Maui in 1852, for Hamakua, Maui in 1854, and for Honolulu, Oahu in 1855. Writing after his death, Reverend Jonathan Smith Green noted, "As a member of this body, I had the testimony of Judge Lee, often repeated, that no Hawaiian member equalled him for solid worth. Mr. Lee was Speaker once or twice when Kaauwai was a member, and knew him well. Had he lived, he would doubtless have continued to serve his generation by the will of God." He served as a magistrate for Makawao. He was also a judge of the Circuit Court of Maui from April 27, 1855 until his death on August 8, 1856. Aside from politics, Kaʻauwai was a successful entrepreneur and was regarded as a "man of wealth". He acquired and accumulated extensive property in Honolulu and Maui, and according to Reverend Armstrong, who was pastor at Kawaiahaʻo Church and knew him in later life, stated "He did accumulate property; he had lands, houses, cattle, and money. But he did not hoard these fruits of his industry—he gave freely to aid in every good work; gave for the support of the Gospel; aided in building meeting houses and school houses; in sending the Gospel to the heathen, and in assisting the needy." In March 1849, he attempted to purchase the island of Kahoʻolawe from the King and the Land Commission. Kaʻauwai offered \$400 for the entire island, which had been previously used unsuccessfully as a male penal colony. The offer was refused by the King and his Privy Council of State, and a subsequent application dated to August 18, 1854 for a fifty-year lease at \$200 per year was also declined. He also worked as a farmer and acquired property on Maui for growing taro and banana, which he won prizes for at the Hawaiian Agricultural Society in 1851. In later life, he became a resident of Wailuku and Makawao and was a donor and attendant of the church at Makawao, founded by Reverend Green, after developing a rift with the Wailuku Congregational Church. Falling ill while he was in Honolulu, Kaʻauwai returned to his native Maui for a change of climate which did nothing to improve his health. He died at Makawao, on August 8, 1856. In a letter dated to October 6, 1856, Reverend Jonathan Smith Green, who had befriended him during his lifetime as a parishioner of the Makawao church, wrote a short biography of Kaʻauwai which was published in The American Missionary. ## Family and children Kaʻauwai married Kalanikauleleiaiwi III, a high chiefess of the Maui lineage descended from Piʻilani, and a relative of the family of High Chief Hoapili. His mother-in-law Marie Leahi was an early Roman Catholic female catechumen. With Kalanikauleleiaiwi he had four children: three sons including David Kahalekula Kaʻauwai (1833–1856), William Hoapili Kaʻauwai (1835–1874), and George Kaleiwohi Kaʻauwai (1843–1883) and a daughter who died in infancy before 1848. His eldest son David Kahalekula Kaʻauwai served alongside his father in the House of Representatives, from 1854 to 1855, and was considered "one of the finest Hawaiian orators". His second son William Hoapili Kaʻauwai also served in the legislator as a Representative for Wailuku for two terms in 1862 and 1870. He became the only ordained Hawaiian Anglican priest and traveled with his wife Kiliwehi as part of the retinue of Queen Emma during her trip to Europe. His youngest son George Kaleiwohi Kaʻauwai married Ulalia Muolo Keaweheulu Laʻanui, and their daughter was Princess Elizabeth Kahanu Kalanianaʻole, wife of Prince Jonah Kūhiō Kalanianaʻole, the second Congressional Delegate from the Territory of Hawaii.	[ "## Early life", "## Political career", "## Family and children" ]	2,242	36,618
43,204,078	The Boat Race 1988	1,145,618,907	null	[ "1988 in English sport", "1988 in rowing", "1988 sports events in London", "April 1988 sports events in the United Kingdom", "The Boat Race" ]	The 134th Boat Race took place on 2 April 1988. Held annually, the event is a side-by-side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames. Oxford won by 5+1⁄2 lengths in a time of 18 minutes 27 seconds, the equal-fourth fastest time in the event's history. The race was umpired by former Cambridge rowing Blue Mike Sweeney. In the reserve race, Cambridge's Goldie won, while Oxford won the Women's Boat Race. ## Background The Boat Race is a side-by-side rowing competition between the University of Oxford (sometimes referred to as the "Dark Blues") and the University of Cambridge (sometimes referred to as the "Light Blues"). First held in 1829, the race takes place on the 4.2-mile (6.8 km) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London. The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities and followed throughout the United Kingdom and broadcast worldwide. Oxford went into the race as reigning champions, having won the 1987 race by four lengths, with Cambridge leading overall with 69 victories to Oxford's 64 (excluding the "dead heat" of 1877). The event was sponsored by Beefeater Gin and was televised in the United Kingdom by the BBC on its Grandstand sports programme. The first Women's Boat Race took place in 1927, but did not become an annual fixture until the 1960s. Until 2014, the contest was conducted as part of the Henley Boat Races, but as of the 2015 race, it is held on the River Thames, on the same day as the men's main and reserve races. The reserve race, contested between Oxford's Isis boat and Cambridge's Goldie boat has been held since 1965. It usually takes place on the Tideway, prior to the main Boat Race. ## Crews Oxford weighed in with the heaviest crew in Boat Race history – on average the rowers weighed 14 st 11.5 lb (93.9 kg), 11 lb more per man than Cambridge. Oxford's Gavin Stewart, at was the tallest rower in the history of the Boat Race. Cambridge's crew included four former Blues while Oxford's featured six. Oxford's coaching team included Canadian international coach Mike Spracklen. ## Race The race took place on 2 April 1988. Oxford started as pre-race favourites, and having won the toss, elected to start from the Surrey station. Immediately from the start, the umpire was called into action, warning both coxes for steering too closely to one another. Cambridge took a slight lead but Oxford soon recovered to become level, and by the Mile Post were three seconds ahead. Shortly after, the Cambridge number 7, Nick Grundy caught a crab, causing his boat to "shudder to a halt." Oxford slowly extended their lead; nine seconds ahead at Hammersmith Bridge, eleven seconds by the Chiswick Steps and fifteen by Barnes Bridge. Oxford passed the finishing post 16 seconds ahead of Cambridge, winning by 5+1⁄2 lengths in a time of 18 minutes 27 seconds, the equal-fourth fastest time in the event's history. In the reserve race, Cambridge's Goldie won by 5+1⁄2 lengths in a time of 17 minutes and 55 seconds, their second consecutive victory. Oxford won the 43rd Women's Boat Race with their third victory in four years. ## Reaction The Beefeater Gin Trophy was presented by Denis Thatcher. Grundy said of his crab: "I feathered my oar after a stroke and the tip caught the water, which plunged it back in." Oxford Boat Club president Chris Penny said "It was not an easy race but it was enjoyable. We kept our heads, found our rhythm and moved back and through them."	[ "## Background", "## Crews", "## Race", "## Reaction" ]	810	13,432
14,584,223	K-153 (Kansas highway)	1,170,811,554	Highway in Kansas	[ "State highways in Kansas", "Transportation in McPherson County, Kansas", "U.S. Route 81" ]	K-153 is a 3.451-mile-long (5.554 km) north–south state highway located entirely within McPherson County in the U.S. state of Kansas. K-153's southern terminus is at a partial interchange with K-61 southwest of McPherson and the northern terminus is at U.S. Route 56 (US-56) in McPherson. K-153 along with K-61 is part of a western bypass of McPherson. The highway has one signed spur route known as K-153 Spur. Before state highways were numbered in Kansas there were auto trails. The northern terminus closely follows the former National Old Trails Road and Old Santa Fe Trail. The current K-153 Spur and section of K-153 from the spur northward to US-56 was originally a section of US-81. When US-81 was moved onto the new Interstate 35W (I-35W) (modern I-135), the current K-153 was designated K-61 Alternate and the spur was designated K-61 Spur. In a resolution on August 28, 1968, K-153 and K-153 Spur was created when K-61 Alternate was renumbered to K-153 and K-61 Spur was renumbered to K-153 Spur. ## Route description K-153's southern terminus is at K-61 at a partial interchange, where southbound K-153 exits to southbound K-61 and northbound K-61 exits to northbound K-153 only. The highway travels northeast through rural farmlands parallel to the Union Pacific Railroad track. K-153 soon reaches a partial interchange with K-153 Spur, where northbound K-153 Spur exits onto northbound K-153 and southbound K-153 exits onto southbound K-153 Spur. K-153 begins to travel north with the McPherson Airport to the west and an industrial area to the east, then enters the McPherson city limits just north of Iron Horse Road (Refinery Road). The roadway continues north to Kiowa Road and enters into a more commercial area. The highway then crosses over Bull Creek before reaching its northern terminus at US-56 (West Kansas Avenue). The road continues north as McPherson County Route 1961. K-153 is not included in the National Highway System. The National Highway System is a system of highways important to the nation's defense, economy, and mobility. K-153 does connect to the National Highway System at its southern terminus at K-61 and at its northern terminus at US-56. All but 1.268 miles (2 km) of K-153's alignment is maintained by the Kansas Department of Transportation (KDOT). The entire section of K-153 within McPherson is maintained by the city. KDOT tracks the traffic levels on its highways, and in 2020, they determined that on average the traffic varied from 2,740 vehicles per day south of K-153 Spur to 6,670 vehicles per day north of K-153 Spur. ## History Before state highways were numbered in Kansas there were auto trails, which were an informal network of marked routes that existed in the United States and Canada in the early part of the 20th century. The northern terminus (US-56) closely follows the former National Old Trails Road, which ran from Baltimore and Washington D.C. west to Los Angeles; and Old Santa Fe Trail, which ran from Franklin to Santa Fe. The current K-153 Spur and section of K-153 from the spur northward to US-56 was originally a section of US-81, and the section of K-153 from K-61 to K-153 spur was originally K-61. In a resolution on August 24, 1966, it was approved to build I-35W (modern I-135) to the east of McPherson and realign US-81 onto it, and a new alignment of K-61 was approved to link to the new I-35W. Also, the former section of US-81 from the new K-61 alignment north to US-56 remained in the state highway system. By August 1968, the new I-35W had been built as well as the new alignment of K-61 to it. What is now K-153 was K-61 Alternate and what is now K-153 Spur was K-61 Spur at the time K-61 was extended. Then in a resolution on August 28, 1968, K-61 Alternate was renumbered to K-153 and K-61 Spur was renumbered to K-153 Spur. ## Major intersections ## Spur route K-153 Spur is a 1.067-mile-long (1.717 km) spur route of K-153. The southern terminus is at a partial interchange with K-61 southwest of McPherson, where southbound K-153 Spur exits onto northbound K-61 and southbound K-61 exits onto northbound K-153 Spur. South of K-61, K-153 spur continues as McPherson County Route 2043 (Old US-81). The highway proceeds north to its northern terminus at a partial interchange with K-153, where northbound K-153 spur exits onto northbound K-153 and southbound K-153 exits onto southbound K-153 Spur. In 2020, KDOT determined that on average the traffic was 4,010 vehicles per day on K-153 Spur. K-153 Spur was designated through a resolution on August 28, 1968, where K-61 Spur was renumbered to K-153 Spur. ### Major junctions	[ "## Route description", "## History", "## Major intersections", "## Spur route", "### Major junctions" ]	1,212	26,873
56,803,096	1985 British Open	1,122,639,943	Snooker tournament, held 1985	[ "1985 in British sport", "1985 in snooker", "British Open (snooker)", "February 1985 sports events in the United Kingdom", "March 1985 sports events in the United Kingdom" ]	The 1985 British Open (also known as the 1985 Dulux British Open due to sponsorship) was a professional ranking snooker tournament, that was held from 17 February to 3 March 1985 with television coverage on ITV beginning on 22 February from the Assembly Rooms in Derby, England. It was the first edition of the British Open, having been rebranded from the International Open the previous year. It was the fifth ranking event of the 1984–85 snooker season, preceding the 1985 World Snooker Championship. In the best-of-23- final, South African player Silvino Francisco defeated Canadian Kirk Stevens 12–9. It was the first major professional snooker tournament without a British player in the final. The event featured a total prize fund of £250,000 with the winner receiving £50,000. The highest of the event was made by Alex Higgins, who compiled a 142 in his last-16 match against Cliff Thorburn. ## Overview The 1985 British Open was held between 17 February and 3 March 1985. The qualifying competition took place across venues in London, Bristol and Stockport. The first round took place at the Connaught Club in London and the Bradbury Hall in Chesterfield between 14 and 17 January 1985, whilst the remaining rounds took place at the Assembly Rooms, Derby. The qualifying and first rounds were played as best-of-11 . The following rounds, from last 32 to quarter-finals, were played as shorter best-of-9-frames matches because of television scheduling. Broadcaster ITV were concerned about the prospect of large overtime payments for their staff if matches overran, and also requested that the afternoon matches started at 2:00 pm rather than the originally scheduled 1:00 pm, to avoid higher payments to lighting technicians that would have been due if the lighting was switched on before that time. The decision by snooker governing body the World Professional Billiards and Snooker Association (WPBSA) to cut the length of matches in response to ITV's request was publicly criticised by WPBSA board member Barry Hearn, who was also the manager of prominent player Steve Davis. The event was sponsored by ICI Paints Division and was known for sponsorship purposes as the 1985 Dulux British Open. It took the place of the non-ranking 1984 International Masters tournament on the professional snooker calendar. ### Prize fund The prize fund for the event was £250,000, with the winner receiving £50,000. - Winner: £50,000 - Runner-up: £30,000 - Semi-finals: £17,500 - Quarter-finals: £9,000 - Last 16: £4,625 - Last 32: £2,000 - Last 64: £750 - Highest break (televised stages): £5,000 Alex Higgins (142) - Highest break (pre-televised stages): £5,000 Steve Davis (129) - Total: £250,000 ## Tournament summary In the first round, Bill Werbeniuk, 14th in the world rankings, was beaten 1–6 by Bob Chaperon. Malcolm Bradley, in his first season as a professional player, beat David Taylor 6–3. Bob Harris, who to that point had made little impact as a player, beat world number six Eddie Charlton 6–3 after being 1–3 behind. Jimmy White was 3–1 ahead of Tony Jones but the match went to the deciding frame before White won, 6–5. Another first-year professional, Danny Fowler, beat Rex Williams, the former world billiards champion, 6–3. A third new professional, Tony Chappel, led reigning world champion Steve Davis 5–4, before Davis prevailed 6–5. The television stages of the event began in the second round. Steve Newbury, in his first season as a professional player, recorded a 5–3 win over former world champion Terry Griffiths in the last 32. Other players unexpectedly losing in the second round were Willie Thorne, who lost 0–5 to Murdo MacLeod; Ray Reardon, who was wearing spectacles for the first time in a match and who was beaten 4–5 by Dave Martin after leading 4–1; and Jimmy White, who lost 4–5 to Silvino Francisco. Only seven of the top sixteen seeded players progressed into the last 16 of the competition. In the last 16, Alex Higgins was level at 2–2 with Cliff Thorburn, then made a total clearance of 142, the highest break of the tournament, and went on to win 5–2. In the match between Eugene Hughes and Murdo MacLeod, neither player made a break of 30 or over as Hughes won 5–2. Kirk Stevens won his quarter-final against Dennis Taylor by winning five straight frames after trailing 0–2, and went on to beat Davis 9–7 in the semi-final to reach his first ranking tournament final. In the other semi-final, Francisco was never behind Higgins in frames, and won 9–7. With the South African Francisco and the Canadian Stevens contesting the final, it was the first snooker ranking tournament where there was no British player in the final. The next time there was a ranking final with no British players was the 2009 Grand Prix. Francisco beat Stevens 12–9 in the final to win the title. The final was played across three sessions, with an afternoon and evening session on Saturday 2 March followed by a session on Sunday 3 March. Francisco took a 5–0 lead in the final, before Stevens won the last two frames of the first session to make it 5–2. In the second session, Francisco increased his lead to 6–2 with a on the in the eighth frame. A few frames later, he made his lead 9–4 due to another fluked pink ball. In the frame following this, Stevens compiled the highest break of the final, 108, which left Francisco 9–5 ahead at the end of the first day. The following day, Stevens took the first three frames of the third session of the final to trail by just one frame. However, Francisco won the next two frames to lead 11–8. Stevens won frame 20 from 47 points behind, but Francisco took the next to gain victory. The winner's prize money of £50,000 was a new record amount for snooker tournaments. It was Francisco's only ranking tournament win as well as Stevens' only ranking final. ## Main draw The main draw for the tournament was held with a total of 64 participants. Players listed in bold denote match winners. ### Final ## Qualifying Qualifying matches were played as best-of-11-frames matches. Players in bold denote match winners.	[ "## Overview", "### Prize fund", "## Tournament summary", "## Main draw", "### Final", "## Qualifying" ]	1,447	31,061
9,524,586	WE Communications	1,173,840,084	Public relations and integrated marketing communications firm	[ "1983 establishments in Washington (state)", "American companies established in 1983", "Companies based in Seattle", "Marketing companies established in 1983", "Privately held companies based in Washington (state)", "Public relations companies of the United States" ]	WE Communications (previously Waggener Edstrom) and commonly known as WE is a global public relations and integrated marketing communications firm often associated with its largest client, Microsoft. The firm was founded in 1983 by Melissa Waggener Zorkin. ## History The Waggener Group was founded in 1983 by Melissa Waggener Zorkin. In 1984, Pam Edstrom joined the firm, which was renamed Waggener Edstrom. Edstrom previously worked for Microsoft, which became one of the agency's first clients. The firm acquired PR.com in 2001, Maloney & Fox in 2003, Shout Holdings in 2004, Patzer PR in 2012, Buchan in 2016, Red Bridge Consulting and WATATAWA in 2017, Avian Media in 2018 and Codeword in 2019. In September 2015, the company re-branded as WE Communications. Pam Edstrom died in March 2017 and later that year was posthumously inducted in the PR Hall of Fame. ## Services WE Communications focuses on three sectors — healthcare, consumer and technology. Its services include media relations, corporate and executive communications, digital marketing, creative, social media and content strategy, crisis communications, insights and analytics, corporate social responsibility, brand purpose and reputation. ## Notable clients and campaigns Notable clients include Microsoft, Volvo, Boehringer Ingelheim, VSP, Honeywell, Tencent, Cisco, McDonald's, Tabula Rasa, Brother, Amgen, Gilead, iRobot, RSA, Lenovo, the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, AT&T and others. WE Communications is often associated with its work for Microsoft, one of its first clients. In the firm's early years, this relationship led to it working primarily with other technology companies, before expanding into healthcare, consumer and other sectors. For more than a decade, WE Communications supported Mercy Corps on a pro-bono basis after CEO Waggener Zorkin took on the client after visiting the Good Shepherd orphanage in Ghana. In 2018 WE Communications handled the PR for the McDelivery Day 2.0 and was shortlisted for PRWeek Global Award. ## Awards - In 2010 WE Communications was named the Technology Agency of the Decade by The Holmes Report. - In 2015, Volvo's Greatest Interception Ever campaign, executed in partnership with Grey New York, won two Cannes Lions awards as well as the Cannes Lions Grand Prix for Campaign. - In 2016, WE Communications was named one of PRWeek Asia's Best Places to Work in the medium agency category. - CEO Melissa Waggener Zorkin was inducted into the PRWeek Hall of Femme in 2017 and Pam Edstrom was posthumously elected to the PR Hall of Fame. - WE Buchan won the Large PR Agency of the Year Award at the Mumbrella CommsCon Awards in 2018 and 2019. - WE Communications was shortlisted for PRWeek U.S.'s Outstanding Large Agency award and for the PRWeek Global Awards' Best Agency in Asia-Pacific in 2019.	[ "## History", "## Services", "## Notable clients and campaigns", "## Awards" ]	648	23,832
47,394,724	Mary Isenhour	1,101,138,187	American political strategist	[ "American campaign managers", "Chiefs of staff to United States state governors", "Kansas Democrats", "Living people", "Members of the Pennsylvania House of Representatives", "Pennsylvania Democrats", "People from Kansas", "State cabinet secretaries of Pennsylvania", "Year of birth missing (living people)" ]	Mary Isenhour is an American political strategist, campaign manager, and government official. She was the Chief of Staff for Pennsylvania Governor Tom Wolf. Prior to the Wolf administration, Isenhour served executive director of the Pennsylvania Democratic Party, was state director of Hillary Clinton's 2008 presidential campaign, and assisted with the successful campaigns of U.S. Senator Bob Casey, Jr. and Pennsylvania Governor Ed Rendell. She now serves with the firm Rooney Novak Isenhour, LLC and is a member of the Pennsylvania Liquor Control Board. Isenhour also previously worked as executive director of the Pennsylvania House Democratic Campaign Committee, and started a political consulting firm with former state party chairman T.J. Rooney. In 2010, PoliticsPA called her "one of the top consultants in the state", and said, "few can move between the strategy of campaigning and its mechanics with the ease that she does". Starting her career working on the Kansas House of Representatives staff, Isenhour eventually becoming chief of staff to House Minority Leader Tom Sawyer, and then director of the Democratic Party's Kansas Coordinated Campaign for legislative races. She worked as the national political director for the Democratic Legislative Campaign Committee before starting her Pennsylvania political career in 1999. ## Early career A Kansas native, Isenhour attended the University of Kansas. She began her political career as a staffer in the Kansas House of Representatives. In 1990 she worked as a legislative aide to House Minority Leader Marvin Barkis, and the following year was an administrative assistant to House Majority Leader Donna Whiteman. From 1991 to 1995, Isenhour served as Chief of Staff to House Minority Leader Tom Sawyer, where she worked with Democratic and Republican lawmakers alike to advance legislation, served as a liaison between Sawyer and other officials, and worked with members of leadership and committees to develop legislative strategies and build coalitions. In 1992, Isenhour was the director of the Democratic Party's Kansas Coordinated Campaign for legislative races, both in the state House and Senate. Those races included more than three dozen candidates by July 1992. From 1995 to 1999, Isenhour served as the Democratic Legislative Campaign Committee's national political director, based in Washington D.C. In that capacity, she worked with legislative leaders and caucus campaign staff in more 15 states to help win or preserve Democratic majorities in state legislatures. In 1996, she worked in Iowa to help orchestrate the Democratic legislative campaigns in that the Iowa General Assembly, partnering with Iowa Senate Majority Leader Wally Horn and other key legislative Democrats to improving the party's position. She described it as an attempt to avoid a repeat of 1994 elections, in which Democrats suffered major losses in both federal and state offices during the Republican Revolution. Isenhour said of those elections: > We were off track. We let the Republicans define what the message was, and they had the same message from top to bottom. ... Now it's our turn, and we're talking about what Democrats have always been about: that we stick up for the little guy. We've gone on the offensive instead of the defensive. Isenhour also managed Sawyer's campaign for the bid for Kansas governor in 1998. Sawyer won the Democratic nomination, but ultimately lost in a landslide to the popular Republican incumbent, Bill Graves. ## Pennsylvania career Isenhour began her Pennsylvania political career in 1999, when she became executive director of the Pennsylvania House Democratic Campaign Committee, helping to get Democratic candidates elected to the Pennsylvania House of Representatives. She held the position until 2003. Isenhour assisted with Bob Casey, Jr.'s successful 2006 campaign against Republican incumbent Rick Santorum, served as political adviser to state House Democratic Leader Frank Dermody, and ran Governor Ed Rendell's successful 2006 re-election campaign against challenger Lynn Swann, after which she helped plan Rendell's 2007 inauguration. Rendell appointed her to the Pennsylvania Community Service Advisory Board. Isenhour worked for the Pennsylvania Democratic Party, serving as an aide and political adviser to T.J. Rooney, the state party chairman. In 2007, she became executive director of the party, replacing Don Morabito, who took a position in the Rendell administration. The party enjoyed much success during her time there, controlling the Governor's office, three of four statewide row offices, two U.S. Senators, a majority in the State House, and picking up five seats in the Congressional delegation. She served as director of PA Victory, a statewide coordinated campaign effort. Isenhour was also chosen as the Pennsylvania state director for Hillary Clinton's 2008 presidential campaign, after Rendell recommended her for the position. There was talk of Isenhour continuing to work with the Clinton administration after the primary, but she instead returned to her position with the Pennsylvania Democratic Party. In 2008, Isenhour and Rooney met with MSNBC news commentator Chris Matthews to discuss the possibility of Matthews running against Republican U.S. Senator Arlen Specter, although he ultimately did not run. Also that year, Isenhour and her Republican counterpart Luke Bernstein, executive director of the Republican Party of Pennsylvania, together taught a class about presidential elections at the Dickinson College in Carlisle, Pennsylvania. Isenhour and Bernstein both believed it was the first class of its type, and said the two had a very cordial relationship despite representing opposite political parties. Isenhour also taught about electoral politics at other educational institutions, including the University of Pennsylvania, Central Penn College and The Washington Center. In July 2010, after more than seven years leading the Pennsylvania Democratic Party, Isenhour and Rooney started the political consulting firm Isenhour Rooney Strategies, which later became Isenhour Rooney and Carey. Also in 2010, Isenhour was the only woman named to the PoliticsPA's Pennsylvania Top 10 Influencers List by Campaigns and Elections, PoliticsPA also called her "one of the top consultants in the state", and said "few can move between the strategy of campaigning and its mechanics with the ease that she does". Among the candidates she advised was Rob Teplitz in his successful campaign for Pennsylvania State Senate in 2012. Eisenhour served on the board of Planned Parenthood of Pennsylvania. ## Governor Wolf administration Isenhour was an early supporter of Pennsylvania gubernatorial candidate Tom Wolf, and became Wolf's senior campaign adviser during his 2014 campaign, at a time when state Representative Allyson Schwartz and state Treasurer Rob McCord were considered to have better chances of winning. Isenhour, who had long been acquainted with Wolf, had not intended to become involved with a lengthy and work-intensive gubernatorial campaign, but said she was convinced to do so after an hour-long phone conversation with Wolf in 2013, after which she was convinced he was the right man for the job: "I've been in politics 30 years and I've never had a candidate like this." Isenhour maintained other clients during his campaign, but said Wolf was "my main focus for the next year and a half". After Wolf's successful election, Isenhour co-chaired his inaugural committee, then worked as his Secretary of Legislative Affairs, serving as a liaison during negotiating sessions at the Pennsylvania General Assembly, and providing key planning during the governor's budget strategy. Political reporter John L. Micek wrote of Isenhour: "She is in the unique position of having to work with Republicans she once ran campaigns against." Her annual salary in the position was \$145,018. Isenhour developed a reputation for communicating and building relationships with legislative leaders and staff members from both parties. In July 2015, Isenhour replaced Katie McGinty as Wolf's Chief of Staff, after McGinty resigned six months into her tenure to pursue a campaign for U.S. Senate. Wolf called Isenhour "one of my closest advisors" and "a valuable part of my administration", and said she "really understands how the politics of this place actually works." The selection was praised by both parties, including House and Senate Republicans, who expressed hope she would be less adversarial than McGinty. The Butler Eagle wrote an editorial criticizing the appointment due to her position on the Planned Parenthood of Pennsylvania board, in light of a national controversy over undercover videos about the group's alleged sale of aborted fetal body parts. Isenhour came into the Chief of Staff position more than three weeks into a budget impasse between Wolf and the Republican-controlled General Assembly. In October 2015, four months into the state budget impasse, Isenhour issued a memo notifying Wolf's administration of a hiring freeze and travel ban. On February 3, 2016, Isenhour notified the state Public Employee Retirement Commission that, under Wolf's orders, all employment of its staff would be discontinued. State Representatives Stephen Bloom of Cumberland County and Seth Grove of York County have filed a lawsuit against Wolf challenging that action, arguing the governor lacks the power to dissolve the commission and acted contrary to the Pennsylvania Constitution. On February 15, 2019, Governor Wolf nominated Isenhour to a seat on the Pennsylvania Liquor Control Board. She was confirmed by the state Senate on June 19, 2019 and became the first female to serve on the board. ## Personal life Isenhour is married to Bill Patton, former chief of staff to Speaker of the Pennsylvania House of Representatives Dennis M. O'Brien. They reside in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. She has a cat named Hank and enjoys cooking.	[ "## Early career", "## Pennsylvania career", "## Governor Wolf administration", "## Personal life" ]	1,951	127
61,638,427	Jerome Daugherty	1,163,976,087	American Jesuit educator	[ "1849 births", "1914 deaths", "19th-century American Jesuits", "20th-century American Jesuits", "Boston College faculty", "College of the Holy Cross faculty", "Fordham University faculty", "Georgetown University faculty", "Loyola University Maryland alumni", "Presidents of Georgetown University", "Religious leaders from Baltimore", "St. Stanislaus Novitiate (Frederick, Maryland) alumni", "Woodstock College alumni" ]	Jerome Daugherty SJ (March 25, 1849 – May 24, 1914) was an American Catholic priest and Jesuit who served in many different capacities at Jesuit institutions throughout the northeast United States, eventually becoming president of Georgetown University in 1901. Born in Baltimore, he was educated at Loyola College in Maryland, before entering the Society of Jesus and becoming a member of the first class at Woodstock College. He then taught various subjects, including mathematics, Latin, Ancient Greek, rhetoric, and the humanities in Massachusetts, New York City, and Washington, D.C., and served as minister at many of the institutions there. During his four-year leadership of Georgetown University, he oversaw several construction projects, the largest of which were the demolition of Old South Hall and its replacement with Ida Ryan Hall, and the construction of Hirst Library inside Healy Hall. He also continued his predecessor's work of reforming the curriculum, and managing tensions with the Catholic University of America. After his resignation, he continued his ministry in Maryland, Washington, and Philadelphia, before returning to New York, where he died. ## Early life Jerome Daugherty was born on March 25, 1849, in Baltimore, Maryland, to Jerome M. Daugherty, a printer, and Rose A. Wivel. His ancestry was of German and Irish origin. Beginning in 1858, he attended the parochial school of St. Vincent de Paul Church. In 1863, he enrolled in the preparatory department of Loyola College in Maryland, where he studied for two years. He then entered the Society of Jesus, and was sent to the Jesuit novitiate in Frederick, Maryland, in August 1865. There, he was the spiritual reader to the Jesuit brothers. He remained in Frederick until 1869, before completing his higher studies at Woodstock College. A member of the first class at Woodstock, he studied philosophy for three years. In 1872, Daugherty was sent to Georgetown University in Washington, D.C., to teach mathematics. After two years, he was transferred to Boston College, where he continued teaching, now Latin and Ancient Greek. He then resumed his education at Woodstock College in 1877, taking up the study of theology under Camillo Mazzella, a future cardinal. In June 1880, he was ordained a priest by Cardinal James Gibbons. He was again sent out to various Jesuit institutions, spending a year at St. Francis Xavier College in New York City and another year at Boston College, where he was made prefect of studies and put in charge of the spiritual care of the municipal hospital. He then began the tertianship of his Jesuit formation. ## Jesuit ministry Daugherty was again sent to Loyola College in 1884, where he was prefect of studies and taught rhetoric, humanities, and mathematics. The following year, he became minister and vice president at Gonzaga College, where he was well-liked and remained for four years. He was then transferred to Georgetown, where he remained a minister for seven years. In 1895, he went continued his ministry at Woodstock College, and took up the additional positions of professor of mathematics and treasurer. The following year, he was sent to the College of the Holy Cross in Worcester, Massachusetts, as minister. In January 1901, he returned to New York, where he was appointed socius, or advisor to the Jesuit provincial superior. However, he remained in this position for only a few months, before being appointed president of Georgetown University. ### Georgetown University Succeeding John D. Whitney, Daugherty took office on July 11, 1901. During his presidency, he undertook several building campaigns. He oversaw the start of construction on Ryan Gymnasium, and as well as the erection of Ida Ryan Hall, which required being built in the place of the demolished Old South Hall (the oldest building on campus). He also saw that a new wing of the Georgetown University Hospital was built, as well as Kober operating amphitheater, and the Hirst Library, which was dedicated on December 18, 1902. In addition to physical improvements, he continued the work of his predecessor in instituting a curricular reform. This included adding a fourth year to the course of study at the Law School, beginning lectures in ethics at the School of Medicine, and presiding over the establishment of the antecedents of the School of Dentistry, which was then a department of the School of Medicine. There had long been tension between Georgetown and the Catholic University of America, which opened in Washington, D.C., in 1887. During Daugherty's tenure, the president of Catholic University complained to the Jesuit provincial superior that Georgetown's graduate programs were detracting from those of Catholic University. As a result, the provincial ordered Daugherty in 1903 to revise the graduate curriculum; otherwise, the Graduate School would be closed down. Daugherty complied, but the Jesuit Superior General later pressured the university to merge the Graduate School into the College in 1907. In July 1905, amid allegations that Georgetown's athletics teams were using professional athletes, rather than bona fide students, Daugherty terminated all university funding of sports, including athletic scholarships. Later that year, Daugherty's health began to deteriorate, and in August 1905, he resigned the presidency, and was succeeded by David Hillhouse Buel. Overall, he was one of the most well-liked presidents of the university in that era. ## Later years After leaving Georgetown, he was sent to Fordham University as spiritual father, where his health recovered and he again took up teaching. He then returned to Woodstock College, where he was spiritual father to the scholastics there for four years. He was then stationed for a short time at Holy Trinity Church in Georgetown, where he took care of the ill and children. Finally, he was sent to the Church of the Gesú in Philadelphia as operarius (visiting priest), where he soon fell ill. Suffering from a protracted illness, he underwent surgery at St. Vincent's Hospital in New York City, where he died the following day on May 24, 1914. The future bishop Jerome Aloysius Daugherty Sebastian was named after him.	[ "## Early life", "## Jesuit ministry", "### Georgetown University", "## Later years" ]	1,315	17,128
189,596	USS Indiana (BB-1)	1,167,095,048	Battleship of the United States Navy	[ "1893 ships", "Indiana-class battleships", "Maritime incidents in 1920", "Ships built by William Cramp & Sons", "Ships sunk as targets", "Shipwrecks in the Chesapeake Bay", "Spanish–American War battleships of the United States", "World War I battleships of the United States" ]	USS Indiana was the lead ship of her class and the first battleship in the United States Navy comparable to foreign battleships of the time. Authorized in 1890 and commissioned five years later, she was a small battleship, though with heavy armor and ordnance. The ship also pioneered the use of an intermediate battery. She was designed for coastal defense and as a result, her decks were not safe from high waves on the open ocean. Indiana served in the Spanish–American War (1898) as part of the North Atlantic Squadron. She took part in both the blockade of Santiago de Cuba and the Battle of Santiago de Cuba, which occurred when the Spanish fleet attempted to break through the blockade. Although unable to join the chase of the escaping Spanish cruisers, she was partly responsible for the destruction of the Spanish destroyers Plutón and Furor. After the war, she quickly became obsolete—despite several modernizations—and spent most of her time in commission as a training ship or in the reserve fleet, with her last commission during World War I as a training ship for gun crews. She was decommissioned for the third and final time in January 1919 and was shortly after reclassified Coast Battleship Number 1 so that the name Indiana could be reused. She was sunk in shallow water as a target in aerial bombing tests in 1920, and her hull was sold for scrap in 1924. ## Design Indiana was constructed from a modified version of a design drawn up by a US Navy policy board in 1889 for a short-range battleship. The original design was part of an ambitious naval construction plan to build 33 battleships and 167 smaller ships. The United States Congress saw the plan as an attempt to end the U.S. policy of isolationism and did not approve it, but a year later, the United States House of Representatives approved funding for three coast defense battleships, which would become Indiana and her sister ships Massachusetts and Oregon. The "coast defense" designation was reflected in Indiana's moderate endurance, relatively small displacement and low freeboard, which limited seagoing capability. The ships proved to be disappointments in service, as they were badly overweight upon completion, their low freeboard hampered operations at sea, and they handled poorly. Conway's All the World's Fighting Ships describes her design as "attempting too much on a very limited displacement." They were nevertheless the first modern battleships for the American fleet. Indiana was 351 feet 2 inches (107.04 m) long overall and had a beam of 69 ft 3 in (21.11 m) and a draft of 24 ft (7.3 m). She displaced 10,288 long tons (10,453 t) as designed and up to 11,688 long tons (11,876 t) at full load. The ship was powered by two-shaft triple-expansion steam engines rated at 9,000 indicated horsepower (6,700 kW) and four coal-fired fire-tube boilers, generating a top speed of 15 knots (28 km/h; 17 mph). She had a cruising radius of 5,640 nautical miles (10,450 km; 6,490 mi) at a speed of 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph). As built, she was fitted with a heavy military mast, which was later supplemented by a stern cage mast in 1910–1911. She had a crew of 32 officers and 441 enlisted men, which increased to a total of 586–636 officers and enlisted. The ship was armed with a main battery of four 13 in (330 mm) /35 caliber guns in two twin gun turrets on the centerline, one forward and aft. The secondary battery consisted of eight 8-inch (203 mm) /35 cal. guns, which were placed in four twin wing turrets. These were supported by a battery of six 6 in (150 mm) /40 cal. guns in a casemate battery amidships. For close-range defense against torpedo boats, she carried twenty 6-pounder guns and six 1-pounder guns in individual mounts. As was standard for capital ships of the period, Indiana carried 18 in (457 mm) torpedo tubes in above-water mounts, though the number is unclear. According to Conway's, she was fitted with six tubes, though the naval historian Norman Friedman states she was ordered with seven but completed with five. Indiana's main armored belt was 18 in (457 mm) thick over the magazines and the machinery spaces and was reduced to 4 in (102 mm) at the bow and stern. The main battery gun turrets had 17-inch (432 mm) thick sides, and the supporting barbettes had the same thickness of armor plate on their exposed sides. The 8 in turrets had 6 in of armor plating, and the casemate battery had 5 in (127 mm). The conning tower had 10 in (254 mm) thick sides. ## Service history ### Construction and early career Construction of the ships was authorized on 30 June 1890, and the contract for Indiana—not including guns and armor—was awarded to William Cramp & Sons in Philadelphia, who offered to build it for \$3,020,000. The ship's total cost was almost twice as high, approximately \$6,000,000. The contract specified the ship had to be built in three years, but slow delivery of armor plates caused a two-year delay. Indiana'''s keel was laid down on 7 May 1891 and she was launched on 28 February 1893, attended by around 10,000 people, including President Benjamin Harrison, several members of his cabinet and the two senators from Indiana. During her fitting-out in early March 1894, the ship undertook a preliminary sea trial to test her speed and machinery. At this point, her side armor, guns, turrets, and conning tower had not yet been fitted, and her official trials would not take place until October 1895 due to the delays in armor deliveries. Indiana was commissioned on 20 November 1895 under the command of Captain Robley D. Evans. After further trials, the ship joined the North Atlantic Squadron under the command of Rear Admiral Francis M. Bunce, which conducted training exercises along the East Coast of the United States. In late 1896, both main turrets broke loose from their clamps in heavy seas. Because the turrets were not centrally balanced, they swung from side to side with the ship's motion, until they were secured with heavy ropes. Heavier clamps were installed, but in February 1896, while conducting fleet maneuvers with the North Atlantic squadron, the Indiana encountered more bad weather and started rolling heavily. Her new captain, Henry Clay Taylor, promptly ordered her back to port for fear the clamps would break again. This convinced the navy that bilge keels—omitted during construction because, with them, the ship could not fit in most American dry docks—were necessary to reduce the rolling, and they were installed on all three ships of the Indiana-class. ### Spanish–American War At the outbreak of the Spanish–American War in April 1898, Indiana was at Key West with the rest of the North Atlantic Squadron, at the time commanded by Rear Admiral William T. Sampson. His squadron was ordered to the Spanish port of San Juan in an attempt to intercept and destroy Admiral Cervera's Spanish squadron, which was en route to the Caribbean from Spain. The harbor was empty, but Indiana and the rest of the squadron bombarded it for two hours on 12 May 1898 before realizing their mistake. The squadron returned to Key West, where news arrived three weeks later that Commodore Schley's Flying Squadron had found Cervera and was now blockading him in the port of Santiago de Cuba. Sampson reinforced Schley on 1 June and assumed overall command. In an attempt to break the stalemate, it was decided to attack Santiago from land. A transport convoy was assembled in Key West, and Indiana was sent back to lead it. The expeditionary force, under the command of Major General William Rufus Shafter, landed east of the city and attacked it on 1 July. Cervera saw that his situation was desperate and attempted to break through the blockade on 3 July 1898, resulting in the battle of Santiago de Cuba. The cruisers New Orleans and Newark and battleship Massachusetts had left the day before to load coal in Guantanamo Bay. Admiral Sampson's flagship, the cruiser New York, had also sailed east earlier that morning for a meeting with General Shafter, leaving Commodore Schley in command. This left the blockade weakened and unbalanced on the day of the battle, as three modern battleships (Indiana, Oregon and Iowa) and the armed yacht Gloucester guarded the east, while the west was only defended by the second-class battleship Texas, cruiser Brooklyn and armed yacht Vixen. Occupying the extreme eastern position of the blockade, Indiana fired at the cruisers Infanta María Teresa and Almirante Oquendo as they left the harbor, but, due to engine problems, was unable to keep up with the Spanish cruisers as they fled to the west. When the Spanish destroyers Plutón and Furor emerged, Indiana was near the harbor entrance and, together with Iowa, she supported the armed yacht Gloucester in the destruction of the lightly armored enemy ships. She was then ordered to keep up the blockade of the harbor in case more Spanish ships came out and so played no role in the chase and sinking of the two remaining Spanish cruisers, Vizcaya and Cristóbal Colón. ### Post Spanish–American War After the war, Indiana returned to training exercises with the North Atlantic Squadron. In May 1900, she and Massachusetts were placed in reserve as the navy had an acute officer shortage and needed to put the new Kearsarge-class and Illinois-class battleship into commission. The battleships were reactivated the following month as an experiment in how quickly this could be achieved, but Indiana was placed in the reserve fleet again that winter. In March 1901, it was decided to use her that summer for a midshipman practice cruise, and this would be her regular summer job for the next few years, while the rest of the time she would serve as a training ship. During her time as a training vessel, her crew beat the 1903 world record with eight-inch guns, four bullseyes with four shots. She was decommissioned on 29 December 1903 to be overhauled and modernized. The obsolete battleship received several upgrades: new Babcock & Wilcox boilers, counterweights to balance her main turrets, and electric traversing mechanisms for her turrets. She was recommissioned on 9 January 1906 and manned by the former crew of her sister ship Massachusetts, including Captain Edward D. Taussig, commanding. Massachusetts had been decommissioned the day before to receive similar modernization. During her second commission, Indiana spent most of her time laid up in the reserve fleet, occasionally participating in practice cruises. In January 1907, she helped provide relief in the aftermath of the 1907 Kingston earthquake. In 1908, the 6-inch (152 mm)/40 caliber guns and most of the lighter guns were removed to compensate for the counterweights added to the main battery turrets and because the ammunition supply for the guns was considered problematic. A year later, twelve 3-inch (76 mm)/50 caliber single-purpose guns were added midships and in the fighting tops. At the same time, a cage mast was added. In early 1910, she was fitted with an experimental Lacoste speed brake, which would be deployed from the side of the hull to act as an emergency brake; the trials were inconclusive. By 1913 it was speculated that the ship might soon be used for target practice, but instead, the ship was decommissioned on 23 May 1914. After the United States entered World War I, Indiana was commissioned for the third time and served as a training ship for gun crews near Tompkinsville, Staten Island, and in the York River, and placed under the command of George Landenberger. On 31 January 1919, she was decommissioned for the final time, and two months later, she was renamed Coast Battleship Number 1 so that the name Indiana could be assigned to the newly authorized—but never completed—battleship Indiana (BB-50). The old battleship was brought to shallow waters in the Chesapeake Bay near the wreck of the target ship San Marcos (ex-Battleship Texas). Here she was subjected to aerial bombing tests conducted by the navy. She was hit with dummy bombs from aircraft, and explosive charges were set off at the positions where the bombs hit. The tests were a response to claims from Billy Mitchell—at the time assistant to Chief of Air Service Charles T. Menoher—who stated to Congress that the Air Service could sink any battleship. The conclusions drawn by the navy from the experiments conducted on Indiana were very different, as Captain William D. Leahy stated in his report: "The entire experiment pointed to the improbability of a modern battleship being either destroyed or completely put out of action by aerial bombs." The subject remained a matter of dispute between Mitchell and the Navy, and several more bombing tests were conducted with other decommissioned battleships, culminating in the sinking of SMS Ostfriesland. Despite the navy's conclusions, Indiana sank during the test and settled in the shallow water, where she remained until her wreck was sold for scrap on 19 March 1924. When the US Navy adopted hull numbers in 1920, Indiana'' was retroactively assigned the number "BB-1".	[ "## Design", "## Service history", "### Construction and early career", "### Spanish–American War", "### Post Spanish–American War" ]	2,864	40,299
61,533,185	Conductores de Venezuela	1,102,359,583	1999 mural by Pedro León Zapata	[ "Ciudad Universitaria de Caracas", "Murals" ]	Conductores de Venezuela is a giant ceramic mural on a wall outside the Covered Gymnasium at the Central University of Venezuela, facing out to the Francisco Fajardo freeway. It was designed by cartoonist Pedro León Zapata and installed over a period of years in the late 1990s; it depicts cartoon Venezuelan people driving, with several vehicles having important Venezuelans from history behind the wheel. ## Background The Venezuelan architect and designer Carlos Raúl Villanueva began designing the Central University of Venezuela (UCV)'s University City of Caracas campus in the 1940s, beginning construction in the 1950s during a time of prevailing modernism in Latin America. Villanueva had a stylistic ideology for the project he called the "Synthesis of the Arts", combining the arts and architecture and creating artistic pieces that could also serve functional purposes. Villanueva died in 1975, before Pedro León Zapata began work on Conductores de Venezuela. Zapata was a cartoonist, working for newspaper El Nacional for 50 years, and had also been trained as a painter and muralist. His artwork was characteristically critical of the government, and he often depicted the everyday reality of life for regular Venezuelans. In 2005, he was awarded a PhD by UCV, where he was also a professor. ## Design and construction Zapata developed his own mural method, which he used for the work, when he was a student of Diego Rivera in Mexico. He was commissioned by the municipal mayor Antonio Ledezma and the university. In a 2008 interview, Zapata said that they promoted him as the mural's artist by referring to him as a painter but that they secretly wanted him to make it a cartoon, and so he resolved to make it "a caricature done by a painter". He also said that he "wanted to entertain drivers stuck in traffic". The mural is made of 45,000 stoneware tiles, each 20 x 20 cm, cooked at the Pienme plant by ceramist Ricardo Ceruzzi, using single-firing furnaces. It was installed by the company Cerámica Carabobo. It is 165 metres long and 11 metres tall and has experienced deterioration since its construction but has also been the focus of restorers due to being large and popular. The name translates to "drivers of Venezuela", with the mural depicting historic figures like Simón Bolívar, Simón Rodríguez, Teresa de la Parra, Armando Reverón, and José María Vargas driving vehicles. ## Response The mural marks the boundary of the University City of Caracas campus at its northeast and was installed in 1998 and 1999. It is sometimes called Conductores del país and is described as an "open-air gallery" that gives residents of Caracas a "sense of belonging". Zapata said that the mural belongs to all of Caracas, but he loved it dearly himself and said that it was one of the largest murals in Latin America not just in size but for giving him the chance to bring some color to the university he loves, adding that it "took over [his] heart". Dr. Silvio Llanos de la Hoz commented on the mural, writing that it does not reflect the Synthesis of the Arts in the way the rest of the campus artworks do, and that its message did not have a Kandinsky influence but was more concerned with Venezuela's social present at the time.	[ "## Background", "## Design and construction", "## Response" ]	718	20,817
1,886,260	Portland International Airport station	1,156,541,571	Light rail station in Portland, Oregon, United States	[ "2001 establishments in Oregon", "Airport railway stations in the United States", "MAX Light Rail stations", "MAX Red Line", "Portland International Airport", "Railway stations in Portland, Oregon", "Railway stations in the United States opened in 2001" ]	Portland International Airport, or just Airport on station signage, is a light rail station in Portland, Oregon, United States, served by TriMet as part of the MAX Light Rail system. It serves Portland International Airport as the eastern terminus of the Red Line, which connects travelers to downtown Portland and Beaverton. The station is attached to ground floor of the main passenger terminal, near the southern end of the arrivals hall and baggage claim area. It features a wedge-shaped island platform, just beyond which both tracks join because the section approaching the terminal is single-tracked. Portland International Airport station was built as part of the Airport MAX project; construction began in July 2000, and it opened on September 10, 2001. Trains serve it for 22 hours daily with headways of 15 minutes during most of the day. In late 2018, the station recorded an average of 2,461 weekday boardings. ## History Portland's regional transit agency, TriMet, had served Portland International Airport with bus routes since 1970, notably with route 12–Sandy Boulevard since 1986, the same year planners from Metro (the Portland metropolitan area's regional government) first proposed an airport light rail line. Early plans envisioned a line running from Clackamas to the airport via Interstate 205 (I-205) using rights-of-way provided by the I-205 busway, which was originally built to accommodate a bus rapid transit line that never operated. In 1991, the Port of Portland adopted a multi-phased, \$300 million airport master plan to address expected passenger traffic growth through 2010; the plan raised the capacity of the main passenger terminal building, as well as provisioned for a future light rail station outside the terminal's arrivals hall. By 1994, travelers using the airport had risen by 34 percent, far exceeding the Port's projections. Port officials, struggling to meet the surge in demand, moved to accelerate airport light rail plans, which regional planners did not anticipate until the late 2000s. TriMet—which by then was operating the region's light rail system called Metropolitan Area Express (MAX)—also aimed to complete its Westside MAX and the South/North Corridor projects before it would consider extending MAX to the airport. In 1996, engineering firm Bechtel approached the Port with an unsolicited proposal to build the airport line. After negotiations between Bechtel, the Port, and local jurisdictions, Bechtel was granted the design–build contract for the light rail extension in exchange for development rights to the 120-acre (48.6 ha) Portland International Center, the largest commercially zoned property in Portland at the time. Bechtel later developed this property and renamed it Cascade Station. The Port projected the airport terminal station to cost \$8.4 million and allocated a \$3 ticket fee to fund its construction. Delta Airlines, Reno Air, and United Airlines protested the use of ticket fees but the Federal Aviation Administration authorized it in May 1999. Construction of the Airport MAX extension commenced the following month. Hoffman Construction began building the station's platform in July 2000 and by August, Stacy and Witbeck had started to lay the 3,000 ft (914.4 m) of rail along the segment closest to the terminal. On September 10, 2001, the station opened along with the entire Airport MAX extension that introduced Red Line service between downtown Portland and the airport. Celebrations planned for the following weekend were canceled following the September 11 attacks, and the airport was closed for three days. Planners projected single-car trains to initially serve Portland International Airport station but TriMet deployed two-car consists on the line after recording 3,800 riders over Thanksgiving weekend in November 2001. In September 2003, TriMet extended Red Line service farther west using the existing Westside MAX tracks to Beaverton Transit Center. This was done in an effort to provide a one-seat ride to the airport for westside riders. In 2006, the station handled more than one million passengers in a single year for the first time. TriMet had reintroduced bus service to the airport with the 272–PDX Night Bus route on September 2, 2018. The bus route ran in the late night and early morning hours when the Red Line was not operating. It was indefinitely suspended on April 5, 2020, amid the COVID-19 pandemic. ## Station details The station's platform is situated at ground level just outside the main passenger terminal, near the southernmost entrance and within 150 ft (45.7 m) of the baggage claim area. It features a wedge-shaped island platform and a glass canopy designed by ZGF Architects, which also designed the airport terminal's main-entrance canopy. An 80-seat station lobby is located inside the terminal and has ticket vending machines and real-time displays showing train departure times. The station occupies the end of a single-track section of the Airport MAX segment; the only other such section on the MAX system is located on another segment of the Airport MAX near Gateway/Northeast 99th Avenue Transit Center. ### Public art Public art pieces commissioned for the Airport MAX Project have a common theme of "flight". The station houses one art installation as part of TriMet's Public Art Program, which is funded at 1.5 percent of a project's total cost. Time Flies by Christine Bourdette is a large, porcelain enamel mural that is displayed on a wall between the station platform and the baggage claim area. The work is described as "a sequence of images related to time and motion". Bourdette also installed bronze rails that lead passengers from the escalators to the platform and blue chevrons on the platform pavement to depict movement. ### Services Portland International Airport station is served by TriMet's MAX Red Line, which connects the airport to Northeast Portland, Portland City Center, and central Beaverton. In late 2018, the station recorded an average of 2,461 boardings on weekdays. The day's first train arrives from Beaverton Transit Center. The last three westbound trips travel eastbound to Ruby Junction/East 197th Avenue station as through services of the Blue Line. Headway between trains varies from 15 minutes for most of the day to 30 minutes during the early mornings and late evenings. Services operate on all days of the week and are the most frequent on weekdays. Trains from the station take approximately 40 minutes to reach Pioneer Square in downtown Portland—where transfers to all lines are available—and approximately 65 minutes to reach the other end of the line at Beaverton Transit Center.	[ "## History", "## Station details", "### Public art", "### Services" ]	1,366	24,309
