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2238418 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian%20Statistical%20Institute | Indian Statistical Institute | Indian Statistical Institute (ISI) is a higher education and Research institute which is recognized as an Institute of National Importance by the 1959 act of the Indian parliament. It grew out of the Statistical Laboratory set up by Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis in Presidency College, Kolkata. Established in 1931, this unique institution of India is one of the oldest institutions focused on statistics, and its early reputation led it to being adopted as a model for the first US institute of Statistics set up at the Research Triangle, North Carolina by Gertrude Mary Cox.
Mahalanobis, the founder of ISI, was deeply influenced by wisdom and guidance of Rabindranath Tagore and Brajendranath Seal. Under his leadership, the institute initiated and promoted the interaction of Statistics with natural and social sciences to advance the role of Statistics as a key technology by explicating the twin aspectsits general applicability and its dependence on other disciplines for its own development. The institute is now considered one of the foremost centres in the world for training and research in Computer science, Statistics, Quantitative Economics and related sciences.
ISI has its headquarters in Bonhooghly (Baranagar), West Bengal. It has four subsidiary centres focused in academics at Delhi, Bengaluru, Chennai and Tezpur, and a branch at Giridih. In addition, the Institute has a network of units of Statistical Quality Control and Operations Research at Vadodara, Coimbatore, Giridih, Hyderabad, Mumbai and Pune engaged in guiding the industries, within and outside India, in developing the most up–to–date quality management systems and solving critical problems of quality, reliability and productivity.
Primary activities of ISI are research and training of Statistics, development of theoretical Statistics and its applications in various natural and social sciences. Originally affiliated with the University of Calcutta, the institute was declared an institute of national importance in 1959, through an act of Indian parliament, Indian Statistical Institute act, 1959. ISI functions under the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MOSPI) of the Government of India.
Key areas of expertise of ISI are Statistics, Computer Science, Mathematics, Mathematical Economics, Operations Research and Information Science and it is one of the few research oriented Indian schools offering courses at both the undergraduate and graduate level.
History
ISI's origin can be traced back to the Statistical Laboratory in Presidency College, Kolkata set up by Mahalanobis, who worked in the Physics Department of the college in the 1920s. During 1913–15, he did his Tripos in Mathematics and Physics at University of Cambridge, where he came across Biometrika, a journal of Statistics founded by Karl Pearson. Since 1915, he taught Physics at Presidency College, but his interest in Statistics grew under the guidance of polymath Brajendranath Seal. Many colleagues of Mahalanobis took an interest in Statistics and the group grew in the Statistical Laboratory. Considering the extensive application of Statistics in solving various problems in real life such as analyzing multivariate anthropometric data, applying sample surveys as a method of data collection, analyzing meteorological data, estimating crop yield etc., this group, particularly, Mahalanobis and his younger colleagues S. S. Bose and H. C. Sinha felt the necessity of forming a specialized institute to facilitate research and learning of Statistics.
On 17 December 1931, Mahalonobis held a meeting with Pramatha Nath Banerji (Minto Professor of Economics), Nikhil Ranjan Sen (Khaira Professor of Applied Mathematics) and Sir R. N. Mukherjee. This meeting led to the establishment of the Indian Statistical Institute (ISI), which was formally registered on 28 April 1932, as a non-profit distributing learned society under the Societies Registration Act XXI of 1860. Later, the institute was registered under the West Bengal Societies Registration Act XXVI of 1961 amended in 1964. Mukherjee accepted the role of the president of ISI and held this position until his death in 1936. In 1953, ISI was relocated to a property owned by Professor Mahalanobis, named "Amrapali", in Baranagar, which is now a municipality at the northern outskirts of Kolkata.
In 1931, Mahalanobis was the only person working at ISI, and he managed it with an annual expenditure of Rs.250. It gradually grew with the pioneering work of a group of his colleagues including S. S. Bose, Samarendra Kumar Mitra (Head of the Computing Machines and Electronics Laboratory and designer of India's first computer), J. M. Sengupta, Raj Chandra Bose, Samarendra Nath Roy, K. R. Nair, R. R. Bahadur, Gopinath Kallianpur, D. B. Lahiri, and Anil Kumar Gain. Pitamber Pant, who had received training in Statistics at the institute, went on to become a secretary to the first Prime Minister of India, Jawaharlal Nehru, and was a great source of help and support to the institute.
The institute started a training section in 1938. In due course, many of the early workers left the ISI for careers in the USA or for positions in public/private sector in India. By the 1940s, the ISI was internationally known and was taken as a model when the first institute of Statistics was set up in the United States by Gertrude Coxperhaps the only time an institute in a developing country was used as a model in a developed country.
As asked by the Government of India, in 1950, ISI designed and planned a comprehensive socio–economic national sample survey covering rural India. The organisation named National Sample Survey (NSS) was founded in 1950 for conducting this survey. The field work was performed by the Directorate of NSS, functioning under the Ministry of Finance, whereas the other tasks such as planning of the survey, training of field workers, review, data processing and tabulation were executed by ISI. In 1961, the Directorate of NSS started functioning under the Department of Statistics of Government of India, and later in 1971, the design and analysis wing of NSS was shifted from ISI to the Department of Statistics forming the National Sample Survey Organisation (NSSO).
J. B. S. Haldane joined the ISI as a research professor from August 1957, and stayed on until February 1961, when he had a falling out with ISI Director P.C. Mahalanobis over Haldane's going on a much-publicized hunger strike to protest the United States pressuring U.S. National Science Fair winners Gary Botting and Susan Brown from attending an ISI banquet to which many prominent Indian scientists had been invited. Haldane helped the ISI grow in biometrics. Haldane also played a key role in developing the structure and content of the courses offered by ISI.
Until 1959, ISI was associated with the University of Calcutta. By 'The Indian Statistical Institute Act 1959' of the Parliament of India, amended in 1995, ISI was declared an institute of national importance, and was authorised to hold examinations and to grant degrees and diplomas in Statistics, Mathematics, Computer Science, Quantitative Economics, and in any other subject related to Statistics as identified by the Institute from time to time. ISI is a public university, as the same act also states that ISI would be funded by the Central Government of India.
ISI had by the 1960s started establishing special service units in New Delhi, Chennai, Bangalore, Mumbai and Hyderabad to provide consultancy services to business, industry and governmental public service organisations in the areas of Statistical Process Control, Operations Research and Industrial Engineering. Additionally, Bangalore had a Documentation Research and Training Centre (DRTC). In the early 1970s, the Delhi and Bangalore units were converted to teaching centres. In 2008, ISI Chennai was upgraded to a teaching centre. In 2011, ISI added a new centre in Tezpur.
Institutes
The major objectives of the ISI are to facilitate research and training of Statistics, to indulge in development of statistical theory and in application of statistical techniquesin the scenarios of planning at national level and in theoretical development of natural and social sciences, to participate in the process of data collection and analysis, to operate related projects in planning and improvement of efficiency of management and production.
The Sanskrit phrase भिन्नेष्वैक्यस्य दर्शणम् (Bhinneswaykyasya Darshanam), which literally means the philosophy of unity in diversity, is incorporated in the logo of the institute, and is the motto of ISI. ISI Kolkata is the headquarter with centres at New Delhi, Bengaluru, Chennai . Tezpur, the 4th centre of ISI was inaugurated in 2011.
ISI, Kolkata
ISI Kolkata has a campus consisting of six addresses at 201 through 206 Barrackpore Trunk Road, Bonhooghly (Baranagar). These include a house, which was an erstwhile office of the National Sample Survey Organisation (NSSO) of India.
ISI Kolkata campus is eco-friendly, as conceived by Mahalanobis. Hollow bricks that protect from heat and noise were used with minimum use of reinforced concrete, to avoid radiation. There was no use of bitumen-basalt combination at the roads inside ISI campuses. This helps in reduction of radiation and preservation of rain water to maintain equilibrium in ground-water level.
The Kolkata campus offers bachelors level degree course in Statistics (B. Stat), master's degree course in Statistics (M.Stat), Mathematics (M.Math), Computer Science (MTech), Cryptology & Security (MTech), Quality Reliability and Operations Research (MTech) and Quantitative Economics (M.S.). Major divisions and units are: Statistics and Mathematics Unit (SMU), Human Genetics Unit (HGU), Physics and Applied Mathematics Unit (PAMU), Geological Studies Unit (GSU), Advanced Computation and MicroElectronics Unit (ACMU), Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition Unit (CVPRU), Machine Intelligence Unit (MIU), Electronics and Communication Sciences Unit (ECSU), Applied Statistics Unit (ASU), Economic Research Unit (ERU), Linguistic Research Unit (LRU), Sociology Research Unit (SRU), Psychometry Research Unit (PRU) and Population Studies Unit (PSU).
The Kolkata campus houses the International Statistical Education Centre (ISEC), which opened in 1950. This Centre provides training in statistics to sponsored students mainly from the Middle East, South and South East Asia, the Far East and the Commonwealth Countries of Africa. The Centre also offers various short-term courses in statistics and related subjects.
The Center for Soft Computing Research: A National Facility, an associate institute of Indian Statistical Institute and established in Kolkata in 2005, is unique in the country. Apart from conducting basic research, it offers a 3-month course and promotes less endowed institutes by providing fellowships and research grants.
The Central Library of ISI is located at Kolkata with branches at the other facilities. The library has over 200,000 volumes of books and journals with a special emphasis on the field of statistics and related studies. The main branch also has a collection of official reports, reprints, maps, and microfilms. The library receives over a thousand new technical and scientific journals every year. The Library has databases on CD-ROM and is working on further digitization of the collection. The library has a separate collection of works on the topics of mathematics and statistics called the Eastern Regional Centre of NBHM collection, funded by grants from the National Board for Higher Mathematics. It also looks to set up research unit in artificial intelligence
ISI, Delhi
The ISI campus at New Delhi was established in 1974 and was shifted to the present campus in 1975.
The Delhi campus offers two master level courses Master of Statistics (M. Stat) and Master of Science (M. S.) in Quantitative Economics, and doctoral programs.
ISI, Bangalore
The Bengaluru centre of ISI started with a Statistical Quality Control and Operations Research (SQC & OR) unit in 1954. The Documentation Research and Training Centre (DRTC) here became operational from 1962 with honorary professor S. R. Ranganathan as the head. Prof. Mahalanobis planned of starting a full-fledged centre of ISI here around the mid-sixties. In 1966, the then Government of Karnataka granted ISI 30 acres of forest land full of eucalyptus trees, next to the upcoming campus of the Bangalore University, located on the Mysore Road on the outskirts of the city.
However, after death of Prof. Mahalanobis in 1972, the project of establishing Bengaluru centre got temporarily shelved. The project was again revived during 1976–78. Concrete proposals were made to the Government of India to get grants for the development of the land already in possession of ISI, along with the construction of an academic block with a library and offices.
In the meantime, a building was rented on Church Street, in Bengaluru downtown, and various activities of the Bengaluru centre started in September 1978. The Economic Analysis Unit (EAU) and the Statistics and Mathematics Unit (SMU) were established. The SQC&OR Unit and the DRTC unit, which were functioning from other rented buildings at that time, joined this new Centre.
As construction of the administrative block at the new campus got completed, the various units moved to the new campus in May 1985. The sprawling green wooded Campus has Residential Facility for students, faculty and staff.
The Bengaluru centre was formally declared as a centre of ISI in September 1996.
The Systems Science and Informatics Unit (SSIU) was established in 2009
The Bengaluru centre has by now became an institution well known for its academic activities in Mathematics, Statistics, Computer Science, SQC and Operations Research, Library and Information Science, and Quantitative Economics.
The Bengaluru campus offers bachelor level course Bachelor of Mathematics (B. Math), master level courses Master of Mathematics (M. Math), Master of Science (M. S.) in Library and Information Science and Master of Science (M. S.) in Quality Management Science, and doctoral programs.
ISI, Tezpur
Academics
Traditionally, ISI offers fewer programs (and admits fewer students) than most other degree granting academic institutions. Following the empowerment for granting degrees in the subject of Statistics as per the ISI Act 1959, in 1960, ISI initiated bachelor level degree program Bachelor of Statistics and master level degree course Master of Statistics, and also began awarding research level degrees such as PhD and DSc. Later, ISI started offering Master of Technology (MTech) courses in Computer Science and in Quality, Reliability & Operations Research (QR&OR); these courses got recognition from All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE). As ISI Act of 1959 was amended by the Parliament of India in 1995, ISI was empowered to confer degrees and diplomas in subjects such as Mathematics, Quantitative Economics, Computer Science, and other subjects related to Statistics and Operations Research as determined by ISI from time to time. Apart from the degree courses, ISI offers few diploma and certificate courses, special diploma courses for international students via ISEC, and special courses in collaboration with CSO for training probationary officers of Indian Statistical Service (ISS).
Degree courses
ISI offers two undergraduate programs, viz. Bachelor of Statistics (Honours) (B.Stat) and Bachelor of Mathematics (Honours) (B. Math), seven graduate programs, viz. Master of Statistics (M. Stat), Master of Mathematics (M. Math), Master of Science in Quantitative Economics (MSQE), Master of Science in Library and Information Science (MSLIS), Master of Science in Quality Management Science (MSQMS), Master of Technology in Computer Science (MTech–CS), Master of Technology in Cryptology & Security (MTech-CrS) and Master of Technology in Quality, Reliability and Operations Research (MTech–QROR).
ISI also offers three PG Diploma programs, viz. Post Graduate Diploma in Computer Applications (PGDCA), Post Graduate Diploma in Business Analytics (PGDBA), and P.G. Diploma in Statistical Methods and Analytics. It also offers research fellowships towards obtaining a PhD degree. The Post Graduate Diploma in Business Analytics (PGDBA) is a unique, tri-institute program being held in collaboration with IIM Calcutta and IIT Kharagpur, with an aim to nurture and develop highly skilled business analytical professionals. It has been ranked 340th worldwide, according to 2019 QS World Universities Rankings.
Undergraduate courses are of 3 years duration, whereas the graduate level courses of 2 years of duration. For all undergraduate and graduate level courses, the academic year is divided in two semesters. Except for sponsored candidates of MTech courses, ISI students are not required to pay any tuition fees. Conditional to performance beyond a threshold, all students and research fellows receive stipends, fellowships and contingency/book grants. Students demonstrating outstanding performances are rewarded at the end of the semesters. ISI campuses provide hostel accommodations with recreational facilities and limited medical facilities available free of cost.
Admissions
Applicants of all degree courses are required to go through written admission tests and interviews. ISI conducts the written tests at various examination centres across India. Only in few cases, candidates may get called for the interview directly, viz. applicants of MTech Computer Science course having a GATE score above a threshold. Candidates applying to doctoral research programmes who have been awarded (or qualified for) a Junior Research Fellowship by UGC / CSIR / NBHM etc are also required to clear the ISI admission test or an equivalent separate test and interview conducted by the relevant JRF selection committee of the institute if they wish to obtain a Ph.D from Indian Statistical Institute.
International Statistical Education Centre
In 1950, ISI, in collaboration with International Statistical Institute, UNESCO and Government of India, had set up International Statistical Education Centre (ISEC) to impart knowledge of theoretical and applied statistics to participants from Middle East, East and South-East Asia, the Far East and Commonwealth countries of Africa. The main training course offered by ISEC is meant for international students, preferably graduates with proficiency in English and Mathematics. ISEC, located in Kolkata campus of ISI, functions with support from the Ministry of External Affairs and the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation of the Government of India.
Publications
Sankhya, the statistical journal published by ISI, was founded in 1933, along the lines of Karl Pearson's Biometrika. Mahalanobis was the founder editor. Each volume of Sankhya consists of four issues; two of them are in Series A, containing articles on theoretical statistics, probability theory and stochastic processes, and the other two issues form the Series B, containing articles on applied statistics, i.e. applied probability, applied stochastic processes, econometrics and statistical computing.
Rankings
According to India Education Review, no Indian university is in the world's top 200 universities, as of 2012. The ascribed ranking of ISI is 186. The web ranking of this institute, according to 4ICU (4 International Colleges and Universities), is 1693. According to the web ranking published by Webometrics Ranking of World Universities, ISI currently holds the world rank of 1352. In the subject-wise academic world ranking of Computer Science, Indian Statistical Institute features in 101—150 category. The Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata is ranked 2nd in Computer Science research by mean citation rate, p-Index, h-index among all universities in India.
Student life
Student Fest
Integration is the annual techno-cultural fest of Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata usually held during the first and second weekend of January each year. It is one of the biggest student fests in Kolkata, and attracts participation from all over the world. Also the performances of great artists are always a center of attraction for all.
Chaos is the annual techno-cultural fest of Indian Statistical Institute, Bangalore usually held during the last weekend of March each year. It is one of the biggest student fests in Bangalore, and attracts participation from all over the world. Limit, an International Mathematics Olympiad is a part of Chaos. A lot of Students throughout the World take part in Limit. Also various other Events are held during Chaos which includes Gaming, Cultural Programmes, Quiz, Debate and much more.
Placement
Alumni of ISIincluding recipients of PhD degreeare employed in government and semi–government departments, industrial establishments, research institutions, in India and other countries. There is a placement cell in ISI Kolkata that organizes campus interviews by prospective employers in various campuses of ISI. Since recent past, a high percentage of ISI alumni gets absorbed into jobs in analytics, banking, finance and software industry.
Statistical Quality Control (SQC) and Operations Research (OR) units
Since mid-forties, ISI pioneered in research and application of Statistical Quality Control (SQC) in India. Walter A. Shewhart, the statistician known as the father of SQC, and other experts of this field visited ISI over the years. The first Statistical Quality Control and Operations Research (SQC & OR) unit of ISI was set up in Mumbai in 1953, followed by Bangalore and Kolkata units in 1954. In 1976, this unit was transformed into the SQC & OR Division, which now operates eight units, located at various industrial centres in IndiaKolkata, Delhi, Bangalore, Chennai, Pune, Mumbai, Coimbatore and Vadodara. These units partake in technical consultancy with public and private organisations, in addition with performing research and training activities. The branch at Giridih was set up in 1931 and it has two operational units, viz. the Sociological Research Unit and the Agricultural Research Unit.
Achievements
Over the years, researchers of ISI made fundamental contributions in various fields of Statistics such as Design of Experiments, Sample Survey, Multivariate statistics and Computer Science. Mahalanobis introduced the measure Mahalanobis distance which is used in multivariate statistics and other related fields. Raj Chandra Bose, who is known for his contributions in coding theory, worked on Design of Experiments during his tenure at ISI, and was one of the three mathematicians, who disproved Euler's conjecture on orthogonal Latin squares. Anil Kumar Bhattacharya is credited with introduction of the measures Bhattacharyya distance and Bhattacharya coefficient. Samarendra Nath Roy is known for his pioneering contributions in multivariate statistics. Among colleagues of Mahalanobis, other notable contributors were K. R. Nair in Design of experiments, Jitendra Mohan Sengupta in Sample Survey, Ajit Dasgupta in Demography and Ramkrishna Mukherjea in Quantitative Sociology. C. R. Rao's contributions during his association with ISI include two theorems of Statistical Inference known as Cramér–Rao inequality and Rao-Blackwell Theorem, and introduction of orthogonal arrays in Design of Experiments. Anil Kumar Gain is known for his contributions to the Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient with his colleague Sir Ronald Fisher at the University of Cambridge.
In 1953, India's first indigenous computer was designed by Samarendra Kumar Mitra who headed the Computing Machines and Electronics Laboratory at ISI Calcutta. The Indian Statistical Institute was also hosted the first two digital computers in South Asia; the HEC-2M from England in 1956, and the URAL from the Soviet Union in 1959. These were also among the earliest digital computers in Asia (outside Japan).
During 1953 - 1956 distinguished scientists, like Ronald Fisher, Norbert Wiener and Yuri Linnik visited ISI. Norbert Wiener collaborated with Gopinath Kallianpur on topics including ergodic theory, prediction theory and generalized harmonic analysis. In 1962, during his month-long visit to ISI, Soviet mathematician Andrey Kolmogorov wrote his notable paper on Kolmogorov complexity, which was published in Sankhya, 1963. Other distinguished scientists including Jerzy Neyman, Walter A. Shewhart, W. Edwards Deming and Abraham Wald have visited ISI during the tenure of P. C. Mahalanobis.
Planning Commission
The second five-year plan of India was a brainchild of Mahalanobis. The plan followed the Mahalanobis model, an economic development model developed by Mahalanobis in 1953. The plan attempted to determine the optimal allocation of investment between productive sectors in order to maximise long-run economic growth . It used the prevalent state of art techniques of operations research and optimisation as well as the novel applications of statistical models developed at ISI. This second five-year plan shifted the focus from agriculture to industrialisation, with an objective of attaining self-reliance by economy of India. Domestic production of industrial products was encouraged in this plan, particularly in the development of the public sector. The two-pronged strategy devised in this plan targeted rapid growth of the heavy industry, keeping emphasis on growth of small and cottage industries.
B. S. Minhas and K. S. Parikh, both from the Planning Unit of ISI Delhi, played key roles in the Planning Commission of the Government of India. Minhas, who joined the Planning Unit in 1962 and retired as a distinguished scientist in 1989, was a member of the Planning Commission during 1971–74. Parikh, who was a member of the Planning Commission during 2004–09, chaired Integrated Energy Policy Committee of the commission, was a member of the Economic Advisory Council of India during the tenure of five prime ministers, also played a role in the Department of Atomic Energy establishment, and was a key advisor to the government on energy issues.
Computer science
In India, the first analog computer was designed by Samarendra Kumar Mitra and built by Ashish Kumar Maity at ISI in 1953, for use in computation of numerical solutions of simultaneous linear equations using a modified version of Gauss-Siedel iteration. In 1955, the first digital computer of India was procured by ISI. This machine was of a model named HEC-2M, manufactured by British Tabulating Machine Company (BTM). As per the agreement with BTM, ISI had to take care of the installation work and maintenance of it, before it became operational in 1956. Though this HEC-2M machine and the URAL-1 machine, which was bought in 1959 from Russia, were operational till 1963, ISI began development of the first second-generation digital computer of India in collaboration with Jadavpur University (JU). This joint collaboration led by the head of the Computing Machines and Electronics Laboratory at ISI, Samarendra Kumar Mitra, produced the transistor-driven machine ISIJU-1, which became operational in 1964. The first annual convention of the Computer Society of India (CSI) was hosted by ISI in 1965. The Computer and Communication Sciences division of ISI produced many eminent scientists such as Samarendra Kumar Mitra (its original founder), Dwijesh Dutta Majumdar, Sankar Kumar Pal, Bidyut Baran Chaudhuri, Nikhil R. Pal, Bhabani P. Sinha, Bhargab B. Bhattacharya, Malay K. Kundu, Sushmita Mitra, Bhabatosh Chanda, C. A. Murthy, Sanghamitra Bandyopadhyay and many. ISI is regarded as one of the top most centres for research in computer science in India and attracts some of the best students in the country.
The Knowledge-based Computer Systems project (KBCS), funded jointly by Department of Electronics and Information Technology (DoE), Government of India and UNDP since 1986, has a nodal centre at ISI Kolkata. This unit is responsible for research in the area of image processing, pattern recognition, computer vision and artificial intelligence.
Social sciences
R. L. Brahmachari, known for his work in many fields like agricultural sciences, zoology, botany, biometrics, did much of his work at ISI.
The institute has done some pioneering work and research in anthropology and palaeontology. A trove of dinosaur fossils was discovered by a team led by ISI researchers in the early 1960s. The scattered fossils were recovered and the partial skeleton was reconstructed at ISI's Baranagar campus. It turned out to be a unique species and was named the Barapasaurus tagorei (Dinosauria: Sauropoda), after Rabindranath Tagore and was mounted in the Geology Museum at the Kolkata Campus of the Institute.
The Linguistic Research Unit (LRU) of ISI was involved in the study of speech pathology. Đorđe Kostić of this laboratory was a distinguished scientist. He invented a unique hearing aid, called SAFA (Selective Auditory Frequency Amplifier) that simulates frequency-range according to the need of the particular hearing impaired person.
Alumni
Many students and research scholars of ISI pursued a career in academics, and have excelled in the fields of statistics, mathematics, probability theory, computer science and economics. In statistics alumni of ISI who have been elected a Fellow of the American Statistical Association include P. V. Sukhatme (1950) and K. R. Nair (1951). There are many other notable ones including Samarendra Kumar Mitra, S. R. S. Varadhan, Debabrata Basu, K. R. Parthasarathy, Jayanta Kumar Ghosh, Bimal K. Roy, Sankar Kumar Pal, B. L. S. Prakasa Rao, G. Jogesh Babu, Thiruvenkatachari Parthasarathy, Gopinath Kallianpur, Rajeeva Karandikar, Ravindra Khattree, Sanghamitra Bandyopadhyay, Palash Sarkar, J. S. Rao, Kesar Singh, Ranajit Chakraborty, Partha Pratim Majumder, Probal Chaudhuri, Arup Bose, Debashish Goswami, Ritabrata Munshi, Sourav Chatterjee, Jean Drèze, Sucharit Sarkar. ISI alumni notable for non-academic career include politicians Subramanian Swamy and Dipankar Bhattacharya.
Administration
ISI functions as an autonomous institute under the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MOSPI), which is the nodal ministry of the Government of India that ensures the functioning of ISI in accordance with The Indian Statistical Institute Act 1959. ISI Council is the highest policy–making body of the institute. Members of this council include the president of ISI, the chairman of ISI, representatives of the Government of India including one representative of RBI, scientists not employed in ISI including one representative from the Planning Commission of India and one representative of the UGC, representatives of scientific and non-scientific workers of ISI, and representative from academic staff of ISI, including the Director of ISI and the Dean of Studies of ISI. Bimal Kumar Roy was the Director until 10 June 2015; in a move unique in the history of the Institute, he was removed from his post via a notice posted on the web site of the Ministry of Statistics and Planning. He was sacked over financial and administrative irregularities The list is the following:
Visits by Heads of states
Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev visited ISI during his visit to India in 1955. Zhou Enlai, the Prime Minister of China, and Ho Chi Minh, the President of Vietnam, during their visit to India specifically visited ISI respectively on 9 September 1956 and 13 February 1958.
Citations
References
External links
Academic institutions associated with the Bengal Renaissance
Statistical organisations in India
Universities and colleges in Bangalore
Universities and colleges in Kolkata
Research institutes in Kolkata
Research institutes in West Bengal
Research institutes in Bangalore
Public universities in India
Indian mathematics
Mathematical institutes
Research institutes in Hyderabad, India
Universities and colleges in Delhi
Universities in Chennai
1931 establishments in India
Baranagar |
52555 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defense%20Information%20Systems%20Agency | Defense Information Systems Agency | The Defense Information Systems Agency (DISA), known as the Defense Communications Agency (DCA) until 1991, is a United States Department of Defense (DoD) combat support agency composed of military, federal civilians, and contractors. DISA provides information technology (IT) and communications support to the President, Vice President, Secretary of Defense, the military services, the combatant commands, and any individual or system contributing to the defense of the United States.
Headquarters
From January to July 2011, DISA relocated more than 4,500 military and civilian employees and supporting onsite contractors, 700 workstation suites with 11,000 pieces of IT equipment, and 58,000 square feet of lab equipment in accordance with the Base Realignment and Closure legislation of 2005. The relocation to Fort George G. Meade, Md., consolidated DISA headquarters elements that were housed in multiple locations in Arlington and Falls Church, Va. In April 2011, DISA held a ribbon cutting ceremony officially opening the new headquarters complex.
Services
DISA offers the following services:
Command and Control
Command and Control (C2) systems provide the U.S. military commander with the information to make effective decisions and provide the warfighter the capability to access the information necessary to complete their mission. The C2 portfolio contains the Global Command and Control System - Joint (GCCS-J), Multinational Information Sharing (MNIS), Joint Planning and Execution Services (JPES), and Personal Digital Assistant 184 (PDA-184).
PDA-184
The DISA PDA-184 software application implements a fully compliant MIL-STD-188-184A data controller. It provides reliable data communications over noisy, low bandwidth channels to support chat, file transfer, and email services via an easy-to-use graphical user interface. The application supports multiple bands and waveforms, including integrated waveform (IW), legacy ultra-high frequency (UHF) satellite communications (SATCOM), UHF line of sight (LOS), very high frequency (VHF), high frequency (HF), and extremely high frequency (EHF) SATCOM. PDA-184 is provided without charge to all combatant commands (CCMDs) / services / agencies (CC/S/A).
MNIS – Applications
CENTRIXS
CENTRIXS is the Combatant Commander's network for coalition. CENTRIXS is designed to be a global, interoperable, interconnected, inexpensive, and easy-to use system to share intelligence and operations information through reliable communications connectivity, data manipulation, and automated processes. The CENTRIXS environment is a combination of network and applications services. CENTRIXS provides a secured exchange of intelligence and operational information through reliable communication networks There are 40+ CENTRIXS networks/communities of interest (COIs) providing selected centralized services including: Active Directory/DNS Roots, VoIP, WSUS and Anti-Virus Definitions, and at least 80 countries plus NATO nations participate in the various CENTRIXS networks/COIs.
Pegasus/Griffin
Pegasus/Griffin is a multinationally-developed, managed and resourced collection of networks and services that provides information sharing among the 5-Eyes national classified (SECRET level) networks and C2 systems. Griffin enables participating nations to plan, implement and execute multinational planning and operations from the strategic to tactical headquarters level. It permits users to share SECRET REL information from their national C2 system workstations.
CFBLNET
The Combined Federated Battle Laboratories Network (CFBLNet) is a coalition RDT&E (Research, Development, Test, and Evaluation) environment with Combined Communications-Electronics Board (CCEB) and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and other charter nations/organizations. CFBLNet leverages existing CCEB, NATO, and other national laboratories and test beds to support a wide range of coalition ISTAR (Intelligence, surveillance, target acquisition, and reconnaissance) experimentation and interoperability testing. As a combined environment and network, members have equal say in its use and management, yet specific initiatives may be configured among any number of participants. CFBLNet members respect sovereign and intellectual property rights of activities conducted on the network. CFBLNet is primarily a fee for service activity. and system injector.
APAN
All Partners Access Network (APAN): A web 2.0 service that combines the benefits of unstructured collaboration (wikis, blogs, forums) and structured collaboration (file sharing, calendar) with the personalization of social networking. The existing functionality is maintained at USPACOM Pacific Warfighting Center (PWC). Non-dot-mil; Gateway to DoD.
Computing
DISA's computing services portfolio includes mainframe hosting, application monitoring, and server hosting and virtualization. DISA manages all the partner data, hardware components, software, and labor.
Contracting
DISA purchases telecommunications and information technology (IT) products and services for the U.S. military using a variety of contract vehicles.
Enterprise Engineering
Enterprise Engineering refers to the Global Information Grid (a.k.a. the GIG). DISA plans, designs, constructs, and analyzes the effectiveness of the U.S. military's cyberspace and establishes the technological standards to make the GIG secure and reliable. The enterprise engineering portfolio includes the Joint Communication Simulation System (JCSS), GIG Technical Guidance for Information Technology Standards, and Interoperability Enhancement Process/iSmart (IEP/iSmart).
Enterprise Services
Enterprise services provided by DISA to its mission partners fall under three categories: Applications, Infrastructure, and Identity and Access Management.
Applications
Global Video Services (GVS)
DoD Enterprise Email (DEE)
DoD Enterprise Portal Service (DEPS)
Defense Collaboration Services (DCS)
FORGE.MIL
Defense Messaging Service
Strategic Knowledge Integration Web (SKIWeb)
Automated Time, Attendance, and Production System (ATAAPS)
Enterprise Search
Infrastructure
Rapid Access Computing Environment (RACE)
Global Content Delivery Service (GCDS)
Enterprise Service Monitoring
Enterprise Messaging
Enterprise Service Bus (ESB)
Data Services Environment (DSE)
Hosting Services
Secure Technology Application eXecution (STAX)
Identity and Access Management
DoD Visitor
Enterprise Directory Services (EDS)
Enterprise Attribute Application Forest (EASF) / Identity Synchronization Services (IDSS)
Open Source Attribute-Based Access Control (ABAC)
Information Assurance
DISA's Information Assurance services serve the purpose of:
Making data ubiquitously accessible while simultaneously restricting access
Promoting the safe sharing of information
Preventing attacks by having network protections in place
Network Services
The Defense Information Systems Network (DISN) is a worldwide-protected telecommunications network that enables the exchange of information in an interoperable and global space, partitioned by security demands, transmission requirements, and geographic needs of targeted end-user communities.
Nowadays, DISA maintains the following network services, to support diverse telecommunication requirements for organizations focused on, but not limited to, the Department of Defense (DoD):Data: SBU IP Data (formerly known as NIPRNet)
Secret IP Data (formerly known as SIPRNet)
TS/SCI IP Data (formerly known as JWICS)
Secret Test & Evaluation IP Data (formerly known as DISN-LES)
Private IP Service
Voice: SBU Voice (over VoIP and DSN networks)
VoSIP (VoIP over the secure SIPRNet)
TS/SCI Voice (formerly known as JWICS Voice)
Multilevel Secure Voice (formerly known as DRSN)
DISA Enterprise CVVoIPVideo:
Global Video Services (GVS)
TS/SCI Videoconferencing (formerly known as JWICS Videoconferencing)Messaging: Organizational Messaging Service (formerly known as DMS) Wireless: Enhanced Mobile Satellite Services (EMSS)
Secure Mobile Environment - Portable Electronic Device (SME-PED)
Satellite:'''
Providing access to DISN through
Commercial Satellite (COMSATCOM)
INMARSAT
Spectrum Management
Through the Defense Spectrum Organization (DSO), DISA provides commanders direct operational support, including electromagnetic battlespace planning, deconfliction, and joint spectrum interference resolution. DSO services include:
Spectrum Management Operational Support to the Combatant Commands
Spectrum-related Applied Engineering
Spectrum Technology Testbed Initiative (STTI)
Joint Spectrum Center Ordnance Electromagnetic Environmental Effects Risk Assessment Database (JOERAD)
Electromagnetic Environmental Effects (E3) and Spectrum Supportability Training and Awareness
Global Electromagnetic Spectrum Information System (GEMSIS)
Joint Spectrum Data Repository (JSDR)
Integrated Spectrum Desktop (ISD)
Spectrum XXI (SXXI)
End to End Spectrum Supportability (E2ESS): (Stepstone and Host Nation Spectrum Worldwide Database Online (HNSWDO))
Testing
DISA's Joint Interoperability Test Command (JITC) provides testing and joint certification for the net-centric systems employed by U.S. armed forces.
History
1960s: The Defense Communications Agency
DCA was established May 12, 1960, with the primary mission of operational control and management of the Defense Communications System (DCS).
The initial headquarters for 34 DCA members was Wake Hall, one of a complex of three buildings (which included Midway Hall and Guam Hall) on the site where the parking lot of the Robert F. Kennedy Stadium in Washington, D.C., stands today. Navy Rear Admiral William D. Irvin became the first DCA director in July. In September, Rear Admiral Irvin moved his staff to office space in Building 12 at the Naval Services Center, 701 Courthouse Road, Arlington, Va., the site of the U.S. Navy's old Radio Arlington Station.
DCA's first major tasks were to identify the DCS elements and develop an implementation and management plan. The DCS was essentially a collection of communications systems turned over by the military departments with considerable restrictions. Key among these responsibilities was the establishment of three common-user, defense-wide networks that would be known as the Automatic Voice Network (AUTOVON), the Automatic Digital Network (AUTODIN), and the Automatic Secure Voice Communications Network (AUTOSEVOCOM). For each, DCA sought to determine its overall system configuration and prepare the technical specifications necessary for the equipment for switching centers, interconnecting transmission media, and subscriber terminals.
With the arrival of the space-age, DCA was designated as the “strong focal point” for development, integration, and operation of the space and ground elements of a number of satellite-based communications initiatives. The most important of these would be the DCA-managed Defense Satellite Communications System (DSCS).
The Cuban Missile Crisis of October 1962 showed the need for direct, timely, and private communications between the leaders of the world's two superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union. A duplex cable circuit (later augmented by a satellite hookup) between the two capitals known as the Moscow–Washington hotline or "Red Telephone", became operational August 30, 1963. Program management and engineering for the “Hotline” was assigned to DCA. The system continues intact today with direct links to more than 40 foreign leaders. Another direct result of the Cuban Missile Crisis was the creation of the Worldwide Military Command and Control System (WWMCCS) to enable national command authorities to exercise effective command and control of their widely dispersed forces.
While DCA dealt with the communication crises of the Cold War, a “hot war” was waging in Southeast Asia. America's commitment to South Vietnam led to the creation of a DCA Southeast Asia Region unit in 1964. DCA developed a plan to integrate the region's communication systems into a single modern network. The system would extend the commercial-quality communications provided by satellites and cables to the battlefield.
1970s
DCA assumed responsibility for the Minimum Essential Emergency Communications Network (MEECN), a subsystem of WWMCCS, in December 1971. The MEECN was developed to assure the timely receipt of emergency action messages by worldwide U.S. nuclear forces under nuclear attack by the Soviet Union. DCA served as the MEECN system engineer and provided the broad engineering necessary to ensure a more survivable future network with compatible, interoperable, and secure subsystems.
In the late 1960s and early 1970s DCA, through its NMCS Technical Support Directorate, had responsibility for the technical support, planning, and system engineering for the four command centers then comprising the NMCS. These were the NMCC and the National Emergency Airborne Command Post (these funded by the USAF), the Alternate National Military Command Center (funded by the Army), and the National Emergency Command Post Afloat (funded by the Navy, and deactivated in the late 1960s). DCA performed the requirements collection and analysis, system engineering, funding estimation, subsystem project plan development, and establishment of the initial physical architecture for the expansion of the NMCC that was implemented by the Air Force in the 1970s.
A DoD directive issued in the early 1970s appointed DCA as the system architect for all defense satellite communications. A major new DCA headquarters staff directorate, the Military Satellite Communications (MILSATCOM) System Office, was created to discharge the new role. As the system architect, DCA coordinated all defense satellite communications planning and programs to avoid duplication and ensure communications interoperability among the diverse systems serving the complete spectrum of defense needs.
1980s
The momentum of major improvements in national security telecommunications accelerated rapidly in the 1980s. Along with the unprecedented peacetime military build-up under the Reagan Administration came the proliferation of government-owned and government-leased networks and a high emphasis on interoperability among the military services. The pace of technological advancement brought with it new opportunities for system improvements.
The desire for interoperability in military communications did not originate in the 1980s. The need for communications systems that talked to each other within an individual military service and among the services together went back to the needs generated by the global proportions of WWII. Indeed, it was the lack of interoperability that drove the Eisenhower administration to seek one organization to pull together the services’ disparate systems to speak with one voice – that organization was DCA. But interoperability still had yet to be achieved by the 1980s.
In April 1986, the assistant secretary of defense for command and control, communications and intelligence proposed the consolidation of DCA and the Joint Tactical Command, Control, and Communications Agency (JTC3A) in view of the “climate within DoD of streamlining and reducing overhead functions.” The Joint Staff endorsed the proposal because it also provided some operational efficiency.
In January 1987, the secretary of defense approved the consolidation of DCA and JTC3A. A year later, DCA absorbed the Tri-Service Tactical Communications Joint Test Element and JTC3A Joint Operability Test Facility. DCA consolidated these organizations into a new organization in 1989, establishing the Joint Interoperability Test Command (JITC) at Fort Huachuca, Arizona. JITC provided the facility for DoD and private-sector interoperability compliance testing and certification.
In October 1989, the deputy secretary of defense established a DoD Corporate Information Management (CIM) Initiative to identify and implement management efficiencies in DoD information systems. DCA was given responsibility for implementing the CIM initiative, and its mission was expanded to include information support to the JCS and Office of the Secretary of Defense, tactical information system standards and interoperability, and White House information systems.
1990s
In 1990 and 1991, during Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm, a team of planners, engineers, and operators from DCA's Defense Network Systems Organization (DNSO) assisted in the design of a semi-fixed telecommunications system, the Southwest Asia Telecommunications (SATS) for use in support of the theater commander's operations. SATS included satellite, microwave, copper cable, and fiber optic links; Defense Data Network packet-switching nodes; Defense Switched Network (DSN) multi-function voice switches; and technical control facilities. At their peak, these systems included more than 100 satellite links.
On June 25, 1991, DCA underwent a major reorganization and was renamed the Defense Information Systems Agency (DISA) to reflect its expanded role in implementing the DoD's CIM (Corporate Information Management) initiative and to clearly identify DISA as a combat support agency. DISA established the Center for Information Management to provide technical and program execution assistance to the assistant secretary of defense (C3I) and technical products and services to DoD and military components.
DISA's role in DoD information management continued to expand with implementation of several Defense Management Report Decisions (DMRD ), most notably DMRD 918, in September 1992. DMRD 918 created the Defense Information Infrastructure (DII) and directed DISA to manage and consolidate the Services’ and DoD's information processing centers into 16 mega-centers. During the 1990s, DISA fielded new systems to support the combatant commands. The Global Command and Control System (GCCS) and the Joint Chiefs’ C4I (Command, Control, Communications, Computers, and Intelligence) for the Warrior, and the Defense Message System were among the critical systems. GCCS was developed to replace WWMCCS, which had been in existence since the early 1960s.
2000s
With the new century, DISA faced even greater challenges as a DoD service provider. Preserving radio spectrum, information assurance, ensuring interoperability, and establishing secure wireless links were just some of the tasks performed by the agency. Perhaps the most significant achievement of the agency in 2001 was its immediate response in the aftermath of the attacks of Sept. 11, 2001. DISA justified $300 million in supplemental funds to support the Global War on Terrorism by providing critical communications paths and command and control enhancements for warfighters.
In the 18 months between September 2001 and April 2003, DISA supported the exponential use and increased capacity of information systems. The Defense Switched Network (DSN) infrastructure increased 400 percent. The Secret Internet Protocol (IP) Data Service (formerly known as the SIPRNet) capacity increased 292 percent. Sensitive but Unclassified Internet Protocol (IP) Data Service (formerly known as NIPRNet) capacity increased 509 percent. The Defense Video System Global (Secure) increased 1,150 percent. Satellite bandwidth increased 800 percent. The Enhanced Mobile Satellite Service (EMSS) capacity increased 300 percent, and usage increased 3,000 percent. EMSS allowed Special Operations forces to even call in air strikes from horseback in Afghanistan by permitting instantaneous communications in areas without any infrastructure whatsoever.
For Operation Iraqi Freedom in 2003, DISA provided 30 times more bandwidth to a 45-percent smaller force than in Operation Desert Storm in 1991. DISA facilitated multiple enhancements to the nation's preeminent joint command-and-control system and provided a real-time battle space picture.
After the previous consolidation of 194 data-processing centers in the 1990s into 16 computing mega-centers, DISA further reduced the number of mega-centers from 16 to six.
Starting in 2003, DISA managed the six-year, $326 million effort to completely modernize presidential communications — the largest such initiative in the 61-year history of the White House Communications Agency. The “Pioneer Program” transformed presidential communications by employing net-centric concepts to put voice, video, and data at the president's fingertips on an around-the-clock basis.
The Global Information Grid Bandwidth Expansion (GIG-BE) Program was a major DoD net-centric transformational initiative executed by DISA. The $877 million program was the largest DoD information technology transport structure ever built. GIG-BE created a ubiquitous "bandwidth-available" environment to improve national security intelligence, surveillance, reconnaissance, information assurance, and command and control at locations worldwide. On Dec. 20, 2005, the GIG-BE program achieved the milestone of full operational capability at all of the almost 100 Joint Staff-approved sites.
2010s
DISA's 50 years of service as the Defense Communications Agency and later the Defense Information Systems Agency was recognized May 12, 2010, during an anniversary celebration at Seven Skyline Place, Falls Church, Va. Army LTG Carroll F. Pollett, the DISA director at the time, led the celebration of the agency's storied past.
From 2008 through 2010, DISA worked directly with the commander, United States Central Command (USCENTCOM), to design and implement a high-capacity, strategic communication network into an active Theater of Operations, ensuring reliable communications for intra-theater mission partners and to national leadership. Prior to this installation, the coalition forces in Afghanistan were dependent on satellite communications and tactical microwave links, which had limited bandwidth capacity and induced significant delay.
DISA operated and defended the Global Information Grid (GIG), providing information capabilities with a reach from the White House to forces at the tactical edge. DISA supported execution of military operations while simultaneously supporting peacekeeping, humanitarian assistance, and disaster-relief missions in multiple theaters around the globe. During a 4-month period in 2011, DISA provided support to an unprecedented six simultaneous operations: Operation NEW DAWN in Iraq; Operation ENDURING FREEDOM in Afghanistan; Operation UNIFIED RESPONSE in Haiti; Operation ODYSSEY DAWN and NATO Operation UNIFIED PROTECTOR in Libya, Operation TOMODACHI in Japan; and DISA's global cyber operations in support of United States Cyber Command (USCYBERCOM).
2020s
Computer systems controlled by DISA were hacked in the summer of 2019, and was reported in February 2020, exposing the personal data of about 200,000 people including names and social security numbers.
List of directors
Military Unit Decorations
The unit awards below are issued to Headquarters, Defense Information Systems Agency and subordinate units unless otherwise noted.
Members of military-specific units (i.e., Army, Navy, Marine Corps, and Air Force) assigned or attached, even if they are under the operational control, are not eligible for the JMUA, but retain eligibility for unit awards from their respective military service department.
Members must have been permanently assigned or attached by official orders to the agency for 30 or more days during the designated award period. Service members individually assigned or attached (including temporary duty or temporary additional duty) status is determined by official orders that specify the agency as the duty unit. Some military services allow the “temporary-wear” of past unit citations when assigned to the organization. The Joint Meritorious Unit Award is an exception to this rule and is not authorized for temporary wear.
See also
Software Defined Perimeter
Joint Directorate of Infrastructure Networks and Information Systems
References
1960 establishments in the United States
Information Systems Agency
United States Department of Defense
Government agencies established in 1960 |
23864530 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning%20with%20errors | Learning with errors | Learning with errors (LWE) is the computational problem of inferring a linear -ary function over a finite ring from given samples some of which may be erroneous.
The LWE problem is conjectured to be hard to solve, and thus be useful in cryptography.
More precisely, the LWE problem is defined as follows. Let denote the ring of integers modulo and let
denote the set of -vectors over . There exists a certain unknown linear function , and the input to the LWE problem is a sample of pairs , where and , so that with high probability . Furthermore, the deviation from the equality is according to some known noise model. The problem calls for finding the function , or some close approximation thereof, with high probability.
The LWE problem was introduced by Oded Regev in 2005 (who won the 2018 Gödel Prize for this work), it is a generalization of the parity learning problem. Regev showed that the LWE problem is as hard to solve as several worst-case lattice problems. Subsequently, the LWE problem has been used as a hardness assumption to create public-key cryptosystems, such as the ring learning with errors key exchange by Peikert.
Definition
Denote by the additive group on reals modulo one.
Let be a fixed vector.
Let be a fixed probability distribution over .
Denote by the distribution on obtained as follows.
Pick a vector from the uniform distribution over ,
Pick a number from the distribution ,
Evaluate , where is the standard inner product in , the division is done in the field of reals (or more formally, this "division by " is notation for the group homomorphism mapping to ), and the final addition is in .
Output the pair .
The learning with errors problem is to find , given access to polynomially many samples of choice from .
For every , denote by the one-dimensional Gaussian with zero mean and variance
, that is, the density function is where , and let be the distribution on obtained by considering modulo one. The version of LWE considered in most of the results would be
Decision version
The LWE problem described above is the search version of the problem. In the decision version (DLWE), the goal is to distinguish between noisy inner products and uniformly random samples from (practically, some discretized version of it). Regev showed that the decision and search versions are equivalent when is a prime bounded by some polynomial in .
Solving decision assuming search
Intuitively, if we have a procedure for the search problem, the decision version can be solved easily: just feed the input samples for the decision problem to the solver for the search problem. Denote the given samples by . If the solver returns a candidate , for all , calculate . If the samples are from an LWE distribution, then the results of this calculation will be distributed according , but if the samples are uniformly random, these quantities will be distributed uniformly as well.
Solving search assuming decision
For the other direction, given a solver for the decision problem, the search version can be solved as follows: Recover one coordinate at a time. To obtain the first coordinate, , make a guess , and do the following. Choose a number uniformly at random. Transform the given samples as follows. Calculate . Send the transformed samples to the decision solver.
If the guess was correct, the transformation takes the distribution to itself, and otherwise, since is prime, it takes it to the uniform distribution. So, given a polynomial-time solver for the decision problem that errs with very small probability, since is bounded by some polynomial in , it only takes polynomial time to guess every possible value for and use the solver to see which one is correct.
After obtaining , we follow an analogous procedure for each other coordinate . Namely, we transform our samples the same way, and transform our samples by calculating , where the is in the coordinate.
Peikert showed that this reduction, with a small modification, works for any that is a product of distinct, small (polynomial in ) primes. The main idea is if , for each , guess and check to see if is congruent to , and then use the Chinese remainder theorem to recover .
Average case hardness
Regev showed the random self-reducibility of the LWE and DLWE problems for arbitrary and . Given samples from , it is easy to see that are samples from .
So, suppose there was some set such that , and for distributions , with , DLWE was easy.
Then there would be some distinguisher , who, given samples , could tell whether they were uniformly random or from . If we need to distinguish uniformly random samples from , where is chosen uniformly at random from , we could simply try different values sampled uniformly at random from , calculate and feed these samples to . Since comprises a large fraction of , with high probability, if we choose a polynomial number of values for , we will find one such that , and will successfully distinguish the samples.
Thus, no such can exist, meaning LWE and DLWE are (up to a polynomial factor) as hard in the average case as they are in the worst case.
Hardness results
Regev's result
For a n-dimensional lattice , let smoothing parameter denote the smallest such that where is the dual of and is extended to sets by summing over function values at each element in the set. Let denote the discrete Gaussian distribution on of width for a lattice and real . The probability of each is proportional to .
The discrete Gaussian sampling problem(DGS) is defined as follows: An instance of is given by an -dimensional lattice and a number . The goal is to output a sample from . Regev shows that there is a reduction from to for any function .
Regev then shows that there exists an efficient quantum algorithm for given access to an oracle for for integer and such that . This implies the hardness for LWE. Although the proof of this assertion works for any , for creating a cryptosystem, the has to be polynomial in .
Peikert's result
Peikert proves that there is a probabilistic polynomial time reduction from the problem in the worst case to solving using samples for parameters , , and .
Use in cryptography
The LWE problem serves as a versatile problem used in construction of several cryptosystems. In 2005, Regev showed that the decision version of LWE is hard assuming quantum hardness of the lattice problems (for as above) and with ). In 2009, Peikert proved a similar result assuming only the classical hardness of the related problem . The disadvantage of Peikert's result is that it bases itself on a non-standard version of an easier (when compared to SIVP) problem GapSVP.
Public-key cryptosystem
Regev proposed a public-key cryptosystem based on the hardness of the LWE problem. The cryptosystem as well as the proof of security and correctness are completely classical. The system is characterized by and a probability distribution on . The setting of the parameters used in proofs of correctness and security is
, usually a prime number between and .
for an arbitrary constant
for , where is a probability distribution obtained by sampling a normal variable with mean and standard variation and reducing the result modulo .
The cryptosystem is then defined by:
Private key: Private key is an chosen uniformly at random.
Public key: Choose vectors uniformly and independently. Choose error offsets independently according to . The public key consists of
Encryption: The encryption of a bit is done by choosing a random subset of and then defining as
Decryption: The decryption of is if is closer to than to , and otherwise.
The proof of correctness follows from choice of parameters and some probability analysis. The proof of security is by reduction to the decision version of LWE: an algorithm for distinguishing between encryptions (with above parameters) of and can be used to distinguish between and the uniform distribution over
CCA-secure cryptosystem
Peikert proposed a system that is secure even against any chosen-ciphertext attack.
Key exchange
The idea of using LWE and Ring LWE for key exchange was proposed and filed at the University of Cincinnati in 2011 by Jintai Ding. The idea comes from the associativity of matrix multiplications, and the errors are used to provide the security. The paper appeared in 2012 after a provisional patent application was filed in 2012.
The security of the protocol is proven based on the hardness of solving the LWE problem. In 2014, Peikert presented a key-transport scheme following the same basic idea of Ding's, where the new idea of sending an additional 1-bit signal for rounding in Ding's construction is also used. The "new hope" implementation selected for Google's post-quantum experiment, uses Peikert's scheme with variation in the error distribution.
See also
Post-quantum cryptography
Lattice-based cryptography
Ring learning with errors key exchange
Short integer solution (SIS) problem
References
Machine learning
Cryptography
Post-quantum cryptography |
4196664 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HackThisSite | HackThisSite | HackThisSite.org, commonly referred to as HTS, is an online hacking and security website founded by Jeremy Hammond. The site is maintained by members of the community after his departure. It aims to provide users with a way to learn and practice basic and advanced "hacking" skills through a series of challenges in a safe and legal environment. The organization has a user base of over a million, though the number of active members is believed to be much lower. The most users online at the same time was 19,950 on February 5, 2018 at 2:46:10 AM CST.
HackThisSite involves a small, loose team of developers and moderators who maintain its website, IRC server, and related projects. It produces an e-zine which it releases at various hacker conventions and through its hackbloc portal. Hard copies of the magazine are published by Microcosm and Quimbys. It also has a short news/blog section run by developers.
IRC and forums
HackThisSite is known for its IRC network, where many users converse on a plethora of topics ranging from current events to technical issues with programming and Unix-based operating systems. Mostly, the HackThisSite IRC network serves as a social gathering of like-minded people to discuss anything. Although there are many channels on the IRC network, the main channel, #hackthissite, has a +R flag which requires users to register their nick before they may join the channel. This requirement helps reduce botnets in the main channel, because they would have to register every nick.
Following the split from its former sister site CriticalSecurity.Net, HackThisSite retained one main set of forums. The Hackbloc forums also had many HackThisSite users involved, but they were taken down. Before the split, the CriticalSecurity.net forums had most HTS discussion, specifically related to help with the challenges on the site as well as basic hacking questions. The Hackbloc forums were more for focused hacktivist discussion as well as a place for people to discuss news and plan future projects. Many people criticize the forums as being too beginner-focused compared to IRC, most likely because many new users visit the forums to ask for help with the challenges. HackThisSite is taking steps to try to attract more qualified users to its forums.
Members contribute original texts to the articles area of the site. This area is broken down into different sections on a range of topics. Some of these sections include Ethics, HTS Challenge Tutorials, and Political Activism. The topics covered in these articles range widely in complexity. Topics range from walkthroughs for the missions provided by HackThisSite, to articles regarding advanced techniques in a plethora of programming languages.
Mission challenges
HackThisSite is also host to a series of "missions" aimed at simulating real world hacks. These range from ten basic missions where one attempts to exploit relatively simple server-side scripting errors, to difficult programming and application cracking missions. The missions work on a system of points where users are awarded scores based on their completion of missions.
In general, the missions become steadily more difficult as the user advances through a particular mission category.
Basic and realistic challenges
The Web hacking challenges includes eleven Basic Web Challenges. Each challenge consists of an authentication page with a password entry box, plus other files which are to be exploited or attacked in order to gain the correct password. Successful authentication to the main challenge page will advance the user to the next challenge. These challenges are typically considered simple and are used as an introduction to hacking.
There are sixteen Realistic Missions which attempt to mimic real, moderate to difficult hacking, in real life situations. Each mission is a complete web site featuring multiple pages and scripts. Users must successfully exploit one or more of the web sites pages to gain access to required data or to produce changes.
Programming missions
A Programming Challenges section also exists. This section currently consists of twelve challenges charging the user to write a program which will perform a specified function within a certain number of seconds after activation. These programming challenges range from simple missions such as parsing the contents, to reverse-engineering an encryption algorithm. These help users develop and practice on-the-go programming skills.
Application missions
The goal of application challenges is generally to extract a key from an application, which usually involves some form of reverse-engineering. Other challenges involve program manipulation.
New missions
More recently, HTS came out with logic challenges, which moo, HTS's official bot, proclaimed were "not meant as a challenge to overcome like the rest of HTS challenges." Instead, the logic challenges were meant to be overcome by the participant alone from solving. In April 2009, they were disabled and all points earned from logic challenges were removed. Reasons included concern that the answers could have been easily found elsewhere on the internet.
Likewise, the "extended basic" missions are of recent creation. These are designed to be code review missions where partakers learn how to read code and search for flaws.
A set of 10 easter eggs hidden around HTS were known as the "HTS missions." For example, one of these "missions" was the fake Admin Panel. Developers later decided to remove HTS easter eggs, as some allowed XSS and SQL exploits and many members submitted false bug reports as a result.
Steganography missions
Steganography missions are also available on the website. The goal in these missions is to extract the hidden message from the media file provided. There are 17 steganography missions available.
Controversy
There has been criticism that HackThisSite's self-description as a "hacker training ground" encourages people to break the law. Many people related to the site state that although some of the skills taught can be used for illegal activities, HackThisSite does not participate in or support such activities. Despite this, several individual members have been arrested and convicted for illegal activity (most notably Jeremy Hammond, founder of HackThisSite).
phpBB/HowDark incident
In November 2004 the (now defunct) HackThisSite-based HowDark Security Group notified the phpBB Group, makers of the phpBB bulletin software, of a serious vulnerability in the product. The vulnerability was kept under wraps while it was brought to the attention of the phpBB admins, who after reviewing, proceeded to downplay its risks.
Unhappy with the Groups' failure to take action, HowDark then published the bug on the bugtraq mailing-list. Malicious users found and exploited the vulnerability which led to the takedown of several phpBB-based bulletin boards and websites. Only then did the admins take notice and release a fix. Slowness to patch the vulnerability by end-users led to an implementation of the exploit in the Perl/Santy worm (read full article) which defaced upwards of 40,000 websites and bulletin boards within a few hours of its release.
Protest Warrior incident
On March 17, 2005, Jeremy Hammond, the founder of HackThisSite, was arrested following an FBI investigation into an alleged hacking of conservative political activist group Protest Warrior. His apartment was raided by the Chicago FBI, and all electronic equipment was seized. The federal government claimed that a select group of HackThisSite hackers gained access to the Protest Warrior user database, procured user credit-card information and conspired to run scripts that would automatically wire money to a slew of non-profit organizations. The plot was uncovered when a hacker said to have been disgruntled with the progress of the activities turned informant.
Internal problems
Administrators, developers, and moderators on HackThisSite are arranged in a democratic but highly anarchical fashion. This structure appears to work at most times. When disputes arise, however, loyalties tend to become very confusing. Therefore, HackThisSite has had a long history of administrators, developers, and moderators turning darkside or severely impairing or completely taking down the site.
In the last major attack to occur, several blackhat dissidents gained root-level access to the website and proceeded to "rm -rf" the entire site. Subsequently, HTS was down for months, and is still currently down as of February 2022.
See also
Hacker (computer security)
Hacktivism
H.O.P.E.
References
External links
Official Website
CriticalSecurity.Net
Hacking (computer security)
Computing websites |
838989 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code%20%28cryptography%29 | Code (cryptography) | In cryptology, a code is a method used to encrypt a message that operates at the level of meaning; that is, words or phrases are converted into something else. A code might transform "change" into "CVGDK" or "cocktail lounge". The U.S. National Security Agency defined a code as "A substitution cryptosystem in which the plaintext elements are primarily words, phrases, or sentences, and the code equivalents (called "code groups") typically consist of letters or digits (or both) in otherwise meaningless combinations of identical length." A codebook is needed to encrypt, and decrypt the phrases or words.
By contrast, ciphers encrypt messages at the level of individual letters, or small groups of letters, or even, in modern ciphers, individual bits. Messages can be transformed first by a code, and then by a cipher. Such multiple encryption, or "superencryption" aims to make cryptanalysis more difficult.
Another comparison between codes and ciphers is that a code typically represents a letter or groups of letters directly without the use of mathematics. As such the numbers are configured to represent these three values: 1001 = A, 1002 = B, 1003 = C, ... . The resulting message, then would be 1001 1002 1003 to communicate ABC. Ciphers, however, utilize a mathematical formula to represent letters or groups of letters. For example, A = 1, B = 2, C = 3, ... . Thus the message ABC results by multiplying each letter's value by 13. The message ABC, then would be 13 26 39.
Codes have a variety of drawbacks, including susceptibility to cryptanalysis and the difficulty of managing the cumbersome codebooks, so ciphers are now the dominant technique in modern cryptography.
In contrast, because codes are representational, they are not susceptible to mathematical analysis of the individual codebook elements. In our the example, the message 13 26 39 can be cracked by dividing each number by 13 and then ranking them alphabetically. However, the focus of codebook cryptanalysis is the comparative frequency of the individual code elements matching the same frequency of letters within the plaintext messages using frequency analysis. In the above example, the code group, 1001, 1002, 1003, might occur more than once and that frequency might match the number of times that ABC occurs in plain text messages.
(In the past, or in non-technical contexts, code and cipher are often used to refer to any form of encryption).
One- and two-part codes
Codes are defined by "codebooks" (physical or notional), which are dictionaries of codegroups listed with their corresponding plaintext. Codes originally had the codegroups assigned in 'plaintext order' for convenience of the code designed, or the encoder. For example, in a code using numeric code groups, a plaintext word starting with "a" would have a low-value group, while one starting with "z" would have a high-value group. The same codebook could be used to "encode" a plaintext message into a coded message or "codetext", and "decode" a codetext back into plaintext message.
In order to make life more difficult for codebreakers, codemakers designed codes with no predictable relationship between the codegroups and the ordering of the matching plaintext. In practice, this meant that two codebooks were now required, one to find codegroups for encoding, the other to look up codegroups to find plaintext for decoding. Such "two-part" codes required more effort to develop, and twice as much effort to distribute (and discard safely when replaced), but they were harder to break. The Zimmermann Telegram in January 1917 used the German diplomatic "0075" two-part code system which contained upwards of 10,000 phrases and individual words.
One-time code
A one-time code is a prearranged word, phrase or symbol that is intended to be used only once to convey a simple message, often the signal to execute or abort some plan or confirm that it has succeeded or failed. One-time codes are often designed to be included in what would appear to be an innocent conversation. Done properly they are almost impossible to detect, though a trained analyst monitoring the communications of someone who has already aroused suspicion might be able to recognize a comment like "Aunt Bertha has gone into labor" as having an ominous meaning. Famous example of one time codes include:
"One if by land; two if by sea" in "Paul Revere's Ride" made famous in the poem by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow
"Climb Mount Niitaka" - the signal to Japanese planes to begin the attack on Pearl Harbor
During World War II the British Broadcasting Corporation's overseas service frequently included "personal messages" as part of its regular broadcast schedule. The seemingly nonsensical stream of messages read out by announcers were actually one time codes intended for Special Operations Executive (SOE) agents operating behind enemy lines. An example might be "The princess wears red shoes" or "Mimi's cat is asleep under the table". Each code message was read out twice. By such means, the French Resistance were instructed to start sabotaging rail and other transport links the night before D-day.
"Over all of Spain, the sky is clear" was a signal (broadcast on radio) to start the nationalist military revolt in Spain on July 17, 1936.
Sometimes messages are not prearranged and rely on shared knowledge hopefully known only to the recipients. An example is the telegram sent to U.S. President Harry Truman, then at the Potsdam Conference to meet with Soviet premier Joseph Stalin, informing Truman of the first successful test of an atomic bomb.
"Operated on this morning. Diagnosis not yet complete but results seem satisfactory and already exceed expectations. Local press release necessary as interest extends great distance. Dr. Groves pleased. He returns tomorrow. I will keep you posted."
See also one-time pad, an unrelated cypher algorithm
Idiot code
An idiot code is a code that is created by the parties using it. This type of communication is akin to the hand signals used by armies in the field.
Example: Any sentence where 'day' and 'night' are used means 'attack'. The location mentioned in the following sentence specifies the location to be attacked.
Plaintext: Attack X.
Codetext: We walked day and night through the streets but couldn't find it! Tomorrow we'll head into X.
An early use of the term appears to be by George Perrault, a character in the science fiction book Friday by Robert A. Heinlein:
The simplest sort [of code] and thereby impossible to break. The first ad told the person or persons concerned to carry out number seven or expect number seven or it said something about something designated as seven. This one says the same with respect to code item number ten. But the meaning of the numbers cannot be deduced through statistical analysis because the code can be changed long before a useful statistical universe can be reached. It's an idiot code... and an idiot code can never be broken if the user has the good sense not to go too often to the well.
Terrorism expert Magnus Ranstorp said that the men who carried out the September 11 attacks on the United States used basic e-mail and what he calls "idiot code" to discuss their plans.
Cryptanalysis of codes
While solving a monoalphabetic substitution cipher is easy, solving even a simple code is difficult. Decrypting a coded message is a little like trying to translate a document written in a foreign language, with the task basically amounting to building up a "dictionary" of the codegroups and the plaintext words they represent.
One fingerhold on a simple code is the fact that some words are more common than others, such as "the" or "a" in English. In telegraphic messages, the codegroup for "STOP" (i.e., end of sentence or paragraph) is usually very common. This helps define the structure of the message in terms of sentences, if not their meaning, and this is cryptanalytically useful.
Further progress can be made against a code by collecting many codetexts encrypted with the same code and then using information from other sources
spies
newspapers
diplomatic cocktail party chat
the location from where a message was sent
where it was being sent to (i.e., traffic analysis)
the time the message was sent,
events occurring before and after the message was sent
the normal habits of the people sending the coded messages
etc.
For example, a particular codegroup found almost exclusively in messages from a particular army and nowhere else might very well indicate the commander of that army. A codegroup that appears in messages preceding an attack on a particular location may very well stand for that location.
Cribs can be an immediate giveaway to the definitions of codegroups. As codegroups are determined, they can gradually build up a critical mass, with more and more codegroups revealed from context and educated guesswork. One-part codes are more vulnerable to such educated guesswork than two-part codes, since if the codenumber "26839" of a one-part code is determined to stand for "bulldozer", then the lower codenumber "17598" will likely stand for a plaintext word that starts with "a" or "b". At least, for simple one part codes.
Various tricks can be used to "plant" or "sow" information into a coded message, for example by executing a raid at a particular time and location against an enemy, and then examining code messages sent after the raid. Coding errors are a particularly useful fingerhold into a code; people reliably make errors, sometimes disastrous ones. Planting data and exploiting errors works against ciphers as well.
The most obvious and, in principle at least, simplest way of cracking a code is to steal the codebook through bribery, burglary, or raiding parties — procedures sometimes glorified by the phrase "practical cryptography" — and this is a weakness for both codes and ciphers, though codebooks are generally larger and used longer than cipher keys. While a good code may be harder to break than a cipher, the need to write and distribute codebooks is seriously troublesome.
Constructing a new code is like building a new language and writing a dictionary for it; it was an especially big job before computers. If a code is compromised, the entire task must be done all over again, and that means a lot of work for both cryptographers and the code users. In practice, when codes were in widespread use, they were usually changed on a periodic basis to frustrate codebreakers, and to limit the useful life of stolen or copied codebooks.
Once codes have been created, codebook distribution is logistically clumsy, and increases chances the code will be compromised. There is a saying that "Three people can keep a secret if two of them are dead," (Benjamin Franklin - Wikiquote) and though it may be something of an exaggeration, a secret becomes harder to keep if it is shared among several people. Codes can be thought reasonably secure if they are only used by a few careful people, but if whole armies use the same codebook, security becomes much more difficult.
In contrast, the security of ciphers is generally dependent on protecting the cipher keys. Cipher keys can be stolen and people can betray them, but they are much easier to change and distribute.
Superencipherment
It was common to encipher a message after first encoding it, to increase the difficulty of cryptanalysis. With a numerical code, this was commonly done with an "additive" - simply a long key number which was digit-by-digit added to the code groups, modulo 10. Unlike the codebooks, additives would be changed frequently. The famous Japanese Navy code, JN-25, was of this design.
References
Sources
See also
Cipher
Code, its more general communications meaning
Trench code
JN-25
Zimmermann telegram
Code talkers
Cryptography
it:Crittografia |
37502217 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commvault | Commvault | Commvault is an American publicly traded data protection and data management software company headquartered in Tinton Falls, New Jersey. Commvault enterprise software can be used for data backup and recovery, cloud and infrastructure management, retention and compliance.
History
Commvault was originally formed in 1988 as a development group in Bell Labs focused on data management, backup, and recovery; it was later designated a business unit of AT&T Network Systems. After becoming a part of Lucent Technologies, the unit was sold in 1996 and became a corporation, with Scotty R. Neal as CEO.
In March 1998, Bob Hammer joined Commvault as chairman, president and CEO, and Al Bunte joined as vice president and COO. In 2000, the company began releasing products aimed at managing network storage. In March 2006, Commvault filed for an initial public offering, and officially went public later that year as CVLT on NASDAQ. At the end of 2013, the company moved from its space in Oceanport, New Jersey, to its new $146 million headquarters at the former Fort Monmouth in Tinton Falls, New Jersey.
On February 5, 2019, Sanjay Mirchandani replaced the retiring Hammer as president and CEO, and Nick Adamo was announced as chairman of the board. Mirchandani joined Commvault from Puppet, an Oregon-based IT automation company, where he served as CEO.
Software
Commvault software is an enterprise-level data platform that contains modules to back up, restore, archive, replicate, and search data. It is built from the ground-up on a single platform and unified code base. It has four product lines: Complete Backup and Recovery, HyperScale integrated appliances, Orchestrate disaster recovery, and Activate analytics. The software is available across cloud and on-premises environments.
Data is protected by installing agent software on the physical or virtual hosts, which use operating system or application native APIs to protect data in a consistent state. Production data is processed by the agent software on client computers and backed up through a data manager, the MediaAgent, to disk, tape, or cloud storage. All data management activity in the environment is tracked by a centralized server, the CommServ, and can be managed by administrators through a central user interface. End users can access protected data using web browsers and mobile devices.
In 2008, Commvault launched a new remote operations management service for storage management for small and midsize businesses. In 2009, the company's backup software product Simpana version 8 offered the industry's first global embedded software deduplication, allowing users to deduplicate data no matter where it is stored. In 2015, following the release of Simpana version 10, the product was renamed Commvault Software. In 2017, Commvault began to sell its Hyperscale Backup data protection appliances, following up a year later by adding high capacity Hyperscale appliances, and the standalone Remote Office Appliance. Also in 2017, Commvault and Cisco Systems announced ScaleProtect, combining HyperScale software reference architecture with the Cisco Unified Computing System, giving enterprise customers the ability to manage secondary data in a cloud-like, on-premises solution. On July 17, 2018, the company announced a newly packaged set of four products under the name Commvault Complete: Commvault Complete Backup & Recovery, Commvault HyperScale, Commvault Orchestrate, and Commvault Activate. On October 14, 2019, Commvault launched Metallic, a SaaS backup and recovery service for the mid-market, allowing customers to backup on-premises data to their own backup system, their public cloud, Metallic's public cloud, or a combination of both.
Commvault has partnered with companies including Cisco Systems, Hewlett Packard Enterprise, Microsoft, Amazon Web Services, IBM, and Google.
Services
Commvault provides consulting services for customers. The company advises customers with setting up new data management systems from the architecture design to the implementation and monitoring. In the remote managed service, Commvault manages the software in production for their customers.
Acquisitions
On 4 September 2019, Commvault announced that it would acquire software-defined storage startup Hedvig, with the acquisition valued at $225 million. The acquisition was completed that October.
On 1 February 2022, Commvault announced that it has acquired Israel based cyber security company TrapX.
See also
List of S&P 400 companies
References
Software companies of the United States
Software companies based in New Jersey
Companies based in Monmouth County, New Jersey
Tinton Falls, New Jersey
Software companies established in 1996
Companies listed on the Nasdaq
Backup software
Data protection
Data management software
Disaster recovery
2006 initial public offerings
1996 establishments in the United States
1996 establishments in New Jersey
Companies established in 1996 |
43010045 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point-to-point%20encryption | Point-to-point encryption | Point-to-point encryption (P2PE) is a standard established by the PCI Security Standards Council. Payment solutions that offer similar encryption but do not meet the P2PE standard are referred to as end-to-end encryption (E2EE) solutions. The objective of P2PE and E2EE is to provide a payment security solution that instantaneously converts confidential payment card (credit and debit card) data and information into indecipherable code at the time the card is swiped, in order to prevent hacking and fraud. It is designed to maximize the security of payment card transactions in an increasingly complex regulatory environment.
The standard
The P2PE Standard defines the requirements that a "solution" must meet in order to be accepted as a PCI-validated P2PE solution. A "solution" is a complete set of hardware, software, gateway, decryption, device handling, etc. Only "solutions" can be validated; individual pieces of hardware such as card readers cannot be validated. It is also a common mistake to refer to P2PE validated solutions as "certified"; there is no such certification.
The determination of whether or not a solution meets the P2PE standard is the responsibility of a P2PE Qualified Security Assessor (P2PE-QSA). P2PE-QSA companies are independent third-party companies who employ assessors that have met the PCI Security Standards Council's requirements for education and experience, and have passed the requisite exam. The PCI Security Standards Council does not validate solutions.
How it works
As a payment card is swiped through a card reading device, referred to as a point of interaction (POI) device, at the merchant location or point of sale, the device immediately encrypts the card information. A device that is part of a PCI-validated P2PE solution uses an algorithmic calculation to encrypt the confidential payment card data. From the POI, the encrypted, indecipherable codes are sent to the payment gateway or processor for decryption. The keys for encryption and decryption are never available to the merchant, making card data entirely invisible to the retailer. Once the encrypted codes are within the secure data zone of the payment processor, the codes are decrypted to the original card numbers and then passed to the issuing bank for authorization. The bank either approves or rejects the transaction, depending upon the card holder's payment account status. The merchant is then notified if the payment is accepted or rejected to complete the process along with a token that the merchant can store. This token is a unique number reference to the original transaction that the merchant can use should they ever be needed to perform research or refund the customer without ever knowing the customer's card information (tokenization). There are also Qualified Integrator and Reseller (QIR) Companies, which are businesses authorized to "implement, configure, and/or support validated" PA-DSS Payment Applications, and perform qualified installations.
Solution providers
According to the PCI Security Standards Council:The P2PE solution provider is a third-party entity (for example, a processor, acquirer, or payment gateway) that has overall responsibility for the design and implementation of a specific P2PE solution, and manages P2PE solutions for its merchant customers. The solution provider has overall responsibility for ensuring that all P2PE requirements are met, including any P2PE requirements performed by third-party organizations on behalf of the solution provider (for example, certification authorities and key-injection facilities).
Benefits
Customer benefits
P2PE significantly reduces the risk of payment card fraud by instantaneously encrypting confidential cardholder data at the moment a payment card is swiped or "dipped" if it is a chip card at the card reading device (payment terminal) or POI.
Merchant benefits
P2PE significantly facilitates merchant responsibilities:
With a P2PE validated solution, merchants save significant time and money as PCI requirements may be greatly reduced. Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard (PCI DSS). For organizations who use a P2PE validated solution provider, the PCI Self Assessment Questionnaire is reduced from 12 sections to 4 sections and the controls are reduced from 329 questions to just 35.
In the event of fraud, the P2PE Solution Provider, not the merchant, is held accountable for data loss and resulting fines that may be assessed by the card brands (American Express, Visa, MasterCard, Discover, and JCB). The PCI Security Standards Council does not assess penalties on Solution Providers or Merchants.
The payment process with P2PE is quicker than other transaction processes, thus creating simpler and faster customer–merchant transactions.
Point-to-point encryption versus end-to-end encryption
Point-to-point
A point-to-point connection directly links system 1 (the point of payment card acceptance) to system 2 (the point of payment processing).
A true P2PE solution is determined with three main factors:
The solution uses a hardware-to-hardware encryption and decryption process along with a POI device that has SRED (Secure Reading and Exchange of Data) listed as a function.
The solution has been validated to the PCI P2PE Standard which includes specific POI device requirements such as strict controls regarding shipping, receiving, tamper-evident packaging, and installation.
A solution includes merchant education in the form of a P2PE Instruction Manual, which guides the merchant on POI device use, storage, return for repairs, and regular PCI reporting.
End-to-end
End-to-end encryption as the name suggests has the advantage over P2PE that card details are not unencrypted between the two endpoints. If the endpoints are a PCI PED validated PIN pad and a POS acquirer, there is no opportunity for the card details to be intercepted. It is obviously important that the endpoints (the PED and gateway) are provided by PCI accredited organisations.
PCI point-to-point encryption requirements
The requirements include:
Secure encryption of payment card data at the point of interaction (POI),
P2PE validated application(s) at the point of interaction,
Secure management of encryption and decryption devices,
Management of the decryption environment and all decrypted account data,
Use of secure encryption methodologies and cryptographic key operations, including key generation, distribution, loading/injection, administration, and usage.
References
Cryptography |
62956136 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idomeneo%20%28film%29 | Idomeneo (film) | Idomeneo is a 181-minute television film of the Metropolitan Opera's first staging of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's 1781 opera Idomeneo, re di Creta ossia Ilia e Idamante, produced by Jean-Pierre Ponnelle and performed by a cast headed by John Alexander, Hildegard Behrens, Ileana Cotrubaș, Luciano Pavarotti and Frederica von Stade under the direction of James Levine. It was recorded live on 6 November 1982, and telecast live in the United States by Public Broadcasting Service. It has been released on VHS video cassette, Laserdisc and DVD.
Background
In Greek legend, Idomeneus was the King of Crete, the son of Deucalion and the grandson of Minos and Pasiphaë. A suitor of Helen of Troy, he was a major figure in the war between the Greeks and the Trojans precipitated by Helen's departure from Greece with the Trojan Prince Paris. The Odyssey relates that after the Greeks' victory, he led his men through the perils of their journey home without losing a single one of them. Later writings relate that his voyage was afflicted by a violent storm, amidst which he vowed to Poseidon, the god of the sea, that if he was allowed to set foot on Crete again, he would sacrifice the first living thing that he encountered there. Poseidon granted his wish, but when his ship finally reached his island's shore, the first creature that he met was his son, Idamantes. His slaying of the Prince in accordance with his oath was followed by the outbreak of a plague. Blamed by his people for their misfortune, he was driven into exile in Sallentum in Calabria. Later he moved to Colophon in Anatolia, settling near the temple of the Clarian Apollo. One tradition claims that he was buried there on Mount Cercaphus, while Cretans came to venerate his memory at a grave in Knossos.
In 1780, while the 24-year-old Mozart was in the employment of Hieronymus von Colloredo, Prince-Archbishop of Salzburg, he received a commission from the court of Karl Theodor, Prince-elector and Duke of Bavaria, to write an opera to be performed in Munich during the carnival season of 1781. Historians think that it was the court rather than Mozart that chose the tale of Idomeneus as a topic. Mozart based his composition upon a treatment of the legend that had been premiered in Paris in the carnival season of 1712: the tragédie lyrique Idoménée, which had a text by Antoine Danchet and music by André Campra. Giambattista Varesco, a chaplain at the Salzburg court, reshaped Danchet's libretto into a different text that was richer than Idomenée in the dramatic possibilities that Mozart craved, and which culminated in a happier ending.
Mozart's correspondence with his father records the evolution of his composition in detail. He effected several major revisions of his early ideas, some occasioned by the disappointing abilities of Anton Raaff and the castrato Vincenzo dal Prato ("Il nostro molto amato castrato Dal Prato", Mozart joked), the first Idomeneo and the first Idamante respectively. Such difficulties did not prevent Mozart from enjoying his work on his opera greatly, partly because the orchestra at Karl Theodor's court, which had accompanied the Prince to Munich after previously serving him in Mannheim, was the most expert in all Germany. Mozart's widow told a biographer that her husband's time in Munich had been the happiest of his life, and had left him with an abiding affection for the fruit of his labours there.
With Mozart on the podium, Idomeneo was premiered in the court theatre of the Munich Residenz on 29 January 1781, and repeated on 3 February and 3 March. The work received only one further staging in Mozart's lifetime, a production in Vienna in 1786 for which Mozart revisited his score to accommodate Idamante's being cast as a tenor. The work was first heard in the United States in 1947 at the Berkshire Music Festival in Tanglewood under the direction of Boris Goldovsky.
Modern productions of the opera have presented it in a variety of different versions. The Met's first staging in 1982 largely adhered to that conducted by Mozart in Munich 201 years earlier, but with four important exceptions. All were in act three. Elettra's aria "D'Oreste, d'Aiace" and Idomeneo's aria "Torna la pace", both cut by Mozart, were reinstated, and Idamante's aria "No, la morte" and a lengthy concluding ballet were omitted.
The televising of the Met's 1982 production was supported by the Texaco Philanthropic Foundation, with additional funding from the Charles E. Culpeper Foundation and the National Endowment For the Arts. The making of Deutsche Grammophon's DVD release of the production was supported by the Charles A. Dana Foundation.
Synopsis
The opera is set in Sidon, fictitious capital of the Greek island of Crete. The Cretans are awaiting the return of their king, Idomeneo, from the Greeks' protracted, ultimately victorious campaign against Troy. Two foreign princesses are residing in the Cretan court: Ilia, daughter of Troy's King Priam, brought to the island as a prisoner of war, and Elettra, daughter of King Agamemnon of Argos, who has sought sanctuary in Crete after the murder of her mother, Clytemnestra, by her brother, Orestes. Idomeneo's son, Idamante, has fallen in love with Ilia.
Act one begins with Ilia bemoaning the conflict between her burgeoning attraction to Idamante and her loyalty to her defeated homeland. Idamante reports the sighting of his father's fleet. He declares his love for Ilia and orders the release of his father's Trojan captives. Trojans and Cretans join together in celebrating the coming of peace.
Elettra chides Idamante for his magnanimity. Idomeneo's counsellor, Arbace, arrives with the news that the king has drowned in a storm. Elettra expresses her jealous fury that Idamante loves Ilia rather than her, and vows to take a cruel vengeance on her rival.
Idomeneo's storm-battered ships reach the Cretan shore. Arbace has been mistaken in his announcement of the king's death. Idomeneo has survived, but the king's relief at his salvation is poisoned by shame and dread. He has promised Poseidon that he will repay the god's mercy by slaying the first man that he meets as a sacrifice. That man proves to be Idamante.
Father and son have been apart for so long that at first, they do not recognize each other. When the king realizes who the young man standing before him is, he rushes away in horror. Idamante is bewildered and overcome by the pain of his father's apparent rejection of him. The Cretan soldiers sing a paean of thanks to Poseidon as they disembark from the wreckage of their ships.
Act two opens with Idomeneo confessing his predicament to Arbace. They agree to send Idamante abroad as an escort accompanying Elettra on a mission to Argos to claim her father's crown. Meeting Ilia, Idomeneo realizes that she is in love with Idamante and that her feelings are reciprocated, and grieves over the misery that his vow to Poseidon will entail for her as well as for himself. Elettra rejoices that Idamante will be by her side on her voyage home to Argos, and is confident that she will be able to turn the prince's heart away from Ilia. She prepares to board ship with him. Idomeneo's farewells to them are interrupted by a new storm that has been stirred up by Poseidon. Lightning ignites a terrible conflagration, and a monster rises from the waves and assaults the island. The Cretans ask whose sin it is that has aroused Poseidon's wrath. Idomeneo confesses his guilt, and asks the god to spare his subjects from a retribution that should fall on him alone. The Cretans flee from the monster in terror.
Act three begins with Ilia soliloquizing over her love. Learning that Idamante, still confused by his father's ostracism of him, intends to confront the monster in battle, she at long last tells him of her feelings for him. Idomeneo and Elettra urge him to go to Argos. The four combine in a quartet of lamentation.
Arbace enters to tell Idomeneo that the High Priest of Poseidon is leading a crowd of his subjects who wish to speak to him. The counsellor bewails the catastrophe that has befallen Crete, and wishes that it was in his power to ransom the kingdom from the sea god's fury.
The High Priest demands that Idomeneo renders up the sacrifice that Poseidon requires, and Idomeneo explains that the blood that he owes to the god is his son's. Both the people and the priest are appalled by their discovery of who it is that their king is obliged to execute. Prayers and preparations for the sacrifice are interrupted by Arbace bringing the news that Idamante's fight against Poseidon's monster has been successful.
Returned from his triumph, Idamante finally understands why his father has been so distant towards him. He willingly yields himself to be slain. As Idomeneo is about to decapitate him, Ilia offers herself to the axe in his place. Poseidon intercedes with a commandment that Idomeneo should abdicate his throne and that Idamante and Ilia should succeed him. Elettra collapses in rage and despair, and Idomeneo and the Cretans unite in a joyous epithalamion.
Deutsche Grammophon DVD chapter listing
Disc one
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756–1791)
Idomeneo, re di Creta ossia Ilia e Idamante ("Idomeneo, King of Crete, or Ilia and Idamante", K. 366, Munich. 1781) with a libretto by Giambattista Varesco (1735–1805), after the libretto written by Antoine Danchet (1671–1748) for Idoménée (Paris, 1712) by André Campra (1660–1744)
1 (1:41) Opening credits and cast list
2 (4:34) Overture
Act one
3 (4:19) Recitative: "Quando avran fine omai" (Ilia)
4 (3:34) No. 1 Aria: "Padre, germani, addio!" (Ilia)
5 (0:23) Recitativo: "Ecco Idamante, ahimè!" (Ilia)
6 (2:16) Recitativo: "Radunate I troiani" (Idamante, Ilia)
7 (6:53) No. 2 Aria: "Non ho colpa, e mi condanni" (Idamante)
8 (1:19) Recitativo: "Ecco il misero resto de' troiani" (Ilia, Idamante)
9 (2:25) No. 3 Coro: "Godiam la pace" (Chorus, two Cretans, two Trojans)
10 (5:04) Recitativo: "Prence, signor, tutta la Grecia oltraggi" (Elettra, Idamante, Arbace, Ilia)
11 (3:27) No. 4 Aria: "Tutte nel cor vi sento" (Elettra)
12 (1:05) No. 5 Coro: "Pietà! Numi, pietà!" (Chorus)
13 (3:04) Pantomima – recitativo: "Eccoci salvi alfin" (Idomeneo)
14 (3:33) No. 6 Aria: "Vedrommi intorno l'ombra dolente" (Idomeneo)
15 (5:36) Recitativo: "Cieli! Che veggo?" (Idomeneo, Idamante)
16 (3:!3) No. 7 Aria: "Il padre adorato" (Idamante)
Intermezzo
17 (2:01) No. 8 Marcia
18 (6:01) No. 9 Coro: "Nettuno s'onori, quell nome risuoni" (Chorus)
Act two
19 (1:57) Recitativo: "Siam soli. Odimi, Arbace" (Idomeneo, Arbace)
20 (5:16) No. 10a Aria: "Se il tuo duol" (Arbace)
21 (1:12) Recitativo: "Se mai pomposo apparse" (Ilia, Idomeneo)
22 (5:14) No. 11 Aria: "Se il padre perdei" (Ilia)
23 (1:47) Recitativo: "Qual mi conturba I sensi" (Idomeneo)
24 (5:28) No. 12b Aria: "Fuor del mar" (Idomeneo)
25 (0:46) Recitativo: "Sire, da Arbace intesi" (Elettra, Idomeneo)
26 (1:36) Recitativo: "Chi mai del mio provò" (Elettra)
27 (4:28) No. 13 Aria: "Idol mio, se ritroso" (Elettra)
28 (1:06) No. 14 Marcia: "Odo da lunge armonioso suono" (Elettra)
29 (0:54) Recitativo: "Sidonie sponde!" (Elettra)
30 (3:40) No. 15 Coro: "Placido è il mar" (Chorus, Elettra)
31 (0:32) Recitativo: "Vattene, Idamante" (Idomeeo, Idamante)
32 (4:28) No. 16 Terzetto: "Pria di partir, oh Dio!" (Idamante, Elettra, Idomeneo)
33 (1:28) No. 17 Coro: "Qual nuovo terrore!" (Chorus)
34 (1:48) Recitativo: "Eccoti in me, barbaro Nume, il reo!" (Idomeneo)
35 (1:49) No. 18 Coro: "Corriamo, fuggiamo" (Chorus)
Disc two
Act three
1 (1:42) Recitativo: "Solitudini amiche" (Ilia)
2 (5:06) No. 19 Aria: "Zeffiretti lusinghieri" (Ilia)
3 (0:40) Recitativo: "Ei stesso vien" (Ilia)
4 (3:24) Recitativo: "Principessa, a' tuoi sguardi" (Idamante, Ilia)
5 (3:31) No. 20a Duetto: "S'io non moro a questi accenti" (Idamante, Ilia)
6 (1:51) Recitativo: "Cieli! Che vedo?" (Idomeneo, Ilia, Idamante, Elettra)
7 (6:05) No. 21 Quartetto: "Andrò ramingo e solo" (Idamante, Ilia, Idomemeo, Elettra)
8 (0:36) Recitativo: "Sire, alla regia tua" (Arbace, Ilia, Idomeneo, Elettra)
9 (3:23) Recitativo: "Sventurata Sidon!" (Arbace)
10 (3:51) No. 22 Aria: "Se colà ne' fati è scritto" (Arbace)
11 (4:58) No. 23 Recitativo: "Volgi intorno lo sguardo" (High Priest, Idomeneo)
12 (5:22) No. 24 Coro: "Oh, voto tremendo!" (Chorus, High Priest)
13 (1:08) No. 25 Marcia
14 (4:06) No. 26 Cavatina con coro: "Accogli, o re del mar" (Idomeneo, Chorus)
15 (0:38) Recitativo: "Qual risuona qui intorno" (Idomeneo, Arbace)
16 (6:24) No. 27 Recitativo: "Padre, mio caro padre" (Idamante, Idomeneo)
17 (2:16) No. 28d: "Ha vinto Amore" (Voice of Poseidon)
18 (3:17) No. 29 Recitativo: "O ciel pietoso!" (Idomeneo, Idamante, Ilia, Arbace, Elettra)
19 (3:43) No. 29a Aria: "D'Oreste, d'Aiace" (Elettra)
20 (3:19) No. 30 Recitativo: "Popoli, a voi l'ultima legge" (Idomeneo)
21 (3:52) No. 30a Aria: "Torna la pace" (Idomeneo)
22 (2:48) No. 31 Coro: "Scenda Amor, scenda imeneo" (Chorus)
23 (5:12) Closing credits
Personnel
Performers
John Alexander (tenor, 1923–1990), Arbace, confidant of Idomeneo
Charles Anthony (tenor, 1929–2012), a Trojan
Hildegard Behrens (soprano, 1937–2009), Elettra (Electra), Princess of Argos, daughter of Agamemnon, King of Argos
Richard J. Clark (baritone, b. 1939), voice of Nettuno (Poseidon)
Ileana Cotrubaș (soprano, b. 1939), Ilia, Princess of Troy, daughter of Priamo (Priam), King of Troy
James Courtney (bass), a Trojan
Loretta Di Franco (soprano), a Cretan woman
Batyah Godfrey (mezzo-soprano), a Cretan woman
Timothy Jenkins (tenor), High Priest of Nettuno (Poseidon)
Luciano Pavarotti (tenor, 1935–2007), Idomeneo (Idomeneus), King of Crete
Frederica von Stade (mezzo-soprano, b. 1945), Idamante (Idamantes), son of Idomeneo
Warren Jones, musical preparation and harpsichord continuo
David Heiss, cello continuo
Metropolitan Opera Chorus
David Stivender, chorus master and stage band conductor
Gildo di Nunzio, stage band conductor
Metropolitan Opera Orchestra
Raymond Gniewek (b. 1931), concertmaster
James Levine (1943–2021), conductor
Metropolitan Opera personnel
Jean-Pierre Ponnelle (1932–1988), producer, set designer and costume designer
Gil Wechsler, lighting designer
Ubaldo Gardini, musical preparation and prompter
Jeffrey Tate (1943–2017), musical preparation
Grischa Asagaroff, assistant stage director
David Kneuss, assistant stage director
Lesley Koenig, assistant stage director
Thomas Connell, stage manager
Stephen A. Brown, stage manager
Stephen R. Berman, stage manager
William McCourt, stage manager
Stephen Diaz, master carpenter
Sander Hacker, master electrician
Arthur Ashenden, properties master
Nina Lawson, wig and hair stylist
Victor Callegari, make-up artist
Christina Calamari, wardrobe mistress
Television personnel
Michael Bronson, executive producer
Clemente D'Alessio, producer
Karen Adler, associate producer
Brian Large (b. 1939), director
Diana Wenman, associate director
John Leay, engineer-in-charge
Jay David Saks, audio director
Mark Schubin, transmission consultant
Ralph S. Parisi, senior technician
Frank O'Connell, technical director
Mel Becker, audio engineer
Bill King, audio engineer
Michael Shoskes, audio engineer
Robert M. Tannenbaum, audio engineer
William Steinberg, video engineer
Paul C. York, video engineer
Juan Barrera, camera operator
John Feher, camera operator
Manny Gutierrez, camera operator
Jay Millard, camera operator
Jake Ostroff, camera operator
Ron Washburn, camera operator
Alan Buchner, videotape engineer
Karen McLaughlin, electronic graphics
Terence Benson, stage manager
Gerry Crosland, stage manager
Tony Marshall, stage manager
John Rice, production assistant
Brian Zenone, production assistant
Alfred Muller, video post-production, Nexus Productions
DVD production personnel
Roland Ott, project manager
Burkhard Bartsch, project coordinator
Johannes Müller, producer
Hermann Enkemeier, screen design
Christian Müller, video encoding and authoring
Michael Beier, ASMI II surround sound mastering
Richard Fairhead, subtitles
Paola Simonetti, subtitles
Raymond Law, subtitles
Eva Reisinger, booklet editor
Merle Kersten, booklet art director
Critical reception
Donal Henahan reviewed the production from which the film derived in The New York Times on 16 October 1982. Idomeneo, he wrote, was maybe the best of all baroque operas. The Met's new staging of the work – the first in its 99-year history – was among the finest of its recent offerings, notable for its "sheer depth of vocal talent, grasp of the grand style and impressive décor".