37,796,222	Battle of Île Ronde	1,172,161,077	Part of the French Revolutionary Wars	[ "Conflicts in 1794", "Military history of Mauritius", "Naval battles involving France", "Naval battles involving Great Britain", "Naval battles of the French Revolutionary Wars", "Wars involving Mauritius" ]	<table class="infobox vevent" style="width:25.5em;border-spacing:2px;"> 'Cybèle and Prudente fighting HMS Centurion and HMS Diomede, Jean-Baptiste Henri Durand-Brager </td> </tr> </table> The Battle of Île Ronde' was a minor naval engagement between small French Navy and British Royal Navy squadrons off Île de France, now named Mauritius, in the early stages of the French Revolutionary Wars. The battle was fought over control of the waters around Île de France, which was under blockade from the British squadron as French warships and privateers operating from the island posed a significant threat to vital British trade routes connected to British India and China. In an attempt to neutralise the island, the British commander in the region, Peter Rainier ordered the 50-gun HMS Centurion and 44-gun HMS Diomede to institute a blockade, which began in October 1794. Concerned by food shortages and a rebellious slave population the French naval commander Jean-Marie Renaud led his small squadron comprising frigates Cybèle and Prudente and three smaller vessels to drive off the British squadron. On 22 October 1794, the squadrons met off Île Ronde, an islet off northern Île de France. The battle lasted two and a quarter hours, in which Centurion and Cybèle fought a close duel which left both ships badly damaged. Supported by the remainder of the squadron, Cybèle successfully withdrew under fire, but Centurion, without support from the distant Diomede was also forced to retire for repairs. Unable to continue the blockade the British force returned to India, allowing food supplies to reach Île de France. Due to the necessity for campaigns against Dutch Ceylon and the Dutch East Indies, the British blockade was not renewed, but the French were unable to take advantage of this due to increasing civil unrest among their slaves. ## Background War between the French Republic and Great Britain began on 1 February 1793, news arriving among the French and British East Indian colonies on 11 June 1793. The strongest French positions in the Indian Ocean were the islands of Île de France and Réunion, which lay substantially to the west of the British bases at Bombay and Madras in British India. A small French frigate squadron, supported by smaller warships and privateers operated from the islands posing a considerable threat to British maritime trade in the Indian Ocean. To counter the threat the British commander in the region, Captain Peter Rainier ordered two of his ships to blockade the island during the summer of 1794. Rainer's force comprised the fourth rate ship 50-gun HMS Centurion under Captain Samuel Osborne and the large 44-gun frigate HMS Diomede under Captain Matthew Smith. Together the ships sailed from Madras on 30 August 1794, stopping at the allied port of Trincomalee in Dutch Ceylon and the undefended French-controlled island of Rodrigues before arriving off Île de France in October. Île de France had been in a state of turmoil since the French Revolution and in 1792 the republican party on the island seized control. In 1794 suspected royalists were arrested, including the naval commander Saint-Félix, their executions forestalled by the arrival of news that the French Convention had abolished slavery. Only the intervention of Governor Malartic prevented unrest. The preoccupation of the naval authorities had prevented any offensive operations and the reduced squadron, now commanded by Captain Jean-Marie Renaud, remained in Port Louis. ## Battle Despite the upheaval on shore, the arrival of the British blockade squadron provoked Renaud into taking action. Although the defences of Île de France were well prepared under Malartic's orders, food supplies were running low, with only rice still available in quantity. The potential for famine and consequent social unrest among the slave population was severe and Renaud sailed immediately to intercept Centurion and Diomede. The French squadron comprised the 40-gun frigate Cybèle under Captain Pierre Tréhouart, the 36-gun Prudente under Renaud, and the 14-gun brig Coureur under lieutenant de vaisseau Garaud. The 20-gun privateer corvettes Jean-Bart and Rosalie, as well as the aviso Sans-Culotte, accompanied the two frigates. The ships' crews were heavily augmented by volunteers, including a young Robert Surcouf on Cybèle, as well as a detachment of soldiers. Renaud's squadron sailed on 19 October, seeking the British to the north of the island. At 11:00 on 22 October, close to the uninhabited islet of Île Ronde northwest of Île de France, the French sighted the British. Osborne issued orders to sail towards the French squadron; Renaud responded by forming his ships in a line of battle and advancing to meet Osborne. Prudente led the French line, closely followed by Cybèle, Jean-Bart, and Coureur, Osborne focusing on Prudente and ordering Smith to engage Cybèle. Firing began at 15:29 when Prudente unleashed a close range broadside at Centurion, followed immediately by fire from the ships of both sides. Centurion was damaged in the opening exchanges and by 16:00 had most of her sails and rigging torn. At this Renaud ordered his squadron to pull back to leeward out of range, each firing on Centurion as they passed. As Cybèle came within range of Centurion Cybèle's fire brought down Centurion's mizen topmast and fore topgallantmast. Return fire from Centurion managed however so to damage Cybèle that she was unable to retreat in the light winds; the two largely immobilised ships then began a close range duel. For more than an hour the exchange continued, Renaud unable to intervene from leeward and Smith repeatedly refusing Osborne's orders to support his ship, Diomede remaining at long range and contributing an intermittent and inaccurate fire on the distant Cybèle. At 17:15 a light breeze enabled Tréhouart to slowly pull Cybèle towards Renaud's force despite the loss of the main topgallantmast. At 17:45, with Prudente close by, the main topmast fell on Cybèle, which had 3 feet (0.91 m) of water in the hold, but Osborne, outnumbered and with his ship damaged, reluctantly withdrew. With the threat lifted, Renaud was able to take Cybèle under tow and retire in the direction of Île de France, followed distantly and ineffectually by Diomede until night fell. ### Order of battle In this table, "Guns" refers to all cannon carried by the ship, including the maindeck guns which were taken into consideration when calculating its rate, as well as any carronades carried aboard. Broadside weight records the combined weight of shot which could be fired in a single simultaneous discharge of an entire broadside. ## Aftermath The immediate result of the battle was inconclusive, both squadrons retiring with one ship damaged apiece. French losses had been heavy, with 15 killed and 20 wounded on Prudente, the latter including Renaud and 22 killed and 62 wounded on Cybèle. One sailor was killed and five wounded on Jean-Bart and no casualties were reported on Courier. By contrast, Centurion had only three men killed and 23 wounded and Diomede none at all, but the damage to Osborne's ship was more problematic; while Renaud could repair and resupply his ships in nearby Port Louis, Centurion had to return to India, several thousand miles away, to effect repairs. Osborne was thus forced to abandon the blockade, with Centurion sailing to Bombay and Diomede to Madras. The action brought repercussions for Smith, whose failure to support Osborne was noted; although Smith claimed that he was simply maintaining the line of battle, it subsequently emerged that the captains had engaged in a personal dispute resulting in Smith deciding to refuse Osborne's orders. After his behaviour had featured in Osborne's initial dispatch, Smith challenged his account and Osborne demanded a court-martial held to investigate. This panel decided that Smith's behaviour was unacceptable and he was dismissed from the Navy, by which time he had lost Diomede, wrecked on a rock in Trincomalee Bay on 2 August 1795 during the invasion of Ceylon. Although Smith appealed his sentence and was restored to the captain's list in 1798 he was never again called to service and retired in 1806. British historians have considered that Smith's refusal to participate probably cost Osborne the battle. William James wrote that his behaviour was "the principle [sic] reason that Cybèle'', at least, was not made a prize of by the British". C. Northcote Parkinson considers the action "indecisive" but concurs with James' assessment that Smith's intervention could have resulted in a British victory but instead that "the first encounter of the war between the French and English in the East Indies had resulted in what was tantamount to defeat for the latter". On Île de France the relief of the blockade meant that shipping, particularly American vessels laden with food supplies from Tamatave on Madagascar, could reach the island and the threatened famine was averted. French privateers were also again free to operate against British trade, particularly in the Bay of Bengal. With Renaud's squadron still at Port Louis, Rainier considered renewing the blockade, but was dissuaded by the dangers of the monsoon season and a false report that a squadron of French ships of the line was soon due to arrive on Île de France. In 1795 he was distracted by the sudden need to guard against the Dutch East India colonies following the French conquest of the Netherlands, and he supervised the invasion of Ceylon and operations against the Dutch East Indies. By the time his attention turned once more to Île de France, it had been heavily reinforced in early 1796 by a frigate squadron commanded by Contre-amiral Sercey.	[ "## Background", "## Battle", "### Order of battle", "## Aftermath" ]	2,124	9,370
16,318,179	NSB Class 64	1,037,195,608	Norwegian State Railways' class of electric multiple units	[ "15 kV AC multiple units", "1934 establishments in Norway", "Brown, Boveri & Cie multiple units", "Flåm Line", "Hardanger Line", "Norwegian State Railways (1883–1996) multiple units", "Vehicles introduced in 1934" ]	NSB Class 64 (Norwegian: NSB type 64) is a class of three electric multiple units built by Strømmens Værksted for the Norwegian State Railways. Delivered in 1935, they were built for the opening of the Hardanger Line and served there until 1985, when the line closed and the trains were retired. They also periodically served on the Flåm Line. The delivery consisted of three motor cars and four carriages, with each train consisting of up to three units. The motor cars were 16.3 meters (53 ft) long, had a power output of 464 kilowatts (622 hp) and were capable of 50 km/h (31 mph). The motor units were given road numbers 505 through 507. Two of the units have been preserved by the Norwegian Railway Club and are at Garnes Station. ## History The Hardanger Line opened in 1935 as a steep and curvy branch of the Bergen Line to connect Bergen to the Hardangerfjord. The line was 27.45 kilometers (17.06 mi) long, had a maximum gradient of 4.5 percent, a minimum curve radius of 180 meters (591 ft), a maximum speed of 40 km/h (25 mph), a maximum permitted axle load of 12 tonnes (12 long tons; 13 short tons), standard gauge and a electrification system. In 1931, NSB had taken delivery of its first electric multiple unit, the Class 62, for use on commuter trains on the Drammen Line. For the Hardanger Line, NSB ordered similar units, but these were modified to have a higher power output. Three motor cars and four carriages were delivered in 1934. The mechanical components and assembly were done by Strømmens Værksted, while the electrical equipment was made by Norsk Elektrisk & Brown Boveri (NEBB). The class was similar to the future Class 65, and was regarded as a prototype. Class 64 were the shortest multiple units ever used by NSB. From 21 November 1944, when the Flåm Line received electric traction, Class 64 trains were also used there. The Flåm Line is even steeper and more curved than the Hardanger Line, so the trains received track brakes. In 1947, El 9 locomotives were delivered for the Flåm Line. Class 64 trains continued to be used periodically on the Flåm Line when there was insufficient availability of El 9s, as well as in periods with very little or very much traffic. Unit 64.07 was retired on 20 December 1982 after rust damage had been found on it. By 1984, the carriages were in such bad shape that they needed to be replaced. Trailers from Class 65 and Class 67 were taken into use, and for a short period a Class 91 trailer. On 28 August 1985, passenger traffic on the line was terminated and the two remaining trains were retired. Reasons for the termination included a lack of sufficient political support for financing new trains, and also that Class 64 was no longer suitable for use. The last two trains have been preserved by the Norwegian Railway Club and are stored at Garnes Station, part of the Old Voss Line. ## Specifications The units each had four NEBB EDTM384 motors, giving a combined power output of 464 kilowatts (622 hp). They had an overall length of 16.3 meters (53 ft), weighed 35.5 tonnes (34.9 long tons; 39.1 short tons) and had a Bo-Bo wheel arrangement. The motor cars had a capacity for 38 passengers and a maximum speed of 50 km/h (31 mph). Because of the steep gradients, the units had a low weight combined with high power output, and had both track brakes and dynamic braking. They were originally given road numbers 18505 though 18507, but this was later changed to 64.05 through 64.07.	[ "## History", "## Specifications" ]	849	34,502
22,033,929	SS Batavier II (1897)	1,173,156,408	Ductch steam packet	[ "1897 ships", "Maritime incidents in 1917", "Passenger ships of the Netherlands", "Ships built in Dundee", "Ships sunk by British submarines", "World War I shipwrecks in the North Sea" ]	SS Batavier II was a steam packet for the Batavier Line that sailed between Rotterdam and London for most of her career. The ship was built in 1897 by the Gourlay Brothers of Dundee. The Dutch ship could carry a limited amount of freight and up to 321 passengers. She was rebuilt in 1909 which increased her length by over 5 metres (16 ft). During World War I, the Batavier Line attempted to maintain service, but in September 1916, Batavier II was seized as a prize by German submarine UB-6 and sailed into Zeebrugge and retained. Ten months later, Batavier II was shelled by British submarine E55 and sank near Texel. ## Career Batavier II and her sister ship Batavier III were built for William Müller and Company by the Gourlay Brothers of Dundee, Scotland. The ship was launched on 17 August 1897. As built, she was 74.4 metres (244 ft 1 in) long (between perpendiculars) and 10.2 metres (33 ft 6 in) abeam. Batavier II was powered by a single 4-cylinder, triple-expansion steam engine of 2,000 indicated horsepower (1,500 kW) that moved her up to 14 knots (26 km/h). She could carry up to 321 passengers: 44 in first class, 27 in second class, and up to 250 in steerage. She was listed at 1,136 gross register tons (GRT). Upon completion in October 1897, she joined the 683-ton Batavier I in packet service between Rotterdam and London. The pair were joined by Batavier III after her completion in November. In Rotterdam, the ships docked at the Willemsplein; in London, the ships originally docked near London Bridge, but in 1899 switched to the Customs House and Wool Quays near the Tower Bridge. Also beginning in 1899, Batavier Line service between Rotterdam and London was offered daily except Sundays; each of the ships made three round trips per week. In addition to passengers, Batavier II could also carry a limited quantity of freight. One example that may be typical was a load of 1 long ton (1.1 short tons) of dry chemical wood pulp in 5 bales carried to London in March 1907. In 1909, Batavier II was rebuilt to 1,335 GRT and lengthened by 5.3 metres (17 ft 5 in) to 79.7 metres (261 ft 6 in). After the outbreak of World War I in August 1914, the Batavier Line continued service on the Rotterdam–London route. In December 1914, Batavier II made news when porters handling what was identified as a 750-pound (340 kg) crate of Swedish matches discovered an escaped German Army officer inside. The plan, apparently, was for him to be shipped from London to Rotterdam via Batavier II. The plot unraveled when the porters could only move the heavy crate by rolling it, which knocked the man unconscious; the officer was returned to the custody of British military officials. In June 1915, passengers on Batavier II witnessed an attack by two German airplanes against a British steamship between the Galloper and the North Hinder Lightships. The attack was broken off when two British airplanes arrived over the ship to engage the German aircraft; none of the airplanes were destroyed, and the ship was unscathed. On 24 September 1916, after Batavier II had departed from Rotterdam, the ship was stopped by the German submarine UB-6. She was seized as prize and sailed into German-held Zeebrugge. There, Batavier II's Dutch crew and women and children passengers were released and sent via train to Rotterdam. The Germans confiscated the ship's cargo of food. Also on board Batavier II were four escaped Russian prisoners of war and Richard Hansemann, a German-born New York businessman. American newspapers carried reports of Hansemann's plight, reporting by 1 October that he would likely be impressed into the German Army. Batavier II's whereabouts and activities over the next ten months are uncertain. She remained under German control for a time, but how long is not clear from sources. Batavier II was back under Dutch control by late July 1917. On 27 July 1917, Batavier II was shelled by British submarine E55 just outside Dutch territorial waters. Damaged by E55's gunfire, Batavier II's crew steered her back into Dutch territorial waters. E55 then sent a prize crew on board Batavier II and sailed her back outside Dutch waters. By the time a Dutch torpedo boat arrived on the scene, Batavier II was taking on water and had drifted back into Dutch territory. The torpedo boat sent the message "respect neutrality" to E55 which retrieved her prize crew and departed. Despite efforts to stem the flow of water, Batavier II sank 1 nautical mile (1.9 km) from the Molengat North Buoy, off Texel.	[ "## Career" ]	1,060	2,387
168,290	Homer's Odyssey (The Simpsons)	1,161,875,117	null	[ "1990 American television episodes", "Television episodes about suicide", "The Simpsons (season 1) episodes" ]	"Homer's Odyssey" is the third episode of the American animated television series The Simpsons. It originally aired on the Fox Network in the United States on January 21, 1990. In this episode, Homer becomes a crusader for safety in Springfield and is promoted to safety inspector at Springfield Nuclear Power Plant. The episode was written by Jay Kogen and Wallace Wolodarsky and was the first Simpsons script to be completed, although it was the third episode produced. ## Plot Mrs. Krabappel takes Bart's class on a field trip to the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant. Distracted when Bart waves at him, Homer crashes an electric cart into a cooling vent and is fired. Homer searches for a new job without success. Feeling like a failure, he writes a note to his family and decides to commit suicide by tying a boulder to himself and jumping off a bridge. His family hurries to the bridge to save him, but they are almost run over by a speeding truck. Homer pulls them to safety just in time, and he is suddenly filled with a new reason to live: to place a stop sign at the dangerous intersection. After successfully petitioning the city council, Homer embarks on a public safety crusade that involves placing speed bumps and warning signs throughout the town. Inspired to use his new safety efforts in order to not give up on finding a new job, Homer takes on the biggest danger in Springfield, the nuclear power plant. After Homer rallies people to his cause, Mr. Burns decides to end the furor he is creating by offering him a new position as the plant safety inspector, along with a higher salary. Homer, torn between his principles and his livelihood, tearfully tells his followers that they must fight their battles alone from this point on, and takes the job. ## Cast - Dan Castellaneta as Homer Simpson, Barney Gumble, Mr. Winfield, City Council \#1 and City Council \#3 - Julie Kavner as Marge Simpson - Nancy Cartwright as Bart Simpson, Lewis and Actor - Yeardley Smith as Inanimate Carbon Rod \#2 and Lisa Simpson - Harry Shearer as Otto, Waylon Smithers, Smilin' Joe Fission, SNPP Supervisor, Loaftime Announcer, Jasper, City Council \#2, City Council \#1 (take 2) and Demonstrator - Marcia Wallace as Edna Krabappel - Hank Azaria as Moe Szyslak and Chief Wiggum - Christopher Collins as Mr. Burns - Pamela Hayden as Wendell - Sam McMurray as SNPP Employee and Duff Commercial VO - Russi Taylor as Sherri, Terri, Inanimate Carbon Road \#1 and Mrs. Winfield ## Production Waylon Smithers makes his first appearance in this episode, although he can be heard over a speaker in the series premiere. In his first visual appearance, he was mistakenly animated with the wrong color and was made an African American by Györgyi Peluce, the color stylist. David Silverman has claimed that Smithers was always intended to be Mr. Burns's "white sycophant", and the staff thought it "would be a bad idea to have a black subservient character" and so switched him to his intended color for his next episode. Smithers's skin tone was later explained as an "extreme tan". Blinky the Three-Eyed Fish makes a brief cameo in this episode; he later becomes of importance in episode four of the second season, "Two Cars in Every Garage and Three Eyes on Every Fish". Also notable is that Marge was originally called Juliette in this script as a homage to Romeo and Juliet. Homer's middle initial, J, is mentioned for the first time in this episode. According to Matt Groening, it was a reference to Bullwinkle J. Moose. Additionally, the following characters made their first appearances in this episode: Otto Mann, Chief Wiggum, Jasper Beardley, Sam & Larry, Mr. & Mrs. Winfield and Sherri and Terri. The episode's title comes from the Greek epic poem Odyssey, traditionally attributed to the legendary poet Homer. On the bus, Bart sings "John Henry was a Steel Driving Man", an American folk-song about a 19th-century hero of the working-class, building railroads across the West Virginia mountains. ## Reception In its original broadcast, "Homer's Odyssey" finished twenty-eight in ratings for the week of January 15–21, 1990, with a Nielsen rating of 14.9, equivalent to approximately 13.7 million viewing households. It was the highest-rated show on the Fox network that week, beating Married... with Children. Since airing, the episode has received mixed reviews from television critics. Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood, authors of the book I Can't Believe It's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide, said that "the story rather fizzles out at the end, but there are many good moments, especially in the power plant". Colin Jacobson at DVD Movie Guide said in a review that the episode is "possibly the best of the [first six] shows" and that it "suffers a little from an odd tone, as the characters hadn't become settled. Still, it seems surprisingly clever and witty." In September 2001, in a DVD review of the first season, David B. Grelck rated the episode 1+1⁄2 (of 5) and called it "the first season at its worst", continuing that it was "notable for introducing Mr. Burns and (a strangely African-American) Smithers, but otherwise boring and preachy". ## Home media The episode was released first on home video in the United Kingdom, as part of a VHS release titled The Simpsons Collection, in which it was paired with the sixth episode of the season, "Moaning Lisa". In the United Kingdom, it was once re-released as part of a VHS boxed set of the complete first season, released in November 1999. In the United States, the episode would finally see the home video release as a part of The Simpsons Season One DVD set, which was released on September 25, 2001. Groening, Archer, Kogen, and Wolodarsky participated in the DVD's audio commentary. A digital edition of the series' first season was published December 20, 2010, in the United States containing the episode, through Amazon Video and iTunes.	[ "## Plot", "## Cast", "## Production", "## Reception", "## Home media" ]	1,350	4,706
11,925,985	Seattle SeaDogs	1,145,273,119	American indoor soccer team	[ "1995 establishments in Washington (state)", "1997 disestablishments in Washington (state)", "Association football clubs disestablished in 1997", "Association football clubs established in 1995", "Continental Indoor Soccer League teams", "Defunct indoor soccer clubs in the United States", "Soccer clubs in Seattle" ]	The Seattle SeaDogs were an indoor soccer team based in Seattle, Washington, United States. They played in the Continental Indoor Soccer League (CISL) from 1995 to 1997 with home games at Mercer Arena and KeyArena. The team were owned by the Ackerley Group, who also operated the Seattle SuperSonics, and were announced in 1993 amid a wave of new professional soccer teams in the Seattle metropolitan area. The SeaDogs, coached by Fernando Clavijo, had poor attendance during the first two seasons and failed to reach the playoffs, finishing in 1996 as the worst team in the CISL. The team then amassed the best regular season record in the league during the 1997 season and went undefeated during the playoffs to win their first CISL Championship. The league folded at the end of the season and the SeaDogs were dissolved. ## History ### First seasons On November 16, 1993, the Continental Indoor Soccer League (CISL) awarded an expansion franchise to the Ackerley Group, owner of the Seattle SuperSonics of the National Basketball Association. The region previously had other indoor teams, including the Tacoma Stars of the defunct Major Indoor Soccer League; a CISL bid for a Tacoma team had failed to garner support. The team's name, the SeaDogs, was announced in November 1994 alongside the unveiling of head coach Fernando Clavijo, a member of the United States national team who played in the 1994 FIFA World Cup. The team's mascot, a purple dog named "Salty", was named in a later fan contest. The SeaDogs were among several professional soccer teams in the Seattle area that had begun to play in the mid-1990s, including the outdoor Seattle Sounders and Everett BigFoot. The SeaDogs held an open scrimmage prior to the regular season at their temporary home, Seattle Center Arena, that drew 98 spectators. The team made their debut on June 23, 1995, where they defeated the San Jose Grizzlies 6–5 in sudden-death overtime in front of 3,529 spectators in Seattle. They had poor attendance, with an average crowd of under 2,000 by early August, blamed in part due to competition from other professional soccer teams in the area. The SeaDogs finished their inaugural season with a 12–16 record and missed the playoffs; during the offseason, they lost top scorer Jean Harbor to the Colorado Rapids and key forward Michael Collins to the Sacramento Knights. Harbor later returned to the team on loan from the Rapids. The team moved to KeyArena for the 1996 season and had an average attendance of 3,812—ninth of eleven teams in the CISL and 26 percent of the arena's capacity. The SeaDogs and Sounders, who played at nearby Memorial Stadium, had scheduled overlapping games on several nights that affected attendance figures for both teams. The SeaDogs finished last in the Western Division with a 10–18 record and a league-low 143 goals scored, but the team earned a franchise-record 11–5 victory against the Detroit Neon in their final match of the season. New signing Juan de la O won the CISL Goalkeeper of the Year Award for his performances, which included a league-low 148 goals allowed. Seattle made several acquisitions late in the season and into the offseason, including John Olu-Molomo in a trade from the San Diego Sockers and ex-Sounders players Bill Crook and Dick McCormick. ### Championship and folding The SeaDogs began their 1997 season with a franchise-best seven consecutive wins, including five road games to open the year; Harbor led the team in scoring, followed by Olu-Molomo prior to an injury to his right shoulder. They then lost several matches and dropped from the top of the Western Division standings but regained first place in late August with a 14–5 record. The SeaDogs finished the regular season with 21 wins and 7 losses—the best record in the league—and set several team records. They also drew an average of 2,769 spectators at KeyArena. The team were seeded in the Western semifinals against the fourth-place Portland Pride, who hosted the first leg and held to a 2–2 draw at halftime; the SeaDogs scored six goals in the second half to win 8–2. Seattle completed a two-game sweep of Portland with a 6–5 victory at KeyArena with two last-minute goals to avoid a deciding mini-game round. The SeaDogs then opened the Western Final against the Sacramento Knights with a 6–2 away victory and played the following night at KeyArena. The Knights had a 2–0 lead at halftime, but four goals from the hosts gave Seattle a 4–3 victory and a berth in the CISL Championship against the Houston Hotshots, the 1996 runners-up. The SeaDogs conceded four goals in the first two quarters of the championship's first game at KeyArena, played in front of 6,530, but rallied with three goals before halftime. An additional two goals from the hosts forced a sudden death overtime period, during which Olu-Molomo scored within two minutes to win the game 6–5 for Seattle. The SeaDogs clinched their first CISL Championship with a 7–1 win at The Summit in Houston the following night with two goals from McCormick. The title finished a "worst-to-first" turnaround for the SeaDogs, who had the league's worst record in 1996 and were undefeated in the playoffs—a league first. Juan de la O was named the championship's most valuable player, having made 15 saves in the second game. The CISL folded following the departure of several teams at the end of the 1997 season; Seattle was one of three teams to commit to returning in 1998. Several teams moved to other indoor soccer leagues, but the SeaDogs elected to remain independent as its ownership explored various options. In June 1998, Clavijo accepted an offer to become head coach of the Florida ThunderCats of the National Professional Soccer League (NPSL). ## Arena The SeaDogs signed a three-year lease agreement with the Seattle city government to use two public facilities: Seattle Center Arena (now known as Mercer Arena) in 1995 and KeyArena from 1996 to 1997. Both arenas were located on the grounds of the Seattle Center; due to the ongoing redevelopment of Seattle Center Coliseum, its successor KeyArena was unavailable for the opening season. Seattle Center Arena had 4,055 seats, while KeyArena had a capacity of 14,545 seats. ## Ownership and management Like several other teams in the CISL, the SeaDogs shared ownership with a National Basketball Association team in the same market. The Ackerley Group, headed by media magnate Barry Ackerley, owned the SeaDogs and the SuperSonics. The teams were overseen by Full House Sports and Entertainment, a marketing subsidiary of the group. Home SeaDogs matches were broadcast on radio station KJR AM, also owned by the Ackerley Group, with play-by-play commentary by John Lynch. Fernando Clavijo was head coach of the SeaDogs in all three of their seasons. Brian Schmetzer was an assistant coach and player; he later took over the Seattle Sounders of the USL First Division and their Major League Soccer incarnation. ## Year-by-year ## Honors CISL Championship - Winners: 1997 CISL Goalkeeper of the Year - 1996 – Juan de la O - 1997 – Juan de la O CISL Coach of the Year - 1997 – Fernando Clavijo CISL Championship Series MVP - 1997 – Juan de la O All-CISL First Team - 1997 – Juan de la O (GK), John Olu-Molomo (FW) CISL All Star Game MVP - 1997 – Jean Harbor ## Players The SeaDogs primarily used American players, including several who had played for the Sounders and the indoor Tacoma Stars. Among them were player–coach Brian Schmetzer, top goalscorer Jean Harbor, and forward John Olu-Molomo. Goalkeeper Juan de la O was named CISL Goalkeeper of the Year in 1996 and 1997. ### 1997 roster As of June 1997	[ "## History", "### First seasons", "### Championship and folding", "## Arena", "## Ownership and management", "## Year-by-year", "## Honors", "## Players", "### 1997 roster" ]	1,765	14,160
62,501,553	Decoded (EP)	1,161,168,973	2019 EP by Divina de Campo	[ "2019 debut EPs", "LGBT-related albums", "Producer Entertainment Group albums", "RuPaul's Drag Race UK" ]	Decoded is the debut EP by Divina de Campo. It was released by PEG Records on 29 November 2019. Divina de Campo is the stage name of Owen Farrow, a British drag performer who competed in the first series of RuPaul's Drag Race UK (2019). The EP consists of six songs, which were written by Tomas Costanza, Paul Coultrup, Farrow, and Ashley Levy. "A Drag Race Song" and "Gratify" were released as singles and received music videos as well as remixes. Decoded received positive reviews from music critics. ## Composition and lyrics Approximately 18 minutes long, Decoded has six tracks, with them being performed by Divina de Campo (the stage name of British drag queen Owen Richard Farrow) and written by Tomas Costanza, Paul Coultrup, Farrow, and Ashley Levy. "A Drag Race Song" parodies music released by previous RuPaul's Drag Race contestants. Divina de Campo described it as a "tongue-in-cheek poke at everybody", and Attitude called the song a "catchy pop tune" that showcases her "high soprano and 4-octave range". The song's lyrics mention fellow RuPaul's Drag Race UK contestants Blu Hydrangea, Crystal, Gothy Kendoll, Scardey Kat and The Vivienne, and suggest Divina de Campo feels disliked by Drag Race judge Michelle Visage. "Gratify" was described by Sam Damshenas of Gay Times as an "operatic dance anthem" and by Out in Jersey's Michael Cook as a "dance stomper". Divina de Campo said of the song: "Lyrically, it's that desire to give people exactly what they want. Musically, it's a mixture of what my career has been up until this point; classical and mainstream pop work. It's quite personal, but also not that personal!" Damshenas called "Pocket Rocket Princess" a "pop anthem", while Cook described "Down with You" as a "dance floor bopper showing definite influences" of Blondie and the Scissor Sisters. ## Release and promotion Decoded was released on 29 November 2019, following the release of "A Drag Race Song" as the lead single on 22 November. In April 2020, Divina de Campo included the song on her "self-isolation playlist" published by Billboard Pride. A 12" format of Decoded was released for Record Store Day in 2020. The "SIBS Music Remix" of "A Drag Race Song" was released on 15 May 2020, and the Gratify EP featuring the original track and three remixes was released on 26 June. ### Music videos The music video for "A Drag Race song" was released on 4 December 2019, coinciding with the airing of the final episode of the first series of RuPaul's Drag Race UK in the United States. The visual has features from Drag Race and music videos released by other contestants, and sees Divina de Campo "spinning them into a fourth-wall breaking extravaganza, as she constantly changes outfits and even seems to [mimic] well-worn lip sync dance moves from the show". She showcases multiple looks, including one in which she has an orange beard and hairy armpits, and wears various red wigs. Damshenas described the video as "hilarious", and said that it "pays tribute to camp, burlesque, femme and punk performers". "Gratify" served as the single from the EP and received a music video as well. Damshenas said the video "serves superhero-realness" with fashion inspired by Elizabeth I and has a "sickening squad" of dancers from the House of Suarez vogueing. He called the "eerie" visual "one of the fiercest (and batshit crazy) music videos of the year". ## Critical reception Decoded was met with positive reviews from music critics and Drag Race fans, according to Damshenas, who described "A Drag Race Song" as "hilarious" and "Gratify" as "infectious". Billboard's Stephen Daw also called the former track "hilarious". Cook said "A Drag Race Song" has all the characteristics of a "quintessential" Drag Race song and complimented Divina de Campo's "growling and impressive" vocal performance. He said the EP "turns the standard Drag Race competitor albums on their ears" and showcases the drag queen's versatility as a singer. Cook called "Validation" an "electronica gem" and considered "Down with You" the EP's best song. ## Track listing Track listing adapted from AllMusic and the Apple Music	[ "## Composition and lyrics", "## Release and promotion", "### Music videos", "## Critical reception", "## Track listing" ]	987	14,310
8,055,250	Snow White: The Fairest of Them All	1,173,716,618	2001 film directed by Caroline Thompson	[ "2000s American films", "2000s Canadian films", "2000s German films", "2000s fantasy adventure films", "2001 films", "2001 television films", "American fantasy adventure films", "American fantasy television films", "Canadian fantasy adventure films", "Canadian fantasy television films", "Films about royalty", "Films about witchcraft", "Films based on Snow White", "Films directed by Caroline Thompson", "Films scored by Michael Convertino", "Films shot in Vancouver", "Films with screenplays by Caroline Thompson", "German fantasy adventure films", "German fantasy television films", "Sonar Entertainment films" ]	Snow White: The Fairest of Them All is a 2001 fantasy adventure television film co-written and directed by Caroline Thompson and produced by Hallmark Entertainment. The film was first released theatrically in Europe, and subsequently aired in the United States on ABC as part of their series on The Wonderful World of Disney on March 17, 2002. Based upon the traditional Snow White folktale first recorded in 1812 by German folklorists the Brothers Grimm, the film deviates from earlier interpretations of the story in several respects. Set in a fantasy kingdom, it tells the story of Snow White (Kristin Kreuk), and the attempts of her malevolent stepmother, Queen Elspeth (Miranda Richardson), to eliminate her. Trying to escape Queen Elspeth's machinations, Snow White flees to the forest, where she befriends Sunday (Michael J. Anderson), the leader of the seven dwarfs, and together they plot the monarch's overthrow. Reviews were mixed, with Richardson's performance receiving praise, but Kreuk's coming under criticism for being too bland. The film would subsequently be released on DVD. ## Plot John and Josephine deeply wish to have a child and when she is born with skin as white as snow, lips as red as blood and hair as black as ebony, they name her Snow White. However, Josephine dies in childbirth, leaving John alone with their child. In the winter, John struggles to find food for his daughter, eventually collapsing and shedding a tear over a frozen lake, which frees a creature known as the Green-Eyed One. As thanks for freeing him, the Green-Eyed One asks John what he needs. John requests milk for his daughter, and the Green-Eyed One grants his wish. John then asks to have his wife back, calling Josephine his Queen, but the Green-Eyed One cannot resurrect the dead. However, he says he can give John a Queen, and John suddenly finds himself a king with his own kingdom. Since the Green-Eyed One is obligated to fulfill John's wishes, he pays a visit to Elspeth, his hideous spellcasting sister. He transforms her into a beautiful young woman who can now marry John and become his queen and Snow White's stepmother. The creature also provides Elspeth with a magical mirror that allows her to see others unseen and to deceive John. As years pass, Elspeth forms a good relationship with her new husband and stepdaughter, now a beautiful sixteen-year-old princess. However, Elspeth is vain and keeps a room full of magical mirrors which assure her each day that she is the fairest of them all whenever she asks. When Prince Alfred arrives in the kingdom and falls in love with Snow White, Elspeth is furious to discover that images of Snow White are appearing in her mirrors, which means that her stepdaughter is the fairest of them all. Driven with jealousy, Elspeth orders a hunter, Hector, to take Snow White into the forest and kill her, and then return with Snow White's heart for her to consume. In the meantime, Elspeth also transforms Alfred into a bear. Unable to kill Snow White, Hector presents Elspeth with the heart of a wild boar instead. When she learns the truth, Elspeth kills Hector, imprisons John in her mirrors and stifles Snow White with an enchanted ribbon. Snow White is saved by seven dwarfs, each named after the days of the week and possessing the power to transform into a rainbow to move from one place to another (but are only capable if all seven of them are present). The eldest is Sunday, who is a victim of one of Elspeth's spells that has left half of him as a garden gnome. The dwarfs allow Snow White to care for their home, though the dwarf Wednesday is initially suspicious. When Elspeth learns that Snow White is still alive, she prepares a poisoned apple and transforms into Snow White's deceased mother, Josephine, with the magic mirror the Green-Eyed One gave her. Aided by Monday, who is turned into a garden gnome afterward, Elspeth (disguised as Josephine) finds Snow White and convinces her to eat the enchanted and poisoned apple, which seemingly kills Snow White. With her task finished, Elspeth tries to use the mirror to become the Queen again but she instead reverts to her true form, even more loathsome than before. The Green-Eyed One appears and reveals that her evil deed has cost Elspeth her beauty. Meanwhile, the dwarfs, unable to revive Snow White, place her in a coffin of ice and leave her near Monday's statue. When she receives a kiss of true love from Prince Alfred (in his bear form) she is revived. The spells on Alfred, Sunday and Monday are broken and Elspeth's mirrors shatter, freeing John. Elspeth is cornered and killed by the gnomes she had turned to stone, who have been released from their enchantments. Freed from Elspeth, the Green-Eyed One is able to go his way. Snow White and Alfred live happily ever after while the dwarfs decide to move on to find Sleeping Beauty. ## Cast - Miranda Richardson as Queen Elspeth, Snow White's stepmother - Karin Konoval as Crone, Elspeth's old hag form - Kristin Kreuk as Snow White - Tom Irwin as John, Snow White's father - Vera Farmiga as Josephine, Snow White's mother - Tyron Leitso as Prince Alfred - Clancy Brown as the Granter of Wishes - Michael Gilden as Monday, the red dwarf - Mark J. Trombino as Tuesday, the orange dwarf - Vincent Schiavelli as Wednesday, the yellow dwarf - Penny Blake as Thursday, the green dwarf - Martin Klebba as Friday, the blue dwarf - Warwick Davis as Saturday, the indigo dwarf - Michael J. Anderson as Sunday, the violet dwarf - Jose Zuniga as Hector, the Huntsman ## Development In order to write the script, Caroline Thompson went back to the original written account of Snow White, published by the Brothers Grimm in 1812. She came to the decision that the folktale was about the "fear of change", as two women, Snow White and her stepmother, came to adjust with the changes that they were facing in life. Noting that the original 19th century folk tales were far "darker" in content than most 20th century adaptations, such as Walt Disney's Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937), she sought to utilise some of these dark elements in her adaptation. The idea for the Green-Eyed One was introduced by co-writer Julie Hickson; Thompson noted that he was a "genuinely moral being" who tried to help people, comparing him to the genius of the peace found in Late Medieval literature. Upon reading the script, Kristin Kreuk noted that she had been "entranced", believing that the main message that audiences would take away from the film was that of not judging an individual's personality based upon their physical appearances. Richardson thought that Caroline Thompson's adaptation was "much more in keeping" with the ethos of the Grimm tale than subsequent adaptations due to its "darker" nature. Praising Miranda Richardson as being perfect for the role of Elspeth, Caroline Thompson asserted that she had been "a blast to work with." Caroline Thompson noted that she cast the actors to play the dwarves according to their own individual personalities; she remarked that Warwick Davis was a "phenomenal actor" while Penny Blake was "so funny" and Michael J. Anderson was a "genius." Together, she thought that they brought an "array of talents" to the production. Michael J. Anderson himself claimed that he identified with his character, the "philosopher of the group", and really enjoyed playing the role. Commenting on his character of Wednesday, Vincent Schiavelli noted that he was miserable because "he really thinks that he's a dwarf" even though he isn't. Caroline Thompson would also praise her "magnificent collaborators" in costume and set design. The set designer noted that they constructed a castle that they felt was best described as "Viking art nouveau." Filming took place in and around Vancouver, Canada. ## Release The film was released theatrically in Europe and the Middle East in 2001, and debuted in the United States on March 17, 2002, when it was broadcast as part of ABC's The Wonderful World of Disney series. Both Region 1 and Region 2 DVDs of the film were released. Reviewing the Artisan DVD release for the Combustible Celluloid website, Jeffrey M. Anderson praised its "gorgeous full-screen transfer", featurette, and cast-and-crew biographies, but highlighted that it contained no director's commentary track. ## Reception Laura Fries reviewed the film for Variety, describing it as a "unique and lavish production that certainly warrants attention" but warning that it would be inappropriate for young children. Asserting that ABC had made a "big mistake" by airing it as a part of their Wonderful World of Disney series, she thought that it was "often nightmarish", harking back to the original Grimm version more than the better-known Disney adaptation; in particular, she singled out the "evil queen/witch" and "satanic messenger who grants wishes." However, she praised David Brisbin's set design, remarking that he had created a kingdom which was "equal parts gingerbread baroque and David Lynch" and that Caroline Thompson "clearly relishes" in this universe. Noting that the "magnificently villainous performance" from Miranda Richardson "virtually steals the show" from the "doe-eyed" Kristin Kreuk, she believes that the latter does "little to upgrade" the image of Snow White as the most victimized of fairytale characters. Writing for The New York Times, Hal Erickson praised the film for mixing its "more frightening aspects" with "slapstick comedy and awesome special effects." Jeffrey M. Anderson reviewed Snow White for the Combustible Celluloid website, awarding it three stars out of four. Remarking that Thompson "completely eradicates" the Disney interpretation of the folktale, he praised her directorial debut, noting the influence of Tim Burton but claiming that she offers "a more universal sweetness" than he does. He notes that while remaining accessible to children, the film still "drinks more deeply of the story's dark elements". David Parkinson of Radio Times awarded Snow White two stars out of five, praising Miranda Richardson's performance and comparing it to that of Sigourney Weaver in Snow White: A Tale of Terror. He also acclaimed the casting of Vincent Schiavelli as the tall dwarf, but in contrast, he criticised Kristin Kreuk's "inanimate performance", seeing her as a "dull heroine." M.S. Mason of the Christian Science Monitor said: "Beautiful young Kristin Kreuk makes a lovely Snow White" although felt that the film was only "passable family fare".	[ "## Plot", "## Cast", "## Development", "## Release", "## Reception" ]	2,326	20,487
26,743,241	Medicinal Fried Chicken	1,168,783,316	null	[ "American television episodes about cannabis", "KFC", "Scarface (1983 film)", "South Park (season 14) episodes", "Television episodes about cancer", "Yum! Brands" ]	"Medicinal Fried Chicken" is the third episode of the fourteenth season of the American animated television series South Park, and the 198th episode of the series overall. It originally aired on Comedy Central in the United States on March 31, 2010. In the episode, the South Park KFC is replaced by a medical marijuana dispensary, and Cartman gets involved in black market selling the KFC chicken. Meanwhile, Randy Marsh gets a medical referral for marijuana by giving himself testicular cancer, which makes his testicles grow to grotesquely huge proportions. The episode was written and directed by series co-creator Trey Parker. "Medicinal Fried Chicken" was first broadcast when Detroit was considering revising state cannabis laws and restricting fast food eateries. The episode provided social commentary against both types of laws, and suggested legislating lifestyle choices is ineffective and inevitably leads to black markets. The illegal fast food market subplot was heavily influenced by the 1983 film Scarface, with Cartman resembling fictional drug lord Tony Montana and KFC founder Colonel Sanders as antagonist Alejandro Sosa. The episode also included several jokes about Pope Benedict XVI and the child sexual abuse scandals that had been surrounding the Catholic Church at the time. The concept of a former KFC restaurant becoming a marijuana dispensary came from a news story about a real marijuana dispensary in Palms, Los Angeles, built at a site formerly housing a Kentucky Fried Chicken franchise. "Medicinal Fried Chicken" received generally positive reviews, with many commentators praising the social commentary and sophomoric testicle jokes alike. According to Media Research, the episode was seen by 2.99 million viewers, making it one of the most successful cable programs of the week. Although a KFC spokesman had a lukewarm response to "Medicinal Fried Chicken", officials from the KFC hometown of Corbin, Kentucky were pleased the city was featured in the episode. ## Plot New state laws prohibiting fast food in low-income areas cause the closure of all KFC locations in Colorado, much to the fury of Cartman, who is addicted to the food. When Randy Marsh learns that South Park's sole KFC is now a medical marijuana dispensary, he attempts to give himself cancer so he can get a doctor's referral for marijuana after first gaining a clean bill of health from his doctor since he had assumed permits are given to the healthy. By irradiating his scrotum with a microwave oven, Randy successfully gives himself testicular cancer, making his testicles grow so large that he has to use a wheelbarrow to carry them. Randy obtains his medical referral and starts smoking marijuana regularly. Meanwhile, his testicles continue to grow to the point that he uses them as a hopper ball. Randy finds that his larger testicles are rather attractive to women, including his wife, Sharon Marsh, so he encourages his friends to also get testicular cancer. The local doctor, unaware of the self-induced nature of the cancer, becomes convinced that a recent change in South Park is responsible for the cancer outbreak. Meanwhile, after receiving treatment for KFC withdrawal, Cartman is introduced to Billy Miller, a local boy who runs an illegal KFC cartel from his home. Billy hires Cartman to sell his illegal food, a job that provides Cartman with the same food as payment. After Cartman demonstrates his ruthlessness against a cheating street dealer, Billy sends him and another employee, Tommy, to Corbin, Kentucky to buy chicken directly from Colonel Sanders. Sanders is impressed by Cartman but has Tommy executed after discovering him to be a mole for healthy foods advocate Jamie Oliver. Cartman wins over the Colonel's trust but is warned to never betray him. Cartman eventually betrays Billy by telling Billy's mother that he failed his social studies test, and takes over the cartel after Billy is punished. The Colonel assigns Cartman the task of assassinating Oliver to prevent him from giving a speech in the United Nations. However, the gluttonous Cartman soon comes to abuse the food he is assigned to sell and forgets the Colonel's assassination order. The Colonel, furious at Cartman's incompetence, sends a squad of gunmen to kill him, leading to a gunfight with the police that kills Billy's mother, and Cartman escapes unscathed. Randy's testicles grow so large that he is unable to fit through the doors of the marijuana dispensary. Prohibited by law from purchasing marijuana outside the premises, Randy and the other irradiated men begin protesting for larger marijuana dispensary doors. As politicians discuss the issue, the marijuana dispensary owner suggests that marijuana simply be legalized, arguing that people are abusing the medicinal system anyway. A local doctor then opines that the ban on KFC had led to the rise in testicular cancer because the chicken was somehow preventing it. Colorado completely bans marijuana once again and then allows KFC to reopen locations in the state, which are now re-branded as "Medicinal Fried Chicken." Randy has his cancerous testicles removed and replaced with prosthetic ones, and has the skin from his removed cancerous scrotum made into a new leather jacket for Sharon. ## Production "Medicinal Fried Chicken" was written by series co-founders Trey Parker and Matt Stone, was directed by Parker, and was rated TV-MA in the United States. It originally aired on Comedy Central in the United States on March 31, 2010. The episode was first broadcast around the same time a great deal of discussion regarding marijuana laws had been generated in Colorado, where South Park is set and where Parker and fellow series co-creator Matt Stone are from. The state had a medicinal marijuana law that allowed patients to obtain cards to purchase marijuana legally, but as of March 2010, an average of 1,000 people were applying for the cards each day, and many of the applications were of questionable validity and intent. As a result, state officials had been considering whether to revise the medicinal marijuana law, and "Medicinal Fried Chicken" was likely influenced by those discussions. The episode was also based on new Colorado health care laws that threatened to put restrictions on fast food restaurants in the state. ## Cultural references The fried chicken fast food restaurant KFC is featured prominently in "Medicinal Fried Chicken". The concept of a former KFC restaurant becoming a medicinal marijuana store mirrors that of a real life marijuana dispensary in the Palms community of Los Angeles, California. The store, called Kind for Cures, is abbreviated K.F.C. on its exterior signs and resembles the KFC fast food eateries in appearance, which has drawn national media attention to the marijuana dispensary. Colonel Harland Sanders, the founder of KFC who died in 1980 but is still used heavily in the chain's advertisements, is portrayed as a living character in "Medicinal Fried Chicken", with his trafficking in illegal fast food likening him to a drug kingpin, and Corbin, Kentucky, the home town of the first Kentucky Fried Chicken, depicted to resemble a South American hacienda/narcoplantation. "Medicinal Fried Chicken" includes several jokes about Pope Benedict XVI and the child sexual abuse scandals that surrounded the Catholic Church when the episode first aired. On three occasions, Cartman uses expanded and modified versions of idiomatic phrases, such as "is the Pope Catholic?", "does a bear shit in the woods?", and their combination, "does the Pope shit in the woods?", which are rhetorical questions used in response to a question where the answer is an emphatic yes. Thus, Cartman implies an affirmative response to questions such as: "Does the pope help pedophiles get away with their crimes?" and "Is the Pope Catholic? And making the world safe for pedophiles?" These are references to allegations that Pope Benedict XVI ignored warnings and concealed evidence that Rev. Peter Hullermann engaged in several acts of child sexual abuse under the future Pope's watch as Archbishop of Munich and Freising in the 1980s. During another scene, Cartman says, "Does a bear crap in the woods? And does the Pope crap on the broken lives and dreams of 200 deaf boys?" This is a reference to reports that Pope Benedict XVI failed to act to reports that Father Lawrence C. Murphy molested up to 200 deaf boys during his time at the St John's Catholic School for the Deaf. Cartman's involvement with the fried chicken black market closely mirrors the plot of the 1983 crime film Scarface, with Cartman in the role of Tony Montana, Billy in the role of Frank, and Colonel Sanders in the role of Alejandro Sosa. In the episode, Cartman travels to Corbin, Kentucky to meet a dealer, usurps the illegal operation from his local boss, and is ultimately brought down because he becomes addicted to his own product, plot points that mirror the plot of Scarface. Specific scenes patterned after ones in Scarface, include one in which Cartman watches Tommy (whose appearance is based on Tommy Vercetti from Grand Theft Auto: Vice City) being executed by being hanged from a helicopter, and the final scene in which Cartman's compound is attacked by gunmen. The episode also includes references to the 1991 crime film New Jack City. Colonel Sanders orders Cartman to assassinate Jamie Oliver, a British celebrity chef known for his campaign against fast food, as shown in his show Jamie Oliver's Food Revolution. Throughout the episode, Cartman is critical of fast food fried chicken eateries that compete with KFC. This includes Church's Chicken, which he said "tastes like cat shit", and Boston Market, when a dealer unsuccessfully tries to pass Boston Market gravy off as KFC gravy to Cartman. Randy says he wants to induce cancer and get medicinal marijuana in time to attend a concert by reggae singer Ziggy Marley. ## Release and reception In its original American broadcast on March 31, 2010, "Medicinal Fried Chicken" was watched by 2.99 million viewers, according to Nielsen Media Research, making it the most watched cable television show of the night, and one of the top performing cable programs of the week. Although a slight drop from the 3.24 million viewers of the previous week's episode, "The Tale of Scrotie McBoogerballs", the viewership for "Medicinal Fried Chicken" was considered a strong showing. The episode received an overall 1.9 rating/3 share, meaning that it was seen by 1.9% of the population, and 3% of people watching television at the time of the broadcast. Among viewers between ages 18 and 49, it received a 1.7 rating/5 share, and among male viewers between 18 and 34, it received a 3.1 rating/11 share. "Medicinal Fried Chicken", along with the thirteen other episodes from South Park'''s fourteenth season, were released on a three-disc DVD set and two-disc Blu-ray set in the United States on April 26, 2011. The A.V. Club writer Josh Modell said "Medicinal Fried Chicken" served as a good social satire without becoming too preachy. Modell particularly enjoyed that the other South Park men joined Randy in his absurd testicular cancer scheme, but said the Cartman subplot and drug film parody "fell a little flat". Ramsley Isler of IGN said the giant testes jokes were "brilliantly ludicrous", and did not grow old despite running throughout the length of the episode. Isler praised the ending scene with the scrotum skin coat, and said when Cartman snorted chicken skin like cocaine, "the episode reached a whole new level [of] hilarity". TV Fanatic declared the episode "perfection" and felt it was an improvement over the previous fourteenth season episodes "Sexual Healing" and "The Tale of Scrotie McBoogerballs". The site also praised the episode for use gross-out comedy like enlarged testicles for social satire as well as humor. Carlos Delgado of iF Magazine praised the humor, the references to Scarface and the social commentary, of which he said: "The points were smart, articulate, and, in true South Park style, completely off the wall". When asked how KFC felt about their portrayal in "Medicinal Fried Chicken", company spokesman Ricky Maynard said only: "As you might expect, KFC Corporation was not contacted by Comedy Central for permission to use our brand in South Park''. We had absolutely no say in the show's content." Corbin Tourism Chairperson Suzie Razmus viewed the association of Corbin with KFC as positive publicity, regardless of the show's tone. The city embarked on a campaign to capitalize on its connections to KFC and Colonel Sanders, and Sharae Myers, the city's Main Street manager, said of the episode, "One thing I think is great is that Corbin got the recognition: that the mecca for KFC is in Corbin."	[ "## Plot", "## Production", "## Cultural references", "## Release and reception" ]	2,664	19,397