The cast was a strong one, with Hildegard Behrens incandescent as Elettra and Timothy Jenkins a stentorian High Priest ("although his upper notes tended to be nasal and strained"). None of the principals was gravely disappointing either in ensembles or when singing solo. Luciano Pavarotti eschewed Mozart's protracted, technically taxing version of "Fuor del mar" for a shorter, easier version of the aria, but he did at least deliver it "with ardour and plangent tone".
This was a choice that other tenors customarily made too, but at odds with the production's overall philosophy of academic rectitude. In general, James Levine adhered to the Urtext edition of the opera performed at its premiere in Munich in 1781. Among his deviations from it were his omission of Idamante's act three aria "No la morte" and his cutting of the lengthy ballet that Mozart had composed as a finale. He also reinstated Elettra's exit aria "D'Oreste, d'Aiace" and Idomeneo's "Torna la pace", numbers which Mozart himself had discarded before Idomeneo was first heard. Levine's rendition of the opera was thus not entirely sympathetic to its idiom and epoch, but was suitable for a modern production for an audience like the Met's.
Jean-Pierre Ponnelle's staging was stylistically mixed. He set the opera amidst what looked like the crumbling remains of buildings constructed by the ancient Greeks, and yet dressed his singers in apparel reminiscent of the eighteenth century. Ilia was the exception to the rule, clothed in a flowing, cream-coloured dress that did seem appropriate to the classical era. Piranesi-like scenery was presented on a series of painted scrims as if in an outsized magic lantern show. Soloists were required to strike histrionic poses of pain, regret or joy after being moved hither and thither like pieces on a chess board. The magnificent chorus was made to perform like a ballet company imitating the children's game of playing at being living statues. Initially, Ponnelle's direction of his artists seemed obtrusive and bizarre, but one soon became accustomed to it, and its emphatic exposition of the opera served Mozart very well. This was not to deny that some of the producer's contrivances were disconcerting. For example, there was a point at which the High Priest and his underlings looked like members of the Académie Française. Perhaps Ponnelle had been influenced by Daniel Heartz's suggestion that Mozart had conceived his opera as something closer to French tragédie lyrique than to Italian opera seria.
Whatever one thought of Ponnelle's contribution to the evening, he allowed his singers to communicate the profound feelings latent in Mozart's music. Frederica von Stade was "marvellously convincing" as the youthful prince (a part initially written for a castrato and later revised for a tenor). Ileana Cotrubaș was impressive from Ilia's first note to her last. Hildegard Behrens "flung herself into the villainous role of Elettra with vocal and dramatic abandon, actually stealing the last act from under Mr Pavarotti's nose". Her exit, carried off after a furious tantrum rigid with catatonia, was almost enough to make one believe that one was witnessing a genuine medical emergency.
On the whole, the production presented an ensemble in harmony with Mozart's spirit. John Alexander was a good, "if somewhat gritty-toned" Arbace, coping well with the ornamentation in arias frequently cut as dramatically superfluous. Pavarotti mostly eschewed embellishments – a couple of straightforward trills that he did attempt came across as somewhat feeble. Nevertheless, he sang with a degree of aristocratic suavity that was suitable for a sovereign, "and if he slid into tones occasionally, there was no denying that a major voice was on display".
Peter G. Davis reviewed the production from which the film derived in New York on 1 November 1982. Its only merits, he wrote, were its use of a musicologically judicious score and James Levine's pointed conducting. Jean-Pierre Ponnelle's staging was "ludicrous" and a "monstrosity". His combination of set designs evoking classical times and rococo costumes and wigs was a "tired cliché" that created "an aura of suffocating decadence that contradicts the freshness, immediacy, and dramatic brilliance of Mozart's score at every turn".
Ponnelle's directing of his singers seemed intended to elicit contempt. Elettra was a "comic-strip harridan", Ilia like "a simpering ninny", Idamante like "a petulant page boy" and Idomeneo like "an ineffectual board-room president". Some of the actions that they were obliged to carry out were almost too preposterous to describe. At one point Ilia waved her arms about as though in "an old Judy Garland routine", with Idamante prone on a staircase behind her for some reason beyond discerning. The High Priest's insistence that Idomeneo sacrifice his son was communicated by a nudge in the ribs. The moving eyelids on a vast carved face of Poseidon reminded one of a doll's. "Rarely can so much meaningless and trivial graffiti have been scribbled over a great work of art".
The casting prioritized famous names over Mozartian expertise. Ileana Cotrubaș, "inexplicably" popular on the other side of the Atlantic, had a "nondescript" voice and was "unmusical to boot". Frederica von Stade sang "tastefully but wanly", and was unable to make Idamante as imposing as he should have been. Hildegard Behrens's glowing persona was spoiled by her "inability to sing a smooth legato line" and a tone that was "unduly raucous". Luciano Pavarotti's performance was conscientious, but compromised by clumsy phrasing, breathy whispering, difficulty with ornamentation and heavy reliance on the prompter. Only in a few loud, high notes was he at his best. "A sorry mess, all in all, and a disappointment for anyone who loves this marvellous opera".
The film and the production from which it derived were also reviewed in High Fidelity, Opernwelt, Ovation and The Washington Post.
Broadcast and home media history
The film was broadcast live in the United States on 6 November 1982 by PBS.
All home media issues of the film present it framed with an aspect ratio of 4:3 and in NTSC colour. In 1982, Pioneer Artists issued it on a pair of Extended Play CLV (constant linear velocity) Laserdiscs (catalogue number PA-85-134), with English subtitles and CX stereo audio. In 1989, Bel Canto Paramount Home Video issued it on a pair of VHS video cassettes (catalogue number 2372), with English subtitles and HiFi stereo audio.
In 2000, Pioneer Classics issued the film on a DVD (catalogue number PC-11498D) with optional English subtitles and Dolby Digital compressed stereo audio. Pioneer's disc is accompanied by a leaflet that includes a synopsis and notes by David Hamilton, both in English only.
In 2006, Deutsche Grammophon supplanted Pioneer's DVD with a two-disc Region 0 release (catalogue number 00440-073-4234) providing audio in uncompressed PCM stereo and in ersatz 5.1-channel surround sound DTS and Dolby Digital upmixes synthesized by Emil Berliner Studios with their AMSI II (Ambient Surround Imaging) technology. Deutsche Grammophon's DVDs offer optional subtitles in Chinese, English, French, German, Italian and Spanish, and are accompanied by a 28-page booklet that includes a synopsis in English, French and German, notes by Richard Evidon in the same three languages, a photograph of James Levine by James Umboh and five production photographs by James Heffernan and William Harris.
References
1980s classical albums
1982 television films
1982 films
Classical video albums
Deutsche Grammophon albums
Live classical albums
Opera recordings |
1353218 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Revenge%20of%20Shinobi%20%281989%20video%20game%29 | The Revenge of Shinobi (1989 video game) | The Revenge of Shinobi, released in Japan as is a hack-and-slash action video game developed and published by Sega in 1989. It was the first Shinobi game developed for the Sega Genesis, and was later released on the coin-operated version of that console, the Mega-Tech.
Alongside Shadow Dancer, the game is a sequel to Shinobi, and features an original score by Yuzo Koshiro. The game was included in the compilations: Mega Games 2, Mega Drive 6 Pak, Sega Classics Arcade Collection (for the Sega CD), and Sega Smash Pack (for the PC and Dreamcast). It was also re-released for the Wii Virtual Console in 2009, on the PlayStation 3 via PlayStation Network and Xbox 360 via Xbox Live Arcade download services in 2012, and for iOS and Android devices in 2017 via Sega Forever.
Plot
Taking place three years after the first game, the criminal organization Zeed from the original game has since reformed and have renamed themselves "Neo Zeed". They decide to have their revenge on the Oboro Ninja clan and Joe Musashi by killing his master and kidnapping Joe's bride, Naoko. Joe, having reached the clan too late, manages to learn about Neo Zeed's plot by his dying master. Joe decides to travel the world to gain his revenge on Neo Zeed as well as try to save Naoko before it is too late.
Gameplay
The game is a traditional side-scrolling platform game. The player controls Joe Musashi and must complete eight districts before the final confrontation with the head of Neo Zeed. Each district consists of three scenes, two of which are platforming levels and the third being a battle against a unique boss character.
The directional pad moves Joe around while the A, B, and C buttons are used to perform ninjutsu techniques, attack and jump, respectively. A key move in The Revenge of Shinobi is the somersault, which maximizes Joe's jumping height and enables him to throw eight shuriken at once in mid-air. Additionally, some stages consist of multiple layers, such as the first scene of the Military Base and the freeway in Area Code 818. Switching between layers is also done with the somersault move.
Alongside his standard moves and attacks, Joe has the ability to do four special ninjutsu techniques. Only one can be performed per life, unless a ninjutsu item was picked up, or the ninjutsu of Mijin was used.
A variety of bonus crates can be found in each level, some hidden in the scenery. These include simple powerups such as extra shuriken or health packs, as well as special items to gain lives or extra ninjutsu attacks. Besides powerups, some crates may contain time bombs: explosives that detonate when their fuse runs out or if Joe comes too close (though he can walk out of the blast radius if the player is quick enough).
The game is divided into four difficulties. As difficulty increases, more enemies appear per stage; on Hardest, Joe takes twice as much damage and the number of starting lives decreases from 10 to 1. From the options menu, the player can also choose the number of starting shuriken from 0 to 90 (though a technique does exist that allows infinite shuriken). The game has two different endings, depending on whether Joe rescues his bride or not.
Development
The game's director Noriyoshi Ohba intended Revenge of Shinobi to be a showcase for the then-new Genesis hardware as well as to adapt the series to something better suited for a home console. As a result, the game is more story-driven with Joe Musashi not rescuing multiple hostages in each level as in the original game, but a single hostage at the end. A life bar was introduced as being more appropriate for a console game of that scope. Ohba intended Revenge of Shinobi to have a high level of difficulty to get the player to think about how they could best beat the game. The game's ninja magic was intended to be helpful in particular situations or boss encounters, making certain parts of the game much easier if the player knew which ninja magic to use at what time.
Some of the game's enemies are notably too similar to various characters from film and comic books, a fact that Ohba attributes to his own lack of creativity. He made rough sketches of these characters based on what he had in mind at the time, expecting that the character designer would modify them and add their own creative touches for the final game. However, they did not, resulting in some enemy characters who were similar to the likes of Sylvester Stallone, Batman, Spider-Man, Terminator and Godzilla.
Release
Because of copyright issues regarding certain enemy characters (many of which were based on cultural icons) there were at least four versions of the game in Japan and North America, with the later two also appearing in Europe:
Software revision 1.00 (1989): Enemy characters resembling Rambo called "Rocky", Jackie Chan, The Terminator called "Hercules" in Japan and "Master Attacker" in the West, Spider-Man, Batman, and Godzilla called "Monster-G" are present. Both Spider-Man and Batman are actually fake representations of the characters conducted by a shapeshifter named "Metamorpher" who alters his appearance after sustaining a certain amount of damage. Additionally, Joe Musashi's face on the title sequence resembled that of actor Sonny Chiba dressed as his character Hattori Hanzō from the Japanese TV series Shadow Warriors (Kage no Gundan).
Software revision 1.01 (1989): The fake Spider-Man is now redesigned into the licensed character from Marvel Comics. Since he is now the real Spider-Man, he does not morph into Batman. Instead, Spider-Man leaves the battle when enough damage is inflicted and Batman is replaced by a winged Devilman-like creature. Monster-G remains unmodified. The "Gunner" enemy soldiers with flamethrowers are also changed to bald men with headbands, altering their original likeness to Rambo (although Sega had the license to the character for their Rambo III console games, they did not use it for this game).
Software revision 1.02 (1990): A new copyright screen is made to acknowledge the license to Spider-Man (Sega already had the license to the character for their game The Amazing Spider-Man vs. The Kingpin) and the music composition by Yuzo Koshiro. Monster-G still remains intact.
Software revision 1.03 (1990): Monster-G is redesigned into a skeletal dinosaur. Everything else remains intact from the previous revision, including the licensed use of Spider-Man. This version was used in the Genesis 6-Pak cartridge along with the "Sega Classics" edition of the game.
Software revision 1.04 (2009/2012): Since the licensed use of the boss Spider-Man was for a limited period of time, the game was subsequently prevented from being re-released years later. The 2009 release for the Virtual Console as well as the Xbox Live Arcade and PlayStation Network 2012 releases feature a new software revision (1.04) that omits the Marvel copyright notice and replaces Spider-Man with a pink palette swap of the character that still behaves the same as the licensed Spider-Man. Joe Musashi's design in the title screen was also altered to remove his likeness to Sonny Chiba.
The credit roll, shown when achieving a "good" ending, was removed from the non-Japanese versions of the game. In versions 1.00 and 1.01, "©SEGA 1989 / MUSIC ©1989 YUZO KOSHIRO" would be shown at the bottom of the title screen like normal; when the Spider-Man copyright notice was added to the game, all copyright bylines were moved to a screen displayed before the intro.
Sega Smash Pack
The version included in volume 1 of the PC Smash Pack collection appears to be a prototype version. The internal ROM date says March 1989, and the product number is filled with zeroes. In the notes section of the ROM header (at 0x1C8), there is the string, "A0115 Sega_Channel", whereas all other releases have that area filled with ASCII space characters. The header is also only marked as being a Japanese release, while all other versions are marked as Japanese, US, and European.
The title screen always uses The Super Shinobi regardless of the console region. The game has an invincibility mode in the options screen, and a level select at the main menu. Enabling invincibility also gives infinite lives from falling offscreen, going out open doors, and using Mijin (it also prevents the player from gaining lives). There are other changes found in the options menu: the shuriken option is spelled "syurikin" (in other versions, it is spelled "shurikin"), and the sound test option lacks music titles, showing only a hex number (in other versions, sound effects are numbered in decimal).
There is no copyright screen. The introduction uses the final version Round 1 music (The Shinobi) instead of its own theme. The sound effect when Musashi changes his grip does not play, and the sparks when shuriken hit the sword stay on screen longer. There are no demos other than the opening animation (i.e. no plot text or gameplay demos).
Using Mijin uses up ninjutsu; in other versions, ninjutsu is still available after using Mijin. Mijin also remains selected after it has been used, instead of switching to Ikazuchi. There is also no shouting sound effect when ninjutsu are activated.
The final game has 19 music tracks, but this version only has the first seven (the order of music in the sound test is unchanged). Because of this, there are differences in what music is used for what round, but even when the music is in all versions, different tracks are used. The music used in 1-1 is China Beat, and 1-2's music is "Make Me Dance" while, in the final version, both stages use The Shinobi. The game over screen has no music and is missing the Masked Ninja's laughter. The drum samples used throughout the game are also different.
For the most part, the enemies resemble the REV00 versions including the two-phase fight with Metamorpher, appearing as an imposter Spider-Man and Batman.
Some bosses appear incomplete. Monster-G, the boss of Round 7, seems to be invincible, and the fight ends after the boss goes through a few attacks. The Round 3 and 8 bosses appear to be missing completely (although the maps themselves are there); the game switches to the end of the level screen shortly after starting. There is no ending either: the game loops back to Round 1 after 8–3.
Reception
The Revenge of Shinobi received positive reviews from critics. The game received 5 out of 5 stars in Dragon; they called it a masterpiece for its animation, graphics, sound and gameplay, but the final boss battle was criticised for being too difficult. Zero magazine said The Super Shinobi is "brilliant" with graphics, sounds and playability "leaps and bounds ahead of anything on console or computer" while surpassing the playability of the original arcade Shinobi. MegaTech magazine praised the "smart gameplay, graphics and sound". Reviewing the game's appearance in Sega Arcade Classics, Glenn Rubenstein said it "was one of the first Genesis games released, and it shows how far Sega has come since then".
Accolades
In 1997, Electronic Gaming Monthly ranked Revenge of Shinobi the 83rd best console video game of all time, saying it "packs fantastic level design and even better gameplay". They also praised the novelty of battling obvious clones of Spider-Man, Batman, the Terminator, and Godzilla. In 2004, The Revenge of Shinobi was inducted into GameSpot's list of the greatest games of all time. Mega placed the game at #18 in their Top Mega Drive Games of All Time. In 2017, Gamesradar listed the game 39th on its "Best Sega Genesis/Mega Drive games of all time."
Sequel
A sequel to The Revenge of Shinobi, titled Shinobi III: Return of the Ninja Master, was released in 1993.
Legacy
A suite of music from the game was performed live by an orchestra at the Fourth Symphonic Game Music Concert in 2006 at the Gewandhaus zu Leipzig, Germany. The arrangement was done by original composer Yuzo Koshiro. Music from The Revenge of Shinobi was also performed at two concerts of PLAY! A Video Game Symphony in Stockholm, Sweden in 2007. It was also played during the encore as the most voted song when PLAY! A Video Game Symphony was performing in Singapore (June 2007). Sound effects from the game were also used in the Heavy Shinobi fight in Sonic Mania.
Notes
References
External links
1989 video games
Arcade video games
Overworks games
Platform games
PlayStation Network games
Sega video games
Sega CD games
Sega Genesis games
Shinobi (series)
Single-player video games
Video game sequels
Video games developed in Japan
Video games scored by Yuzo Koshiro
Video games set in Detroit
Video games set in New York City
Video games set in Tokyo
Virtual Console games
Xbox 360 Live Arcade games |
31187 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TrueType | TrueType | TrueType is an outline font standard developed by Apple in the late 1980s as a competitor to Adobe's Type 1 fonts used in PostScript. It has become the most common format for fonts on the classic Mac OS, macOS, and Microsoft Windows operating systems.
The primary strength of TrueType was originally that it offered font developers a high degree of control over precisely how their fonts are displayed, right down to particular pixels, at various font sizes. With widely varying rendering technologies in use today, pixel-level control is no longer certain in a TrueType font.
History
TrueType was known during its development stage, first by the codename "Bass" and later on by the codename "Royal". The system was developed and eventually released as TrueType with the launch of Mac System 7 in May 1991. The initial TrueType outline fonts, four-weight families of Times Roman, Helvetica, Courier, and the pi font "Symbol" replicated the original PostScript fonts of the Apple LaserWriter. Apple also replaced some of their bitmap fonts used by the graphical user-interface of previous Macintosh System versions (including Geneva, Monaco and New York) with scalable TrueType outline-fonts. For compatibility with older systems, Apple shipped these fonts, a TrueType Extension and a TrueType-aware version of Font/DA Mover for System 6. For compatibility with the Laserwriter II, Apple developed fonts like ITC Bookman and ITC Chancery in TrueType format.
All of these fonts could now scale to all sizes on screen and printer, making the Macintosh System 7 the first OS to work without any bitmap fonts. The early TrueType systems — being still part of Apple's QuickDraw graphics subsystem — did not render Type 1 fonts on-screen as they do today. At the time, many users had already invested considerable money in Adobe's still proprietary Type 1 fonts. As part of Apple's tactic of opening the font format versus Adobe's desire to keep it closed to all but Adobe licensees, Apple licensed TrueType to Microsoft. When TrueType and the license to Microsoft was announced, John Warnock of Adobe gave an impassioned speech in which he claimed Apple and Microsoft were selling snake oil, and then announced that the Type 1 format was open for anyone to use.
Meanwhile, in exchange for TrueType, Apple got a license for TrueImage, a PostScript-compatible page-description language owned by Microsoft that Apple could use in laser printing. This was never actually included in any Apple products when a later deal was struck between Apple and Adobe, where Adobe promised to put a TrueType interpreter in their PostScript printer boards. Apple renewed its agreements with Adobe for the use of PostScript in its printers, resulting in lower royalty payments to Adobe, who was beginning to license printer controllers capable of competing directly with Apple's LaserWriter printers.
Part of Adobe's response to learning that TrueType was being developed was to create the Adobe Type Manager software to scale Type 1 fonts for anti-aliased output on-screen. Although ATM initially cost money, rather than coming free with the operating system, it became a de facto standard for anyone involved in desktop publishing. Anti-aliased rendering, combined with Adobe applications' ability to zoom in to read small type, and further combined with the now open PostScript Type 1 font format, provided the impetus for an explosion in font design and in desktop publishing of newspapers and magazines.
Apple extended TrueType with the launch of TrueType GX in 1994, with additional tables in the sfnt which formed part of QuickDraw GX. This offered powerful extensions in two main areas. First was font axes (morphing), for example allowing fonts to be smoothly adjusted from light to bold or from narrow to extended — competition for Adobe's "multiple master" technology. Second was Line Layout Manager, where particular sequences of characters can be coded to flip to different designs in certain circumstances, useful for example to offer ligatures for "fi", "ffi", "ct", etc. while maintaining the backing store of characters necessary for spell checkers and text searching. However, the lack of user-friendly tools for making TrueType GX fonts meant there were no more than a handful of GX fonts.
Much of the technology in TrueType GX, including morphing and substitution, lives on as AAT (Apple Advanced Typography) in macOS. Few font-developers outside Apple attempt to make AAT fonts; instead, OpenType has become the dominant sfnt format.
Adoption by Microsoft
To ensure its wide adoption, Apple licensed TrueType to Microsoft for free. Microsoft added TrueType into the Windows 3.1 operating environment. In partnership with their contractors, Monotype Imaging, Microsoft put a lot of effort into creating a set of high quality TrueType fonts that were compatible with the core fonts being bundled with PostScript equipment at the time. This included the fonts that are standard with Windows to this day: Times New Roman (compatible with Times Roman), Arial (compatible with Helvetica) and Courier New (compatible with Courier). One should understand "compatible" to mean two things: first, that the fonts are similar in appearance, and second — and very importantly — the fonts have the same character widths, and so can be used to typeset the same documents without reflowing the text.
Microsoft and Monotype technicians used TrueType's hinting technology to ensure that these fonts did not suffer from the problem of illegibility at low resolutions, which had previously forced the use of bitmapped fonts for screen display. Subsequent advances in technology have introduced first anti-aliasing, which smooths the edges of fonts at the expense of a slight blurring, and more recently subpixel rendering (the Microsoft implementation goes by the name ClearType), which exploits the pixel structure of LCD based displays to increase the apparent resolution of text. Microsoft has heavily marketed ClearType, and sub-pixel rendering techniques for text are now widely used on all platforms.
Microsoft also developed a "smart font" technology, named TrueType Open in 1994, later renamed to OpenType in 1996 when it merged support of the Adobe Type 1 glyph outlines.
TrueType today
Macintosh and Microsoft Windows
TrueType has long been the most common format for fonts on classic Mac OS, Mac OS X, and Microsoft Windows, although Mac OS X and Microsoft Windows also include native support for Adobe's Type 1 format and the OpenType extension to TrueType (since Mac OS X 10.0 and Windows 2000). While some fonts provided with the new operating systems are now in the OpenType format, most free or inexpensive third-party fonts use plain TrueType.
Increasing resolutions and new approaches to screen rendering have reduced the requirement of extensive TrueType hinting. Apple's rendering approach on macOS ignores almost all the hints in a TrueType font, while Microsoft's ClearType ignores many hints, and according to Microsoft, works best with "lightly hinted" fonts.
Linux and other platforms
The FreeType project of David Turner has created an independent implementation of the TrueType standard (as well as other font standards in FreeType 2). FreeType is included in many Linux distributions.
Until May 2010, there were potential patent infringements in FreeType 1 because parts of the TrueType hinting virtual machine were patented by Apple, a fact not mentioned in the TrueType standards. (Patent holders who contribute to standards published by a major standards body such as ISO are required to disclose the scope of their patents, but TrueType was not such a standard.) FreeType 2 included an optional automatic hinter to avoid the patented technology, but these patents have now expired so FreeType 2.4 now enables these features by default.
Technical notes
Outlines
The outlines of the characters (or glyphs) in TrueType fonts are made of straight line segments and quadratic Bézier curves. These curves are mathematically simpler and faster to process than cubic Bézier curves, which are used both in the PostScript-centered world of graphic design and in Type 1 fonts. However, most shapes require more points to describe with quadratic curves than cubics. This difference also means that it is not possible to convert Type 1 losslessly to the TrueType format, although in practice it is often possible to do a lossless conversion from TrueType to Type 1.
Hinting language
TrueType systems include a virtual machine that executes programs inside the font, processing the "hints" of the glyphs. These distort the control points which define the outline, with the intention that the rasterizer produce fewer undesirable features on the glyph. Each glyph's hinting program takes account of the size (in pixels) at which the glyph is to be displayed, as well as other less important factors of the display environment.
Although incapable of receiving input and producing output as normally understood in programming, the TrueType hinting language does offer the other prerequisites of programming languages: conditional branching (IF statements), looping an arbitrary number of times (FOR- and WHILE-type statements), variables (although these are simply numbered slots in an area of memory reserved by the font), and encapsulation of code into functions. Special instructions called delta hints are the lowest level control, moving a control point at just one pixel size.
The hallmark of effective TrueType glyph programming techniques is that it does as much as possible using variables defined just once in the whole font (e.g., stem widths, cap height, x-height). This means avoiding delta instructions as much as possible. This helps the font developer to make major changes (e.g., the point at which the entire font's main stems jump from 1 to 2 pixels wide) most of the way through development.
Creating a very well-hinted TrueType font remains a significant amount of work, despite the increased user-friendliness of programs for adding hints to fonts. Many TrueType fonts therefore have only rudimentary hints, or have hinting automatically applied by the font editor, with results of variable quality.
Embedding protection
The TrueType format allows for the most basic type of digital rights management – an embeddable flag field that specifies whether the author allows embedding of the font file into things like PDF files and websites. Anyone with access to the font file can directly modify this field, and simple tools exist to facilitate modifying it (obviously, modifying this field does not modify the font license and does not give extra legal rights). These tools have been the subject of controversy over potential copyright issues.
Font formats
TrueType Collection
TrueType Collection (TTC) is an extension of TrueType format that allows combining multiple fonts into a single file, creating substantial space savings for a collection of fonts with many glyphs in common. They were first available in Chinese, Japanese, and Korean versions of Windows, and supported for all regions in Windows 2000 and later.
Classic Mac OS included support of TTC starting with Mac OS 8.5. In classic Mac OS and macOS, TTC has file type .
Emoji
Apple has implemented a proprietary extension to allow color .ttf files for its emoji font Apple Color Emoji.
File formats
Basic
A basic font is composed of multiple tables specified in its header. A table name can have up to 4 letters.
A TrueType Collection file begins with a ttcf table that allows access to the fonts within the collection by pointing to individual headers for each included font. The fonts within a collection share the same glyph-outline table, though each font can refer to subsets within those outlines in its own manner, through its 'cmap', 'name' and 'loca' tables.
A .ttf extension indicates a regular TrueType font or an OpenType font with TrueType outlines, while a .ttc extension is reserved for TTCs. Windows end user defined character editor (EUDCEDIT.EXE) creates TrueType font with name EUDC.TTE. An OpenType font with PostScript outlines must have an .otf extension. In principle an OpenType font with TrueType outlines may have an .otf extension, but this has rarely been done in practice.
In classic Mac OS and macOS, OpenType is one of several formats referred to as data-fork fonts, as they lack the classic Mac resource fork.
Suitcase
The suitcase format for TrueType is used on classic Mac OS and macOS. It adds additional Apple-specific information.
Like TTC, it can handle multiple fonts within a single file. But unlike TTC, those fonts need not be within the same family.
Suitcases come in resource-fork and data-fork formats. The resource-fork version was the original suitcase format. Data-fork-only suitcases, which place the resource fork contents into the data fork, were first supported in macOS. A suitcase packed into the data-fork-only format has the extension dfont.
PostScript
In the PostScript language, TrueType outlines are handled with a PostScript wrapper as Type 42 for name-keyed or Type 11 for CID-keyed fonts.
See also
ClearType
Datafork TrueType
Embedded TrueType font
Open-source Unicode typefaces
GNU FreeFont
Graphite (SIL)
FreeType
Nonzero-rule
Online office suite
OpenType
Pango (Open source multilingual text rendering engine)
Typography
Typeface
Unicode, UTF-8, Unicode fonts.
Uniscribe (Windows multilingual text rendering engine)
Apple Type Services for Unicode Imaging (New Macintosh multilingual text rendering engine)
Core Text
WorldScript (Old Macintosh multilingual text rendering engine)
Web Open Font Format
References
External links
TrueType specification (Apple)
Typesetting
Digital typography
Font formats |
564697 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floptical | Floptical | Floptical refers to a type of floppy disk drive that combines magnetic and optical technologies to store data on media similar to standard -inch floppy disks. The name is a portmanteau of the words "floppy" and "optical". It refers specifically to one brand of drive and disk system, but is also used more generically to refer to any system using similar techniques.
The original Floptical technology was announced in 1988 and introduced late in 1991 by Insite Peripherals, a venture funded company set up by Jim Adkisson, one of the key engineers behind the original -inch floppy disk drive development at Shugart Associates in 1976. The main shareholders were Maxell, Iomega and 3M.
Technical aspects
The technology involves reading and writing data magnetically, while optically aligning the read/write head in the drive using grooves in the disk being sensed by an infrared LED and sensor (a form of visual servo). The magnetic head touches the recording surface, as it does in a normal floppy drive. The optical servo tracks allow for an increase in the tracking precision of the magnetic head, from the usual 135 tracks per inch to tracks per inch. Floptical disks provide 21 MB of storage. The drive has a second set of read/write heads so that it can read from and write to standard 720 kB and 1.44 MB ( KiB) disks as well.
To allow for a high degree of compatibility with existing SCSI host adapters, Floptical drives were designed to work as a standard floppy disk drive, and not as a removable hard disk. To ensure this, a "write lockout" feature was added in the firmware. This effectively inhibits writing (including any kind of formatting) of the media. It is possible to unlock the drive by issuing a SCSI Mode Sense Command, . It is unclear how much of a problem this is, and Insite also issued EPROMs where this "feature" was not present.
At least two models were produced, one with a manual lever that mechanically ejected the disc from the drive, and another with a small pinhole into which a paperclip can be inserted, in case the device rejected or ignored SCSI eject commands.
Market performance
Insite licensed the floptical technology to a number of companies, including Matsushita, Iomega, Maxell/Hitachi and others. A number of these companies later formed the Floptical Technology Association, or FTA, to try to have the format adopted as a replacement of standard floppy disks.
Around Insite Flopticals are believed to have been sold worldwide in the product's lifetime. Silicon Graphics used them in their SGI Indigo and SGI Indy series of computer workstations. It was also reported that Commodore International had selected the Insite Floptical for its Amiga 3000. However, this did not take place, and while Flopticals were installed in many Amiga systems, they were sold by either Insite, TTR Development or Digital Micronics (DMI), and not bundled by Commodore.
Iomega licensed the Floptical technology as early as 1989 and produced a compatible drive known as the Insider.
A few years later, a number of other companies introduced Floptical-like but incompatible systems:
Iomega introduced their own ZIP-100 system storing 100 MB in 1994, which would go on to sell into the tens of millions. Later versions would increase the capacity to 250 and 750 MB.
Another similar system was Imation's LS‑120 SuperDisk in 1996. The LS-120 stored 120 MB of data while retaining the ability to work with normal -inch disks, interfacing as a standard floppy for better compatibility. A later LS-240 version would store up to 240 MB.
A smaller competitor was the almost unknown Caleb UHD144 in 1997.
Since 1998 Sony also tried their own Floptical-based format, the Sony HiFD, but quality control problems ruined its reputation. The first version could store 150 MB, but it was soon replaced by a 200 MB version.
There was serious consideration that one of these systems would succeed where the Floptical failed and replace the standard floppy disk outright, but the rapid introduction of writable CD-ROM systems in the early 2000s made the market disappear.
Operating system support
Support of Floptical drives is present in all Microsoft Windows NT operating systems up to Windows 2000, where it figures as 20.8 MB drive format option in the FORMAT command options. The FORMAT command in Windows XP and newer lacks support of the Floptical drive. Floptical support exists in SCO OpenServer as well. SCSI-equipped Macintosh computers could boot from a Mac operating system installed on a Floptical; a formatting utility application was provided to erase and format Floptical disks. Likewise, Silicon Graphics's IRIX operating system includes Floptical support.
See also
Magneto-optical drive
SuperDisk (LS-120)
Zip drive
References
Further reading
Optical computer storage
Floppy disk computer storage
Computer-related introductions in 1991 |
45081735 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shared%20memory | Shared memory | In computer science, shared memory is memory that may be simultaneously accessed by multiple programs with an intent to provide communication among them or avoid redundant copies. Shared memory is an efficient means of passing data between programs. Depending on context, programs may run on a single processor or on multiple separate processors.
Using memory for communication inside a single program, e.g. among its multiple threads, is also referred to as shared memory.
In hardware
In computer hardware, shared memory refers to a (typically large) block of random access memory (RAM) that can be accessed by several different central processing units (CPUs) in a multiprocessor computer system.
Shared memory systems may use:
uniform memory access (UMA): all the processors share the physical memory uniformly;
non-uniform memory access (NUMA): memory access time depends on the memory location relative to a processor;
cache-only memory architecture (COMA): the local memories for the processors at each node is used as cache instead of as actual main memory.
A shared memory system is relatively easy to program since all processors share a single view of data and the communication between processors can be as fast as memory accesses to a same location. The issue with shared memory systems is that many CPUs need fast access to memory and will likely cache memory, which has two complications:
access time degradation: when several processors try to access the same memory location it causes contention. Trying to access nearby memory locations may cause false sharing. Shared memory computers cannot scale very well. Most of them have ten or fewer processors;
lack of data coherence: whenever one cache is updated with information that may be used by other processors, the change needs to be reflected to the other processors, otherwise the different processors will be working with incoherent data. Such cache coherence protocols can, when they work well, provide extremely high-performance access to shared information between multiple processors. On the other hand, they can sometimes become overloaded and become a bottleneck to performance.
Technologies like crossbar switches, Omega networks, HyperTransport or front-side bus can be used to dampen the bottleneck-effects.
In case of a Heterogeneous System Architecture (processor architecture that integrates different types of processors, such as CPUs and GPUs, with shared memory), the memory management unit (MMU) of the CPU and the input–output memory management unit (IOMMU) of the GPU have to share certain characteristics, like a common address space.
The alternatives to shared memory are distributed memory and distributed shared memory, each having a similar set of issues.
In software
In computer software, shared memory is either
a method of inter-process communication (IPC), i.e. a way of exchanging data between programs running at the same time. One process will create an area in RAM which other processes can access;
a method of conserving memory space by directing accesses to what would ordinarily be copies of a piece of data to a single instance instead, by using virtual memory mappings or with explicit support of the program in question. This is most often used for shared libraries and for Execute in place (XIP).
Since both processes can access the shared memory area like regular working memory, this is a very fast way of communication (as opposed to other mechanisms of IPC such as named pipes, Unix domain sockets or CORBA). On the other hand, it is less scalable, as for example the communicating processes must be running on the same machine (of other IPC methods, only Internet domain sockets—not Unix domain sockets—can use a computer network), and care must be taken to avoid issues if processes sharing memory are running on separate CPUs and the underlying architecture is not cache coherent.
IPC by shared memory is used for example to transfer images between the application and the X server on Unix systems, or inside the IStream object returned by CoMarshalInterThreadInterfaceInStream in the COM libraries under Windows.
Dynamic libraries are generally held in memory once and mapped to multiple processes, and only pages that had to be customized for the individual process (because a symbol resolved differently there) are duplicated, usually with a mechanism known as copy-on-write that transparently copies the page when a write is attempted, and then lets the write succeed on the private copy.
Compared to multiple address space operating systems,
memory sharing -- especially of sharing procedures or pointer-based structures --
is simpler in single address space operating systems.
Support on Unix-like systems
POSIX provides a standardized API for using shared memory, POSIX Shared Memory. This uses the function shm_open from sys/mman.h. POSIX interprocess communication (part of the POSIX:XSI Extension) includes the shared-memory functions shmat, shmctl, shmdt and shmget. Unix System V provides an API for shared memory as well. This uses shmget from sys/shm.h. BSD systems provide "anonymous mapped memory" which can be used by several processes.
The shared memory created by shm_open is persistent. It stays in the system until explicitly removed by a process. This has a drawback that if the process crashes and fails to clean up shared memory it will stay until system shutdown.
POSIX also provides the mmap API for mapping files into memory; a mapping can be shared, allowing the file's contents to be used as shared memory.
Linux distributions based on the 2.6 kernel and later offer /dev/shm as shared memory in the form of a RAM disk, more specifically as a world-writable directory (a directory in which every user of the system can create files) that is stored in memory. Both the RedHat and Debian based distributions include it by default. Support for this type of RAM disk is completely optional within the kernel configuration file.
Support on Windows
On Windows, one can use CreateFileMapping and MapViewOfFile functions to map a region of a file into memory in multiple processes.
Cross-platform support
Some C++ libraries provide a portable and object-oriented access to shared memory functionality. For example, Boost contains the Boost.Interprocess C++ Library and Qt provides the QSharedMemory class.
Programming language support
For programming languages with POSIX bindings (say, C/C++), shared memory regions can be created and accessed by calling the functions provided by the operating system. Other programming languages may have their own ways of using these operating facilities for similar effect. For example, PHP provides an API to create shared memory, similar to POSIX functions.
See also
Distributed memory
Distributed shared memory
Shared graphics memory
Heterogeneous System Architecture
Global variable
Nano-threads
Execute in place
Shared register
Shared snapshot objects
Von Neumann Architecture Bottleneck
References
External links
IPC:Shared Memory by Dave Marshall
Shared Memory Introduction, Ch. 12 from book by Richard Stevens "UNIX Network Programming, Volume 2, Second Edition: Interprocess Communications".
SharedHashFile, An open source, shared memory hash table.
Computer architecture
Memory management
Inter-process communication
Concurrent computing
Parallel computing
Distributed computing architecture |
37704260 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Draft%20Communications%20Data%20Bill | Draft Communications Data Bill | The Draft Communications Data Bill (nicknamed the Snoopers' Charter or Snooper's Charter) was draft legislation proposed by then Home Secretary Theresa May in the United Kingdom which would require Internet service providers and mobile phone companies to maintain records of each user's internet browsing activity (including social media), email correspondence, voice calls, internet gaming, and mobile phone messaging services and store the records for 12 months. Retention of email and telephone contact data for this time is already required by the Data Retention Regulations 2014. The anticipated cost was £1.8 billion.
May originally expected the bill to be introduced in the 2012–13 legislative session, carried over to the following session, and enacted as law in 2014. However, the former Deputy Prime Minister Nick Clegg withdrew his support for this bill in April 2013, saying "a law which means there would be a record kept of every website you visit, who you communicate with on social media sites ... it is certainly not going to happen with Liberal Democrats in government", and his Liberal Democrat party blocked it from being reintroduced during the 2010-2015 Parliament. Shortly after the Conservative victory in May 2015, May vowed to introduce the Communications Data Bill in the next parliament. In November 2015, May announced a new Investigatory Powers Bill similar to the Draft Communications Data Bill, although with more limited powers and additional oversight.
History
Intercept Modernisation
The powers and intent of the Bill were preceded by plans under the last Labour administration to improve access to communications traffic data, under the Interception Modernisation Programme. The plans did not become a firm legislative proposal and were strongly opposed by both Conservative and Liberal Democrat opposition parties.
The new coalition agreement in 2010 committed to ending the storing of email and Internet records "without good reason". The IMP was not entirely abandoned however, and the Home Office under the new coalition committed to examining the problem of access to communications data under the Communications Capabilities Development Programme.
Queen's Speech
The government announced its intention to legislate in order to "maintain capability" of law enforcement access to communications traffic data in 2012.
Joint Committee
As the result of public reaction to the proposed Bill and internal Liberal Democrat opposition to the Bill, Nick Clegg asked for the Bill to be referred to a Joint Committee to scrutinise the proposal. The Committee reported in December 2012.
Counter Terrorism Bill 2015
In 2015 a cross-party group of lords — Tom King, Baron King of Bridgwater, former Conservative Defence Secretary; Ian Blair, Baron Blair of Boughton, former Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis and crossbench peer; Alex Carlile, Baron Carlile of Berriew, former Independent Reviewer of counter-terrorism legislation and Lib Dem peer; and Alan West, Baron West of Spithead, former Labour Minister for Security and Counter-Terrorism — attempted to add the text of the Communications Data Bill to the Counter-Terrorism and Security Bill, which became the Counter-Terrorism and Security Act 2015. However this was dropped before going to a vote due to opposition.
Powers
The bill would amend the Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000.
Data collection
The bill would create a wide-ranging power to compel any 'communications service provider' to collect and retain additional information about their users. Current data retention obligations require ISPs to retain data collected for business purposes for longer than normal. Under the new bill, any organisation that interacts with users and produces or transmits electronic communications could be compelled to collect and retain information about them, even if it is entirely irrelevant to their business needs.
Deep Packet Inspection
One technique that may be used to collect user data could be Deep Packet Inspection.
According to Office for Security and Counter-Terrorism Charles Farr, formerly of MI6, so-called "black boxes" – DPI – probes are not the "central plank" of the 2012 Communications Data Bill. The boxes would be used when communications service providers refuse to submit data, but he anticipated that most would maintain data about users in unencrypted form from which contact information could readily be separated from content. This would circumvent SSL encryption during transmission. He said that the DPI boxes were already "used as a matter of course" by ISPs. The Mastering the Internet system was described in 2009 by The Register and The Sunday Times as the replacement for scrapped plans for a single central database, involving thousands of DPI "black boxes" at ISPs in association with the GCHQ base in Cheltenham, funded out of a Single Intelligence Account budget of £1.6 bn, including a £200m contract with Lockheed Martin and a contract with BAE Systems Detica. In 2008 the black box infrastructure was operated by Detica, which had been expected to win additional contracts for its proposed expansion in the Communications Data Bill 2008.
Filtering arrangements
The bill creates arrangements to interrogate and match data from different data sources. The justification is that only relevant data would be returned, thus improving personal privacy. Additionally, police cite problems matching data from for instance different cell phone masts.
However, the bill has been said to provide the legislative basis for a "giant database" that would allow "quite complicated questions" about "communications behaviors and patterns" which could become a "honeypot for casual hackers, blackmailers, criminals large and small from around the world, and foreign states", as Lord Strasburger described it, as the bill was scrutinised by the Joint Committee of MPs and peers.
The BBC reported that the Home Office stressed that the bill was intended for targeted surveillance rather than "fishing expeditions", but quoted opponent Nick Pickles, director of Big Brother Watch: "The filtering provisions are so broadly worded and so poorly drafted that it could allow mining of all the data collected, without any requirement for personal information, which is the very definition of a fishing trip."
Open Rights Group campaigner Jim Killock told the BBC that officials 'would be able to build up a complex map of individuals' communications by examining records of "their mobile phone, their normal phone, their work email, their Facebook account and so on",' which 'could compromise journalistic sources, deter whistleblowers and increase the risk of personal details being hacked'. The human rights organization Liberty also called for rejection of what is being called the "Snoopers' Charter".
Changes to oversight
The bill would change the authorisations given to police officers under RIPA. Instead of individual data requests being granted by a senior officer, the senior officer would grant powers once a month to investigating officers to conduct data requests on a topic they were investigating.
Additional changes to the role of Interception of Communications Commissioner and Information Commissioner are argued to improve oversight to the current arrangements under RIPA.
Justification
The basic justification is that communications traffic data is needed for investigations into serious crime, but access is declining. The Home Office cites that they expect access to decline from about 80% to around 60% of traffic data over the next decade if no action is taken. They also state, however, that the quantity of traffic data available is expected to grow by around 1000% in the same decade.
May stated that police made urgent requests for communications data in 30,000 cases last year and between 25% and 40% of them had resulted in lives being saved. She said that "There is a limited scope for the data we want to have access to. We have been very clear about that at every stage. The police would have to make a clear case for requesting access to data when there was an investigation that required it.... The aim of this is to ensure our law enforcement agencies can carry on having access to the data they find so necessary operationally in terms of investigation, catching criminals and saving lives"
Though the bill had been mentioned in the context of terrorism and child sexual abuse, the powers could be used against minor crimes such as fly tipping.
Reactions
A survey by YouGov, commissioned by Big Brother Watch, found that 71% of Britons "did not trust that the data will be kept secure", and half described the proposal as "bad value for the money" as opposed to 12% calling it "good value". At the RSA Conference Europe 2012, Jimmy Wales said the bill "will force many relatively small companies to hang on to data that they would not otherwise retain, which puts the data at risk". Wales told MPs that Wikipedia would take action to hinder monitoring of users' interests by encrypting all communication to the UK by default if UK ISPs are mandated to track which pages on the site are visited.
Speaking at the launch of the World Wide Web Foundation's Web Index Tim Berners-Lee (inventor of the World Wide Web) talking about the bill stated "In Britain, like in the US, there has been a series of Bills that would give government very strong powers to, for example, collect data. I am worried about that." He added, "If the UK introduces draconian legislation that allows the Government to block websites or to snoop on people, which decreases privacy, in future indexes they may find themselves farther down the list".
Controversy
There are several main areas of controversy.
Patient and doctor private communication
As of November 2015, no ISP has announced or made public how they will handle and store information securely.
Physical limitations
From costs to how to power the machines, there are incredibly tough technical issues facing ISPs and some they might not be able to overcome. The sheer volume of data will push hardware software and network technologies beyond their design.
ISPs to retain logs for 12 months
The bill proposed that the obligation imposed on ISP providers to retain data about their clients online activities is vastly expanded. The current legislation allows ISP providers to retain information on clients for business purposes with a maximum time limit of 12 months. The proposed legislation will oblige communication service providers (CSPs) to retain a variety of information for 12 months and make this information available to state authorities upon request. The UK Internet Services Providers' Association (ISPA) have issued a statement raising concerns about the impact on the competitiveness of UK CSPs as it creates a less attractive and more onerous environment in which companies have to work. The ISPA also question whether there is a need to expand the scope of data retention requirements and requested a more detailed explanation of what, in practice, will be required of them.
Weakening encryption
Former UK Prime Minister David Cameron openly expressed a desire for encryption to be weakened or encrypted data to be easily accessible to legal forces in order to tackle terrorism and crime. This viewpoint has been widely addressed as uninformed and greatly dangerous to the privacy and information of the general public because of the dangers that this initiative would entail.
A ban on encryption would result in all information stored online to be openly visible to anyone, this information would include data such as bank details that might be input on online shopping websites, addresses, personal details as well as private messages sent on messaging services such as iMessage and WhatsApp that all use encryption in order to protect the identity and information of their users.
The encryption measures currently in place work on the basis that no third party would be able to access the data and banning this practice would mean that it would open not only to the government but also to anyone interested because encryption measures are not set to be sensitive to certain access requests, they are fully protective of all data stored under those measures.
Experts have made it clear that weakening or banning encryption would be extremely dangerous and damaging to the safety of the economic Internet environment and could have great repercussion on the information stored online and how it is used.
Oversight
The UK is unusual in the arrangement that Ministers sign off on warrants when the inspection of bulk collected data is requested by the security services. Just under 3 thousand warrants were requested and authorized in 2014 by the Secretary of State. Typically, in most democracies, independent judges decide and sign off police warrants in the cases where surveillance is of an intrusive nature.
Recently published Independent Review of Terrorism Legislation calls for UK to adopt the judicial authorisation as it is practised by other developed democracies.
There is a concern that No 10 will disregard the request for the reform of the oversight and the call for independent judges handling the sign off in the cases of highly intrusive surveillance.
Costs
Costs have been estimated at £1.8bn over the next ten years. However the basis of the calculations used to reach this figure have not been made public.
See also
Anti-terrorism, Crime and Security Act 2001 § Part 11 (Retention of communications data)
Internet censorship in the United Kingdom
Mass surveillance in the United Kingdom
Telecommunications data retention § United Kingdom
References
External links
Bill text including: Foreword by the Home Secretary, Introduction, Draft Communications Data Bill and Explanatory Notes (interleaved), European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) Memorandum and Delegated Powers Memorandum.
Open Rights Group wiki article on this subject
Save the Internet group
Declaration of Internet Freedom
Fight for the future
Surveillance
Government databases in the United Kingdom
Law enforcement techniques
Counter-terrorism
Mass surveillance
National security policies
Proposed laws of the United Kingdom
Surveillance databases
2012 in British law
Home Office (United Kingdom)
GCHQ
2012 in British politics
Data laws of the United Kingdom
Articles containing video clips |
65467608 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul%20Hacker | Paul Hacker | Paul Hacker may refer to:
Paul Hacker (Indologist) (1913–1979), Indologist from Germany
Paul Hacker (diplomat) (born 1946), American diplomat |
26395500 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shell%20Control%20Box | Shell Control Box | Shell Control Box (SCB) is a network security appliance that controls privileged access to remote IT systems, records activities in replayable audit trails, and prevents malicious actions. For example, it records as a system administrator updates a file server or a third-party network operator configures a router. The recorded audit trails can be replayed like a movie to review the events as they occurred. The content of the audit trails is indexed to make searching for events and automatic reporting possible.
SCB is a Linux-based device developed by Balabit. It is an application level proxy gateway. In 2017, Balabit changed the name of the product to Privileged Session Management (PSM) and repositioned it as the core module of its Privileged Access Management solution.
Main Features
Balabit’s Privileged Session Management (PSM), Shell Control Box (SCB) is a device that controls, monitors, and audits remote administrative access to servers and network devices. It is a tool to oversee system administrators by controlling the encrypted connections used for administration. PSM (SCB) has full control over the SSH, RDP, Telnet, TN3270, TN5250, Citrix ICA, and VNC connections, providing a framework (with solid boundaries) for the work of the administrators.
Gateway Authentication
PSM (SCB) acts as an authentication gateway, enforcing strong authentication before users access IT assets. PSM can also integrate to user directories (for example, a Microsoft Active Directory) to resolve the group memberships of the users who access the protected servers. Credentials for accessing the server are retrieved transparently from PSM’s credential store or a third-party password management system by PSM impersonating the authenticated user. This automatic password retrieval protects the confidentiality of passwords as users can never access them.
Access Control
PSM controls and audits privileged access over the most wide-spread protocols such as SSH, RDP, or HTTP(s). The detailed access management helps to control who can access what and when on servers. It is also possible to control advanced features of the protocols, like the type of channels permitted. For example, unneeded channels like file transfer or file sharing can be disabled, reducing the security risk on the server. With PSM policies for privileged access can be enforced in one single system.
4-eyes Authorization
To avoid accidental misconfiguration and other human errors, PSM supports the 4-eyes authorization principle. This is achieved by requiring an authorizer to allow administrators to access the server. The authorizer also has the possibility to monitor – and terminate - the session of the administrator in real-time, as if they were watching the same screen.
Real-time Monitoring and Session Termination
PSM can monitor the network traffic in real time, and execute various actions if a certain pattern (for example, a suspicious command, window title or text) appears on the screen. PSM can also detect specific patterns such as credit card numbers. In case of detecting a suspicious user action, PSM can send an e-mail alert or immediately terminate the connection. For example, PSM can block the connection before a destructive administrator command, such as the „rm” comes into effect.
Session Recording
PSM makes user activities traceable by recording them in tamper-proof and confidential audit trails. It records the selected sessions into encrypted, timestamped, and digitally signed audit trails. Audit trails can be browsed online, or followed real-time to monitor the activities of the users. PSM replays the recorded sessions just like a movie – actions of the users can be seen exactly as they appeared on their monitor. The Balabit Desktop Player enables fast forwarding during replays, searching for events (for example, typed commands or pressing Enter) and texts seen by the user. In the case of any problems (database manipulation, unexpected shutdown, etc.) the circumstances of the event are readily available in the trails, thus the cause of the incident can be identified. In addition to recording audit trails, transferred files can be also recorded and extracted for further analysis.
See also
One Identity
References
https://www.ssi.gouv.fr/entreprise/certification_cspn/balabit-shell-control-box-version-4-0-6-sec3/
https://channel9.msdn.com/Blogs/PartnerApps/Balabits-Shell-Control-Box-Isolates-Azure-Systems-from-Intruders
https://www.ovum.com/research/swot-assessment-balabit-shell-control-box-version-4-f1/
https://www.kuppingercole.com/report/ev71570
https://www.techvalidate.com/product-research/balabit-privileged-access-management
https://cybersecurity-excellence-awards.com/candidates/shell-control-box/
https://finance.yahoo.com/news/balabit-introduces-shell-control-box-163711081.html
http://www.computerworlduk.com/security/how-balabit-adapted-machine-learning-secure-privileged-account-blind-spot-3642389/
https://citrixready.citrix.com/balabit-s-a/privileged-session-management.html
https://azuremarketplace.microsoft.com/en-us/marketplace/apps/balabit.balabit-shell-control-box?tab=Overview
https://marketplace.microfocus.com/arcsight/content/balabit-shell-control-box
https://liebsoft.com/partners/technology-integrations/balabit/https://channel9.msdn.com/Blogs/PartnerApps/Balabits-Shell-Control-Box-Isolates-Azure-Systems-from-Intruders
Computer security |
30491397 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1944%20USC%20Trojans%20football%20team | 1944 USC Trojans football team | The 1944 USC Trojans football team represented the University of Southern California (USC) in the 1944 college football season. In their third year under head coach Jeff Cravath, the Trojans compiled an 8–0–2 record (3–0–2 against conference opponents), won the Pacific Coast Conference championship, defeated Tennessee in the 1945 Rose Bowl, and outscored their opponents by a combined total of 240 to 73.
Schedule
References
USC
USC Trojans football seasons
Pac-12 Conference football champion seasons
Rose Bowl champion seasons
College football undefeated seasons
USC Trojans football |
211065 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XTree | XTree | XTree is a file manager program originally designed for use under DOS. It was published by Underwear Systems, later Executive Systems, Inc. (ESI) and first released on 1 April 1985, and became highly popular. The program uses a character-mode interface, which has many elements typically associated with a graphical user interface.
The program filled a required niche in the market, as DOS shipped with only a command-line file manager, until the generally unsuccessful DOS Shell that was provided with MS-DOS 4.0. Even then, the speed and features of XTreeGold were superior — specifically support for the Zip compression format and ability to undelete files. The program also has the benefit of requiring very little memory, essential at a time when less than 640 kB of memory was available for programs to run.
History
XTree 1.0 was officially introduced on April 1, 1985, at the West Coast Computer Faire and sold for $39.95. Work had begun on XTree in December 1984. The primary developer was Jeffery C. Johnson, who was working for a company named Executive Systems, Inc. (ESI). Additional contributions were made by ESI owners Dale Sinor, Tom Smith, and Henry Hernandez, as well as Ken Broomfield, who provided quality assurance. The XTree name was the concept of Johnson's wife, Arletta, who had made the suggestion: "'XTree'. You know, like 'X-Tree, X-Tree. Read all about it!'". Johnson was the originator of the visual directory tree concept first used in an Epson backup product created by ESI. Johnson describes the creation of a visual directory tree as follows: 'Everyone in the room when I first drew it on a whiteboard [...] When I sat down, Tom and Dale both said "it can't be done." Henry, on the other hand, could read me like a book, and seeing the look in my eyes said something like, "... possible, but not on today's computers." That was a Friday afternoon, it was running by Monday morning and by the end of the day verified as being accurate by an office full of skeptics.
The TREE command found in later DOS releases displayed directories in a markedly similar fashion. By 1991, XTree had sold over 3 million copies and was released in over a half-dozen languages.
Even in its earliest version XTree contained features like listing all files of a branch, including subdirectories, listing of all files on a disk, or viewing a file's contents in text or hexadecimal format (regardless of its file extension), a feature never added to the built-in Windows file manager.
XTree was supplemented by the enhanced XTreePro in 1988, which added features for working with multiple disk drives, speed improvements, and brought the keyboard commands more in line with other common DOS programs. A version of XTreePro with Novell NetWare connectivity debuted in late 1988. XTreeProGold/XTreeGold succeeded Xtree Pro in 1989, adding pull-down menus to enhance the interface, additional file viewers, and the choice of a Norton Commander-style split pane between locations on different disks. The first GUI-enabled XTree product was XTreeMac, also launched in 1989, which brought the XTree interface metaphors to the Macintosh System as a Finder replacement. While the Macintosh System software already had competent file management, XTreeMac made it easier to move and copy files and added undeletion and enhanced file finding tools.
Also in 1989, the company ran a four-month "Software Amnesty for Everyone", allowing users of unauthorized copies of XTree to register them for a small fee. Five thousand licenses were sold for $20 each.
XTree suffered a terminal decline after the widespread adoption of Microsoft Windows. The built-in Windows file manager had a vaguely similar appearance to XTree, and while it lacked the speed, keyboard shortcuts and power, it did benefit greatly from being included with Windows.
In 1992 XTree for Windows was released. The product dropped many of the features liked in the DOS versions, with undeletion and file editing particularly noticeable by their absence. The program also took considerably longer to load than both DOS Xtree and other Windows file managers, and operations like viewing files were slower. Despite this, features like native support for file compression and a wide range of file viewers made it the most feature complete Windows file manager of that year. It was not a success for the company. In 1993, the XTree Company was sold to Central Point Software, which was in turn acquired by Symantec in 1994, and in 1995 production of XTree products was halted.
Clones
The popularity of the program has led many enthusiasts to develop clone versions that work with modern operating systems. Known clones include Xfile, ZTreeWin, Unixtree and Ytree.
The authors and users commonly view these clones as a tribute to the original XTree program, rather than a competitor, especially since XTree is no longer commercially available.
See also
Comparison of file managers
References
External links
What happened to XTreeGold?
The history of XTree
XTree fan page
ZTreeWin File Manager, and ZTreeBold for OS/2
Unixtree File Manager
Ytree; a UNIX Filemanager also in many Linux Distributions
XTree box contents
File managers
DOS software |
25296555 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social%20Solutions | Social Solutions | Social Solutions is a 200+ person software company with headquarters in Austin, Texas.
The company provides performance management software for human service organizations, including Harlem Children's Zone, the Annie E. Casey Foundation, the Administration on Aging, the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development, and organizations in the cities of Boston and Hartford, Connecticut. Social Solutions' software products, called Efforts to Outcomes (ETO) and Apricot, help organizations measure the progress that they make with participants and families.
History
Social Solutions was founded in 2000 by Steve Butz, a former human service professional with the Living Classrooms Foundation. Butz and his co-founders, Adrian Bordone and Vince Griffith, were frustrated by their inability to accurately track progress when working with troubled youths, and decided that there must be a better way for human and social service organizations to affect participants, families, and communities.
In 2014 Social Solutions was acquired by Vista Equity Partners, and in 2015 Social Solutions acquired Community TechKnowledge (makers of Apricot software) based out of Austin, Texas,
References
The Baltimore Sun Media Group Names Social Solutions 2015 Top Workplace August 12, 2015
http://www.tmcnet.com/usubmit/2015/12/08/8288359.htm
External links
Social Solutions Non Profit Software website
Article documenting Social Solutions' work with Administration on Aging
Business software
Companies established in 2000 |
17838518 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO/IEC%2038500 | ISO/IEC 38500 | ISO/IEC 38500 is an international standard for Corporate governance of information technology published jointly by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). It provides a framework for effective governance of IT to assist those at the highest level of organizations to understand and fulfill their legal, regulatory, and ethical obligations in respect of their organizations’ use of IT. The standard is heavily based on the AS 8015-2005 Australian Standard for Corporate Governance of Information and Communication Technology, originally published in January 2005.
History
The introduction of AS 8015 in 2005 brought about the first standard "to describe governance of IT without resorting to descriptions of management systems and processes." The 12-page document stood out and attracted the attention of the international community. The ISO/IEC technical committee JTC 1 reached out to Standards Australia, the group that pushed AS 8015 forward, and asked them to participate in the international adaptation process. On 1 February 2007 the ISO/IEC published the first draft international standard (DIS) of the revised AS 8015 as ISO/IEC DIS 29382. The DIS then received "fast-track" status in July 2007 (meaning the draft standard could then be submitted for approval as an ISO standard), revisions of the document were made in September 2007, and the final disposition of comments was completed in January 2008, resulting in the standard being sent to the ISO/IEC Information Technology Task Force for international standards processing.
Depending on the source, shortly before final approval of the standard in either April or May 2008, the ISO/IEC chose to rename the document ISO/IEC 38500, before finally publishing the finalized version on 1 June as ISO/IEC 38500:2008.
Updates to the standard
On 12 February 2015 the ISO/IEC updated the standard to 38500:2015. Standards Australia described the changes as such:
With the evolution of thinking in the field of IT governance, ISO/IEC 38500 was revised in 2015. The main changes include the title of the standard, from Corporate Governance of IT to Governance of IT for the Organization, which reflects the wider applicability of the standard. Terminology and definitions have also been updated and refined throughout the document to reflect the widened scope and to make the standard more applicable across different international jurisdictions, cultures and languages.
In a February 2015 article submitted to Communications of the ACM, Juiz and Toomey (involved in the development process) highlighted this "wider applicability":
In the ISO/IEC 38500 model, the governing body is a generic entity (the individual or group of individuals) responsible and accountable for performance and conformance (through control) of the organization. While ISO/IEC 38500 makes clear the role of the governing body, it also allows that such delegation could result in a subsidiary entity giving more focused attention to the tasks in governance of IT (such as creation of a board committee). It also includes delegation of detail to management, as in finance and human resources. There is an implicit expectation that the governing body will require management establish systems to plan, build, and run the IT-enabled organization.
The standard
ISO/IEC 38500 is applicable to organizations of all sizes, including public and private companies, government entities, and not-for-profit organizations. This standard provides guiding principles for directors of organizations on the effective, efficient, and acceptable use of Information Technology (IT) within their organizations. It is organized into three prime sections: Scope, Framework and Guidance.
The framework comprises definitions, principles and a model. It sets out six principles for good corporate governance of IT:
Responsibility
Strategy
Acquisition
Performance
Conformance
Human behavior
It also provides guidance to those advising, informing, or assisting directors.
See also
AS 8015
Corporate governance of information technology
Data governance
ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 40
SFIA definition of Enterprise IT Governance skill
References
Corporate governance in Australia
Information technology governance
38500 |
71663 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Password%20Authentication%20Protocol | Password Authentication Protocol | Password Authentication Protocol (PAP) is a password-based authentication protocol used by Point to Point Protocol (PPP) to validate users. Almost all network operating system remote servers support PAP. PAP is specified in .
PAP is considered a weak authentication scheme (weak schemes are simple and have lighter computational overhead but are much more vulnerable to attack; while weak schemes may have limited application in some constrained environments, they are avoided in general). Among PAP's deficiencies is the fact that it transmits unencrypted passwords (i.e. in plain-text) over the network. PAP is therefore used only as a last resort when the remote server does not support a stronger scheme such as CHAP or EAP.
Working cycle
PAP authentication is only done at the time of the initial link establishment, and verifies the identity of the client using a two-way handshake.
Client sends username and password. This is sent repeatedly until a response is received from the server.
Server sends authentication-ack (if credentials are OK) or authentication-nak (otherwise)
PAP Packets
PAP packet embedded in a PPP frame. The protocol field has a value of
C023 (hex).
See also
SAP - Service Access Point
Notes
References
Password authentication
Internet protocols
Authentication protocols |
58818794 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specctra | Specctra | Specctra is a commercial PCB auto-router originally developed by John F. Cooper and David Chyan of Cooper & Chyan Technology, Inc. (CCT) in 1989. The company and product were taken over by Cadence Design Systems in May 1997. Since its integration into Cadence's Allegro PCB Editor, the name of the router is Allegro PCB Router. The latest version is 17.2 (October 2016).
Specctra routes boards by presenting graphical data using a "shape-based" technology which represents graphical objects not as a set of points-coordinates, but more compact. This increases the efficiency of routing printed circuit boards with a high density of components, provides automatic routing of the same chain of tracks of different widths and more.
Specctra uses adaptive algorithms implemented in multiple trace runs. The routing is carried out in three stages:
preview routing
autoroute
additional processing of autoroute results
On the first pass, the connection of all conductors is performed, regardless of the presence of conflicts, which consist in crossing the conductors on one layer and breaking the gaps. On each subsequent pass, the auto-router tries to reduce the number of conflicts by breaking and re-building connections (the ripup-and-retry router method) and pushing the conductors by pushing the neighboring ones (the push-and-shove router method). Electromagnetic compatibility can be tested in Specctra through the "SPECCTRAQuest SI Expert" module.
The program is compatible with many design systems for printed circuit boards, thanks to the use of industrial-standard DSN design file format for project description and Do-files to specify routing strategies.
The results are returned to the board editor via SES session files as well as RTE files. Protocol command execution is recorded in Did-file, which after editing can be used as new Do-files.
The DSN/SES file formats are also supported by a number of other auto-routers including KONEKT ELECTRA, Eremex TopoR, Alfons Wirtz's FreeRouting and RL-based DeepPCB.
List of EDA tools supporting Specctra
ACCEL PCB
Cadence Allegro
Cadnetix
CADVANCE V / α
DK-/DK-Magic
DREAM CAD
EAGLE (via BRD_TO_DSN.ULP etc.)
KiCad
Mentor BoardStation
MyPCB
OrCAD Layout
PADS Perform / PowerPCB
PLANET
PLASMA
Protel Advanced PCB
Providence
SCS-1
TARGET 3001!
U-Art
ULTIboard
Vanguard PCB
WorkBrain
Zuken CR3000 / CR5000
Zuken Visula / Zuken CadStar
See also
OrCAD
Proteus
P-CAD
References
Further reading
http://quote.morningstar.com/stock-filing/Annual-Report/1997/12/28/t.aspx?t=XNAS:CDNS&ft=10-K&d=0e64b5a67b2c7b4d
https://semiengineering.com/entities/cooper-and-chyan-technology-inc/
http://www.adapticom1.net/web/cooper-chyan-router.html
https://www.jlab.org/accel/eecad/manuals/Interface.pdf
https://community.cadence.com/cfs-file/__key/telligent-evolution-components-attachments/00-27-01-00-00-00-51-96/specctraWN.pdf
External links
http://www.cadence.com/products/pcb/pcb_design/pages/default.aspx Official website
http://www.dsioffe.narod.ru/myspecctra
Electronic design automation software |
11586445 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuro%20Laboratory | Neuro Laboratory | Neuro Laboratory is a shareware scientific computing software for Windows and Linux platforms developed by Scientific Software. The current version is 1.1.
Introduction
Neural networks represent one of the most perspective and rapidly developing direction of an artificial intelligence and information processing.
The technologies based on NN, have found the applications in such areas as signals processing, images recognition, classifiers construction, complex systems behavior prediction, decision-making blocks construction.
Software Quick Overview
The target of Neuro Laboratory software is visual modeling and processing of various data with the use of neural networks. Any network model can be built and trained using the software’s environment. The software contains Network Elements Toolbox - component which represents the realization of most commonly used neural networks paradigms (simple neuron, RBF cell, Kohonen layer, Hopfield layer). Neuro Laboratory also contains neural networks training components and training quality verification components.
Neuro Laboratory gives all the necessary facilities for such activities as scientific research, software development and education. It contains the flexible export component which gives an opportunity to use the prepared data in different custom applications. Due to well planned software’s architecture the main module’s functionality extensions are possible in the way of external components implementing. They are called plug-ins and trainers in Neuro Laboratory terminology.
The environment is also extendable with script engine which makes it possible to parse and to train NNs in script editor. This component is implemented as a plug-in and is called Scripting Environment.
External links
Scientific Software — Official website
Science software for Linux
Neural network software
Shareware
Science software for Windows |
5156505 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack%20Fimple | Jack Fimple | John Joseph Fimple (born February 10, 1959, in Darby, Pennsylvania) is an American former professional baseball catcher.
Drafted by the Cleveland Indians in the 29th round of the 1980 Major League Baseball Draft, Fimple made his MLB debut with the Los Angeles Dodgers on July 30, 1983, and appeared in his final game on October 4, 1987. He attended college at Humboldt State University.
College
Jack Fimple played college baseball at Humboldt State. Fimple did not take the usual route to play college baseball. He was playing semi-pro baseball for the Humboldt Crabs while he was stationed in the Coast Guard. His talents on the diamond led him to attend Humboldt State where he played for one season before he was drafted by the Cleveland Indians in the 29th round of the 1980 MLB draft.
Pro career
Fimple made his pro debut for the Batavia Trojans of the New York-Penn League. Despite having future major league stars like Kelly Gruber and Dave Gallagher, the Trojans finished the season 30-43. The next season Fimple played for the Waterloo Indians of the Midwest League. During that season Fimple was the team's primary catcher. He batted .288 with 10 home runs and 21 doubles, showing speed not often found in a catcher. In December of 1981, the Indians traded Fimple along with pitcher Larry White and Outfielder Jorge Orta to the Los Angeles Dodgers for second baseman Jack Perconte and starting pitcher Rick Sutcliffe.
In his first year in the Dodgers system, Fimple was assigned to play for their single A club, the Vero Beach Dodgers. Fimple batted .281 with nine home runs and 14 doubles. Fimple even register one stolen base. The next season Fimple would make the leap from single-A ball to playing for the Dodgers Triple-A squad in Albuquerque. Fimple once again was the primary catcher and among the pitchers he caught were John Franco, Brian Holton, and Orel Hershiser. On July 30th, 1983, Jack Fimple made his MLB debut at the age of 24. He got one at bat as a late inning defensive replacement for Steve Yeager in an 8-0 loss versus the San Francisco Giants. Fimple would play in both games of the double header the next day, and got his first major league hit, a single to left field off Giants starter Fred Breining. Over all in his first season in the majors, Fimple played in 54 games, batted .250, and had 37 hits in 167 at-bats, including two home runs.
In 1984, Fimple split time between the Dodgers and their triple A team in Albuquerque. He struggled at the plate batting only .249 in triple A. However, that wasn't the worst part of the year for Fimple. At the conclusion of the 1984 season, Fimple underwent surgery for repair damage he suffered to his Ulnar Nerve in his elbow. The hope was that he'd be ready to play once spring training rolled around in 1985.
Fimple spent the entire season in 1985 in Triple-A Albuquerque. He split time with Gilberto Reyes behind the plate, and his hitting had continued to be a struggle. In 72 games, Fimple batted a mere .229 for the season. Despite his struggles, Fimple was almost part of a major trade. The trade would have sent Fimple, power hitting prospect Ralph Bryant, along with pitchers Bob Welch and Tom Niedenfuer to the Philadelphia Phillies for star third baseman Mike Schmidt. However, the Dodgers refused to part with Bryant, who ended up being a bust, so the trade never happened. He played in a handful of games for the Dodgers again in 1986, splitting time between the majors and triple A. At the end of the season, the Dodgers gave Fimple his unconditional release. The California Angels signed Fimple as a free agent in 1987 and assigned him to their Triple-A club, the Edmonton Trappers. While Fimple played in a handful of games for the Angels that season, serving as a backup to Bob Boone and Butch Wynegar, he continued to struggle to find his old form. As spring training broke in 1988, Fimple, along with outfielder Mark Ryal were placed on waivers by the Angels. This brought an end to Fimple's baseball career.
References
External links
Retrosheet
Pura Pelota
1959 births
Living people
Albuquerque Dukes players
American expatriate baseball players in Canada
Auburn Americans players
Baseball players from Pennsylvania
Batavia Trojans players
California Angels players
Edmonton Trappers players
Humboldt State Lumberjacks baseball players
Los Angeles Dodgers players
Major League Baseball catchers
People from Darby, Pennsylvania
Sportspeople from Delaware County, Pennsylvania
Tigres de Aragua players
American expatriate baseball players in Venezuela
Vero Beach Dodgers players
Waterloo Indians players |
69604272 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al%C5%BEb%C4%9Bta%20Trojanov%C3%A1 | Alžběta Trojanová | Alžběta Trojanová (born 1987) is a Czech journalist and television presenter. Trojanová is known for cohosting the video game television program from 2011 to 2019.
Early life
Trojanová was born in Prague in 1987. When she was young, Trojanová and her brother often played video games together on a Sega Mega Drive that they received when she was six years old. Every week, her father would take her to a games bazaar close to his barracks to sell their old games and buy new ones. When she was older, she enjoyed games like Heroes of Might and Magic and Hexen.
Trojanová began her career writing for the now-defunct Czech version of GameStar magazine in 2004. She studied at Charles University, where she received a degree in marketing communication and public relations in 2011 and a master's degree in media studies.
Career
A job working in internet marketing at the publishing house Ringier led Trojanová to start writing about games for , a youth-oriented science and technology magazine owned by Ringier, and then game magazine. Trojanová and became well-known for cohosting the video game television program , on Prima Cool, from 2011 to 2019. In 2015, internet media company Tiscali Media launched entertainment website Booom.cz, that would be managed by Trojanová in collaboration with YouTubers such as .
Trojanová and Tuček next cohosted the video game shows in 2019 and then New+ from November 2019 to January 2020, however both were cancelled after cycling through several formats. After the pair's contract with Televize Seznam was terminated later that year, Trojanová moved to Tiscali Media, joining the editorial board and managing video content of its website . That year she also began hosting Geek News, a technology and software news show, for online electronics retailer .
Trojanová has spoken on topics such as sexism and gender representation in video games.
References
1987 births
Living people
Czech columnists
Czech journalists
Czech television presenters
Czech women journalists
Czech women television presenters
Charles University alumni
Journalists from Prague
Magazine writers
Online journalists
Women in the video game industry
Women video game critics
Video game critics |
25140600 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromium%20OS | Chromium OS | Chromium OS is a free and open-source operating system designed for running web applications and browsing the World Wide Web. It is the open-source version of Chrome OS, a Linux distribution made by Google.
Like Chrome OS, Chromium OS is based on the Linux kernel, but its principal user interface is the Chromium web browser rather than the Google Chrome browser. Chromium OS also includes the Portage package manager, which was originally developed for Gentoo Linux. Because Chromium OS and Chrome OS use a web browser engine for the user interface, they are oriented toward web applications rather than desktop applications or mobile apps.
Google first published the Chromium OS source code in late 2009.
Architecture
Chromium's architecture is three-tiered, consisting of "three major components":
The Chromium-based browser and the window manager
System-level software and user-land services: the Linux kernel, drivers, connection manager, and so on
Firmware
Availability
Chromium OS was first made available in compiled form by hobbyists. More organized efforts have emerged over time, including a few manufacturers that have shipped devices with the operating system pre-installed.
Builds and forks
By May 2010, compiled versions of the work-in-progress source code had been downloaded from the Internet more than a million times. The most popular version, entitled "Chromium OS Flow", was created by Liam McLoughlin, a then 17-year-old college student in Liverpool, England, posting under the name "Hexxeh". McLoughlin's build boots from a USB memory stick and included features that Google engineers had not yet implemented, such as support for the Java programming language. While Google did not expect that hobbyists would use and evaluate Chromium OS ahead of its official release, Sundar Pichai, Google's vice president of product management (now the CEO) said that "what people like Hexxeh are doing is amazing to see." Pichai said the early releases were an unintended consequence of open source development. "If you decide to do open-source projects, you have to be open all the way."
Hexxeh's work continued into the following year. He announced "Chromium OS Lime" in December 2010, and in January 2011, released "Luigi", an application designed to "jailbreak"/"root" the Google Cr-48 "Mario" prototype hardware and install a generic BIOS. The developer made the builds available in virtual machine format on March 13, 2011. With no official build of Chromium OS forthcoming from Google, Hexxeh's "vanilla" nightly builds of Chromium OS were the principal resource for people wanting to try Chromium OS. Hexxeh stopped uploading his builds on April 20, 2013.
More recent versions of Chromium OS are available from Arnoldthebat, who maintains daily and weekly builds along with usage guidelines and help. In July 2012, Chromium Build Kit was released. It automatically compiles a developer build and installs Chromium OS on a USB drive.
In 2015, New York City-based Neverware produced a Chromium OS fork called CloudReady aimed at the educational market, with the intention of extending the life of older PCs and laptops. A subsequent version can dual-boot Neverware and the Windows operating system (until v64). In 2020, Neverware was acquired by Google, and a similar "Chrome OS Flex" was released into beta in February 2022.
In 2016, Nexedi released NayuOS, a fork of Chromium OS precompiled for several Chromebook computers. The operating system provides Chrome OS-like capabilities without storing data on Google servers. It optionally removes the Google login and provides additional developer tools.
Also in 2016, a London/Beijing-based startup produced a line of Chromium OS fork named Flint OS, targeting a wider range of platforms, including 64-bit PCs, Raspberry Pi, Tinker Board, Firefly development boards, and VMware virtual machines. The OS was later renamed Fyde OS.
Hardware
Some devices have shipped with Chromium OS preinstalled. In May 2011, Dell also released a new build for the Dell Inspiron Mini 10v netbook, following up on an earlier build released almost 18 months earlier. The build did not support audio, but was bootable from a USB drive. Other devices include the Kogan Agora Chromium Laptop by the Australian company Kogan and the Xi3 Modular Computer, introduced by the company of the same name. In late 2015, a team headed by Dylan Callahan released a beta Chromium OS port to the Raspberry Pi 2 single-board computer. In 2016, Flint Innovations released a Chromium OS port for the latest Raspberry Pi 3/B model named Flint OS for RPi. Subsequently, this project has been fully open-sourced at GitHub, with all the files and detailed instructions to re-create the build.
Trademark dispute
In June 2011, ISYS Technologies, based in Salt Lake City, sued Google in a Utah district court, claiming rights to the name "Chromium" and, by default, Chromebook and Chromebox. The suit sought to stop Google and its hardware and marketing partners from selling Chromebooks. The suit was later dismissed and, as part of an undisclosed settlement between Google and ISYS, ISYS abandoned its trademark efforts.
See also
Android (operating system)
App Runtime for Chrome
CoreOS
Chromium (web browser)
Google Fuchsia
Firefox OS
Google Chrome
Chrome OS
Webconverger an operating system based on Firefox
Gentoo Linux
References
External links
ARM operating systems
Google Chrome
Google software
X86 operating systems
Operating systems based on the Linux kernel
Linux distributions without systemd
2009 software
Linux distributions
Gentoo Linux derivatives |
49241631 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enterprise%20Information%20Technology%20Data%20Repository%20%28EITDR%29 | Enterprise Information Technology Data Repository (EITDR) | The Enterprise Information Technology Data Repository (EITDR) is the United States Air Force official database, presented as a webservice, for registering information technology (IT) systems and maintaining portfolio management data. This database provides IT portfolio managers and senior leaders with investment decision support and the ability to track and report compliance with federal laws and regulations. EITDR provides automated IT management processes, a common access point to gather, view, load, update, query, report and store pertinent data from disparate systems. EITDR serves as a single point of user entry for AF IT data and has electronic interface to other DoD/AF systems requiring the data.
United States Code, Title 40, Subtitle III, Chapter 113, requires the Air Force Chief Information Officer to implement a portfolio management process for maximizing the value and assessing and managing risks associated with information technology acquisition and use. EITDR was the result of this law.
The Office of the Secretary of the Air Force, Warfighting Integration and Chief Information Officer (SAF/XC) has primary responsibility. As of November 30, 2006, EITDR recorded 146 systems with operating budgets exceeding $1 million. In addition, FY06 EITDR operations and maintenance costs totaled $4.3 million.
On May 1, 2017, EITDR was replaced by ITIPS as the system of record for IT compliance.
References
External links
eitdr.csd.disa.mil
Databases
United States Air Force |
4247261 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oren%20Patashnik | Oren Patashnik | Oren Patashnik (born 1954) is an American computer scientist. He is notable for co-creating BibTeX, and co-writing Concrete Mathematics: A Foundation for Computer Science. He is a researcher at the Center for Communications Research, La Jolla, and lives nearby in San Diego. Oren and his wife Amy have three children, Josh, Ariel, and Jeremy.
History
Oren Patashnik graduated from Yale University in 1976, and later became a doctoral student in computer science at Stanford University, where his research was supervised by Donald Knuth.
While working at Bell Labs in 1980, Patashnik proved that Qubic can always be won by the first player. Using 1500 hours of computer time, Patashnik's proof is a notable example of a computer-assisted proof.
In 1985, Patashnik created the bibliography-system, BibTeX, in collaboration with Leslie Lamport, the creator of LaTeX. LaTeX is a system and programming language for formatting documents, which is especially designed for mathematical documents. BibTeX is a widely used bibliography-formatting tool for LaTeX.
In 1988, Patashnik assisted Ronald Graham and Donald Knuth in writing Concrete Mathematics: A Foundation for Computer Science, an important mathematical publication and college textbook.
In 1990, he got his doctorate in computer science. His thesis paper was about "Optimal Circuit Segmentation for Pseudo-Exhaustive Testing" .
After the 2003 Cedar Fire destroyed 60% of the houses in his immediate neighborhood, his statistical study showed that houses with a wood-shake shingle roof did very badly, but surprisingly, so did houses with a Spanish-style, curved-red-tile roof.
Notes
References
(PDF) "How to Win at Tic-Tac-Toe" (Mathellaneous, July 2005, University of Melbourne) - 11-page article with a section relating Patashnik's effort on Qubic
Credits of Concrete Mathematics
1954 births
Living people
American computer scientists
Jewish American scientists
Jewish scientists
Yale University alumni
Timothy Dwight College alumni
Stanford University alumni
BibTeX |
24608224 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rohini%20Kesavan%20Srihari | Rohini Kesavan Srihari | Rohini Kesavan Srihari is an American computer scientist and entrepreneur. She is the founder and CEO of Content Savvy Inc., a high-technology company in Western New York. Prior to this she founded Cymfony Inc., which specializes in brand analytics. She also founded Cymfony Net Private Limited in Bangalore, India. She also holds a position as Professor in the Department of Computer Science and Engineering of the University at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York, USA.
Early life and education
Rohini Srihari received her early education in Lansing, Michigan, Kanpur India and Waterloo, Ontario. She received an undergraduate degree in Computer Science from the University of Waterloo, Ontario, Canada and the M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in Computer Science from the University at Buffalo, The State University of New York.
Career
After receiving her Ph.D., Rohini Srihari joined the University at Buffalo as a research scientist funded by DARPA and NSF. She then became a Professor in the Department of Computer Science and Engineering supervising 10 graduated Ph.D. students. She is an author of over 125 papers in Computer Science with a Google Scholar h-index of 30.
Rohini Srihari founded Cymfony Inc. in Williamsville, NY in 1999, Janya Inc. located in Amherst, NY and Washington DC in 2005, and Content Savvy Inc. in Amherst, NY in 2012.
Cymfony was among the first companies to apply information extraction technology to monitor the performance of brands by automatically analyzing press releases, media reports and blogs. This field has since come to be known as brand analytics. Janya Inc. was founded for work with the federal government.
Content Savvy provides content enrichment and analytics solutions to organizations enabling them to harvest "big data" for real-time competitive advantage and smarter decision making. ContentSeer™ is the flagship content analytics platform which helps organizations leverage their own data along with external sources such as social media, news and government publications through contextual language understanding.
Content Savvy uses multi-lingual information extraction technology including English, Chinese, Arabic, Urdu, Russian and several others.
Rohini Srihari was named to the Women of Accomplishment Legacy Project that identified "outstanding women of the 20th and 21st century who have touched Western New York with their genius, dedication and humanity and left a lasting legacy for the generations to come."
References
External links
Website of Content Savvy Inc.
Living people
University of Waterloo alumni
University at Buffalo alumni
University at Buffalo faculty
Indian computer scientists
Indian women computer scientists
Businesspeople from Mysore
Year of birth missing (living people) |
1545347 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aliens%3A%20Colonial%20Marines | Aliens: Colonial Marines | Aliens: Colonial Marines is a 2013 first-person shooter developed by Gearbox Software and published by Sega for Windows, PlayStation 3, and Xbox 360. Based on the Alien universe and set shortly after the events of James Cameron's 1986 film Aliens, the game follows a group of Colonial Marines, a fictional military unit, as they confront the Weyland-Yutani corporation in an effort to rescue survivors from the Sulaco spaceship. The game features a campaign mode that supports both single-player and cooperative gameplay, and a multiplayer mode in which players compete in different scenarios.
Colonial Marines was developed over six years and suffered from a tumultuous development cycle. Because Gearbox decided to focus on other projects like Duke Nukem Forever and Borderlands 2, they outsourced a significant part of the game to other studios. The game was heavily inspired by Cameron's film. Concept artist Syd Mead, who collaborated with Cameron to design the Sulaco, was hired to design locations. Four downloadable content packs were released, adding multiplayer maps, a new cooperative mode, and a new campaign mode that takes place before the campaign of the base game.
Colonial Marines sold more than one million copies in the United States and Europe, but received unfavorable reviews from critics, who criticized its technical problems, low-quality graphics, and weak artificial intelligence of enemies. The competitive multiplayer mode was highlighted as its strongest aspect. The game drew a significant controversy for featuring a lower graphical quality than that of press demos. This led two players to file a lawsuit, claiming that Gearbox and Sega had falsely advertised the game, but it lost class-action status by 2015. In 2017, a modder improved the game's artificial intelligence by correcting an error in the game's code.
Gameplay
Aliens: Colonial Marines is a first-person shooter based on the Alien science fiction horror film series. The game's campaign mode, which can be played by a single player or cooperatively by up to four players, features 11 missions that involve players moving from one checkpoint to another while fighting opponents controlled by the game's artificial intelligence. Opponents consist of either Alien creatures, also known as Xenomorphs, or hostile human mercenaries. Xenomorphs are fast and primarily attack with their claws or by spitting acid, while mercenaries are slower and use firearms.
As the fictional Colonial Marines military unit depicted in James Cameron's 1986 film Aliens, players have access to weapons such as pistols, shotguns, grenades, pulse rifles, flamethrowers, robotic sentry turrets, and smartguns, which automatically track and target opponents. They may also use welding torches to seal doors and motion trackers to detect unseen enemies. Ammunition can be found on defeated mercenaries or from certain locations in the mission area. The Colonial Marines are protected by a health bar that is divided into segments. If a segment is partially depleted, it will automatically regenerate over time. Med-Packs throughout the missions may be acquired to restore lost health segments. Players may also collect pieces of armor that protect the health bar with a secondary meter that does not automatically regenerate. Players have a limited time to revive a player whose health has been fully depleted. If they fail to do so, the downed player cannot return to the game until the surviving players reach the next checkpoint.
In addition to the campaign mode, Colonial Marines features a competitive multiplayer mode where two teams of up to five players face each other in four different scenarios. Each scenario involves one team playing as Colonial Marines and the other as Aliens. After a time limit has been reached, players switch roles and play once more on the same map. Scenarios include Team Deathmatch, where both teams must kill as many opposing players as possible; Extermination, where Colonial Marines must detonate bombs in egg-infested areas protected by Aliens; Escape, which involves Colonial Marines completing objectives to reach a destination while being assaulted by Aliens; and Survivor, where Colonial Marines must survive attacks from Aliens with limited health and ammunition resources for as long as possible. Unlike Colonial Marines, Alien players play from a third-person perspective and cannot use firearms, but have the ability to climb walls, run on ceilings, deliver attacks with their claws, and unleash streams of acid.
Players earn experience points by overcoming opponents, completing challenges, and finding collectibles—Audio Logs, Dog Tags, and Legendary Weapons, all of which related to characters who appear in the film series. Challenges range from killing opponents in a particular way to winning multiplayer matches and completing campaign missions under a difficulty setting. Players have two ranks, one for their Colonial Marine character and another for their Alien character. When a sufficient amount of experience has been obtained, their characters rank up. Colonial Marine ranks unlock weapon upgrades for use in both the campaign and the competitive multiplayer modes. These include alternate fire attachments, telescopic sights, and larger capacity magazines. In contrast, Alien ranks unlock new combat abilities for Alien characters. Completing challenges also unlock appearance options for both Colonial Marine and Alien characters, and new attributes that are exclusive to Colonial Marines in the competitive multiplayer mode.
Plot
17 weeks after the events of Aliens, the Sephora spaceship sends a full battalion of Colonial Marines to investigate the Sulaco spaceship, now in orbit around the LV-426 moon. A massive Xenomorph infestation is discovered inside the Sulaco and several Marines are killed in the initial onslaught. Corporal Christopher Winter, private Peter O'Neal and private Bella Clarison discover that hostile mercenaries working for the Weyland-Yutani corporation are in command of the Sulaco and have been breeding Xenomorphs on board for study. Shortly before both ships are destroyed in the ensuing confrontation, the Marines, along with commander Captain Cruz, Sephora android Bishop and pilot lieutenant Lisa Reid, escape aboard her dropship and take shelter in the ruins of the Hadley's Hope colony complex on LV-426.
Although the Marines learn that Clarison has been attacked by a facehugger and needs medical treatment, Cruz orders Winter to travel to a nearby Weyland-Yutani research facility set up near a derelict Xenomorph spacecraft and recover a manifest that identifies an unknown prisoner from the Sulaco. In an attempt at saving Clarison, Winter and O'Neal accept the mission and escort her to the facility, where they intend to convince surviving personnel to remove the Xenomorph embryo from her body. However, upon arrival, an interrogated Weyland-Yutani medical officer explains to them that Clarison's life cannot be saved because the creature's invasive placenta is cancerous and will eventually kill her even if the embryo is successfully extracted. Clarison dies when a chestburster hatches from her.
Winter and O'Neal recover the manifest they were sent to find and rescue the prisoner, who is revealed to be corporal Dwayne Hicks. Hicks explains that Weyland-Yutani intercepted and boarded the Sulaco prior to its arrival at the Fiorina 161 planet. A fire in the hypersleep bay subsequently caused the Sulaco survivors Ellen Ripley, Newt and Bishop to be jettisoned from the ship, along with the body of an unidentified man who was mistaken for the corporal. Hicks himself was captured by Weyland-Yutani personnel and subjected to torture during interrogation, overseen by android Michael Weyland in an attempt to learn more about the Xenomorphs' origins and to gain control of the Sulacos weapon systems. From Hicks, the Marines also learn that an FTL-capable ship is docked at the research facility, representing the last chance for the Marines to escape from the moon.