53,560,612	Osmaniye-class ironclad	1,149,462,546	Ironclad warship class of the Ottoman Navy	[ "Osmaniye-class ironclads" ]	The Osmaniye class was a group of four ironclad warships built for the Ottoman Navy in the 1860s. The class comprised Osmaniye, the lead ship, Aziziye, Orhaniye, and Mahmudiye. They were the first vessels of the type to be built for the Ottoman Empire; all four were built in Great Britain, the first three by Robert Napier and Sons and the fourth by Thames Iron Works. The ships were broadside ironclads, carrying a battery of fourteen 203 mm (8 in) Armstrong guns and ten 36-pounder Armstrong guns in a bank of guns on each broadside. The ships saw little active service, in part owing to the fact that they were considered too large and thus too valuable to risk during the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878. The Ottoman fleet was placed in reserve for the following two decades, during which the four ships of the Osmaniye class were heavily rebuilt into more modern barbette ships. They were in poor condition by the outbreak of the Greco-Turkish War in 1897, like much of the rest of the fleet, and as a result saw no action during the war. The Navy considered rebuilding the ships for the second time in the early 1900s, but abandoned the idea due to their deteriorated state. As a result, the four ships were decommissioned in 1909 and Mahmudiye and Orhaniye were broken up in 1913, with Osmaniye and Aziziye remaining in the Navy's inventory until 1923, when they too were scrapped. ## Design In 1861, Abdülaziz became sultan of the Ottoman Empire, and thereafter began a construction program to strengthen the Ottoman Navy, which had incurred heavy losses during the Crimean War of 1853–1856. The Navy ordered ironclad warships from shipyards in Britain and France, though the program was limited by the Ottoman Empire's limited finances. The Osmaniye class were the first ironclads to be ordered as part of the program. ### Characteristics The Osmaniye-class ships were 91.4 m (299 ft 10 in) long overall, with a beam of 16.9 m (55 ft 5 in) and a draft of 7.9 m (25 ft 11 in). Their hulls were constructed with iron, incorporated a ram bow, and displaced 6,400 metric tons (6,300 long tons; 7,100 short tons) normally and 4,211 t (4,144 long tons; 4,642 short tons) BOM. They had a crew of 26 officers and 335 enlisted men as completed, but only 250 after 1894. The ships were powered by a single horizontal compound engine which drove one screw propeller. Steam was provided by six coal-fired box boilers that were trunked into a single, retractable funnel amidships. Their engine produced a top speed of 13.5 knots (25.0 km/h; 15.5 mph) on sea trials, though by 1891, decades of poor maintenance had reduced the ships' speed to 6 knots (11 km/h; 6.9 mph). Osmaniye and her sister ships carried 750 t (740 long tons; 830 short tons) of coal. A supplementary barque rig with three masts was also fitted. The ships were armed with a battery of one 229 mm (9 in) rifled muzzle-loading (RML) Armstrong gun and fourteen 203 mm (8 in) RML Armstrongs. These were supplemented with ten 36-pounder guns, also manufactured by Armstrong. The 229 mm gun was placed on the upper deck, forward, and the rest of the guns were mounted on each broadside on the upper and main decks. The ships' wrought iron armored belt was 140 mm (5.5 in) thick, and was capped with 76 mm (3 in) thick transverse bulkhead at either end. The belt extended from 1 m (2 ft 6 in) above the waterline and 2 m (6 ft) below amidships, with the depth of the belt reduced to 1 m (4 ft 6 in) at either end of the ship. Above the belt were strakes of armor 127 mm (5 in) thick that protected the battery, transverse bulkheads 114 mm (4.5 in) connected the battery armor. The 229 mm gun in the bow was protected by a breastwork that was sheathed with 102 mm (4 in) of iron plate. ### Modifications In 1884, the 36-pounder guns were removed and a light battery of four 47 mm (1.9 in) quick-firing (QF) Hotchkiss guns and two 4-barreled 25.4 mm (1 in) Nordenfelt guns were added. All four ships were refitted at the Imperial Arsenal, with work lasting from 1890 to 1894. During the refit, they received two vertical triple-expansion engines in place of their original machinery, and six coal-fired Scotch marine boilers replaced the box boilers; the new propulsion system allowed them to steam at a speed of 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph). Their armament was radically revised; all of the old muzzle-loaders were removed and a battery of new Krupp breech-loading guns were installed. Two Krupp 240 mm (9.4 in) K L/35 guns were added in individual barbettes, one forward and one aft. Eight 150 mm (5.9 in) L/25 Krupp guns and six 105 mm (4.1 in) L/25 Krupp guns were installed on the broadside. Two of the 47 mm guns were removed and three more Nordenfelt guns were added. ## Ships ## Service history Unlike most of the other ironclads of the Ottoman fleet, the four Osmaniye-class ships were kept out of action during the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878, since they were among the largest and most powerful vessels of the fleet and the high command decided they ought to be preserved. As a result, they generally remained safely in the Sea of Marmara, though Osmaniye was briefly used as a troop transport in the Mediterranean Sea. The four ships were reduced to reserve status in Constantinople after the war, with the rest of the Ottoman fleet. The four ships were heavily rebuilt in the early 1890s, being converted into more modern barbette ships. Nevertheless, they were in poor condition by the outbreak of the Greco-Turkish War in February 1897, with many of their guns damaged or incomplete. Training exercises conducted in May highlighted the very low standard of training of their crews, and reinforced the decision not to confront the Greek Navy at sea. All four ships were disarmed after the war and laid up. The Ottomans began a reconstruction program, which was to have included the four Osmaniye-class ships. The proposed alterations included a new propulsion system and a battery consisting of one 203 mm quick-firing gun and nine 150 mm QF guns. They were also to receive a new suite of steel armor, including a 254 mm (10 in) thick belt, 127 mm thick barbettes, 76 mm gun turrets, and a 38 mm (1.5 in) thick deck. But the ships were found to be not worth rebuilding a second time, and so all were ultimately decommissioned in 1909. Aziziye, Orhaniye, and Mahmudiye were briefly used as barracks ships; the latter two were sold for scrap in 1913, and Aziziye and Osmaniye followed them to the ship breakers in 1923.	[ "## Design", "### Characteristics", "### Modifications", "## Ships", "## Service history" ]	1,635	12,568
53,336,627	1959 Philadelphia municipal election	1,173,913,348	1959 municipal election in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania	[ "1950s in Philadelphia", "1959 Pennsylvania elections", "1959 United States local elections", "1959 United States mayoral elections", "City council elections in the United States", "Mayoral elections in Philadelphia" ]	1959 Philadelphia's municipal election, held on November 3, involved contests for mayor, all seventeen city council seats, and several other executive and judicial offices. Citywide, the Democrats took majorities of over 200,000 votes, continuing their success from the elections four years earlier. Richardson Dilworth, who had been elected mayor in 1955, was re-elected over Republican nominee Harold Stassen. The Democrats also took fifteen of seventeen city council seats, the most seats allowed to any one party under the 1951 city charter. They further kept control of the other citywide offices. The election represented a continued consolidation of control by the Democrats after their citywide victories of the previous eight years. ## Background After taking control of the city government in 1951, Democrats consolidated their majorities with further success in 1955 and 1957. They hoped to continue the victories made possible by the continuing coalition of reform-minded independents and the Democratic organization led by Democratic City Committee chairman William J. Green Jr., but tension between the two groups had begun to increase by 1959 as more of the jobs and elected offices went to organization men, with reformers being increasingly marginalized. The Republican organization had largely collapsed after the 1955 defeat, but looked to rebuild and consolidate under the leadership of former sheriff Austin Meehan. However, as political scientist Robert Freedman wrote several years later, "there was not much left to consolidate." The Philadelphia Inquirer noted the dire condition of the Republicans while predicting a major Democratic victory: "the Republican organization has been on the border of collapse during the last few years and it is probable that it will not man a number of polling places on Election Day." ## Mayor In the mayor's race, incumbent Democrat Richardson Dilworth ran for reelection against Republican Harold Stassen. After service in World War I and a law degree from Yale, Dilworth practiced law in Philadelphia. He and Joseph S. Clark Jr., were allies in the anti-corruption reform effort that had swept the city eight years earlier in coalition with the Democratic political organization. Dilworth had run for mayor unsuccessfully in 1947, with Clark as his campaign manager. In 1949, he was elected City Treasurer. He resigned that post to run for governor in 1950, but was defeated by Republican John S. Fine. Democratic party leaders had intended Dilworth to be their candidate for mayor again in 1951, but when Clark announced his candidacy, Dilworth agreed to run for district attorney instead, and won. In 1955, Dilworth got his shot at the mayor's office when Clark instead ran for the Senate; he was elected with 59% of the vote. Four years later, he was renominated without opposition. The Republicans nominated Harold Stassen. In 1938, Stassen was elected Governor of Minnesota at the age of thirty-one. He became known as an efficient, honest, and moderately liberal governor, and was reelected in 1940 and 1942. Stassen resigned as governor shortly after his 1942 reelection to serve in World War II. He made an unsuccessful bid for the Republican nomination for president in 1948; later that year, he was appointed president of the University of Pennsylvania. After four years, he left that position to work in the Dwight D. Eisenhower administration as a special assistant for nuclear disarmament efforts. In 1958, he sought the nomination for Governor of Pennsylvania, but was unsuccessful. As the 1959 election approached, Republican City Committee leaders Wilbur H. Hamilton and Austin Meehan backed Stassen for their party's nomination. Triumphing over token opposition in the May primary, Stassen pledged to cut taxes and promised to run a "fusion campaign," inviting the support of Democrats dissatisfied with Dilworth's administration. Dilworth called for more spending, especially on streets, highways, and public housing, and admitted that increased taxation was likely the price of those improvements. As in 1955, the result was a landslide for Dilworth. Dilworth called the victory "greater than we had anticipated" and said the scale of the landslide "puts us on a spot. We really have to deliver during the next four years." Stassen said he would return to his law practice and promised to continue to build the Republican Party in Philadelphia. Dilworth secured nearly two-thirds of the vote and fifty-eight out of fifty-nine wards, continuing a trend of Democratic dominance in the city's politics. ## City Council Philadelphians elected a seventeen-member city council in 1959, with ten members representing districts of the city, and the remaining seven being elected at-large. For the at-large seats, each political party could nominate five candidates, and voters could only vote for five, with the result being that the majority party could only take five of the seven seats, leaving two for the minority party. The Democrats' citywide dominance continued into the city council races, as took control of all ten of the district seats, up from nine in the previous election. They also retained five of seven at-large seats. In the at-large races, four incumbent Democratic candidates, Victor E. Moore, Paul D'Ortona, Marshall L. Shepard, and Leon Kolankiewicz, were re-elected. A fifth Democrat, state legislator Mary Varallo, was elected to the seat vacated by Henry W. Sawyer when he declined to run for re-election. On the Republican side, at-large councilman Louis Schwartz retired and was replaced by Virginia Knauer. Incumbent Thomas M. Foglietta, a lawyer and son of former councilman Michael Foglietta, was re-elected. Losing bids for the Republican at-large seats were attorneys Emil F. Goldhaber and William S. Rawls, and Baptist minister Clarence M. Smith. At the district level, Democratic incumbents Emanuel Weinberg (district 1), Gaetano Giordano (district 2), Harry Norwitch (district 3), Samuel Rose (district 4), Michael J. Towey (district 6), James Tate (district 7), Henry P. Carr (district 9), and John M. McDevitt (district 10) were all reelected. In the 5th district, Raymond Pace Alexander chose not to run for re-election and fellow Democrat Thomas McIntosh took his place. In the 8th, the Republicans lost their only district-level seat when Wilbur H. Hamilton narrowly lost out to Democrat Alfred Leopold Luongo. ## City commissioners In the race for city commissioners, each party nominated two candidates and the top three were elected. The office was a county office, a holdover from the time before consolidation of the townships in Philadelphia County into one city. The most important of the remaining duties of the commissioners in Philadelphia was the conduct of the city's elections; they also had responsibility for regulating weights and measures. The Democrats' success continued in those races, with incumbent commissioners Maurice S. Osser and Thomas P. McHenry being easily reelected. For the third seat, reserved for the minority party, Republican former city councilman Louis Menna edged out the incumbent Republican commissioner, Walter I. Davidson. ## Other offices and ballot measures Democrat William M. Lennox was reelected county sheriff, his third consecutive term. Louis Amarando, also a Democrat, was reelected clerk of the court of quarter sessions (a court whose jurisdiction was later transferred to the court of common pleas). In the special election for Register of Wills that followed the previous officeholder's appointment as a judge, Democrat John F. Walsh Jr. easily defeated Republican Jay H. Rosenfeld (Walsh had been appointed in 1959 to fill the vacancy). The Democrats also took six of the ten magisterial district judge positions up for election that year (a local court, the duties of which have since been superseded by the Philadelphia Municipal Court) with former state representative Ralph M. Dennis leading the list. The ballot contained two referendums authorizing the city to take loans for construction of building repairs, streets, sewers, and other civic improvements. They passed with overwhelming support, tallying 70% and 72% affirmative votes. ## See also - List of members of Philadelphia City Council since 1952	[ "## Background", "## Mayor", "## City Council", "## City commissioners", "## Other offices and ballot measures", "## See also" ]	1,694	4,231
25,976,385	Hurricane Debbie (1969)	1,165,746,609	Category 3 Atlantic hurricane in 1969	[ "1969 Atlantic hurricane season", "Cape Verde hurricanes", "Category 3 Atlantic hurricanes", "Hurricanes in Canada" ]	Hurricane Debbie was an intense and long-lived hurricane that formed during August 1969. The fifth tropical cyclone, fourth named storm, third hurricane and second major hurricane of the 1969 Atlantic hurricane season, Debbie formed on August 14 in the southern Atlantic Ocean and took a general northwesterly path until turning northward into the central Atlantic. The storm was characterized by numerous fluctuations in intensity, but it still reached winds corresponding to Category 3 status on the Saffir–Simpson scale. The hurricane bypassed the island of Bermuda to the southeast on August 22, before ultimately brushing southeastern Newfoundland with strong winds. It dissipated over the cold waters east of Greenland. Although Debbie had little effect on land, it was extensively researched and was subject to a weather modification experiment by Project Stormfury, in which it was seeded with silver iodide. ## Meteorological history A disturbance associated with a tropical wave strengthened into a tropical depression on August 14. The system had significantly organized by August 15, having intensified into a tropical storm by 00:00 UTC that day. Upon its designation, Debbie was moving west-northwestward at approximately 15 mph (24 km/h) and it was predicted to gradually gain power. It attained Category 1 hurricane strength on August 16 as it turned toward the northwest. It continued to mature, and at around 12:00 UTC on the next day, it achieved winds corresponding to Category 2 on the Saffir–Simpson scale. After attaining an initial peak of 105 mph (165 km/h) six hours later, Debbie oscillated in strength over the succeeding two days, weakening back to Category 1 status early on August 19. Debbie's abrupt fluctuation in intensity may have been the result of a seeding experiment carried out on the storm in an attempt to weaken it, though posthumous assessment by the Atlantic hurricane reanalysis project determined that an eyewall replacement cycle was more likely responsible. Upon reversion to minimal hurricane force, Debbie turned more to the west, although it maintained a general northwesterly path. By later in the day, Debbie had begun to restrengthen, reaching major hurricane intensity, Category 3 on the Saffir–Simpson scale, by 18:00 UTC. Six hours later, early on August 20, the cyclone acquired peak winds of 125 mph (205 km/h), the highest in its lifespan; approximately 18 hours later, its lowest recorded barometric pressure fell to 950 mb (28 inHg), as measured by hurricane hunters. The storm then weakened as it turned northward and eventually northeastward on August 21. Gradually losing strength, Debbie passed well to the southeast of Bermuda, although it is believed that if not for the presence of nearby Hurricane Camille, which emerged into the Atlantic from the United States on August 20, Debbie would have likely ended up further west, closer to the island. Debbie mostly maintained its severity through 06:00 UTC on August 23 as it continued generally toward the northeast. By 12:00 UTC on August 23, Debbie weakened to below Category 2 status and turned northward, becoming extratropical six hours later, while still retaining winds of hurricane force. The next day, the storm's remnants—no longer bearing winds of hurricane intensity, but only gale force—skirted the southeastern tip of Newfoundland. The remnants of Debbie began to lose definition as they accelerated northeastward, while moving over increasingly cold waters. Debbie's remnants finally dissipated west of Norway on August 27. ## Impact and Project Stormfury Debbie remained predominately at sea throughout its 3,000 mi (4,800 km) path, and as a result, it caused little damage. The storm had little or no impact on the island of Bermuda as it passed to the south. Later, winds of 50 to 65 mph (80 to 105 km/h) were recorded over eastern Newfoundland. Debbie was subject to an experiment called Project Stormfury, which attempted to weaken tropical cyclones by seeding them with silver iodide. The storm provided an excellent opportunity to test the underpinnings of Project Stormfury. In many ways it was the perfect storm for seeding: it did not threaten any land; it passed within range of seeding aircraft; and was intense with a distinct eye. On August 18 and again on August 20, thirteen planes flew out to the storm to monitor and seed it. On the first day, windspeeds fell by 31%, from 98 to 68 knots (180 to 125 km/h; 115 to 80 mph). On the second day, windspeeds fell by 18%. Both changes were consistent with Stormfury's working hypothesis. The results were so encouraging that "a greatly expanded research program was planned." Among other conclusions was the need for frequent seeding at close to hourly intervals. However, later studies determined that Project Stormfury likely had little or no impact on the evolution of Debbie and other storms, positing instead that natural fluctuations induced by eyewall replacement cycles were more likely to blame. ## See also - 1969 Atlantic hurricane season	[ "## Meteorological history", "## Impact and Project Stormfury", "## See also" ]	1,071	28,263
66,599,122	The Diving Pool	1,161,854,392	Novella collection by Yōko Ogawa	[ "2008 short story collections", "Japanese horror fiction", "Japanese novellas", "Japanese short story collections" ]	The Diving Pool: Three Novellas is a novella collection by Japanese author Yōko Ogawa, first published in English in 2008. It was Ogawa's first book-length work to be translated. The Diving Pool is a triptych of psychological horror stories with a loosely connected theme about Japanese femininity, loneliness, and societal alienation. All three novellas have young female protagonists, a schoolgirl in "The Diving Pool" and young adult women in "Pregnancy Diary" and "Dormitory", who feel isolated and alienated by Japanese society and lash out at their surroundings. The novellas focus on the domestic world, reinterpreting it as a prison for its characters which they try gainlessly to escape; the protagonists are at times uncaring, schizoid, or monstrous in their behaviour towards themselves and the world around them. The Diving Pool received a positive reception in translation, becoming an object of critical praise and academic study. In the original Japanese, the novellas had been published in separate collections up to a year apart, where they were each individually well received. ## Plot "The Diving Pool", "Pregnancy Diary", and "Dormitory" have similar but unrelated plots. ### The Diving Pool The protagonist of "The Diving Pool" is Aya, a schoolgirl in her early teens. Aya's parents run a Christian orphanage at which she is "the only child who is not an orphan, a fact that has disfigured my family"; she develops an infatuation with Jun, one of the orphans and a talented diver. Aya obsessively watches Jun practice, sneaking into the orphanage's pool room to watch without him noticing. As her infatuation builds, Aya also develops a sadistic obsession with Rie, the youngest resident of the orphanage. Rie's suffering and trauma enrapture Aya and encourage her to torment the child until she eventually traps her in an urn, in an emotionally and sexually charged sequence. Jun eventually discovers Aya's sadism, revealing his knowledge of it to her after a diving session and destroying her dreams of a relationship. ### Pregnancy Diary The unnamed narrator of "Pregnancy Diary" is a young woman who lives with her sister, newly pregnant, and her sister's husband. "Pregnancy Diary" is told in an epistolary format, with the narrator keeping a meticulous journal of her sister's pregnancy and reactions to it. The narrator's sister grows obsessed with scents and food, particularly sweet food, and entrusts the narrator to cook for her to sate her cravings. The narrator of "Pregnancy Diary" is unemotional, with little reaction to or concern for her sister, while the sister is portrayed in the diary as "nervous and hysterical", dependent on a psychiatrist who makes regular house visits. As the sister's pregnancy grows, she first becomes repulsed by food and later obsessed with it; the narrator remarks on her sister's pronounced weight gain late in the pregnancy, noting the disapproval of her doctors. The narrator purchases ingredients to make a homemade jam for her sister, specifically grapefruits imported from America, which she is warned are treated with a pesticide that "destroys the chromosomes" of growing fetuses. As she makes batches of the jam, the tether of the sisters to reality weakens, and it becomes unclear what is real and what is delusion in their folie à deux. ### Dormitory The also-unnamed narrator of "Dormitory" is isolated in Tokyo; her husband is working overseas in Sweden, and while she quit her job, she hasn't yet travelled to join him. Her younger cousin is starting university, and she assists him to stay in the same dormitory hall she herself lived in as a student. She strikes up a friendship with the manager, a triple amputee who nonetheless lives independently and can perform complex manual tasks such as sewing buttons with his only remaining limb. Not long after moving in, the narrator's cousin disappears; however, she is uninterested in trying to find him. "Dormitory" is the most surreal novella in the collection, being told primarily on the metaphorical rather than the literal level. Few of the questions it raises are answered, and the ending is symbolic rather than literal. ## Themes The Diving Pool is a psychological horror collection with subversive and metaphorical themes. The novellas are dream-like, using loosely connected imagery to evoke feelings and questions without providing answers. The collection relates to a subverted form of femininity and domesticity, with Ogawa's work as a whole being described as about "the horrific femininities of daily life". A recurring theme of the collection is food, particularly the subversion of feeding other people from an act of caring into one of sadistically undermining the other's wellbeing. In "The Diving Pool", one of the ways Aya torments Rie is to feed her spoiled and rotten food, hoping to sicken the girl under the guise of rewarding her; in "Pregnancy Diary", the focus of the story is the narrator's subverted caregiving for her pregnant sister, feeding her food made with tainted ingredients with the hopes of disfiguring her child. Grace En-Yi Ting, assistant professor of gender and literature at the University of Hong Kong, analyzes this as an element of Ogawa's broader body of literature, where femininity and caregiving being subverted by sadism and schizoid detachment is a wide-ranging theme. Ting understands Ogawa's work as a reflection of Japanese society more broadly, where traditional gender roles and modern capitalist workforce norms combine into unreachable expectations. Furuya Takanori concurs with Ting, describing "Pregnancy Diary" in its original Japanese publication as "妊娠カレンダー (Ninshin karendā)" as part of a greater body of work by Japanese female authors on the human body as an object of discomfort. The protagonists of each story in The Diving Pool are in different landmark developmental stages; "The Diving Pool" relates to first love, "Pregnancy Diary" to pregnancy, and "Dormitory" to married life. The coming-of-age concept is subverted, as in each case the characters fail to attain developmental milestones and recuse themselves from society. The obstacles between the protagonists and their passions are insurmountable, and their ability to enter mainstream society hampered. The prose style of The Diving Pool is detailed and intricate regarding locations and inanimate objects, but sparse as to people, furthering the sense of detachment. Despite being told from a first-person perspective, the narration in each story is opaque and reveals little about the thoughts and feelings of the narrators; however, the settings around them are described in detail, with vivid descriptions given of places such as shopping strips and maternity clinics. ## Reception The Diving Pool received a positive reception upon translation. Writing for The Guardian, Joanna Briscoe described Ogawa as a "conspicuously gifted" writer who needed to be discovered in the Anglosphere. Publishers Weekly described The Diving Pool as "crafty" and "suspenseful" with a "gnawing, erotic edge", while Kirkus Reviews praised it as "a masterfully twisted triptych" that demonstrated the power of short fiction. Victoria James for The Independent called it a "welcome introduction" to Ogawa's work, though criticized the stories for having overly similar structures and premises. In the original Japanese publication, "Pregnancy Diary" and "Dormitory" won the Akutagawa Prize, one of Japan's most prestigious and sought-after literary prizes. The works were praised for their sense of aesthetics. "The Diving Pool", which was originally published in a separate collection from the other two novellas, was shortlisted for the Akutagawa Prize. In translation, The Diving Pool was awarded the 2008 Shirley Jackson Award for Best Collection and longlisted for the 2009 Independent Foreign Fiction Prize.	[ "## Plot", "### The Diving Pool", "### Pregnancy Diary", "### Dormitory", "## Themes", "## Reception" ]	1,659	4,287
12,930,987	Robert of Bath	1,143,550,235	12th-century Bishop of Bath	[ "1166 deaths", "12th-century English Roman Catholic bishops", "Bishops of Bath", "Year of birth unknown" ]	Robert or sometimes Robert of Lewes (died 1166) was a medieval English Bishop of Bath. He began his career as a monk at Lewes Priory as well as performing administrative functions for Henry of Blois. It was Henry who secured Robert's selection as bishop. While bishop, Robert built in his diocese and set up the system of archdeacons there. He may have been the author of the Gesta Stephani, a work detailing the history of King Stephen's life. ## Life Robert was a native of England, but his ancestry was Flemish, probably of noble birth. His birthdate and when he became a monk are not known. He was a Cluniac and a monk of Lewes Priory and a protégé of Henry of Blois who employed him at Glastonbury Abbey on administrative tasks. He may have been the prior of Winchester Cathedral but there is no certain evidence of this, as it is based on an appearance of a "Robert, prior of Winchester" on the 1130 Pipe Roll, and a 15th-century historian. He was named Bishop of Bath through the influence of Henry of Blois, and was consecrated probably in March 1136. Robert was instrumental in reorganizing his diocese as well as building and restoration work at Wells. He was the bishop that set up the territorial organization of the archdeacons of the diocese. Contemporaries considered him pious as well as a man of business. Robert continued the building work on church building at Bath, and gave borough status to the town of Wells. He also reorganized the church at Wells, which had previously been the cathedral for the diocese prior to John of Tours moving the episcopal seat to Bath. In 1138, during Robert of Gloucester's rising against King Stephen of England, Robert was in charge of the defenses of Bath. He captured Geoffrey Talbot, who was a supporter of Robert of Gloucester's, but when he went out to parley with another group of Gloucester's supporters, the bishop was captured even though he had been offered a safe conduct for the parley. The bishop was then exchanged for Geoffrey Talbot. In 1141, he was at the gathering where Henry of Blois changed allegiance to the Empress Matilda at Winchester. Robert died 31 August 1166 and was buried in Bath Abbey before the high altar. He may have been the author of the Gesta Stephani, an identification first made by the historian R. H. C. Davis in 1962. While it is not certain that Robert was the author, the outlook of the work certainly fits with the known outlook of Robert.	[ "## Life" ]	549	5,374
47,143,917	Charles Lloyd (Australian general)	1,164,651,939	Australian general	[ "1899 births", "1956 deaths", "Australian Army personnel of World War II", "Australian Commanders of the Order of the British Empire", "Australian generals", "Burials at Karrakatta Cemetery", "Graduates of the Staff College, Camberley", "Military personnel from Western Australia", "People educated at Perth Modern School", "People from Fremantle", "Royal Military College, Duntroon graduates" ]	Major General Charles Edward Maurice Lloyd, CBE (2 February 1899 – 31 May 1956) was a senior officer in the Australian Army. Lloyd graduated from the Royal Military College, Duntroon in 1918 as a regular officer in the artillery and subsequently served in a range of staff and regimental positions in the inter-war years. He later saw service in the Second World War, during which he held senior staff and administrative positions in the Middle East, the Netherlands East Indies, Papua and Australia. Later he worked as a newspaper executive, as chief of several United Nations agencies, and in private enterprise. Lloyd died in 1956. ## Early life Charles Lloyd was born on 2 February 1899 at South Fremantle, Western Australia, the second and only surviving child of Thomas Edward Lloyd, a postmaster, and his wife Edith, née Lock. His parents separated in 1901 and two years later his father committed suicide. He was subsequently raised by his mother, who worked as a telephone attendant at Coolgardie, and then in Fremantle from 1909. Lloyd was educated at Beaconsfield, Fremantle Boys' Central and Perth Modern schools. ## Military career Entering the Australian Army in 1915, Lloyd graduated from the Royal Military College, Duntroon in December 1918 as a regular officer in the artillery, too late to see action during the First World War. Lloyd was nicknamed "Gaffer" by the other cadets due to his serious demeanor, and Gavin Long considered him among the "ablest" of the group of officers that joined the Staff Corps at that time. He was appointed as a lieutenant in the Australian Imperial Force upon completing his training at Duntroon and embarked from Sydney in January 1919, being sent to the United Kingdom and later posted to France. Returning to the Permanent Military Force as the AIF was demobilised, he later completed his training serving with the British Army in England and India in 1919–20. Lloyd married Sybil Drummond in Melbourne on 31 December 1921. He subsequently held junior staff and regimental postings in Australia during the 1920s, at the same time studying law at the University of Sydney. His next postings included various adjutant and quartermaster roles at battery and brigade level in the 2nd and 3rd Military Districts. Later he attended Staff College, Camberley, in the United Kingdom during 1932–33. Next he was appointed brigade major of the 4th Divisional Artillery in Melbourne in 1934, and was promoted to major in 1937. He was posted to the Directorate of Artillery at Army Headquarters in Melbourne from 1938 to 1939. Following the outbreak of the Second World War, Lloyd was seconded to the Second Australian Imperial Force (2nd AIF) for overseas service. He held administrative posts in the 6th Division and I Australian Corps in the Middle East during 1940, but was transferred before the 6th Division went into combat for the first time. In December that year, ranked colonel, he was posted to the 9th Division as the senior operational officer, serving as chief of staff to Major General Sir Leslie Morshead. In March, the 9th Division moved into the Western Desert, where they were to finalise their training and prepare to join the British advance through Libya. The landing of German forces around Tripoli in April forced the British and Commonwealth armies into withdrawal from Benghazi as the Afrika Korps arrived to reinforce the Italians in North Africa. The Axis forces subsequently began to advance west towards the strategic port of Tobruk. During the Siege of Tobruk which followed, Lloyd saw action between April and October 1941, until the Australian units were relieved by British forces. Following the evacuation of the 9th Division from Tobruk by sea, Lloyd then served as chief liaison officer at AIF Headquarters, Middle East. Departing the Middle East in late January 1942, Lloyd was promoted to brigadier and flew to Batavia in the Netherlands East Indies, where elements of the 2nd AIF had been diverted to whilst returning from the Middle East in order to meet the Japanese threat following their initial attacks against British Commonwealth and US forces in the Pacific in December 1941. He subsequently filled a senior staff posting in General Sir Archibald Wavell's ABDA Command during its brief existence, holding the position of Deputy Intendant-General with the temporary rank of major general between January and February 1942. Rising from major to major general in less than two-and-a-half years, he became the youngest general officer in the Australian Army at the age of 42. In this role he acted as Wavell's chief administrative officer; however, he advocated to the Australian high command against British proposals for I Corps to remain in Java, which he believed was unsound and likely result in its loss given the precarious tactical situation there, and that instead it should be returned to Australia to be concentrated for operations against the Japanese elsewhere. Ultimately while a few Australian units were landed in Java, where they were inevitably captured in the fighting that followed, the bulk of the 6th and 7th Divisions were returned to Australia after pressure from the Australian government. Following the Netherlands East Indies campaign, Lloyd returned to Australia in April 1942 and reverted to the rank of brigadier. He was subsequently appointed Director of Staff Duties at Land Headquarters (LHQ) in July. In September he was briefly posted to I Corps in Papua as Brigadier General Staff under Lieutenant General Sir Sydney Rowell. In February 1943, Lloyd was promoted again to major general and appointed Adjutant General at LHQ by the Commander-in-Chief, General Sir Thomas Blamey, remaining in this position until 1946. Blamey had reportedly been "dissatisfied" with the performance of the previous Adjutant General, Major General Victor Stantke, and appointed Lloyd to rejuvenate the office. Leaving the full-time army, he transferred to the inactive reserve in February 1946. Described by Chester Wilmot as "one of the ablest staff officers and most colourful characters of the AIF", and by Wavell as "a staff officer of great quality", during his service Lloyd had been appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (1941) and was mentioned in despatches three times (1941–42). ## Later life In 1946, Lloyd became a senior executive of the Argus & Australasian newspaper, before unsuccessfully seeking Liberal Party pre-selection for a seat in Federal parliament the same year. In 1948, he was appointed as a member of the government committee that reported on the administration of the British Commonwealth Occupation Force in Japan. His later work included postings as chief of the United Nations Refugee Organisation in Australia and New Zealand (1948–51), and Chief of Mission of the United Nations Korean Reconstruction Agency (1951–53). On return to Australia he took up a position as vice-chairman of Navcot (Aust.) Pty Ltd, a private enterprise which was involved in shipping refugees from Europe as part of the post-war immigration program. Whilst visiting relatives in Western Australia, Lloyd died of jaundice in the Repatriation General Hospital, in Hollywood, Perth, on 31 May 1956 and was buried in Karrakatta Cemetery. He was survived by his wife, daughter and two sons.	[ "## Early life", "## Military career", "## Later life" ]	1,545	19,288
1,566,276	Interstate 225	1,130,620,198	Highway in Colorado	[ "Auxiliary Interstate Highways", "Interstate 25", "Interstate Highways in Colorado", "Transportation in Adams County, Colorado", "Transportation in Arapahoe County, Colorado", "Transportation in Aurora, Colorado", "Transportation in Denver" ]	Interstate 225 (I-225) is an auxiliary Interstate Highway in the U.S. state of Colorado. The freeway is a 11.959-mile-long (19.246 km) connector spur route of I-25 that acts as an eastern bypass in the Denver metropolitan area and serves Aurora. It also provides direct access to Denver International Airport for the Denver Tech Center and the southern suburbs of Denver. I-225 is one of the two existing auxiliary Interstate Highways in Colorado and it is the only auxiliary route of I-25, as there are no auxiliary routes for I-25 in New Mexico and Wyoming. The route begins at I-25 in the Denver Tech Center and runs north to I-70 north of Aurora. It interchanges with State Highway 83 (SH 83), SH 30 and I-70 Business/US 40/US 287, known locally as Colfax Avenue. The freeway was first proposed in the 1950s along with the first Interstate Highways within Denver. Construction did not begin until 1964 at the I-70 interchange and proceeded south through Aurora until final completion in early 1976 with the final link to I-25 opening to traffic. ## Route description I-225 is one of the three freeways that serves Aurora and is the only existing Interstate in Colorado that never runs concurrent with another highway in its entire length. The southern end of I-225 begins at an interchange with I-25, as a typical four-lane Interstate with a 65-mile-per-hour (105 km/h) limit. The road heads northeastward through southern Denver, and, after having exits with DTC Boulevard and Yosemite Street in Greenwood Village, the road becomes six lanes with an auxiliary lane in each direction, traversing the Denver–Greenwood Village city limits. With Cherry Creek State Park and Cherry Creek Reservoir on its eastside, the highway interchanges with SH 83 at the northern boundary of the park. Following the exit at SH 83, the freeway enters Aurora, where it turns northward, maintaining six throughlanes and auxiliary lanes at each exit, a 65-mile-per-hour (105 km/h) speed limit to its northern terminus at I-70, and has upgraded exits at Iliff Avenue, Mississippi Avenue, Alameda Avenue, and 6th Avenue (also signed as SH 30). After crossing Sand Creek, the freeway interchanges with Colfax Avenue (also signed as US 40, US 287, and I-70 Bus.), and then with 17th Place (serving the Anschutz Medical Campus). After the exit, I-225 enters Adams County, continuing through the city of Aurora. The route then crosses a railroad and continues north, where it interchanges with I-70. The northbound ramp to westbound I-70 reenters Denver, and the eastbound I-70 to southbound I-225 ramp originates in Denver but enters Aurora as it passes under westbound I-70 to southbound I-225 ramp. Like other state highways in Colorado, I-225 is maintained by the Colorado Department of Transportation (CDOT), an agency who is responsible for maintaining and constructing transportation infrastructure across Colorado. In 2014, the department's traffic surveys showed that I-225 serves approximately 71,500 vehicles per day between I-25 and Parker Road and 60,750 vehicles north of Parker Road going in and out of Aurora. All of I-225 is part of the National Highway System (NHS), a network of roads important to the country's economy, defense, and mobility. ## History I-225 was originally proposed by CDOT to be numbered as I-25E on April 3, 1958, based upon the Route Numbering Committee signing north, south, east, and west routes as suffixed routes in the Interstate Highway System. AASHTO rejected the designation, and the highway was then assigned the I-225 designation following further correspondence the following year. ### Construction and expansion Construction on I-225 began in May 1964 at I-70. A section from Colfax Avenue to Sixth Avenue was opened in 1966. The first segment of freeway that ran from sixth Avenue to I-70 received a temporary carrier route that was cosigning I-225 as State Highway 33. CDOT then removed the state highway designation in 1968 as part of an effort to remove carrier routes on existing US and Interstate highways. Five years later, a segment between Mississippi Avenue and Parker Road was opened, and construction began on another segment south of Parker Road, completed in May 1975. The rest of the route between Yosemite Street and I-25 was completed in May 1976. Immediately after the completion of the freeway, improvements at the SH 30 (6th Avenue) interchange were underway involving the overpass. Reconstruction of the freeway between 30th Avenue and Smith Road took place between October 1992 to August 1994, which involved bridge replacements over Toll Gate Creek and Smith Road that were completed by August 1990 in an effort for the reconstruction project. Two months after the reconstruction project, the I-70/I-225 interchange reconstruction went underway, which involved widening I-225 from I-70 to Smith Road and improvements to the flyover ramps at the interchange that was completed in April 1995. From February 1996 to November 1997, I-225 was expanded to six lanes between Toll Gate Creek and Colfax Avenue and between Colfax and 6th Avenue by December 1997. A new interchange at Alameda Avenue was completed and opened in 2002 and a new flyover ramp at Parker Road began in September 2000 to complete the interchange between Parker Road and I-225. Another interchange at 17th Place was added and opened on February 15, 2013. The portion from I-25 to SH 83/Parker Road was rebuilt as part of the T-REX Project completed in 2006. The highway was later widened between Parker Road and Mississippi Avenue to six lanes, as part of a project to widen the entire freeway to I-70; construction on this portion took place between May 2012 and November 2014. The RTD R Line, a light rail line, follows the entire length of I-225 from I-25 to near I-70. Its tracks run parallel to the freeway and also use its median and is interlined with a portion of the RTD H Line. The light rail project was approved in 2004 as part of the FasTracks program, began construction in 2012, and was completed in February 2017. ## Exit list ## See also	[ "## Route description", "## History", "### Construction and expansion", "## Exit list", "## See also" ]	1,376	24,101
40,640,722	North Carolina Highway 231	1,159,814,106	State highway in North Carolina, US	[ "State highways in North Carolina", "Transportation in Johnston County, North Carolina", "Transportation in Nash County, North Carolina", "Transportation in Wake County, North Carolina" ]	North Carolina Highway 231 (NC 231) is a 25.4-mile-long (40.9 km) primary state highway in the U.S. state of North Carolina. NC 231 travels through Wake County, Johnston County, and Nash County between its southern terminus at US 64 Business in Wendell and its northern terminus at US 64 Alternate/NC 98 near Spring Hope. Throughout Wake County and Johnston County, NC 231 primarily follows a southeast-northwest alignment. Entering into Nash County, NC 231 turns to follow a northerly alignment until reaching its northern terminus. NC 231 serves the towns of Wendell, Middlesex, and Spring Hope. NC 231 was first established in 1926 running between Elizabethtown and Delco in Southeastern North Carolina. By 1929, NC 21 was extended southwest along the route of NC 231 and the highway was decommissioned. Modern-day NC 231 was established in 1935, between NC 39 in Emit and US 64 west of Spring Hope. In 1948, NC 231 was extended west along its current routing to US 64 in Wendell. With the exception of a minor realignment in 1978, the routing of NC 231 has remained the same since. ## Route description NC 231 is a two-lane rural highway that traverses 25.4 miles (40.9 km) from Wendell to near Spring Hope; making a "J" shape on a map. The southern terminus of NC 231 is located at an intersection with US 64 Business (Wendell Boulevard), Old Wilson Road, and Selma Road east of downtown Wendell. From the intersection, NC 231 heads south along Selma Road, crossing over a railroad operated by the Carolina Coastal Railway. NC 231 runs through a residential area of southern Wendell before leaving the town to the southeast. The highway follows Selma Road for 1.6 miles (2.6 km) until crossing into Johnston County. NC 231 continues for 0.2 miles (0.32 km) along Selma Road in Johnston County before reaching a T-intersection. At the intersection, NC 231 turns east toward Hocutts Crossroads. NC 231 primarily runs through a rural area with sporadic residential neighborhoods, farms, and forested areas. The highway approaches Hocutts Crossroads from the northwest and passes adjacent to Corinth-Holders Elementary School. NC 231 meets NC 96 at an all-way stop in Hocutts Crossroads. Beyond the intersection, NC 231 turns to follow an easterly and later northeasterly direction toward Emit. The highway crosses the Little River, a tributary of the Neuse River between Hocutts Crossroads and Emit. NC 231 enters the unincorporated community of Emit from the west, intersecting NC 39 at an all-way stop. NC 231 exits the community to the east but quickly turns to the southeast. The highway intersects the western terminus of NC 222 at a four-way intersection located 1.6 miles (2.6 km) east of Emit. NC 231 continues east for 2.3 miles (3.7 km) before entering into Nash County. Immediately east of the Nash County line, NC 231 crosses Moccasin Creek which drains into the Buckhorn Reservoir. NC 231 also makes an immediate turn northward, an orientation it largely maintains for the remainder of the route. Approaching Middlesex from the south, the road name changes to Nash Street. NC 231 runs through a largely residential area of southern Middlesex until approaching the central business area of the town. North of the central business district, NC 231 crosses a railroad owned by the Carolina Coastal Railway at an at-grade crossing and intersects US 264 Alternate at Finch Avenue. NC 231 continues north until approaching Rockside Road where it makes a turn to the northeast and exits Middlesex. The highway meets US 264 at a diamond interchange northeast of Middlesex. Beginning at the interchange, NC 231 makes a slow turn to the north, largely paralleling Turkey Creek, located to the east. NC 231 makes a reverse curve beginning at Nade Road, giving the highway a brief easterly alignment. Continuing north for 1.6 miles (2.6 km), NC 231 enters the unincorporated community of Samaria from the south. NC 231 intersects NC 97 in Samaria, before continuing north of the community. North of Samaria, NC 231 crosses Turkey Creek and continues northward. Near Burgess Road, NC 231 makes a turn slightly to the northeast, a direction it follows until reaching US 64. NC 231 meets US 64 at a diamond interchange southwest of Spring Hope. US 64 Alternate begins at the interchange and the two highways run concurrently for 0.2 miles (0.32 km) to the north. The northern terminus of NC 231 is located at a T-intersection with NC 98 and US 64 Alternate west of Spring Hope. The North Carolina Department of Transportation (NCDOT) measures average daily traffic volumes along many of the roadways it maintains. In 2016, average daily traffic volumes along NC 231 varied from 780 vehicles per day north of the Johnston County-Nash County line to 3,500 vehicles per day east of the Wendell Road intersection in Johnston County. No section of NC 231 is included with the National Highway System, a network of highways in the United States which serve strategic transportation facilities. However, the highway does connect to the National Highway System at US 264 in Middlesex and US 64 near Spring Hope. ## History ### Previous designation NC 231 first appeared on North Carolina state transportation maps in 1926, running from NC 21/NC 23 in Elizabethtown to NC 20 in Delco. NC 231 followed an unimproved road which ran in a southwest-northeast orientation between Elizabethtown and Acme. In Acme, the highway turned to the south, crossed a railroad owned by the Seaboard Air Line Railroad before intersecting NC 20 in Delco. NC 231 paralleled the Cape Fear River for nearly its entire routing. By 1929, NC 21 was extended southeast from Elizabethtown to Delco, and NC 231 was decommissioned. Today, much of the highway is a part of NC 87. ### Current designation By 1930, secondary roads were established along much of the future routing of NC 231 between Wendell and NC 90 (modern-day US 64 Alternate) west of Spring Hope. The segments of NC 231 in Wake County and Nash County were gravel or topsoil roads, while the segment in Johnson County was a graded road. NC 231 first appeared on North Carolina state transportation maps in 1935, replacing secondary roads between NC 39 in Emit to US 64, west of Spring Hope. NC 231 remained a gravel or topsoil road until 1948, when the entire route was paved. In 1949, NC 231 was extended 7.9 miles (12.7 km) to the west from NC 39 in Emit to US 64 in Wendell. Prior to 1978, NC 231 made a northeasterly turn near its northern terminus, meeting US 64 0.3 miles (0.48 km) east of its current northern terminus. Following the completion of the US 64 freeway in 1978, NC 231 was shifted west along its current alignment to meet US 64 at an interchange and end at an intersection at NC 98/US 64 Alternate. The former alignment of NC 231 became Jernigan Road and Cox Road. ## Junction list	[ "## Route description", "## History", "### Previous designation", "### Current designation", "## Junction list" ]	1,629	32,204
5,141,759	New York State Route 129	1,134,124,701	State highway in Westchester County, New York, US	[ "State highways in New York (state)", "Transportation in Westchester County, New York" ]	New York State Route 129 (NY 129) is a 7.75-mile (12.47 km) long state highway in the western part of Westchester County, New York. The route begins at New York State Route 9A (South Riverside Avenue) in the village of Croton on Hudson at the Hudson River. NY 129 then travels through the towns of Cortlandt and Yorktown, running along the northern edge of the New Croton Reservoir. It passes under (southbound) and over (northbound) the Taconic State Parkway in Yorktown with no direct interchange. NY 129 ends in Yorktown at an intersection with NY 118. NY 129 was designated in 1908 as a section of Route 2, a legislative route designated by the New York State Legislature. However, in 1921, the route was realigned off the route that would become NY 129 in favor of NY 9A. Nine years later, the state designated the route as NY 129 during the state highway renumbering. The route originally followed a route used by NY 131 once the routes were swapped in the 1940s, with NY 131 being decommissioned soon after. NY 129 was extended to end at a traffic circle with NY 100 in the hamlet of Pines Bridge. This lasted up to at least 1969, when the designation was truncated back to NY 118, which was extended to the traffic circle instead. The traffic circle in Pines Bridge was removed by 1991. Originally, NY 129 had an interchange with the Taconic, but the ramps were removed in 1969 and a new interchange was built on nearby Underhill Road. ## Route description NY 129 begins at an intersection with NY 9A (South Riverside Avenue) in the village of Croton-on-Hudson, next to U.S. Route 9 (US 9). NY 129 proceeds northward from NY 9A along Maple Street, a two-lane commercial street through the village. At Van Cortlandt Park, NY 129 becomes residential, passing Croton-Harmon High School as it bends to the northeast. At the junction with Grand Street, NY 129 continues northeast on Grand Street, which is a two-lane residential street. The route continues northeast through the village, crossing an intersection with Quaker Bridge Road before becoming a wooded lane in the town of Cortlandt. In Cortlandt, NY 129 continues north as Grand Street, paralleling a local creek and entering Croton Dam Plaza. Running along the western edge of the plaza, NY 129 bends north at a view of the New Croton Dam, continuing its way north alongside the New Croton Reservoir. NY 129 soon changes names to Croton Dam Road, passing east of the Croton Harman School District headquarters. At an intersection with East Mount Airy Road, NY 129 runs eastward along the reservoir, changing names to Yorktown Road. On a short stint away from the reservoir, NY 129 intersects with Croton Road before crossing over the Hunters Brook Bridge, where it crosses into the historic community of Huntersville. Continuing northeast from Huntersville, NY 129, now known as Croton Lake Road, bends through the town of Yorktown. Through Yorktown, NY 129 is a two-lane residential street alongside the reservoir, soon making a gradual bend to the southeast into an intersection with County Route 131 (CR 131; Underhill Avenue), a former alignment of NY 131. At the junction with CR 131, NY 129 turns southward, soon winding its way southeast under the lanes of the Taconic State Parkway, and back alongside the New Croton Reservoir. After crossing under the Taconic, the route then drops back down to the reservoir and passing a house reported to have been moved from Huntersville before it was flooded. Making several winds to the southeast, NY 129 connects to the Gate House Bridge, soon running eastward through Yorktown. NY 129 intersects with NY 118 (Saw Mill River Road). This intersection serves as the eastern terminus of NY 129, as NY 118 continues east along the reservoir. ## History What is now NY 129 was developed in the early 20th century as part of a general project to improve access and transportation across the reservoirs. In 1908, the New York State Legislature created Route 2, an unsigned legislative route (an unsigned internal route) extending from the New York City line at Yonkers to the Columbia County village of Valatie. Route 2 initially followed modern NY 129, Croton Avenue, and NY 35 between Croton-on-Hudson and Peekskill; however, it was realigned on March 1, 1921, to use what is now NY 9A instead. NY 129 was designated to most of its current alignment as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York. It originally followed Croton Dam Road, the southern perimeter road around the New Croton Reservoir, while Croton Lake Road, the northern route, was designated as NY 131 by the following year. The alignments of NY 129 and NY 131 in the vicinity of the reservoir were swapped c. 1941 and the NY 131 designation ceased to exist by the mid-1940s. With the route changes, NY 129 was extended to terminate at NY 100 at a traffic circle in Pines Bridge while NY 118 terminated near Croton Lake. This extension lasted for over two decades until NY 118 was extended over the alignment of NY 129 to the traffic circle by 1969. Ramps from NY 129 to the Taconic State Parkway were removed by the East Hudson Parkway Authority in November 1969, to be replaced with a bridge. This required a shutdown of NY 129 and required drivers going north to Underhill Road. In fall 1988, the original Hunter Brook Bridge (less than 19 feet (5.8 m) wide) was replaced, as it was never designed to take heavy traffic such as concrete-mixing trucks. Between 1988 and 1991, the traffic circle between NY 118 and NY 100 was removed in favor of a three-way intersection between the two highways. ## Major intersections ## See also	[ "## Route description", "## History", "## Major intersections", "## See also" ]	1,312	36,822