After gathering the remaining Sephora personnel on the colony, Cruz orders an all-out assault on the Weyland-Yutani complex in the hopes of capturing the FTL vessel. Winter and Hicks spearhead the advance, but the ship leaves shortly before they can reach it. In a last desperate attempt, Cruz pilots a dropship up to the escaping vessel and crashes into its hangar. Winter is confronted by a Xenomorph queen in the hangar bay, and attempts to eject her using a cargo launching system, but fails when she climbs back aboard. Cruz sacrifices himself when he launches the crippled dropship directly into the queen, propelling both out of the vessel. Winter, O'Neal, Reid, Bishop, and Hicks confront Weyland, who is ultimately executed by Hicks. In search of useful intelligence, Bishop connects to the destroyed android and states that he has "everything".
Development
Design
Colonial Marines was conceived by Gearbox Software after an encounter between the company's creative director, Bryan Martell, and the director of the original Alien film, Ridley Scott. When Brothers in Arms: Road to Hill 30 was released in 2005, Gearbox was interested in working with an existing intellectual property and had previously considered Scott's 1982 film Blade Runner and Michael Mann's 1995 film Heat as candidates. Martell's discussion with Scott on the Alien universe inspired him to approach 20th Century Fox about the licensing opportunities. Sega, who bought the rights to publish games based on the franchise in December 2006, gave Gearbox complete freedom to present them with an idea for a game. Because Gearbox had experience with first-person shooters and the development team was composed of people who were fans of Aliens, the company proposed a first-person shooter that would be a direct sequel to it.
Although the final script for the game was written by Gearbox writer Mikey Neumann, Bradley Thompson and David Weddle, writers of the 2004 television series Battlestar Galactica, collaborated with Gearbox during the 2007–08 Writers Guild of America strike to develop the story and characters. The game takes place shortly after the 1992 Aliens sequel Alien 3, but addresses the events that lead to it. As a result, Colonial Marines is considered part of the series' canon. Several locations of Aliens like the Sulaco spaceship and the Hadley's Hope colony were recreated for the game. To keep the same level of authenticity, concept artist Syd Mead, who collaborated with Cameron on the film to design the Sulaco, was hired to recreate its "mechanical mood" and design areas of the spaceship that did not appear in the film but would be used in the game. The development team also contacted Kodak to get color channel details about the film's film stock.
Originally, Colonial Marines was intended to feature squad-based gameplay, allowing the player to issue orders to Colonial Marines controlled by the game's artificial intelligence using context-sensitive commands. These would include hacking doors, sealing air vents, and setting up sentry turrets. In cooperative mode, players would then be able to directly control these Marines, who would have their own strengths and weaknesses. However, this idea was ultimately dropped to make the gameplay more accessible. Gearbox chose to develop the game for Microsoft Windows and the then recently released PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 consoles, stating that their technology would "do [the film] justice."
Production
Although Gearbox is credited as the primary developer of Colonial Marines, multiple development studios contributed to the game's production. Initial work on Colonial Marines, internally codenamed Pecan, began in 2007 with the creation of a prototype by Demiurge Studios, who also helped Gearbox with the networking and multiplayer aspects. Between 2007 and 2010, Gearbox did not focus on the development of the game, instead preferring to work on other projects like Borderlands and Duke Nukem Forever, a game that took over a decade to develop. The game was built using Epic Games' Unreal Engine 3, but Gearbox spent a considerable amount of preproduction time developing a custom real-time lighting and shadow renderer that is "plugged" into the engine to capture the feel of Aliens. Nerve Software, a company that handled the multiplayer of the 2001 first-person shooter Return to Castle Wolfenstein, built multiplayer maps for the game.
When Borderlands was released in 2009, the game turned out to be a critical and commercial success. This led Gearbox to immediately start work on a sequel, Borderlands 2, and outsource primary development on Colonial Marines to TimeGate Studios, who was developing Section 8: Prejudice at the time. In late 2010, when TimeGate started to focus their work on Colonial Marines, the company realized that very little progress had been made to the game. According to one source, the game was simply a collection of unrelated assets that included a lighting and shadow renderer. Although TimeGate handled primary development on the game until Borderlands 2 was almost complete in mid-2012, their work had to constantly be approved by both Gearbox and Sega. Because narrative designers were still writing the script of the campaign mode, entire scenes and missions were discarded due to story changes. One of these involved the player escorting a scientist who would be a secret agent working for the Weyland-Yutani corporation.
To further complicate the situation, there were disagreements on how the game should be designed; Sega wanted Colonial Marines to be more similar to a Call of Duty game, with fewer Aliens and more Marines to shoot at, a view Gearbox and TimeGate disagreed with. Developers also struggled to optimize the game after spending a significant amount of time increasing its graphical fidelity for a press demo, which ran on high-end computers not normally meant for general use. The game's shader and particle fidelity was then decreased significantly before release, and textures had to be reduced in size to fit into the memory restraints of the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360.
When Gearbox took the project back in mid 2012, the company was not satisfied with TimeGate's work, partially because the game could not run on the PlayStation 3. With a release date set for February 2013, asking Sega for an extension was not an option because the game had already been delayed several times. This resulted in Gearbox only having nine months to revise TimeGate's work and finish the game. How much of the game was actually made by Gearbox was highly questioned by TimeGate. According to Gearbox CEO Randy Pitchford, TimeGate "contributed 20-25 percent of the game's overall development time." However, without considering Gearbox's preproduction time, Pitchford said that TimeGate's effort was equivalent to theirs. A moderator on the official TimeGate forum revealed that the studio worked on the weapons, characters, Aliens, story, and multiplayer component, while some TimeGate developers estimated that 50 percent of the campaign mode in the released game was made by them.
Several actors from the films were involved in the game. Michael Biehn reprised his role as corporal Dwayne Hicks, while Lance Henriksen voiced the androids Bishop and Michael Weyland. Henriksen remarked that it was interesting for him to voice a character that he had not touched in more than 25 years. In contrast, Biehn commented negatively on his experience in voicing his character, stating that there was a lack of passion from the people who were in charge of the project. The soundtrack was composed by Kevin Riepl, who is best known for his work on numerous independent films and the Gears of War series. Because the story of the game is canonical, Riepl's score was heavily influenced by Jerry Goldsmith's work on Alien and James Horner's work on Aliens. The soundtrack was recorded at Ocean Way in Nashville, Tennessee.
Marketing and release
A first-person shooter based on the Alien universe was confirmed to be in pre-production shortly after Sega acquired the license in December 2006. Colonial Marines was officially announced by Game Informer in its March 2008 issue, where its premise and intended gameplay features were revealed. Although the game shares the same title as a canceled 2002 PlayStation 2 project by Electronic Arts and Fox Interactive that would feature a similar setting and subject matter, the game is completely unrelated to it. Originally intended to be released in 2009, Colonial Marines was delayed after Gearbox laid off several employees in November 2008. This led some to question whether the game had been canceled or not. In the following years, few other announcements were made, although Gearbox did show some screenshots at the 2010 Penny Arcade Expo.
At the 2011 Electronic Entertainment Expo in Los Angeles, after confirming that Colonial Marines would be released in spring 2012, Gearbox unveiled a teaser trailer and revealed that a Wii U version was in development. A live gameplay demo played by a Gearbox representative was also showcased at the event. In January 2012, Sega announced that the game had been delayed to a fall 2012 release, stating that the company did not want to "sacrifice the creative process just for the sake of following a [deadline]." In May 2012, the game was delayed one last time, with Gearbox stating that Colonial Marines would launch for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 on February 12, 2013, while the Wii U version would follow later. In the months leading up to the game's release, more trailers and demos were released.
Prior to its release, Colonial Marines was criticized for not featuring any playable female character. When a petition was formed to change this, Gearbox included them in both the cooperative and multiplayer modes. In addition to the standard edition of the game, a collector's edition was made available for purchase. The collector's edition included a Powerloader figurine inspired by the film, a Colonial Marines dossier, character customization options, exclusive multiplayer weapons, and a firing range game level. Players who pre-ordered the game could also receive some of the collector's edition content as a bonus. Shortly after the game's release, Gearbox released a patch that fixed numerous campaign and multiplayer bugs and offered various visual improvements. The Wii U version, which was being handled by Demiurge, was canceled in April 2013.
Downloadable content
Colonial Marines supports additional in-game content in the form of downloadable content packs. Between March and July 2013, four downloadable content packs were released for the game. A season pass to these packs could be purchased before the game was released. The first pack, Bug Hunt, was released on March 19, 2013, and adds a new cooperative mode that involves up to four players fighting increasingly larger waves of Xenomorphs and hostile soldiers across three new maps. Players earn in-game money by killing opponents, which can then be spent on different options like buying ammunition or opening up new areas of the map to increase their chances of survival. The second pack, Reconnaissance Pack, was released on May 7, 2013, and extends the game's competitive multiplayer mode with four maps and more customization options for Xenomorph characters, while the third pack, Movie Map Pack, was released on June 11, 2013, and adds four maps set in locations from the first three Alien films.
The fourth and final pack, Stasis Interrupted, was released on July 23, 2013, and adds a new campaign mode that takes place before the campaign of the base game, exploring what happened to Hicks between Aliens and Alien 3. The campaign features four "interlocking" missions where players must play as three different characters. Stasis Interrupted also adds several new achievements for players to unlock, which were initially leaked via a list of PlayStation 3 Trophies. According to a report, both Demiurge and Nerve were in charge of developing the downloadable content packs for the game, but it was not confirmed if they contributed to the development of Stasis Interrupted.
Reception
Critical response
Colonial Marines received unfavorable reviews from critics, who criticized its uninspiring gameplay, technical issues, low-quality graphics, and superficial thrills, especially when compared to Cameron's film. Writing for IGN, editor Tristan Ogilvie remarked that, although Colonial Marines looks and sounds like Aliens, it does not feel like it and does not bring anything new to the first-person shooter genre. Similarly, Kevin VanOrd of GameSpot described the game as "a shallow bit of science-fiction fluff with cheap production values and an indifferent attitude." Electronic Gaming Monthly, however, praised the game for its respect to the source material, describing Colonial Marines as "easily the best gaming representation of the franchise to date."
The game was criticized for having low-resolution textures, low-quality lighting, poor character models and animations, and uncontrolled aliasing and screen tearing. Eurogamer noted that the game reuses graphical assets very often, resulting in many levels having "identical corridors and murky exteriors". However, the Aliens aesthetic was praised by some reviewers, with Edge noting that it was reproduced faithfully in the game and that it was still attractive years after the film was released. The game's numerous bugs frustrated critics. These included poor collision detection and glitchy artificial intelligence, causing enemies to freeze or fail to recognize each other. Technically, the PC version was considered more polished than the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 versions.
The story drew criticism for its lack of a consistent continuity with the Alien films. Edge remarked that the game's Colonial Marines are in an inappropriate context because in the film they are depicted as Weyland-Yutani's private army and tasked with fighting Alien creatures. However, in the game, the Colonial Marines fight Weyland-Yutani's other private military armies. Destructoid editor Jim Sterling criticized the story for its archetypal characters and immature dialogue, stating that the game fails to understand the essence of Aliens. Sterling explained that the film "dissected its posturing 'manly man' stereotypes, and showcased how utterly frail a cowboy mentality can be when everything falls apart", while Colonial Marines "revels in its own testosterone, submerged gleefully in a pool of dank ultramasculinity."
Journalists primarily criticized the gameplay for the weak artificial intelligence of enemies. They remarked that Xenomorphs simply rush toward players, making the motion tracker useless. According to GameTrailers, "there's never really the sense that you're being stalked by an intelligent enemy, and you'll always get a warning ping anyway." The setting and level design were praised by Electronic Gaming Monthly, but GameSpot noted that the levels were clearly not designed for cooperative gameplay. VanOrd explained that additional players do not take the role of companions that are controlled by the game's artificial intelligence, but are simply added to the game, resulting in crowded matches with players fighting for space and trying to shoot enemies. The Survivor and Escape multiplayer scenarios were highlighted as the strongest aspects of the game. PC Gamer said that they encourage Colonial Marine players to coordinate their actions with motion trackers as Alien players try to hunt them intelligently. However, the longevity of the multiplayer mode was questioned due to the limited randomization it provides and the lack of computer-controlled bots.
Sales
In the United Kingdom, Colonial Marines topped the all formats charts in its first week of release. On both the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 individual charts, the game also reached the top position. According to GfK Chart-Track, it was the biggest release of the year in the United Kingdom and held the second highest first week sales for an Alien game since Sega's 2010 title Aliens vs. Predator. In the United States, Colonial Marines reached No. 6 on the all formats charts for February 2013. As of March 31, 2013, as stated in Sega's end-of-fiscal-year report, Colonial Marines had sold 1.31 million units in the United States and Europe.
Controversy and lawsuit
Upon release, Colonial Marines drew a significant controversy. According to a report, Gearbox had been moving people and resources off Colonial Marines onto Borderlands and Duke Nukem Forever while still collecting full payments from Sega as if they were working on the game. When Sega discovered this misconduct, they temporarily canceled Colonial Marines, leading to the round of layoffs at Gearbox in late 2008. Gearbox outsourced a significant portion of development to other developers to compensate for their mismanagement. While Sega initially denied such outsourcing, sources claimed otherwise, suggesting that the game was rushed through redesigns, certification and shipping, despite being largely unfinished. The game drew additional controversy when sequences from press demos were compared to the same sequences in the final game, revealing that the finished game is significantly lower in graphical quality.
In April 2013, two players filed a lawsuit, claiming that Gearbox and Sega had falsely advertised the game by showing demos at trade shows that did not resemble the final product. The demos, described as "actual gameplay" by Gearbox CEO Randy Pitchford, were said to feature graphical fidelity, artificial intelligence, and levels not featured in the game. Although Sega suggested settling the lawsuit from their part and agreed to pay US$1.25 million, they denied any illegal behavior. However, Gearbox filed a request to have claims against them dropped, stating that the company, as a software developer, did not have responsibility for marketing decisions. Gearbox officials added that the company supplemented Sega's development budget with its own money to help Sega finish the game and that they had not received any royalty from its sales. The lawsuit lost class-action status and Gearbox was dropped from the case in May 2015. Pitchford said that he lost between US$10 and US$15 million of his own money on Colonial Marines and refuted the accusations against the studio. In 2017, a modder discovered a typographical error in the game's code, which when corrected notably improved the artificial intelligence of enemies.
Notes
References
External links
Aliens: Colonial Marines at Sega
Aliens: Colonial Marines at Gearbox Software
2013 video games
Alien (franchise) games
Asymmetrical multiplayer video games
Split-screen multiplayer games
Cancelled Wii U games
First-person shooters
Interquel video games
Multiplayer and single-player video games
PlayStation 3 games
Sega video games
Science fiction video games
Unreal Engine games
Video games based on films
Video games based on works by James Cameron
Video games developed in the United States
Video games set in the 22nd century
Video games set on fictional planets
Windows games
Xbox 360 games
Video game controversies
Gearbox Software games |
22022893 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridge%20Software%20Institute | Bridge Software Institute | The Bridge Software Institute is headquartered at the University of Florida (UF) in Gainesville, Florida. It was established in January 2000 to oversee the development of bridge related software products at UF. Today, Bridge Software Institute has a leadership position in the bridge software industry and Bridge Software Institute products are used by engineers nationwide, both in state Departments of Transportation and leading private consulting firms. Bridge Software Institute software is also used for the analysis of bridges in various countries by engineers around the world.
Background
The institute is headquartered in Gainesville, Florida at the University of Florida. The Bridge Software Institute was officially established January 2000 and is nationally acclaimed. The mission of the institute is to address the increasing demands of the transportation industry. The Bridge Software Institute develops cutting-edge bridge software used extensively in the transportation industry.
The software is engineered by leveraging the institutional research activities of the Structural/Geotechnical Research Groups in the Engineering School of Sustainable Infrastructure & Environment at the University of Florida. One of the main strengths of the institute, is in nonlinear dynamic finite element analysis and its applications to solving large-scale extreme event problems.
Since 2003, the Bridge Software Institute has developed a robust database system that integrates the application of geotechnical engineering data and associated metadata which enables the construction of services in the digital environment. The Florida Department of Transportation Database System is now being used in large-scale implementations, with more applications currently under development.
Bridge Software Institute also participates in the development and promotion of the Data Interchange for Geotechnical and GeoEnvironmental Specialists (DIGGS). DIGGS is a coalition of government agencies, universities and industry partners whose focus is on the creation and maintenance of an international data transfer standard for transportation related data. The coalition came into existence through coordination with the U.S. Federal Highway Administration who sponsored meetings and eventually formed the pooled fund study project.
This intellectual and creative combination of academia, government, and industry is the reason behind the success of the Bridge Software Institute. It invigorates the work of the faculty, staff, and the students associated with Bridge Software Institute.
Products
FB-MultiPier
FB-MultiPier is a nonlinear finite element analysis program capable of analyzing multiple bridge pier structures interconnected by bridge spans. The full structure can be subjected to static analysis, AASHTO load analysis, response spectrum analysis, and time-history analysis. Each pier structure is composed of pier columns and cap supported on a pile cap and piles/shafts embedded in soil. This program couples nonlinear structural finite element analysis with nonlinear soil resistance models for axial, lateral, rotational, and torsional soil behavior to provide a robust system of analysis for coupled bridge pier structures and foundation systems. FB-MultiPier allows for finite element model generation based on graphical input and parametric descriptions of the structure and foundation systems. This allows the engineer to work directly with design parameters and improves efficiency in model creation and interpretation of analysis results.
FB-Deep
The FB-Deep computer program is a Windows-based program used to estimate the static axial capacity of drilled shafts and driven piles. The drilled shaft methodology is based upon Federal Highway Administration reports. Driven pile methodology utilizes two types of analyses: SPT and CPT. SPT methodology is based on empirical correlations between cone penetrometer tests and standard penetration tests for typical Florida soil types. Unit end bearing resistance and unit skin friction resistance versus SPT N values are given in the FDOT research bulletin RB-121, for the different soil types. Driven pile capacity calculated using CPT data can be determined by three separate methods. The first method is the Schmertmann method proposed by Schmertmann in 1978 (AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Manual). The second method is the LCPC method proposed by Bustamante and Gianeselli for the French Highway Department in 1982. The third method is the UF method proposed by Bloomquist, McVay and Hu for the FDOT in 2007.
Pile Technician
Pile Technician was developed for the FDOT to provide a fast and efficient manner of entering Pile data to calculate payment for work performed by the contractor.
Atlas
ATLAS is an analysis/design program which is used for the analysis and design of signal lights and signs supported by the dual cable system. The analysis consists of an iterative technique which is a combination of the Force Density Method (FDM) and the Direct Stiffness Method (DSM). The FDM is ideal for the analysis of cable structures whereas the DSM is the most widely used technique for the analysis of framed structures. The nature of the structures under consideration lead to the development of this analysis technique which is a combination of the two methods. ATLAS handles the wind loading in a realistic manner. It allows the user to specify the wind speed as well as the areas of the signal lights or signs, parallel to the X and Y axis. In doing so the program calculates the applied loads on the corresponding nodal points internally, based on the specified element areas of the LIGHT elements in each plane. The loads are calculated in each cycle of the nonlinear process. Therefore, the applied loads in each cycle change with the rotation angle of the light. Thus the load are more realistic since they change with the swinging of the light. The angle change of the light also causes an uplift load at the cable nodal points.
See also
University of Florida
University of Florida College of Engineering
References
External links
Bridge Software Institute
Computer-aided engineering software
Finite element method
University of Florida
3D graphics software
2000 establishments in Florida |
39941468 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2013%E2%80%9314%20USC%20Trojans%20men%27s%20basketball%20team | 2013–14 USC Trojans men's basketball team | The 2013–14 USC Trojans men's basketball team represented the University of Southern California during the 2013–14 NCAA Division I men's basketball season. They were led by former FGCU and first year head coach Andy Enfield. They played their home games at the Galen Center and are members of the Pac-12 Conference.
Departures
Roster
Schedule and results
|-
!colspan=9| Regular season
|-
!colspan=9| Pac-12 Tournament
References
USC
USC Trojans men's basketball seasons
USC Trojans
USC Trojans |
2032390 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FontForge | FontForge | FontForge is a FOSS font editor which supports many common font formats. Developed primarily by George Williams until 2012, FontForge is free software and is distributed under a mix of the GNU General Public License Version 3 and the 3-clause BSD license. It is available for operating systems including Linux, Windows and macOS and is localized into 12 languages.
Features
To facilitate automated format conversion and other repetitive tasks, FontForge implements two scripting languages: its own language and Python. FontForge can run scripts from its GUI, from the command line, and also offers its features as a Python module so it can be integrated into any Python program.
FontForge supports Adobe's OpenType feature file specification (with its own extensions to the syntax). It also supports the unofficial Microsoft mathematical typesetting extensions (MATH table) introduced for Cambria Math and supported by Office 2007, XeTeX and LuaTeX. At least one free OpenType mathematical font has been developed in FontForge.
FontForge uses FreeType for rendering fonts on screen. Since the November 15, 2008 release, FontForge uses libcairo and libpango software libraries for graphics and text rendering providing anti-aliased graphics and complex text layout support.
FontForge can use Potrace or AutoTrace to auto trace bitmap images and import them into a font.
Parts of FontForge code are used by the LuaTeX typesetting engine for reading and parsing OpenType fonts.
The FontForge source code includes a number of utility programs, including 'showttf' which shows the contents of binary font files, and a WOFF converter and deconverter.
Supported formats
FontForge supports a wide variety of font formats. Its native Spline Font Database format (.sfd file name extension) is text-based and facilitates collaboration between designers, as difference files can be easily created. FontForge also supports the interoperable UFO source format, which is based on XML.
The software supports many other font formats and converts fonts from one format to another. Supported font formats include: TrueType (TTF), TrueType Collection (TTC), OpenType (OTF), PostScript Type 1, TeX Bitmap Fonts, X11 OTB bitmap (only sfnt), Glyph Bitmap Distribution Format (BDF), FON (Windows), FNT (Windows), and Web Open Font Format (WOFF). FontForge also imports and exports fonts to and from the Scalable Vector Graphics (SVG) format and the Unified Font Object (UFO) format.
Development history
The FontForge project was founded by George Williams as a retirement project, and initially published from 2001 to March 2004 as PfaEdit).
Williams actively developed, maintained and supported the program and related utilities for around 12 years. In mid-2011, Dave Crossland began contributing to the project and the project moved from SourceForge to GitHub. Crossland began offering introductory type design workshops through the TeX Users Group (TUG) to raise funds to hire contract developers to maintain and develop the program. FontForge's development became more active, and Khaled Hosny and Barry Schwartz were notable contributors, but in late 2012 they and Crossland disagreed about the direction of the project so they forked FontForge as SortsMill Tools.
In 2011, FontForge was packaged for easier installation on Mac OS X by Dr. Ben Martin with support from TUG. Meanwhile, Matthew Petroff published his Windows Build System and unofficial Windows builds. In 2013 the FontForgeBuilds project was started on SourceForge to extend this; it was subsequently entirely rewritten, and is today maintained by Jeremy Tan as a Windows application.
In 2012, Crossland organized a new project website to be hosted on GitHub Pages, , and used funds raised from teaching FontForge to beginners to hire a contract web designer. With his support Martin added a real time collaboration feature that was presented by them both as a keynote at the Libre Graphics Meeting 2013 in Madrid.
In 2014, with financial support from Google, Frank Trampe added full support for the UFO font source format.
Fonts developed with FontForge
Amiri (typeface)
Asana-Math
Cantarell (typeface)
DejaVu fonts
Free UCS Outline Fonts
Inconsolata
Junicode
Linux Libertine
M+ Fonts
OCR-A
Squarish Sans
XITS font project
See also
Metafont
METATYPE1
Inkscape
References
External links
"I think the ideas behind it are beautiful in my mind": long interview with George Williams, July 8, 2007
Free vector graphics editors
Free font editors
Free software programmed in C
Font formats
Font editors
Software that uses Cairo (graphics)
Software that uses GTK
Typography-related software for Linux |
16633775 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4902%20Thessandrus | 4902 Thessandrus | 4902 Thessandrus is a Jupiter trojan from the Greek camp, approximately in diameter. It was discovered on 9 January 1989, by American astronomer Carolyn Shoemaker at the Palomar Observatory in California, and later named after Thessander (Thessandrus) from Greek mythology. The dark D-type asteroid is an exceptionally slow rotator and tumbler. It belongs to the 70 largest Jupiter trojans.
Orbit and classification
Thessandrus is a dark Jovian asteroid orbiting in the leading Greek camp at Jupiter's Lagrangian point, 60° ahead of the Gas Giant's orbit in a 1:1 resonance . It is also a non-family asteroid in the Jovian background population.
It orbits the Sun at a distance of 5.0–5.4 AU once every 11 years and 10 months (4,337 days; semi-major axis of 5.2 AU). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.04 and an inclination of 9° with respect to the ecliptic.
A first precovery was taken at the discovering observatory in 1954, extending the body's observation arc by 35 years prior to its official discovery observation.
Physical characteristics
Thessandrus has been characterized as a D-type asteroid by Pan-STARRS' survey. It is also a D-type in the SDSS-based taxonomy.
Slow rotator
In February 2013, a rotational lightcurve of Thessandrus was obtained from photometric observations by American astronomer Robert Stephens at the Center for Solar System Studies in California. It gave an exceptionally long rotation period of hours with a brightness variation of 0.60 in magnitude (). It belongs to the slowest rotators known to exist.
Tumbler
The astronomers also detected a non-principal axis rotation seen in distinct rotational cycles in successive order. This is commonly known as tumbling. Thessandrus is the fourth-largest asteroid and largest Jupiter trojan known to be is such a state (also see List of tumblers).
Diameter and albedo
According to the surveys carried out by the Japanese Akari satellite and the NEOWISE mission of NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer, Thessandrus measures between 51.26 and 71.79 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo between 0.060 and 0.081.
The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a standard albedo of a carbonaceous asteroid of 0.057 and calculates a diameter of 61.04 kilometers based on an absolute magnitude of 9.8.
Naming
This minor planet is named after Thessander (Thessandrus) from Greek mythology and Homer's Iliad. Together with 30 other Greek soldiers he hid in the Trojan horse's belly. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 4 June 1993 ().
References
External links
Asteroid Lightcurve Database (LCDB), query form (info )
Dictionary of Minor Planet Names, Google books
Discovery Circumstances: Numbered Minor Planets (1)-(5000) – Minor Planet Center
Asteroid 4902 Thessandrus at the Small Bodies Data Ferret
004902
Discoveries by Carolyn S. Shoemaker
Minor planets named from Greek mythology
Named minor planets
004902
19890109 |
12041382 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decimal%20computer | Decimal computer | Decimal computers are computers which can represent numbers and addresses in decimal as well as providing instructions to operate on those numbers and addresses directly in decimal, without conversion to a pure binary representation. Some also had a variable wordlength, which enabled operations on numbers with a large number of digits.
Early computers
Early computers that were exclusively decimal include the ENIAC, IBM NORC, IBM 650, IBM 1620, IBM 7070, UNIVAC Solid State 80. In these machines, the basic unit of data was the decimal digit, encoded in one of several schemes, including binary-coded decimal (BCD), bi-quinary and two-out-of-five code. Except for the IBM 1620 and 1710, these machines used word addressing. When non-numeric characters were used in these machines, they were encoded as two decimal digits.
Other early computers were character oriented, providing instructions for performing arithmetic on character strings of decimal numerals, using BCD or excess-3 (XS-3) for decimal digits. On these machines, the basic data element was an alphanumeric character, typically encoded in six bits. UNIVAC I and UNIVAC II used word addressing, with 12-character words. IBM examples include IBM 702, IBM 705, the IBM 1400 series, IBM 7010, and the IBM 7080.
Later computers
The IBM System/360, introduced in 1964 to unify IBM's product lines, used per character binary addressing, and also included instructions for packed decimal arithmetic as well as binary integer arithmetic, and binary floating point. It used 8-bit characters and introduced EBCDIC encoding, though ASCII was also supported.
The Burroughs B2500 introduced in 1966 also used 8-bit EBCDIC or ASCII characters and could pack two decimal digits per byte, but it did not provide binary arithmetic, making it a decimal architecture.
More modern computers
Several microprocessor families offer limited decimal support. For example, the 80x86 family of microprocessors provide instructions to convert one-byte BCD numbers (packed and unpacked) to binary format before or after arithmetic operations
. These operations were not extended to wider formats and hence are now slower than using 32-bit or wider BCD 'tricks' to compute in BCD. The x87 FPU has instructions to convert 10-byte (18 decimal digits) packed decimal data, although it then operates on them as floating-point numbers.
The Motorola 68000 provided instructions for BCD addition and subtraction; as does the 6502. In the much later 68000 family-derived processors, these instructions were removed when the Coldfire instruction set was defined, and all IBM mainframes also provide BCD integer arithmetic in hardware. The Zilog Z80, Motorola 6800 and its derivatives, together with other 8-bit processors, and also the Intel x86 family have special instructions that support conversion to and from BCD. The Psion Organiser I handheld computer’s manufacturer-supplied software implemented its floating point operations in software using BCD entirely. All later Psion models used binary only, rather than BCD.
Decimal arithmetic is now becoming more common; for instance, three decimal types with two binary encodings were added to the 2008 IEEE 754r standard, with 7-, 16-, and 34-digit decimal significands.
The IBM Power6 processor and the IBM System z9 have implemented these types using the Densely Packed Decimal binary encoding, the first in hardware and the second in microcode.
See also
Ternary computer
References
Further reading
(NB. This title provides detailed description of decimal calculations, including explanation of binary-coded decimals and algorithms.)
(NB. At least some batches of this reprint edition were misprints with defective pages 115–146.)
Classes of computers
Early computers
Decimal computers |
29035 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega%20Saturn | Sega Saturn | The is a home video game console developed by Sega and released on November 22, 1994, in Japan, May 11, 1995, in North America, and July 8, 1995, in Europe. Part of the fifth generation of video game consoles, it was the successor to the successful Sega Genesis. The Saturn has a dual-CPU architecture and eight processors. Its games are in CD-ROM format, and its game library contains several ports of arcade games as well as original games.
Development of the Saturn began in 1992, the same year Sega's groundbreaking 3D Model 1 arcade hardware debuted. The Saturn was designed around a new CPU from Japanese electronics company Hitachi. Sega added another video display processor in early 1994 to better compete with Sony's forthcoming PlayStation.
The Saturn was initially successful in Japan but failed to sell in large numbers in the United States after its surprise May 1995 launch, four months before its scheduled release date. After the debut of the Nintendo 64 in late 1996, the Saturn rapidly lost market share in the U.S., where it was discontinued in 1998. Having sold 9.26 million units worldwide, the Saturn is considered a commercial failure; the cancellation of Sonic X-treme, planned as the first 3D entry in Sega's popular Sonic the Hedgehog series, is considered a factor in its performance. The Saturn was succeeded in 1998 by the Dreamcast.
Although the Saturn is remembered for several well-regarded games, including Nights into Dreams, the Panzer Dragoon series, and the Virtua Fighter series, its reputation is mixed due to its complex hardware design and limited third-party support. Sega's management has been criticized for its decisions during the system's development and discontinuation.
History
Background
In the early 1990s, Sega had success with the Genesis (known as the Mega Drive in most countries outside of North America), backed by aggressive advertising campaigns and the popularity of its Sonic the Hedgehog series. Sega also had success with arcade games; in 1992 and 1993, the new Sega Model 1 arcade system board showcased Sega AM2's Virtua Racing and Virtua Fighter (the first 3D fighting game), which played a crucial role in popularizing 3D polygonal graphics. The Model 1 was expensive, so several alternatives helped bring Sega's newest arcade games to Genesis, such as the Sega Virtua Processor chip used for Virtua Racing, and the 32X add-on.
Development
Development of the Saturn was supervised by Hideki Sato, Sega's director and deputy general manager of research and development. According to Sega project manager Hideki Okamura, the project started over two years before the Saturn was showcased at the Tokyo Toy Show in June 1994. The name "Saturn" was initially only the codename during development. Computer Gaming World in March 1994 reported a rumor that "the Sega Saturn ... will release in Japan before the end of the year" for $250–300.
In 1993, Sega and Japanese electronics company Hitachi formed a joint venture to develop a new CPU for the Saturn, which resulted in the creation of the "SuperH RISC Engine" (or SH-2) later that year. The Saturn was designed around a dual-SH2 configuration. According to Kazuhiro Hamada, Sega's section chief for Saturn development during the system's conception, "the SH-2 was chosen for reasons of cost and efficiency. The chip has a calculation system similar to a DSP [digital signal processor], but we realized that a single CPU would not be enough to calculate a 3D world." Although the Saturn's design was largely finished before the end of 1993, reports in early 1994 of the technical capabilities of Sony's upcoming PlayStation console prompted Sega to include another video display processor (VDP) to improve 2D performance and 3D texture mapping. Sega considered making CD-ROM-based and cartridge-only versions of the Saturn, but discarded the idea due to concerns over the lower quality and higher price of cartridge games.
According to Sega of America president Tom Kalinske, Sega of America "fought against the architecture of Saturn for quite some time". Seeking an alternative graphics chip for the Saturn, Kalinske attempted to broker a deal with Silicon Graphics, but Sega of Japan rejected the proposal. Silicon Graphics subsequently collaborated with Nintendo on the Nintendo 64. Kalinske, Sony Electronic Publishing's Olaf Olafsson, and Sony America's Micky Schulhof had discussed development of a joint "Sega/Sony hardware system", which never came to fruition due to Sega's desire to create hardware that could accommodate both 2D and 3D visuals and Sony's competing notion of focusing on 3D technology. Publicly, Kalinske defended the Saturn's design: "Our people feel that they need the multiprocessing to be able to bring to the home what we're doing next year in the arcades."
In 1993, Sega restructured its internal studios in preparation for the Saturn's launch. To ensure high-quality 3D games would be available early in the Saturn's life, and to create a more energetic working environment, developers from Sega's arcade division were asked to create console games. New teams, such as Panzer Dragoon developer Team Andromeda, were formed during this time. In early 1994, the Sega Titan Video arcade system was announced as an arcade counterpart to the Saturn. In April 1994, Acclaim Entertainment announced they would be the first American publisher to produce software for the Titan.
In January 1994, Sega began to develop an add-on for the Genesis, the Sega 32X, to serve as a less expensive entry into the 32-bit era. The decision to create the add-on was made by Sega CEO Hayao Nakayama and widely supported by Sega of America employees. According to former Sega of America producer Scot Bayless, Nakayama was worried that the Saturn would not be available until after 1994 and that the recently released Atari Jaguar would reduce Sega's hardware sales. As a result, Nakayama ordered his engineers to have the system ready for launch by the end of the year. The 32X would not be compatible with the Saturn, but Sega executive Richard Brudvik-Lindner pointed out that the 32X would play Genesis games, and had the same system architecture as the Saturn. This was justified by Sega's statement that both platforms would run at the same time, and that the 32X would be aimed at players who could not afford the more expensive Saturn. According to Sega of America research and development head Joe Miller, the 32X served a role in assisting development teams to familiarize themselves with the dual SH-2 architecture also used in the Saturn. Because the machines shared many parts and were being prepared to launch around the same time, tensions emerged between Sega of America and Sega of Japan when the Saturn was given priority.
Launch
Sega released the Saturn in Japan on November 22, 1994, at a price of ¥44,800. Virtua Fighter, a faithful port of the popular arcade game, sold at a nearly one-to-one ratio with the Saturn console at launch and was crucial to the system's early success in Japan. Though Sega had wanted to launch with Clockwork Knight and Panzer Dragoon, the only other first-party game available at launch was Wan Chai Connection. Fueled by the popularity of Virtua Fighter, Sega's initial shipment of 200,000 Saturn units sold out on the first day. Sega waited until the December 3 launch of the PlayStation to ship more units; when both were sold side by side, the Saturn proved more popular.
Meanwhile, Sega released the 32X on November 21, 1994, in North America, December 3, 1994, in Japan, and January 1995 in PAL territories, and was sold at less than half of the Saturn's launch price. After the holiday season, however, interest in the 32X rapidly declined. Half a million Saturn units were sold in Japan by the end of 1994 (compared to 300,000 PlayStation units), and sales exceeded 1 million within the following six months. There were conflicting reports that the PlayStation enjoyed a higher sell-through rate, and the system gradually began to overtake the Saturn in sales during 1995. Sony attracted many third-party developers to the PlayStation with a liberal $10 licensing fee, excellent development tools, and the introduction of a 7- to 10-day order system that allowed publishers to meet demand more efficiently than the 10- to 12-week lead times for cartridges that had previously been standard in the Japanese video game industry.
In March 1995, Sega of America CEO Tom Kalinske announced that the Saturn would be released in the U.S. on "Saturnday" (Saturday) September 2, 1995. However, Sega of Japan mandated an early launch to give the Saturn an advantage over the PlayStation. At the first Electronic Entertainment Expo (E3) in Los Angeles on May 11, 1995, Kalinske gave a keynote presentation in which he revealed the release price of US$399 (including a copy of Virtua Fighter), and described the features of the console. Kalinske also revealed that, due to "high consumer demand", Sega had already shipped 30,000 Saturns to Toys "R" Us, Babbage's, Electronics Boutique, and Software Etc. for immediate release. The announcement upset retailers who were not informed of the surprise release, including Best Buy and Walmart; KB Toys responded by dropping Sega from its lineup. Sony subsequently unveiled the retail price for the PlayStation: Olaf Olafsson, the head of Sony Computer Entertainment America (SCEA), summoned Steve Race to the stage, who said "$299", and then walked away to applause. The Saturn's release in Europe also came before the previously announced North American date, on July 8, 1995, at a price of £399.99. European retailers and press did not have time to promote the system or its games, harming sales. The PlayStation launched in Europe on September 29, 1995; by November, it had already outsold the Saturn by a factor of three in the United Kingdom, where Sony had allocated £20 million of marketing during the holiday season compared to Sega's £4 million.
The Saturn's U.S. launch was accompanied by a reported $50 million advertising campaign that included coverage in publications such as Wired and Playboy. Early advertising for the system was targeted at a more mature, adult audience than the Sega Genesis ads. Because of the early launch, the Saturn had only six games (all published by Sega) available to start as most third-party games were slated to be released around the original launch date. Virtua Fighters relative lack of popularity in the West, combined with a release schedule of only two games between the surprise launch and September 1995, prevented Sega from capitalizing on the Saturn's early timing. Within two days of its September 9, 1995 launch in North America, the PlayStation (backed by a large marketing campaign) sold more units than the Saturn had in the five months following its surprise launch, with almost all of the initial shipment of 100,000 units being sold in advance, and the rest selling out across the U.S.
A high-quality port of the Namco arcade game Ridge Racer contributed to the PlayStation's early success, and garnered favorable media in comparison to the Saturn version of Sega's Daytona USA, which was considered inferior to its arcade counterpart. Namco, a longtime arcade competitor with Sega, also unveiled the Namco System 11 arcade board, based on raw PlayStation hardware. Although the System 11 was technically inferior to Sega's Model 2 arcade board, its lower price made it attractive to smaller arcades. Following a 1994 acquisition of Sega developers, Namco released Tekken for the System 11 and PlayStation. Directed by former Virtua Fighter designer Seiichi Ishii, Tekken was intended to be fundamentally similar, with the addition of detailed textures and twice the frame rate. Tekken surpassed Virtua Fighter in popularity due to its superior graphics and nearly arcade-perfect console port, becoming the first million-selling PlayStation game.
On October 2, 1995, Sega announced a Saturn price reduction to $299. High-quality Saturn ports of the Sega Model 2 arcade hits Sega Rally Championship, Virtua Cop, and Virtua Fighter 2 (running at 60 frames per second at a high resolution) were available by the end of the year, and were generally regarded as superior to competitors on the PlayStation. Notwithstanding a subsequent increase in Saturn sales during the 1995 holiday season, the games were not enough to reverse the PlayStation's decisive lead. By 1996, the PlayStation had a considerably larger library than the Saturn, although Sega hoped to generate interest with upcoming exclusives such as Nights into Dreams. An informal survey of retailers showed that the Saturn and PlayStation sold in roughly equal numbers during the first quarter of 1996. Within its first year, the PlayStation secured over 20% of the entire U.S. video game market. On the first day of the May 1996 E3 show, Sony announced a PlayStation price reduction to $199, a reaction to the release of the Model 2 Saturn in Japan at a price roughly equivalent to $199. On the second day, Sega announced it would match this price, though Saturn hardware was more expensive to manufacture.
Changes at Sega
Despite the launch of the PlayStation and Saturn, sales of 16-bit games and consoles continued to account for 64% of the video game market in 1995. Sega underestimated the continued popularity of the Genesis, and did not have the inventory to meet demand. Sega was able to capture 43% of the dollar share of the U.S. video game market and sell more than 2 million Genesis units in 1995, but Kalinske estimated that "we could have sold another 300,000 Genesis systems in the November/December timeframe." Nakayama's decision to focus on the Saturn over the Genesis, based on the systems' relative performance in Japan, has been cited as the major contributing factor in this miscalculation.
Due to long-standing disagreements with Sega of Japan, Kalinske lost interest in his work as CEO of Sega of America. By early 1996, rumors were circulating that Kalinske planned to leave Sega, and a July 13 article in the press reported speculation that Sega of Japan was planning significant changes to Sega of America's management. On July 16, 1996, Sega announced that Kalinske would leave Sega after September 30, and that Shoichiro Irimajiri had been appointed chairman and CEO of Sega of America. A former Honda executive, Irimajiri had been involved with Sega of America since joining Sega in 1993. Sega also announced that David Rosen and Nakayama had resigned from their positions as chairman and co-chairman of Sega of America, though both remained with the company. Bernie Stolar, a former executive at Sony Computer Entertainment of America, was named Sega of America's executive vice president in charge of product development and third-party relations. Stolar, who had arranged a six-month PlayStation exclusivity deal for Mortal Kombat 3 and helped build close relations with Electronic Arts while at Sony, was perceived as a major asset by Sega officials. Finally, Sega of America made plans to expand its PC software business.
Stolar was not supportive of the Saturn, feeling it was poorly designed, and publicly announced at E3 1997 that "the Saturn is not our future". While Stolar had "no interest in lying to people" about the Saturn's prospects, he continued to emphasize quality games for the system, and later said that "we tried to wind it down as cleanly as we could for the consumer". At Sony, Stolar had opposed the localization of Japanese games that he felt would not represent PlayStation well in North America, and advocated a similar policy for the Saturn, although he later sought to distance himself from this perception. These changes were accompanied by a softer image that Sega was beginning to portray in its advertising, including removing the "Sega!" scream and holding press events for the education industry. Marketing for the Saturn in Japan also changed with the introduction of Segata Sanshiro (played by Hiroshi Fujioka), a character in a series of TV advertisements starting in 1997; the character eventually starred in a Saturn game.
Temporarily abandoning arcade development, Sega AM2 head Yu Suzuki began developing several Saturn-exclusive games, including a role-playing game in the Virtua Fighter series. Initially conceived as an obscure prototype "The Old Man and the Peach Tree" and intended to address the flaws of contemporary Japanese RPGs (such as poor non-player character artificial intelligence routines), Virtua Fighter RPG evolved into a planned 11-part, 45-hour "revenge epic in the tradition of Chinese cinema", which Suzuki hoped would become the Saturn's killer app. The game was eventually released as Shenmue for the Saturn's successor, the Dreamcast.
Cancellation of Sonic X-treme
As Sonic Team was working on Nights into Dreams, Sega tasked the U.S.-based Sega Technical Institute (STI) with developing the first fully 3D entry in its popular Sonic the Hedgehog series. The game, Sonic X-treme, was moved to the Saturn after several prototypes for other hardware (including the 32X) were discarded. It featured a fisheye lens camera system that rotated levels with Sonic's movement. After Nakayama ordered the game be reworked around the engine created for its boss battles, the developers were forced to work between 16 and 20 hours a day to meet their December 1996 deadline. Weeks of development were wasted after Stolar rescinded STI's access to Sonic Team's Nights into Dreams engine following an ultimatum by Nights programmer Yuji Naka. After programmer Ofer Alon quit and designers Chris Senn and Chris Coffin became ill, Sonic X-Treme was cancelled in early 1997. Sonic Team started work on an original 3D Sonic game for the Saturn, but development shifted to the Dreamcast and the game became Sonic Adventure. STI was disbanded in 1996 as a result of changes in management at Sega of America.
Journalists and fans have speculated about the impact a completed X-treme might have had on the market. David Houghton of GamesRadar described the prospect of "a good 3D Sonic game" on the Saturn as "a 'What if...' situation on a par with the dinosaurs not becoming extinct". IGNs Travis Fahs called X-treme "the turning point not only for Sega's mascot and their 32-bit console, but for the entire company", but noted that the game served as "an empty vessel for Sega's ambitions and the hopes of their fans". Dave Zdyrko, who operated a prominent Saturn fan website during the system's lifespan, said: "I don't know if [X-treme] could've saved the Saturn, but ... Sonic helped make the Genesis and it made absolutely no sense why there wasn't a great new Sonic title ready at or near the launch of the [Saturn]." In a 2007 retrospective, producer Mike Wallis maintained that X-treme "definitely would have been competitive" with Nintendo's Super Mario 64. Next Generation reported in late 1996 that X-treme would have harmed Sega's reputation if it did not compare well to contemporary competition. Naka said he had been relieved by the cancellation, feeling that the game was not promising.
Decline
From 1993 to early 1996, although Sega's revenue declined as part of an industry-wide slowdown, the company retained control of 38% of the U.S. video game market (compared to Nintendo's 30% and Sony's 24%). Eight hundred thousand PlayStation units were sold in the U.S. by the end of 1995, compared to 400,000 Saturn units. In part due to an aggressive price war, the PlayStation outsold the Saturn by two to one in 1996, while Sega's 16-bit sales declined markedly. By the end of 1996, the PlayStation had sold 2.9 million units in the U.S., more than twice the 1.2 million Saturn units sold. The Christmas 1996 "Three Free" pack, which bundled the Saturn with Daytona USA, Virtua Fighter 2, and Virtua Cop, drove sales dramatically and ensured the Saturn remained a competitor into 1997.