4,633,879	New York State Route 308	1,136,600,805	State highway in Dutchess County, New York, US	[ "State highways in New York (state)", "Transportation in Dutchess County, New York" ]	New York State Route 308 (NY 308) is a short state highway, 6.19 miles (9.96 km) in length, located entirely in northern Dutchess County, in the U.S. state of New York. It is a major collector road through a mostly rural area, serving primarily as a shortcut for traffic from the two main north–south routes in the area, U.S. Route 9 (US 9) and NY 9G, to get to NY 199 and the Taconic State Parkway. The western end of NY 308 is located within Rhinebeck's historic district, a 2.6-square-mile (6.7 km<sup>2</sup>) historic district comprising 272 historical structures. The highway passes near the Dutchess County Fairgrounds, several historical landmarks, and briefly parallels the Landsman Kill. Artifacts found near Lake Sepasco, near NY 308's eastern terminus at Rock City, date to about 1685, when the Sepasco Native Americans built the Sepasco Trail from the Hudson River, eastward through modern-day Rhinebeck (then Sepasco or Sepascoot) to the lake, following roughly NY 308 and its side roads. The trail remained until 1802, when part of the Ulster and Delaware Turnpike—also known as the Salisbury Turnpike—was chartered over the trail and extended from Salisbury, Connecticut, to the Susquehanna River at or near the Town of Jericho (now Bainbridge). NY 308 was designated as part of the 1930 renumbering of New York state highways, incorporating a portion of the former Ulster and Delaware Turnpike. The route originally extended from Milan westward to Rhinecliff to serve a ferry landing on the Hudson River. It was truncated to US 9 in the 1960s, but its former routing to Rhinecliff is still state-maintained as an unsigned reference route. The highway was also intended to cross the Hudson via the Kingston–Rhinecliff Bridge until plans were changed to involve other routes and the site for the bridge was moved about 3 miles (5 km) upriver. ## Route description NY 308 begins from its western terminus at an intersection with US 9 in the Dutchess County village of Rhinebeck, at about 200 feet (61 m) in elevation. It is within the Rhinebeck Village Historic District, a 1,670-acre (6.8 km<sup>2</sup>) historic district that contains 272 buildings in a variety of architectural styles dating from over 200 years of the settlement's history. One of those buildings, the Beekman Arms Inn, at the corner of routes 9 and 308, claims to be the oldest continuously-operated inn in the United States. founded in 1766. The highway proceeds eastward on East Market Street for its first half-mile (800 m), passing at first two blocks of stores, then Rhinebeck's village and town halls, followed by residences. It merges with South Street where the Landsman Kill begins to parallel it closely on the south side. Between the stream and NY 308, just past this junction, is the Jan Pier House, another of Rhinebeck's National Register-listed properties. After passing Wynkoop Lane on the north NY 308 leaves the village and enters the Town of Rhinebeck; the surrounding area becomes more rural, with more woodlots and fields. Following the intersection with County Route 101 (CR 101, known as Violet Hill Road) NY 308 turns northeast. Another half-mile takes it to its grade-separated intersection with NY 9G, the only state highway NY 308 crosses. After the interchange, it crosses Landsman Kill for the last time, then gradually turns east into a rural area. Between US 9 and NY 9G, NY 308 carries an average of about 6,000 vehicles per day. East of NY 9G, the traffic volume drops to about 3,500 vehicles per day. Several small lakes surround NY 308 as it intersects CR 52, Salisbury Turnpike, in the hamlet of Eighmyville, 1.1 miles (1.8 km) east of Route 9G, and subsequently turns northeast again for the next two miles (3.2 km), crossing a large area of open fields in a level area, passing between two large hills of at least 400 feet (120 m). After passing Sepasco Lake on the east, NY 308 turns east once again at Old Rock City Road. It passes just to the south of the Red Hook Golf Club before coming to an end at NY 199 in Rock City, a hamlet within the town of Milan that is situated just east of where the Milan, Red Hook, and Rhinebeck town lines converge. The elevation at the east terminus is 330 feet (100 m) ## History ### Native Americans and old roads As indicated by artifacts recovered close to the road in Milan and in other areas along the Hudson River, the earliest inhabitants of the northern Dutchess County region were the Mohicans, a Native American nation, about 3,000 years ago. The range of the Mohicans extended from northern Dutchess County to the southern tip of Lake Champlain, and from the Catskill Mountains to the Berkshires in Massachusetts. The total population of the Mohicans was estimated at 8,000 during the time of first contact with the Europeans, although only 800 remained after the American Revolution. Artifacts were also recovered along the shore of Lake Sepasco – a small lake NY 308 passes near its eastern terminus, including ancient arrowheads displayed at the Museum of Rhinebeck History in October 2000. A group of these Native Americans were, in deeds and correspondence, known as the Sepasco Indians, a name specific to Native Americans in the Sepasco area (modern-day Rhinebeck). The word Sepasco probably originated from the tribe's word for little river or stream, sepuus, which is believed to have referred to the Landsman Kill. By 1685, a trail known as the Sepasco Trail was formed by them and was routed from the Hudson River, eastward through the present-day Village of Rhinebeck, ending at Lake Sepasco. The trail from the Village of Rhinebeck to Lake Sepasco follows roughly modern-day NY 308, in some areas slightly to the south, where the highway's side roads are curved in a pattern similar to that of the Sepasco Trail. It is possible that the trail as a whole existed as a spur of an ancient path that stretched from Rhinebeck to today's Cornwall, Connecticut. The trail remained intact until 1802, when part of the Ulster and Delaware Turnpike was chartered over it "for improving and making a road from the west line of the Town of Salisbury in the State of Connecticut to the Susquehannah [sic] River at or near the Town of Jericho [present-day Bainbridge]". The portion of the Ulster and Delaware Turnpike east of the Hudson River was also commonly known as the Ulster and Salisbury Turnpike. The turnpike crossed the river by way of the Kingston–Rhinecliff Ferry and used modern Rhinecliff Road and West Market Street to the village center of Rhinecliff, then followed roughly modern NY 308 to the hamlet of Eighmyville. It continued east from there using part of CR 52 to eventually connect with NY 199. A bronze plaque attached to a large boulder was erected in November 1922 by Chancellor Livingston Chapter of the Daughters of the American Revolution on the property of the Beekman Arms, that marked the crossing of the Kings Highway (present-day US 9) and the Ulster and Salisbury Turnpike. Still existent, it reads "This stone marks the crossing of the Kings Highway and the Sepasco Indian Trail, later named the Ulster and Salisbury Turnpike, over which traveled the Connecticut Pioneers to their new homes in western New York." ### Designation The NY 308 designation was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of New York state highways. At the time, it extended from the Rhinecliff ferry landing to Rock City in the town of Milan. West of US 9, NY 308 continued to follow the old turnpike alignment to Hutton Street, where it connected to the Kingston–Rhinecliff Ferry. In 1947, the ferry was the only crossing of the Hudson River between Catskill (the Rip Van Winkle Bridge) and Poughkeepsie (the Mid-Hudson Bridge)—a distance of 36 miles (58 km)—and the only one serving the Kingston area. Initial plans for the Kingston–Rhinecliff Bridge, a structure that replaced the ferry between the two locations, called for the bridge to span the Hudson River between downtown Kingston (at Kingston Point) and the village of Rhinebeck along a corridor similar to that of NY 308. Due to political and economic factors, the bridge site was moved 3 miles (5 km) upstream (northward). The bridge, then partially complete, opened to traffic on February 2, 1957, at which time the ferry service between Kingston and Rhinecliff was terminated. However, NY 308 continued to extend west to Rhinecliff up to the 1960s, when it was truncated to US 9 in the village of Rhinebeck. The section of former NY 308 west of US 9 is now designated as NY 982M, an unsigned reference route. ## Major intersections ## See also	[ "## Route description", "## History", "### Native Americans and old roads", "### Designation", "## Major intersections", "## See also" ]	1,999	43,195
5,829,300	Watsessing Avenue station	1,173,066,187	NJ Transit rail station	[ "1912 establishments in New Jersey", "Bloomfield, New Jersey", "Former Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad stations", "NJ Transit Rail Operations stations", "Railway stations in Essex County, New Jersey", "Railway stations in the United States opened in 1912" ]	Watsessing Avenue station (also known as Watsessing) is a New Jersey Transit rail station in Bloomfield, New Jersey, along the Montclair-Boonton Line. It is located beneath the Bloomfield Police Benevolent Association meeting hall (which formerly served as the station building) near the corner of Watsessing Avenue and Orange Street in Bloomfield. It is one of two stations on the line where the boarding platform is below ground level (the Glen Ridge station, two stops away from it, is the other). The Watsessing station and the Kingsland station in Lyndhurst on the Main Line shared similar designs (both station platforms are located below street level) and were built about the same time. The current Glen Ridge, Bloomfield and Watsessing stations along the Montclair branch were all built in 1912 during a grade separation program by the Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad. During New Jersey Transit's running of the line, two stations between Watsessing and Newark Broad Street were closed due to low ridership—the Roseville Avenue station in Newark, at the junction with the Morristown Line on September 16, 1984, and Ampere station in East Orange on April 7, 1991. The word "Watsessing" is a Native American term that translates to "mouth of the creek". The station has been on the New Jersey State Historic Preservation Office listings since March 25, 1998, the last of the four stations from East Orange to Glen Ridge to receive the listing. On September 14, 2005, the entire Montclair Branch was added to the same listings, although Ampere, Bloomfield and Glen Ridge stations have been on the listings since March 17, 1984. ## Station layout and services Watsessing Avenue station is located on the corner of Watsessing Avenue and Orange Street at Westinghouse Plaza in Bloomfield and is just blocks from Bloomfield's borders with East Orange and Orange. The former depot is currently used by the Bloomfield Police Benevolent Association. There are two below-street-level platforms at the Watsessing station. Ticket vending machines are available at street level on Watsessing Avenue. The station also has two parking lots for use. Maintained by the Bloomfield Parking Authority, the first is on Westinghouse Plaza (near the former Westinghouse Lamp Plant) and has fourteen parking spaces. The parking uses daily parking rules, paying six days a week at \$0.25 an hour, except for Sunday, when parking is free. A second lot is available at the intersection of Myrtle Street and Walnut Street. It has forty-five parking spots, two of which are handicap accessible. The lot also contains permit spaces six days a week and free on Sundays, with a cost of \$20 parking per quarter (three months). The station has low-level side platforms that are not handicap accessible. The two nearest accessible stations are Newark Broad Street and Bay Street. ## History ### Delaware, Lackawanna and Western ownership (1856–1976) The history of a station at Watsessing Avenue in the Watsessing district of Bloomfield dates back to the Newark and Bloomfield Railroad, established in 1856. The station, a houseless station off of Dodd Street, was deemed first as Doddtown by a railroad conductor. This name soon gave way to Watsessing, and in 1865, the line was bought by the Morris and Essex Railroad, running through trains. The Morris and Essex Railroad was soon bought out by the Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad, and a new station was built, deemed Watsessing. In 1911, as the Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad continued the project of eliminating at-grade crossings between streets and railroads, the Montclair Branch was the next to receive the structural change. Bloomfield criticized the Lackawanna railroad for making a disgrace of the community. The railroad proposed using \$700,000 (1911 USD) of funds to construct a brand new station at Watsessing Avenue along with a new downtown Bloomfield station. The cost of elevating and depressing the railroad came up to about \$20,000 (1911 USD) for the Lackawanna. This contract by the railroad and township was approved after negotiations dating back to 1908. The negotiations included a park to be built between both stations on both sides of the railroad. The park land cost the township \$50,000 to buy for the construction, and it was to be turned over to the Essex County Park Commission. The former station depot was razed in September 1910 for the construction project. Construction was completed on a 1.5 miles (2.4 km) long segment of the Montclair Branch from East Orange to Glen Ridge and was opened to rail service on November 15, 1912. The project laid 91 pounds (41 kg) of track in addition to steel ties and stone ballast. The station has concrete crossings at Dodd Street, Arlington Avenue and Watsessing Avenue along with a new crossing of the Erie Railroad's Orange Branch just south of the station. The design of Watsessing Avenue's new station was difficult due to the limited right-of-way. While making the separation, a new trench had to be dug, which included retaining walls that prevented moving the existing track alignment to delay railroad traffic. When the station was finished, tracks were shifted to make room for a second track. The station depot was built over the railroad tracks with four concrete arches to support the building. A four-inch (10 cm) ceiling was constructed on the arches, and the station was widened to take more volume of train service. The station served as the third station on the Montclair Branch, which was first electrified by technology created by Thomas Alva Edison in 1930. The overhead catenary wires were installed, making the line the first electrically run line on the Delaware, Lackawanna and Western alignment. The station remained in service for the Lackawanna Railroad for three more decades, when the railroad merged with the Erie Railroad on October 17, 1960. Although the now Erie-Lackawanna Railway continued to run the Montclair Branch, it reduced service, reducing the once two-rail alignment to one lone track, and removed most of the tracks at Lackawanna Terminal in Montclair. On April 1, 1976, the station was transferred to the Consolidated Rail Corporation (Conrail) as the Erie-Lackawanna Railway was dissolved into the Conrail program. ### New Jersey Transit and historical status (1979–present) In 1979, New Jersey Transit was formed to run bus and train service in place of Conrail and the New Jersey Department of Transportation. In 1983, New Jersey Transit took over rail service from Conrail, and just one year later, the line became a temporary diesel rail line when the overhead catenary wires had to be adjusted for conversion to higher electrical voltage. The station itself was still the third on the Montclair Branch, but the line now ran into a new station at Bay Street in Montclair. On March 17, 1984 all stations on the Montclair Branch but the Roseville Avenue station in Newark, Bay Street and Watsessing Avenue were added to the State Register of Historic Places. The same would occur on June 22, 1984 at the national level with Ampere, Glen Ridge and Bloomfield Stations being added to the National Register of Historic Places. On September 16, 1984, Roseville Avenue station was closed, and just over six years later, on April 7, 1991, Ampere station in East Orange was closed. Since then, Watsessing Avenue has been the first station New Jersey Transit has served on the Montclair Branch, although East Orange has proposed reopening the station at Ampere as part of a redevelopment plan for the Ampere district. On March 25, 1998, the station at Watsessing Avenue was given the State Historical Preservation Organization honor that Ampere, Glen Ridge and Bloomfield stations received just fourteen years prior. The station continued to receive service through the opening of Montclair Connection on September 30, 2002, which ended service as the Montclair Branch and began as the Montclair-Boonton Line, still the first station on the line after Newark Broad Street Station. On September 10, 2007, New Jersey Transit announced the canopies of the old station, then 95 years old, were to be restored and repaired. The service contracted a \$1.7 million project to Watertrol Incorporated of Cranford. At that time, the station served an average of 200 people daily. Improvements for the station included brand new canopy lighting, repairs to the cantilever canopies, replacement of stairways and fencing, along with changing roof tiles and a new drainage system to replace the 1912 version. When the construction was finished in October 2008, the station now served nearly 450 people daily on average. A ceremony to mark its completion was held on October 30, 2008. ## See also - Kingsland station – The design of Watsessing Avenue with the depot above the tracks was a replica of the style used at Kingsland.	[ "## Station layout and services", "## History", "### Delaware, Lackawanna and Western ownership (1856–1976)", "### New Jersey Transit and historical status (1979–present)", "## See also" ]	1,929	19,988
24,431,453	Xerocomellus zelleri	1,127,214,051	Species of fungus	[ "Boletaceae", "Edible fungi", "Fungi described in 1912", "Fungi of North America", "Taxa named by William Alphonso Murrill" ]	Xerocomellus zelleri, commonly known as Zeller's bolete, is an edible species of mushroom in the family Boletaceae. First described scientifically by American mycologist William Alphonso Murrill in 1912, the species has been juggled by various authors to several genera, including Boletus, Boletellus, and Xerocomus. Found solely in western North America from British Columbia south to Mexico, the fruit bodies are distinguished by their dark reddish brown to nearly black caps with uneven surfaces, the yellow pores on the underside of the caps, and the red-streaked yellow stems. The fungus grows in summer and autumn on the ground, often in Douglas fir forests or on their margins. The development of the fruit bodies is gymnocarpic, meaning that the hymenium appears and develops to maturity in an exposed state, not enclosed by any protective membrane. ## Taxonomy Xerocomellus zelleri was first described by American mycologist William Alphonso Murrill in 1912, based on specimens he found on the campus of the University of Washington. Murrill named it Ceriomyces zelleri before switching the genus later that year to Boletus. In 1944, Walter Henry Snell thought the taxon would be more appropriate in the genus Xerocomus. In 1959, mycologists Rolf Singer, Snell and Esther A. Dick transferred the species to Boletellus, explaining that the microstructure of the trama and the faint ornamentation of the spores were inconsistent with placement in Xerocomus. American mycologist Harry D. Thiers, in his 1976 monograph on North American boletes, claimed that he failed to consistently find ornamentation on the spores of material he collected, and preferred to retain the species in Boletus. In 2011, it was moved to the genus Xerocomellus. The specific epithet zelleri was chosen by Murrill to honor Professor Sanford Myron Zeller, mycologist at Oregon State University. Zeller accompanied Murrill in his Seattle expedition, and discovered the first specimens of the mushroom. ## Description The cap is typically between 4–12 cm (1+5⁄8–4+3⁄4 in) in diameter, initially convex but flattening somewhat in maturity. It is fleshy, with an uneven velvety surface, and dark brown to nearly black; the margin of the cap is a pale cream color. Young specimens are covered by a grayish bloom. The tubes that comprise the undersurface of the cap (the hymenium) are up to 1.5 cm (5⁄8 in) long and angular, yellow, becoming dirty yellow and finally greenish-yellow; there are 1–2 pores per millimeter on the hymenium surface. They do not change color when bruised, although they may turn slightly brownish when exposed to the air for a time. The flesh is yellow to dirty yellow, up to 1.5 cm (5⁄8 in) thick, and inconsistently bruises blue when cut or broken. The stem is up to 12 cm (4+3⁄4 in) tall, 1–3 cm (3⁄8–1+1⁄8 in) thick, and swollen toward the base. The stem surface is red or yellowish with red lines, often white or yellow at the base, and solid (that is, not hollow), with fibrous flesh; in maturity the stem ages to yellowish-red to dark red. The spore print is olive-brown; one source notes that creating a spore print may result in "a lot of yellow juice on the paper". The spores are ellipsoid in shape, smooth, and have dimensions of 12–16 by 4–6 μm, although occasionally there will be some "giant spores" with lengths of up to 24 μm. The basidia, the spore-bearing cells, are 26–35 by 9.5–12 μm, and four-spored. The cystidia are roughly cylindrical and thin-walled, with dimensions of 38–77 by 5.5–14.8 μm. There are no clamp connections present in the hyphae. The fruit body tissue stains a greenish color when a drop of ammonia solution is applied. ### Edibility Xerocomellus zelleri is an edible species, although care should be taken to ensure that specimens collected for consumption are free of fly larvae. In his book 100 Edible Mushrooms, Michael Kuo gave the mushroom an edibility rating of "mediocre". There is no distinguishable odor, and the taste is alternately described as pleasant, mild, or "slightly acidic". The original species description noted that the texture was "slightly mucilaginous". The mushroom is suitable for preserving or drying, or as a "filler" to add bulk to a dish. It is harvested and sold commercially in local markets in British Columbia, Canada. ### Similar species The red-cracked bolete (Xerocomellus chrysenteron) has an olive-brown cap that cracks, exposing flesh that ages to pinkish red. Boletellus chrysenteroides, found only in eastern North America, has a velvety to smooth, dark reddish brown, cracked cap with pale exposed flesh. Also similar is Boletus mirabilis. ## Fruit body development In 1914, Zeller published a study of the development of the mushroom, made possible by the prolific fruiting of the fungus in Seattle in the fall of 1912. Development was studied by examining thin sections of tissues in different stages of development, and the differentiation of tissues and structures followed by using histological stains. The growth form of Xerocomellus zelleri is called gymnocarpic, meaning that the hymenium appears and develops to maturity in an exposed state, not enclosed by any protective membrane. In this type of development, the cap is formed from hyphae at the top of the stem and subsequently expands by growth along the margins; the hymenium forms later beneath the cap in a direction away from the center. The mushrooms originate as minute fruit bodies (called "pins" due to their shape) from a yellow mycelium that forms a mat and tends to engulf pine needles. The pins, typically 1–2 mm in diameter, lengthen vertically until they are roughly three or four times longer than they are thick. Until this point, the fruit body is a homogenous mass of tissue. It differentiates simultaneously into cap and stem along a cleavage plane (an axis along which any cell division occurs) from the outside inward, which gives rise to deep furrow encircling the fruit body. The hymenium is formed in the roof of this furrow, growing inward and upward from the outside edge. The cap develops from the upper section of this division, the stem from the lower. ## Habitat and distribution This species grows solitarily or in small groups on the ground or in forest duff in mature coniferous forests, occasionally abundant on grassy edges of the forest, rarely on badly decayed conifer logs. It is an ectomycorrhizal mushroom, meaning that the fungal hyphae form sheaths around the rootlets of certain trees, exchanging nutrients with them in a mutualistic relationship. The fungus associates with alder, poplar and other hardwoods, and has been shown in laboratory culture to form ectomycorrhizae with Western Hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla). However, the fungus may have saprobic tendencies, as it has been noted to grow under California Redwood (sometimes in the rotted wood of old trunks), a tree not known to form mycorrizhae. It is known to form long rhizomorphs (aggregations of hyphae that resemble roots), and has been noted to be more abundant in sites with buried wood than without. In British Columbia, it occurs from summer to early winter, although it also appears infrequently in early spring. In California, the mushroom often fruits after the rainy period in autumn through to March or April. The dark coloring of the cap make this species difficult to notice, "unless a glimpse of the yellow hymenium is obtained". Fruit bodies are eaten by the American shrew-mole. Xerocomellus zelleri is distributed in North America in the Pacific Northwest south to California and Mexico. In Mexico, it has been reported in high-altitude cloud forests of Mexican Beech (Fagus mexicana), a rare and endangered habitat. It has also been reported from Tibet, but this may be based on a misidentification. ## Chemistry Xerocomellus zelleri has been shown to contain the phenethylamine alkaloid compounds tyramine, N''-methyltyramine, and hordenine, although the chemotaxonomic significance of this is not clear. ## See also - List of North American boletes	[ "## Taxonomy", "## Description", "### Edibility", "### Similar species", "## Fruit body development", "## Habitat and distribution", "## Chemistry", "## See also" ]	1,900	5,222
58,500,172	Soviet destroyer Tbilisi	1,124,790,393	Leningrad-class destroyer	[ "1939 ships", "Leningrad-class destroyer leaders", "Ships built in the Soviet Union", "World War II destroyers of the Soviet Union" ]	Tbilisi (Russian: Тбилиси) was one of six Leningrad-class destroyer leaders built for the Soviet Navy during the 1930s, one of the three Project 38 variants. Completed in 1940, the ship was assigned to the Pacific Fleet, with which she spent World War II. Tbilisi laid minefields outside Vladivostok early in the war and during the Soviet–Japanese War transported naval infantry in preparation for an amphibious landing in Korea. Postwar, she continued to serve with the Pacific Fleet and began a lengthy overhaul in 1951 that lasted until 1955. Converted into a target ship in 1958, she was finally struck from the Navy List in 1964 and scrapped. ## Design and description Impressed by the French large destroyer (contre-torpilleur) designs such as the Vauquelin class of the early 1930s, the Soviets designed their own version. The Leningrads had an overall length of 127.5 meters (418 ft 4 in) and were 122 meters (400 ft 3 in) long at the waterline. The ships had a beam of 11.7 meters (38 ft 5 in), and a draft of 4.06 meters (13 ft 4 in) at deep load. Built in two batches, the second batch (Project 38) displaced 2,350 long tons (2,390 t) at standard load and 2,680 long tons (2,720 t) at deep load. Their crew numbered 250 officers and sailors in peacetime and 311 in wartime. The ships had three geared steam turbines, each driving one propeller, designed to produce 66,000 shaft horsepower (49,000 kW) using steam from three three-drum boilers which was intended to give them a maximum speed of 40 knots (74 km/h; 46 mph). The Leningrads carried enough fuel oil to give them a range of 2,100 nautical miles (3,900 km; 2,400 mi) at 20 knots (37 km/h; 23 mph). As built, the Leningrad-class ships mounted five 130-millimeter (5.1 in) B-13 guns in two pairs of superfiring single mounts fore and aft of the superstructure and another mount between the bridge and the forward funnel. The guns were protected by gun shields. Anti-aircraft defense was provided by three 76.2-millimeter (3 in) 34-K AA guns in single mounts on the aft superstructure and a pair of 45-millimeter (1.8 in) 21-K AA guns mounted on either side of the bridge as well as six 12.7-millimeter (0.50 in) DShK machine guns. They carried eight 533 mm (21.0 in) torpedo tubes in two rotating quadruple mounts; each tube was provided with a reload. The ships could also carry a maximum of either 68 or 115 mines and 52 depth charges. They were fitted with a set of Arktur hydrophones for anti-submarine detection. ### Modifications During the war, Tbilisi exchanged her two 21-K mounts for eight 37-millimeter (1.5 in) 70-K AA guns. She received a British Type 128 asdic system and was fitted with a Type 291 early-warning radar, a Type 284 gunnery radar and an American SF-1 radar. After the war, all of the 76- and 37-millimeter guns were replaced by a dozen water-cooled V-11M versions of the 70-K gun in twin mounts. During the 1950s, the radars were replaced by Top Bow, EWS Top, Plum Jar and Ball End radars and the pole foremast was replaced by a tripod mast to support them. ## Construction and career Named after the capital of Georgia, major components for the ship that became Tbilisi were laid down at Shipyard No. 198 (Marti South) in Nikolayev on 15 January 1935 as yard number 268 and were then railed to Shipyard No. 199 in Komsomolsk-on-Amur where the ship was laid down again on 10 August 1936. Originally named Tiflis, she was renamed Tbilisi on the day of her launching, 24 July 1939. To free up space for new construction, the destroyer leader was moved to Lake Silinskoye near the plant for completion. Tbilisi was commissioned on 11 December 1940 as part of the Pacific Fleet after a series of tests; she had cost 41.2 million rubles due to her lengthy construction. Due to the numerical inferiority of the Pacific Fleet to the Imperial Japanese Navy, the Soviet ships were tasked with coast defense. Used as a testbed for new technologies from the beginning of the war, she laid the first mines in Peter the Great Gulf off Vladivostok on 12 July and then began laying mines off other naval bases in the Far East. By late 1941, Tbilisi was equipped with a degaussing system, and was used to train officers in ship handling due to the peaceful conditions in the Far East. When the Light Forces Detachment of the Pacific Fleet was formed in November 1942, she became the leader of the 2nd Destroyer Division. In July and August 1943, she had degaussing coils placed on the upper deck to examine the effect of the steel hull on the coils; these studies helped to develop methods for the optimal placement of coils on ships. A day before the Soviet Union declared war on Japan on 9 August 1945, the flotilla leader, transferred to the 1st Destroyer Division of the Light Forces Detachment, entered the active fleet. On 9 August, she was located in the Ulysses (Uliss) Bay off Vladivostok, and was ordered to move to the northerly anchorage of Zolotoy Rog off the same port. Under the flag of fleet commander Admiral Ivan Yumashev, she transported a hundred-man company of naval infantry from the 354th Naval Rifle Battalion to Vityaz Cove in Posyet Bay on 12 August. From there, the company was loaded onto torpedo boats for an amphibious landing at the Korean port of Rason. This was her only major operation during the war, but did not involve contact with the Japanese. Yumashev slated Tbilisi to serve as flagship for a projected invasion of Hokkaido in an order of 19 August, but the operation was cancelled. She continued to serve with the Pacific Fleet postwar and on 12 January 1949 was reclassified as a destroyer like her surviving sister ships. Between 1951 and 24 January 1955 she underwent a major refit and modernization at Dalzavod. Tbilisi was withdrawn from active service on 18 April 1958, disarmed, and converted into the target ship TsL-50. A year later, the ship was renamed TSP-50, before being struck on 31 January 1964 and scrapped at Vladivostok by the Main Directorate for the Procurement, Processing and Sale of Secondary Ferrous Metals.	[ "## Design and description", "### Modifications", "## Construction and career" ]	1,524	11,059
50,372,226	SAS President Pretorius	1,089,348,038	President-class Type 12 frigate built in the UK for the South African Navy	[ "1962 ships", "Cold War frigates of South Africa", "Rothesay-class frigates of the South African Navy", "Ships built on the River Clyde" ]	SAS President Pretorius was the last of three President-class Type 12 frigates built in the UK for the South African Navy (SAN) during the 1960s. The ship spent most of her career training and visited foreign ports in Africa and Australia. She had a lengthy modernisation during the 1970s and manpower shortages limited her activities after that was completed in 1977. President Pretorius was paid off in 1985 and was sold for scrap in 1992. ## Description The President-class ships displaced 2,170 long tons (2,200 t) at standard load and 2,605 long tons (2,647 t) at deep load. They had an overall length of 370 ft 0 in (112.78 m), a beam of 41 ft 0 in (12.5 m) and a mean deep draught of 17 ft 6 in (5.33 m). The ships were powered by a pair of English Electric geared steam turbines, each driving one propeller shaft, using steam provided by two Babcock & Wilcox boilers. The turbines developed a total of 30,000 shaft horsepower (22,000 kW) which gave a maximum speed of 30 knots (56 km/h; 35 mph). They carried 309 long tons (314 t) of fuel oil that gave them a range of 4,500 nautical miles (8,300 km; 5,200 mi) at 12 knots (22 km/h; 14 mph). Their crew numbered 14 officers and 200 ratings. The Presidents were armed with one twin-gun mount for QF 4.5-inch (114 mm) Mk V dual-purpose guns forward and one twin mount for 40-millimetre (1.6 in) Bofors anti-aircraft guns. For anti-submarine work, the ships were fitted with Type 162, 170, and 177M sonars for the pair of triple-barrelled Mk 10 Limbo anti-submarine mortars. They were equipped with a Type 293Q surface-search radar, Type 262 and 275 gunnery radars, Type 277Q height-finding radar and a Type 978 navigation radar. By the mid-1960s, it was obvious that the sonars of the President class were capable of detecting submarines well outside the range of the Limbo anti-submarine mortars and the South Africans decided to follow the lead of the Royal Navy (RN) in giving them the ability to operate helicopters that could carry anti-submarine torpedoes or depth charges to a considerable distance from the ships. Therefore, the forward Limbo mortar was removed and its space was plated over to form a small flight deck. The Bofors mount, its director and the aft superstructure was replaced by a hangar for a Westland Wasp helicopter. Two single Bofors guns were positioned on the hangar roof and provisions were made for four 0.5-inch (12.7 mm) Browning machine guns. A pair of American 12.75-inch (324 mm) Mk 32 triple-barrelled anti-submarine torpedo tubes were added amidships and their electronics were upgraded, including the addition of a Thomson-CSF Jupiter early-warning radar atop a new mainmast and a Selenia Orion fire-control system. In addition, President Pretorius was converted to use diesel fuel and some of her water ballast tanks were converted into fuel tanks. ## History Three President-class frigates were ordered by the South African Navy in the late 1950s following the Simonstown Agreement with the RN. President Pretorius, named after the first President of the South African Republic, was the last of the three sister ships and was ordered from Yarrow Shipbuilders on 29 July 1959. The ship was laid down at their shipyard in Scotstoun, Glasgow on 21 November 1960 and was launched on 28 September 1962 by Mrs. Mientjie Grobelaar, wife of General Pieter Grobbelaar, Chief of the South African Defence Force. She was commissioned on 18 March 1964 with Captain James Johnson, later Chief of the Navy, in command. President Pretorius was escorted into Cape Town by her two sisters, , , the destroyer Simon von der Stel and four smaller warships to be greeted by the Chief of Naval Staff, Rear Admiral Hugo Biermann, on 26 September. After 1964, the British government was reluctant to be seen openly cooperating with the apartheid government of South Africa and limited itself to exercises as their ships passed by. In September 1967, the 10th Frigate Flotilla, consisting of President Pretorius, President Kruger, and the newly commissioned replenishment oiler , participated in one such exercise with the aircraft carrier Eagle, the frigate Loch Fada and the submarine Ambush. The flotilla departed Simon's Town on 7 October 1968 for Australia and arrived in Fremantle on the 23rd. They continued onwards to Sydney and then participated in the Remembrance Day ceremony in Melbourne on 11 November. The ships departed three days later, bound for home, but they were forced to put into Fremantle when a pump in President Pretorius burnt out en route. They finally reached home on 3 December. A year later, a squadron consisting of Simon von der Stel, President Pretorius, Tafelberg and two minesweepers visited Portuguese Angola. President Kruger and President Pretorius trained with a passing British squadron in July–August 1970. By this time, the navy was experiencing shortages of manpower and the ship was laid up on 1 September to be used as an accommodation ship while President Steyn was finishing up her modernisation. President Pretorius was formally decommissioned on 11 May 1971, but languished in reserve for some time before actual work began. The ship did not recommission until 12 July 1977 in marked contrast to the time required to modernise her sisters. She conveyed the remains of the Xhosa Chief Maqoma from Robben Island to Ciskei in August 1978. Almost three years later, in May 1981, President Pretorius and President Kruger participated in the 20th anniversary of the republic's founding and exercised with a squadron from the Republic of China (Taiwan). Shortly afterwards, the two sisters made a showing the flag cruise along the East African coast. After the accidental sinking of President Kruger in 1982 and the earlier laying up of President Steyn, President Pretorius was the last of the sisters remaining active. She was refitted during the early 1980s to lay mines and to operate assault boats. The ship exercised with another Taiwanese squadron in mid-1985 before she was decommissioned on 26 July due to manpower shortages and lack of funds. Plans to reactivate and modernise President Pretorius were made later in the 1980s, but shortages of money prevented them from being realized. The ship was sold for scrap on 9 December 1992 and subsequently broken up.	[ "## Description", "## History" ]	1,482	27,956
63,249,910	Therapy (New York City)	1,172,141,945	Defunct gay bar and nightclub in Manhattan, New York, U.S.	[ "2003 establishments in New York City", "2020 disestablishments in New York (state)", "Defunct LGBT drinking establishments in New York City", "Defunct LGBT nightclubs in New York (state)", "Defunct restaurants in Manhattan", "Hell's Kitchen, Manhattan", "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the LGBT community", "Nightclubs in Manhattan", "Restaurants disestablished during the COVID-19 pandemic", "Restaurants disestablished in 2020", "Restaurants established in 2003" ]	Therapy was a two-story gay bar and nightclub in the Hell's Kitchen neighborhood of Manhattan in New York City. It hosted frequent drag shows, some of which featured performers who later rose to prominence on RuPaul's Drag Race. The venue was a favorite Monday-night stop for Broadway actors, who sometimes participated in the club's shows. Like other New York City nightlife establishments, Therapy was ordered to close temporarily in March 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. In July of that year, the venue's owner announced that it was unlikely to reopen, citing financial troubles. Therapy's atmosphere, drink selection, food and entertainment have generally received positive remarks from critics. ## Description Therapy was located at 348 West 52nd Street in Manhattan, between Eighth and Ninth Avenues. It was directly across the street from Industry, another gay nightclub. According to Time Out New York, Therapy's interior was characterized by "two levels of slate floors connected by a dramatic staircase, crowned with a massive skylight. Mellow pop, house and techno play at the perfect level, allowing for both conversation and grooving." The club served food and featured live entertainment most nights. According to Gothamist, "[Therapy contained] seating and full bars both upstairs and down, as well as music videos projected onto a screen in the upstairs area." As of mid-2019, it hosted drag shows five nights a week. Many of the clientele were tourists drawn to New York by Broadway musicals, whose cast members also frequented the bar. Celebrity participation in "Stage Fright", the Monday-night drag show hosted by Marti Gould Cummings, was not uncommon. Thrillist's Melissa Kravitz Hoeffner wrote of the show: "Broadway stars like Michael Longoria, Ann Reinking, and Tamyra Gray [were] unafraid to compete for attention and perhaps suffer some deprecation at the hands of a quick-witted drag queen in this sprawling lounge." A 2017 New York Times article counted Adam Pascal, Alice Ripley and Michael Cerveris among other Broadway names to appear on stage with Cummings at Therapy. ## History Therapy was established in a duplex in Hell's Kitchen in 2003. Over the years, the bar's drag shows were hosted by several performers who went on to appear on RuPaul's Drag Race, including Peppermint, Sahara Davenport, Bianca Del Rio, Bob the Drag Queen, Monét X Change and Jan Sport. Other prominent drag queens, including Sherry Vine, also had shows there. Among Therapy's popular weekly shows was "Sunday Services", a church-themed performance starring Lagoona Bloo, Jackie Cox and Kizha Carr. The club briefly closed in late May 2019 due to structural issues with a neighboring building, which had to be partially demolished. Two weeks later, on June 14, Therapy was permitted to reopen. ### COVID-19 pandemic and closure In March 2020, Therapy again closed down when New York State nightlife venues were ordered to shutter due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The venue's co-owner, Tom Johnson, said he opted not to offer outdoor dining or to-go drinks when those services became permissible, because doing so would have brought in only 30–40% of the usual revenue, which would not have been sufficient to compensate staff. He also said that operating at half-capacity to abide by social distancing regulations would leave the establishment unable to cover operating costs. Citing these and other financial difficulties, Johnson announced in July that the bar would likely remain closed for good. Eater New York reported that "Johnson holds a glimmer of hope for Therapy's revival but isn't sure if the financial fallout from the pandemic will allow it". He told the publication, "It's great if people want to come together and invest in Therapy at some point ... I want nothing more than for all of this to go away, but I don't see that happening anytime soon." ## Reception In his 2015 list of "the best gay bars in Hell's Kitchen" for Time Out New York, Ethan LaCroix wrote: "Drinks like the Freudian Sip (Ketel One Citron, fresh ginger and lemonade), served in a nice big tumbler, are sure to leave you feeling blissfully worry-free at this cocktailcentric space. But it's the impressive venue that draws young neurotics." A review by Gothamist staff reads: "Therapy is the quintessential Hell's Kitchen hot spot and it has it all: comfort food, dancing, two levels and polite cocktail servers. Just avoid the nasty DJs, who do not make any song requests!... It's a spacious venue with an easy crowd; I'm always pleased to be invited there." On a 2019 list of New York City's 16 best LGBTQ bars for Thrillist, Kyler Alvord said: > This may not be the best Therapy for social anxiety, but if you're soothed by Absolut-forward cocktails in plastic cups and hundreds of sweaty guys pressed up against you, start your treatment at this HK lounge. DJs, live music, and drag entertainment make this place a party nearly every night of the week. Visitors here have planned a night out and are laser-focused on fun. ## See also - Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the LGBT community - LGBT culture in New York City	[ "## Description", "## History", "### COVID-19 pandemic and closure", "## Reception", "## See also" ]	1,107	923
21,568,998	Typhoon Maria (2006)	1,164,646,944	Pacific typhoon in 2006	[ "2006 Pacific typhoon season", "2006 in Japan", "Tropical cyclones in 2006", "Typhoons", "Typhoons in Japan" ]	Typhoon Maria was a minimal typhoon which brushed the southeastern coast of Japan during early August 2006. The seventh named storm of the 2006 Pacific typhoon season, Maria formed out of a tropical depression over the open waters of the western Pacific Ocean. On August 5, the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) classified the depression as a tropical storm while the Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC) kept it as a depression. The storm quickly strengthened into a typhoon the next day, reaching its peak intensity with winds of 130 km/h (80 mph 10-minute winds) early on August 6. The storm gradually weakened as it began to recurve, causing it to parallel the southeastern coast of Japan. On August 9, Maria weakened into a tropical depression and later into an extratropical cyclone before dissipating on August 15. Maria had only minor effects in Japan, mainly heavy rains which were estimated to have peaked over 400 mm (15.7 in) on the Izu Peninsula. One person was killed after being struck by lightning and six others were injured. ## Meteorological history On August 3, the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) began monitoring a tropical depression located to the southeast of Minami Torishima Island. The depression slowly developed as it moved towards the west-northwest. At 1630 UTC on August 5, the Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC) issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert on the developing system while it was located about 740 km (460 mi) east-northeast of the northern Mariana Islands. Deep convection was present around the center of circulation but the overall structure of the storm resembled a subtropical cyclone. However, the storm was likely to intensify as it was located within an area of low to moderate vertical wind shear with favorable diffulence aloft. Later that day, the JMA upgraded the depression to a tropical storm and gave it the name Maria; a name submitted by the United States and a common Chamorro feminine name. Maria continued towards the west-northwest along the edge of a broad subtropical ridge located east of Japan. As the JMA issued their first advisory, the JTWC designated the system as Tropical Depression 09W while located about 280 km (175 mi) east-northeast of Iwo Jima. Early the next day, the JMA classified Maria as a severe tropical storm with winds of 95 km/h (60 mph 10-minute winds) while the JTWC reported that Maria had just become a tropical storm with winds reaching 75 km/h (45 mph 1-minute winds). The storm also had a slight northward relocation. Tracking towards the northwest, the storm intensified into a typhoon and reached its peak intensity with winds of 130 km/h (80 mph 10-minute winds) and minimum pressure of 975 hPa (mbar) at 0900 UTC. Around the same time, the JTWC assessed the storm to have reached its peak intensity with winds of 110 km/h (70 mph 1-minute winds). However, the JTWC operationally classified Maria as a minimal typhoon with winds of 120 km/h (75 mph 1-minute winds) on August 7. On August 7, a banding eye feature developed with deep convection around the eastern portion of the storm. Later that day, the storm sharply recurved towards the northeast and paralleled the southern coastline of Honshu. As Maria made the turn, dry air began to enter the system, causing it to weaken. Along with the dry air, wind shear began to increase and the JMA downgraded Maria to a severe tropical storm early on August 8. The storm continued to weaken as it came very close to landfall near Tokyo, Japan on August 9. Both agencies downgraded Maria to a tropical depression early on August 9, with the JTWC issuing their final advisory at that time. Maria remained a tropical depression for another 24 hours before transitioning into an extratropical cyclone on August 10 while located about 835 km (520 mi) east-northeast of Tokyo. The extratropical remnants turned towards the north and dissipated late on August 14 over the Sea of Okhotsk. ## Preparations and impact Weather officials warned residents about heavy rains, strong winds, and high waves in the Tōkai region, Kantō region, Kōshin'etsu region, and the Izu Islands between August 8 and 9. Seven flights out of Tokyo at Haneda airport were cancelled due to Maria. The JR Ito Line, an express train line, was temporarily shut down as a result of rain. As Maria brushed Japan, it produced heavy rains over the southeastern areas of the country. Yokota Air Base recorded 38.1 mm (1.5 in) of rainfall and winds up to 34 km/h (21 mph). Parts of the Izu Peninsula recorded rainfall in excess of 400 mm (15.7 in) over a two-day span, peaking at 458 mm (18.0 in) in Tokyo. In Gifu Prefecture, thunderstorms associated with the typhoon resulted in a landslide that knocked out power to 510 residences. One man was injured and two cows died after a small farm was severely damaged by high winds. Flooding and landslides affected dozens of homes in Chōshi, Chiba, prompting the evacuation of 63 families. One person was killed in Tokyo after being struck by lightning. Five people were injured when a plane headed for Tokyo encountered turbulence produced by Maria. ## See also - Other tropical cyclones named Maria - Timeline of the 2006 Pacific typhoon season	[ "## Meteorological history", "## Preparations and impact", "## See also" ]	1,176	22,554
24,553,105	Crawl (Chris Brown song)	1,171,504,593	null	[ "2000s ballads", "2009 singles", "2009 songs", "Chris Brown songs", "Contemporary R&B ballads", "Music videos directed by Joseph Kahn", "Pop ballads", "Songs written by Adam Messinger", "Songs written by Chris Brown", "Songs written by Nasri (musician)" ]	"Crawl" is a song by American recording artist Chris Brown. It is the second single from his third studio album Graffiti, released as a digital download on November 24, 2009. The song was produced by The Messengers and was written by Brown. The song is about yearning to rebuild a failed relationship and was interpreted by critics as being about Brown's former relationship with Barbadian singer Rihanna. However, Brown has stated the song is not about any of his previous relationships. The song received positive to mixed reviews. It charted in the top twenty in Japan and New Zealand, and the top forty in the United Kingdom and Ireland. It peaked in the United States at number fifty-three. The accompanying music video features Brown and American R&B singer Cassie as his love interest. In the video, he yearns for their relationship on a winter night in a city and in a desert scene. Brown performed the song on his 2009 Fan Appreciation Tour, and on BET's SOS: Help for Haiti Telethon, which benefited victims of the 2010 Haiti earthquake. ## Background The song was leaked to internet on October 21, 2009, one day after ex-girlfriend Rihanna's ballad "Russian Roulette" was also leaked. The song, which has been described as "melancholy", sees Brown singing about a relationship that has slipped out of his hands with its chorus calling for an "incremental reconciliation" of the unspecified relationship. Jayson Rodriguez of MTV News noted that both "Crawl" and Rihanna's "Russian Roulette" would inevitably be interpreted as being about Brown and Rihanna's relationship. In an interview with MTV News, Brown stated that the song is not about Rihanna or any of his previous relationships. He called the message of the song "universal", and not just about love but "any type of heartache." About the track he said, "When I heard the whole concept and everything I was like, 'Yo, this is crazy. So being able to express the feelings, it was like, probably one of the best [records I've done.] But it was more than me trying to do a record that meant crawl to love, crawl back to love. Meaning whether it's from your negative situations, whether it's from any problems you've dealt with, like anybody's situation." Although he stated his concept for the song was about love, he said for anybody, the song could be "inspired as far it being the war or a death in the family, whether it's anything, anybody just crawl back to love." ## Music video The music video was edited by David Blackburn and directed by Joseph Kahn, who also worked with Brown on the "I Can Transform Ya" and "Forever" videos. The video features American R&B singer Cassie as Brown's love interest. Kahn had previously directed the video for Britney Spears's 2008 'comeback' song, "Womanizer", after her public breakdown. In an interview with MTV News, Kahn said, "I seem to be the guy that record companies go to when they need help," he joked. "I truly feel [Brown] is remorseful. You don't drop people just because they made a mistake (even if it was a big mistake)." Kahn said that the entire idea for the video was Brown's: "It's an interesting video for me, because it's so rare that music videos ever try to achieve anything emotional. Chris just basically told me a story of what he felt this video was going to be, with his heart glowing and how he's, like, cold. It is a very personal story. But it's told in such a graphic manner that I fell in love with the idea. It's Chris' story. Period. I am the pencil that put it down on the paper." When comparing the song's video to that of "I Can Transform Ya", the director said, "'Crawl' is my favorite one, because — gosh, I'm going to let you in on this — 'cause it's probably his most personal thing he's ever done." He went on to say, "I mean, everything that's happened to him in the year, I think this is going to be his big statement, in terms of what he's feeling and what he's living through right now." When talking about the ideas and concepts of the video, Kahn said that the video, his first ballad with Brown, should speak for itself through the ideas that he had and the "genesis" of what that idea was. On November 2, 2009, several stills from the video were released onto the internet. The photos focused on two sets of the video, a desert location, and a snow and puddle-spotted alleyway. In both settings, Brown wears the same thick black glasses, brown leather trench coat, white T-shirt, and fingerless gloves, among other attire. Cassie appears in a photo from the alleyway scenes, as the desert scenes show Brown in "deep contemplation". The video first aired on The Wendy Williams Show on Friday, November 13, 2009, when Brown was a guest on the show. The video opens with Brown sitting on an edge of a bed wearing a plain white T-shirt. As the music begins and he starts singing, his heart is shown lit up red and beating in his chest. The singer then walks into an alleyway on a winter's night, revealed in the air as he breathes. Brown walks past several storefronts, seeing images of Cassie broadcast on television. He then sees paparazzi taking photos of her, but she does not notice him. Brown is shown in a desert scene, and then returns to the winter night scene as Cassie sees him and they walk towards each other meeting face-to-face. They gather close, but Brown does not reel her in as the video ends. The music video ranked at forty-eight on the BET: Notarized Top 100 Videos of 2009 countdown. ## Live performances Brown performed the song on his 2009 Fan Appreciation Tour, and on Black Entertainment Television's SOS Saving Ourselves: Hope for Haiti Telethon, to raise money for the country after the 2010 earthquake that devastated the area. Eric Ditzian of MTV News noted that although the song was rumored to be about Rihanna, "the lyrics also at times seemed to fit the evening's focus, like when Brown sang, "If we crawl till we can walk again/ Then we'll run until we're strong enough to jump." ## Critical reception The song received mixed to positive reviews. Greg Kot of the Chicago Tribune said the song was one of several on parent album Graffiti that "flirt with a public apology." Kot went on to state that a "funeral organ" hovers over the song, and "the narrator longs for a second chance: "'So where do we go from here/With all of this fear in your eyes?'" Jon Caramanica of The New York Times said that both "Crawl" and another song from Graffiti, "So Cold", come off as "thoughtful, even if they're not quite mea culpas" and further suggested that "In these moments Mr. Brown is pining, mildly apologetic." Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly called the song a "genuinely affecting second single", and stated that "Less forgiving listeners" looking for "signs of contrition" may find them on the track. Dan Gennoe of Yahoo! Music UK said that, of the six tracks on the album's deluxe edition that could be interpreted as dealing with Brown's relationship with Rihanna directly, "Crawl" is "by far the most catchily contrite." Rap-Up said that the song shows Brown "taking baby steps back to love and into the spotlight," and said that it found Brown "longing to mend a broken relationship" as in his 2008 Jordin Sparks collaboration, “No Air”. ## Chart performance After the song's premiere on Brown's MechanicalDummy.com website, "Crawl" made its official debut on the R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart at number ninety-nine. After its release for digital download on November 23, 2009, it later peaked at fifty-nine. On the week ending December 12, 2009, "Crawl" debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at sixty-eight and peaked at fifty-three. On December 19, 2009, "Crawl" debuted on the UK Singles Chart at seventy-six. In February, the song re-entered the chart at eighty-five, and debuted on the UK R&B chart at twenty-five.On the week of February 27, 2010, the song reached its peak of number thirty-five on the singles chart, and eventually peaked at number eight on the R&B chart. The song debuted and peaked on the New Zealand Singles Chart at number sixteen on the week beginning February 1, 2010. The song debuted and peaked at number thirty-nine on the Irish Singles Chart, and reached number eight on the Dutch singles chart. It peaked at number twenty on the Japan Hot 100, and ninety-seven on the European Hot 100. ## Track listing - Digital download 1. "Crawl" – 3:57 - Germany Digital download 1. Crawl - 3:56 2. Graffiti - 5:12 ## Credits and personnel - Songwriting - Chris Brown, Nasri Atweh, Adam Messinger & Luke Boyd - Production - The Messengers: Adam Messinger & Nasri Atweh - Lead Vocals - Chris Brown - Background vocals - Luke Boyd & Nasri Atweh - Recording Engineer - Brian Springer - Mixing - Manny Marroquin, assisted by Christian Plata & Erik Madrid Source ## Charts ### Weekly charts ## Certifications ## Release history	[ "## Background", "## Music video", "## Live performances", "## Critical reception", "## Chart performance", "## Track listing", "## Credits and personnel", "## Charts", "### Weekly charts", "## Certifications", "## Release history" ]	2,038	33,122
58,415,897	Go to Sleep (Loïc Nottet song)	1,084,540,706	null	[ "2010s ballads", "2017 singles", "2017 songs", "Christmas songs", "Loïc Nottet songs", "Songs written by Loïc Nottet" ]	"Go to Sleep" is a song by Belgian singer Loïc Nottet, released on 22 December 2017 for digital download by Sony Music Entertainment. Written and produced by Nottet, the song was released in celebration of Christmas. Musically it is a minimally produced piano ballad whose lyrics discuss love and friendship in difficult times. Music critics gave positive reviews of "Go to Sleep", praising the song's message and nature, as well as Nottet's vocal delivery. An accompanying music video was uploaded onto Nottet's YouTube channel simultaneously with the single's release, and was directed by Sidney van Wichelen. It portrays the singer and a woman performing choreography in front of a Christmas tree and a bench placed in front of it. For further promotion, Nottet performed "Go to Sleep" during VivaCité's Viva for Life programme on 22 December 2017. Commercially, the song reached the Ultratip rankings in both the Flanders and Wallonia regions of Belgium. ## Background and composition "Go to Sleep" is the first single that Loïc Nottet wrote and produced by himself. It was digitally released on 22 December 2017 by Sony Music Entertainment, in celebration of Christmas. A minimally produced piano ballad, Nottet's vocal delivery is set in piano. According to Roy Knoops of ESCToday, "Go to Sleep" lyrically discusses "the power of love and friendship, even in difficult times". Lyrics include: "Don't you worry babe so go to sleep/And save your tears/I know the dreamer last within/Let's wish to fly/Just you and I/So close your eyes to stop your cries/Baby go to sleep". ## Reception Music critics met "Go to Sleep" with favourable reviews upon its release. ESCToday's Roy Knoops called the song "gentle yet poignant", while noting that it "captures the true spirit of the Christmas season". Julien Goncalves of PureMédias labelled the song "heartbreaking", and Virgin Radio pointed out "sweetness, love and tenderness". Christophe Segard, writing for website Aficia, praised the "power and softness" of "Go to Sleep" and commended Nottet's vocal delivery. Jonathan Vautrey of Wiwibloggs likened the track to material released by Australian singer Sia, particularly "Snowflake" from her eight studio album Everyday Is Christmas (2017). He concluded: "If you’ve got some hyperactive kids in your family [..], then this could be the perfect song to help them get off to sleep, as well as for you to relax too at the end of a busy Christmas Day." Commercially, "Go to Sleep" attained minor success on record charts. In native Belgium, it reached number 13 on the Wallonian Ultratip chart, while being registered on the same ranking in the Flanders region. ## Music video and promotion An accompanying music video for "Go to Sleep" was uploaded onto Nottet's official YouTube channel on 22 December 2017. It was directed by Sidney van Wichelen and produced by Vansiproduction and Vangarde; Maxime Desmet and Jens Burrez were hired as director of photography and artistic director, respectively. During the visual, Nottet and a woman—wearing a red-black suit and a red dress, respectively—perform choreography in front of a Christmas tree. Goncalves of Pure Charts assumed that the woman played the singer's girlfriend. They also occasionally sit on a bench placed in front of the tree. Interspersed shots during the music video show Nottet singing to the song sporting a black shirt. Reviewers gave mixed reviews of the clip. An editor of Virgin Radio wrote that it was "full of grace and elegance" and labelled the choreography as "full of poetry". Although also praising the choreography, Segard of Aficia criticized "the square format of the clip and its staging [as] too poor" in comparison to the maximalist production of Nottet's previous visual for "Doctor" (2017). To further promote "Go to Sleep", Nottet performed it on VivaCité's Viva for Life programme on 22 December 2017. ## Track listing - Digital download 1. "Go to Sleep" – 3:17 ## Charts ## Release history	[ "## Background and composition", "## Reception", "## Music video and promotion", "## Track listing", "## Charts", "## Release history" ]	917	22,319
29,463,562	Battle of Machias (1777)	1,084,677,546	1777 American Revolutionary War battle	[ "Battles in the Northern Coastal theater of the American Revolutionary War after Saratoga", "Battles involving Great Britain", "Battles involving the United States", "Battles of the American Revolutionary War in Maine", "Conflicts in 1777", "Machias, Maine", "Military history of New England", "Military history of Nova Scotia" ]	The Battle of Machias (August 13–14, 1777) was an amphibious assault on the Massachusetts town of Machias (in present-day eastern Maine) by British forces during the American Revolutionary War. Local militia aided by Indian allies successfully prevented British troops from landing. The raid, led by Commodore Sir George Collier, was executed in an attempt to head off a planned second assault on Fort Cumberland, which had been besieged in November 1776. The British forces landed below Machias, seized a ship, and raided a storehouse. The result of the raid was disputed. Collier claimed the action was successful in destroying military stores for an attack on Fort Cumberland (although such stores had not been delivered to Machias), while the defenders claimed that they had successfully prevented the capture of Machias and driven off the British. ## Background The small community of Machias, located in the eastern district of Massachusetts that is now the state of Maine, was a persistent thorn in the side of British naval authorities since the start of the American Revolutionary War. In June 1775, its citizens rose up and seized a small naval vessel, and the community had ever since been a base for privateering. In 1777, John Allan, an expatriate Nova Scotian, was authorized by the Second Continental Congress to organize an expedition to establish a Patriot presence in the western part of Nova Scotia (present-day New Brunswick). Although Congress authorized him to recruit as many as three thousand men, the Massachusetts government was only prepared to give him a colonel's commission and authority to raise a regiment in eastern Massachusetts to establish a presence in the St. John River valley. Allan based his effort in Machias, and had by June landed some forty men in the area. However, British authorities in Halifax had received some intelligence of Allan's intended mission, and a larger British force arrived at the St. John River on June 23. Men that Allan had left at the settlements near the mouth of the river skirmished with the British but then withdrew upriver. Allan was forced to make a difficult overland journey back to Machias after his small force retreated up the river. He was joined on this journey by a number of sympathetic Maliseet Indians that he had persuaded to join the American cause. In early August the Massachusetts Provisional Congress voted to disband forces recruited for Allan's expedition because of the imminent threat posed by the army of General John Burgoyne in upstate New York. Papers documenting Allan's fairly elaborate plans, including a projected attack on Fort Cumberland, were taken during the conflict on the St. John River and fell into the hands of Captain Sir George Collier, second-in-command to Admiral Mariot Arbuthnot in the naval station at Halifax. This spurred Collier to act, since there had already been one attempt on Fort Cumberland the previous year. He therefore organized an assault on Machias, Allan's base of operations and the source of many of his recruits. Because Collier and the commander of land forces at Halifax, General Eyre Massey, did not get along, Collier decided to launch the expedition without taking on any British Army troops. He sailed from Halifax in late July in the frigate HMS Rainbow, accompanied by the brig HMS Blonde, planning to use the marines aboard those ships in ground operations. He was joined by the frigate HMS Mermaid and the sloop HMS Hope while making the passage to Machias. The defense of Machias consisted of local militia under the command of Colonel Jonathan Eddy, the leader of the 1776 attack on Fort Cumberland. He had been warned that the British were organizing an attack. The militia laid a log boom across the Machias River, and constructed several earthen redoubts further upriver, armed with cannons taken from local privateers. The defense was coincidentally reinforced by forty to fifty Maliseet, Passamaquoddy, and Penobscots that Colonel Allan had called to Machias to explain what had gone wrong with his expedition. ## Battle Collier's fleet arrived at the mouth of the river early on August 13. He boarded 123 marines onto the Hope, and ordered her and the Blonde up the river. Word of this reached the militia, and thirty-five men mustered to oppose them. The ships reached the log boom, and a firefight began between the two forces. The militia resistance was sufficient to keep the British from attempting a landing that day. Early the next morning, under the cover of fog, the marines were landed. They cut the log boom, seized a sloop carrying lumber, and set fire to a storehouse, seizing stores of flour, rice, corn, shoes, and ammunition before returning to the ships. The two ships then moved further up the river until they reached the town itself. All along the way they were harassed by musket and cannon fire from the shore, as the militia and their Indian allies positioned themselves to dispute possible landing sites. When darkness set in, the Indians reportedly began chanting and shouting in an attempt to magnify their numbers. At this point, "To the great Surprise and Astonishment of every one[,] in Less than half an Hour after Coming to an Anchor, the Brig & Sloop Both Gote under way without firing a Gun" and "made down the River against the Tide of flood." The Hope, however, ran aground while making its way downstream in the twilight. The militia hauled a swivel gun to a nearby shore, and peppered her with shot the next morning before she was refloated by the tide and made her way into Machias Bay. ## Aftermath Colonel Allan ascribed the militia's success to British concerns that they might be entering a trap. He also grandiosely likened the encounter to another battle, writing "not an Action during the War Except Bunker Hill there was such a slaughter". American estimates of British casualties ran from forty to one hundred, while claiming their own casualties at one killed and one wounded. The British reported their losses as three killed and eighteen wounded, which were mainly incurred when the Hope grounded. After departing from Machias, Collier cruised the Maine coast, capturing smaller American ships, and raided communities on the Sheepscot River. There he captured a frigate laden with mast timbers destined for France. In his report Collier declared the mission a success and claimed to have successfully forestalled another invasion of Nova Scotia. He also believed that with another one hundred men "the destruction [of Machias] would have been compleat." General Massey, whose troops had been preparing to participate in the expedition but were excluded by Collier's abrupt departure from Halifax, wrote that Collier "wanted the whole honour of destroying Machias," and that he "stole out of Halifax, made a futile attack on Machias, was most shamefully drove from thence...." Machias was not attacked again during the war, although it became somewhat isolated when the British occupied Castine in 1779, establishing the colony of New Ireland. Collier returned to successfully defend New Ireland from the American patriot Penobscot Expedition. (Machias and other parts of eastern Maine were successfully occupied by British forces during the War of 1812, where again the British created the colony of New Ireland, but were returned to United States control after the war.) ## See also - Military history of Nova Scotia	[ "## Background", "## Battle", "## Aftermath", "## See also" ]	1,513	6,459
72,701,808	Kenneth Stewart (RNZAF officer)	1,139,489,092	Second World War flying ace	[ "1915 births", "1960 deaths", "Military personnel from Dunedin", "New Zealand World War II flying aces", "New Zealand World War II pilots", "New Zealand lawyers", "Recipients of the Distinguished Flying Cross (United Kingdom)", "Royal New Zealand Air Force personnel" ]	Kenneth William Stewart, (7 October 1915 – 3 August 1960) was a flying ace of the Royal New Zealand Air Force (RNZAF) during the Second World War. He was officially credited with the destruction of five German aircraft. Born and educated in Dunedin, Stewart was a lawyer when he joined the RNZAF in 1941. After receiving some flight training at Wigram, the following year he was sent to the United Kingdom to complete his training and serve with the Royal Air Force. He performed instructing duties for several months before training as a night fighter pilot and being posted to No. 488 Squadron in October 1944. He and his radar operator Harold Brumby achieved a number of aerial victories during the final six months of the war in Europe. In the postwar period, he resumed his legal career. He died suddenly in 1960, aged 44. ## Early life Born in Roslyn, a suburb of Dunedin, in New Zealand, on 7 October 1915, Kenneth Stewart was the son of Mr W. Stewart and his wife. Stewart studied law after completing his schooling, qualified as a solicitor and duly entered the legal profession. Being of a short, stout stature, he was nicknamed 'Chunky'. ## Second World War In May 1941, Stewart joined the Royal New Zealand Air Force (RNZAF) with the service number 413145. He received his initial flight training at No. 1 Service Flying Training School (SFTS) at the RNZAF station at Wigram Aerodrome in Christchurch. Here he flew North American Harvards and Airspeed Oxfords, crashing an example of the latter aircraft on 21 September. He proceeded to the United Kingdom for further flight training with the Royal Air Force, arriving at No. 6 SFTS at Little Rissington in Gloucestershire in January 1942. After completing this phase of training, he was selected for an instructor's course following which he was posted to No. 29 Elementary Flying Training School at Clyffe Pypard in Wiltshire. Here he taught pupils to operate the de Havilland Tiger Moth trainer aircraft. After 12 months of instructing duties, he was transferred to No. 3 (Pilots) Advanced Flying Unit (AFU), based at South Cerney, this time operating Oxfords. A few months later he was shifted again, to a similar post at another AFU, at Shawbury. In May 1944, Stewart was selected for night fighter training and posted to No. 54 Operational Training Unit to become familiar with the twin-engined Bristol Beaufighter and de Havilland Mosquito, both used as night fighters. From there, he and the radar operator he had been paired up with, Harold Brumby who, like Stewart, was a flying officer and a New Zealander, were posted to No. 488 Squadron. ### Service with No. 488 Squadron At the time Stewart and Brumby joined No. 488 Squadron, it was part of the Second Tactical Air Force. Based at Colerne in south England, the squadron was in the process of converting to the Mosquito Mk XXX, having previously operated the older Mk XIII version of the aircraft. Later in the month, the squadron shifted to Hunsdon. It was tasked with patrolling duties and also sought out launching sites for V-1 flying bombs but for several weeks it was relatively quiet. In mid-November the squadron shifted to France, operating from Amiens-Glisy. Bad weather and limited German activity meant that the aircrew continued to see little action. The Luftwaffe increased its aerial operations once the Ardennes Offensive commenced in December. On 23 December, Stewart and Brumby were on their fifth operational sortie, patrolling around Roermond when a Junkers Ju 88 night fighter was detected on radar some 4 miles (6.4 km) distant. After closing in and verifying that the detected aircraft was German, Stewart opened fire and set one of the engines alight. The Ju 88 spun into the ground near Maeseyck and exploded. On gaining height after the successful interception, a second Ju 88 was detected. Stewart engaged this aircraft, setting it on fire and observing it subsequently crashing into the ground. It was not the only success for the squadron that night; two other German aircraft were destroyed by other aircrews. Patrolling again four days later, Stewart and Brumby sighted two Junkers Ju 87 dive bombers. Attempting to intercept them, their Mosquito was damaged by anti-aircraft fire. This led them to having to make a forced landing at Melsbroek, during which their aircraft overturned. Fortunately, neither man was hurt. Stewart had to make another emergency landing on 1 January 1945; that day the Luftwaffe mounted Operation Bodenplatte, an attack on a number of Allied airfields. Stewart and Brumby were flying when they spotted and pursued a fighter-bomber to Rheine but their Mosquito was damaged by anti-aircraft fire. They had to land at Brussels, just as German fighter-bombers attacked the airfield there. Their Mosquito avoided any further damage. Aerial activity by the Luftwaffe then quietened down for the first several weeks of 1945 and poor weather also affected operations. On 21 February Stewart and Brumby were patrolling over Groenlo, in Holland, when ground radar detected an unidentified aircraft that was following them. Alerted to its presence, Stewart was able to manoeuvre behind the aircraft and identified it as a Ju 88. He engaged and destroyed the German aircraft, killing its pilot and wounding two aircrew. On 26 March, while patrolling over the Ruhr, Stewart and Brumby destroyed a Messerschmitt Bf 110 heavy fighter, having tracked it on radar for some time before closing in to a sufficient distance to allow positive identification. The Bf 110 crashed near Bocholt. The duo resumed their patrol and soon picked up another aircraft on Brumby's radar, which was subsequently identified as a Heinkel He 111 medium bomber. Despite deteriorating weather, this too was engaged by Stewart and damaged. They had to abandon pursuit of the He 111 and, unable to return to their base in Amiens-Glisy because of poor visibility, flew across to England to land at Bradwell Bay. In early April, No. 488 Squadron moved to Gilze-Rijen airfield in Holland; this allowed them to fly greater distances into Germany on their patrols. They were also tasked with providing aerial cover for Antwerp, a logistically important port for supplying the advancing Allied ground forces. On 7 April, Stewart and Brumby were alerted by ground radar to the presence of a German aircraft in their sector over the Ruhr. This transpired to be a Bf 110 which Stewart engaged and destroyed, his and Brumby's final aerial victory. They were the last pilots of No. 488 Squadron to achieve flying ace status during the war. No. 488 Squadron was disbanded on 26 April. In June, both Stewart, by this time holding the rank of flight lieutenant, and Brumby were awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross for "gallantry and devotion to duty in the execution of air operations. They were officially credited with having destroyed five German aircraft and damaging another. ## Later life On returning to New Zealand in September and being discharged from the RNZAF, Stewart immediately resumed his prewar profession as a lawyer, becoming a partner in a Dunedin law firm. He was also involved in veterans' affairs, serving on the executive committee of the Dunedin branch of the Returned Services Association. He died suddenly at his home in Dunedin on 3 August 1960.	[ "## Early life", "## Second World War", "### Service with No. 488 Squadron", "## Later life" ]	1,625	20,651
8,335,569	Oklahoma State Highway 132	1,135,076,961	Highway in Oklahoma	[ "State highways in Oklahoma", "Transportation in Garfield County, Oklahoma", "Transportation in Grant County, Oklahoma", "Transportation in Kingfisher County, Oklahoma" ]	State Highway 132, also known as SH-132, is a state highway in north-central Oklahoma. It connects State Highway 51 west of Hennessey to the Kansas state line near Manchester, and is 65.3 miles (105.1 km) long. It has no lettered spur routes. SH-132 was originally added to the state highway system in 1956, when it ran between Carrier and U.S. Route 64 (US-64) east of Nash. It was extended further northward to the Kansas state line in 1958, and southward, to its current southern terminus, in 1962. ## Route description SH-132 begins at State Highway 51 in rural Kingfisher County three miles (4.8 km) east of the unincorporated community of Lacey. It heads north from there, passing through unincorporated Cato before crossing into Garfield County. Approximately 4.5 miles (7.2 km) north of the county line, the highway cuts through Barr. Five miles (8.0 km) north of Barr, the road skirts the east edge of Drummond, where it crosses a Grainbelt Corporation railroad track. The highway then meets U.S. Highway 60/412 west of Enid. SH-132 turns east and overlaps the U.S. routes for one mile (1.6 km), before splitting back off to the north. In Carrier, it briefly overlaps State Highway 45. North of Carrier, the highway crosses another railroad track, this one operated by Burlington Northern Santa Fe, before running to the west of Hillsdale. At the Garfield–Grant County line, the highway curves to the northwest before turning back to a due north heading in order to line up with Grant County's road grid. SH-132's first numbered highway junction in Grant County is with US-64. SH-132 turns to the west, overlapping US-64 for two miles (3.2 km) before splitting off to the north in Nash. North of Nash, the highway passes through two sharp curves before crossing over the Salt Fork of the Arkansas River, and through two more sharp curves after the crossing. SH-132 then passes one mile (1.6 km) to the west of unincorporated Hawley. Its final highway junction in Oklahoma is with State Highway 11. From here, the highway continues due north, passing west of Sand Creek, Wakita, and Gibbon en route to Manchester. After passing through Manchester, the highway turns west along the Oklahoma–Kansas state line. The road then curves back to the north, fully entering the state of Kansas, and becomes K-179. ## History SH-132 was first designated on July 14, 1956. Initially, the highway began at what was then SH-38 (present-day SH-45) in Carrier, proceeding north along its present-day route to end at US-64 east of Nash. On May 8, 1958, the portion of the route concurrent with US-64 into Nash, and from Nash to the Kansas state line north of Manchester, was added. The route did not appear on the official state highway map until the 1959 edition. At this time, portions of the route in Grant County, including from the Garfield–Grant county line to US-64 and a segment between Nash and Manchester, were unpaved. By 1961, the segment of highway north of SH-11 had been paved. On July 2, 1962, SH-132 was extended to the south, reaching its present-day southern terminus. A minor realignment to the highway occurred in southern Grant County on January 7, 1963, the final change to SH-132's route. By 1963, the portion of highway in Grant County south of US-64 was paved, leaving only a section extending from north of Nash to SH-11 as unpaved. This section was paved by 1967. ## Junction list	[ "## Route description", "## History", "## Junction list" ]	823	36,152
639,391	Humphrey IV of Toron	1,162,943,360	Baron in the Kingdom of Jerusalem	[ "1160s births", "12th-century deaths", "Christians of the Crusades", "Lords of Toron" ]	Humphrey IV of Toron (c. 1166 – 1198) was a leading baron in the Kingdom of Jerusalem. He inherited the Lordship of Toron from his grandfather, Humphrey II, in 1179. He was also heir to the Lordship of Oultrejourdan through his mother, Stephanie of Milly. In 1180, he renounced Toron on his engagement to Isabella, the half-sister of Baldwin IV of Jerusalem. The king, who had suffered from leprosy, allegedly wanted to prevent Humphrey from uniting two large fiefs. Humphrey married Isabella in Kerak Castle in autumn 1183. Saladin, the Ayyubbid sultan of Egypt and Syria, laid siege to Kerak during the wedding, but Baldwin IV and Raymond III of Tripoli relieved the fortress. Baldwin IV made his young nephew, Baldwin V, his successor before his death, but Baldwin V also died in the summer of 1186. The barons, who did not want to acknowledge the right of Baldwin V's mother, Sybilla, and her husband, Guy of Lusignan, to inherit the kingdom, decided to proclaim Humphrey and his wife king and queen. However, Humphrey, who did not want to reign, deserted them and did homage to Sybilla and Guy. He was captured in 1187 at the Battle of Hattin, where Saladin imposed a crushing defeat on the united army of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. His mother offered the surrender of the fortresses of Oultrejordain to Saladin in exchange for Humphrey's release. Although the garrisons of Kerak and Montréal refused to surrender, Saladin set Humphrey free. Kerak only fell to Saladin's troops in late 1188, Montréal in early 1189. After Queen Sybilla's death in the autumn of 1190, most barons of the realm (including Isabella's stepfather, Balian of Ibelin) wanted to give Isabella in marriage to Conrad of Montferrat, a successful military leader. The marriage of Humphrey and Isabella was annulled, although they protested the decision. Humphrey joined the retinue of King Richard I of England during his crusade in 1191–1192. Since Humphrey was fluent in Arabic, he conducted negotiations with Saladin's brother, Al-Adil, on Richard's behalf. ## Early life Humphrey was born in about 1165, the son of Humphrey, heir to Humphrey II of Toron, and Stephanie of Milly. Humphrey was a child when his father died around 1173. His mother soon inherited the Lordship of Oultrejourdan. She married Miles of Plancy, Seneschal of Jerusalem, who was murdered in October 1174. The following year she married Raynald of Châtillon. Humphrey inherited the Lordship of Toron from his grandfather who died of wounds received at the Battle of Banyas on 22 April 1179. Baldwin IV of Jerusalem's eight-year-old half-sister, Isabella, was betrothed to Humphrey in October 1180. His stepfather, Raynald of Châtillon, and Isabella's stepfather, Balian of Ibelin, were prominent figures of the two groups of barons in the Kingdom of Jerusalem. The two baronial groups had been competing for the control of state administration, because the king who suffered from leprosy could not rule alone. According to the marriage contract, Humphrey renounced his inherited domains (Toron, Banias and Chastel Neuf) in favor of Baldwin IV, in exchange for a money fief of 7,000 bezants. This provision of the marriage contract suggests that the king wanted to prevent Humphrey from uniting two large fiefs, Toron and Oultrejourdan. Baldwin IV granted Toron or its usufruct to his mother, Agnes of Courtenay, around 1183. Saladin, who had united Egypt and Syria under his rule, invaded the Kingdom of Jerusalem in September 1183. Humphrey commanded the forces of Oultrejourdain, dispatched by Raynald of Châtillon to join the united army of the kingdom. Saladin's soldiers ambushed and almost annihilated his troops at Mount Gilboa. Saladin's campaign ended with his withdrawal on 7 October, because he could not persuade the main army to join battle. ## Marriage Humphrey married Isabella in Kerak Castle in the autumn of 1183. During the wedding, Saladin laid siege to the fortress to take revenge for Raynald of Châtillon's plundering raid on the Red Sea in February. According to a version of Ernoul's chronicle, Humphrey's mother convinced Saladin not to bombard the tower in which the newly married young couple were lodged, although he continued to besiege the rest of the fortress. Kerak was eventually relieved on 4 December by Baldwin IV and Raymond III of Tripoli. The dying Baldwin IV, who had disinherited his sister Sybilla and her husband Guy of Lusignan in favor of her six-year-old son, Baldwin V, in March 1183, nominated Raymond of Tripoli regent to his successor. The High Court of Jerusalem also decreed that if Baldwin V died, the pope, the Holy Roman emperor, and the kings of France and England were to decide whether Sybilla or Isabella was entitled to succeed him. Baldwin IV died in March 1185, Baldwin V the next summer. ## Unwilling claimant Sybilla's maternal uncle, Joscelin III of Courtenay, persuaded Raymond of Tripoli to leave Jerusalem to hold an assembly in Tiberias for the barons of the realm. After the regent departed to Tiberias, Joscelin invited Sybilla and Guy of Lusignan to Jerusalem. As soon as Raymond realized that Joscelin had deceived him, he summoned the High Court to Nablus. All the barons of the realm (including Humphrey) hurried to Nablus, except Humphrey's stepfather, Raynald of Châtillon, who went to Jerusalem. The barons sent messengers to Jerusalem to remind Sybilla, Guy of Lusignan, and their supporters, of the High Court's decision on the matter of the succession of Baldwin V. Ignoring their messages, Heraclius, Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem, crowned Sybilla queen, and she in turn placed the crown on her husband's head. Before long, acting on Raymond of Tripoli's proposal, the barons at Nablus decided to proclaim Isabella and Humphrey queen and king against Sybilla and Guy. Raymond and his supporters were willing to march against Jerusalem, but Humphrey had no desire for the crown. He secretly left Nablus during the night and rode to Jerusalem to meet Sybilla. She refused him initially, but after Humphrey told her of his intention, she accompanied him to her husband. Humphrey swore fealty to Guy, putting an end to the conspiracy for Humphrey's and Isabella's coronation. All the barons except Raymond of Tripoli and Baldwin of Ramleh hurried to Jerusalem to do homage to Sybilla and Guy. Guy granted Toron and Chastel Neuf (two domains that Humphrey had abandoned in 1180) to Joscelin of Courtenay in 1186, stipulating that should he restore the two estates to Humphrey, he would receive the compensation that Humphrey had received for them. ## Battle of Hattin Humphrey's stepfather, Raynald of Châtillon, plundered a caravan moving from Egypt to Syria in early 1187, claiming that the truce between the Kingdom of Jerusalem and Saladin did not cover his Lordship of Oultrejourdan. After Guy of Lusignan failed to persuade Raynald to pay compensation, Saladin proclaimed a jihad (holy war) against the Kingdom of Jerusalem. Saladin's army crushed the united forces of the kingdom in the Battle of Hattin on 4 July 1187. Humphrey also participated in the battle. He was captured on the battlefield like most of the commanders of the Christian army. With the exception of Raynald (whom he personally beheaded) and the knights of the Military Orders (who were massacred by fanatics), Saladin spared their lives. Saladin sent his prisoners to Damascus and conquered the Christian towns and fortresses one after another. Two castles in Oultrejordan – Kerak and Montréal – were among the few fortresses that resisted. In October, Humphrey's mother, Stephanie of Milly, promised to persuade the garrisons at the two fortresses to surrender if Saladin released Humphrey. Saladin accepted her offer and allowed Humphrey to join her. However, the defenders refused to surrender and Humphrey returned to Damascus. Before long, Saladin set Humphrey free again without demanding ransom. Saladin's troops were unable to seize Kerak until the end of 1188, and Montréal some months later. ## Annulment of marriage Humphrey and his wife were present at the camp of the crusaders who besieged Acre when Queen Sybilla and her two daughters died in 1190. Most barons of the realm regarded Humphrey's wife as Sybilla's lawful heir, stating that Guy had lost his claim to rule after his wife and their children died. However, they also felt Humphrey was unsuitable to rule the kingdom, especially because he had refused to claim the throne against Sybilla and Guy in 1186. They preferred Conrad of Montferrat, a crusader leader who had prevented Saladin from occupying Tyre. Isabella's stepfather, Balian of Ibelin, was one of Conrad's supporters. He and his partisans decided that the marriage of Isabella and Humphrey should be annulled. The marriage was childless. The contemporaneous Itinerarium Regis Ricardi describes Humphrey, around 1190, as "more like a woman than a man, gentle in his dealings and with a bad stammer". Isabella's mother, Maria Comnena, entered Isabella's tent, and forced her to leave her husband. Maria Comnena swore that Baldwin IV had forced her daughter to marry Humphrey at the age of eight. Ubaldo Lanfranchi, Archbishop of Pisa (who was Papal legate), and Philip of Dreux, Bishop of Beauvais, annulled Humphrey's marriage to Isabella. During an inquiry ordered by Pope Innocent III into the prelates' decision, a group of knights who were present at the proceedings stated that both Isabella and Humphrey had protested the annulment. Before he died, Baldwin of Forde, the archbishop of Canterbury, forbade Isabella to marry Conrad, stating that both Isabella and Conrad would commit adultery if they married. Ignoring the archbishop's ban, Conrad of Montferrat married Isabella on 24 November 1190. ## Last years Humphrey was among the barons who accompanied Guy of Lusignan, who did not renounce the kingdom, to meet King Richard I of England in Limassol in Cyprus in May 1191. Both men did homage to Richard. Richard dispatched Humphrey, who was fluent in Arabic, to open negotiations with Saladin's brother, Al-Adil, in Lydda (now Lod in Israel). No agreement was reached, although Richard offered the hand of his sister, Joan, to Al-Adil and the Holy Land as her dowry. Two men murdered Conrad of Montferrat in Tyre on 28 April 1192. Although one of them confessed that Rashid ad-Din Sinan, head of the Assassins, had sent them to kill him, Humphrey was one of the suspects accused by contemporaneous sources of hiring them. Modern historians are unanimous in saying that Humphrey was innocent, pointing out that his "career was not notable for displays of initiative in any case". The widowed Isabella married Count Henry II of Champagne in Acre on 5 May 1192. Humphrey died in 1198, shortly after Isabella, who had again been widowed, married Aimery of Lusignan, King of Cyprus. In 1229, Humphrey's patrimony, Toron, was restored to the Kingdom of Jerusalem in accordance with the treaty of Al-Kamil, sultan of Egypt, and the Holy Roman emperor, Frederick II. The domain was seized by Maria of Antioch, who was the great-granddaughter of Humphrey's sister, Isabella of Toron. ## Genealogical table ## See also - War of the Succession of Champagne	[ "## Early life", "## Marriage", "## Unwilling claimant", "## Battle of Hattin", "## Annulment of marriage", "## Last years", "## Genealogical table", "## See also" ]	2,696	1,841
28,797,664	Lay You Down	1,057,553,745	null	[ "2010 singles", "2010 songs", "Jive Records singles", "LaFace Records singles", "Song recordings produced by Rico Love", "Songs written by Rico Love", "Songs written by Usher (musician)", "Usher (musician) songs" ]	"Lay You Down" is a song by American R&B recording artist Usher. It was written by himself, Rico Love and Dwayne Nesmith, and produced by the latter two. It was released to urban radio on September 28, 2010, in the United States, as the third and final single from Usher's EP, Versus EP, which is an extension of his sixth studio album, Raymond v. Raymond. "Lay You Down" is an R&B song, that takes influence from pop musician Prince. The song entered the US Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart, and peaked at number fifty-six. ## Background and composition "Lay You Down" was written by Usher, Rico Love and Dwayne Nesmith, and produced by the latter two. Additional vocals were contributed by Love, and keyboard and programming was done by Nesmith. The song was recorded by Ian Cross at Midnight Blue Studios in Miami, Florida, and mixed by Rob Marks at Circle House Studios. "Lay You Down" is an R&B song with a length of four minutes and three seconds. In an interview with music video website Vevo, Usher explained that the song is a "classic R&B baby maker". Sara Anderson of AOL wrote that it opens "with improvisational, high-pitched 'ooohs' and base-driven synth beats." The song was released as the third and final single from Versus, an extended play released as an extension of his sixth studio album, Raymond v. Raymond (2010). ## Reception Describing "Lay You Down" as one of the more sensual songs on Versus, Mark Nero of About.com wrote "the best of which might be the piano-laced 'Lay You Down,' on which Usher sings: 'This ain't bump 'n grind, I'll show you what love is if you let me lay you down.'" Sarah Rodman of The Boston Globe commended Usher's use of falsetto, whilst writing that the song "is an urgent boudoir jam that draws a neat line"– she also commented on how it takes inspiration from both Prince and Marvin Gaye. Los Angeles Times'''s Jeff Weiss also pointed out the influence from pop musician Prince, and how Usher is "unctuously cooing about wanting to be the: one who keeps your body warm." "Lay You Down" entered the R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart on the week ending November 13, 2010, and peaked at number fifty-six, due to strong radio play. ## Credits and personnel Recording locations - Vocal recording – Midnight Blue Studios, Miami, FL. - Mixing – Circle House Studios, Miami, FL. Personnel - Songwriting – Rico Love, Usher Raymond, Dwayne Nesmith - Production – Rico Love, Dwayne Nesmith - Vocal recording – Ian Cross - Mixing – Rob Marks - Additional vocals – Rico Love - Keyboard and programming – Dwayne Nesmith Credits adapted from the liner notes of Versus''. ## Charts	[ "## Background and composition", "## Reception", "## Credits and personnel", "## Charts" ]	628	2,679
3,312,176	Korketrekkeren	1,095,243,808	Tobogganing track in Oslo, Norway	[ "1951 establishments in Norway", "Bobsleigh, luge, and skeleton tracks", "Defunct sports venues in Norway", "Olympic bobsleigh venues", "Sports venues completed in 1951", "Sports venues in Oslo", "Venues of the 1952 Winter Olympics" ]	Korketrekkeren (direct translation: "The Corkscrew") is a tobogganing track and former bobsleigh and luge track in Oslo, Norway. The tobogganing track runs between Frognerseteren and Midtstuen and is operated as a public venue by the municipality. Return transport to the top of the hill is undertaken by riding the Oslo Metro's Holmenkollen Line. Tobogganing in the area started in the 1880s, with several roads being used during winter evenings. Auto racing took place in the hill in 1921 and the following year it saw its first luge tournament. The first major tournament was the FIL European Luge Championships 1937. Tobagganing also took place in the nearby Heftyebakken, but from 1950 Korketrekkeren became the sole tobogganing hill and Heftyebakken was used for cross-country skiing. The bobsleigh track was built for the 1952 Winter Olympics, where it hosted two bobsleigh events. Contrary to popular belief, this was not built at Korketrekkeren but as a separate run nearby also starting at Frognerseteren. It was built as a temporary, artificial track with the curves being constructed in snow and then frozen hard to ice. Trial runs were undertaken in 1951 and the bobsleigh course was not used after 1952. Both Olympic events were won by Germany, with Andreas Ostler and Lorenz Nieberl participating in both winning teams. The tobogganing hill hosted the inaugural FIL World Luge Championships 1955, with Norway's Anton Salvesen winning the men's single—the only time in history Norway has won a World Luge Championships medal. ## History Korketrekkeren was originally part of Frognerseterveien, a road which ran up to Frognerseteren. It was completed in 1867 to the orders of landlord Thomas Johannessen Heftye, who had been purchasing forest properties in the area. The section between Svendstuen and Frognerseteren gradually became known as Korktrekkeren. Holmen- og Voksenkollselskapet was established in 1888 and undertook a series of public infrastructure investments in the area, including the construction of roads, skiing trails, natural tobogganing tracks and a chapel. The property was given to Kristiania Municipality (today Oslo Municipality) in 1894. Tobagganing became a popular sport from the 1880s and Holmen- og Voksenkollselskapet rented out sleds which were permitted to be used on roads and designated tracks after 19:00 on evenings with moonlight. Norsk Vinterturistforening was founded in 1899 to work towards encouraging English tourists to visit Oslo, specifically by building tobogganing tracks. A committee was established in 1904 to look into building a new tobogganing track in the Holmenkollen area. It proposed that two new tracks be built, one from Voksenkollveien to Peisestuen, and one from Peisestuen to Midtstuen, and that Korketrekkeren be upgraded to allow for safer tobogganing. The investments cost 7,000 Norwegian krone (NOK) and the annual operating costs estimated at NOK 2,000. The investments were financed with NOK 2,000 by Christiania Brænnevinssamlag and NOK 5,000 by Akeforeningen. The latter was established in 1905 and was also responsible to operating the track. In 1898, the Holmenkollen Line was opened to Besserud. One of the line's main revenue sources was transporting city-dwellers to the recreational area of Nordmarka where they would go skiing. An alternative activity was tobogganing down the hill back to Majorstuen. The operator Holmenkolbanen immediately started plans to extend the line. There were two proposals: a continuation of the line past Holmenkollen and a branch from Midtstuen up Korketrekkeren to Frogneseteren. However, the latter required the use of a rack railway, as it would give a 1:8 gradient. The former route was selected and the line was extended to Frogneseteren in 1916. Holmenkolbanen started renting out sleds at Frogneseteren, which could be returned at most stations. To save the return ticket, many chose to continue the tobogganing ride to Majorstuen. The use of Korketrekkeren for tobogganing created a conflict with the local residents—especially at the guest house in Sverdrupstuen, which was often blocked on Sundays. There was also a conflict between cross-country skiing and tobogganing, as both groups wanted priority on the road. Akeforeningen proposed holding a tournament in 1921, but this was rejected by the municipal council. However, an auto race was held on the track that year. Permission for the sleighing race was given the following season, resulting in regular tournaments. Construction of Heftyebakken took place in 1930. The track was constructed between Frogerseteren to Svendstuen, including a concrete curve which allowed it to connect to Korketrekkeren. Heftyebakken had a poor profile as it was not steep enough in the lower areas. In 1950, Heftyebakken was converted to a skiing trail and Korketrekkeren became a pure tobogganing trail. Unusually for winter sports, bobsleigh has never been popular in Norway. The country had not sent an Olympic team until the 1948 Winter Olympics and there were no previous bobsleigh tracks in Norway when Oslo was awarded the 1952 Winter Olympics. Two Swiss civil engineers, Heinz Cattani and Emil Ingold, were the main technical consultants for the development of the venue. The steep terrain made construction excessively expensive, resulting in the organizing committee deciding to build a temporary track, without permanent concrete and stone curves. Instead, a new track was constructed each year using snow: the overhangs were built by hand, the tracks were leveled and the structure sprayed with ice until it was hard. The track route was built under supervision of Sigurd Lund and Carl Venderboe in 1949 and 1950 and subsequently corrected by Cattani. The only fixed installation was a water main which ran along the track, using Øvresetertjern as its water source. Engineer Luigi Angelini from Switzerland was hired to supervise the construction of the curves, which cost NOK 615,000. The track was first constructed for training in 1951 and then for the Olympics in 1952. There have been occasional proposals that Norway should build a permanent bobsleigh track, where Korketrekkeren was the leading location. The debate died out in the 1990s with the selection of Lillehammer as the host of the 1994 Winter Olympics and the subsequent construction of Lillehammer Olympic Bobsleigh and Luge Track. Also the Oslo bid for the 2018 Winter Olympics proposed using the Lillehammer track. In 2007, there were two serious accidents in the hill and it was subsequently closed by the police. The municipality then renovated the hill, removing poles and padding dangerous edges. ## Olympic track The Olympic track ran from Frogneseteren, with the start line located at 429.2 meters (1,408 ft) above mean sea level. The course falls 124.35 meters (408.0 ft), with the finish line located at 304.85 meters (1,000.2 ft) elevation. The track had an average 8.6 percent gradient, which varied between 3.67 and 13.86 percent. The track was 1,507.5 meters (4,946 ft) long and had 13 curves, varying with radii between 14 and 50 meters (46 and 164 ft). Beyond the finish-line the track ran steeply uphill. The track had three boxes for time-keepers, one at the start, one mid-way and one at the finish. In addition there was a bob garage at the top of the hill. Bobs were transport up using a four-wheel-drive car up Heftyebakken. The track had 50 telephone linesto keep up with the competition and track conditions during the event. The following is a list of the turns with their names and curve radii. ## Tobogganing Korketrekkeren is a public hill owned by the municipality and can be used free of charge. Toboggans can be rented from Skiservice and Akerforeningen. The start of the hill is located next to Frognerseteren Station on the Oslo Metro's Holmenkollen Line and the end of the course is located at Midtstuen Station. Tobogganists can take their sleds on the train using ordinary tickets. There is also a smaller beginners track at Skistua at Frognerseteren. Korketrekkeren is widely regarded as Oslo's prime tobogganing course. ## Events ### 1937 European championships The FIL European Luge Championships 1937 were the sixth to be contested and the only to have been held in Norway. Six nations competed—Martin Tietze from Germany won both the men's singles and along with Kurt Weidner the men's doubles. Norway took all the medals in the women's singles with Titti Maartmann winning. ### 1952 Winter Olympics Two events in bobsleigh were held at the 1952 Winter Olympics—two-man and four-man. Both were contested over four heats over two days. Two-man was contested on 14 and 15 February, while four-man was contested on 21 and 22 February. The same teams won both events, with Germans Andreas Ostler and Lorenz Nieberl winning gold in both events and Friedrich Kuhn and Franz Kemser winning gold in the four-man. The events attracted up to 15,000 spectators. ### 1955 World championships FIL World Luge Championships 1955 was the inaugural world championship in luge and the only to have been held in Norway. Eight countries participated, with the top results being dominated by Austria. The men's singles was won by Anton Salvesen, which remains the only medal ever won by Norway in the World Luge Championships. The women's singles saw double Austrian victory with Karla Kienzl winning ahead of Maria Isser. In the doubles, Hans Krausner and Josef Thaler won ahead of their Austrian countrymen Josef Isser and Maria Isser.	[ "## History", "## Olympic track", "## Tobogganing", "## Events", "### 1937 European championships", "### 1952 Winter Olympics", "### 1955 World championships" ]	2,241	34,920
15,546,905	Gottes Zeit ist die allerbeste Zeit, BWV 106	1,167,951,465	Church cantata by Johann Sebastian Bach (c. 1708)	[ "1707 compositions", "1708 compositions", "Christian funeral music", "Church cantatas by Johann Sebastian Bach" ]	Gottes Zeit ist die allerbeste Zeit (God's time is the very best time), BWV 106, also known as Actus tragicus, is an early sacred cantata composed by Johann Sebastian Bach in Mühlhausen, intended for a funeral. The earliest source for the composition is a copied manuscript dated 1768, therefore the date of the composition is not certain. Research leads to a funeral of a former mayor of Mühlhausen on 16 September 1708. The text is a carefully compiled juxtaposition of biblical texts, three quotations from the Old Testament and four from the New Testament, combined with funeral hymns, of which two are sung and one is quoted instrumentally, and some additions by an anonymous author. Bach scored the work for four vocal parts and a small ensemble of Baroque instruments, two recorders, two violas da gamba and continuo. The work is opened by an instrumental Sonatina, followed by through-composed sections which have been assigned to four movements. The structure is symmetrical around a turning point, when the lower voices, who contemplate the Old Covenant, are overcome by a soprano calling for Jesus. ## History Although Bach's manuscript is lost, the work is agreed to be one of the earliest Bach cantatas, probably composed during the year he spent in Mühlhausen 1707/1708 as organist of the Divi Blasii church, at the age of 22. Various funerals known to have taken place at this time have been proposed as the occasion for the composition, for example that of his uncle Tobias Lämmerhirt from his mother's family, who died in Erfurt on 10 August 1707, and that of Adolph Strecker, a former mayor of Mühlhausen, whose funeral was 16 September 1708. The earliest surviving manuscript, in the hand of Christian Friedrich Penzel, was copied in 1768 after Bach's death. It introduced the title Actus tragicus. The cantata was published in 1876 as part of the first complete edition of Bach's works: the Bach-Gesellschaft-Ausgabe, edited by Wilhelm Rust. ## Theme The text consists of different Bible passages from the Old and New Testament, as well as individual verses of hymns by Martin Luther and Adam Reusner, which all together refer to finitude, preparation for death and dying. There are two distinct parts to the cantata: the view of the Old Testament on death shown in the first part is confronted by that of the New Testament in the second part, leading to a symmetrical structure. The juxtaposition of texts from the Old and New Testament appeared before in the Christliche Betschule (Christian school of prayer) by Johann Olearius. Markus Rathey, professor at the Yale Institute of Sacred Music, has argued that the sermon given at the funeral of Strecker is similar in ideas to the themes of the cantatas. This may be an indication that Bach composed the work for this occasion. ## Music ### Structure and scoring Bach scored the cantata for four vocal parts (soprano (S), alto (A), tenor (T), and bass (B)) and a chamber ensemble of Baroque instruments: two alto recorders (Fl), two violas da gamba (Vg), basso continuo. The duration is given as 23 minutes. The sections comprising the cantata are traditionally grouped into four movements. The musicologist Carol Traupman-Carr notes: "Although movements are marked by tempo changes, occasionally key changes, meter changes, and double bar lines, Cantata 106 appears to be a continuous work. Bach helps create a more seamless effect by occasionally resolving the cadence of one section at the downbeat of another, thus blurring the beginnings and endings of traditional movements." The keys and tempo markings are taken from the first publication. The keys in the Neue Bach-Ausgabe and other more recent publications start in F major. ### Movements #### 1 In the opening sonatina, marked Molto adagio, two obbligato alto recorders mournfully echo each other over a sonorous background of viola da gambas and continuo. #### 2 The first vocal movement combines several aspects of getting ready to die, based mostly on texts from the Old Testament. Bach expresses their ideas in a variety of musical form and scoring. The movement opens (2a) on a text in free poetry, "Gottes Zeit ist die allerbeste Zeit" (God's time is the best of all times). The chorus has no initial tempo marking, but has a fugal section marked Allegro, and the end is Adagio assai. The thought from Psalm 90 (2b), "Ach, Herr, lehre uns bedenken, daß wir sterben müssen" (Ah, Lord, teach us to consider that we must die) is rendered as an arioso of the tenor, marked Lento. The melodic line is broken by rests of reflection. The warning to be prepared for death (2c) from Isaiah, "Bestelle dein Haus; denn du wirst sterben" (Put your house in order; for you will die), is performed as an aria by the bass, marked Vivace. Arpeggios of the recorder accompany the voice which has been described as "evocative of the command of God". Marked Andante, the movement concludes (2d) with the central piece in the symmetrical composition. It presents a contrast: while the lower choral voices recall the Old Covenant, "Es ist der alte Bund: Mensch, du mußt sterben!" (It is the ancient law: human, you must die!), based on Jesus Sirach, the solo soprano turns to accepting death as a union with Jesus, singing three times "Ja, komm, Herr Jesu, komm!" (Yes, come, Lord Jesus!). The personal decision is supported by the instrumental quotation in the recorders of Johann Leon's hymn "Ich hab mein Sach Gott heimgestellt" (I have brought my affairs home to God). The final call to Jesus closes the movement, leading to a long rest. The musicologist Wendy Heller writes: > Bach allows the confident soprano the final word, one that even silences the continuo; the passage concludes with an ornamented cadential passage in semiquaver triplets that arrives with tentative optimism and a distinct lack of completion ... #### 3 The second vocal movement is a similar combination of ideas, now mostly from the New Testament. It quotes twice what Jesus said on the cross according to the Gospel of Luke. The first quotation (3a), "In deine Hände befehl ich meinen Geist" (Into Your hands I commit my spirit), with an added explanation "du hast mich erlöset, Herr, du getreuer Gott" (You have redeemed me, Lord, faithful God), from Psalm 31, is rendered as an alto aria. The second quotation (3b), "Heute wirst du mit mir im Paradies sein" (Today you will be with Me in Paradise), is a bass arioso, supported by Martin Luther's hymn "Mit Fried und Freud ich fahr dahin" (With peace and joy I depart), after the Nunc dimittis (also following Luke), sung by the alto as a cantus firmus. #### 4 The work concludes with the closing seventh stanza of Adam Reusner's hymn "In dich hab ich gehoffet, Herr", "Glorie, Lob, Ehr und Herrlichkeit" (Glory, praise, honor, and majesty), as a choral movement, but not a simple four-part setting. Introduced by an instrumental passage recalling motifs from the Sonatina, the first lines of the hymn are set for four parts. The movement ends in a double fugue on Amen marked Allegro. The musicologist Julian notes that the fugal section became the "major focus of the piece". ### Evaluation The cantata ranks among Bach's most important works. The Bach scholar Alfred Dürr called the cantata "a work of genius such as even great masters seldom achieve... The Actus tragicus belongs to the great musical literature of the world". ## Recordings The cantata can be performed with only four singers, as in the recording by Joshua Rifkin, while other recordings feature a choir with multiple voices to a part. The following entries are taken from the listing on the Bach Cantatas Website. Choirs with one voice per part (OVPP) and instrumental groups playing period instruments in historically informed performances are marked by green background.	[ "## History", "## Theme", "## Music", "### Structure and scoring", "### Movements", "#### 1", "#### 2", "#### 3", "#### 4", "### Evaluation", "## Recordings" ]	1,798	14,051