However, the Saturn failed to take the lead. After the launch of the Nintendo 64 in 1996, sales of the Saturn and its games were sharply reduced, while the PlayStation outsold the Saturn by three-to-one in the U.S. in 1997. The 1997 release of Final Fantasy VII significantly increased the PlayStation's popularity in Japan. The game helped push PlayStation sales ahead of the Saturn in Japan, after the PlayStation and Saturn had been very close in Japan prior to the game's release. As of August 1997, Sony controlled 47% of the console market, Nintendo 40%, and Sega only 12%. Neither price cuts nor high-profile game releases proved helpful. Reflecting decreased demand for the system, worldwide Saturn shipments during March to September 1997 declined from 2.35 million to 600,000 versus the same period in 1996; shipments in North America declined from 800,000 to 50,000. Due to the Saturn's poor performance in North America, 60 of Sega of America's 200 employees were laid off in late 1997.
As a result of Sega's deteriorating financial situation, Nakayama resigned as president in January 1998 in favor of Irimajiri. Stolar subsequently acceded to president of Sega of America. Following five years of generally declining profits, in the fiscal year ending March 31, 1998 Sega suffered its first parent and consolidated financial losses since its 1988 listing on the Tokyo Stock Exchange. Due to a 54.8% decline in consumer product sales (including a 75.4% decline overseas), the company reported a net loss of ¥43.3 billion () and a consolidated net loss of ¥35.6 billion ().
Shortly before announcing its financial losses, Sega announced that it was discontinuing the Saturn in North America to prepare for the launch of its successor. Only 12 Saturn games were released in North America in 1998 (Magic Knight Rayearth was the final official release), compared to 119 in 1996. The Saturn would last longer in Japan. Between June 1996 and August 1998, the Saturn sold a further 1,103,468 consoles and 29,685,781 games in Japan, giving the Saturn a Japanese attach rate of 16.71 games per console, the highest of that generation.
Rumors about the upcoming Dreamcast—spread mainly by Sega itself—were leaked to the public before the last Saturn games were released. The Dreamcast was released on November 27, 1998 in Japan and on September 9, 1999 in North America. The decision to abandon the Saturn effectively left the Western market without Sega games for over one year. Sega suffered an additional ¥42.881 billion consolidated net loss in the fiscal year ending March 1999, and announced plans to eliminate 1,000 jobs, nearly a quarter of its workforce.
Worldwide Saturn sales include at least the following amounts in each territory: 5.75 million in Japan (surpassing the Genesis' sales of 3.58 million there), 1.8 million in the United States, 1 million in Europe, and 530,000 elsewhere. With lifetime sales of 9.26 million units, the Saturn is considered a commercial failure, although its install base in Japan surpassed the Nintendo 64's 5.54 million. Lack of distribution has been cited as a significant factor contributing to the Saturn's failure, as the system's surprise launch damaged Sega's reputation with key retailers. Conversely, Nintendo's long delay in releasing a 3D console and damage caused to Sega's reputation by poorly supported add-ons for the Genesis are considered major factors allowing Sony to gain a foothold in the market.
Technical specifications
Featuring eight processors, the Saturn's central processing units are two Hitachi SH-2 microprocessors clocked at 28.6 MHz and capable of 56 MIPS. It uses a Motorola 68EC000 running at 11.3 MHz as a sound controller; a custom sound processor with an integrated Yamaha FH1 DSP running at 22.6 MHz capable of up to 32 sound channels with both FM synthesis and 16-bit 44.1 kHz pulse-code modulation; and two video display processors: the VDP1 (which handles sprites and polygons) and the VDP2 (which handles backgrounds). Its double-speed CD-ROM drive is controlled by a dedicated Hitachi SH-1 processor to reduce load times. The System Control Unit (SCU), which controls all buses and functions as a co-processor of the main SH-2 CPU, has an internal DSP running at 14.3 MHz. It features a cartridge slot that allows for memory expansion, 16 Mbit of work random-access memory (RAM), 12 Mbit of video RAM, 4 Mbit of RAM for sound functions, 4 Mbit of CD buffer RAM and 256 Kbit (32 KB) of battery backup RAM. Its video output, provided by a stereo AV cable, displays at resolutions from 320×224 to 704×224 pixels, and can display up to 16.77 million colors simultaneously. The Saturn measures . It was packaged with an instruction manual, control pad, stereo AV cable, and 100 V AC power supply, with a power consumption of approximately 15 W.
The Saturn had technically impressive hardware at the time of its release, but its complexity made harnessing this power difficult for developers accustomed to conventional programming. The greatest disadvantage was that both CPUs shared the same bus and were unable to access system memory at the same time. Making full use of the 4 KB of cache memory in each CPU was critical to maintaining performance. For example, Virtua Fighter used one CPU for each character, while Nights used one CPU for 3D environments and the other for 2D objects. The Visual Display Processor 2 (VDP2), which can generate and manipulate backgrounds, has also been cited as one of the system's most important features.
The Saturn's design elicited mixed commentary among game developers and journalists. Developers quoted by Next Generation in December 1995 described the Saturn as "a real coder's machine" for "those who love to get their teeth into assembly and really hack the hardware", with "more flexibility" and "more calculating power than the PlayStation". The sound board was also widely praised. By contrast, Lobotomy Software programmer Ezra Dreisbach described the Saturn as significantly slower than the PlayStation, whereas Kenji Eno of WARP observed little difference. In particular, Dreisbach criticized the Saturn's use of quadrilaterals as its basic geometric primitive, in contrast to the triangles rendered by the PlayStation and the Nintendo 64. Ken Humphries of Time Warner Interactive remarked that compared to the PlayStation, the Saturn was worse at generating polygons but better at sprites. Third-party development was initially hindered by the lack of useful software libraries and development tools, requiring developers to write in assembly language. During early Saturn development, programming in assembly could offer a two-to-fivefold speed increase over higher-level languages such as C.
The Saturn hardware is extremely difficult to emulate. Sega responded to complaints about the difficulty of programming for the Saturn by writing new graphics libraries which were claimed to make development easier. Sega of America also purchased a United Kingdom-based development firm, Cross Products, to produce the Saturn's development system. Despite these challenges, Treasure CEO Masato Maegawa stated that the Nintendo 64 was more difficult to develop for than the Saturn. Traveller's Tales founder Jon Burton felt that while the PlayStation was easier "to get started on ... you quickly reach [its] limits", whereas the Saturn's "complicated" hardware had the ability to "improve the speed and look of a game when all used together correctly". A major criticism was the Saturn's use of 2D sprites to generate polygons and simulate 3D space. The PlayStation used a different design, based entirely on 3D triangle-based polygonal rendering, with no direct 2D support. As a result, several analysts described the Saturn as an "essentially" 2D system. For example, Steven L. Kent stated: "Although Nintendo and Sony had true 3D game machines, Sega had a 2D console that did a good job with 3D objects but wasn't optimized for 3D environments."
Several Saturn models were produced in Japan. An updated model in a recolored light gray (officially white) was released at ¥20,000 to reduce the system's cost and raise its appeal among women and younger children. Two models were released by third parties: Hitachi released the Hi-Saturn (a smaller model equipped with a car navigation function), while JVC released the V-Saturn'''. Saturn controllers came in various color schemes to match different models of the console. The system also supports several accessories. A wireless controller powered by AA batteries uses infrared signal to connect. Designed to work with Nights, the Saturn 3D Pad includes both a control pad and an analog stick for directional input. Sega also released several versions of arcade sticks as peripherals, including the Virtua Stick, the Virtua Stick Pro, the Mission Analog Stick, and the Twin Stick. Sega also created a light gun peripheral, the Virtua Gun, for shooting games such as Virtua Cop and The Guardian, and the Arcade Racer, a wheel for racing games. The Play Cable allows two Saturn consoles to be connected for multiplayer gaming across two screens, while a multitap allows up to six players to play on the same console. The Saturn was designed to support up to 12 players on a single console, by using two multitaps. RAM cartridges expand the memory. Other accessories include a keyboard, mouse, floppy disk drive, and movie card.
Like the Genesis, the Saturn had an internet-based gaming service. The Sega NetLink was a 28.8k modem that fit into the cartridge slot in the Saturn for direct dial multiplayer. In Japan, a pay-to-play service was used. It could also be used for web browsing, sending email, and online chat. Because the NetLink was released before the Saturn keyboard, Sega produced a series of CDs containing hundreds of website addresses so that Saturn owners could browse with the joypad. The NetLink functioned with Daytona USA, Duke Nukem 3D, Saturn Bomberman, Sega Rally, and Virtual On: Cyber Troopers. In 1995, Sega announced a variant of the Saturn featuring a built-in NetLink modem under the code name "Sega Pluto", but it was never released.
Sega developed an arcade board based on the Saturn's hardware, the Sega ST-V (or Titan), intended as an affordable alternative to Sega's Model 2 arcade board and as a testing ground for upcoming Saturn software. The Titan was criticized for its comparatively weak performance compared to the Sega Model 2 arcade system by Yu Suzuki, and it was overproduced by Sega's arcade division. Because Sega already had the Die Hard license, members of Sega AM1 working at the Sega Technical Institute developed Die Hard Arcade for the Titan to clear excess inventory. Die Hard became the most successful Sega arcade game produced in the United States at that point. Other games released for the Titan include Golden Axe: The Duel and Virtua Fighter Kids.
Game library
Much of the Saturn's library comes from Sega's arcade ports, including Daytona USA, The House of the Dead, Last Bronx, Sega Rally Championship, the Virtua Cop series, the Virtua Fighter series, and Virtual-On. Saturn ports of 2D Capcom fighting games including Darkstalkers 3, Marvel Super Heroes vs. Street Fighter, and Street Fighter Alpha 3 were noted for their faithfulness to their arcade counterparts. Fighters Megamix, developed by Sega AM2 for the Saturn rather than arcades, combined characters from Fighting Vipers and Virtua Fighter to positive reviews. Highly rated Saturn exclusives include Panzer Dragoon Saga, Dragon Force, Guardian Heroes, Nights, Panzer Dragoon II Zwei, and Shining Force III.Shining creators Hiroyuki Takahashi and Shugo Takahashi have named Shining the Holy Ark and Shining Force 3 their favorite games in the series. See PlayStation games such as Castlevania: Symphony of the Night, Resident Evil, and Wipeout 2097 received Saturn ports with mixed results. The first-person shooter PowerSlave featured some of the most impressive 3D graphics on the system, leading Sega to contract its developers, Lobotomy Software, to produce Saturn ports of Duke Nukem 3D and Quake. While Electronic Arts' limited support for the Saturn and Sega's failure to develop a football game for late 1995 gave Sony the lead in the sports genre, "Sega Sports" published Saturn sports games including the well-regarded World Series Baseball and Sega Worldwide Soccer series.cf. cf.
Due to the cancellation of Sonic X-treme, the Saturn lacks an exclusive Sonic the Hedgehog platformer; instead it received a graphically enhanced port of the Genesis game Sonic 3D Blast, the compilation Sonic Jam, and a racing game, Sonic R. The platformer Bug! received attention for its eponymous main character being a potential mascot for the Saturn, but it failed to catch on as the Sonic series had. Considered one of the most important Saturn releases, Sonic Team developed Nights into Dreams, a score attack game that attempted to simulate both the joy of flying and the fleeting sensation of dreams. The gameplay of Nights involves steering the imp-like androgynous protagonist, Nights, as it flies on a mostly 2D plane across surreal stages broken into four segments each. The levels repeat for as long as an in-game time limit allows, while flying over or looping around various objects in rapid succession earns additional points. Although it lacked the fully 3D environments of Nintendo's Super Mario 64, Nights' emphasis on unfettered movement and graceful acrobatic techniques showcased the intuitive potential of analog control. Sonic Team's Burning Rangers, a fully 3D action-adventure game involving a team of outer-space firefighters, garnered praise for its transparency effects and distinctive art direction, but was released in limited quantities late in the Saturn's lifespan and criticized for its short length.
One of the biggest killer apps for the Saturn in Japan were the Sakura Wars games. Co-developed by Sega and Red Entertainment, Sakura Wars mixed elements of tactical RPGs, anime cutscenes and visual novels. Despite games such as the Sakura Wars series and Grandia helping make the Saturn popular in its homeland, they never saw a Western release due to Sega of America's policy of not localizing RPGs and other Japanese games that might have damaged the system's reputation in North America.cf. Despite appearing first on the Saturn, games such as Dead or Alive,cf. Grandia, and Lunar: Silver Star Story Complete only saw a Western release on the PlayStation. Working Designs localized several Japanese Saturn games before a public feud between Sega of America's Bernie Stolar and Working Designs president Victor Ireland resulted in the company switching their support to the PlayStation. Panzer Dragoon Saga was praised as perhaps the finest RPG for the system due to its cinematic presentation, evocative plot, and unique battle system—with a tactical emphasis on circling around opponents to identify weak points and the ability to "morph" the physical attributes of the protagonist's dragon companion during combat—but Sega released fewer than 20,000 retail copies of the game in North America in what IGN's Levi Buchanan characterized as one example of the Saturn's "ignominious send-off" in the region. Similarly, only the first of three installments of Shining Force III was released outside Japan. The Saturn's library also garnered criticism for its lack of sequels to high-profile Genesis-era Sega franchises, with Sega of Japan's cancellation of a planned third installment in Sega of America's popular Eternal Champions series cited as a significant source of controversy.
Later ports of Saturn games including Guardian Heroes, Nights, and Shin Megami Tensei: Devil Summoner: Soul Hackers continued to garner positive reviews. Partly due to rarity, Saturn games such as Panzer Dragoon Saga and Radiant Silvergun are noted for their cult following. Due to the system's commercial failure and hardware limitations, Saturn projects such as Resident Evil 2, Shenmue, Sonic Adventure, and Virtua Fighter 3 were cancelled and moved to the Dreamcast.
Reception and legacy
At the time of the Saturn's release, Famicom Tsūshin awarded it 24 out of 40, higher than the PlayStation's 19 out of 40. In June 1995, Dennis Lynch of the Chicago Tribune and Albert Kim of Entertainment Weekly praised the Saturn as the most advanced console available; Lynch praised the double-speed CD-ROM drive and "intense surround-sound capabilities" and Kim cited Panzer Dragoon as a "lyrical and exhilarating epic" demonstrating the ability of new technology to "transform" the industry. In December 1995, Next Generation gave the Saturn three and a half stars out of five, highlighting Sega's marketing and arcade background as strengths but the system's complexity as a weakness. Four critics in Electronic Gaming Monthlys December 1996 Buyer's Guide rated the Saturn 8, 6, 7, and 8 out of 10 and the PlayStation 9, 10, 9, and 9. By December 1998, EGMs reviews were more mixed, with reviewers citing the lack of games as a major problem. According to EGM reviewer Crispin Boyer, "the Saturn is the only system that can thrill me one month and totally disappoint me the next".
Retrospective feedback of the Saturn is mixed, but generally praises its game library. According to Greg Sewart of 1UP.com, "the Saturn will go down in history as one of the most troubled, and greatest, systems of all time". In 2009, IGN named the Saturn the 18th-best console of all time, praising its unique game library. According to the reviewers, "While the Saturn ended up losing the popularity contest to both Sony and Nintendo ... Nights into Dreams, the Virtua Fighter and Panzer Dragoon series are all examples of exclusive titles that made the console a fan favorite." Edge noted that "hardened loyalists continue to reminisce about the console that brought forth games like Burning Rangers, Guardian Heroes, Dragon Force and Panzer Dragoon Saga". In 2015, The Guardians Keith Stuart wrote that "the Saturn has perhaps the strongest line-up of 2D shooters and fighting games in console history".Retro Gamers Damien McFerran wrote: "Even today, despite the widespread availability of sequels and re-releases on other formats, the Sega Saturn is still a worthwhile investment for those who appreciate the unique gameplay styles of the companies that supported it." IGN's Adam Redsell wrote "[Sega's] devil-may-care attitude towards game development in the Saturn and Dreamcast eras is something that we simply do not see outside of the indie scene today." Necrosoft Games director Brandon Sheffield felt that "the Saturn was a landing point for games that were too 'adult' in content for other systems, as it was the only one that allowed an 18+ rating for content in Japan ... some games, like Enemy Zero'' used it to take body horror to new levels, an important step toward the expansion of games and who they served." Sewart praised the Saturn's first-party games as "Sega's shining moment as a game developer", with Sonic Team demonstrating its creative range and AM2 producing numerous technically impressive arcade ports. He also commented on the many Japan-exclusive Saturn releases, which he connected with a subsequent boom in the game import market. IGN's Travis Fahs was critical of the Saturn library's lack of "fresh ideas" and "precious few high-profile franchises", in contrast to what he described as Sega's more creative Dreamcast output.
Sega has been criticized for its management of the Saturn. McFerran felt its management staff had "fallen out of touch with both the demands of the market and the industry". Stolar has also been criticized; according to Fahs, "Stolar's decision to abandon the Saturn made him a villain to many Sega fans, but ... it was better to regroup than to enter the next fight battered and bruised. Dreamcast would be Stolar's redemption." Stolar defended his decision, saying, "I felt Saturn was hurting the company more than helping it. That was a battle that we weren't going to win." Sheffield said that the Saturn's quadrilaterals undermined third-party support, but because "nVidia invested in quads" at the same time, there had been "a remote possibility" they could have "become the standard instead of triangles ... if somehow, magically, the Saturn were the most popular console of that era." Speaking more positively, former Working Designs president Victor Ireland described the Saturn as "the start of the future of console gaming" because it "got the better developers thinking and designing with parallel-processing architecture in mind for the first time". In GamesRadar, Justin Towell wrote that the Saturn's 3D Pad "set the template for every successful controller that followed, with analog shoulder triggers and left thumbstick ... I don't see any three-pronged controllers around the office these days."
Douglass C. Perry of Gamasutra noted that, from its surprise launch to its ultimate failure, the Saturn "soured many gamers on Sega products". Sewart and IGN's Levi Buchanan cited the failure of the Saturn as the major reason for Sega's downfall as a hardware manufacturer, but USgamer's Jeremy Parish described it as "more a symptom ... than a cause" of the decline, which began with add-ons for the Genesis that fragmented the market and continued with Sega of America's and Sega of Japan's competing designs for the Dreamcast. Sheffield portrayed Sega's mistakes with the Saturn as emblematic of the broader then-decline of the Japanese gaming industry: "They thought they were invincible, and that structure and hierarchy were necessary for their survival, but more flexibility, and a greater participation with the West could have saved them." According to Stuart, Sega "didn't see ... the roots of a prevailing trend, away from arcade conversions and traditional role-playing adventures and toward a much wider console development community with fresh ideas about gameplay and structure." Pulp365 reviews editor Matt Paprocki concluded that "the Saturn is a relic, but an important one, which represents the harshness of progress and what it can leave in its wake".
Notes
References
Bibliography
1990s toys
CD-ROM-based consoles
Fifth-generation video game consoles
Home video game consoles
Products and services discontinued in 1998
Products and services discontinued in 2000
Products introduced in 1994
Products introduced in 1995 |
55825559 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bevil%20Wooding | Bevil Wooding | Bevil Wooding is a Trinidadian technologist and development strategist, who is the Chief Knowledge Officer at Congress WBN, a UK-registered charity, with operations in over 120 countries. He is known for his work in the field of Information and Communications Technology (ICT) in the Caribbean. In 2010, he was named by ICANN as one of the Trusted Community Representatives for the Domain Name System Security Extensions (DNSSEC) root. Wooding advocates developing states and emerging economies to create policies, build infrastructure and leverage human resource capacity for technology-enabled development. He has been described as "a visionary who believes that the Caribbean Economy can be enhanced through ICTs and Internet development.”
He is currently the Director of Caribbean Affairs at the American Registry for Internet Numbers (ARIN), and an Internet Strategist for the US based non-profit Packet Clearing House (PCH). He also serves as a Special Advisor to the Organization of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS) and the Caribbean Telecommunications Union (CTU). His work spans several sectors and includes public awareness, capacity building and policy development.
Wooding's work with the Caribbean Court of Justice (CCJ) has led to the creation of a special non-profit agency, APEX, to support the implementation of technology innovations within the Caribbean justice system. He currently serves as Executive Director of APEX.
Honours and awards
Wooding was selected as one of 50 individuals to receive a Distinguished Alumni Award from the University of the West Indies St. Augustine campus during their 50th Anniversary celebrations in April 2011. The awardees were selected from a pool of 20,000 graduates in recognition of their leadership and professional contribution to their fields.
In 2013, he was conferred a lifetime achievement award by the Latin America and Caribbean Network Information Centre (LACNIC) for his dedication, integrity and consistency in the development of an internet and information society; for strengthening the internet connectivity and infrastructure particularly in supporting the development of the Internet exchange points (IXPS) in the Caribbean.
In 2017, he was awarded with a Distinguished Service Award by the Caribbean Telecommunications Union (CTU) for his contribution to the development of the Internet and digital economy in the Caribbean.
In November 2017, Wooding received the Caribbean American Heritage Award from the Institute of Caribbean Studies, celebrating his work as "a virtual technology ambassador, evangelist and pioneer".
He delivered the 23rd Sir Arthur Lewis Memorial Lecture at the opening ceremony of the 2018 Annual Conference with Commercial Banks in St. Kitts, addressing the issue of “Leveraging ICT for Regional Transformation” and empowering youth to contribute in ICT development. This annual lecture series is sponsored and hosted by the Eastern Caribbean Central Bank (ECCB), to honor Sir Arthur Lewis, Nobel Laureate in Economics, and his contribution to Caribbean regional integration.
Wooding was one of several honorees at an awards ceremony celebrating the 15th anniversary of the Caribbean Internet Governance Forum (CIGF) in May 2019. He received a CIGF Excellence in Internet Governance Award for his contribution to regional technology education, youth outreach, Internet exchange points, and initiatives such as the Caribbean ICT Roadshow, the Caribbean Network Operators Group, the Caribbean Peering and Interconnection Forum, Apex justice technology solutions and BrightPath Foundation digital content programs.
In July 2019 he was the keynote speaker for the CEO Roundtable at the World Credit Union Conference in Nassau, Bahamas.
Caribbean initiatives
Caribbean Network Operators Group (CaribNOG)
In 2009 Bevil Wooding and Stephen Lee with support from the Caribbean Telecommunications Union co-founded the Caribbean Network Operators Group (CaribNOG), as a volunteer-based association and forum for computer network experts and enthuasists to exchange knowledge and ideas. CaribNOG is one of several Internet network operators' groups world wide. CaribNOG holds two regional meetings each year where topics such as cloud computing, IPv6 and cybersecurity are discussed. The inaugural regional gathering was held in St. Maarten in August 2010, with participation from across the Caribbean as well as the United Kingdom, North America, Mexico, New Zealand and Argentina. The 2018 gathering placed emphasis on the role and responsibility of regional technology professionals in the area of cybersecurity. The first National CyberSecurity Symposium in Belize was organized by Wooding and the CaribNOG team, in collaboration with the Belize Public Utilities Commission and other partners and sponsoring organizations.
Caribbean ICT Roadshow
Wooding is the co-architect and first Program Director of the Caribbean Telecommunications Union's (CTU) Caribbean ICT Roadshow. The Caribbean ICT Roadshow was launched in 2009 as a public awareness and education campaign designed to demonstrate how technology can be used to transform Caribbean society and economies. The initiative targets governments, entrepreneurs, the elderly and youth, through customized programs ranging from lectures to hands-on workshops and panel discussions. As of 2018 there have been 23 editions of the CTU Caribbean ICT Roadshow in 18 countries.
Internet Exchange Points (IXPs) in the Caribbean
In his role as an Internet Strategist for Packet Clearing House, Wooding has worked to raise awareness of and advance investment and development in Internet exchange points (IXPs) across the Caribbean. Instead of Caribbean countries relying on international exchange points to carry local data between Internet service providers (ISPs), developing local IXPs can help countries to conserve operating costs, boost digital security, improve internet quality, and increase internet access. He has contributed to the establishment of IXPs in Barbados, Belize, BVI, Dominica, Grenada, Jamaica, St Lucia, St Vincent and the Grenadines, and Trinidad and Tobago. At the launch of the first IXP in Belize, Wooding stated that this type of internet infrastructural development is a “small but vital step in the journey toward the development of the Belizean and the Caribbean Internet Economy”.
Caribbean Peering and Interconnection Forum (CarPIF)
Wooding co-founded the Caribbean Peering and Interconnection Forum (CarPIF), a regional event to bring together senior decision makers from internet service providers, cloud providers and content delivery networks. He describes CarPIF as “where the economic underpinnings of the traffic exchange and peering relationships that define the Internet are discussed using Caribbean data and Caribbean examples, to a Caribbean audience.” CarPIF addresses challenges to internet connectivity, access and affordability. The inaugural event was held in Barbados in 2015. Since then, host countries have included Curacao, St. Maarten and Belize.
Network resilience and cybersecurity
Network resilience and cybersecurity have been high priorities for Wooding, who has conducted numerous workshops and presentations raising awareness about the threats facing the Caribbean and the work of organizations such as CTU, CaribNOG and ARIN to build local capacity, strengthen networks and protect the regional internet. Resilience refers to “the ability of a network to maintain acceptable levels of service in the face of a range of challenges, including cyber-attacks and natural disasters, and even user-errors.” Made up of numerous small-island states, the Caribbean region is particularly susceptible to the effects of extreme weather events and natural disasters, such as hurricanes.
Through ARIN training events across the region, Wooding has been educating regional agencies about how to strengthen and secure local networks. In 2018, St. Kitts & Nevis became the first in the Caribbean to be assigned its own autonomous system number, or ASN, taking the first step towards network autonomy.
Justice sector transformation
Wooding together with Sir Dennis Byron is a co-architect of the non-profit agency APEX, established by the Caribbean Court of Justice (CCJ) in 2016. Since then he has been instrumental in coordinating development and delivery of technology for Caribbean courts and the justice sector in the region. APEX technology has been implemented in several countries, including Barbados, Belize, Guyana, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, and Trinidad and Tobago for electronic filing, case management and court performance management.
Educational initiatives
Technology education
In 2006 Wooding founded the BrightPath Foundation, a non-profit organization providing values-based technology and digital content training. He serves as Executive Director with oversight for current initiatives including mobile app development, classroom technologies, digital publishing and photography training. In 2012 he coordinated the development and implementation of the BrightPath Jumpstart program, an initiative that brings high school students together with practicing professionals who provide mentorship, training and ICT industry insight. The program was launched through a pilot project at NorthGate College in St. Augustine, Trinidad.
Following St. Lucia's first Mobile App Development workshop in 2012, the National Youth Council of St. Lucia signed a Memorandum of Understanding with BrightPath Foundation to collaborate on a range of technology education initiatives targeted at the youth. TechLink – a regional program offering hands-on training in digital content creation and related technology skills - was launched in Grenada in November 2013, and by the end of 2014, over 400 educators, entrepreneurs, young people and parents had participated in TechLink events held in Antigua & Barbuda, Barbados, St. Kitts & Nevis, St. Lucia and Trinidad & Tobago.
Curriculum development
In 2012, Congress WBN signed a Memorandum of Understanding with the Caribbean Examinations Council (CXC), focused on providing values-based leadership and supporting ICT education delivery. Through this partnership, Wooding worked closely with CXC to create the Caribbean's first-ever Digital Media syllabus, along with a training toolkit of instructional videos and resource materials to assist educators with implementing the curriculum in their classrooms. The Digital Media examination was the first to be delivered electronically.
References
External links
Congress WBN
CarPIF
CaribNOG
Caribbean Telecommunications Union
Institute of Caribbean Studies
APEX
BrightPath Foundation
Jumpstart Program
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people) |
37255138 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trojan%20%28surname%29 | Trojan (surname) | The surname Trojan may refer to:
Aleksandra Trojan, Polish volleyball player
Alexander Trojan (1914-1992), Austrian film actor
Alois Pravoslav Trojan, Czech lawyer
Ivan Trojan (born 1964), Czech actor
Filip Trojan (born 1983) Czech footballer
Kurt von Trojan (1937-2006), Australian journalist and science fiction writer
Ondřej Trojan (born 1959), Czech film producer, actor and film director
Václav Trojan (1907–1983), Czech composer
See also
Troyan
Czech-language surnames |
21111247 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drawbase%20Software | Drawbase Software | Drawbase Software, founded in 1986, is the developer of Drawbase, an integrated workplace management system (IWMS) and Business Infrastructure Management (BIM) solution. This product line includes several optional software applications, such as the Move Manager, Data Center Manager and the MEP Manager, which serve to enhance facility management.
The company’s corporate headquarters are located in Lyndhurst, New Jersey, with an additional office located in Waltham, Massachusetts. Drawbase Software has partners internationally as well, in areas including the Netherlands, United Kingdom, Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Australia, Asia, The Middle East, and India.
Drawbase was acquired by Graphisoft on April 3, 2000. Ownership of Drawbase was then transferred from Graphisoft to Drawbase Software on July 1, 2005.
Drawbase Software expanded the line of products to provide point applications in a wide range of areas in the FM market with Data Center Manager and Hazardous Materials tracking being the latest offerings.
In 2010, IBM selected Drawbase Software as the vendor to provide an integrated solution with Maximo. IBM licensed the Drawbase suite of solutions including the namesake Drawbase for FM, Workplace Manager, Data Center Manager for global distribution under the IBM name of Maximo for Space Management and DCIM.
Four Rivers Software, the developers of TMS, also licensed the Drawbase suite of products in 2010. They licensed the product suite for limited distribution to the non-government health care market in the United States under the name TMS CAFM. Accruent recently acquired Four Rivers Software and the TMS products.
Drawbase recently announced a relationship with Oracle and the PeopleSoft group of products with focus on the EAM and HR areas.
References
External links
Graphisoft Acquires Drawbase
Drawbase Software International Partners
Drawbase UK Partners/Resellers
IBM Licenses Drawbase Products
Companies based in New Jersey |
41361460 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanjeev%20Khanna | Sanjeev Khanna | Sanjeev Khanna is an Indian-American computer scientist. He is currently a Henry Salvatori professor of Computer and Information Science at the University of Pennsylvania. His research interests include approximation algorithms, hardness of approximation, combinatorial optimization, and sublinear algorithms.
Career
Khanna received his undergraduate degrees in computer science and economics from Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani, India in 1990, his M.S. degree in computer science from University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign in 1992, and his doctoral degree in computer science from Stanford University, California, US in 1996. He joined University of Pennsylvania in 1999 after spending three years as a member of the Mathematical Sciences Research center at Bell Laboratories.
Research contribution and awards
Khanna's primary research contributions are to the fields of approximation algorithms, hardness of approximation, combinatorial optimization, and sublinear algorithms. His doctoral work at Stanford University, "A Structural View of Approximation", received the 1996 Arthur Samuel prize for the best PhD dissertation in the Computer Science Department. He is a Guggenheim Fellow (2007) and a Sloan Fellow (2000). He is also a recipient of S. Reid Warren, Jr. and Lindback awards for distinguished teaching at University of Pennsylvania.
He serves on the Editorial board of Foundations and Trends in Theoretical Computer Science, and has previously served on the editorial boards of SICOMP, ACM TALG, Algorithmica, JCSS, and as an area editor for Encyclopaedia of Algorithms.
In 2018, the Association for Computing Machinery named him an ACM Fellow for his contributions to approximation algorithms, hardness of approximation, and sublinear algorithms.
External links
Sanjeev Khanna's Home Page
DBLP: Sanjeev Khanna
References
American computer scientists
Living people
20th-century births
Sloan Research Fellows
University of Pennsylvania faculty
Fellows of the Association for Computing Machinery
Year of birth missing (living people) |
62275263 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bennie%20Boatwright | Bennie Boatwright | Bennie Boatwright Jr. (born July 13, 1996) is an American professional basketball player for the Fort Wayne Mad Ants of the NBA G League. He played college basketball for the USC Trojans.
Early life and high school career
Boatwright is the son of police officer Bennie Boatwright Sr., who was an All-CIF shooting guard at Lutheran High. Boatwright attended Village Christian School, where he was coached by Jon Shaw. As a senior, he averaged 27 points and 12 rebounds per game. Boatwright led the team to a Southern Section 1AA championship, scoring 30 points and grabbing 13 rebounds in the title game. He signed with USC.
College career
Boatwright averaged 11.5 points and 5.2 rebounds per game and made 60 3-pointers as a freshman. As a sophomore, he averaged a team-high 15.1 points and helped the Trojans to two wins in the NCAA tournament. He declared for the NBA draft but ultimately returned to school. His junior season was shortened as he missed the final nine games. He averaged 13.6 points and 6.4 rebounds per game as a junior. In the offseason after his junior year, Boatwright underwent knee surgery. As a senior, Boatwright averaged 18.2 points, 6.6 rebounds and 2.5 assists per game. He was named to the First Team All-Pac-12.
Professional career
Memphis Hustle (2019–2021)
After going undrafted in the 2019 NBA draft, Boatwright joined the Detroit Pistons' Summer League roster.
On October 18, 2019, Boatwright signed with the Memphis Grizzlies, but was waived on October 19. He was named to the roster of the Grizzlies’ NBA G League affiliate, the Memphis Hustle. Boatwright missed his rookie season due to a knee injury. On December 15, 2020, Boatwright signed with the Memphis Grizzlies. He was subsequently waived on December 19, and rejoined the Hustle.
Fort Wayne Mad Ants (2021–present)
On September 10, 2021, the Fort Wayne Mad Ants acquired the returning player rights of Boatwright from the Memphis Hustle. On February 19, 2022, he suffered a season-ending injury.
Career statistics
College
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2015–16
| style="text-align:left;"| USC
| 33 || 32 || 24.4 || .394 || .359 || .738 || 5.2 || 1.0 || .4 || .8 || 11.5
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2016–17
| style="text-align:left;"| USC
| 19 || 18 || 27.6 || .428 || .364 || .907 || 4.5 || 1.7 || .4 || .4 || 15.1
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2017–18
| style="text-align:left;"| USC
| 23 || 18 || 27.7 || .415 || .346 || .726 || 6.4 || 2.0 || .3 || .8 || 13.6
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2018–19
| style="text-align:left;"| USC
| 31 || 28 || 33.5 || .474 || .429 || .702 || 6.6 || 2.5 || .7 || .6 || 18.2
|- class="sortbottom"
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"| Career
| 106 || 96 || 28.3 || .432 || .380 || .759 || 5.7 || 1.8 || .5 || .7 || 14.5
References
External links
USC Trojans bio
1996 births
Living people
American men's basketball players
Basketball players from Los Angeles
Fort Wayne Mad Ants players
Memphis Hustle players
Power forwards (basketball)
USC Trojans men's basketball players |
6570919 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asset%20management | Asset management | Asset management is a systematic approach to the governance and realization of value from the things that a group or entity is responsible for, over their whole life cycles. It may apply both to tangible assets (physical objects such as buildings or equipment) and to intangible assets (such as human capital, intellectual property, goodwill or financial assets). Asset management is a systematic process of developing, operating, maintaining, upgrading, and disposing of assets in the most cost-effective manner (including all costs, risks and performance attributes).
The term is commonly used in the financial sector to describe people and companies who manage investments on behalf of others. Those include, for example, investment managers that manage the assets of a pension fund.
It is also increasingly used in both the business world and public infrastructure sectors to ensure a coordinated approach to the optimization of costs, risks, service/performance and sustainability.
The International Standard, ISO 55000, provides an introduction and requirements specification for a management system for asset management.
By industry
Financial asset management
The most common usage of the term "asset manager" refers to investment management, the sector of the financial services industry that manages investment funds and segregated client accounts. Asset management is part of a financial company that employs experts who manage money and handle the investments of clients. This is done either actively or passively.
Active asset management: this involves active tasks such as studying the client's assets to planning and looking after the investments, all things are looked after by the asset managers and recommendations are provided based on the financial health of each client. Active asset management comes at a higher price to investors because more work is involved.
Passive asset management: assets are allocated to mirror a market or a sector index. Unlike active asset management, passive asset management is a lot less laborious. It is also less tailored, requires less looking after and consequently is cheaper for investors.
Physical and Infrastructure asset management
Infrastructure asset management is the combination of management, financial, economic, engineering, and other practices applied to physical assets with the objective of providing the best value level of service for the costs involved. It includes the management of the entire life cycle—including design, construction, commissioning, operating, maintaining, repairing, modifying, replacing and decommissioning/disposal—of physical and infrastructure assets. Operation and maintenance of assets in a constrained budget environment require a prioritization scheme. As a way of illustration, the recent development of renewable energy has seen the rise of effective asset managers involved in the management of solar systems (solar park, rooftops, and windmills). These teams often collaborate with financial asset managers in order to offer turnkey solutions to investors. Infrastructure asset management became very important in most of the developed countries in the 21st century, since their infrastructure network was almost completed in the 20th century and they have to manage to operate and maintain them cost-effectively.
Software asset management is one kind of infrastructure asset management.
The International Organization for Standardization published its management system standard for asset management in 2014. The ISO 55000 series provides terminology, requirements, and guidance for implementing, maintaining and improving an effective asset management system. The key for forming a structure of this sort is directly connected to local governance.
Physical asset management: the practice of managing the entire life cycle (design, construction, commissioning, operating, maintaining, repairing, modifying, replacing and decommissioning/disposal) of physical and infrastructure assets such as structures, production and service plant, power, water and waste treatment facilities, distribution networks, transport systems, buildings and other physical assets. The increasing availability of data from asset systems is allowing the principles of Total Cost of Ownership to be applied to facility management of an individual system, a building, or across a campus. Physical asset management is related to asset health management.
Infrastructure asset management expands on this theme in relation primarily to the public sector, utilities, property and transport systems. Additionally, Asset Management can refer to shaping the future interfaces between the human, built, and natural environments through collaborative and evidence-based decision processes
Fixed assets management: an accounting process that seeks to track fixed assets for the purposes of financial accounting
IT asset management: the set of business practices that join financial, contractual and inventory functions to support life cycle management and strategic decision making for the IT environment.
Digital asset management: a form of electronic media content management that includes digital assets
Enterprise asset management
Enterprise asset management (EAM) systems are asset information systems that support the management of an organization's assets. An EAM includes an asset registry (inventory of assets and their attributes) combined with a computerized maintenance management system (CMMS) and other modules (such as inventory or materials management). Assets that are geographically distributed, interconnected or networked, are often also represented through the use of geographic information systems (GIS).
GIS-centric asset registry standardizes data and improves interoperability, providing users the capability to reuse, coordinate, and share information in an efficient and effective manner. A GIS platform combined with information of both the "hard" and "soft" assets helps to remove the traditional silos of departmental functions. While the hard assets are the typical physical assets or infrastructure assets, the soft assets might include permits, licenses, brands, patents, right-of-ways, and other entitlements or valued items.
The EAM system is only one of the 'enables' to good asset management. Asset managers need to make informed decisions in order to fulfill their organizational goals, this requires good asset information but also leadership, clarity of strategic priorities, competencies, inter-departmental collaboration and communications, workforce, and supply chain engagement, risk and change management systems, performance monitoring and continual improvement.
Public asset management
Public asset management expands the definition of enterprise asset management (EAM) by incorporating the management of all things of value to a municipal jurisdiction and its citizens' expectations. An example in which public asset management is used is land-use development and planning.
Intellectual and non-physical asset management
Increasingly both consumers and organizations use assets, e.g. software, music, books, etc. where the user's rights are constrained by a license agreement. An asset management system would identify the constraints upon such licenses, e.g. a time period. If, for example, one licenses software, often the license is for a given period of time. Adobe and Microsoft both offer time-based software licenses. In both the corporate and consumer worlds, there is a distinction between software ownership and the updating of software. One may own a version of the software, but not newer versions of the software. Cellular phones are often not updated by vendors, in an attempt to force a purchase of newer hardware. Large companies such as Oracle, that license software to clients distinguish between the right to use and the right to receive maintenance/support.
See also
Asset management firm
IT asset management
List of asset management firms
P2P asset management
Robo-advisor
Software asset management
ISO 55000
References
Further reading
Baird, G. "Defining Public Asset Management for Municipal Water Utilities". Journal American Water Works Association May 2011, 103:5:30, www.awwa.org
External links
ISO/TC 251 - ISO Asset Management Information
ISO page for ISO 55000
IAM page for introduction to Asset Management
Stages in IT Asset Lifecycle Management
Management accounting
Valuation (finance) |
24327781 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ubuntu%20Software%20Center | Ubuntu Software Center | Ubuntu Software Center, or simply Software Center, is a discontinued high-level graphical front end for the APT/dpkg package management system. It is free software written in Python, PyGTK/PyGObject based on GTK.
The program was created for adding and managing repositories, as well as Ubuntu Personal Package Archives (PPA) and on Ubuntu, the Ubuntu Software Center also allowed users to purchase commercial applications.
Development was ended in 2015 and in Ubuntu 16.04 LTS. It was replaced with GNOME Software.
Development history
In early 2009 Ubuntu developers noted that package management within Ubuntu could be improved and consolidated. Recent releases of Ubuntu, such as Ubuntu 9.04 (Jaunty Jackalope) included five applications for package management which consumed space and other resources, as well as provide confusion to users. Applications could be downloaded using the basic Add/Remove Applications or with the Synaptic Package Manager. The Software Updater provided updating for installed packages and Computer Janitor cleaned up packages that were no longer needed. The Software Sources application allowed user selection of the package download location.
Ubuntu developers set as a goal:
Canonical introduced the Software Center gradually, starting with Ubuntu 9.10 (Karmic Koala) with complete functionality expected by Ubuntu 11.10, in October 2011. By May 2011, the plan had mostly been completed:
October 2009 — version 1.0.2 shipped with Ubuntu 9.10 (Karmic Koala)
Introduced a new simple interface for locating, installing, and removing software, with better security based on PolicyKit instead of gksudo.
April 2010 — version 2.0.2 shipped with Ubuntu 10.04 (Lucid Lynx) LTS
The Software Center added lists of non-application packages in a simplified manner and also provide subcategories for applications and Personal Package Archives.
October 2010 — version 3.0.4 shipped with Ubuntu 10.10 (Maverick Meerkat)
Allowed users to purchase software and showed a history of past installations, removals and purchases, including undoing specific changes.
April 2011 — version 4.0 shipped with Ubuntu 11.04 (Natty Narwhal)
Added user rating and reviewing software, and the ability to see ratings and reviews of other participating Ubuntu users.
October 2011 — Ubuntu 11.10 (Oneiric Ocelot)
Software Center's fifth version was rewritten in GTK3, improving design (better integration with system theme, promoting banner added, nicer listing of apps), start-up time was improved too. Software Center was partially prepared for touch control by including larger icons. Software Center also brought Unity Launcher integration, sorting by ratings and system requirements for applications. Some GDebi technology was also integrated to improve speed when handling .deb files.
19 December 2011
An online edition of the Ubuntu Software Center was released, the Ubuntu Apps Directory. The Web store shows the same content as the Software Center application, with a download button that opens the application if running Ubuntu or a link to download the Ubuntu operating system installer if running a different operating system.
April 2012 — Ubuntu 12.04 (Precise Pangolin)
Ubuntu Software Center gained new monochrome elements. Canonical created a Web-based developer platform to help programmers to create applications for Ubuntu. Software Center included a new category: "Books and magazines", ability to show video presentations of paid applications and multiple screenshots per one app. And also added progress bar support for Software Centre.
In August 2015 Chris Hoffman of PC World criticized the application, indicating that Canonical was not maintaining it properly while work on the replacement application was being pursued. In particular, he noted that paid applications were not being supported properly and that Canonical had not informed developers of this. The application still works for installing and managing free software applications.
In November 2015 Canonical announced that development would end and the application would be replaced by GNOME Software in Ubuntu 16.04 LTS.
See also
Ubuntu One
APT graphical front ends
Other examples of a high-level graphical front end for APT:
Apper
AppStream
KPackage
Synaptic (software)
GNOME Software
References
External links
Ubuntu Apps Directory
wiki.ubuntu.com/SoftwareCenter
Ubuntu Software Center versions history
Dpkg
Free software programmed in Python
Linux package management-related software
Linux PMS graphical front-ends
Package management software that uses GTK
Software distribution platforms
Software that uses PyGObject
Ubuntu |
51196426 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connect%20%28computer%20system%29 | Connect (computer system) | Connect is a new social network analysis software data mining computer system developed by HMRC (UK) that cross-references business's and people's tax records with other databases to establish fraudulent or undisclosed (misdirected) activity.
History
HMRC introduced Connect in the summer of 2010; it was not fully functioning. Around 350 HMRC employees are involved with Connect, who work with an analytical compliance environment. Connect was developed by BAE Systems Applied Intelligence (former Detica in Surrey) for £45m.
From September 2016, Connect has interfaced with financial information from British Overseas Territories; these have been known tax havens. From 2017 Connect has interfaced with around sixty other OECD countries.
Sources of information
Connect cross-references information from many other UK government databases, including:
Adverts on the internet e.g. Rightmove and Zoopla
Bank accounts and pensions
Council tax
Credit and debit card transactions, going back four years
Companies House
DVLA
DWP (former Benefits Agency)
eBay and other internet marketplaces
The electoral roll
Gas Safe Register
Insurance companies
Land Registry - for capital gains tax
HMRC also independently looks at Google Earth.
Technology
The system deploys the chi-squared test and Benford's law to look for anomalous tax receipts. The system is operated by the Risk and Intelligence Service (RIS) division of HMRC. The software combines analytic tools (Enterprise Guide) from SAS Institute, which collects the information, and NetReveal from BAE Systems AI, which collates it into meaningful information.
It deploys predictive analytics similar to credit scoring, and has dynamic benchmarking. It looks for correlation of income with lifestyle, by comparing with multivariate statistical models; outliers from expected variance will be investigated.
Definition of data
Undeclared work is plotted on mapping software, allowing undeclared work to be seen at a street by street level.
Purpose
Connect looks for income disparities, often caused by undeclared income. If someone drives an expensive car, but does not have the income to run one or afford one, Connect can discover this.