2,204,630	Lemon of Troy	1,173,481,156	null	[ "1995 American television episodes", "Lemons", "The Simpsons (season 6) episodes" ]	"Lemon of Troy" is the twenty-fourth and penultimate episode of the sixth season of the American animated television series The Simpsons. It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on May 14, 1995. In the episode, the children of Springfield try to retrieve their beloved lemon tree after it is stolen by the children of Shelbyville. The episode was written by Brent Forrester and directed by Jim Reardon. For this episode, the animators designed a non-polluted version of Springfield. It features cultural references to the 1984 song "When Doves Cry", the 1981 film Mad Max 2, and the 1968 song "What a Wonderful World". The episode's title is a play on the name Helen of Troy from Greek mythology. The episode acquired a Nielsen rating of 8.1. The episode has garnered universal acclaim and is regarded as a classic episode of the show. ## Plot Marge lectures Bart on the importance of town pride after he writes his name in wet cement. Soon he realizes the joys of living in Springfield and is upset by anti-Springfield taunts coming from neighboring Shelbyville. Grampa explains this rivalry can be traced to the establishment of the two towns: Jebediah Springfield wanted a town which promoted chastity and abstinence, but Shelbyville Manhattan, founder of Shelbyville, was a proponent of cousin marriage. The next day, Springfield's lemon tree is stolen by a gang of boys from Shelbyville. Bart leads Milhouse, Nelson, Martin, Todd and Database to Shelbyville to find the tree and return it to Springfield. Bart's posse locates the tree in an impound lot where the leader of the gang that stole the tree lives. Using Ned Flanders' RV, Homer leads the boys' fathers to their sons in Shelbyville. The fathers and sons demand their tree be returned, but the owner of the impound lot taunts them and refuses to surrender it. Using a Trojan Horse strategy, Bart parks the RV outside a hospital, where it is impounded to the lot. When night falls, the Springfield men and boys emerge from the RV and tie the lemon tree to its top. The lot owner catches them but they manage to escape and return the tree to Springfield. In the aftermath, the town elders of Springfield and Shelbyville provide their own endings to the tale. In Springfield, Grampa lauds the triumphant return of the tree by the "heroes of Springfield"; Bart and Milhouse celebrate with a glass of lemonade made from a few drops of lemon juice (and a large amount of sugar). In Shelbyville, an old man makes up a story about the tree being haunted to cover the embarrassment of losing to their rivals in Springfield. The Shelbyville kids drink turnip juice instead, much to their disgust. ## Production Brent Forrester wrote "Lemon of Troy", his second episode of The Simpsons. Jim Reardon directed it. Early on in the production stage, the writers decided that the leader of the Shelbyville children, Shelby, and his father should be modeled after Bart and Homer. Shelby's voice was provided by Tress MacNeille, and Shelby's father was voiced by Hank Azaria, who based his performance on Walter Matthau as Dan Castellaneta originally based his performance of Homer on Matthau. The writers wanted to have the Springfield children find an area of Springfield that was not decimated, and the animators designed a version of Springfield that was very idyllic. They drew several scenes of the children running through non-polluted streams and woodlands. The animators gave Shelbyville's nature a more dark feeling in comparison to Springfield. ## Cultural references In the episode, Milhouse recites a slightly paraphrased line from Prince's 1984 song "When Doves Cry". In a scene referencing "The Lady, or the Tiger?" Bart identifies the number seven in Roman numerals by referring to a nonexistent sequel of the Rocky film series, Rocky VII: Adrian's Revenge. The scene with Bart and his team sitting on a hill above the enemy camp and looking down at the captured tree being circled by children on bicycles bears a resemblance to an early scene in Mad Max 2. The overall plot structure of Springfield residents attacking their neighboring rivals after they steal their prize possession is a reference to the legend of the Trojan War, in which the incentive for the Greeks declaring war on their Trojan neighbors is the abduction of their most famous and beautiful female citizen, Helen. The title of the episode is a play on her name. The method of recovery of the tree is an echo of the Trojan Horse. Homer complains that "Nobody cared when Bogart defaced that sidewalk in Hollywood", referring to when Humphrey Bogart was honored in a ceremony at Grauman's Chinese Theater to record his hand and footprints in cement in 1946. The scene where Milhouse envisions using his camouflage clothing to taunt the Shelbyville kids and all one can see is his smile and glasses is a reference The Cheshire Cat from Alice In Wonderland. ## Reception ### Critical reception Since airing, it has received universal acclaim from fans and television critics. Matt Groening, creator of The Simpsons, called the episode a "classic" and said it is one of his favorites from the show. Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood, the authors of the book I Can't Believe It's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide, said there was "some nice ideas in this episode—Bart and his chums all have near-doubles in Shelbyville—but this is a strangely pedestrian outing, and seems hidden away—wisely—at this point in the season." In a DVD review of the sixth season, DVD Verdict's Ryan Keefer said the episode "easily [is] one of the best of the season" and that it has "gotten more enjoyable since it first aired". He added that the episode is "full of everything that makes the show successful" and gave it an A rating. Entertainment.ie named it among the 10 greatest Simpsons episodes of all time. Nashville Scene named it the "perfect episode." ### Ratings and legacy In its original broadcast, "Lemon of Troy" finished 55th in the ratings for the week of May 11 to May 17, 1995, with a Nielsen rating of 8.1. The episode was the sixth-highest-rated show on the Fox network that week. In The A.V. Club, David Sims writes that "The 'rival opposite town' is a TV trope that feels very standard at this point, so it’s hard to remember that The Simpsons pretty much invented it. Obviously rival towns had existed before, in literature as well as TV, but Shelbyville is the beginning of an unforgettable comedy concept." The image of Shelby gloatingly eating the lemon, making his eyes water and lips pucker, has become a meme.	[ "## Plot", "## Production", "## Cultural references", "## Reception", "### Critical reception", "### Ratings and legacy" ]	1,414	4,765
653,411	Mont Aiguille	1,152,690,709	Mountain in France	[ "Dauphiné Prealps", "Mesas", "Mountains of Isère", "Mountains of the Alps", "Two-thousanders of France" ]	Mont Aiguille (2,087 m (6,847 ft)) is a mountain in the Vercors Massif of the French Prealps, located 58 km (36 mi) south of Grenoble, in the commune of Chichilianne, and the département of Isère. The mountain, known as one of the Seven Wonders of Dauphiné, is a relatively flat limestone mesa surrounded by steep cliffs. The mountain lies within an area designated in 1970 as the Vercors Regional Natural Park. Mont Aiguille's limestone cliffs, especially on the northwest side, are popular with climbers. Its first climb in 1492 was said to mark the birth of mountaineering. ## Topography and geography Mont Aiguille is a mesa eroded from the Vercors Plateau in the drainage basin of the Rhône. It is surrounded by steep cliffs and has a height of 2,087 metres (6,847 ft) and a clean prominence of 465 m (1,526 ft). The surrounding terrain is difficult enough to warrant a technical climb as the easiest method of ascent. The mountain is capped with meadows botanically similar to those on the Vercors High Plateau, but beneath the cliffs there are extensive forests. The mountain lies within the Vercors Regional Natural Park and is in the département of Isère. The nearest access by rail is in the village of Saint-Martin-de-Clelles and by road is from the north via the Col de La Bâtie. ## Geomorphology and geology Geomorphologically, the mountain is a mesa-like outlier, that is to say, the remains of a plateau that has been otherwise eroded to leave only a single pillar of rock - weaker or fractured rocks (the so-called Jasneuf fault) between the current summit and the Vercors high plateau were eroded over time by over 400 metres, leaving the peak standing on its own. This has resulted in several unique features of Mont Aiguille, including the cliffs, which are almost identical to those on the eastern edge of the Vercors Plateau such as those on the edge of the Grand Veymont, which is the highest point of the range. Another feature resulting from this is the presence of meadows on the summit plateau, which are similar to those to the west on the rest of the Vercors plateau. Mont Aiguille is a limestone mesa, previously connected to the main body of the high plateau of the Vercors Massif. The summit is made up of lower Barremian strata, deposited during the Cretaceous period. This is the same as the plateau to the west, but not as the immediate environs: the lower slopes are composed of older Hauterivian strata. As easily observed, the bedding planes are all roughly level, although there is some inclination down to the north-east. ## History According to Roman legend, the mountain was torn from the rest of the Vercors when a hunter named Ibicus saw naked goddesses on the mountain and was changed into an ibex as punishment. In the medieval period, Mont Aiguille was traditionally called "Mount Inaccessible", and typically depicted as an "inverted pyramid" or "mushroom". Since at least the thirteenth century, the mountain has been regarded as one of the Seven Wonders of Dauphiné. The mountain is most noted for its first ascent in 1492. Charles VIII ordered that the peak be climbed, so one of his servants, Antoine de Ville, made the ascent using a combination of ladders, ropes and other artificial aids. He was visited in the following days by many local members of the nobility and aristocracy. The team bivouacked on the summit for eight days, erecting small crosses and a stone shelter. The ascent is described by François Rabelais in his Quart Livre. This was the first recorded climb of any technical difficulty, and has been said to mark the beginning of mountaineering. The mountain was not climbed again until 1834, nearly 350 years later, when it was ascended barefoot by Jean Liotard, accompanied for one-quarter of the way by local explorers. Less than a month later, it was climbed by seven people at the same time, who reportedly danced and sang La Marseillaise on the summit. In 1940, the top 11 m (36 ft) of the mountain collapsed, reducing the height to 2,085 m (6,841 ft). Seventeen years later, on 27 August 1957, the stunt pilot Henri Giraud landed a Piper J-3 Cub on the summit, utilising an 80 m (260 ft)-long, 20 m (66 ft)-wide runway which had been built earlier that day using materials and men lifted to the summit by helicopters. In the following 18 years, he staged a further 51 landings on the summit before his final landing in 1975, many carrying paying passengers, and often made using skis. The mountain was designated in 1970 as part of the Vercors Regional Natural Park. ## Gallery	[ "## Topography and geography", "## Geomorphology and geology", "## History", "## Gallery" ]	1,071	25,596
25,446,278	Action of 31 March 1800	1,147,544,828	Naval battle of the War of the Second Coalition	[ "Conflicts in 1800", "Naval battles involving France", "Naval battles involving Great Britain", "Naval battles of the French Revolutionary Wars" ]	The action of 31 March 1800 was a naval engagement of the French Revolutionary Wars fought between a Royal Navy squadron and a French Navy ship of the line off Malta in the Mediterranean Sea. By March 1800 Valletta, the Maltese capital, had been under siege for eighteen months and food supplies were severely depleted, a problem exacerbated by the interception and defeat of a French replenishment convoy in mid-February. In an effort to simultaneously obtain help from France and reduce the number of personnel maintained in the city, the naval commander on the island, Contre-amiral Pierre-Charles Villeneuve, ordered his subordinate Contre-amiral Denis Decrès to put to sea with the large ship of the line Guillaume Tell, which had arrived in the port shortly before the siege began in September 1798. Over 900 men were carried aboard the ship, which was to sail for Toulon under cover of darkness on 30 March. The British had maintained a blockade off Malta since the beginning of the siege, ostensibly led by Rear-Admiral Lord Nelson, who by March 1800 was defying a direct order from his superior officer Lord Keith by remaining in Palermo with his lover Emma, Lady Hamilton. In his absence the blockade was under the command of Captain Manley Dixon of HMS Lion and Nelson's flag captain Sir Edward Berry, who were notified of Decrès' departure by the patrolling frigate HMS Penelope and gave chase. The large ship of the line was initially attacked only by Penelope, which manoeuvered around Guillaume Tell's stern, causing severe damage and delaying the French ship sufficiently for Berry to bring his squadron into action. Despite being heavily outnumbered, Decrès continued to fight for more than three hours, fighting off two British ships but ultimately unable to resist the combined weight of Berry's attacks. Casualties and damage were severe on both sides, and the defiance of the French ship was celebrated in both countries as a brave defence against overwhelming odds. ## Background In May 1798, a French fleet under General Napoleon Bonaparte crossed the Mediterranean Sea, sailing for Egypt. Pausing at Malta on 9 June, Bonaparte landed soldiers and seized the island leaving a sizeable French garrison at Valletta under General Claude-Henri Belgrand de Vaubois while the rest of the fleet continued on to Alexandria. After the successful landing in Egypt, Bonaparte marched inland at the head of his army. The fleet anchored in Aboukir Bay to support the troops ashore and was surprised and almost completely destroyed on 1 August by a British fleet under Rear-Admiral Sir Horatio Nelson. Only two ships of the line and two frigates escaped the Battle of the Nile from the 17 French ships that participated in the action. Of the survivors, the ship of the line Généreux sailed for Corfu while Guillaume Tell, under Contre-amiral Pierre-Charles Villeneuve, reached Malta with the two frigates. When Villeneuve arrived at Malta in September 1798, the island was already in turmoil: the dissolution of the Roman Catholic Church on the island under French rule had been highly unpopular with the Maltese population, who forced the French garrison to retreat into the fortress of Valletta on 2 September. By the start of October, British and Portuguese troops had supplemented the Maltese irregulars, while a naval squadron watched Valletta harbour, to prevent any French effort to resupply and reinforce the garrison. Although small quantities of material reached Valletta from France in early 1799, by the start of 1800 no ship had arrived for more than seven months, and the garrison was near starvation. In an effort to resupply the garrison, the French sent a convoy from Toulon in February 1800, but the ships were intercepted off Malta by a squadron under Nelson on 17 February and in the ensuing battle the flagship Généreux was captured and Contre-amiral Jean-Baptiste Perrée was killed. Without Perrée's supplies, the garrison faced continued food shortages, and by March Vaubois and Villeneuve decided to send an urgent request for support to France. For this operation they chose the 80-gun Guillaume Tell under Captain Saulnier, partly because the condition and size of the ship enabled Vaubois to embark over 900 men aboard, many of whom were sick or wounded. Contre-amiral Denis Decrès had command of the ship and Vaubois and Villeneuve confirmed the date of departure for 30 March. While the French prepared this expedition, the British maintained their blockade, although without their commander. Nelson, in defiance of specific orders from his commanding officer Lord Keith, had retired to Palermo on Sicily to be with Emma, Lady Hamilton, the wife of the British ambassador Sir William Hamilton with whom Nelson was conducting an adulterous affair. In his absence, command had passed to Captain Sir Thomas Troubridge on HMS Culloden and then to Captain Manley Dixon on HMS Lion. ## Battle At 23:00 on 30 March, with a strong wind from the south, Guillaume Tell sailed from Valletta, Decrès hoping to use the cover of darkness to escape the British blockade. Dixon had deployed his ships around the island, with Valletta watched by the frigate HMS Penelope under Captain Henry Blackwood. At 23:55, Blackwood's lookouts spotted Guillaume Tell and the captain gave chase, ordering the brig HMS Minorca under Commander George Miller to convey the message to Dixon, whose ships were just visible in the distance. Blackwood also attempted to signal his discovery to his commanding officer as Penelope gave chase. Blackwood rapidly gained on the ship of the line and by 00:30 the frigate was within range, pulling up under the stern of Guillaume Tell and beginning a steady fire to which Decrès could respond with only his stern-chasers, light cannon situated in the stern of the ship. Decrès recognised that if he stopped to engage Penelope then the rest of Berry's squadron, visible on the horizon to the south, would soon overwhelm him. He therefore continued sailing to the northeast, hoping his heavy ship of the line could outrun the light and speedy frigate. However, Penelope was too fast, and Blackwood handled his ship with considerable skill, managing to pass Decrès' stern repeatedly and pour several raking broadsides into the French ship. Blackwood's attack was so successful that by dawn on 31 March Guillaume Tell had lost its main and mizen topmasts and its main yard, considerably reducing the speed at which Decrès could travel. The French ship had also suffered heavy casualties in the exchange, but Penelope had lost only one man killed and three wounded, and was almost undamaged. British reinforcements were now arriving from the south: the 64-gun HMS Lion under Captain Dixon had received Minorca's warning at 01:00 and immediately sailed in pursuit, sending the brig on to Captain Sir Edward Berry in HMS Foudroyant, who lay some distance to leeward. By 05:00, Dixon was close enough to engage, passing between Penelope and Guillaume Tell and firing a triple-shotted broadside into the port side of the French ship. Shooting ahead of the now sluggish Guillaume Tell, Lion crossed its opponent's bows and shot away the jib boom, allowing Dixon to maintain a position across the bow, raking the French ship from one end while Penelope did the same to the other. During these manoeuvres, Dixon's ship had briefly become entangled with Guillaume Tell's rigging, and two determined efforts to board the British ship had been driven off as the ships were disentangled. For half an hour, Lion continued to fire into the larger Guillaume Tell, but Dixon was unable to keep his ship completely out of range of the French broadsides and by 05:30 the subsequent damage showed an effect, Lion dropping back and falling behind the French vessel, although remaining within range alongside Penelope. At 06:00, Guillaume Tell came under attack for the third time, when Berry himself caught up with the battling ships in Foudroyant and pulled along the starboard broadside of the French ship of the line. Berry hailed Decrès to demand his surrender, and accompanied the demand with a triple-shotted broadside, to which Decrès responded with fire from his own guns. Foudroyant was flying a full set of sails and therefore suffered severe damage to its rigging in the opening exchange, the additional speed provided by this rig forcing Foudroyant to move ahead of the French vessel. After working back alongside Guillaume Tell, Berry recommenced fire that rapidly tore away much of the remaining French rigging, allowing Lion and Penelope to return to the battle while Foudroyant dropped back to make urgent repairs. By 06:30 the badly outnumbered French ship had lost both its main and mizen masts, Foudroyant returning to the battle in time to collapse the foremast by 08:00. At 08:20, with no means of making sail and with wreckage obscuring most of his gun decks, Decrès surrendered to spare any further, fruitless, loss of life. His ship was in danger: the lack of masts and strong winds caused it to roll so severely that the lower deck gun ports had to be closed to prevent the ship from foundering. Casualties on the French ship numbered more than 200, from a crew of over 900, with both Decrès and Saulnier badly wounded. British losses were lighter, with eight killed and 64 wounded, including Berry, in Foudroyant, eight killed and 38 wounded in Lion and one killed and three wounded (one fatally) in Penelope. Damage was unevenly spread, Foudroyant suffering most severely, with the hull and all masts damaged, the mizzenmast so badly that it collapsed at approximately 12:00, wounding five more men. Lion was badly hit, although not so severely as Foudroyant while Penelope was only lightly damaged in the masts and rigging. The battle, which had begun within sight of Malta, had concluded roughly 21 nmi (39 km) south-west of Cape Passaro on Sicily. ## Aftermath Both Foudroyant and Lion were too battered to provide an effective tow to the dismasted French ship, and as a result Penelope was left to bring the shattered Guillaume Tell into Syracuse on Sicily. Eventually the ship was repaired sufficiently for the journey to Britain, and there was added to the Royal Navy under the name HMS Malta. Malta was, with HMS Tonnant captured two years earlier at the Nile, the most powerful third rate in the British fleet, and served for many years, participating at the Battle of Cape Finisterre in 1805. The British officers were praised for the capture of Guillaume Tell, the last surviving French ship of the line to escape the Battle of the Nile: Nelson, who by his absence had "missed what would indeed have been the crowning glory to his Mediterranean career", wrote to Berry that "Your conduct and character in the late glorious occasion stamps your fame beyond the reach of envy." Despite Nelson's praise however, Berry in particular came in for subsequent criticism, especially from the historian William James, who wrote in his 1827 history of the conflict that: > "Had the Foudroyant, single-handed, met the Guillaume-Tell, the combat would have been between two of the most powerful ships that had ever so met; and, although the Foudroyant's slight inferiority of force, being chiefly in number of men, was not that of which a British captain would complain, still the chances were equal, that the Guillaume-Tell, so gallantly manned, and so ably commanded, came off the conqueror." James instead attributed most of the praise for the victory to Blackwood and Dixon, whose ships were heavily outmatched by Guillaume Tell, but who successfully pressed their attacks with the intention of delaying the French retreat. He also highly praised Decrès for his conduct in the engagement, stating that "A more heroic defence than that of the Guillaume-Tell is not to be found among the records of naval actions". First Consul Napoleon Bonaparte reached a similar conclusion, and when Decrès was exchanged soon after the battle he was presented with armes d'honneur, later converted to membership of the Légion d'honneur. He was also given the position of maritime prefect of the Biscay port of Lorient. Aboard Guillaume Tell, the British found evidence of the severity of the food shortages in Valletta: "the only thing found in La Guillaume Tell was the leg of a mule, hung for safety and his especial use of the admiral's stern-galley". News of the capture of Guillaume Tell was immediately passed to Vaubois by the British besiegers, along with a demand that he surrender the island. The French general, despite dwindling food supplies, refused, stating "Cette place est en trop bon état, et je suis moi-même trop jaloux de bien servir mon pays et de conserver mon honneur, pour écouter vos propositions." ("This place is in too good a situation, and I am too conscious of the service of my country and my honour, to listen to your proposals"). Despite Vaubois' defiance, the garrison was rapidly starving, and although the French commander resisted until 4 September, he was eventually forced to surrender Valletta and all of its military equipment to the British.	[ "## Background", "## Battle", "## Aftermath" ]	2,845	31,789
4,114,452	Bolivia at the 1936 Summer Olympics	1,134,247,603	null	[ "1936 in Bolivia", "Bolivia at the Summer Olympics by year", "Nations at the 1936 Summer Olympics" ]	Bolivia at the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin, Germany from 1–16 August 1936 was the nation's first appearance out of ten editions of the Summer Olympic Games. Bolivia sent to the 1936 Summer Olympics its first national team of one male athlete, Alberto Conrad, under the auspices of the Bolivian Olympic Committee (Spanish: Comité Olímpico Boliviano - COB). Conrad was the flag bearer, and he was a swimmer who competed in the men's 100 meter freestyle, where he was eliminated during the heats. Bolivia would return to the Summer Olympics at the fifteenth edition in 1964, although a team was sent to the 1956 Winter Olympics. ## Background The Bolivian Olympic Committee was recognized by the International Olympic Committee on 31 December 1935. This was Bolivia's first appearance at any edition of the Olympic Games from 1896 to 1932. The 1936 Summer Olympics were held from 1–16 August 1936 in Berlin, Germany; a total of 3,963 athletes participated, representing 49 countries. The Bolivian delegation consisted of a single competitor, Alberto Conrad. He was the flag bearer for the opening ceremony. Bolivia made their next appearance at a Summer Olympics at the 1964 Summer Olympics although they did send a team to the 1956 Winter Olympics. ## Swimming Alberto Conrad was 26 years old at the time of the Berlin Olympics, and was making his only Olympic appearance. In the first round of the men's 100 meters freestyle he was drawn into heat 2. He completed the race in a time of 1 minute and 17.5 seconds, which was seventh and last in his heat; only the top two from each heat and the two next fastest overall were permitted to advance, and Conrad was eliminated; the slowest qualifying time in his heat was 1 minute and 1 second. Conrad was the slowest of all 45 competitors, and nearly ten seconds behind 44th place, Spyridon Mavrogiorgos of Greece. The gold medal was won by Ferenc Csik of Hungary in a time of 57.6 seconds. The silver was won by Masanori Yusa and the bronze by Shigeo Arai, both of Japan. - Note: Ranks are given within a swimmer's heat only.	[ "## Background", "## Swimming" ]	495	32,877
1,719,958	Terri Runnels	1,172,606,231	American professional wrestler and manager	[ "1966 births", "21st-century American women", "American female models", "American female professional wrestlers", "American podcasters", "American women podcasters", "Female models from Florida", "Living people", "Professional wrestlers from Florida", "Professional wrestling announcers", "Professional wrestling managers and valets", "WWF/WWE Hardcore Champions" ]	Terri Lynne Boatright Runnels (born October 5, 1966) is an American retired professional wrestling manager, television host, and part-time professional wrestler. Runnels began her professional wrestling career in World Championship Wrestling (WCW) as Miss Alexandra York, manager of the York Foundation. She later joined the World Wrestling Federation (WWF), later renamed World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE), where she worked for eight years as Marlena (a gimmick for which she is best known) and also under her real name. In the early years of her career with the WWF, she managed her (then) real-life husband Dustin Runnels (known on-screen as Goldust) and was a member of the Pretty Mean Sisters alliance. She also managed both Hardy Boyz and Edge & Christian following the Terri Invitational Tournament in 1999. Subsequently, she had an on-screen rivalry with The Kat, managed The Radicalz stable, and worked as a host and interviewer including a number of titillating segments such as bra & panties, wet t-shirt contests, and lingerie matches. During her time with the World Wrestling Federation (or WWE), she briefly held the Hardcore Championship, her only championship during her career. After leaving the wrestling business, Runnels became involved in philanthropic work. ## Professional wrestling career ### NWA World Championship Wrestling (1988–1991) Runnels was originally a make-up artist for CNN from 1985 to 1991, where she worked on Larry King's make-up. On the weekends, she did makeup for the wrestlers of Jim Crockett Promotions (JCP). When the company was purchased by Ted Turner in 1988 and renamed World Championship Wrestling (WCW), she moved to Atlanta and continued doing make-up for some of the wrestlers. Booker Ole Anderson eventually asked her to become part of the roster as a manager. Runnels debuted in 1990 as Alexandra York, a laptop-carrying accountant who led an alliance known as the York Foundation, a group of wrestlers with finance-themed gimmicks. The York character was created over a lunch with Tony Schiavone, one of WCW's announcers. She worked at WCW for two years. ### World Wrestling Federation / World Wrestling Entertainment #### Marlena gimmick and managing Goldust (1996–1998) Runnels debuted in the World Wrestling Federation at the Royal Rumble in 1996 as Marlena, a character modeled after Marlene Dietrich. She debuted as a coolly unconcerned and indifferent television director-like manager, often sitting at ringside in her director's chair. With her cigar-smoking, seductive, nonchalant and mysterious gimmick, she acted as the manager of her (then-)real-life husband Dustin, who was wrestling under the gimmick of Goldust. Complementing Goldust, the Marlena character too was representative of all things gold (sporting gold dresses, seated in a gold director's chair, carrying a gold purse sometimes consisting of actual gold dust used to throw in the eyes of Goldust's opponents). Often, Marlena took to lasciviously making out with Goldust when she wasn't coaching and encouraging him to do the same with his fellow opponents. The cigar-smoking aspect of the character came about because Runnels enjoyed smoking them in real life. The risque characters helped bring about The Attitude Era of the late-1990s and the Diva division. During a feud between Goldust and Triple H over the Intercontinental Championship, on February 16, 1997, at In Your House 13: Final Four, Marlena was choked by Chyna, who debuted as a plant from a ringside seat and later became the bodyguard for Triple H. Later, Brian Pillman feuded with Goldust over Marlena. As part of the angle, Pillman won Marlena in a match and sent Goldust a picture of her handcuffed in a bed. Pillman, however, died in the middle of the storyline. Originally, the plan was to have the rivalry culminate in an on-air wedding where Marlena would leave Goldust for Pillman. After the Marlena-Goldust alliance dissolved, Goldust revealed Luna Vachon as his new manager. #### Pretty Mean Sisters (1998–1999) Runnels later re-emerged in 1998, under her real name, as the on-screen girlfriend of Val Venis. When Runnels claimed to be pregnant with Venis' baby, he dumped her. She later joined forces with Jacqueline Moore, who had just ended her alliance with Marc Mero, to form the Pretty Mean Sisters (P.M.S.). They later formed an alliance with D'Lo Brown and Mark Henry, accompanying them to the ring for a match against Venis and The Godfather in December at Rock Bottom: In Your House. In January, Runnels claimed to have suffered a miscarriage after she was knocked off the ring apron by Brown. Weeks later, Brown discovered that Runnels had never been pregnant. P.M.S. gained a "love slave" named Meat in May, whom Runnels controlled using sex. As a part of the storyline, P.M.S. used Meat for his body, forcing him to have sex with them. The alliance, however, broke up by July, when Jacqueline Moore became frustrated with Runnels' infatuation with Meat. #### Various storylines (1999–2001) In late 1999, Runnels arranged the Terri Invitational Tournament, a best-of-five series, between Edge and Christian and The Hardy Boyz, with the winner receiving her managerial services and the sum of \$100,000. The Hardy Boyz won the tournament, which culminated in a ladder match at No Mercy (with the prize money suspended above the ring in a bag). Runnels spent the next few months as their manager, notably getting involved in a Steel Cage match between Jeff Hardy and Al Snow on an episode of RAW. She continued interfering in matches until she was injured when Bubba Ray Dudley powerbombed her through a table. She returned on February 27 at No Way Out and cost the Hardy Boyz a match. She then became the manager of Edge and Christian, and the storyline originally called for her to come between the duo, resulting in them becoming singles wrestlers with Runnels managing Christian. The storyline, however, was rewritten, and on an episode of SmackDown!, Edge and Christian—who would now continue wrestling as a tag team—revealed they no longer wanted Runnels's services. She, therefore, slapped Edge, who responded by spearing her. Runnels began a rivalry with The Kat, and at WrestleMania 2000, Runnels (accompanied by The Fabulous Moolah) defeated The Kat (with Mae Young) in a catfight. Val Venis was the Special Guest Referee, but was distracted when Young kissed him in response to Venis making out with both Runnels and The Kat. This distraction allowed Moolah to pull The Kat out of the ring, and when Venis saw her out of the ring, he declared Runnels the winner. Post-match, The Kat attacked Runnels by stripping her black body suit off to expose her nude colored thong. The rivalry continued in an arm wrestling match at Insurrextion. They later participated in a "Stink Face match" at SummerSlam, which The Kat won by first performing the move on Runnels. In June 2000, she competed in the first ever women's battle royal to determine the \#1 contender to the WWF Women's Championship, but was eliminated by Lita. Runnels subsequently became the onscreen girlfriend and manager of Perry Saturn, who was a member of The Radicalz alliance. She accompanied Saturn to the ring at Fully Loaded in July 2000, where Saturn defeated Eddie Guerrero for the European Championship. Saturn, Runnels, and Radicalz member Dean Malenko also had a series of matches with Team Xtreme (The Hardy Boyz and Lita). The on-screen partnership lasted until Saturn, who had hit his head during a match, opted to continue seeing "Moppy" (a mop he believed was alive) instead of Runnels. As a result, she then became the manager of Raven, a member of The Alliance, who stole Saturn's mop and fed it into a woodchipper. #### WWE host and departure (2001–2004) In late 2001, Terri replaced Trish Stratus as the host of the WWF recap program Excess. She briefly feuded with Stratus, resulting in a wet T-shirt contest between the two on Raw. During this time, she also became the backstage interviewer on Raw and began to wrestle occasionally against the likes of Molly Holly, Victoria and Stratus. She also became the subject of Kane's affections and they regularly flirted during backstage segments. On May 27, 2002, she briefly held the perpetually contested Hardcore Championship when she pinned Steven Richards, though he immediately pinned her to regain the title. On the August 19 episode of "RAW", Eric Bischoff placed her a battle royal featuring former Hardcore champions such as Tommy Dreamer, Bradshaw and Jeff Hardy. She eliminated herself immediately when the match began. On the September 2 edition of "RAW" she defeated Stacy Keibler in a "Lingerie pillow fight", but was hit with a clock by Keibler and humiliated after the match, thus igniting a brief feud between the two. Her final match was a losing effort alongside the returning Lita against divas Molly Holly and Gail Kim on the November 10 edition of Raw. After eight years with the company, in March 2004, Runnels was released from WWE prior to a massive firing spree. In an April 2015 interview with Vince Russo, Runnels stated that she was flown up on April 1, 2004, to the WWE offices for a meeting with WWE executives Kevin Dunn and John Laurinaitis where she was told that they were parting ways with her; the reason she was told that she was flown up was because the WWE respected her. After leaving the company, Runnels spent time traveling the world. ### Return to WWE (2018) On January 22, 2018, in the Raw 25 Years special episode, Runnels was honored as part of a segment involving women considered legends that contributed to the company's success, including Maryse, Kelly Kelly, Lilian Garcia, Michelle McCool, Maria Kanellis and the Hall of Famers Torrie Wilson, the Bella Twins, Jacqueline and Trish Stratus. In 2021, Runnels was listed by WWE.com as one of the women who made an impact outside the ring. ## Other media Runnels has appeared in three WWE video games. She made her in-game debut at WWF WrestleMania 2000 and appears in WWF No Mercy and WWE Raw 2. During her tenure in the WWF, Runnels appeared on the show The Weakest Link in 2002 as part of a charity show where all the contestants were WWF personalities. On the show, she played for the Ronald McDonald House charity, which houses parents of hospitalized children for reduced or no cost. Runnels was the fourth contestant voted out of the game. ## Filmography ## Personal life Boatright grew up in Florida. She grew up as a Southern Baptist, but later became non-denominational. Runnels has worked with various charities, including the Make-a-Wish Foundation, Big Brothers Big Sisters of America, Boys & Girls Clubs of America, Children's Miracle Network, and Hermie & Elliott Sadler Foundation and Fit Kids Marathon. She dated Brian Pillman in 1990 while they were both in WCW. In 1993, she married Dustin Runnels, whom she met while they were both working for WCW, taking his last name as her own. They have a daughter, Dakota, who was born in 1994. Dustin Runnels' strained relationship with his father Dusty Rhodes caused problems in their marriage, and Terri alleges that Dusty spread rumors about her that included infidelity and gold-digging. The couple divorced in 1999 after six years of marriage. Years after the divorce, they were able to have a "better relationship". In 2003, she began a relationship with Tyree Clowe, a US soldier 15 years her junior. The couple remained together for over five years. Terri began dating former professional wrestler New Jack in 2009. Jack professed his love for her in an interview with host Fat Man After Dark on the Future Endeavors wrestling radio show and described some of the pitfalls, even today, of a mixed-race relationship. As of July 2011, the couple was no longer together. In August 2011, a Florida judge ordered Jack to stop selling nude and bloody photographs of Runnels. Runnels filed suit, accusing Jack of making libelous comments about her and requested that a court ban him from distributing sexually-explicit photographs of her. Jack said that he took the photos, that they belonged to him and that he should be free to pass them on to whoever he pleases. A judge in Sanford, Florida, temporarily banned Jack from distributing photographs of Runnels ahead of a hearing. On May 29, 2019, Runnels was arrested in Hillsborough County, Florida, and charged with felony possession of a firearm after bringing a loaded gun into the Tampa International Airport. She was later released on \$2,000 bond and posted a video to her Twitter page, explaining her side of the incident. In June 2019, the charges against Runnels were dropped. ## Championships and accomplishments - World Wrestling Federation / World Wrestling Entertainment - WWE Hardcore Championship (1 time) - Slammy Award (1 time) - Best Couple (1997) – with Goldust	[ "## Professional wrestling career", "### NWA World Championship Wrestling (1988–1991)", "### World Wrestling Federation / World Wrestling Entertainment", "#### Marlena gimmick and managing Goldust (1996–1998)", "#### Pretty Mean Sisters (1998–1999)", "#### Various storylines (1999–2001)", "#### WWE host and departure (2001–2004)", "### Return to WWE (2018)", "## Other media", "## Filmography", "## Personal life", "## Championships and accomplishments" ]	2,869	15,837
874,103	Magia (Shakira album)	1,170,594,301	null	[ "1991 debut albums", "Shakira albums", "Sony Music Colombia albums", "Spanish-language albums" ]	Magia (English: Magic) is the debut studio album by Colombian singer and songwriter Shakira. It was released in June 1991 by Sony Music Colombia, with whom she signed a three-album recording contract. The record is a collection of pop ballads Shakira wrote since she was eight years old, with themes inspired from the experience hanging out with boys, adventure stories, and dreams of living on the coast. The album's live performances helped Shakira receive attention on Colombian media. However, it was not a commercial success, with sales estimated at between 1,000 and 1,200 copies. By Shakira's request, Magia and its follow-up Peligro (1993) were removed from music markets. "Magia" was released as promotional single in 1991. ## Development and composition Born in Barranquilla, Colombia, Shakira began writing songs at the age of eight years, her first one being "Tus Gafas Oscuras". Her performances at local competitions led to a meeting with local theater producer Monica Ariza, who later held an audition for her in Bogotá. She performed three songs for executives of Sony Music Colombia, who were impressed enough to sign her, at the age of 13, to record three albums, which were Magia, Peligro and Pies Descalzos. The low-budget Magia was put in almost three months of pre-production, which involved choreography of live performances for the album, singing lessons for Shakira, and arranging the songs. The concept of the music still reflected her personality, despite the fact that it was managed by the record label. The tracks deal with emotions of a person's first time falling in love, and range from a love poem ("Sueños") to a celebration of dance ("Esta noche voy contigo"). These were influenced from experiences with males such as her ex-boyfriend Oscar Pardo, stories told by her father, and dreams of living on the coast. In the book Shakira: Woman Full of Grace, Ximena Diego wrote that the album "demonstrated her [Shakira's] indisputable potential." Magia is a collection of songs written by Shakira between the ages of 8 and 12, and mainly consists of pop ballads. It was produced by Miguel E. Cubillos and Pablo Tedeschi, and recorded at Aga Studios in Bogotá, when Shakira was 13. A Sony Music Colombia representative said that the recording process was simple and went perfectly fine. But for Shakira, the process was problematic, as she had no ability to decide which tracks would be included and no input into the rhythmic structure or artistic production of the songs. ## Release and promotion To promote the launch of the album, as a suggestion from Shakira, live performances were held in locations such as Teatro Amira de la Rosa, Cartagena, Santa Marta, Riohacha, Medellín, Cali, Bogotá, and other various theaters and events, all of which received print, radio and television coverage. The performances featured additional dancers and background vocalists such as César Navarro, Guillermo Gómez, Mauricio Pinilla, and Richard Ricardo. A music video was done for "Magia", which Navarro also starred in. Navarro found working with Shakira enjoyable and relaxing, and recalled her as sensitive and energetic: "She was a tireless worker, but more than anything, she was a total blast." The choreography for the performances was done by Gary Julio and Ray Silva. The album won an award at the Viña del Mar International Song Festival in 1991, although Shakira was not able to attend the ceremony as she was less than 16. Despite the live performances and the amount of media coverage, the LP did not fare well commercially; between 1,000 and 1,200 copies were sold in her home country. Initially, Shakira refused to allow the re-release of both Magia and her next album, Peligro, because of their "immaturity." ## Track listing ## Personnel Credits from liner notes: - Shakira – songwriter, vocals - Sergio Solano – acoustic and electric guitars - Antonio "Toño" Arnedo – saxophone - Miguel Enrique Cubillos N. – producer, songwriter, music direction, artistic arrangement, vocal direction, chorus - Ana Maria Gónzalez-Liliana Avila – chorus - Juanita Loboguerrero – songwriter - Miguel E. Cubillos – producer, songwriter, music direction, artistic arrangement, vocal direction - Pablo Tedeschi – producer, songwriter, musical direction, arrangement, computer programming, synthesizer programming, drum programming - Alvaro Eduardo Ortiz Q – design - Gabriel Muñoz – general coordination - Luis Miguel Olivar – sound engineer, mixing engineer - Leo Erazzo – album artwork	[ "## Development and composition", "## Release and promotion", "## Track listing", "## Personnel" ]	1,017	14,483
36,784,423	Kalyanasundara	1,145,475,033	Iconographical depiction of the wedding of the Hindu deities Shiva and Parvati	[ "Forms of Parvati", "Hindu iconography", "Shiva in art" ]	Kalyanasundara (कल्याणसुन्दर, literally "beautiful wedding"), also spelt as Kalyansundar and Kalyana Sundara, and known as Kalyanasundara-murti ("icon of the beautiful wedding"), Vaivahika-murti (वैवाहिक-मूर्ति, "nuptial icon") and Panigrahana-murti ( पाणिंग्रहण-मूर्ति) ("icon related to panigrahana ritual"), is the iconographical depiction of the wedding of the Hindu deities Shiva and Parvati. The couple are often depicted performing the panigrahana ("accepting the hand") ritual of a Hindu wedding, where the groom accepts the bride by taking her right hand in his. The couple, depicted in the centre, are accompanied by a host of divinities and other celestial beings. The god Vishnu and his wife Lakshmi are often pictured as giving away Parvati to Shiva. The god Brahma is shown as the officiating priest. The Kalyanasundara icon is not the object of popular worship and is usually used only in the celebrations of the divine wedding in annual temple festivals. However, Kalyanasundara scenes are found across India in caves, sculptures and on temple walls. ## Legend Various Hindu scriptures narrate the story of the union of Shiva and Parvati, with some variation. After the death of his first wife Sati, Shiva withdrew from society and engrossed himself in deep meditation. Taking advantage of the situation, the asura (demon) king Tarakasura secured from the god Brahma the boon that he could be killed only by the son of Shiva. Believing himself effectively immortal, Tarakasura terrorized the beings of the universe and defeated the gods. Meanwhile, Parvati, the reincarnation of Sati, was born to Himavan, the god of the Himalayas and his wife the apsara Mena. She underwent severe austerities to compel Shiva to marry her. The gods, desperate to hasten the birth of Shiva's son, sent Kamadeva, the god of love, to disturb Shiva's meditation. Though Shiva was awakened, Kamadeva was burnt up by Shiva's fury. Implored by the other gods to marry, Shiva agreed, but decided to test Parvati's devotion first. The Saptarishi (the seven sages) approached Parvati and mocked Shiva to dissuade her; however Parvati remained resolute. Then Shiva himself, disguised as an old ascetic, visited Parvati and vilified himself in her presence. As an angry Parvati was about to leave, Shiva revealed his true form to her and promised to marry her, pleased with her love and devotion. The couple married and produced a son, Kartikeya, who subsequently slew Tarakasura. ## Iconography ### Textual descriptions The Agamic texts like the Amsumadbhedagama, the Uttara-kamaikagama and the Purva-Karanagama prescribe the iconography of the Kalyanasunadara icon. A young four-armed Shiva and a beautiful two-armed Parvati should be the central figures, performing the panigrahana ("accepting the hand") ritual of a Hindu wedding, where the groom accepts the bride by taking her right hand in his. Shiva stands in tribhanga posture, with one of his legs straight and firmly on the ground and the other one slightly bent. Shiva wears a jata-mukuta (a headdress formed of piled, matted hair) on his head, adorned with a crescent moon. He wears serpents as earrings, as a waist band and as a necklace. Various gold ornaments adorn his body. His back hands carry a parashu (axe) and a mriga (deer). His front left hand makes the varada mudra ("blessing-giving gesture") and his front right hand is stretched ahead to receive the hand of the bride. A dark-complexioned Parvati, adorned in silk and gold finery, stands to the left of Shiva, blushing with her head bent slightly as she extends her right arm to hold Shiva's right hand. She holds a nilotpala (blue lotus) in her left arm. The god Vishnu and his consorts Lakshmi and Bhudevi should be represented as taking the place of Parvati's parents in the ceremony. The four-armed Vishnu should be shown in the background in between Shiva and Parvati; in one of his front hands is a golden pot from which he pours water over the hands of the couple, symbolising giving away the bride to the groom. He holds his usual attributes, the Sudarshana Chakra (discus) and the Panchajanya (conch), in his back arms. Vishnu's wives, dressed in royal finery, stand behind Parvati and hold her waist, symbolising the handing over. The four-headed god Brahma should be shown seated on the ground in the foreground officiating as the wedding priest and making offerings to the homa (sacred fire) in the kunda (fire-altar). The four-armed god holds a sruka and sruva (sacrificial ladle and spoon) in his front arms and a kamandalu (water-pot) and akshamala (rosary) in his back arms. The presence of the fire also indicates another important ritual of the Hindu wedding, saptapadi ("seven steps") where the bride and groom go around the fire seven times. The figure of Shiva should be tallest, followed by that of Vishnu, Parvati and Vishnu's wives. Various deities like the eight guardians of the directions, the eight Vasus, the seven Matrika goddesses, celestial beings such as yakshas and gandharvas, sages and siddhas may be depicted standing with folded arms in the background. ### Depictions The complete scene of the wedding is not always depicted. Sometimes, only the principal participants are shown. Chola bronzes featuring only Shiva and Parvati as described in the wedding scene are found. South Indian sculptures, like those from Madurai, feature only the couple and Vishnu. In this configuration, Parvati is depicted in the centre, with her brother Vishnu on the left, giving away her hand to Shiva on the right. Sometimes as in the Elephanta Caves, Parvati's biological father Himavan, instead of Vishnu, is depicted giving away his daughter to Shiva. Other deviations from the texts may appear in the attributes held by the divine couple. Parvati may hold a mirror, instead of the lotus. Shiva may be shown holding the trishula (trident) and damaru (drum) in his back hands. Regional variations in iconography may also occur. In Bengal, Shiva holds a karttari (knife), the ceremonial weapon that a Hindu groom from Bengal is expected to carry in a wedding. Various wedding guests are depicted in the scene. Shiva's attendant ganas enjoy the festivities; playing drums or dancing. The vahanas (mounts) of the couple, Shiva's bull Nandi and Parvati's lion, are sometimes pictured in the scene. In vertical panel depictions, the celestial guests are often shown flying over Shiva and Parvati. While the gods are pictured flying on their respective vahanas (e.g. Indra on his elephant, Agni on a ram) and with their consorts; semi-divine beings like Vidyadharas fly without vehicles. An anachronism found in a few Kalyanasundara scenes is the presence of the yet-unborn children of Shiva and Parvati, Ganesha and Kartikeya. Examples of this anachronism are found at the Rameshvara Cave of Ellora, and in a 9th-century sculpture from Uttar Pradesh now housed in Los Angeles County Museum of Art. ## Worship Though Kalyanasundara icons are found across India in caves, sculptures and temple walls, no sect is centred on their worship. The icon is a popular feature on temple gopurams (temple towers). In South Indian Shiva temples like those in Tiruvenkadu and Chidambaram, the bronze Kalyanasundara images of Shiva and Parvati are used in annual temple festivals to commemorate the divine union. Special halls are reserved for the annual ceremonial wedding of the deities. The Kalyanasundara bronzes are used only in this festival and kept unused the rest of the year. At the Meenakshi Amman Temple, women worship the Kalyanasundara sculpture to find husbands. Idol depicting Kalyanasundara is present in Baijnath Temple, in Kangra, Himachal Pradesh. ## See also - Somaskanda	[ "## Legend", "## Iconography", "### Textual descriptions", "### Depictions", "## Worship", "## See also" ]	1,920	14,605
17,018,265	Tom Sloan (footballer, born 1900)	1,162,927,960	Northern Ireland footballer (1900–1973)	[ "1900 births", "1973 deaths", "Association football managers from Northern Ireland", "Association footballers from County Armagh", "British Army personnel of World War II", "Cardiff City F.C. players", "Crusaders F.C. players", "Linfield F.C. players", "Men's association football midfielders", "NIFL Premiership players", "Portadown F.C. managers", "Pre-1950 IFA men's international footballers", "Royal Army Service Corps soldiers", "Sportspeople from Portadown" ]	Thomas Milne Sloan (11 September 1900 – 2 June 1973) was an Irish professional footballer who played as a half back. He began his career in Northern Ireland with Irish Intermediate League side Crusaders while also serving as a policeman. He joined Football League First Division side Cardiff City in 1924 where he spent five years and made more than 90 appearances in all competitions. His playing time with the club was often limited due to competition with club captain Fred Keenor, but he did play for the side in the 1927 FA Cup Final as they defeated Arsenal to become the only team from outside England to win the competition. After falling out of favour, he returned to Northern Ireland in 1929 to join Linfield and captained the side to both the Irish League and Irish Cup titles in his first two seasons. In 1932, he was appointed player-manager of Portadown and led the club to their first senior trophy since joining the Intermediate League by winning the Gold Cup in 1934. He also achieved the highest points total in the club's history during the 1936–37 season. His success led to his appointment as manager of Linfield in 1937, but he returned to Portadown after a year. In 1939, Sloan stepped down as Portadown manager to enlist in the Royal Army Service Corps during World War II. He served for two years before being discharged due to injuries sustained in an accident. After the war, he had two short spells as Portadown manager and also coached at the club for many years. He also won 11 caps for the Ireland national team during his career. ## Club career ### Crusaders Sloan joined the British Army at the age of 18 before beginning his playing career in Ireland at the end of his service with Irish Intermediate League side Crusaders. His performances led to him being selected to represent an Intermediate League XI. The club had previously sold Jimmy Nelson to Cardiff City in 1921 where the Scotsman had impressed. Cardiff subsequently approached Crusaders to enquire "Have you any more players like Jimmy?" This correspondence ultimately led to Sloan and Tom Watson joining Cardiff. Club manager Fred Stewart had been informed of Sloan in early 1924 and had travelled to Ireland in order to watch him play, only to find him suspended for the match in question, while Scottish side Third Lanark had also expressed interest in his signing. Alongside his playing career with Crusaders, Sloan had served as a policeman until his departure from the club in 1924. ### Cardiff City Sloan completed his transfer to Cardiff in May 1924, alongside fellow Irishman Paddy McIlvenny, upon which Sloan was described in the Western Mail as "one of the finest left half backs in Ireland". On his arrival at the club, Sloan found his path to the first team blocked by the half back trio of Fred Keenor, Harry Wake and Billy Hardy. He was forced to wait until the second half of the 1924–25 season before making his senior debut for the club. With Keenor absent on international duty, Sloan started in a 1–1 draw with Notts County on 14 February 1925 in a side without six first team regulars due to international call-ups. He appeared only four further times during the remainder of the campaign, covering for Keenor on each occasion. He remained a reserve for the opening matches of the 1925–26 season before making his first appearance of the campaign in a 6–3 defeat to Blackburn Rovers on 26 September 1925 in place of Hardy. He retained his place for the majority of the season, largely over club captain Keenor, making 31 appearances in all competitions as Cardiff finished 16th in the First Division. The following year, Sloan again began the season as backup; he made his first appearance of the campaign in a 2–0 defeat to Manchester United on 25 September. His start to the year was also disrupted by a back injury. In late December 1926, Sloan regained his first team place and appeared in 18 of the remaining 24 games of the league season. His return to the side also led to him playing all 7 matches of the club's FA Cup run, including the final where they defeated Arsenal 1–0 to become the only team from outside England to win the competition. In their coverage of the final, the Western Mail described Sloan as "impetuous at times, but on his day a dominating personality and a good shot". Two weeks after their FA Cup victory, Sloan helped Cardiff complete a cup double by winning the Welsh Cup final, defeating Rhyl 2–0. The cup winning season proved to be Sloan's last prominent season in the first team, having again been displaced by Keenor who had reverted to his usual position. He made 27 league appearances over the following two years which culminated in Cardiff's relegation to the Second Division at the end of the 1928–29 season. His only goal for Cardiff came in a 1–1 draw with Arsenal during his final year with the club. ### Return to Ireland Sloan, along with fellow FA Cup winner Watson, was placed on the transfer list by Cardiff in April 1929. The pair eventually left the club return to Ireland and join Linfield in June 1929. He was appointed club captain on his arrival although his early months were hampered by injury. In his first season, Sloan was selected to captain an Irish League XI against their counterparts from the Irish Free State. He helped the side to a double by winning both the Irish League and Irish Cup. In the cup final against Ballymena, the Ballymena Observer noted that Sloan and his two half back teammates had "carried them (Linfield) to victory" as his side won 3–0 to retain the trophy. As team captain, Sloan was presented with the trophy by the president of the Irish Football Association. Along with Watson, the victory completed an unusual Treble for Sloan, having won the major cup competition in three countries after already having won the FA Cup and the Welsh Cup. He helped Linfield repeat their double success the following year and remained with the side until 1932 when he was released. Sloan had been in talks about taking up a player-coach role with the side but was unable to agree terms. During his playing career, he acquired the nickname "sticky" Sloan which remained with him throughout the remainder of his time in football. ## International career Sloan was selected to represent Ireland in a junior international fixture in March 1924, helping his side to a 2–1 victory over their Scottish counterparts. He received his first call-up to the senior side in October 1925; he was selected as a replacement for team captain Sam Irving ahead of a match against England at Windsor Park when his team refused his release. The game ended in a goalless draw. Sloan won eight further caps during his time with Cardiff before being recalled to win another three in the early 1930s. Following his retirement, the Portadown News wrote that Sloan was "one of the most consistent performers who ever wore an Irish shirt". ## Managerial career ### Portadown and Linfield Sloan was appointed player-manager of Portadown in December 1932, after being offered the role in a telegram by the club's chairman W. A. Mullen. His first match in a managerial role on 30 December ended in victory as his side defeated Belfast Celtic 1–0. The club was struggling both financially and in results on his arrival, but Sloan guided the side to their first senior trophy since joining the Intermediate League by defeating Glentoran in the final of the 1933–34 Gold Cup. Following their victory, The News Letter that Sloan had "worked wonders" during his first year. In May 1935, Sloan was also appointed club secretary alongside his role as manager and also became a keen scout in the Scottish leagues, from where he signed numerous players who had fallen out of favour with their teams before becoming prominent players for the club. With his increased responsibilities in the role, overseeing parts of the club's infrastructure, the Portadown News reported that "every department of the well balanced Portadown force bears evidence of his handiwork" and was "a credit to the man who built it". Ahead of the 1935–36 season, Sloan was presented with a new bedroom suite having helped stabilise the club's finances with the sale of three players, including Ben Clarke. He also led the club to the final of the City Cup where they were defeated by Linfield. During his last full campaign with Portadown, the 1936–37 season, Sloan led the club to fourth place in the Irish Intermediate League and attained the highest points total in the club's history. In October 1937, after five years with Portadown, Sloan decided to accept an offer to return to former club Linfield as manager. However, he returned to Portadown a year later after receiving what The News Letter described as "an attractive offer" before resigning from his role at Linfield. Sloan, however, stated that the move was not made for financial reasons, rather that he was happier in Portadown while he had also clashed with some members of Linfield's committee. ### Wartime and third Portadown spell Following the outbreak of World War II, Sloan stepped down from his position with Portadown and enlisted in the Royal Army Service Corps as a private. Within a year, he was promoted to corporal and then sergeant, while his previous footballing experience led to him refereeing amateur matches while stationed in France. In June 1941, he was involved in a car accident while on duty and sustained severe injuries. He was later discharged from the Army several months later owing to an arm injury sustained in the accident and returned to Ireland. He rejoined Portadown in 1942 to assist in the running of the newly formed reserve side at the club alongside Norman Corner, before joining Cliftonville as a scout the following year. He had previously applied for the manager role with Glentoran earlier in the year. Sloan returned to management in December 1947 when he was appointed manager of Portadown for the third time. However, this proves to be his shortest spell with the club as he resigned his position three months later in February 1948. He later took up a coaching position at the club in 1950. Idris Hopkins briefly managed Portadown in 1952 before returning to England having failed to settle, resulting in Sloan being appointed manager for a fourth time in his place on a part-time basis. He remained in charge until January 1953, when Willie Ross was appointed on a permanent basis with Sloan reverting to his role as trainer. By the time he retired from football, Sloan had spent 30 years at Portadown in various capacities. ## Personal life Sloan married Martha Henry at Drumcree Parish Church in Portadown in July 1939. The couple had three children together, a daughter, Margaret, and two sons, Milne and Jackie. He died on 2 June 1978 in Lurgan after a short illness and was buried in Seagoe Cemetery, Portadown. ## Career statistics ## Honours Cardiff City - FA Cup: 1927 - Welsh Cup: 1927 Linfield - Irish League: 1929–30, 1930–31 - Irish Cup: 1930, 1931	[ "## Club career", "### Crusaders", "### Cardiff City", "### Return to Ireland", "## International career", "## Managerial career", "### Portadown and Linfield", "### Wartime and third Portadown spell", "## Personal life", "## Career statistics", "## Honours" ]	2,387	20,614