See also
Mosaic (geodemography)
National Border Targeting Centre, UK Government computing centre in south Manchester that traces illegal and suspicious immigration into the UK, via cross-border databases
Government Connect, part of Government Secure Intranet, a computer communications systems between UK local authorities
Tax information exchange agreement
References
External links
Telegraph: "Connect computer system" (June 2015)
HMRC Digital blog
SAS Enterprise Guide
BAE Systems.com: Financial Crime
BAE Systems
Big data products
Computer-related introductions in 2010
Corruption in the United Kingdom
Data analysis software
Fraud in the United Kingdom
Geodemographic databases
Geographical databases in the United Kingdom
Government databases in the United Kingdom
HM Revenue and Customs
Informal economy
Postcodes in the United Kingdom
Social network analysis software
2010 software
2010 establishments in the United Kingdom
Tax avoidance in the United Kingdom
Tax evasion in the United Kingdom |
35507196 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kevin%20Systrom | Kevin Systrom | Kevin Systrom (born December 30, 1983) is an American computer programmer and entrepreneur. He co‑founded Instagram, the world's largest photo sharing website, along with Mike Krieger.
Systrom was included on the list of America's Richest Entrepreneurs Under 40 2016. Under Systrom as CEO, Instagram became a fast growing app, with 800 million monthly users as of September 2017. He resigned as the CEO of Instagram on September 24, 2018.
Facebook bought Instagram for $1 billion in 2012, a large sum at that time for a company that had 13 employees. Instagram today has over one billion users and contributes over $20 billion to Facebook's annual revenue.
Early life and education
Systrom was born in 1983 in Holliston, Massachusetts. He is the son of Diane, a marketing executive at Zipcar, who also worked at Monster and Swapit during the first dotcom bubble, and Douglas Systrom, Vice President in Human Resources at TJX Companies.
Systrom attended Middlesex School in Concord, Massachusetts, where he was introduced to computer programming. His interest grew from playing Doom 2 and creating his own levels as a child.
He worked at Boston Beat, a vinyl record music store in Boston, while he was in high school.
Systrom attended Stanford University and graduated in 2006 with a bachelor's degree in management science and engineering. At Stanford, he was a member of the Sigma Nu fraternity. He turned down a recruitment offer from Mark Zuckerberg and instead spent the winter term of his third year in Florence, where he studied photography.
He got his first taste of the startup world when he was chosen as one of twelve students to participate in the Mayfield Fellows Program at Stanford University. The fellowship led to his internship at Odeo, the company that eventually gave rise to Twitter.
Career
Google
After graduating Stanford, he joined Google working on Gmail, Google Calendar, Docs, Spreadsheets and other products. He spent two years at Google as a product marketer; Systrom left Google out of frustration of not being moved into the Associate Product Manager program.
Burbn
He made the prototype of what later became Burbn and pitched it to Baseline Ventures and Andreessen Horowitz at a party. He came up with the idea while on a vacation in Mexico when his girlfriend was unwilling to post her photos because they did not look good enough when taken by the iPhone 4 camera. The solution to the problem was to use filters, effectively hiding the qualitative inferiority of the photographs. Subsequently, Systrom developed the X-Pro II filter that is still in use on Instagram today.
After the first meeting, he decided to quit his job in order to explore whether or not Burbn could become a company. Within 2 weeks of quitting his job, he received US$500,000 seed funding round from both Baseline Ventures and Andreessen Horowitz. While in San Francisco, Systrom and Mike Krieger built Burbn, an HTML 5 check-in service, into a product that allowed users to do many things: check into locations, make plans (future check-ins), earn points for hanging out with friends, post pictures, and much more. However, recalling their studies in Mayfield Fellows Program, Krieger and Systrom identified that Burbn contained too many features and the users did not want a complicated product. They decided to focus on one specific feature, photo-sharing. The development of Burbn led to creation of Instagram. A month after launching, Instagram had grown to 1 million users. A year later, Instagram hit more than 10 million users.
Instagram
In 2010, Systrom co‑founded the photo-sharing and, later, video-sharing social networking service Instagram with Mike Krieger in San Francisco, California.
In April 2012, Instagram, along with 13 employees, was sold to Facebook for US$1 billion in cash and stock. According to multiple reports, the deal netted Systrom US$400 million based on his ownership stake in the business. One of the key contributions to the acquisition was that Mark Zuckerberg stated Facebook was "committed to building and growing Instagram independently", allowing Systrom to continue to lead Instagram. Systrom stated in an interview with Bloomberg that the pros of becoming a part of Facebook were that "we got to pair up with a juggernaut of a company that understands how to grow, understands how to build a business, has one of the best, if not the best, management team in tech and we got to use them as our resource".
In an interview with Forbes, he stated that "Instagram is a new form of communication that's an ideal fit with the always-with-you iPhone in today's social media world. Instagram's a social network built around photos, where people can quickly comment on or 'like' photos and share them on Twitter or Facebook." Systrom identified Instagram as a media company, which explains the roll-out of video advertisement by big companies such as Disney, Activision, Lancome, Banana Republic and CW in late 2014.
Under Systrom's leadership, Instagram developed key features like the Explore tab, filters, and video. Over time, Instagram rolled out features allowing users to upload and filter photographs and short videos, follow other users' feeds, geotag images, name location, and comment on other users' photographs and short videos. Instagram allowed the development of web profiles in 2012, connecting accounts to Facebook, Twitter, Tumblr, and Flickr in 2013, an Explore tab in mid-2012, and Video in June 2013. Instagram offered 19 photographic filters; Normal, 1977, Amaro, Branna, Earlybird, Hefe, Hudson, Inkwell, Kelvin, Lo-fi, Mayfair, Nashville, Rise, Sierra, Sutro, Toaster, Valencia, Willow, X-Pro II.
Systrom hired former Yahoo Vice-president James Everingham, as well as Kevin Weil, who formerly headed product development at Twitter, as high-ranking executives at Instagram.
As of October 2015, 40 billion pictures had been shared on Instagram.
As of June 2016, Instagram had over 500 million active users.
Also in 2016, CNN quoted a study according to which Snapchat was the most important social network among teenagers aged 14 to 19, the first time in two years that Instagram did not feature at the top.
Instagram as of early 2017 employed around 450 people. The app was used by 600 million people per month and 300 million per day. Its competitors Snapchat and Twitter employed more people for a smaller user base, with Twitter having 3,500 employees for 317 million monthly users, and Snapchat employing 1,500 people for half of Instagram's daily user base.
In May 2017, Systrom planned to better integrate the use of videos into Instagram. He also stated that in a few years, the company might be getting involved in Virtual Reality products.
According to Quartz and the New York Times, Systrom and Krieger implemented a system to overcome bottlenecks and slow decision-making in the company by scheduling meetings in which only decisions are taken. This approach was informed by Systrom's interest in academic business theories, in particular Clayton M. Christensen's concept of The Innovator's Dilemma.
On September 24, 2018, it was announced that Systrom resigned from Instagram and would be leaving in few weeks.
Views on copying ideas in the industry
Instagram has been accused on multiple occasions for copying various new functions from its closest competitor Snapchat. Regarding the issue, Systrom argued that all new services launched by tech companies nowadays are "remixes" of existing products, and that "all of these ideas are original when you remix them and bring your own flavour". Systrom also argued that 'you can trace the roots of every feature anyone has in their app, somewhere in the history of technology' and that this was simply 'just the way Silicon Valley works.'
Forbes list
In 2014, Systrom was listed in the Forbes 30 "Under 30" list under the "Social/Mobile category."
In 2016, the magazine ranked Systrom as a billionaire with an estimated net worth of US$1.1 billion. The fortune came about as a result of Facebook stocks rising more than 500%.
Personal life
According to The Guardian, Systrom enjoys "fine food, golf, skiing and holidays at California's Lake Tahoe".
In February 2016, Systrom met with Pope Francis at the Vatican, where they discussed the power of images in uniting people "across borders, cultures and generations".
On October 31, 2016, Systrom married Nicole Systrom (née Schuetz), founder and CEO of clean-energy investment firm Sutro Energy Group, in Napa, California. The two met at Stanford and were engaged in 2014.
References
External links
1983 births
Living people
Businesspeople from the San Francisco Bay Area
American technology chief executives
American technology company founders
American computer programmers
Facebook employees
Google employees
American billionaires
Stanford University alumni
21st-century American engineers
Forbes 30 Under 30 recipients |
60656582 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1960%20USC%20Trojans%20baseball%20team | 1960 USC Trojans baseball team | The 1960 USC Trojans baseball team represented the University of Southern California in the 1960 NCAA University Division baseball season. The Trojans played their home games at Bovard Field. The team was coached by Rod Dedeaux in his 19th season at USC.
The Trojans lost the College World Series, defeated by the Minnesota Golden Gophers in the championship game.
Roster
Schedule and results
Schedule Source:
Awards and honors
William Ryan
All Tournament Team
Bob Levingston
All Tournament Team
Mickey McNamee
All Tournament Team
Art Ersepke
All Tournament Team
1st Team All-CIBA
Bill Heath
All Tournament Team
ABCA 2nd team
Bruce Gardner
All Tournament Team
ABCA 1st team
1st Team All-CIBA
Tom Satriano
ABCA 2nd team
Steve Bach
1st Team All-CIBA
Mike Gillespie
Honorable Mention All-CIBA
Ron Stillwell
Honorable Mention All-CIBA
References
USC Trojans baseball seasons
USC Trojans baseball
College World Series seasons
USC |
6887150 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T/Maker | T/Maker | T/Maker (Table Maker) was one of the first spreadsheet programs designed for the personal computer user and released by Peter Roizen in 1979. The application ran on CP/M, TRSDOS, and later on MS-DOS computers. T/Maker was originally distributed by Lifeboat Associates of New York.
T/Maker took a different approach to most other spreadsheets: instead of embedding formulas in each cell, formulas were defined on a per-row and per-column basis in the margins.
Although T/Maker was released six months after VisiCalc, it was perhaps the first application to provide an 'office' suite approach to data. Tables could be used in databases or spreadsheets and were accessible in 'word' type documents.
T/Maker company
The T/Maker Company was an early personal computer software company, formed in 1983 in order to market CP/M and MS-DOS programs that had originally been published by 3rd party publishing houses. They expanded into the Apple Macintosh market, releasing the ClickArt line of clip art. Other products included WriteNow on the Mac and NeXT platforms.
In 1983 T/Maker Company was incorporated in Mountain View, California by Heidi Roizen – Peter's sister and a then-recent Stanford University Graduate School of Business graduate – who became its CEO.
T/Maker Company went on to publish its own line of integrated applications, and also products by others intended for DOS and Windows computers as well as the Apple Macintosh, including ClickArt, the fifth software title available for the Mac. It was also one of the first companies to offer fonts for the Macintosh. By 1988, it no longer sold the product of its namesake, T/Maker.
Other notable T/Maker products include Personal Publisher, a consumer-oriented desktop publishing application for the PC (acquired by Software Publishing Corporation in 1986), SmartBundle, an "office" styled bundle of major applications, Vroombooks, a multimedia storybook, and the Macintosh word processor WriteNow, (which it licensed from NeXT in 1985 and ultimately sold to WordStar in 1993).
Heidi and business partner/chairman Royal Farros purchased T/Maker from Peter in 1986 and continued bootstrapping until 1989, when it became venture capital firm Hummer Winblad Venture Partners’ first venture investment. Ann Winblad became a director of the company at that time. Tim Draper of Draper Fisher led the company’s second round in 1993 and also joined the board.
T/Maker was acquired in 1994 by Deluxe Corporation. Both Heidi and Royal left the company in 1996, Heidi becoming VP of Worldwide Developer Relations at Apple Computer and Royal founding and becoming CEO of an online print shop, iPrint.com.
T/Maker’s remaining products were ultimately acquired by Broderbund, who continues to market and expand the ClickArt line.
References
External links
Broderbund official website
Peter Roizen official website
Heidi.roizen.com
T/Maker Five website
CP/M software
DOS software
Spreadsheet software
Proprietary software
1979 software |
30019446 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forman%20S.%20Acton | Forman S. Acton | Forman Sinnickson Acton (August 10, 1920 – February 18, 2014) was an American computer scientist, engineer, educator and author. He was an emeritus professor in the Department of Computer Science at Princeton University.
Education
Acton began his education in the Salem City School system. He left at the end of 9th grade to attend boarding school at Phillips Exeter Academy in Exeter, New Hampshire, from which he graduated in 1939. He then attended Princeton University, obtaining his Bachelor of Science degree in 1943, and his Master of Science degree in chemical engineering in 1944.
He was drafted into the Army in June 1944, and worked for the U.S. Army at Oak Ridge, at a facility that played a key role in the Manhattan Project, for the remainder of World War II. After the war, he became the second graduate from Carnegie Institute of Technology to earn a Ph.D. in Applied Mathematics.
Career
Acton spent three years at the U.S. National Bureau of Standards' Institute for Numerical Analysis at the University of California at Los Angeles, where he worked on a machine called SWAC (Standards Western Automatic Computer), one of the first digital computers.
In 1952, he returned to Princeton to teach in the mathematics department, and served as director of the Analytical Research Group. While there, his group worked on military weapons, contributing to systems such as the U-2 spy plane and the Nike anti-aircraft missile. He also became an expert and teacher on the IAS Machine, another of the first computers, which was located at the Institute for Advanced Study.
During this time, Acton worked with other important figures in early computing, including Princeton Professor John Tukey, who coined the terms "software" and "bit," and Thomas Kurtz, who went on to co-invent the computer language BASIC. Other contemporaries he knew and worked with included Albert W. Tucker, Grace Hopper, Richard Feynman, James H. Wilkinson, Claude Shannon, John Backus, and John Nash.
Acton moved to the Department of Electrical Engineering in 1955. In 1963, he made the first of two extended visits to the Indian Institute of Technology at Kanpur, India, where he helped establish the school's early computing facilities and courses. He initially stayed for one year, and he returned in 1967 to teach and offer organizational advice.
As computing evolved, Princeton's electrical engineering department added "computer science" to its name before the Department of Computer Science became its own department in 1985. Acton retired as professor of computer science in 1989.
Books
Acton is known for his 1970 book Numerical Methods That Work, which was reissued in 1997 by the Mathematical Association of America. More recently, he published Real Computing Made Real: Preventing Errors in Scientific and Engineering Calculations.
Philanthropy
Before his death, Acton made several anonymous scholarship donations to students in the Salem City School District in Salem County, NJ. Before he died, he made it clear to friends and confidants that he wanted youth in the Salem area, where he was born and raised, to have access to the educational experiences he enjoyed. The Forman S. Acton Educational Foundation was officially incorporated in October 2014, and it currently provides financial assistance for youth in the greater Salem community.
References
External links
Computer Oral History Collection, Archives Center, National Museum of American History.
1920 births
American computer scientists
2014 deaths
Princeton University faculty
Princeton University School of Engineering and Applied Science alumni
Phillips Exeter Academy alumni
People from Salem, New Jersey
Scientists from New Jersey
20th-century American scientists
United States Army personnel of World War II |
12336118 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monsoon%20Multimedia | Monsoon Multimedia | Monsoon Multimedia was a company that manufactured, developed and sold video streaming and place-shifting devices that allowed consumers to view and control live television on PCs connected to a local (home) network or remotely from a broadband-connected PC or mobile phone.
It was one of 5 major transformations (1st VGA in 1984, 16 bit audio and mixed signal ASICs in 1992, 1st commercially available CD Rom drive less than $100 in 1992, MPEG-2 adapters in 1996 and high compression software for mobile phones in 2001)initiated by Prabhat Jain, a Silicon Valley entrepreneur with 5 undergraduate and post graduate engineering degrees from Cal Berkeley and Univ of Vienna, Austria. The Place Shifting ecosystem was developed by him and Bhupen Shah while Jain was CEO at Emuzed and Shah worked for him. Later Bhupen teamed up with Blake Krikorian to found Sling Media while Vadim Dagman and Jain founded Monsoon Multimedia-both companies went after the place shifting market. Aware that Monsoon had filed multiple patents, Krikorian bought patents dated earlier than the Monsoon patents, from a Japanese company for $5mi in early 2000. On the even of Cisco acquiring Monsoon in 2017, EchoStar, the new parent of Sling sued Monsoon for patent infringement (of the Japanese patents), having obtained confidential information about the date of the acquisition by Cisco from a Monsoon employee under murky circumstances.
Monsoon settled the lawsuit by agreeing not to sell its products in the USA simply because it did not have the legal funds to fight mighty Echostar's legal maneuvers. EchoStar thus successfully removed its only competitor from the market place. This meant Monsoon's death knell.
The devices enabled streaming and recording of video content from video sources including live TV, DVD players, video game consoles, and TiVo to multiple PCs wirelessly. Multiple users could connect to the HAVA from any Internet connection simultaneously with channel-changing capabilities and full operation of the video source. The devices allowed a PC to operate as a personal video recorder with pause, fast forward and rewind functions. The HAVA device also worked as a TV tuner for Windows Media Center-enabled PCs without being directly connected to a video source.
In 2018 the Monsoon Website was suddenly closed with no placeholder left to advise of closure, and the company's central server (which coordinated all remote access to Hava and Vulkano devices), ceased to respond at the company IP address coded in the device firmware and remote viewing software.
As of late 2018, Downloads of iPad and iPhone software for remote viewing are no longer available on Apple's iTunes App Store.
As of early 2019 it is not known if there are any active projects to restore functionality of these devices remotely, since the company's server closed. However, they continue to function on a local network.
History
Monsoon Multimedia was created in 2004 by the founders of Dazzle and Emuzed. HAVA's main engineering and development operations are based in Tomsk, Russia, and New Delhi, India. In 1996, the founder of Monsoon Multimedia, Prabhat Jain, founded Dazzle, where he developed the PC hardware and software products to compress video based on MPEG standards. In 2000, he founded Emuzed, where Prabhat Jain created a TiVo-type product for the PC based on Microsoft's Media Center Edition PC operating system.
In November 2008, Prabhat Jain announced the appointment of consumer technology industry veteran William Loesch as CEO of the company. Loesch brought 30 years of experience in the computer software and hardware industries, primarily in the consumer digital video sector. Loesch is not currently listed on the company website as an active member of the team (11/2/2011).
GPL and Patent lawsuits
What was claimed to be the first US lawsuit over a GPL violation concerned use of BusyBox in an embedded device. The lawsuit, case 07-CV-8205 in the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York was filed on 20 September 2007 by the Software Freedom Law Center (SFLC) on behalf of the Busybox developers against Monsoon Multimedia Inc., after BusyBox code was discovered in a firmware upgrade and attempts to contact the company had apparently failed. The case was settled with release of the Monsoon version of the source and payment of an undisclosed amount of money to Andersen and Landley.
In January 2013 Sling Media filed suit alleging infringement of five patents, against both Belkin International and Monsoon Multimedia in the United States District Court for the Northern District of California. The Belkin part of the suit was settled in May 2013, and in December 2013 the United States International Trade Commission found that Monsoon was indeed violating the patents. The commission issued cease-and-desist orders and banned the importation of Monsoon Multimedia products into the United States.
Devices
Monsoon Multimedia's line of place-shifting devices enabled multiple networked PCs within the home to simultaneously view live TV or DVR content. The number of PCs and mobile device that could connect to a single Monsoon device were limited only by the bandwidth of the network or broadband connection. Only one remote client at a time could view a place-shifted program, but the remote device could be watching while multiple home PCs watched the same program.
Vulkano
Released in August 2010, the Vulkano added an electronic program guide to its PC software, as well as support for YouTube video streaming on TV with an included remote control, as well as future support for Netflix and other streaming video services. Future Google TV web-browsing support was planned for 2011. There was also a Vulkano model that included a 500 GB external hard drive for DVR recordings, which could be accessed from mobile devices. The Vulkano did not support Windows Media Center integration as the previous HAVA models did, but included UPnP technology for photo, music, and video streaming from PCs and mobile devices. In November 2010, Monsoon added a Vulkano Platinum model, which did not include any storage drive, program guide, or recording capabilities.
Vulkano Flow
Announced at the 2011 Consumer Electronics Show, the Vulkano Flow was a mobile accessory. When connected to any set-top box the Vulkano Flow could stream TV content to mobile devices inside or outside of the home. It was to be available for $99.
Vulkano Blast
Also announced at the 2011 Consumer Electronics Show, the Vulkano Blast integrated DVR, web video, placeshifting, Universal Plug and Play streaming UPnP, Mobile Video Recording and 160 GB internal storage. Its approximate price was $200.
HAVA Gold
Controlled digital cable, satellite, or DVR TV programming on any PC or mobile device.
HAVA Platinum HD
Controlled high-definition digital cable, satellite or DVR TV programming on any PC or mobile phone. Turned a PC into personal video recorder (PVR) by recording TV shows to the hard disk or watch TV from Microsoft’s Media Center in any room within a home.
The HAVA Platinum HD also included component inputs and had the ability to transmit a HD program in widescreen aspect ratio, though not in full HD resolution. The HAVA Platinum took a 720p or 1080i signal and converted it to standard-definition resolution before streaming it over a network or over the Internet. This device also added PC software that stored streamed content, enabling the PC or laptop to pause, rewind and fast-forward streamed content. The stored program could also be burned to DVD.
HAVA Wireless HD
Controlled HD digital cable, satellite, or DVR programs wirelessly on any WiFi-enabled PC or mobile phone. It could stream wirelessly, DVD-quality video direct from the TV source to multiple Media Center PCs simultaneously. It could also pause, rewind, fast forward, and record live TV programs on a PC.
HAVA Titanium HD WiFi
Controlled HD digital cable, satellite, or DVR programs wirelessly on any WiFi enabled PC or mobile phone. It could stream wirelessly, DVD quality video direct from the TV source to multiple Windows Vista or Media Center PCs simultaneously.
The HAVA Titanium HD added Wi-Fi to make a wireless connection to a Wi-Fi-equipped broadband router or modem, and it featured two USB ports. One was for plugging in an external USB HDD drive that could then be used as a DVR. The other USB port was for the included Wi-Fi 802.11g adapter, which sat in a cradle and was connected to a 3-foot USB cable so the adapter could be located in a spot with good reception.
Software interface
The HAVA devices came with a HAVA Player software interface that was downloaded onto the user's PC or mobile phone. This interface enabled the user to send remote control commands from their PC to their TV source. This was done through the included wide range of virtual remote control designs. The Vulkano device included an electronic program guide (EPG) enabled software player.
As of late 2018, software downloads were no longer available from Monsoon's defunct website.
Mobile players
Vulkano players
With the release of the Vulkano in August 2010, Monsoon introduced free Vulkano players for the iPad and iPhone, which only support WiFi, and not yet 3G connections. Monsoon also released an Android and BlackBerry player, and planned a future release for Symbian.
As of late 2018, iPad and iPhone player software was no longer available for download on Apple's iTunes App Store.
HAVA players
Monsoon Multimedia announced support for Windows Mobile in May 2007 enabling users to connect to the HAVA and view video content from video sources such as live TV from a smartphone, pocket PC or PDA.
In April 2008, Monsoon Media announced HAVA Player support for the Nokia N800, N810 and N810 WiMax Internet Tablets enabling users to connect to a HAVA device to view and control video content from video sources such as live TV from a Nokia Internet Tablet.
In May 2008, Monsoon Multimedia announced the HAVA Player for S60, HAVA support for Symbian S60 3rd edition mobile phones. The HAVA Player for S60 enabled users to connect to a HAVA device to view and control their home TV from S60 mobile phones.
In September 2009, the HAVA Player was released to the Apple iPhone and the iPod Touch. The app is free, but is not 3G-enabled.
Closure of Monsoon Website and Servers
In 2018 the company disappeared; because by design all the players were using the company's central server to locate devices for remote viewing, when the server went down, all Hava and Vulkano devices have become useless. This was primarily due to the Company running out of funds because of the US District Court's order to not sell any of its products.
The company failure left all device owners disappointed with no alternative solution: relief could have been provided if a direct connection had been made possible between viewing software to user device, based on IP address without requiring access to a central server like Slingbox player option. Despite a request to the Judge and to EchoStar to protect Monsoon's customers, in a show of not caring for customers, a large corporation squashed consumer rights for profit.
It is unknown if some knowledgeable users or anyone else was able to come up with a way to use these devices again, as the forum (hosted on the company's website) is gone too.
Alternative players and hacking
A 3rd party player was developed for Linux and Windows. Development was stopped in late 2009.
There was an attempt to hack the Hava devices to make them work with the new Vulkano player. The password for the root user was found (QwertyU1) so an access over telnet is possible.
See also
Slingbox
LocationFree Player
HDHomeRun
Dreambox
DBox2
References
External links
MonsoonMultimedia.com
Television technology
Television placeshifting technology
Companies based in Noida
Companies established in 2004 |
45511007 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vijay%20Vaishnavi | Vijay Vaishnavi | Vijay K. Vaishnavi is a noted researcher and scholar in the computer information systems field with contributions mainly in the areas of design science research, software engineering, and data structures & algorithms, authoring over 150 publications including seven books in these and related areas, and co-owning a patent. He is currently Professor Emeritus at the Department of Computer Information Systems, Georgia State University. He is Senior Editor Emeritus of MIS Quarterly and is on the editorial boards of a number of other major journals. His research has been funded by the National Science Foundation (NSF) (through multiple multi-year research grants) as well as by the industry.
Education
After his early education at National High School, Srinagar, Vaishnavi completed his matriculation at Model Academy, Jammu in 1962 and pre-university course at GM Science College, Jammu, in 1963. He completed his B.E. degree in electrical engineering in 1968 from Regional Engineering College, Srinagar (currently National Institute of Technology, Srinagar). He completed his M.Tech. degree in electrical engineering with major in computer science in 1971, (thesis advisor: Hari V. Sahasrabudhe) and Ph.D. degree in 1975 (dissertation advisor: Sanat K. Basu), both from the Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur. He did his postdoctoral work in computer science with Derick Wood at McMaster University, 1977–79.
Professional career
Vaishnavi has mainly been on the faculty of Georgia State University and has also held faculty positions at a number of other universities in India, Canada, and the US such as Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani (where he started his career); Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur; Concordia University; and Ohio University. He has conducted the bulk of his research and scholarly work at the Computer Information Systems (CIS) department of Georgia State University; he joined the department as an associate professor in 1981 and became a full professor in 1987, board of advisors professor in 2005, and professor emeritus in 2014. Over these years the GSU CIS department has gained considerable reputation; its research and academic programs are very highly ranked.
Honors and awards
Vaishnavi was elected as an IEEE Fellow, 2002, with the citation: "For contributions to the theory and practice of software development." He was awarded Lifetime Achievement Award at the International Conference on Design Science Research and Technology (DESRIST) in 2007 for "making significant fundamental contributions in design science research through research, leadership and mentorship." Vaishnavi has received Fulbright Fellowship twice, in 2004 (for 6 months) and in 2010 (for 6 months), for lecturing in India. As a Fulbright Fellow he was a visiting professor at Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), Delhi (2004) and a visiting professor at Indraprastha Institute of Information Technology (IIIT), Delhi (2010).
Research and scholarly work contributions
Design science research
Vaishnavi has made major contributions to the teaching, propagation, and development of design science research methods for information systems and other information and communication technology fields such as computer science, software engineering, and human-computer interface (HCI). Starting in early 1990s, he started focusing his doctoral level seminar course (at Georgia State University) to design science research methods, which he then called "improvement research" taking the novel approach of developing a pattern language for conducting this type of research. This work resulted in the introduction of a formal course for the teaching of this type of research in 2002 called "Design Science Research Methods in Information Systems," creation of the living AIS design science research page in 2004, last revised in 2019, and publication of the book: Design Science Research Methods and Patterns in 2007, which has been widely used as a reference or textbook; the second revised and expanded edition of this book has been published in 2015. In addition to contributing to design science research methods, he has also contributed to advancing design science theory through his books as well as research papers including the recent EJIS paper and the JAIS paper.
Software engineering
In this area Vaishnavi has contributed to facilitating the use of object technology by major companies in addition to making interesting research contributions in a number of subareas of software engineering. Between 1992 and 1998, he worked as a founding research director (along with the executive director, Timothy Korson, at COMSOFT, the Consortium for the Management of Emerging Software Technologies; COMSOFT (sponsored by companies such as IBM, AT&T, Bell South, and Nortel) facilitated object technology transfer to companies. This work resulted in a book on Object Technology Centers of Excellence, published by Manning in 1996). His research contributions to software engineering include models and frameworks for the use of formal specifications, a data/knowledge paradigm for the development of operations support systems, and a comprehensive survey and framework for object-oriented product metrics.
Data structures and algorithms
The work of Vaishnavi in this area has mainly focused on computational geometry problems and the creation of efficient new data structures for multidimensional and weighted data. In the computational geometry area, Vaishnavi was among early researchers who developed and used techniques for efficiently locating a key in many ordered lists—a problem that frequently arises in computational geometry. In this regard, Mehlhorn and Näher write (on p. 215 of their 1990 article) that several researchers including Vaishnavi and Wood "observed that the naïve strategy of locating the key separately in each list by binary search is far from optimal and that more efficient techniques frequently exist." They further write that Chazelle and Guibas "distilled from these special case solutions a general data structuring technique and called it fractional cascading."
Vaishnavi's work on efficient multidimensional and weighted data structures include creation and analysis of new data structures such as multidimensional height-balanced trees, multidimensional balanced binary trees, and weighted leaf AVL-trees. These data structures generalize known structures for one dimensional data to higher dimensions or weighted data while offering optimal performance.
Bibliography
List of selected publications:
Vaishnavi. V.K. and Kuechler, W. Design Science Research Methods and Patterns, 2nd Edition, CRC Press, 2015, 415 pages.
Kuechler, W. and V. Vaishnavi. "A Framework for Theory Development in Design Science Research: Multiple Perspectives." Journal of the Association for Information Systems (JAIS), Vol. 13, Issue 6, June 2012, pp. 395–423.
Kuechler, B. and V. Vaishnavi. "On Theory Development in Design Science Research: Anatomy of a Research Project." European Journal on Information Systems (EJIS), Vol. 17, No. 5, October 2008, pp. 489–504.
Vaishnavi, V. K., S. Purao, and J. Liegle. "Object-Oriented Product Metrics: A Generic Framework." Information Sciences: An International Journal, 2007, Vol. 177, pp. 587–606.
Purao, S. and V. K. Vaishnavi. "Product Metrics for Object-Oriented Systems." ACM Computing Surveys, Vol. 35, Issue 2, 2003, pp. 191–221.
Vaishnavi, V. K., G. C. Buchanan, and W. L. Kuechler. "A Data/Knowledge Paradigm for the Modeling and Design of Operations Support Systems." IEEE Transactions on Knowledge and Data Engineering, Vol. 9, No. 2, 1997, pp. 275–291.
Korson, T.D. and Vaishnavi, V.K. Object Technology Centers of Excellence, Manning, Manning, April 1996, 208 pages.
Vaishnavi, V. K. "On k-Dimensional Balanced Binary Trees." Journal of Computer and System Sciences (Academic Press), Vol. 52, No. 2, 1996, pp. 328–348.
Fraser, M. D., K. Kumar, and V. K. Vaishnavi. "Strategies for Incorporating Formal Specifications in Software Development." Communications of the ACM, Vol. 37, No. 10, 1994, pp. 74–86.
Fraser, M. D., Kumar, K. and Vaishnavi, V.K. "Informal and Formal Requirements Specification Languages: Bridging the Gap." IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering, Vol. 17, 1991, pp. 454–466.
Vaishnavi, V. K. "Multidimensional Balanced Binary Trees." IEEE Transactions on Computers, Vol. 38, 1989, pp. 968–985.
Vaishnavi, V. K. "Weighted Leaf AVL-Trees." SIAM Journal on Computing, Vol. 16, 1987, 503–537.
Vaishnavi, V. K. "On the Height of Multidimensional Height-Balanced Trees." IEEE Transactions on Computers, Vol. 35, 1986, pp. 773–780.
Vaishnavi, V. K. "Multidimensional Height-Balanced Trees." IEEE Transactions on Computers, Vol. 33, 1984, pp. 334–343.
Vaishnavi, V.K. "Computing Point Enclosures." IEEE Transactions on Computers, Vol. C-31, 1982, pp. 22–29.
Vaishnavi, V.K. and Wood, D. "Rectilinear Line Segment Intersection, Layered Segment Trees and Dynamization." J. Algorithms, 3, 1982, pp. 160–176.
References
External links
Georgia State University home page of Vijay Vaishnavi
Department of Computer Information Systems, Georgia State University
Living people
Georgia State University faculty
Fellow Members of the IEEE
Software engineering researchers
IIT Kanpur alumni
Indian computer scientists
American computer scientists
Indian emigrants to the United States
1948 births |
1033561 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ateneo%20de%20Davao%20University | Ateneo de Davao University | Ateneo de Davao University (AdDU, ) is a private Catholic basic and higher education institution run by the Philippine Province of the Society of Jesus in Davao, Davao del Sur in the Philippines. It was established in 1948 when the Jesuits took over the administration of the former diocesan school, St. Peter's Parochial School. The Jesuits renamed the school to "Ateneo de Davao" after taking control. The Jesuits were naming all the schools that they were opening at that time Ateneo. Ateneo de Davao is the seventh school in the country to be named as Ateneo by the Jesuits. The university has five undergraduate schools, namely the School of Arts and Sciences, School of Business and Governance, School of Engineering and Architecture, School of Education and the School of Nursing. The graduate programs are under these units as well. The College of Law is a separate unit within the university. The university also runs a grade school and high school, both Junior High School and Senior High School.
The university was granted "Institutional Accreditation" by the Philippine Accrediting Association of Schools, Colleges and Universities in which only six universities in the country were given such recognition, and was also granted Autonomous Status by the Commission on Higher Education (Philippines).
History
At the request of the Most Reverend Luis del Rosario, S.J., bishop of the Archdiocese of Zamboanga, which then included the Davao region, the Jesuit fathers took over St. Peter's Parochial School and founded the Ateneo de Davao in 1948. The founding fathers were led by Fr. Theodore E. Daigler S.J., who became the first rector of the school. The other founding Jesuits were Alfredo Paguia S.J., Grant Quinn S.J., Scholastics James Donelan S.J. and Rodolfo Malasmas S.J. On 20 May 1948, Ateneo de Davao was registered with the SEC (SEC Registration No. 3467) as a non-stock, non-profit, education institution.
When the Ateneo de Davao formally opened on 28 June 1948, it offered grades V and VI and 1st to 3rd year high school. There were 71 elementary students and 131 high school students who started in a wooden building on a six-hectare lot in Matina.
The Jacinto campus (3.5 hectares) was acquired in 1951 with the support of the Most Rev. Clovis Thibault, P.M.E., Bishop-Prelate of Davao. The campus provided classrooms for high school students in the daytime and college courses in the evenings. College course offerings then were liberal arts, commerce, education, associate in arts, pre-law, secretarial and an elementary teacher's certificate program. There were 130 male college students on the July 1951 start of the College Department, and they were housed in the wooden Bellarmine Hall. In 1953, the Ateneo de Davao College became co-educational. By then, there were nine collegiate course programs offered.
Administration
The Ateneo de Davao is governed by a board of trustees, currently chaired by Benjamin A. Lizada. The central administration is led by the university president, Fr. Joel Tabora, S.J. Several university committees and councils assist the President in the administration and overall governance of various concerns and aspects of the university.
The tertiary level has six units, each headed by a dean.
The Grade School's Headmaster is Geraldine Niña Rocel A. Libron. The Junior High School is headed by Camila V. Samblaceño as principal. The Senior High School is led by its first director, Ricardo P. Enriquez.
University campus
The university operates in three campuses in Davao City, both housing several research and academic units. The 4-hectare campus between Roxas Avenue and Jacinto Street is the metropolitan or "downtown" campus as it is situated in the central business district of the city. When it was acquired in 1951, the Jacinto campus was only 3.5 hectares. In 2012, an adjacent 5,000 square meter lot (0.5 hectare) was added to the existing campus. The undergraduate and graduate schools of the university, including the College of Law, which have a combined population of around 8,000 students are housed in this campus.
The grade school and high school units are located at a 7.2-hectare campus in the Matina district, a residential area of the city. The Matina campus was originally a 6-hectare lot, and an adjacent 1.2 hectare lot was added to the campus in 2012. In June 2018, the Bangkal campus was opened for its senior high school unit. The senior high school campus features four school buildings and one administration building with 4 storey each.
Academic institutions
The Ateneo de Davao's academic programs include the humanities, education, accounting, business, law, social sciences, philosophy, nursing, social work, theology, biology, chemistry, mathematics, environmental science, computer science and information technology, engineering, architecture, public administration, anthropology, Islamic studies, sociology, economics and political science. The university also heavily engages itself in research and community social involvement.
Undergraduate and graduate units
School of Arts and Sciences
The School of Arts and Sciences (SAS) was opened in 1951 with 130 students enrolled in various offerings, namely: liberal arts, commerce, education, associate in arts, pre-law, secretarial, and elementary teacher's certificate program. In subsequent years, other college programs were added. After the school obtained university status in 1977, the list of programs was further expanded.
Currently, the SAS offers different degree programs both at the undergraduate and graduate levels. The SAS is subdivided into four clusters: Computer Studies, Humanities and Letters, Natural Sciences and Mathematics, and Social Sciences.
School of Business and Governance
The undergraduate business courses of the Ateneo de Davao University were under the School of Arts and Sciences; the MBA, MPA and MAN programs were under the graduate business programs and the MPA-GA program was under the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences. In an effort to have all the business courses integrated, the AdDU School of Business & Governance (SBG) was formed.
The SBG was launched on 1 April 2000. Under its aegis are accountancy, business management, entrepreneurship, human resource development and management, finance, accounting technology, marketing and graduate business programs as well as support programs in computer literacy and research and extension offices.
School of Nursing
The university began offering a master's degree program in Nursing Administration in the 1970s. It opened an undergraduate nursing program in 2001. The program started under the auspices of the Natural Sciences and Math Division, and eventually became the School of Nursing (SON).
In 2009, the Commission on Higher Education (CHEd) released a list of the top 20 nursing schools in the Philippines that have met the standards set by the Professional Regulation Commission (PRC). The School of Nursing of the Ateneo de Davao University was in the 18th place of the Top 20 Nursing Schools in the Philippines.
School of Engineering and Architecture
In school year 2010–2011, the Board of Trustees approved the separation of the Engineering and Architecture divisions from the School of Arts and Sciences, and the creation of its own college. Dr. Randell U. Espina was appointed as its first dean. The board approved the shift from CEA to School of Engineering and Architecture (SEA), beginning 1 June 2012
The SEA offers ten programs: Architecture, Aerospace Engineering, Civil Engineering, Computer Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Electronics and Communications Engineering, Electrical Engineering, Electronics Engineering, Industrial Engineering, Mechanical Engineering and Robotics Engineering.
In 2011, AdDU was adjudged the seventh best engineering school in the country. This ranking was derived from the average of the school's ratings in the licensure examinations in the five engineering fields of Electrical, Mechanical, Chemical, Civil and Electronics & Communications Engineering. The Ateneo de Davao was also ranked as the 4th best Architecture school in the country. This was also based on the passing percentage rates of the school on board examinations administered by the Professional Regulation Commission for Architecture in three consecutive years.
School of Education
During the school year 2012–2013, the board approved the separation of the Education program from the Social Science Division as part of the reorganization of the School of Arts and Sciences in order to create the School of Education (SOE). Dr. Gina L. Montalan is the school's first appointed dean. The current Dean of the SOE is Dr. Annabel J. Casumpa.
The SOE offers the following programs: Bachelor of Elementary Education (Generalist and Pre-School) and Bachelor of Secondary Education with majors in English, Math, Physical Sciences, Social Studies, and Biological Sciences.
The Ateneo de Davao University's Teacher Education is also recognized by the Commission on Higher Education as a Center of Development.
Professional unit
College of Law
In June 1961, then-Rector Rev. Hudson Mitchell, S.J. established the College of Law. The first graduates took the bar examinations in 1965. Atty. Leon M. Garcia, Jr. was Dean for the period 1961–63. He was succeeded by Epifanio Estrellado who held the deanship for 27 years. In 1990, Atty. Hildegardo F. Iñigo, one of the first graduates of the College of Law and faculty member since 1967, assumed the position of dean.
According to the Supreme Court of the Philippines, the AdDU College of Law is the fifth best law school in the country.
The present dean of the College of Law is Atty. Manuel P. Quibod, who is also the university's legal counsel.
Basic education units
The government mandated K-12 basic education program was implemented in the university starting in school year 2012–2013.
Senior High School
The Senior High School covers three areas based on disciplines similar to college courses which are all Academic: Accountancy, Business & Management (ABM), Science Technology Engineering & Mathematics (STEM), and Humanities & Social Sciences (HUMSS). These areas allow students to choose the strand where they can prepare for college.
The first two school years of the Senior High School which began in June 2016, was temporarily held in the college campus in Jacinto while the permanent and current site was being constructed in the Bangkal. In June 2018, although the new Bangkal campus was already about 90% complete, formal classes in Senior High School were already held in the location.
The Senior High School is headed by the Director, Ricardo P. Enriquez, MPA. Its Assistant Principal for Formation is Fr. Jessel Gerard "JBoy" M. Gonzales, SJ.
Junior High School
The Junior High School (JHS) Unit's current principal Camila V. Samblaceño assumed the post on 1 April 2020, replacing Fr. Michael I. Pineda, S.J. after his nine years of service in the campus.
The JHS main library is housed on the second floor of the administration building. It also has a Student Development Center which supports the educative process through by controlling and directing student activities. Some of the goals of the center are incorporated in the academic curriculum which include individual analysis of the student, information and career development, individual counseling, and the conduct of regular psychological educational classes. Another support service in the JHS is the Instructional Media Center (IMC) which aims to provide an environment that facilitates academic excellence and the formation of Christian values. The IMC has a collection of print and audio-visual materials such as books, magazines, records, videotapes and other resources.
As part of the Jesuit educational tradition, the JHS also provides religious formation programs, such as the Christian Service and Learning Program (CSLP, formerly called CSIP), by sending its students to other communities in order to immerse themselves in the environment. The academic curriculum also includes a Christian Life Education (CLE) program. CLE courses, which are spread over four years, aim to produce Ateneo graduates who embodies the Jesuit values of being men and women for others and who can be catalysts for social transformation while living life with informed Christian perspectives.
The JHS classifies its students into honors (St. Francis Xavier) and general sections (St. John Berchmans - general section in 7th, 9th and 10th Grade and honors class in the 8th Grade, St. Robert Bellarmine, St. Francis Borgia, St. Peter Canisius, St. Edmund Campion, St. Noel Chabanel (7th Grade), St. John de Brito, St. Peter Favre, St. Aloysius Gonzaga, St. Isaac Jogues, St. Stanislaus Kostka, St. Joseph Pignatelli, St. Bernardino Realino (7th Grade), St. John Francis Regis). Students entering the 7th Grade are all placed in regular sections. Starting with the 8th Grade, they are academically evaluated and ranked in order to determine the composition of the batch's honors class. The latter's curriculum is more advanced and rigorous. For instance, the math curriculum of the honors class has additional competencies such as analytic geometry (8th Grade), trigonometry (9th Grade), and calculus (10th Grade)
Grade School
The Ateneo de Davao Grade School is housed, along with the high school in the Matina Campus. The grade school's Student Development Center (SDC) offers integral student development programs. The Instructional Media Center (IMC) is the information center of the Grade School. The Ateneo Education for Elementary Gifted Student (Ateneo EDGES) Program caters to pupils who are gifted in English, Science, and Math.
School seal
The Ateneo de Davao seal is circular with the school motto in Latin on top of the circle, and the name of the school at the bottom of the circle. At the center are the shield of the family of St Ignatius of Loyola and the seal of the Society of Jesus.
The two top panels of the shield represent Davao. The gold and silver inverted crossed keys against a light blue background represent St. Peter, Patron of Davao Parish Church (now Cathedral). The light blue background represents Our Lady, patroness of the Philippines and of the Ateneo de Davao University (under the title of the Assumption of Our Lady). The green mountain peaks in the other panel represent Mt. Apo and its neighboring peaks, clearly visible from Davao City.
The two lower panels of the shield are the family arms of the founder of the Society of Jesus, St. Ignatius of Loyola of the House of Onaz y Loyola. The seven red and gold stripes represent the seven sons of the House of Onaz who fought under their king for the liberties of the Christians in Spain. The wolves-and-pot (lobos y olla) are a pun on the family name Loyola.
The crest above the shield is a silver medallion containing the monogram of the Society of Jesus: IHS are the first three letters of the name Jesus in Greek; the cross and the nails recall His passion and death as savior of mankind.
School motto
The school motto in Latin, Fortes In Fide, means "Strong in Faith". It is also the burden of a passage from St. Paul's letter to the Ephesians: Eph. 5, 10–20.
School name
The name Ateneo is the Spanish form of the Latin name Athenæum, which the Dictionary of Classical Antiquities defines as the name of "the first educational institution in Rome" where "rhetoricians and poets held their recitations." Hadrian's school drew its name from a Greek temple dedicated to Athena, the goddess of wisdom. The said temple, according to the Encyclopædia Britannica, was where "poets and men of learning were accustomed to meet and read their productions." Athenæum is also used in reference to schools and literary clubs. The closest English translation is academy, referring to institutions of secondary learning.
The Ateneo de Davao is not the only Jesuit school that the Jesuits named Ateneo. The Society of Jesus has established sixteen schools across the Philippines since 1590. Nine of them were given the name Ateneo. Ateneo de Davao is the seventh school that the Jesuits named Ateneo. Over the years, the name "Ateneo" has been recognized as the official title of Jesuit institutions of higher learning in the Philippines.
School mission
The Ateneo de Davao believes in leadership education for the Catholic Church in Mindanao. It promotes respect for cultural and religious diversity. Other values entertained are community development and defense of the environment.