252,247	Leo II (emperor)	1,173,294,822	Eastern Roman emperor in 474	[ "474 deaths", "5th-century Byzantine emperors", "5th-century Roman consuls", "5th-century births", "Ancient child monarchs", "Burials at the Church of the Holy Apostles", "House of Leo", "Imperial Roman consuls", "Monarchs who died as children", "Sons of Byzantine emperors" ]	Leo II (Greek: Λέων, Leōn; c. 467 – 474), called the Younger, briefly ruled as emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire from 473 to 474. He was the son of Zeno, the Isaurian general and future emperor, and Ariadne, a daughter of the emperor Leo I (r. 457–474). Leo II was made co-emperor with his grandfather Leo I on 17 November 473, and became sole emperor on 18 January 474 after Leo I died of dysentery. His father Zeno was made co-emperor by the Byzantine Senate on 29 January, and they co-ruled for a short time before Leo II died in late 474. ## History Leo II, called "the Younger", was born in 467, the son of Zeno, an Isaurian general, and Ariadne, the daughter of then-emperor Leo I. He was the maternal grandson of Emperor Leo I and Empress Verina. As the grandson of Leo I, Leo II had a strong claim to succeed his throne. Leo I, who was becoming increasingly ill, felt obligated to declare a successor to the imperial throne, but passed over his son-in-law on account of his unpopularity. Accordingly, Leo II was made caesar (heir to the throne) by Leo I around October 472, and was later promoted to augustus (also by Leo I) in November 473, making him co-emperor alongside his grandfather. He was crowned at the Hippodrome of Constantinople, and the ceremony was presided over by the Ecumenical Patriarch Acacius. The 10th-century De Ceremoniis gives a detailed account of his coronation as augustus, which is dated to 17 November 473. He was also appointed as the sole consul for 474 around this time. When Leo I died of dysentery on 18 January 474, Leo II acceded to the throne as sole augustus. The historian Warren Treadgold wrote that during the reign of Leo II, his father Zeno was the true power behind the throne. On 29 January 474, the Byzantine Senate, with the approval of Empress Verina, made his father Zeno co-augustus under Leo II, as Leo was too young to sign official documents. Leo II died in Constantinople shortly after 10 October 474. The 6th-century writer John Malalas states that he reigned "1 year and 23 days", which, reckoning from his coronation as augustus, would give a death date of 8/9 December. However, he also states that Leo died on "November of the 13th indiction... as was written by the most learned Nestorianos, whose chronicle ended with Leo". Theodorus Lector, another 6th-century historian, states that Leo II died after a rule of 10 months, that is, from January to November 474. This is also corroborated by the 9th-century writer Theophanes the Confessor. The 20th-century Byzantinist George Ostrogorsky simply wrote that Leo II died sometime in the autumn of 474. He died aged 7, which is corroborated by the 6th-century writers John Malalas and John of Ephesus. The death of Leo II left Zeno as sole emperor. His death having occurred so soon after he became emperor has led to speculation among some modern scholars that he was poisoned by either his mother or father so that Zeno could become sole emperor. However, no contemporary sources raised this suggestion even though Zeno was unpopular; thus it is considered likely that Leo II's death was natural, especially taking into account the high child mortality rate of the time. Victor of Tunnuna, a 6th-century chronicler, says that Leo II did not actually die, but was rather taken by Ariadne and hidden at a monastery. This is likely a confusion with Basiliscus, the son of the Byzantine commander Armatus. Basiliscus was crowned caesar in 476 and was almost executed in 477 after his father was murdered by Zeno, but was saved by Ariadne. The confusion likely stems from the fact that Basiliscus was renamed Leo in order to avoid association with the usurper who rose against Zeno. Zeno was vastly unpopular due to a lack of dynastic prestige, with his only familial ties to the imperial throne being his marriage to Ariadne, the daughter of Leo I, and through his now-dead son Leo II. Additionally, because he was an Isaurian, he was seen as a foreigner by the Byzantine elite, and the treasury was empty on his ascension. Zeno's sole rule was opposed by the House of Leo, with Verina, the widow of Leo I, proclaiming her brother Basiliscus as emperor in January 475. Zeno fled, and Basiliscus ruled for 20 months before Zeno returned and retook the throne. Zeno's rule was marked by constant unrest, and it was only through cunning and bribery that he managed to rule for 17 years until his death on 9 April 491.	[ "## History" ]	1,090	10,370
12,193,020	Bornean stubtail	1,151,085,956	Species of bird	[ "Birds described in 1888", "Birds of East Malaysia", "Endemic birds of Borneo", "Fauna of the Borneo montane rain forests", "Taxa named by Richard Bowdler Sharpe", "Taxonomy articles created by Polbot", "Urosphena" ]	The Bornean stubtail (Urosphena whiteheadi) is a species of bird in the cettiid warbler family Cettiidae. It is endemic to the island of Borneo, where it inhabits forest floors and undergrowth in montane forests at elevations of 750–3,150 m (2,460–10,330 ft). It is a small, short-tailed warbler, measuring 9.5–10 cm (3.7–3.9 in) in length and having an average mass of 10.4 g (0.37 oz). The tops of the head and the are brown, with whitish that turn grey at the sides of the breast and the . The (stripe above the eye) is long and buffish-brown, with an equally long dark grey (stripe through the eye) and a thin yellow eye-ring. Both sexes are similar. The species feeds on invertebrates, especially green aphids, foraging in a mouse-like manner on the ground and in undergrowth. Nests are made out of reddish plant fibres, with incubation taking 24 days on average. It is classified as being of least concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature due to its sufficiently large range and stable population. ## Taxonomy and systematics The Bornean stubtail was described as Orthnocichla whiteheadi by the British ornithologist Richard Bowdler Sharpe in 1888 on the basis of specimens from Mount Kinabalu, Borneo. It was later moved to the genus Tesia. In 1942, the American ornithologist Jean Delacour moved the species into the subgenus Urosphena within the genus Cettia. The American ornithologist Ben King raised Urosphena to the status of a genus in 1989. The name of the genus, Urosphena, means wedge-tailed and is derived from the Ancient Greek words oura (tail) and sphēnos (wedge). The specific name whiteheadi refers to John Whitehead, a British explorer who collected the specimens based on which this species was described. Bornean stubtail is the official common name designated by the International Ornithologists' Union (IOU). Other common names for the species are short-tailed bush warbler, short-tailed stubtail, and Whitehead's stubtail. The Bornean stubtail is classified by the IOU as one of 32 species in the cettiid warbler family Cettiidae. However, some authorities classify Cettiidae as a subfamily in an expanded Scotocercidae. Within the family, it is currently placed in Urosphena, a genus of five species of undistinguished brownish birds with short tails. A 2011 study of mitochondrial and nuclear DNA found that within the genus, the present species is most closely related to the Asian and Timor stubtails. These species are sister (most closely related) to a clade (group of organisms descending from a common ancestor) formed by the pale-footed bush warbler and Neumann's warbler. The following cladogram shows relationships within the genus according to the study: ## Description The Bornean stubtail is a very small warbler with long legs and a very short tail, measuring 9.5–10 cm (3.7–3.9 in) in length and having an average mass of 10.4 g (0.37 oz). The top of the head and the are brown, while the are greyish-white, turning grey at the side of the breast and the . The belly is often light yellow-brown. The (stripe above the eye) is long and buffish-brown, with an equally long dark grey (stripe through the eye) and a thin yellow eye-ring. The cheeks and ear-coverts are orange-buff. The legs are pale pink, the bill is dark brownish-black, and the iris is blackish. Both sexes look similar. ### Vocalisations The Bornean stubtail's vocalisations are poorly known, with the species usually staying silent. Its song is a single extremely high-pitched note 0.3–0.5 seconds long. The most common sound is a barely audible, high-pitched tsit-tst tseee or tzi-tzi-tzeeee 1.4 seconds long. Another vocalisation is a slightly lower, trilled piririt around 0.7 seconds long. ## Distribution and habitat Endemic to Borneo, the Bornean stubtail is found in the mountain ranges of Borneo, from Mount Kinabalu south to Liang Kubung, the Müller Mountains, Mount Dulit, and Gunung Menyapa. It has also been recorded from the southeastern part of the Meratus Mountains in the southeastern part of the island. The species inhabits the forest floor and undergrowth of montane forests at altitudes of 750–3,150 m (2,460–10,330 ft). ## Behaviour and ecology The species is usually found alone. It has a generation length of 3.6 years. The Bornean stubtail feeds on invertebrates, especially green aphids. It forages on the ground and in dense undergrowth, creeping about in an inconspicuous manner more like that of a mouse than a bird. However, it can sometimes be quite curious and docile. Nests consist mostly of reddish plant fibres and are built on mossy banks. The incubation of the eggs takes an average of 24 days, which is unusually long compared to other species in its range. The length is caused by the long periods of time (around 6–8 hours every day) that parents spend away from the nest. ## Status The Bornean stubtail is classified as being of least concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature due to its sufficiently large range and stable population. Its population has not been estimated, but it is a common species above elevations of 2,000 m (6,600 ft). It is present in some protected areas like Kinabalu Park.	[ "## Taxonomy and systematics", "## Description", "### Vocalisations", "## Distribution and habitat", "## Behaviour and ecology", "## Status" ]	1,278	29,283
3,500,568	45th Street station (BMT Fourth Avenue Line)	1,171,754,704	New York City Subway station in Brooklyn	[ "1915 establishments in New York City", "BMT Fourth Avenue Line stations", "New York City Subway stations in Brooklyn", "Railway stations in the United States opened in 1915", "Sunset Park, Brooklyn" ]	The 45th Street station is a local station on the BMT Fourth Avenue Line of the New York City Subway. Located at 45th Street and Fourth Avenue in Sunset Park, Brooklyn, it is served by the R train at all times. The N train also stops here during late nights, and some rush-hour W trains stop here in the peak direction. The 45th Street station was constructed as part of the Fourth Avenue Line, which was approved in 1905. Construction on the segment of the line that includes 45th Street started on March 15, 1913, and was completed in 1915. The station opened on September 22, 1915, after the opening of the initial portion of the BMT Fourth Avenue Line to 59th Street. The station's platforms were lengthened in 1926–1927, and again during a renovation in 1968–1970. ## History ### Construction and opening The 45th Street station was constructed as part of the Fourth Avenue Line, the plan for which was initially adopted on June 1, 1905. The Rapid Transit Commission was succeeded on July 1, 1907, by the New York State Public Service Commission (PSC), which approved the plan for the line in late 1907. As part of negotiations between New York City, the Brooklyn Rapid Transit Company (BRT), and the Interborough Rapid Transit Company for the expansion of the city's transit network, the line was leased to a subsidiary of the BRT. The agreement, known as Contract 4 of the Dual Contracts, was signed on March 19, 1913. In 1912, during the Dual System negotiations, the construction of an extension of the Fourth Avenue subway from 43rd Street to 89th Street, just south of the 86th Street station, was recommended. The proposal was approved by the Board of Estimate on February 15, 1912. The PSC directed its chief engineer to create plans on June 14, 1912. The two contracts for the extension, Route 11B, were awarded on September 16, 1912, to Degnon Construction Company for a combined \$3.8 million (equivalent to \$ million in ). Construction on Route 11B1, the section of the extension between 43rd Street and 61st Street, which includes the 45th Street station, began on March 15, 1913. Originally, this section was planned to have two tracks, but after the connection to the Sea Beach Line was added to the plan during the middle of construction, the plan was changed to four tracks. This section was completed in 1915. The section of the line running through the 45th Street station opened on June 22, 1915, as part of an extension of the subway to Coney Island, which included the Fourth Avenue Line north of 59th Street as well as the entire Sea Beach Line. The line's opening was marked with a competition between two trains heading from Chambers Street station in Manhattan to the Coney Island station, one heading via the West End Line and the other via the Sea Beach Line; the latter got to Coney Island first. However, the 45th and 53rd Street stations remained closed, despite being technically complete, since the stations were being used by a contractor to haul dirt out. The stations opened on September 22, 1915. ### Station renovations #### 1920s On June 27, 1922, the New York State Transit Commission commissioned its engineers to examine platform-lengthening plans for 23 stations on the lines of the Brooklyn–Manhattan Transit Corporation (BMT), the successor to the BRT, to accommodate eight-car trains. As part of the project, 45th Street's platforms would have been lengthened from 490 feet (150 m) to 530 feet (160 m). Though the Transit Commission ordered the BMT to lengthen these platforms in September 1923, no further progress was made until February 16, 1925, when the New York City Board of Transportation (NYCBOT) commissioned its engineers to examine platform-lengthening plans for this and eleven other stations along the Fourth Avenue Line. It estimated the project would cost \$633,000 (). The NYCBOT received bids for the project on February 25, 1926. The contract was awarded to the Corson Construction Company for \$345,021 (). The extensions opened on August 1, 1927. #### 1960s The city government took over the BMT's operations on June 1, 1940. In the 1960s, the New York City Transit Authority (NYCTA) started a project to lengthen station platforms on its lines in Southern Brooklyn to 615 feet (187 m) to accommodate 10-car trains. On July 14, 1967, the NYCTA awarded a contract to conduct test borings at eleven stations on the Fourth Avenue Line, including 45th Street, to the W. M. Walsh Corporation for \$6,585 () in preparation of the construction of platform extensions. The NYCTA issued an invitation for bids on the project to extend the platforms at stations along the Fourth Avenue Line between this station and Bay Ridge–95th Street on May 3, 1968. As part of the renovation project, the station's platforms were extended 85 feet (26 m). The northbound was extended to the north, and the southbound platform was extended to the south. In addition, the station's elaborate mosaic tile walls were covered over with 8-by-16-inch (20 by 41 cm) white cinderblock tiles. The latter change, which was also made to 15 other stations on the BMT Broadway and Fourth Avenue Line, was criticized for being dehumanizing. The NYCTA spokesman stated that the old tiles were in poor condition and that the change was made to improve the appearance of stations and provide uniformity. Furthermore, it did not consider the old mosaics to have "any great artistic merit". ## Station layout This underground station has four tracks and two side platforms. The R stops here at all times; some rush-hour W trains stop here in the peak direction; and the N stops here during late nights, but uses the center express tracks to bypass the station during daytime hours. The station is between 36th Street to the north and 53rd Street to the south. The platforms are offset as the northbound platform extends further north than the southbound one. Columns run along the entire length of both platforms at regular intervals and are painted dark grey-blue. Every other column has the standard black name plate with white text. All are round except for the ones near the staircases to the station's main entrance, which are I-beams; this is where the platforms were extended in 1970. Prior to the station's 1970 renovation, it was finished all in white and marble tile, and it had its own color scheme to allow regular passengers to identify the station based only on the color of the marble trimmings. Since the renovation, the station walls have consisted of white cinderblock tiles, except for small recesses in the walls, which contain gray-painted cinderblock tiles. The gray cinderblock field contains the station-name signs and white text pointing to the exits. ### Exits The station's main entrance is a mezzanine above the platforms and tracks at the north end. It has two staircases to the Manhattan-bound platform and one to the Bay Ridge-bound one at the extreme south end, a waiting area that allows a free transfer between directions, turnstile bank, token booth, and two staircases to the northern corners of 45th Street and 4th Avenue. The mezzanine contains some of the original mosaic directional and arrow signs. The one by the staircases to the southbound platform says "Down Town trains" while the one by the Manhattan-bound platform staircases says "Up Town Trains." The southbound platform formerly had an exit-only at the center that led to 46th Street. Evidence of this includes a gated door on the platform wall and adjacent "EXIT" signs. The northwest corner exit was closed after it was accidentally destroyed by nearby construction workers. On May 16, 1979, Community Board 7 held a meeting to determine whether residents wanted the entrance closed. The board's chairman cited crime as a reason to close the entrance. The New York City Transit Authority promised to comply with the wish of the board, and the entrance was closed.	[ "## History", "### Construction and opening", "### Station renovations", "#### 1920s", "#### 1960s", "## Station layout", "### Exits" ]	1,774	28,361
12,485,507	Saffron-crowned tanager	1,172,970,426	Species of bird from South America	[ "Birds described in 1844", "Birds of the Northern Andes", "Tangara (genus)", "Taxonomy articles created by Polbot" ]	The saffron-crowned tanager (Tangara xanthocephala) is a species of bird in the family Thraupidae. Found in the northern Andes of Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Venezuela, it inhabits cloud forest, forest edges, and secondary forest, preferring areas with mossy trees. It is an average-sized species of tanager with a blue-green body and yellow head with a black forecrown, lores, orbital area, and chin. It forages in pairs or small groups of 3–7 individuals that are part of mixed-species flocks. It is the most frugivorous species in the genus Tangara, although it also feeds on insects. It forms breeding pairs and is thought to be socially monogamous. The only known nest contained a clutch of two eggs. It is listed as being a species of least concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) on the IUCN Red List, but may be threatened by habitat destruction. ## Taxonomy and systematics The saffron-crowned tanager was first described as Callospiza xanthocephala by Johann Tschudi in 1844 based on a specimen from Peru. The generic name Tangara is from the Tupí word tangara, meaning "dancer". The specific name xanthocephala is from the Ancient Greek ξανθος (xanthos), meaning yellow, and κεφαλος (kephalos), meaning -headed. Saffron-crowned tanager is the official common name designated by the International Ornithologists' Union. Other names for the species include saffron crowned tanager. It is one of 27 species in the genus Tangara. Within the genus, it was placed in a species group with the blue-whiskered tanager, green-and-gold tanager, emerald tanager, golden tanager, silver-throated tanager, golden-eared tanager, and flame-faced tanager by Isler and Isler in 1987. This placement is supported by a 2004 study of mitochondrial DNA by Kevin Burns and Kazuya Naoki. Within the species group, the saffron-crowned tanager is sister to a clade formed by blue-whiskered tanager, green-and-gold tanager, emerald tanager, golden tanager, silver-throated tanager, and flame-faced tanager. The following cladogram shows phylogenetic relationships within the species group based on the above study: ### Subspecies There are three recognized subspecies of the saffron-crowned tanager, which differ in the color of their crown. - T. x. venusta (Sclater, PL, 1855): Occurs from southern Venezuela to central Peru. It has a pure yellow crown. - T. x. xanthocephala (Tschudi, 1844): The nominate, it is found in central Peru. - T. x. lamprotis (Sclater, PL, 1851): Occurs from southeastern Peru to Bolivia. The crown is orange-yellow. ## Description The saffron-crowned tanager is an average-sized species of tanager, with a length of 12.5–13.5 cm (4.9–5.3 in) and a mass of 15–23.6 g (0.53–0.83 oz). Both sexes look similar. Adults have a blue-green body with blackish streaking on the back. The forecrown, lores, orbital area (region around the eyes), and chin are black, while the rest of the head is yellow, with an orange tinge to the crown. The wings and tail feathers are black, edged blue-green. The center of the belly and the undertail coverts are buff. The iris is dark brown, the bill is black, and the feet are gray. Juveniles are similar to adults but duller and more greenish. They also have yellowish-green instead of yellow on the head and buff-edged underparts. The saffron-crowned tanager may be confused with the golden-eared and flame-faced tanagers. It can be distinguished by the former's black mid-crown and nape, and by the latter's solid black back and opalescent patch on wing coverts. ### Vocalizations The saffron-crowned tanager's calls include a thin, high-pitched tsit and a high-pitched descending tsew. Its songs may be a series of squeaky, high-pitched notes. ## Distribution and habitat The saffron-crowned tanager is found in the Andes of Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Venezuela, where it inhabits cloud forests, forest edges, and secondary forest. It is also found in shaded plantations and large trees next to clearings and pastures. The species shows a preference for areas with mossy trees and inhabits elevations between 1,000–2,700 m (3,300–8,900 ft). ## Behavior and ecology The saffron-crowned tanager is generally found in pairs or small groups of 3–10 individuals, mainly in mixed-species flocks with other species of tanagers and other canopy birds. In Venezuela, it is most often seen with the beryl-spangled tanager, golden tanager, and black-capped tanager. ### Diet The saffron-crowned tanager is the most frugivorous species in its genus. Fruits consumed include Cecropia, Morus, Miconia, and others in the family Melostomataceae. It also feeds on insects. The species is very active while foraging, with individuals constantly moving around or hopping while foraging. Foraging occurs primarily in the canopy, although fruit is foraged at all heights. Fruit is mainly gleaned while upright, but insects are foraged mainly from mossy branches by inspecting both sides of the branch, and then reaching into clumps of moss or sticking its whole head into moss. ### Breeding The saffron-crowned tanager forms breeding pairs and is thought to be socially monogamous. Individuals in breeding plumage have been reported from March–July. Juveniles have been reported in April in Venezuela, in March, April, and September in Colombia, in February, April, and August in Peru, and in November and December in Bolivia. The only known nest was found in November and was placed at a height of 12 m (39 ft) in moss on the underside of the lowest branch of a tree, containing a clutch of two eggs. ## Status The saffron-crowned tanager is listed as being a species of least concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) on the IUCN Red List due to its large range and lack of significant population decline. However, the species is threatened by habitat destruction.	[ "## Taxonomy and systematics", "### Subspecies", "## Description", "### Vocalizations", "## Distribution and habitat", "## Behavior and ecology", "### Diet", "### Breeding", "## Status" ]	1,453	19,061
34,364,242	Ginetta Sagan	1,151,281,989	Italian human rights activist	[ "1925 births", "2000 deaths", "20th-century Italian Jews", "Activists from the San Francisco Bay Area", "American human rights activists", "American women activists", "Amnesty International people", "Italian emigrants to the United States", "Italian human rights activists", "Italian women activists", "Jewish women activists", "People from Atherton, California", "People from Milan", "Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients" ]	Ginetta Sagan (June 1, 1925 – August 25, 2000) was an Italian-born American human rights activist best known for her work with Amnesty International on behalf of prisoners of conscience. Born in Milan, Italy, Sagan lost her parents in her teenage years to the Black Brigades of Benito Mussolini. Like her parents, she was active in the Italian resistance movement, gathering intelligence and supplying Jews in hiding. She was captured and tortured in 1945, but escaped on the eve of her execution with the help of Nazi defectors. After studying in Paris, she attended graduate school in child development in the US and married Leonard Sagan, a physician. The couple then resettled in Atherton, California, where Sagan founded the first chapter of Amnesty International in the western US. She later toured the region, helping to establish more than 75 chapters, and organized events to raise money for political prisoners. In 1984, Sagan was elected the honorary chair of Amnesty International USA. US President Bill Clinton awarded her the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1996, and Italy later awarded her the rank of Grand Ufficiale Ordine al Merito della Repubblica Italiana (Grand Official Order of Merit of the Italian Republic). Amnesty International founded an annual Ginetta Sagan Award for activists in her honor. ## Childhood and World War II Ginetta Sagan was born in Milan, Italy, to a Catholic father and Jewish mother. Both of her parents were doctors. Facing rising antisemitism in Europe, her parents arranged false papers identifying her as Christian to hide her Jewish roots. When World War II began, both of her parents became active in the Italian resistance movement opposing fascist rule, only to be arrested in 1943 by Mussolini's Black Brigades. Her father was later shot in a staged "attempted escape", and her mother sent to Auschwitz, where she was murdered. Ginetta, then seventeen years old, was already active in the resistance movement, delivering food coupons and clothing to Jews who were in hiding. Following her parents' disappearance, she became a courier for resistance forces in Northern Italy, as well as helping to print and distribute antigovernment pamphlets. On one occasion, she dressed as a cleaning lady to steal letterhead from government offices so that it could be used to forge letters of safe passage to Switzerland. Due to her energy and small size (she never grew to more than five feet tall), she received the nickname Topolino ("Little Mouse"). In late February 1945, Sagan was betrayed by an informer in the movement and, like her parents, arrested by the Black Brigades. During her 45 days of imprisonment, she was beaten, raped, and tortured, leading up to a scheduled April 23 execution. At one point, a jailer tossed her a loaf of bread that contained a matchbox with the word coraggio ("courage") written inside, a moment which would motivate much of her later work on behalf of prisoners. On the day of her scheduled execution, she was being beaten by guards in a villa in Sondrio, Italy, when a pair of German officers forced her Italian captors to release her into their custody. She later recalled watching the stars from the window of their car and thinking, "I will never see another dawn." However, the Germans revealed themselves to be Nazi defectors collaborating with her resistance comrades, and they delivered Sagan safely to a Catholic hospital. Sagan annually celebrated the date of April 23 for the rest of her life. ## Post-war life After Sagan recuperated, she lived in Paris for a time with her godfather, attending the Sorbonne. In 1951, she emigrated to the US to study at the University of Illinois at Chicago, majoring in child development. While there, she met Leonard Sagan, then a young medical student. The couple were married the following year, and would remain together until Leonard's death in 1997. Following their marriage, the pair moved to Washington, D.C. for Leonard's work. Sagan also worked part-time teaching cooking classes to the wives of US Congressmen. The couple later lived in Boston and Japan before settling in Atherton, California, in 1968. Sagan lived there until her death from cancer on August 25, 2000. Ginetta is survived by her three sons- Duncan, Loring, and Stuart. ## Involvement with Amnesty International Though Amnesty International (AI) had a growing reputation in the UK, at this time, the organization was still in largely unknown in the US. Only eighteen chapters of AI USA had been formed by 1968, all of them in the eastern US, totaling less than a thousand members. Sagan had been involved in the organization in Washington, D.C., and when she arrived in Atherton, she founded the US's 19th chapter, holding its meetings in her living room. The chapter later grew into AI USA's first west coast regional office. In 1971, Sagan organized a concert with singer Joan Baez, one of her Atherton neighbors, in order to raise money for Greek political prisoners; the concert drew more than 10,000 people. In her memoirs, Baez described Sagan during the period as having "the gifts of an active mind, a love of life and beauty, an unquashable spirit, and a faith in people very much like that of Anne Frank." In the three years that followed, Sagan traveled throughout the American West, founding 75 more AI chapters. By 1978, AI USA's membership had increased to 70,000, more than 100 times that of a decade before. An AI spokesman later attributed Sagan with doing more than anyone to establish Amnesty International in the US, adding that "I think she has probably organized more people than anyone else in the human rights movement globally". She also founded the organization's first newsletter, Matchbox, in 1973. Sagan became a figure of controversy from the right and later from the left in the 1970s when she and Baez shifted their focus from protesting abuses by American forces in the Vietnam War to protesting the abuses of North Vietnamese reeducation camps following the war. A colleague remembers fellow anti-war activists being "furious" that Sagan would criticize the new Vietnamese communist regime in the same terms she had criticized the US Armed Forces, and Sagan later recalled accusations that she was a fascist or undercover CIA operative. Over the next decade, she also advocated on behalf of prisoners in Chile, the USSR, Poland, and Greece. She served on the AI USA National Board of Directors from 1983 to 1987. In 1994, she was elected the organization's Honorary Chair of the Board. In addition to her work with Amnesty International, Sagan founded the Aurora Foundation, which investigates and publicizes incidents of human rights abuses. ## Awards In 1987, Sagan won a Jefferson Award for Public Service in the category of "Greatest Public Service Benefiting the Disadvantaged". In 1996, US President Bill Clinton awarded Sagan the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the highest civilian honor of the US. In the citation, he stated that "Ginetta Sagan's name is synonymous with the fight for human rights around the world. She represents to all the triumph of the human spirit over tyranny." The same year, she was awarded the Grand Ufficiale Ordine al Merito della Repubblica Italiana, Italy's highest honor. ## Ginetta Sagan Fund Amnesty International created the Ginetta Sagan Fund in 1994 in Sagan's honor. The fund grants a \$20,000 annual award to a woman or women "who are working to protect the liberty and lives of women and children in areas where human rights violations are widespread". Previous winners of the award include the following: - 2019: Victoria Nyanjura, Uganda; Malika Abubakarova, Russia - 2018: Dorothy Njemanze, Nigeria - 2017: Charon Asetoyer, Comanche Nation - 2016: Julienne Lusenge, Democratic Republic of Congo - 2015: Amal Khalifa Habbani, Sudan - 2014: Magda Alli and Suzan Fayad, Egypt - 2012: Jenni Williams, Zimbabwe - 2010: Rebecca Masika Katsuva, Democratic Republic of Congo - 2009: Yolanda Becerra Vega, Colombia - 2008: Betty Makoni, Zimbabwe - 2007: Lydia Cacho Ribeiro, Mexico - 2006: Ljiljana Raičević, Serbia and Montenegro - 2005: Hawa Aden Mohamed, Somalia - 2004: Nebahat Akkoc, Turkey - 2003: Sonia Pierre, Dominican Republic - 2002: Jeannine Mukanirwa, Democratic Republic of Congo - 2000: Helen Akongo, Uganda; Giulia Tamayo Leon, Peru; Hina Jilani, Pakistan - 1999: Sima Wali, Afghanistan - 1999: Adriana Portillo-Bartow, El Salvador - 1998: Beatrice Mukansinga, Rwanda - 1997: Mangala Sharma, Bhutan	[ "## Childhood and World War II", "## Post-war life", "## Involvement with Amnesty International", "## Awards", "## Ginetta Sagan Fund" ]	1,951	36,290
6,212,351	Reynolds and Reynolds	1,162,368,791	Private corporation based in Ohio	[ "1866 establishments in Ohio", "Business services companies established in 1866", "Companies based in Dayton, Ohio", "Service companies of the United States", "Software companies based in Ohio", "Software companies of the United States" ]	The Reynolds and Reynolds Company is a private corporation based in Dayton, Ohio. Its primary business is providing business forms, management software and professional services to car dealerships. Its software is used to manage sales logistics at dealerships. It also produces forms used in medicine and insurance. Reynolds and Reynolds was founded in 1866 as a printer of standardized business forms. It began developing and marketing digital products in the 1960s. This was followed by a major downsizing of the printing division and subsequent advancements in its software products. By the 1980s, Reynolds and Reynolds had won contracts with all of the Big Three automotive manufacturers, as well as some insurance businesses. The company went public in 1961, but was re-formed as a private company in 2006, when it was merged with Universal Computer Systems, resulting in a culture clash between the two companies. ## History ### Early history Reynolds and Reynolds was founded by Lucius Reynolds and his brother-in-law, James Gardner, in June 1866 in Dayton, Ohio. It was a small printing shop founded with \$500 in capital and originally named Reynolds and Gardner. It made standardized business documents using carbon copy paper. A year after Reynolds was founded, Gardner sold his interest in the company to co-founder Lucius' father, Ira Reynolds, and the company was renamed to its current namesake, Reynolds and Reynolds. Co-owners Ira and Lucius died in 1880 and 1913 respectively. The youngest of the Reynolds family, Edwin Stanton Reynolds, took over. In 1927, Reynolds and Reynolds won a contract to provide all of the business forms for Chevrolet dealerships. The company opened new offices throughout the U.S. in the 1930s, and had 19 sales offices by the end of the decade. A controlling interest in the company was acquired in 1939 by Richard Hallam Grant, Sr., ending the Reynolds family ownership. He became the company's president in 1941. A new printing facility was built in 1948 in Celina, Ohio, and another in 1953 in Dallas, Texas, in addition to the one built in Los Angeles in 1928. Reynolds became a public company in 1961. In the 1960s, Reynolds opened new printing facilities in North Hollywood, Los Angeles, New Jersey and Canada. In 1963, Reynolds expanded into Canada through the acquisition of the automotive business unit of Windsor Office Supply, forming Reynolds and Reynolds (Canada) Ltd. By the end of the decade it had about \$50 million in revenues. ### Establishment of software business Reynolds and Reynolds first entered into the electronic accounting market with the acquisition of a Boston-based accounting software developer in 1960. The software division was doing well in the 1970s, but its products were out-of-date by the 1980s. At the time, data could not be shared between departments and only one user was allowed on the system at a time. Each computer came at a cost of more than \$100,000. Even as the computer division grew, the company's overall business revenue declined due to paper business forms becoming obsolete. In 1986, the company acquired Arnold Corporation, which increased Reynolds' revenues 50 percent and expanded its market presence to other industries besides car dealerships. The head of the computers division, David Holmes, was appointed CEO in 1989. He led the company's first large-scale lay-off in the printing division, cutting headcount and manufacturing space in half. The employees resisted the changes he incorporated. According to Forbes, this move was necessary and led to increases in profit and revenues. After Holmes retired, he was replaced by former IBM executive Lloyd G. "Buzz" Waterhouse, who created an eBusiness department to focus on internet technologies. In 2000, Reynolds also acquired the HAC Group, a learning, customer relationship management and web services company for retailers and manufacturers. The following year CarsDirect.com and Reynolds and Reynolds introduced a car shopping website called CarsDirect Connect. In November 2002, it acquired Networkcar Inc. (now Verizon Networkfleet) and further developed its telematics device, CAReader. This product communicates a car's mechanical status to a dealer. Reynolds sold Networkcar to Hughes Telematics for \$17.7 million in 2006. ### Acquisitions and growth In the 1980s, Reynolds and Reynolds signed agreements with the rest of the Big Three automotive manufacturers, several major insurers, General Electric and others. In 1986 the company acquired National Medical Computer Services and a business forms company called Arnold Corporation. By the end of that year, Reynolds had more than \$200 million in annual revenue, 42% of which came from business forms. Reynolds acquired several smaller technology companies in the 1990s and further developed its software products. Reynolds and Reynolds acquired PD Medical Systems in 1994, forming Reynolds Healthcare Systems. Reynolds Healthcare Systems later acquired a business document company, Fiscal Information, which serves radiologists. From 1994 to 1996, David Holmes led the acquisition of several other business forms and computer businesses outside the automotive industry for a total of \$155 million. By 2000, Reynolds and Reynolds had revenues of \$800 million and more than one-third of its users were General Motors dealerships. It sold the Information Solutions Group (ISG), which primarily sold business forms and supplies to non-automotive companies, that year to the Carlyle Group for \$360 million. On August 8, 2006, Reynolds and Reynolds announced it was becoming a private company through a \$2.8 billion acquisition by Houston-based Universal Computer Systems (UCS). The combined organization had a 40% market share in the dealership management systems sector. According to Automotive News, there was a "major culture clash" between the two companies. For example, the new CEO would not hire smokers and required annual physicals to maintain health insurance. ### Recent history After the merger with UCS, Robert Brockman became CEO of the combined entity. He introduced more discipline to the company's software development, resulting in more modern software products and a greater breadth of features. A series of legal disputes between Reynolds and General Motors (GM) began in 2007. Through a GM program called the Integrated Dealership Management System (GMIDMS), Reynolds provided software to GM dealerships through GM. When Reynolds would not make changes to its software requested by GM, GM alleged it was a breach of contract. A settlement was reached in 2008, which ended Reynolds' participation in GM's program. In 2008, Reynolds acquired DiversiForm, a Beaverton, Oregon-based printer of forms and business documents for car dealerships. The terms of the deal were not disclosed. In August 2013, it acquired the newsletter company IMN. This was followed by an acquisition that November of the customer retention software vendor XtreamService, also for a non-disclosed sum. It acquired AddOnAuto in May 2014, which was the company's fifth acquisition in a little over twelve months. AddOnAuto develops software for shopping for car accessories. In 2017, Reynolds acquired Xpressdocs, a Fort Worth, Texas-based company specializing in the marketing needs of franchise organizations. In October 2020, federal court documents were unsealed showing that Brockman had been indicted for charges of money laundering, evidence tampering, destruction of evidence, and wire fraud totaling. Brockman is accused of using "a family charitable trust based in Bermuda and other offshore entities to hide assets from the Internal Revenue Service while failing to pay taxes", totaling \$2 billion in untaxed income. Brockman pleaded not guilty and was released on a \$1 million bond. On June 8, 2021, Reynolds announced that they were acquiring Gubagoo, a leading provider of conversational commerce and digital retail tools for both automotive dealerships and OEMs in North America. On July 29, 2022, Reynolds announced that they were acquiring Proton Technologies, Inc, a provider of cybersecurity and technology services in the automotive vertical. On June 8, 2023, Reynolds and Reynolds announced the acquisition of AutoVision, a technology startup that will enhance the Reynolds Retail Management System with a suite of tools to retail used vehicles more efficiently and profitably. ## Current software and services Reynolds and Reynolds is a software and document printing company that primarily serves the automotive industry. It develops and markets the ERA and POWER suites of auto dealership management systems. Its software is used for inventory, accounting, contract documents and other business logistics. For example, one Reynolds application called AddOnAuto can visualize what a car will look like with accessories, while docuPAD adds a touch-screen on top of a desk that customers use to go through vehicle sales paperwork and interact with options. Reynolds also provides paper business forms, consulting and training. It provides some software and services to other industries, like medical and insurance. Its customer service has been recognized with awards like the STAR (Software Technical Assistance Recognition) Award from The Help Desk Institute. It is one of the three largest vendors in the dealership management software segment. ### Product history Reynolds and Reynolds started as a printer of standardized business forms on carbon paper. By the 1940s, Reynolds' business was divided into four main areas: automotive, medical, custom forms and Post-Rite Peg Boards. Reynolds' first electronic accounting service was introduced in 1963. Its parts inventory software product, called Electronic Parts Inventory Control (EPIC), was released in beta in 1966. It was renamed upon full release the following year as RAPIC. This was followed by the accounting and management software called LEASe and an accounts receivable product. At first clients sent hole-punched accounting records to a Reynolds processing center, which would print a complete accounting that is sent back to the client by mail. The development of modems and internet technology in the 1970s led to several advancements. Reynolds provided 3,600 specialized modems to dealerships between 1974 and 1978. The modems communicated with Reynolds' VIM-brand minicomputers at 80 Reynolds locations, which provided computing power and printed forms. This eliminated the need for clients to ship data to Reynolds in tapes and allowed daily access to online services. By the end of the 1970s, batch processing and computer processing centers were being phased out in response to personal computers kept at the dealership. In the years 1978 and 1982, Reynolds introduced VIM-brand computer systems that were kept at dealerships. By 1986, the VIM-based dealer management computer systems had helped Reynolds acquire a 45 percent market-share and was on its fifth generation with 9,000 installations. In 1987 Reynolds moved to a software model with its first release of the ERA dealer management software, which was a complete rewrite of its prior programming. ERA allows users to manage logistics for sales, finance, service and parts across departments. That same year Reynolds developed a digital, graphical parts catalog program for selecting and ordering automotive parts. This was followed by the Vehicle Locators and Marketing Network sales toolsets. By 1997, Reynolds and Reynolds had more than 30 applications for various functions of a car dealership. In February 2000, Reynolds formed a joint venture with Automatic Data Processing, Inc. and CCC Information Services, Inc. to create a web-based dealer-to-dealer parts network called ChoiceParts. In January 2002, Reynolds and Reynolds announced it was switching from a Unix to a Windows-based system for its core software. This caused "a flurry of discussion in the automobile market." According to Automotive News, the Unix-based system could support more users, but the Microsoft software was compatible with more of the newer applications being used by dealerships. Reynolds also developed the Reynolds Generations Series Suite in collaboration with Microsoft, but the product was not successful in the marketplace. It was discontinued in 2005. In 2011 Reynolds and Reynolds introduced the current version of its dealer management software, called ERA-IGNITE, which reduced the number of screens needed to perform tasks by two-thirds.	[ "## History", "### Early history", "### Establishment of software business", "### Acquisitions and growth", "### Recent history", "## Current software and services", "### Product history" ]	2,491	28,928
34,735,952	The Time Is Now (Millennium)	1,119,477,747	null	[ "1998 American television episodes", "Millennium (season 2) episodes", "Television episodes about viral outbreaks" ]	"'The Time Is Now" is the twenty-third episode of the second season of the American crime-thriller television series Millennium. It premiered on the Fox network on May 15, 1998. The episode was written by Glen Morgan and James Wong, and directed by Thomas J. Wright. "The Time Is Now" featured guest appearances by Kristen Cloke and Glenn Morshower. In this episode, Millennium Group profiler Frank Black (Lance Henriksen) confronts the onset of an apocalyptic viral outbreak, dealing with the duplicity of the Group's foreknowledge of, and preparation for, such an event. The episode's script went through several variations, taking shape after series creator Chris Carter suggested killing off the character of Catherine Black (Megan Gallagher). The episode has earned positive responses from critics, and was seen by approximately 4.8 million households during its initial broadcast. ## Plot Continuing from "The Fourth Horseman", several Millennium Group members in biohazard suits sanitize and clear out a house in El Cajon, California, where a family succumbed to the viral outbreak; outside, dozens of bird corpses litter the ground. Group member Frank Black (Lance Henriksen) returns to the yellow house with his wife Catherine (Megan Gallagher) and daughter Jordan (Brittany Tiplady). Black realizes the family home holds painful memories and decides to move away; the mail contains a deed from his late father, who had left him a cabin in the woods. However, he has decided to remain with the Group, as despite his belief they are dangerous he feels a responsibility to utilize their resources and ability to predict future events for good; Catherine, though understanding, is upset. Later, Black meets with Richard Gilbert (Glenn Morshower), who is trying to convince Black to join his private security firm. Despite accepting his offer previously, Black now declines. Gilbert warns him their lives may be threatened by the Group's activities. After he leaves, several Group members appear, telling Black they are focused more on humanity as a collective than saving the lives of individual people. The next day, Black learns that Gilbert has died in a car accident; although he believes the vehicle was tampered with, there is no evidence. Peter Watts (Terry O'Quinn) tells Black that he broke into the Group network after being locked out. He recovered information about the Marburg Virus, which was discovered by bio-weapons scientists in the former Soviet Union and has been living dormant in bird species since the end of the Cold War; it may now be making a resurgence in the United States after a previous minor outbreak in 1986. Watts reveals that a vaccine has been developed by the Group, but only in sufficient quantities for its members; Watts and Black were unknowingly vaccinated while in quarantine after coming in contact with an infected corpse. Black asks Watts to locate Lara Means (Kristen Cloke), another Group member, as he is concerned by several rambling phone messages he's received from her. Watts arrives at a motel where Means is sequestered, but is attacked by other Group members and barely manages to escape, losing his cell phone in the process. Inside, Means is experiencing a prolonged and frightening hallucination as a result of her introduction to the Group. She trashes the room and briefly considers suicide, while sealing something in an envelope. Black, tracing Watts' phone, locates the motel, but when he enters she hallucinates that he is a demon and tries to shoot him. He wrestles the gun away and paramedics who accompanied him sedate her. Black discovers the envelope has his name on it and, visiting Means in an asylum, thanks her for being the only one who could truly understand his psychic powers and sympathize with him. Black takes his family to his late father's woodland cabin, where he and Catherine discuss how they would handle infection. Catherine asks to be euthanized, while Black states he would wander off into the woods, thus sparing his family the sight of his death. He reveals that Means's envelope contains a single syringe loaded with the vaccine; Catherine immediately insists it be given to Jordan. Later, Catherine wakes up, experiencing symptoms of the virus. She quietly leaves the cabin and walks into the forest. The next morning, Black notices blood on Catherine's pillow and realizes what has happened. When Jordan awakens she finds her father comatose, his hair turned pure white. He cradles her listlessly as flashes of video noise are seen, interspersed with radio transmissions depicting the collapse of society. ## Production "The Time Is Now" was written by frequent collaborators Glen Morgan and James Wong. The duo would pen a total of fifteen episodes throughout the series' run. The pair had also taken the roles of co-executive producers for the season. "The Time Is Now" was directed by Thomas J. Wright, who helmed a total of twenty-six episodes across all three seasons. Wright would also go on to direct "Millennium", the series' crossover episode with its sister show The X-Files. The episode's script went through several different versions before a final plot was decided upon, as Morgan and Wong believed the series would not be renewed for a third season and wished to write a suitable ending. The decision to kill off the character of Catherine Black was based on a suggestion by Chris Carter, the series' creator. Morgan and Wong discussed the idea with actress Megan Gallagher, who felt that it was an interesting decision to have Catherine give her life after seeing Frank Black sacrifice so much for their family throughout the previous episodes. The idea of depicting an apocalyptic scenario as being the result of a virus came from Morgan's research into possible end-of-the-world scenarios, and was influenced by the outbreak of bovine spongiform encephalopathy in the United Kingdom. ## Broadcast and reception "The Time Is Now" was first broadcast on the Fox network on May 15, 1998. The episode earned a Nielsen rating of 4.9 during its original broadcast, meaning that 4.9 percent of households in the United States viewed the episode. This represented approximately 4.8 million households, and left the episode the seventy-second most-viewed broadcast that week. "The Time Is Now" received positive reviews from critics. The A.V. Club's Emily VanDerWerff rated the episode—along with the preceding episode "The Fourth Horseman—an "A". VanDerWerff felt that it "may be one of the four or five best cinematic depictions of the end of the world ever filmed", praising the uncommon approach of depicting the world ending, rather than just showing the aftermath. Bill Gibron, writing for DVD Talk, rated the episode 5 out of 5. Gibron felt that the two-part episodes were "a one-two punch that many dramatic series would die for", finding the conclusion to have been effectively hinted at throughout the season. Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson, in their book Wanting to Believe: A Critical Guide to The X-Files, Millennium & The Lone Gunmen, rated "The Time Is Now" five stars out of five. Shearman felt that the episode would have been "the best end to the show imaginable", had the series not produced a third season. He considered the episode's writing and conclusion to have been a brave decision, potentially alienating its viewers but producing "a thrilling and unforgettable piece of television"; he also considered the season as a whole to be less consistent but more daring than the first season.	[ "## Plot", "## Production", "## Broadcast and reception" ]	1,533	36,010
71,118,984	Made You Look (Meghan Trainor song)	1,172,275,260	null	[ "2022 singles", "2022 songs", "Body image in popular culture", "Doo-wop songs", "Epic Records singles", "Meghan Trainor songs", "Number-one singles in Poland" ]	"Made You Look" is a song by American singer-songwriter Meghan Trainor from her fifth major-label studio album, Takin' It Back (2022). Trainor wrote it with songwriter Sean Douglas and its producer, Federico Vindver. Epic Records released it as the album's second single on October 31, 2022. A doo-wop song that recalls earlier styles of popular music, it was inspired by Trainor's insecurities about body image and encourages listeners to embrace their natural beauty and confidence. Music critics commented on the flirtatious composition of "Made You Look" and compared it to Trainor's past songs. An online dance challenge set to the song became a trend on video-sharing service TikTok in 2022. In the United States, it peaked at number 11 on the Billboard Hot 100, becoming Trainor's first top-20 single since "Me Too" (2016). The song reached the top 10 in Australia, Belgium, Canada, Ireland, New Zealand, Norway, Singapore, the United Kingdom, and Vietnam. Its music video, which premiered on Candy Crush Saga in October 2022, features bright colors and cameos by social media influencers. Trainor performed the song on television shows such as The Today Show, The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon, and The Drew Barrymore Show. ## Background and release Meghan Trainor achieved commercial success with her debut major-label studio album, Title (2015), which produced three top-10 singles on the US Billboard Hot 100. She struggled while creating her third album on a label, Treat Myself (2020), rewriting it four times in an attempt to respond to market shifts in the music industry after the preceding singles underperformed. After the song "Title" attained viral popularity on video-sharing service TikTok in 2021, Trainor announced her intention to pivot to its doo-wop sound on her fifth major-label studio album. She stated that the elevated emotions and strength from her pregnancy helped her build trust in her songwriting instincts. TikTok was highly influential on Trainor's creative process for the album, and she began writing material that would resonate with audiences on it. She gained popularity on the platform while regularly sharing clips and other content with influencer Chris Olsen. Trainor released the single "Bad for Me" in June 2022. Trainor wrote "Made You Look" alongside songwriter Sean Douglas and its producer, Federico Vindver. As part of an exercise, her therapist asked her to look at herself naked for five minutes. This, along with her body image insecurities after pregnancy, inspired the song. Trainor came up with the lines "I'll make you double take / Soon as I walk away / Call up your chiropractor just in case your neck break", as a reference to how her husband, Daryl Sabara, bends his neck to look at her when she leaves a room. Other lyrics were inspired by the things he does to treat her well. Wanting to create another "self-confident banger that [she] always do[es] on [her] albums", Trainor studied the relatability of her song "All About That Bass" (2014) while writing the track. "Made You Look" was serviced to hot adult contemporary radio stations in the United States, as the second single from Takin' It Back (2022), on October 31, 2022. The song was sent for radio airplay in Italy on November 18, 2022. On December 9, 2022, its a cappella version, featuring guest vocals from Olsen, Scott Hoying, and influencers Elyse Myers and Sri, was released alongside an accompanying music video. "Made You Look" was supported by a Joel Corry remix on December 31, 2022, and its instrumental and sped-up versions in January 2023. On January 27, the song's remix version featuring Kim Petras was released and serviced for radio airplay in Italy. Petras added new ad libs and high notes during her verse on it. She recorded her vocals in Trainor's home studio, and recalled the experience: "I had 'Made You Look' stuck in my head for months, [...] then when I got asked to jump on it, I was really, really excited. I've never worked with an artist who wanted to track me and comp my vocals and do it all together." ## Composition and lyrics "Made You Look" is two minutes and 14 seconds long. Vindver produced, programmed, and engineered the song. He plays the keyboards and percussion, Jesse McGinty plays the baritone saxophone and trombone, and Mike Cordone plays the trumpet. Jeremie Inhaber mixed the song, and Randy Merrill mastered it at Sterling Sound in New York City. Musically, "Made You Look" is a doo-wop song, which recalls earlier styles of popular music. Vindver incorporated horns into the song's instrumentation to achieve the style. Along with layered harmonies, it prominently features the bass and brass instruments, which Riff's Piper Westrom thought are reminiscent of the sound of Title. "Made You Look" has a call and response hook; Peter Piatkowski of PopMatters described it as a "spiritual sequel" to "All About That Bass" due to their shared "pouty, surly delivery and the girl group arrangement". The lyrics of "Made You Look" discuss the theme of self-love; Trainor encourages her female listeners to champion their natural beauty and confidence. She namechecks high-end luxury fashion houses, including Gucci and Louis Vuitton, and insists she looks better donning just her hoodie and "hotter when [her] morning hair's a mess". Trainor declares that onlookers would find her walk jaw-dropping and become obsessed with her once they "get a taste"; she also uses the slang term "14-karat cake" to refer to her backside. ## Critical reception Music critics compared "Made You Look" to Trainor's past songs. Writing for Far Out, Tyler Golsen believed it achieved the right balance between nostalgia for her early music and older pop music in general. Although he refused to call "Made You Look" a good song and stated he probably would not listen to it again, he thought it was "certainly [...] a Meghan Trainor song" and praised her branding efforts. AllMusic's Stephen Thomas Erlewine cited the song's inclusion of fashion house names as an example of moments on Takin' It Back where her devotion to bringing back Title's spirit means "that the attitude and melody can occasionally seem preserved in amber". Rolling Stone placed it at number 69 on their list of 2022's best songs, and Tomás Mier positively compared it to Trainor's previous work and praised the "unforgettable lyrics and catchy production". The flirtatious approach of "Made You Look" was discussed by critics. Martina Inchingolo of the Associated Press thought Trainor sounded "loud[er] and sexier" on the song. Writing for Renowned for Sound, Max Akass believed she displayed a "cheeky, flirty attitude" on it, which made for uncomplicated but efficacious pop music. Mier wrote that Petras delivered a "welcome sexy verse" on her remix of "Made You Look". ## Commercial performance "Made You Look" was Trainor's highest-charting single in years, which some media outlets referred to as a "comeback" for her. The song debuted at number 95 on the US Billboard Hot 100 issued for November 5, 2022. It earned 9.3 millions streams in its second tracking week and entered the Streaming Songs chart at number 49, Trainor's first entry since "Me Too" (2016). It peaked at number 11 on the Billboard Hot 100, and became her first song to enter its top 40 also since "Me Too". "Made You Look" was Trainor's first number-one on the Adult Top 40 chart since "Like I'm Gonna Lose You" (2015). In Canada, "Made You Look" reached number seven on the Canadian Hot 100. The song charted at number two on the UK Singles Chart, and became her first top-10 single since "Marvin Gaye" (2015). It received a Platinum certification in the United Kingdom from the British Phonographic Industry. In Australia, "Made You Look" peaked at number three and was certified 3× Platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association. The song reached number two in New Zealand and earned a Platinum certification from Recorded Music NZ. It became Trainor's first top-10 single on the Billboard Global 200, charting at number six. Elsewhere, "Made You Look" peaked within the top 10, at number two in Singapore, number three in Belgium, Iceland, and Ireland, number five in Vietnam, number six in Latvia, number seven in Norway, and number eight in Malaysia. The song also charted at number 11 in Hungary, number 13 in Croatia and the Netherlands, number 15 in Paraguay, number 16 in Austria, and number 19 in Switzerland. It received a Platinum certification in Norway and Switzerland, and Gold in Austria, Denmark, Italy, Poland, Portugal, and Sweden. ## Music video and promotion The music video for "Made You Look" was released on October 20, 2022, exclusive to Candy Crush Saga for 24 hours, followed by a wide release the following day. Trainor stated that she wanted to achieve a superior and more saturated version of the video for "All About That Bass" by employing vivid and ebullient colors in it. It depicts her showing outfits at a press conference, driving in a car, and dancing in a room. Cameos include TikTok influencers Hoying, JoJo Siwa, Drew Afualo, and Olsen as dancers, and Sabara as the car driver. An alternate version of the video featuring only Trainor's dance sequence was later released, titled "Made You Look (Again)". An online dance challenge choreographed by TikTok users Brookie and Jessie set to "Made You Look" became a trend on the platform, following which around two million user-generated videos also used the song. Trainor promoted the song with appearances on several television shows. On October 21, 2022, she performed "Made You Look" live for the first time on The Today Show. Three days later, Trainor reprised the song on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon. She sang it as a medley with "Here Comes Santa Claus" for The Wonderful World of Disney: Magical Holiday Celebration on November 27, 2022. On December 13, 2022, Trainor performed "Made You Look" on The Drew Barrymore Show. She reprised the song during the eighth season of Australian Idol on February 27, 2023. ## Credits and personnel Credits are adapted from the liner notes of Takin' It Back. - Federico Vindver – producer, songwriter, programming, engineering, keyboards, percussion - Meghan Trainor – songwriter - Sean Douglas – songwriter - Jesse McGinty – baritone saxophone, trombone - Mike Cordone – trumpet - Randy Merrill – mastering - Jeremie Inhaber – mixing ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Monthly charts ### Year-end charts ## Certifications ## Release history	[ "## Background and release", "## Composition and lyrics", "## Critical reception", "## Commercial performance", "## Music video and promotion", "## Credits and personnel", "## Charts", "### Weekly charts", "### Monthly charts", "### Year-end charts", "## Certifications", "## Release history" ]	2,382	43,329
811,365	Hounslow West tube station	1,171,065,572	London Underground station	[ "Art Deco architecture in London", "Art Deco railway stations", "Charles Holden railway stations", "Former Metropolitan District Railway stations", "Grade II listed railway stations", "London Underground Night Tube stations", "Piccadilly line stations", "Railway stations in Great Britain closed in 1975", "Railway stations in Great Britain opened in 1884", "Railway stations in Great Britain opened in 1975", "Tube stations in the London Borough of Hounslow" ]	Hounslow West is a London Underground station in locality of Hounslow West in Hounslow within the London Borough of Hounslow, West London. The station is on the Heathrow branch of the Piccadilly line, between Hatton Cross and Hounslow Central stations and is in Travelcard Zone 5. The station is located on Bath Road, close to the Great West Road (A4). The station has an island platform, with step-free access via a stairlift for manual wheelchair users only. Opened as Hounslow Barracks in 1884, it was initially served by the District Railway (now part of the District line). The Piccadilly line was extended here in 1933, and District line services were fully withdrawn in 1964. The station building was rebuilt to a design by Charles Holden in 1931. The line was extended again in phases to Heathrow Airport in the 1970s, which resulted in the station's platforms being relocated. ## Location The station is located on Bath Road (A3006) about 600 m (2,000 ft) from its junction with A4 Great West Road and Great South West Road (A30), and is surrounded by its car park. It serves mainly the commercial and residential area of western Hounslow, also called Hounslow West, but is also near Cranford and Heston. Hounslow West station is near Cavalry Barracks, which served as a reference for part of the old name of the station. Nearby landmarks include Beaversfield Park, Hounslow Medical Centre and St. Paul's Church. ## History The station was opened as Hounslow Barracks on a single-track branch of the Hounslow & Metropolitan Railway on 21 July 1884, which connected with the District Railway (DR, now part of the District line) at Mill Hill Park (now Acton Town). It was named in reference to the Cavalry Barracks, Hounslow south of the station on Beavers Lane. Initially the only service was a shuttle to Osterley & Spring Grove; this was replaced by a shuttle to Mill Hill Park on 31 March 1886. A new station, Heston–Hounslow (now Hounslow Central), was opened on the same day. The DR took over all of its railway services in 1903. The DR's tracks were electrified between 1903 and 1905 with electric trains replacing steam trains on the Hounslow branch from 13 June 1905. On 1 December 1925, the station was renamed to its present name. Within the same year, substantial provisions were made to extend the Piccadilly line to relieve capacity on the District line. The former would take over services on the Hounslow and Uxbridge branches. The line, being still single-tracked, was doubled in stages. Works were completed on 27 November 1926, with the station's alignment reconfigured to have three platforms and brought into use on 11 December. The oldest platform furthest to the south was not reopened until 27 March 1927, with the original station still in situ. Between 1930 and 1931, a new station building was constructed facing onto Bath Road to replace the original building which was parallel with the tracks and set back at an angle from the road. The original building was gradually demolished, and the new building opened on 5 July 1931. Piccadilly line services, which had been running as far as Northfields since 9 January 1933, were extended to Hounslow West on 13 March 1933. From that date, the branch was jointly operated by both lines. District line services were progressively reduced to rush-hour only services in the late 1950s; they were withdrawn on 9 October 1964. ### Heathrow extension An extension of the line from Hounslow West to serve Heathrow Airport had been planned since the 1960s. Formal approval was given in 1967, and work began with a groundbreaking ceremony by Sir Desmond Plummer on 27 April 1971. The original alignment of the tracks and platforms at Hounslow West was too skewed from the extension. The new alignment was to relocate the station platforms underground, with cut and cover tunnels along Bath Road and Great South West Road. The line surfaces briefly over the River Crane before descending to reach Hatton Cross towards Heathrow. The new rerouted tracks meant that the existing had to be reduced to single track operation until the station approach. Platform 3, being the northernmost, was decommissioned early on 22 October 1971 due to being situated right on the path of the new track alignment. The old DR signal box was also taken out of service, with a temporary one built near Platform 1. Some of the tracks were demolished in June 1975 for further excavation and track simplification works. The new platforms were brought into use on 14 July 1975 and the line was opened as far as Hatton Cross five days later on 19 July. The existing 1930s station building was kept, and a new link was constructed to connect to the new platforms. The line was further extended to Heathrow on 16 December 1977. The old platforms were demolished and was filled in, creating around 400 car parking spaces. ## The station today When the Piccadilly line was planned to be extended here, the station was to receive a new station building. Charles Holden, who was part of the Adams, Holden & Pearson architectural practice, designed the exteriors under the supervision of Stanley Heaps on-site. The new building is in a style reminiscent of Holden's designs for the 1926 Morden extension of the City and South London Railway (now part of the Northern line). Basil Ionides designed the interior of the ticket hall. Portland stone was used for the facade, strengthened by a reinforced concrete base. Its front is constructed of granite, while its rear is made of bricks. Glazed screens are fitted onto all sides of the tall heptagonal ticket hall, with an adjoined rectangular shopfront. In addition to its drum shape being heptagonal, its ceiling motif contains this pattern, with a chandelier featuring seven lamps of the same geometry. A wooden ticket booth (known as a passimeter) sits in the middle of the ticket hall, albeit now disused. The building is very similar to the reconstructed station at Ealing Common built at the same time, also by Heaps and Holden. The station is a Grade II listed building. The station has two platforms for the Piccadilly line, located below surface level. Platform 1 is for trains to Heathrow Airport, while Platform 2 is allocated to services bound for Cockfosters. These were built in 1975 together with the steel bridge connected to the ticket hall. As with other stations on the Heathrow extension, artwork was to be installed on the new platforms, with a station motif designed by Tom Eckersley. However the artwork was never installed. The platforms are reached by flights of stairs and a stairlift, which makes the station step-free for manual wheelchair users only. It is also the only London Underground station to be wheelchair accessible for manual wheelchair users only. ## Future In the late 2010s, the station car park at Hounslow West was proposed by Transport for London (TfL) for property development, as part of TfL's plans to increase the amount of income generated from land in their ownership. As of September 2020, over 400 new affordable homes are currently planned to be built on the current car park at the station by housing association A2Dominion. The proposals also include a new public square, retail space and a smaller amount of replacement station car parking. ## Services and connections Hounslow West station is between Hatton Cross and Hounslow Central stations on the Hounslow branch of the Piccadilly line, in Travelcard Zone 5. As of 2020, typical off-peak services, in trains per hour (tph), are as follows: - 12 tph eastbound to Cockfosters - 6 tph westbound to Heathrow Terminals 2,3 and 5 - 6 tph westbound via the Heathrow Terminal 4 loop Night tube is also operational on this part of the line, with a train every 10 minutes in both directions between Heathrow Terminal 5 and Cockfosters. London Buses routes 81, 203, 222, 482, H28, H32, H91, H98 and night route N9 serve the station. Formerly, airport shuttle services from different bus companies began here. However most of them relocated their termini to Hatton Cross in conjunction with the Piccadilly line extension there in 1975. Notably, the A1 express service picked up passengers from the station, but this ceased when the Heathrow extension opened in 1977. ## Notable commutes Winston Churchill recalls travelling to Hounslow Barracks two or three times a week whilst living at his mother's house in Knightsbridge around 1896. ## See also - Map showing operational dates for lines and stations in Hounslow	[ "## Location", "## History", "### Heathrow extension", "## The station today", "## Future", "## Services and connections", "## Notable commutes", "## See also" ]	1,914	33,548
5,321,729	Nicole Haislett	1,144,849,868	American swimmer	[ "1972 births", "American female freestyle swimmers", "American female medley swimmers", "Competitors at the 1990 Goodwill Games", "Competitors at the 1994 Goodwill Games", "Florida Gators swimming coaches", "Florida Gators women's swimmers", "Goodwill Games medalists in swimming", "Living people", "Medalists at the 1992 Summer Olympics", "Olympic gold medalists for the United States in swimming", "Sportspeople from St. Petersburg, Florida", "Swimmers at the 1992 Summer Olympics", "World Aquatics Championships medalists in swimming", "World record setters in swimming" ]	Nicole Lee Haislett (born December 16, 1972) is an American former competitive swimmer who was a three-time Olympic gold medalist, a former world and American record-holder, and an eight-time American national college champion. During her international swimming career, Haislett won twenty-two medals in major international championships, including fourteen golds. ## Early years Haislett was born in St. Petersburg, Florida in 1972. She was a "water baby"—she learned to swim at 18 months old. At the time, her parents merely wanted her to be comfortable in water, not intending that swimming would become her life focus. She began to train with the St. Pete Aquatics Club at the age of 6. Haislett attended Lakewood High School in St. Petersburg, where she swam for the Lakewood Spartans high school swim team, winning four Florida high school state championships in two years. As a 16-year-old high school junior, she won the 50-, 100- and 200-meter events at the U.S. Open Swimming Championships in 1989. At the 1990 U.S. Short Course Swimming National Championships, she won the national title in the 200-yard freestyle. ## College swimming career After graduating from high school, Haislett accepted an athletic scholarship to attend the University of Florida in Gainesville, Florida, where she swam for coach Mitch Ivey and coach Chris Martin's Florida Gators swimming and diving team in National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) competition from 1991 to 1994. As a Gator swimmer, she won NCAA national titles in the 200-yard freestyle for four consecutive years from 1991 to 1994, the 200-yard individual medley in 1993, and the 500-yard freestyle in 1994, and was a member of the Gators' NCAA-winning relay teams in the 4×100-yard freestyle in 1993 and the 4×100-yard medley relay in 1994. She received twenty-eight All-American honors in four years—the maximum number possible. In four years of swimming, she was undefeated in Southeastern Conference (SEC) competition, and was recognized as the SEC Female Swimmer of the Year for four consecutive years from 1991 to 1994, and the SEC Female Athlete of the Year (all sports) in 1993 and 1994. She was the 1993–94 recipient of the Honda Sports Award for Swimming and Diving, recognizing her as the outstanding college female swimmer of the year. ## International swimming career Haislett was the first American woman to defeat a swimmer from East Germany in the 100-meter freestyle since the 1972 Summer Olympics; she did so at the 1990 Goodwill Games in Seattle, Washington. At the 1991 World Aquatics Championships in Perth, Western Australia, Haislett won the 100-meter freestyle, and swam the anchor legs for the winning U.S. teams in the 4×100-meter freestyle and the 4×100-meter medley relays, ending the East German women's eighteen years of overwhelming dominance in the 100-meter freestyle at the world championships. Haislett also endured the emotional agony of disqualifying her team on an early exchange in the 4×200-meter freestyle relay – a relay race that the American women won in the water. Haislett qualified for four events at the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona, Spain. After finishing a disappointing fourth in the women's 100-meter freestyle, Haislett won the 200-meter freestyle event with a time of 1:57.90 for her first Olympic gold medal. Drafting off German swimmer Franziska Van Almsick, she swam what was described as a "perfect race." She was a member of the winning U.S. team in the 4×100-meter freestyle relay, together with Jenny Thompson, Dara Torres and Angel Martino, which set a new world record of 3:39.46 in the event final while winning the gold medal. Haislett swam the freestyle leg in the preliminaries of the 4×100-meter medley relay to earn her third Olympic gold medal. Haislett was the first American woman to swim the 200-meter freestyle in under one minute, fifty-eight seconds (1:58), and held the American record until 2003, when it was broken by Lindsay Benko. After six months in residence at the U.S. Olympic Training Center in Colorado Springs, she announced her retirement from competition swimming in 1995, citing her prior success and waning motivation and competitive desire. ## Life after competition swimming Haislett graduated from the University of Florida with a bachelor's degree in telecommunications in 1996, and served as an assistant coach for the Florida Gators women's swim team under head coach Kevin Thornton from 1996 to 1997. Afterward, she studied to be a chef at the Florida Culinary Institute in West Palm Beach, Florida, and subsequently worked as the dining room manager and activities director at an assisted living community for seniors. She was inducted into the University of Florida Athletic Hall of Fame as a "Gator Great" in 2004, and the Florida Sports Hall of Fame in 2005. Haislett and her ex-husband have a daughter, Blake, who was born in 2006. ## World record Women's 4×100-meter freestyle relay Note: Record time and location are sourced to USA Swimming's list of world records. ## See also - List of multiple Olympic gold medalists - List of Olympic medalists in swimming (women) - List of United States records in swimming - List of University of Florida alumni - List of University of Florida Athletic Hall of Fame members - List of University of Florida Olympians - List of World Aquatics Championships medalists in swimming (women) - World record progression 4 × 100 metres freestyle relay	[ "## Early years", "## College swimming career", "## International swimming career", "## Life after competition swimming", "## World record", "## See also" ]	1,257	29,456
44,032,313	Italian cruiser Umbria	1,169,867,176	Protected cruiser of the Italian Royal Navy	[ "1891 ships", "Regioni-class cruisers", "Ships built in Livorno" ]	Umbria was a protected cruiser of the Italian Regia Marina (Royal Navy) built in the 1890s. She was the lead ship of the Regioni class, which included five other vessels. All of the ships were named for current or former regions of Italy. The ship was equipped with a main armament of four 15 cm (5.9 in) and six 12 cm (4.7 in) guns, and she could steam at a speed of 18 knots (33 km/h; 21 mph). Umbria spent much of her career abroad, including several years in American waters. In service during a period of relative peace, Umbria never saw combat. In 1911, she was sold to Haiti and renamed Consul Gostrück, though she did not serve for very long under the Haitian flag. Her crew was too inexperienced to operate the ship, and she foundered shortly after being transferred to the Haitian Navy. ## Design Umbria was 84.8 meters (278 ft 3 in) long overall and had a beam of 12.03 m (39 ft 6 in) and a draft of 5.35 m (17 ft 7 in). Specific displacement figures have not survived for individual members of the class, but they displaced 2,245 to 2,689 long tons (2,281 to 2,732 t) normally and 2,411 to 3,110 long tons (2,450 to 3,160 t) at full load. The ships had a ram bow and a flush deck. Each vessel was fitted with a pair of pole masts. She had a crew of between 213 and 278. Her propulsion system consisted of a pair of horizontal triple-expansion steam engines that drove two screw propellers. Steam was supplied by four cylindrical fire-tube boilers that were vented into two funnels. On her speed trials, she reached a maximum of 19 knots (35 km/h; 22 mph) at 7,400 indicated horsepower (5,500 kW). The ship had a cruising radius of about 2,100 nautical miles (3,900 km; 2,400 mi) at a speed of 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph). Umbria was armed with a main battery of four 15 cm (5.9 in) L/40 guns mounted singly, with two side by side forward and two side by side aft. A secondary battery of six 12 cm (4.7 in) L/40 guns were placed between them, with three on each broadside. Close-range defense against torpedo boats consisted of one 75 mm (3 in) gun, eight 57 mm (2.2 in) guns, two 37 mm (1.5 in) guns, and a pair of machine guns. She was also equipped with two 450 mm (17.7 in) torpedo tubes. Umbria was protected by a 50 mm (2 in) thick deck, and her conning tower had 50 mm thick sides. ## Service history Umbria was built by the Cantiere navale fratelli Orlando shipyard in Livorno. Her keel was laid down on 1 August 1888. Shortages of funding slowed the completion of Umbria and her sister ships. Tight budgets forced the navy to reduce the pace of construction so that the funds could be used to keep the active fleet in service. As a result, her hull was not ready to be launched until 23 April 1891, and fitting-out work took another almost three years to complete. Umbria finally joined the fleet on 16 February 1894. After entering service, she was stationed in Taranto along with the ironclads Affondatore and Ancona, the protected cruisers Liguria and Etruria, the torpedo cruisers Monzambano, Montebello, and Confienza, and several other vessels. She remained there through 1894. On 1 February 1897, Umbria was assigned to the Cruiser Squadron of the main Italian fleet, along with her sister Liguria and the cruisers Marco Polo and Dogali. Later that year, Umbria and Dogali cruised off the eastern coast of South America. In 1902, Umbria was part of a squadron with the protected cruisers Calabria and Giovanni Bausan in American waters. In September 1904, Umbria stopped in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, to supervise the transfer of sailors who had been killed by a yellow fever outbreak on her sister Lombardia in 1896. The men, 134 in all, had been buried in various cemeteries, but were re-interred in a large mausoleum in São Francisco Xavier. On 29 December, Umbria stopped in Valparaiso, where she met the German cruiser SMS Falke and the United States' cruisers USS New York and USS Marblehead and the gunboat USS Bennington. In June 1905, Umbria represented Italy at the Lewis and Clark Centennial Exposition in Portland, Oregon. She was joined there by the United States' cruisers USS Chicago and USS Boston. She visited San Diego, California in August exchanging salutes and visits with the commander of the coastal fortification outside the city. Two days after arriving, Umbria's captain, officers, and twenty crewmen went ashore and placed a wreath to commemorate the men who had been killed aboard the United States' gunboat Bennington in a boiler explosion. Umbria ran aground outside Kingston, Jamaica in July 1906, while en route from Puerto Rico. The salvage ship SS Premier assisted in pulling the ship free. By 1910, the Regia Marina had decided to dispose of the obsolescent cruiser. Rumors that year of a potential sale to the Ecuadorian Navy prompted Peru to buy the old French cruiser Dupuy de Lôme, though Ecuador did not end up purchasing Umbria. Instead, in December 1910, the Regia Marina sold Umbria to the Haitian Navy, but she did not arrive in Port-de-Paix, Haiti, until 13 June 1911. After the sale, the ship was renamed Consul Gostrück. The ship was rumored to be carrying Cipriano Castro, the deposed president of Venezuela, though they later proved to be false. A German captain, Willy Meyer, was hired to take command of the ship upon her arrival in Haiti, but due to the lengthy delays, he quit. The cruiser sank shortly after entering service because her crew was not experienced in handling the ship. Consul Gostrück was eventually raised and towed to Rotterdam, the Netherlands, for disposal in 1913.	[ "## Design", "## Service history" ]	1,396	31,544
16,110,873	Nauru at the 2008 Summer Olympics	1,091,921,156	null	[ "2008 in Nauruan sport", "Nations at the 2008 Summer Olympics", "Nauru at the Summer Olympics by year" ]	Nauru competed at the 2008 Summer Olympics, that were celebrated in Beijing, China, from August 8 to August 24, 2008. Nauru was represented by the Nauru Olympic Committee, and was the only nation out of 204 participating nations and territories that sent only a single athlete, and was one of 117 that won no medals at the Games. The sole athlete to represent the nation was Itte Detenamo, who participated in the weightlifting, and was the flag bearer in both the opening and closing ceremonies. This was the same number of athletes as at the 1996 Olympics, when Marcus Stephen (who later became President of Nauru) represented the country in the same sport, but was a decrease from the nation's last appearance at the Games when three athletes were sent to Athens. Nauru earned a berth for the weightlifting event in the Oceania and South Pacific Olympic Weightlifting Championships in 2008 and a chance to send participants in swimming and athletics events, but chose to send only a weightlifter. Itte Detenamo competed in the Group B of heavyweight class, fifteenth and last event of the weightlifting. He did not earn a medal, but finished with a personal best. ## Delegation The delegation of the Nauru for the 2008 Summer Olympics consisted of four men. The first, Itte Detenamo, was the sole athlete and competed in the weightlifting competition. Also in the delegation as a manager of Itte was Yukio Peter—2004 Olympian—who holds the record for the best placing in any Olympics by any Nauruan, eighth in the lightweight category (69 kg) of the weightlifting event in the 2004 Summer Olympics. Delegation was also accompanied by Vinson Detenamo, father of Itte and the then and first President of the Nauru Olympic Committee. As the former sport minister of Nauru, Vinson had helped in the establishment of Nauru Olympic Committee in 1991 during his term in the Ministry of Sport. The final member of the delegation was Lou Keke as Nauru's Olympic chef de mission. ## Qualification Nauru earned a qualification place in weightlifting in the International Weightlifting Federation's continental Olympic qualification event—Oceania and South Pacific Olympic Weightlifting Championships—held in Auckland, New Zealand from March 27 to 30, 2008. At the event only those National Olympic Committees (NOCs) of Oceania which had not gained berths for 2008 Olympics in the 2006 and 2007 World Weightlifting Championships got chance to win qualification places. Itte Detenamo was selected over Yukio Peter to fill the earned quota. Nauru could have sent participants in swimming and athletics also, but chose not to as there was no national governing body of swimming and the nation lacked basic infrastructure and competitive athletes in order to complete in athletics. Nauru's representation of sole athlete in the 2008 Games was the same number of athletes as at the 1996 Olympics, when Marcus Stephen—incumbent President of Nauru, President of the Nauru Olympic Committee and Oceania Weightlifting Federation—represented the country in the same sport. Marcus had previously competed for Western Samoa in the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona as Nauru was not recognized by the International Olympic Committee as a National Olympic Committee until 1994. The attendance at the 2008 games was a decrease from the nation's previous appearance at the Games when three athletes were sent to Athens. ## Weightlifting Itte Detenamo represented Nauru in the super heavyweight class of weightlifting. It was his second Olympics appearance; he was ranked previously 14th in the same weight category at the 2004 Athens Olympics. The whole competition took place on August 19, but was divided in two parts due to the number of competitors. Group B weightlifters competed at 15:30 CST, and Group A, at 19:00 CST. The event was the fifteenth and last weightlifting event to conclude. Itte competed in group B of the event; his highest successfully lifted weight in snatch was 175 kg, out of 165, 170 and 175 kg, and in clean and jerk his best was 210 kg, out of 205 and 210 kg, he also tried a failed attempt for 215 kg. Itte finished in 10th place in the final standings with a total of 385 kg, setting a personal best. ## See also - Nauru at the 2010 Summer Youth Olympics - Nauru at the 2010 Commonwealth Games	[ "## Delegation", "## Qualification", "## Weightlifting", "## See also" ]	968	20,283
3,753,798	USS Puritan (1864)	1,029,448,226	American Ironclad monitors	[ "1864 ships", "Cancelled ships of the United States Navy", "Ironclad warships of the Union Navy", "Monitors of the United States Navy", "Ships built in Brooklyn", "Ships of the Union Navy" ]	USS Puritan was one of two ocean-going ironclad monitors designed by John Ericsson during the American Civil War of 1861–1865. Launched in mid-1864, construction was suspended sometime in 1865. The Navy Department had specified two twin-gun turrets over Ericsson's protests, but finally agreed to delete the second turret in late 1865. The Navy Department evaded the Congressional refusal to order new ships in 1874 by claiming that the Civil War-era ship was being repaired while building a new monitor of the same name. ## Description Puritan was 340 feet (103.6 m) long overall, had a beam of 50 feet (15.2 m) and had a draft of 20 feet (6.1 m). The ship had a tonnage of 3,265 tons burthen and displaced 4,912 long tons (4,991 t). She was powered by a two-cylinder vibrating-lever steam engine with a bore of 100 in (2.5 m) and a stroke of 48 in (1.2 m). The engine drove two propeller shafts using steam provided by six Martin water-tube boilers and the designed speed was 15 knots (28 km/h; 17 mph). Puritan was designed to carry a maximum of 1,000 long tons (1,016 t) of coal. The monitor was originally intended to mount two twin-gun turrets, but Ericsson persuaded the Navy Department to switch to a single turret armed with a pair of 20-inch (508 mm) smoothbore, muzzle-loading, Dahlgren guns. None of the guns were completed before the end of the war. Puritan's armor scheme was identical to that of Dictator, the other ocean-going monitor ordered at the same time. Her hull was protected by six layers of 1-inch (25 mm) wrought-iron plates and her ship's deck armor was 1.5 in (38 mm) thick. The armor of the gun turret had a total thickness of 15 in (381 mm) and consisted of six outer layers, blocks of 4.5-inch (114 mm) segmented armor slabs in the middle and then four more layers. The pilot house armor was 12 in (305 mm) in thickness. ## Construction Buoyed by the victory gained by Ericsson's Monitor during the Battle of Hampton Roads in early March 1862, the Navy Department decided later that month to build several ocean-going monitors in case the British or the French decided to intervene in the war. Ericsson submitted preliminary designs in May and Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles authorized two ships, one with a single turret (Dictator) and a larger one with two turrets the following month. On 28 July the Navy Department awarded Ericsson with a contract for Puritan, having changed the name of the ship from Ericsson's submission of Protector. He subcontracted the hull of the Puritan to the Continental Iron Works of Greenpoint, Brooklyn, and the propulsion machinery to the Allaire Iron Works of New York City. The ship was laid down in 1863 and was launched on 2 July 1864. However, due to delays in building and the casting of the 20-inch smoothbores, her construction was suspended in 1865 and she was never completed. After the war, Puritan deteriorated on the stocks and she was sold to John Roach in 1874. Although Congress was informed by the Navy Department that the Civil War-era ship was being repaired, a new iron-hulled monitor of the same name was built with repair money and the proceeds of her sale because Congress refused to fund any new construction at this time.	[ "## Description", "## Construction" ]	767	28,370
18,360,071	Ficus obliqua	1,084,994,809	A tree, the small-leaved fig	[ "Ficus sect. Malvanthera", "Flora of New South Wales", "Flora of Queensland", "Flora of the Southwestern Pacific", "Garden plants of Australia", "Ornamental trees", "Plants described in 1786", "Plants used in bonsai", "Rosales of Australia", "Trees of Australia", "Trees of Malesia", "Trees of Papuasia" ]	Ficus obliqua, commonly known as the small-leaved fig, is a tree in the family Moraceae, native to eastern Australia, New Guinea, eastern Indonesia to Sulawesi and islands in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. Previously known for many years as Ficus eugenioides, it is a banyan of the genus Ficus, which contains around 750 species worldwide in warm climates, including the edible fig (Ficus carica). Beginning life as a seedling, which grows on other plants (epiphyte) or on rocks (lithophyte), F. obliqua can grow to 60 m (200 ft) high and nearly as wide with a pale grey buttressed trunk, and glossy green leaves. The small round yellow fruit ripen and turn red at any time of year, although ripening peaks in autumn and winter (April to July). Known as a syconium, the fruit is an inverted inflorescence with the flowers lining an internal cavity. Ficus obliqua is pollinated by two species of fig wasp—Pleistodontes greenwoodi and P. xanthocephalus. Many species of bird, including pigeons, parrots and various passerines, eat the fruit. The range is along the east coast from Queensland, through New South Wales in rainforest, savanna woodland, sclerophyll forest and gallery forest. It is used as a shade tree in parks and public spaces, and is well-suited for use as an indoor plant or in bonsai. All parts of the tree have been used in traditional medicine in Fiji. ## Taxonomy Commonly known as the small-leaved fig, Ficus obliqua was described by German naturalist Georg Forster in 1786 based on type material collected in Vanuatu. Dutch botanist Friedrich Miquel described Urostigma eugenioides from Albany Island in Queensland in 1861, which was reclassified by Victorian Government Botanist Ferdinand von Mueller as Ficus eugenioides in 1867, and it was known as this for many years. However, as Forster's name is older, it takes precedence. The specific epithet is the Latin adjective obliquus, meaning "oblique", although the attribute it refers to is unclear. Frederick Manson Bailey described Ficus tryonii in 1906, from a collection at altitude on Middle Percy Island in the Whitsunday Islands off central Queensland, which is now regarded as F. obliqua. Joseph Banks and Daniel Solander collected and named Ficus virginea from Booby Island in 1770, which was synonymised with F. obliqua by William Philip Hiern in 1901. The species is currently regarded as monotypic. Three varieties of Ficus obliqua were recognised until 2001—F. obliqua var. petiolaris, F. obliqua var. obliqua, and F. obliqua var. puberula from Western Australia. A revision of the group led to the conclusion that F. obliqua var. petiolaris belonged in the species F. rubiginosa. F. obliqua var. puberula was found to be more distantly related to obliqua than rubiginosa and hence has been reclassified as a separate species, Ficus brachypoda. With over 750 species, Ficus is one of the largest angiosperm genera. Based on morphology, English botanist E. J. H. Corner divided the genus into four subgenera, which was later expanded to six. In this classification, Ficus obliqua was placed in subseries Malvanthereae, series Malvanthereae, section Malvanthera of the subgenus Urostigma. In his reclassification of the Australian Malvanthera, Australian botanist Dale J. Dixon altered the delimitations of the series within the section, but left this species in the series Malvanthereae. In a study published in 2008, Nina Rønsted and colleagues analysed the DNA sequences from the nuclear ribosomal internal and external transcribed spacers (ITS and ETS), and the glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (G3pdh) region, in the first molecular analysis of the section Malvanthera. They found F. obliqua to be most closely related to three species of the arid Northern Territory (F. platypoda, F. subpuberula and F. lilliputiana) and classified it in a new series Obliquae in the subsection Platypodeae. The species had remained a transitional rainforest species while its relatives radiated into dryer regions. ## Description Ficus obliqua is a tree, which may reach 15–60 m (49–197 ft) in height with a similar crown width. It has smooth thin grey bark with lighter-coloured lenticels, and a buttressed trunk, which may reach 3 m (9.8 ft) in diameter. The glossy green leaves are elliptic to oblong in shape and measure 5–8 cm (2.0–3.1 in) long by 2–3.5 cm (0.79–1.38 in) wide on 1–2 cm (0.39–0.79 in) petioles. They are alternately arranged on the stems. Growing in pairs, the round yellow fruit turn orange or orange-red dotted with darker red and reaches a diameter of 6 to 10 mm (0.24 to 0.39 in) upon ripening over April to July, although fruit can appear at other times of year. As is the case with all figs, the fruit is an inverted inflorescence known as a syconium, with tiny flowers arising from the inner surface. Ficus obliqua is monoecious—both male and female flowers are produced by the same plant, and in fact in the same fruit. Within any given fruit, female flowers mature several weeks before the male flowers. Historically, there has been some confusion between Ficus obliqua and the related F. rubiginosa. F. obliqua can be distinguished by its smaller fruit on shorter stalks and its glabrous (hairless) leaves; in addition, the petioles have ascending hyaline hairs. Some forms of F. rubiginosa have both leaves and petioles glabrous while others have both covered in fine fur. The syconia of F. obliqua are smaller, measuring 4.3–11.9 mm long and 4.4–11.0 mm in diameter, compared with 7.4–17.3 mm long and 7.6–17.3 mm diameter for F. rubiginosa. Ficus brachypoda is a lithophytic plant from arid northern and western Australia, with a short petiole and leaf shape aligning it with Ficus platypoda. ## Distribution and habitat Ficus obliqua occurs from Mount Dromedary (36° S) in southern New South Wales northwards along the coast and Great Dividing Range to the tip of Cape York Peninsula in north Queensland. Outside Australia it occurs on New Guinea and offshore islands, through eastern Indonesia to Sulawesi in the west and east into the southwestern Pacific, where it is found in New Caledonia, Fiji, Tonga, Samoa and Vanuatu. It had been thought to occur in Western Australia, but these collections have been now referred to Ficus brachypoda. Preferring soils with high nutrient and water content, it occurs on sandstone or latite soils in the Sydney region. The habitat is warm temperate to moist subtropical rainforest. Large specimens can rise above the canopy as emergent trees. ## Ecology The double-eyed fig parrot (Cyclopsitta diophthalma) eats the fruit of Ficus obliqua, steadily depositing fruity detritus on the ground. The rainbow lorikeet (Trichoglossus moluccanus) is another parrot that consumes the fruit and disperses the seeds; other Australian bird species include the southern cassowary (Casuarius casuarius), brown cuckoo-dove (Macropygia phasianella), rose-crowned fruit dove (Ptilinopus regina), wompoo fruit dove (P. magnificus), wonga pigeon (Leucosarcia melanoleuca), topknot pigeon (Lopholaimus antarcticus), silvereye (Zosterops lateralis), pied currawong (Strepera graculina), black-faced cuckoo-shrike (Coracina novaehollandae), olive-backed oriole (Oriolus sagittatus), Australasian figbird (Sphecotheres vieilloti), green catbird (Ailuroedus crassirostris), regent bowerbird (Sericulus chrysocephalus), satin bowerbird (Ptilonorhynchus violaceus), and Lewin's honeyeater (Meliphaga lewinii). The tree is an important food source for the western Polynesian species the many-colored fruit dove (Ptilinopus perousii) and crimson-crowned fruit dove (P. porphyraceus), and has been recommended for amenity planting in Tonga for these birds. The spectacled flying fox (Pteropus conspicillatus) and grey-headed flying fox (Pteropus poliocephalus) also eat the fruit. Leaves of Ficus obliqua serve as a food source for the larvae of the butterfly species the common crow (Euploea core), the no-brand crow (Euploea alcathoe), and the Geometer moth species Scopula epigypsa. The thrips species Gynaikothrips australis feeds on the underside of new leaves of F. obliqua, as well as F. rubiginosa and F. macrophylla. As plant cells die, nearby cells are induced into forming meristem tissue. A gall results and the leaves become distorted and curl over. The thrips remain in the galls at night and wander about in the daytime before returning in the evening, possibly to different galls about the tree. The thrips begin feeding when the tree has flushes of new growth, and the life cycle is around six weeks. At other times, thrips reside on old leaves without feeding or pupate sheltered in the bark. ### Reproduction and life span Figs have an obligate mutualism with fig wasps (Agaonidae); figs are only pollinated by fig wasps, and fig wasps can only reproduce in fig flowers. Generally, each fig species depends on a single species of wasp for pollination. The wasps are similarly dependent on their fig species to reproduce. The assumption that fig species are usually pollinated by just one species of fig wasp has been challenged by the discovery of cryptic species complexes among what was previously thought to be single species of fig wasps. Ficus obliqua is pollinated by two species of fig wasp—Pleistodontes greenwoodi and P. xanthocephalus. Female and male flowers in each syconium mature at different times. Female wasps enter the syconium and lay eggs in the female flowers as they mature. These eggs later hatch and the progeny mate. The females of the new generation collect pollen from the male flowers, which have matured by this point, and leave to visit other syconia and repeat the process. A field study in Brisbane found that F. obliqua trees often bore both male and female syconia at the same time—this could be beneficial for reproduction in isolated populations, such as those on islands. The same study found a slightly reduced number of male phase syconia in winter, thought due to increased mortality of the wasp pollinator in cooler months. The animals that eat the figs disperse the seeds, which then germinate and grow on other plants (epiphytes) or on rocks (lithophytes). As the new plants develop, they send roots to the forest floor. Figs growing on other plants grow larger and larger until they strangle their hosts. Ficus obliqua is long-lived, and trees are thought to live in excess of 500 years. ## Uses Ficus obliqua is an elegant shade tree for parks or fields, and is adaptable to differing soils. A notable specimen in Mick Ryan Park, Milton on the New South Wales south coast stands 14 m (46 ft) tall and 38 m (125 ft) across, and is a local landmark. Like other fig species that grow into large trees, Ficus obliqua is not suitable for any but the largest gardens as its aggressive root system invades drains and garden beds. Fig trees also drop large quantities of fruit and leaves, leaving a mess underfoot. Although it is much less used in bonsai than F. rubiginosa, F. obliqua is well-suited for use in the medium; its small leaves and trunk's propensity to thicken give it attributes optimal for a tree 10–80 cm (3.9–31.5 in) in height. It is seen in bonsai nurseries mainly in the Brisbane area, where it is a locally common species, and is very highly regarded by at least one proponent, Bradley Barlow. Barlow entered a specimen from Brisbane to the Bonsai Clubs International competition in 2006, winning a prize. It is also suited for use as an indoor plant in low-, medium- or brightly lit indoor spaces. The timber is too soft for use in woodworking. Known as baka or baka ni viti in Fiji, Ficus obliqua has many of its parts used in Fijian traditional medicine, and was previously held to be sacred there. Its white sap has been used for painful or swollen joints and limbs or boils, or diluted with water and drunk to improve breast milk. Liquid extracted from the root bark has been used for headaches or, when diluted, to improve health after childbirth, and the leaves are applied to venereal lesions. The species has been traditionally used for boils in Samoa and Tonga.	[ "## Taxonomy", "## Description", "## Distribution and habitat", "## Ecology", "### Reproduction and life span", "## Uses" ]	2,995	43,398
2,003	Argument from morality	1,154,247,687	Argument for the existence of God	[ "Arguments for the existence of God", "Morality" ]	The argument from morality is an argument for the existence of God. Arguments from morality tend to be based on moral normativity or moral order. Arguments from moral normativity observe some aspect of morality and argue that God is the best or only explanation for this, concluding that God must exist. Arguments from moral order are based on the asserted need for moral order to exist in the universe. They claim that, for this moral order to exist, God must exist to support it. The argument from morality is noteworthy in that one cannot evaluate the soundness of the argument without attending to almost every important philosophical issue in meta-ethics. German philosopher Immanuel Kant devised an argument from morality based on practical reason. Kant argued that the goal of humanity is to achieve perfect happiness and virtue (the summum bonum) and believed that an afterlife must be assumed to exist in order for this to be possible, and that God must be assumed to exist to provide this. Rather than aiming to prove the existence of God, however, Kant was simply attempting to demonstrate that all moral thought requires the assumption that God exists, and therefore that we are entitled to make such an assumption only as a regulative principle rather than a constitutive principle (meaning that such a principle can guide our actions, but it does not provide knowledge). In his book Mere Christianity, C. S. Lewis argued that "conscience reveals to us a moral law whose source cannot be found in the natural world, thus pointing to a supernatural Lawgiver." Lewis argued that accepting the validity of human reason as a given must include accepting the validity of practical reason, which could not be valid without reference to a higher cosmic moral order which could not exist without a God to create and/or establish it. A related argument is from conscience; John Henry Newman argued that the conscience supports the claim that objective moral truths exist because it drives people to act morally even when it is not in their own interest. Newman argued that, because the conscience suggests the existence of objective moral truths, God must exist to give authority to these truths. Contemporary defenders of the argument from morality are Graham Ward, Alister McGrath and William Lane Craig. ## General form All variations of the argument from morality begin with an observation about moral thought or experiences and conclude with the existence of God. Some of these arguments propose moral facts which they claim evident through human experience, arguing that God is the best explanation for these. Other versions describe some end which humans should strive to attain that is only possible if God exists. Many arguments from morality are based on moral normativity, which suggests that objective moral truths exist and require God's existence to give them authority. Often, they consider that morality seems to be binding – obligations are seen to convey more than just a preference, but imply that the obligation will stand, regardless of other factors or interests. For morality to be binding, God must exist. In its most general form, the argument from moral normativity is: 1. A human experience of morality is observed. 2. God is the best or only explanation for this moral experience. 3. Therefore, God exists. Some arguments from moral order suggest that morality is based on rationality and that this can only be the case if there is a moral order in the universe. The arguments propose that only the existence of God as orthodoxly conceived could support the existence of moral order in the universe, so God must exist. Alternative arguments from moral order have proposed that we have an obligation to attain the perfect good of both happiness and moral virtue. They attest that whatever we are obliged to do must be possible, and achieving the perfect good of both happiness and moral virtue is only possible if a natural moral order exists. A natural moral order requires the existence of God as orthodoxly conceived, so God must exist. ## Variations ### Practical reason In his Critique of Pure Reason, German philosopher Immanuel Kant stated that no successful argument for God's existence arises from reason alone. In his Critique of Practical Reason he went on to argue that, despite the failure of these arguments, morality requires that God's existence is assumed, owing to practical reason. Rather than proving the existence of God, Kant was attempting to demonstrate that all moral thought requires the assumption that God exists. Kant argued that humans are obliged to bring about the summum bonum: the two central aims of moral virtue and happiness, where happiness arises out of virtue. As ought implies can, Kant argued, it must be possible for the summum bonum to be achieved. He accepted that it is not within the power of humans to bring the summum bonum about, because we cannot ensure that virtue always leads to happiness, so there must be a higher power who has the power to create an afterlife where virtue can be rewarded by happiness. Philosopher G. H. R. Parkinson notes a common objection to Kant's argument: that what ought to be done does not necessarily entail that it is possible. He also argues that alternative conceptions of morality exist which do not rely on the assumptions that Kant makes – he cites utilitarianism as an example which does not require the summum bonum. Nicholas Everitt argues that much moral guidance is unattainable, such as the Biblical command to be Christ-like. He proposes that Kant's first two premises only entail that we must try to achieve the perfect good, not that it is actually attainable. ### Argument from objective moral truths Both theists and non-theists have accepted that the existence of objective moral truths might entail the existence of God. Atheist philosopher J. L. Mackie accepted that, if objective moral truths existed, they would warrant a supernatural explanation. Scottish philosopher W. R. Sorley presented the following argument: 1. If morality is objective and absolute, God must exist. 2. Morality is objective and absolute. 3. Therefore, God must exist. Many critics have challenged the second premise of this argument, by offering a biological and sociological account of the development of human morality which suggests that it is neither objective nor absolute. This account, supported by biologist E. O. Wilson and philosopher Michael Ruse, proposes that the human experience of morality is a by-product of natural selection, a theory philosopher Mark D. Linville calls evolutionary naturalism. According to the theory, the human experience of moral obligations was the result of evolutionary pressures, which attached a sense of morality to human psychology because it was useful for moral development; this entails that moral values do not exist independently of the human mind. Morality might be better understood as an evolutionary imperative in order to propagate genes and ultimately reproduce. No human society today advocates immorality, such as theft or murder, because it would undoubtedly lead to the end of that particular society and any chance for future survival of offspring. Scottish empiricist David Hume made a similar argument, that belief in objective moral truths is unwarranted and to discuss them is meaningless. Because evolutionary naturalism proposes an empirical account of morality, it does not require morality to exist objectively; Linville considers the view that this will lead to moral scepticism or antirealism. C. S. Lewis argued that, if evolutionary naturalism is accepted, human morality cannot be described as absolute and objective because moral statements cannot be right or wrong. Despite this, Lewis argued, those who accept evolutionary naturalism still act as if objective moral truths exist, leading Lewis to reject naturalism as incoherent. As an alternative ethical theory, Lewis offered a form of divine command theory which equated God with goodness and treated goodness as an essential part of reality, thus asserting God's existence. J. C. A. Gaskin challenges the first premise of the argument from moral objectivity, arguing that it must be shown why absolute and objective morality entails that morality is commanded by God, rather than simply a human invention. It could be the consent of humanity that gives it moral force, for example. American philosopher Michael Martin argues that it is not necessarily true that objective moral truths must entail the existence of God, suggesting that there could be alternative explanations: he argues that naturalism may be an acceptable explanation and, even if a supernatural explanation is necessary, it does not have to be God (polytheism is a viable alternative). Martin also argues that a non-objective account of ethics might be acceptable and challenges the view that a subjective account of morality would lead to moral anarchy. William Lane Craig has argued for this form of the moral argument. ### Argument for conscience Related to the argument from morality is the argument from conscience, associated with eighteenth-century bishop Joseph Butler and nineteenth-century cardinal John Henry Newman. Newman proposed that the conscience, as well as giving moral guidance, provides evidence of objective moral truths which must be supported by the divine. He argued that emotivism is an inadequate explanation of the human experience of morality because people avoid acting immorally, even when it might be in their interests. Newman proposed that, to explain the conscience, God must exist. British philosopher John Locke argued that moral rules cannot be established from conscience because the differences in people's consciences would lead to contradictions. Locke also noted that the conscience is influenced by "education, company, and customs of the country", a criticism mounted by J. L. Mackie, who argued that the conscience should be seen as an "introjection" of other people into an agent's mind. Michael Martin challenges the argument from conscience with a naturalistic account of conscience, arguing that naturalism provides an adequate explanation for the conscience without the need for God's existence. He uses the example of the internalization by humans of social pressures, which leads to the fear of going against these norms. Even if a supernatural cause is required, he argues, it could be something other than God; this would mean that the phenomenon of the conscience is no more supportive of monotheism than polytheism. C. S. Lewis argues for the existence of God in a similar way in his book Mere Christianity, but he does not directly refer to it as the argument from morality.	[ "## General form", "## Variations", "### Practical reason", "### Argument from objective moral truths", "### Argument for conscience" ]	2,039	19,437

Subsets and Splits

No community queries yet

The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.