Library system
The library system of the Ateneo de Davao University comprises several libraries housed in the Jacinto Campus and the Matina Campus. The main library of the tertiary level is located inside the Gisbert Hall, in the Jacinto Campus. The main library has four levels and mainly serves the School of Arts and Sciences, School of Business and Governance, and the College of Nursing. The first level of the main library accommodates the space for the study area, newly processed books, general circulation books, CD-ROM library, PROQUEST, and the Online Public Access Catalog (OPAC). The second level contains the Union Card Catalog and the Graduate and Reserved Sections which contain theses, dissertations, and other studies that are requested by the members of the faculty for their classes. The third level includes the Reference and Filipiniana Library and a self-regulating computer library for the students. The fourth level houses the Periodical Library which provides a vast collection of current and retrospective newspapers, magazines, and journals.
The Law School and School of Business and Governance Graduate Library is located on the fifth floor of the Dotterweich building. Its collection largely caters to law students and graduate students who are enrolled in the Master of Arts in Business Administration (MBA), Master in Public Administration (MPA) and Doctor in Business Administration (DBA) programs.
The Faculty Resource Center (FRC) is located on the second level of the Finster Hall. The resources in the FRC are exclusively used by the faculty members of the university. It also contains its own computer laboratory.
Also integrated in the library system of the Ateneo de Davao are the distinct libraries of the preschool, grade school, and high school departments. These three libraries are all located in the Matina Campus. The Ateneo de Davao Library System is connected to the library system of its sister schools all over the Philippines namely Ateneo de Manila University, Ateneo de Naga University, Ateneo de Zamboanga University, and the Ateneo de Cagayan University.
The American Corner (AC), or the "American Library" as it is widely known in the city, is located on the second level of the Wieman Hall.
American Studies Resource Center
The American Studies Resource Center or the American Corner (AC) is a center dedicated to providing various materials and resources about the United States in different aspects, as well as advising services for those individuals who want to study in the United States. It has books, periodicals, CD-ROMs, videotapes, VCDs, DVDs, posters and publications of private and public American organizations and agencies.
The American Library was established on 13 May 1992. In 2003, it was closed for renovation and improvement of the facilities under a new Memorandum of Agreement which was signed by Ronald Post of the US Embassy and Fr. Edmundo M. Martinez, S.J.
Service-oriented programs
The Arrupe Office of Social Formation (AOSF), formerly known as the Social Involvement Coordinating Office (SICO), is the social formation arm of the Ateneo de Davao University in the tertiary level. It is responsible for developing students, faculty, and non-teaching staff to be leaders in service of the marginalized and the vulnerable. The office is also responsible for the promotion of faith that does justice following the teachings and examples of Christ and the spirituality of St. Ignatius. Moreover, it aims to develop and implement social formation programs and activities intended to help the poor such as outreach programs, immersion sessions, and social workshops.
Among AOSF's projects and initiatives include the "First Year Development Program", where students are assigned to a classroom adviser who assists them in adjusting to the demands and rigours of college life. Another is the "National Service Training Program", where Filipino students contribute to the general welfare of local partner communities. Lastly, the "Student Servant Leadership Program", where students develop and student organizations serve as collaborators in the work of spreading social awareness and social involvement. It also runs surveys in the public interest and patrols elections.
The College of Law has several pro bono programs under the office of the Ateneo Legal Aid Services. Students in the graduate programs of the School of Business and Governance help in creating business plans and entrepreneurial opportunities for non-profit organizations in the city. For the School of Arts and Sciences graduate programs, most of the academic courses are focused on environment, education, and peace in its various academic course programs. In line with this, the university has its very own Al Qalam Institute for Islamic Studies.
Accreditation and recognition
In 2009, Ateneo de Davao was granted "institutional accreditation" by the Philippine Accrediting Association of Schools, Colleges and Universities (PAASCU). Only six universities in the Philippines were granted and it is the only university in Mindanao to have been given such recognition. The Ateneo de Davao University joins five other universities in the Philippines that have been granted with such accreditation namely, Ateneo de Manila University, Ateneo de Naga University, Centro Escolar University, Silliman University and Trinity University of Asia. AdDU was also given Autonomous Status by the Commission on Higher Education and is also a Center of Development for Information Technology and Teacher Education.
In 2016, Ateneo de Davao was granted "Autonomous and Deregulated Status" by the Commission on Higher Education (Philippines)
The Ateneo de Davao University has been re-accredited Level III in eight programs which are: Accounting, Arts & Sciences, Business, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Elementary Education, Secondary Education, Civil Engineering and Chemical Engineering and is accredited Level III for Industrial Engineering, Electrical Engineering, Mechanical Engineering and Computer Science by the Philippine Accrediting Association of Schools, Colleges and Universities and the Federation of Accrediting Agencies of the Philippines. The Information Technology and Information Systems programs of AdDU were both granted Level I accreditation and is a Center of Development of CHED XI. Certificates of Accreditation from PAASCU were also awarded to the following programs offered by the Ateneo: Arts & Sciences, Elementary Education, Secondary Education, Business, Accounting, Engineering (Civil, Chemical, Electrical, Mechanical), Information Technology/Information Systems and Social Work. Some programs offered by the university are also under the Candidate Status of PAASCU. In addition, the Elementary and High School of AdDU are also accredited by the same accrediting association and received level II accreditation.
Rankings (Local / National / International)
Based on international rankings, the Ateneo de Davao University placed 127th in the Asian region, according to an academic peer review survey done by the QS 2009 Asian University Rankings. According to the same survey, the university ranked 153rd based on recruiter reviews and 201st in the overall ranking. Also based on the survey of the QS Asia University Rankings, Ateneo de Davao placed 201st in year 2010, belonged to the 301+ bracket in year 2012, 251-300 bracket in year 2014 and 501-550 bracket in year 2021
Ateneo got into the list of the QS World University Rankings for 2013 per subject area in Higher Education Institutions in the country. AdDU topped in four subject areas in the QS ranking, specifically in Arts & Humanities: English Language and Literature, Engineering & Technology: Computer Science and Information Systems, Psychology and Sociology, joining other universities in the country namely Ateneo de Manila University, University of the Philippines, De La Salle University, University of Santo Tomas and Mindanao State University - Iligan Institute of Technology.
The Ateneo de Davao joined the roster of world universities in the 2012 QS World University Subject Ranking for English Language and Literature joining Oxford and Harvard, wherein it landed on the 101-150 bracket. It was not on the equivalent 2016 list.
In the national rankings done by the Commission on Higher Education and the Professional Regulation Commission based on cumulative data from 1991 to 2001 of average passing rates in all courses of all Philippine colleges and universities in licensure examinations, Ateneo de Davao University was proclaimed as the 5th top university in the country.
On a review and ranking by the 4 International Colleges and Universities - an international higher education directory and search engine which reviews accredited world universities and colleges, which was updated in 2014, Ateneo de Davao University got the 14th spot in the list of Top Universities in the Philippines. The ranking is not academic, rather, it is based upon an algorithm including three unbiased and independent web metrics extracted from three different search engines. The significance of such ranking according to uniRank is to help international students and academic staff to understand how popular a specific university or college is in a foreign country.
Based on the research and web survey of the Webometrics Ranking of World Universities 2014 - produced by Cybermetrics Lab (CCHS), a unit of the Spanish National Research Council (CSIC), the main public research body in Spain, Ateneo de Davao landed on the 14th spot in the list of the top universities in the Philippines.
On a local survey of Davao Reader, a Davao City Online Magazine, Ateneo de Davao is the top school in the city and is the most preferred school by company heads and owners in getting personnel and professionals to work for their companies. In another evaluation done by Davao Eagle Online, AdDU also emerged as the top school in Davao City. This ranking was based on the number of PRC board topnotchers in 2013.
Student organizations
The Samahan ng mga Mag-aaral ng Pamantasang Ateneo de Davao, also referred to as SAMAHAN Central Board or SAMAHAN, is the official student government of the university. Together with the Council of Organization of the Ateneo - Davao (COA-D), the Council of Class Presidents (CCP) and the Commission on Elections (COMELEC), the Samahan Central Board is under the supervision of the Office of Student Affairs (OSA).
Student publications
Founded in 1955, Atenews is the official student publication house of Ateneo de Davao University. It publishes tabloids, sports and university fiesta magazines (Half Time), literary folio (Banaag Diwa), art folio (Diwanag), online articles, and other forms of releases.
The grade school and high school's student publications are Magis and Blue Knight, respectively.
University radio station
Blue Knight FM, the official radio station of the university, was launched in January 2008. The station serves as a training ground for Mass Communication majors.
Notable alumni
Ateneo de Davao has produced graduates in the fields of arts, governance, law, medicine, media, service and science. Here are some of its notable alumni:
Ernesto Abella - businessman, writer, and former evangelist serving as Undersecretary for Strategic Communications and Research of the Department of Foreign Affairs since 2017
Joey Ayala - singer, songwriter and former chairman of the music committee of the National Commission for Culture and the Arts.
Antonio T. Carpio - Senior Associate Justice, Supreme Court of the Philippines
Leoncio P. Deriada - writer
Thor Dulay - a singer-songwriter and vocal coach
Jesus Dureza - lawyer, consultant, journalist and politician
Sebastian Duterte - politician and vice mayor of Davao City
Juris Fernandez - singer
Jonathan Aguilar Garcia - comedian, actor and TV host
Conrado "Bobby" Gempesaw - 17th and 1st lay president of St. John's University in Queens, New York City
Henri Jean Paul Inting - the 183rd Supreme Court Associate Justice
Jasmine B. Lee - a Filipino-born Korean television personality, actress, civil servant and politician
Emmylou Taliño-Mendoza - politician
Prospero Nograles - former Speaker of the Philippine House of Representatives
See also
List of Jesuit sites
References
External links
Official website
Jesuit universities and colleges in the Philippines
Universities and colleges in Davao City
Nursing schools in the Philippines
Educational institutions established in 1948
1948 establishments in the Philippines
Schools in Davao City |
903072 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paperboy%20%28video%20game%29 | Paperboy (video game) | Paperboy is an arcade action game developed and published by Atari Games and Midway Games, and released in 1985. The player takes the role of a paperboy who delivers a fictional newspaper called The Daily Sun along a suburban street on his bicycle. The arcade version of the game featured bike handlebars as the controller.
The game was ported to many home systems beginning in 1986. A sequel for home computers and consoles, Paperboy 2, was released in 1991.
Gameplay
The player controls a paperboy on a bicycle delivering newspapers along a suburban street which is displayed in a cabinet perspective (or oblique projection) view. The player attempts to deliver a week of daily newspapers to subscribing customers, attempts to vandalize non-subscribers' homes and must avoid hazards along the street. Subscribers are lost by missing a delivery or damaging a subscriber's house. If the player loses all of their lives, or runs out of subscribers, the game ends.
The game begins with a choice of difficulty levels: Easy Street, Middle Road and Hard Way. The object of the game is to perfectly deliver papers to subscribers for an entire week and avoid crashing (which counts as one of the player's lives) before the week ends. The game lasts for seven in-game days, Monday through Sunday.
Controlling the paperboy with the handlebar controls, the player attempts to deliver newspapers to subscribers. Each day begins by showing an overview of the street indicating subscribers and non-subscribers. Subscribers and non-subscribers' homes are also easy to discern in the level itself, with subscribers living in brightly colored houses, and non-subscribers living in dark houses.
The player scores points for each paper delivered successfully (either at a subscriber's doorstep or inside their mailbox, the latter of which awards more points), as well as breakage points by damaging the houses of non-subscribers. A perfect delivery (all subscribers get their papers, and none of their houses are damaged) results in all the points being worth double for that day, and an extra subscriber is added. At the end of each stage is a training course with various obstacles to throw papers at (which gives bonus points) and to jump over, and the player scores a bonus for finishing the course. Crashing on the course ends the round, but does not cost the player a life.
When a player fails to deliver a paper to a house, or damages a subscriber's house by breaking their windows, the resident will cancel their subscription, and the house turns dark. The player can regain subscribers by getting a perfect delivery, which adds one extra subscriber.
The paperboy can hold no more than ten papers at once, although refills can be found throughout the level. The papers can also be used to stun enemies (with the exception of cars).
Development
The cabinet of this game is a standard upright but with custom controls. The controls consist of a bicycle handlebar (a modified Star Wars yoke) with one button on each side, used to throw papers. The handlebars can be pushed forward to accelerate and pulled back to brake.
The game runs on the Atari System 2 hardware. The CPU is a 10 MHz Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) T-11. For sound and coin inputs, it uses a 2.2 MHz MOS Technology 6502. The sound chips are two POKEYs for digital sound, a Yamaha YM2151 for music, and a Texas Instruments TMS5220 for speech. The protection chip is a Slapstic model 137412-105.
The game program code for the arcade version was written in BLISS.
Ports and re-releases
Home ports started appearing in 1986. In some of these versions, the player can assume the role of a papergirl instead of a paperboy. Paperboy was ported to the BBC Micro and Acorn Electron by Andy Williams in 1986. Versions for the Amstrad CPC, Apple II, and TRS-80 Color Computer were also released in 1986. Elite Systems produced versions for the ZX Spectrum and the Commodore 64. The ZX Spectrum version had been released in the United Kingdom by October 1986, and the Commodore 64 version was published there by February 1987. Elite created versions for the Commodore 16 and Commodore Plus/4 later that year.
A version for the Apple IIGS was released in 1988. In the United States, a Nintendo Entertainment System (NES) version was developed by Eastridge Technology and published by Mindscape in December 1988. Coverage of the NES version abruptly began at the Summer CES 1988 as a last-minute replacement for a port of the computer title Bad Street Brawler, which is about to be ported to the NES. In October 1989, Elite released versions for the Atari ST and PC in the United Kingdom, followed by an Amiga version later that month. The game was released for the Famicom by Altron in January 1991.
In the United Kingdom, a Game Boy version by Mindscape was released in October or November 1990. A Master System version, by Sega and U.S. Gold, was released in the United Kingdom in November 1990. Atari released a version of Paperboy for the Atari Lynx in 1990. By March 1991, an NES version by Mindscape had been released in the United Kingdom. Tengen however released versions for the Sega Genesis and Sega Game Gear in 1992.
Reception
In Japan, Game Machine listed Paperboy on their November 1, 1985 issue as being the fifth most-successful upright arcade unit of the month. In the United States, it was the top-grossing arcade software conversion kit in December 1985. The home computer ports topped the UK monthly sales chart in September 1986, and again in November. It went on to become the seventh best-selling computer game of 1986 in the UK.
Upon its debut at London's Amusement Trades Exhibition International (ATEI) show in early 1985, Computer and Video Games magazine gave the arcade game a mixed review, praising the controls but criticizing the difficulty. The arcade game was runner-up for Computer Gamer magazine's best coin-op game award, which was won by Capcom's Commando. In 2007, Spanner Spencer of Eurogamer rated the arcade version 9 out of 10 and praised its gameplay, graphics, and music.
Advanced Computer Entertainment (ACE) offered praise for the Atari ST version, awarding it a score of 850 out of 1,000, while Zero gave it a score of 86 out of 100. ACE and Zero noted that the Atari ST version looked and played like the arcade version. Computer Gamer gave the ZX Spectrum version a rating of 16 out of 20, considering it to be a faithful conversion of the arcade game, while noting that some people may find the gameplay to be repetitive. For the ZX Spectrum, Commodore 64 and Amstrad CPC versions, ACE gave the game a rating of 5 out of 5, noting the "extremely well executed" graphics and referring to the game as a "budget classic." U.K. magazine Computer and Video Games (CVG) gave the Commodore 64 version a 52 percent rating, criticizing its music and "blocky and ill-proportioned" sprites; the magazine gave the ZX Spectrum version an 83 percent rating. Ken McMahon of Commodore User reviewed the Commodore 16 and Commodore Plus/4 version and rated it 6 out of 10, noting that it was too easy.
Crash gave the ZX Spectrum version an 88% rating with the general rating "Another slick, playable conversion from Elite", while Zzap!64 was less enthusiastic for the Commodore 64 version giving it 44%. In 1993, Zzap!64 rated the Commodore 64 version a 60 percent score, calling it repetitive. Richard Leadbetter of CVG reviewed the Lynx version and stated, "Looks good, but simply isn't enough fun to play." STarts Clayton Walnum similarly praised the Lynx version's graphics and sound effects but deemed the game "just another shoot-em-up without the shooting." Raze offered praise for the clear and colorful graphics of the Lynx version, but stated that the game "is too old and tired for the exciting and new Lynx." AllGame's Kyle Knight criticized the Lynx version for its simple sound effects and music, as well as its repetitive gameplay.
Leadbetter praised the Master System version, calling it "one of the best arcade conversions" available for the system, while noting that the game's only "slight downer" was the music. Mean Machines praised the Master System version for its graphics and similarities to the arcade game, while Raze wrote a mixed review for the Master System version. Mean Machines was critical of the NES version for its graphics, sound, and controls, and concluded that it was, "A highly offensive product which weighs in as a sadly derisive conversion of a classic coin-op." Brett Alan Weiss of AllGame stated that Mindscape did a good job of porting the game to the NES. Weiss praised the controls and sound effects of the NES version, but criticized the music. Raze considered the Game Boy version to be "Excellent", while Mean Machines criticized its controls, blurry scrolling, and the lack of colorful graphics, which could not be produced by the system. ACE noted slightly difficult controls and poor sound effects for the Game Boy version.
The One gave the Amiga version 80% stating that "it's an almost flawless conversion" of the arcade game. ACE gave the Amiga version a rating of 878, calling it a perfect conversion of the arcade game. Tony Dillon of Commodore User gave the Amiga version an 83 percent rating and considered it to be nearly identical to the arcade version. Gordon Houghton of CVG gave the Amiga version a 69 percent rating, stating that the sound was "arguably better" than the arcade version, but noting that the graphics were "jerky" and that the gameplay had been altered from the arcade version. Houghton concluded that it was "not a bad game, but it's too old and too expensive to deserve greater praise." Compute! praised the music and graphics of the Amiga version, but considered the gameplay to be outdated and repetitive. Robert A. Jung of IGN reviewed the Lynx version in 1999, and considered it to be a "decent" adaptation of the arcade game. Jung noted the game's "average-quality" graphics and sound, and concluded, "Not a bad game, though not one of the Lynx's best."
IGN's Craig Harris reviewed a Game Boy Color version and stated that it "is definitely the worst rendition of the game, even beating out the Atari Lynx's waterdown port of the arcade game." Harris criticized the game's music, the lack of speech audio from the original game, poor collision detection, and a lack of fun. Scott Alan Marriott of AllGame praised the Game Boy Color version for its colorful graphics, but noted that the game did not introduce any new changes from the original arcade version, writing, "Those expecting a lot of changes or additions will be disappointed."
Re-releases
Versions of Paperboy were re-released for the Nintendo 64, Xbox 360 and iPhone and iPod Touch. Dean Austin of IGN criticized the retro 3D look of the Nintendo 64 version, but praised the gameplay and considered it to be a "great game." Daniel Erickson of Daily Radar criticized the "bland" and "repetitive" gameplay of the Nintendo 64 version. Robert Amsbury of Game Revolution praised the sound effects in the Nintendo 64 version, but considered the music to be repetitive, while noting that the game "isn't really all that fun." Weiss criticized the Nintendo 64 version for its music and sound effects, as well as poor controls, and wrote that the game had "some of the ugliest graphics you'll find in a Nintendo 64 cartridge." Ben Stahl of GameSpot noted the outdated sound effects used in the Nintendo 64 version, and stated, "While a decent game on its own, Paper Boy 64 doesn't capture the magic of the original arcade game." IGN's Levi Buchanan, reviewing a cell phone version, praised the controls and stated that the game looked and played like the original arcade game.
According to Metacritic, the Xbox 360 version received "Mixed or average reviews." TeamXbox gave the Xbox 360 version an overall score of 8.2, stating that "Paperboy "delivers" as advertised in the classifieds." Greg Sewart of GamesRadar considered the Xbox 360 version to be an "authentic recreation" of the arcade version, but noted that the game, like previous versions, suffers from imprecise controls due to the absence of the arcade game's handlebar controller. Jeff Gerstmann of GameSpot reviewed the Xbox 360 re-release and was disappointed by the lack of new sound effects and music, as well as the lack of graphical updates. Gerstmann stated that the game would most likely appeal to people who "have fond memories" of the original arcade game. IGN's Erik Brudvig, reviewing the Xbox 360 version, considered the game to be a limited amount of fun. Brudvig noted the lack of a handlebar controller and stated that, "Thanks to the isometric view, this version of Paperboy suffers from the same wonky controls that every home version of the game has." Kristan Reed of Eurogamer praised the Xbox 360 re-release for its controls and noted that the game "stands up pretty well" despite its age, although he stated that the game quickly becomes repetitive. Corey Cohen of Official Xbox Magazine praised the Xbox 360 version for its music and controls, and noted that it was as appealing as the arcade version.
Tarryn van der Byl of Pocket Gamer criticized the iPhone version for its poor controls, and stated that the game's optional 3D graphics mode was "ugly and feels clumsy and inaccurate." Slide to Play considered the iPhone/iPod version a "mixed bag", but praised the gameplay. Mark Langshaw of Digital Spy reviewed the iPhone version and stated that it would likely appeal most to fans of the original game. Langshaw concluded, "As far as nostalgic remakes go, Paperboy delivers but doesn't quite do enough to make the front page."
According to Metacritic, Paperboy: Special Delivery has a score of 55 out of 100, indicating "Mixed or average reviews." Blake Patterson of TouchArcade considered Paperboy: Special Delivery to be an improvement over Elite's iPhone version, praising the improved controls and graphics. Jon Mundy of Pocket Gamer rated the game 5 out of 10, criticizing the gameplay and controls, and writing that the biggest flaw "is the game's technical shortcomings. The graphics are extremely basic and yet the game paused and stuttered repeatedly on my second-generation iPod touch." Andrew Nesvadba of AppSpy rated the game 3 out of 5, praising the updated graphics while criticizing the controls. Nesvadba also praised the addition of a story mode, but criticized its short length. Jeremiah Leif Johnson of Gamezebo gave the game three stars out of five, praising the story mode and the 1980s-style graphics, but criticizing the poor controls.
Legacy
A sequel, Paperboy 2, was released in 1991 for several home systems.
Paperboy, in its original arcade form, is included in the 1998 PlayStation video game Arcade's Greatest Hits: The Atari Collection 2. The Game Boy Color version, developed by Digital Eclipse Software and published by Midway Games, was released in the United States on May 30, 1999. By July 1997, developer High Voltage Software had begun conceptual development of the Nintendo 64 version and was searching for a game publisher, with a possible release in 1998. In August 1998, Midway Games announced that it would be publishing the Nintendo 64 game, which was still in conceptual stages and was expected for release in late 1999. The game was developed using a 3D polygonal game engine, and was released in the United States on October 26, 1999.
In May 2000, Midway announced plans to release Paperboy for the PlayStation later that year, although the game was never released. Paperboy was later included in the 2003 video game Midway Arcade Treasures, a compilation of arcade games for the Nintendo GameCube, PlayStation 2, Xbox, and Microsoft Windows. In 2005, Paperboy was included in the compilation Midway Arcade Treasures: Extended Play for the PlayStation Portable. In May 2005, Sega Mobile announced that it would release Paperboy for mobile phones. The game was released in May 2006. The Xbox 360 version of Paperboy was released on February 14, 2007, on Xbox Live Arcade; however, the game was removed by 2010.
The iPhone/iPod Touch version was released through the App Store on December 18, 2009. The game was developed by Vivid Games and published by Elite Systems. Elite removed the game from the App Store in March 2010, because of a licensing conflict. Glu Mobile developed and published a new iPhone/iPod Touch version, titled Paperboy: Special Delivery, on November 4, 2010. The game included a 20-level story mode in which the paperboy is saving money from his job to buy a new game console, but he later falls in love and throws roses instead of newspapers. The game also featured an optional tilt-based control mode in which the iPhone is tilted to control the paperboy.
A port of Paperboy can be accessed in the 2015 video game Lego Dimensions by using the Arcade Dock in the level "Painting the Town Black". It is also an included title on the Midway Legacy Edition Arcade1Up cabinet.
In other media
Along with Hyper Sports, Paperboy formed one of the computer game rounds in a children's television quiz, First Class, shown on BBC in the 1980s.
The paperboy makes a cameo appearance in the 2012 Disney animated film Wreck-It Ralph. The paperboy also makes an appearance in the 2015 film Pixels.
References
External links
1985 video games
Amiga games
Amstrad CPC games
Apple II games
Arcade video games
Atari arcade games
Atari Lynx games
Atari ST games
Apple IIGS games
BBC Micro and Acorn Electron games
Commodore 16 and Plus/4 games
Commodore 64 games
Cycling video games
DOS games
Game Boy Color games
Game Boy games
Game Gear games
Midway video games
Mobile games
Nintendo Entertainment System games
Nintendo 64 games
PlayStation (console) games
Sega Genesis games
Master System games
IOS games
Tiertex Design Studios games
Tiger handheld games
TRS-80 Color Computer games
U.S. Gold games
Xbox 360 Live Arcade games
ZX Spectrum games
Video games scored by Mark Cooksey
Video games developed in the United States
Video games with oblique graphics
Newspaper distribution in fiction
Mindscape games |
53874828 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buli%20%28film%29 | Buli (film) | Buli is a 2004 Malaysian drama black comedy film directed by Afdlin Shauki in his directorial debut. The film stars Afdlin himself, along with Hans Isaac, Nasha Aziz, Ako Mustapha, and Sharifah Shahirah as well as cameo appearances from well-known Malaysian celebrities. Its sequel, Buli Balik was released in 2006.
Plot
The plot of this film started with Nordin standing in the middle of the city of Kuala Lumpur as he gazed around him. Starting here, Nordin narrate the history of his life, including being a victim of bullying while in school while acknowledging not have many friends.
Nordin, 28 years old, still single and yet to be married, worked as a software designer at the Michealsoft, a computer company owned by Tan Sri Michael (Patrick Teoh), Nordin was with Michaelsoft for three years. Meetings are held at the Michealsoft headquarters, Tan Sri Michael announced sales of computer anti-virus software KABELUPUKOM Version 1.1, which has penetrated the world market. Nordin arrived at the office, and Tan Sri Michael announced that it has take a new staff in the company. A Mitsubishi Lancer car came and hit the road marker for the disabled. The new staff is Roy, Nordin's childhood friend. Roy joined the company to lead the project for creating the software security system for the Japanese company. When Nordin surprised by Roy's presence, he gets out of the meeting and has not had time to leave, Roy called him, as he dubbed it "Boyot".
Nordin remembering past events during the secondary school: In 1991, Roy and sit level 3. Roy bullying Nordin by trying to insert his head in toilet. Apparently, it was a dream, Nordin screaming while immersing his head in a sink filled with water and see the mirror. Roy came, and asked him to do a working paper reports to clients. Nordin bridge itself in wall toilets and dream again, he turns into The Incredible Hulk with the rest of his body is blue, while his clothes torn his body as a result of growing up, and he scares Roy.
Nordin insecure with his body shape and feel too ashamed with his fatty body. While having exercise at the gym, he saw the 'Lu Slim Lah Beb' ('Lookin' Slim Babe') infomercial on television and tries to call the products' phone number. Roy celebrates his 28th birthday at the hotel and he brings Nordin together. He introduces him to his friends and humiliated him by calling him "Boyot" and gives him a swimming trunk. At his home, Nordin calls Dr. Ika for help where he can undergo the therapy session. Meanwhile, Roy and his friends enjoy partying at the hotel's karaoke center. Rudy, who has a permanent scar on his face, came with a suitcase and shows them a lot of money in the suitcase where they liked. Rudy offers Roy to help him in a 'big project' which is robbing the bank using the software system that the company made and Rudy asking Roy for not to double-crossed him. After that, Rudy sang a Malay ballad tune, "Kau Kunci Cintaku Di Dalam Hatimu" ("You Locked My Love In Your Heart"), made famous by Ramlah Ram.
Nordin, who was on medical leave, hanging out with Dr. Ika. Tan Sri Michael warns Roy to completing the client report, otherwise he would get fired by his boss. He insist that rather be known by his nickname instead of his real name, Masron and asking Nordin's whereabouts. Nordin and Dr. Ika enjoys watching movies in cinema and later they eating at a restaurant where the skyline of KL was seen. The fireworks was displayed on the night of New Year celebration. Dr. Ika tells Nordin about his New Year Resolution and he replies to her that he determined to undergo her therapy session this year. The fireworks continues to sparkling in the sky. While Nordin wants to go home, Roy came to him. He blames Nordin as he nearly got fired by the boss because the security system that their team need to do not done yet. Roy then beating him without mercy although Nordin asking for apologize and he warns Nordin to hand over the report to him and beat him again before left. Nordin's housemate, Shaf is so angry to Roy asking him to go to clinic to seeking medical treatment after being beaten by Roy, but Nordin refused. Nordin tells Shaf that he has met an angel who will changed his life, but Shaf asking to him did he okay?.
On the next day, Nordin came to the office. While in the lift, he afraid to Roy. But Roy reconcile with Nordin by asking for apologize. Roy tells Nordin that he was stress, so he took his stress out to him. Nordin then hand over the report document to Roy. Roy asks Nordin to buy some food to eat While Nordin go out to buy food, he tries to copy all of Nordin's work of the security system. He deletes all evidences that Nordin has in his computer and putting a sleeping pills in his drink. When Nordin comes back, Roy is gone. He tried to open his computer, but failed. He slept over his desk until morning and only woke up after Tan Sri Michael come to take his security system to shown to the Japanese but Nordin unable to give as it is vanished from his computer. Roy came and act as a hero as he told Tan Sri Michael that he has created the security system by himself in case if anything happen to Nordin's. After failed to shown his security system, Nordin was fired by his boss. Nordin tells Roy that his security system is his work but Roy say that nobody will trust him as he has no evidence to prove so. Roy tells Nordin that he can't do anything to him as he will always to be better than him. Dr. Ika's younger sister, Ila suffers from asthma while doing exercise at the gymnasium. Ila tells her mother and sister that her ex-husband, Zul to get married with the stewardess and pray for her ex-husband's happiness. Nordin come home while his housemate, Shaf watching the football match between Liverpool and Manchester United on TV. Shaf called him to watch to the football match together, but ignored by Nordin. Upset with what happened to him, Nordin grab the knife and enter the bathroom to commit suicide, luckily Shaf come on save him but unfortunately, Shaf failed to grab the knife from Nordin and the knife landed on his foot.
Meanwhile, Roy and Tan Sri Michael with their Japanese clients having dinner at the restaurant. Rudy worked as the waiter there and tells them if everything is alright. After the dinner time, Roy came to changing room and meet Rudy. He passed the software security system to Rudy and tell him to prepare when the security system's code is activated, so he can enter the bank. Shaf was at the hospital where he receives treatment due to injury at his foot. Nordin want to explained about what happened but Dr. Ika decided to use her authority to send him at the psychiatric ward of the hospital where she worked. After recovered from his foot injury, Shaf come back home and decided to take his belongings and no longer lives with Nordin. While in the psychiatric ward, Nordin speaks to an old man who is thinking of his children and the man explained to him that his children did not want claim that he is their father and his children no longer have any relationship to him anymore. Nordin decided to stay away from the old man who keeps telling about fathers as the old man insist to not seeking apologize from his children. Nordin then met Dr. Ika and tells her to prove that he is not insane and decided to get out from the hospital as he want to claim his right at the Michaelsoft.
When Nordin go home, his housemate, Shaf is no longer lives with him. And he decided to find the CD-ROM in his house, eventually found in his computer book. Rudy and his underlings enters the Allied Asian Bank and doing their 'big project'. Nordin and Roy competed to access the software security system as Tan Sri Michael gave an instruction and will call the police if they failed to do so. While focus to create the system, both of them enters to the fantasy realm where they became a robot and competed each other. Back to the reality, Roy managed to access the system and tells his boss that his security system will disabled in 3 minutes while Nordin still working to access the system. Rudy and his underlings managed to robbing the bank and decided to leave the bank immediately. Nordin managed to activated the software security system that shows he is the one who created it and prove Roy's wrongdoings. Rudy's underlings has been detained by the police before they left the bank, while the police conduct a raid on the bank, Rudy manage to escape when he realizes the police's presence while the security system on his laptop has been denied. Tan Sri Michael decided to call the police and Roy manages to escape when his criminal act was known by his boss and the rest of Michaelsoft staffs after Nordin revealed Roy's wrongdoings. Tan Sri Michael seeking apologize from Nordin as he didn't trust him and Nordin also seeking apologize from his boss that he also done wrong to him. Nordin decided to find his friend, Shaf.
Roy and Rudy is being hunted by the police. Roy's residence was raided by the police but he is not around there. Nordin managed to find Shaf and seeking for forgiveness as well as talking each other to him again. Roy, who has been hunted by the police due to his connection with the Allied Asian Bank robbery, still out there and taking an advantage to get revenge against Nordin. He wanted to hit Nordin by his car. Dr. Ika saw Roy driving and she tries to warns Nordin and Shaf but they didn't realize the actual situation that they are facing right now. Roy drive through the road even though the traffic light is red, so he getting crashed by the lorry that come from the other side before he able to hit Nordin and his car flipping over. The lorry was drove by Rudy, who just committed another criminal act. Rudy become panicked when he saw there are people when he crashed on Roy, so he ran away from the accident scene. Nordin, Shaf, Dr. Ika and a taxi driver came to the accident scene and they saw Roy in his car. In the end, Nordin now lives happier and no longer afraid to Roy as he involved in a road accident when he try to crash on him. Nordin has gained shares from Michaelsoft and he become partner with his boss.
Cast
Afdlin Shauki as Nordin Bin Rohani
Nasha Aziz as Dr. Ika
Hans Isaac as Masron Bin Haji Dasuki @ Roy
Ako Mustapha as Shaf
Hattan as Jalal
Patrick Teoh as Tan Sri Michael
Sharifah Shahirah as Ila
Kartina Aziz as Dr. Ika and Ila's mum
Ifa Raziah as Michaelsoft's clerk
Soraya Dean as Suzy
AC Mizal as Rudy
Production
Buli is a directorial debut from Afdlin Shauki. Filming took place in Kuala Lumpur and Negeri Sembilan and its budget approximately RM 1.5 million in total. Afdlin's daughters, Miasara and Anais portraying as the children of the pilot that portrayed by himself.
The film's screenplay was written by Afdlin while pursue scriptwriting course at the National Film School in London, United Kingdom (UK) in 1996. The film is said to be produced by renowned Malaysian lyricist, Habsah Hassan while the female lead role was once offered to Erra Fazira and Sofia Jane before offered to Nasha Aziz. The main role is originally named Roslin, a bank clerk. But it was changed to Nordin, a computer software designer.
Release and reception
Buli was released on 11 March 2004 to popular success. The film manages to gain RM 1.6 million upon its release. Suraiya Mohd Nor, reviewing for Berita Harian described the film as a "global phenomenon".
Sequel
Its sequel, Buli Balik was released in 2006, after the success of the first film.
References
External links
Malaysian comedy films
2004 films
Films directed by Afdlin Shauki
Films with screenplays by Afdlin Shauki
2004 directorial debut films |
16289719 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Ahearn | William Ahearn | William H. Ahearn (1858 – April 28, 1919) was a Major League Baseball catcher, at least for one day, during the 1880 season. He was born in Troy, New York.
Ahearn played in one game for the Troy Trojans of the National League on June 19, 1880. Behind the plate, he had two putouts, five assists, and two errors for a fielding percentage of .778. He also had seven passed balls. At the plate, he went 1-for-4 for a .250 batting average, and he scored one run. The Trojans lost the game to the Cleveland Spiders 18-6. It was played at Haymakers' Grounds in Troy, New York. Ahearn died in Troy on April 28, 1919.
External links
Baseball Almanac
Retrosheet
1858 births
1919 deaths
Baseball players from New York (state)
Major League Baseball catchers
Troy Trojans players
19th-century baseball players |
2210653 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TRADIC | TRADIC | The TRADIC (for TRAnsistor DIgital Computer or TRansistorized Airborne DIgital Computer) was the first transistorized computer in the USA, completed in 1954.
The computer was built by Jean Howard Felker of Bell Labs for the United States Air Force while L.C. Brown ("Charlie Brown") was a lead engineer on the project, which started in 1951. The project initially examined the feasibility of constructing a transistorized airborne digital computer. A second application was a transistorized digital computer to be used in a Navy track-while-scan shipboard radar system. Several models were completed: TRADIC Phase One computer, Flyable TRADIC, Leprechaun (using germanium alloy junction transistors in 1956) and XMH-3 TRADIC. TRADIC Phase One was developed to explore the feasibility, in the laboratory, of using transistors in a digital computer that could be used to solve aircraft bombing and navigation problems. Flyable TRADIC was used to establish the feasibility of using an airborne solid-state computer as the control element of a bombing and navigation system. Leprechaun was a second-generation laboratory research transistor digital computer designed to explore direct-coupled transistor logic (DCTL). The TRADIC Phase One computer was completed in January 1954.
The TRADIC Phase One computer has been claimed to be the world's first fully transistorized computer, ahead of the Mailüfterl in Austria or the Harwell CADET in the UK, which were each completed in 1955. In the UK, the Manchester University Transistor Computer demonstrated a working prototype in 1953 which incorporated transistors before TRADIC was operational, although that was not a fully transistorized computer because it used vacuum tubes to generate the clock signal. The 30 watts of power for the 1 MHz clock in the TRADIC was also supplied by a vacuum tube supply because no transistors were available that could supply that much power at that frequency. If the TRADIC can be called fully transistorized while incorporating vacuum tubes, then the Manchester University Transistor Computer should also be, in which case that is the first transistorized computer and not the TRADIC. If neither can be called fully transistorized, then the CADET was the first fully transistorised computer in February 1955.
Flyable TRADIC also incorporated a single high-power output vacuum-tube amplifier to supply clock power to the system. The designers originally devised a system clock using a crystal-controlled transistor oscillator driving a multitude of transistor amplifiers because each transistor was too low powered, but since the phase shift of the amplifiers could not be controlled to the required tolerances this had to be abandoned. So by the same criterion of incorporating vacuum tubes the flyable TRADIC was either not a fully transistorized computer, or followed the Manchester University Transistor Computer in 1953. In contrast, the operating requirements for the Flyable TRADIC included performing across a wide temperature range of -55 °C (-67 °F) to +55 °C (+131 °F).
The TRADIC Phase One Computer had 684 Bell Labs Type 1734 Type A cartridge transistors and 10,358 germanium point-contact diodes. The TRADIC was small and light enough to be installed in a B-52 Stratofortress. It was a general-purpose computer. Programs for the TRADIC Phase One Computer were introduced via a removable plugboard, while the Flyable TRADIC used a Mylar sheet with punched holes — a system reminiscent of punched-card storage. TRADIC could perform a million logical operations every second, close to but not as fast the vacuum tube computers of the day, using its 1 MHz clock. It operated on less than 100 watts of power and it was much more reliable than its vacuum tube predecessors.
References
External links
TRADIC - History of Media Technology
TRADIC - History of Computing (1953)
Military computers
Transistorized computers |
28137693 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Process%20Environment%20Block | Process Environment Block | In computing the Process Environment Block (abbreviated PEB) is a data structure in the Windows NT operating system family. It is an opaque data structure that is used by the operating system internally, most of whose fields are not intended for use by anything other than the operating system. Microsoft notes, in its MSDN Library documentation — which documents only a few of the fields — that the structure "may be altered in future versions of Windows". The PEB contains data structures that apply across a whole process, including global context, startup parameters, data structures for the program image loader, the program image base address, and synchronization objects used to provide mutual exclusion for process-wide data structures.
The PEB is closely associated with the kernel mode EPROCESS data structure, as well as with per-process data structures managed within the address space of the Client-Server Runtime Sub-System process. However, (like the CSRSS data structures) the PEB is not a kernel mode data structure itself. It resides in the application mode address space of the process that it relates to. This is because it is designed to be used by the application-mode code in the operating system libraries, such as NTDLL, that executes outside of kernel mode, such as the code for the program image loader and the heap manager.
In WinDbg, the command that dumps the contents of a PEB is the !peb command, which is passed the address of the PEB within a process' application address space. That information, in turn, is obtained by the !process command, which displays the information from the EPROCESS data structure, one of whose fields is the address of the PEB.
The contents of the PEB are initialized by the NtCreateUserProcess() system call, the Native API function that implements part of, and underpins, the Win32 CreateProcess(), CreateProcessAsUser(), CreateProcessWithTokenW(), and CreateProcessWithLogonW() library functions that are in the kernel32.dll and advapi32.dll libraries as well as underpinning the fork() function in the Windows NT POSIX library, posix.dll.
For Windows NT POSIX processes, the contents of a new process' PEB are initialized by NtCreateUserProcess() as simply a direct copy of the parent process' PEB, in line with how the fork() function operates. For Win32 processes, the initial contents of a new process' PEB are mainly taken from global variables maintained within the kernel. However, several fields may instead be taken from information provided within the process' image file, in particular information provided in the IMAGE_OPTIONAL_HEADER32 data structure within the PE file format (PE+ or PE32+ in 64 bit executable images).
The WineHQ project provides a fuller PEB definition in its version of winternl.h. Later versions of Windows have adjusted the number and purpose of some fields.
References
External links
PEB definitions for various Windows versions
Windows NT architecture
Data structures by computing platform |
75008 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal%20asynchronous%20receiver-transmitter | Universal asynchronous receiver-transmitter | A universal asynchronous receiver-transmitter (UART ) is a computer hardware device for asynchronous serial communication in which the data format and transmission speeds are configurable. It sends data bits one by one, from the least significant to the most significant, framed by start and stop bits so that precise timing is handled by the communication channel. The electric signaling levels are handled by a driver circuit external to the UART. Two common signal levels are RS-232, a 12-volt system, and RS-485, a 5-volt system. Early teletypewriters used current loops.
It was one of the earliest computer communication devices, used to attach teletypewriters for an operator console. It was also an early hardware system for the Internet.
A UART is usually an individual (or part of an) integrated circuit (IC) used for serial communications over a computer or peripheral device serial port. One or more UART peripherals are commonly integrated in microcontroller chips. Specialised UARTs are used for automobiles, smart cards and SIMs.
A related device, the universal synchronous and asynchronous receiver-transmitter (USART) also supports synchronous operation.
Transmitting and receiving serial data
The universal asynchronous receiver-transmitter (UART) takes bytes of data and transmits the individual bits in a sequential fashion. At the destination, a second UART re-assembles the bits into complete bytes. Each UART contains a shift register, which is the fundamental method of conversion between serial and parallel forms. Serial transmission of digital information (bits) through a single wire or other medium is less costly than parallel transmission through multiple wires.
The UART usually does not directly generate or receive the external signals used between different items of equipment. Separate interface devices are used to convert the logic level signals of the UART to and from the external signalling levels, which may be standardized voltage levels, current levels, or other signals.
Communication may be simplex (in one direction only, with no provision for the receiving device to send information back to the transmitting device), full duplex (both devices send and receive at the same time) or half duplex (devices take turns transmitting and receiving).
Data framing
The idle, no data state is high-voltage, or powered. This is a historic legacy from telegraphy, in which the line is held high to show that the line and transmitter are not damaged. Each character is framed as a logic low start bit, data bits, possibly a parity bit and one or more stop bits. In most applications the least significant data bit (the one on the left in this diagram) is transmitted first, but there are exceptions (such as the IBM 2741 printing terminal).
The start bit signals the receiver that a new character is coming. The next five to nine bits, depending on the code set employed, represent the character. If a parity bit is used, it would be placed after all of the data bits. The next one or two bits are always in the mark (logic high, i.e., '1') condition and called the stop bit(s). They signal to the receiver that the character is complete. Since the start bit is logic low (0) and the stop bit is logic high (1) there are always at least two guaranteed signal changes between characters.
If the line is held in the logic low condition for longer than a character time, this is a break condition that can be detected by the UART.
Receiver
All operations of the UART hardware are controlled by an internal clock signal which runs at a multiple of the data rate, typically 8 or 16 times the bit rate. The receiver tests the state of the incoming signal on each clock pulse, looking for the beginning of the start bit. If the apparent start bit lasts at least one-half of the bit time, it is valid and signals the start of a new character. If not, it is considered a spurious pulse and is ignored. After waiting a further bit time, the state of the line is again sampled and the resulting level clocked into a shift register. After the required number of bit periods for the character length (5 to 8 bits, typically) have elapsed, the contents of the shift register are made available (in parallel fashion) to the receiving system. The UART will set a flag indicating new data is available, and may also generate a processor interrupt to request that the host processor transfers the received data.
Communicating UARTs have no shared timing system apart from the communication signal. Typically, UARTs resynchronize their internal clocks on each change of the data line that is not considered a spurious pulse. Obtaining timing information in this manner, they reliably receive when the transmitter is sending at a slightly different speed than it should. Simplistic UARTs do not do this; instead they resynchronize on the falling edge of the start bit only, and then read the center of each expected data bit, and this system works if the broadcast data rate is accurate enough to allow the stop bits to be sampled reliably.
It is a standard feature for a UART to store the most recent character while receiving the next. This "double buffering" gives a receiving computer an entire character transmission time to fetch a received character. Many UARTs have a small first-in, first-out (FIFO) buffer memory between the receiver shift register and the host system interface. This allows the host processor even more time to handle an interrupt from the UART and prevents loss of received data at high rates.
Transmitter
Transmission operation is simpler as the timing does not have to be determined from the line state, nor is it bound to any fixed timing intervals. As soon as the sending system deposits a character in the shift register (after completion of the previous character), the UART generates a start bit, shifts the required number of data bits out to the line, generates and sends the parity bit (if used), and sends the stop bits. Since full-duplex operation requires characters to be sent and received at the same time, UARTs use two different shift registers for transmitted and received characters. High performance UARTs could contain a transmit FIFO (first in first out) buffer to allow a CPU or DMA controller to deposit multiple characters in a burst into the FIFO rather than have to deposit one character at a time into the shift register. Since transmission of a single or multiple characters may take a long time relative to CPU speeds, a UART maintains a flag showing busy status so that the host system knows if there is at least one character in the transmit buffer or shift register; "ready for next character(s)" may also be signaled with an interrupt.
Application
Transmitting and receiving UARTs must be set for the same bit speed, character length, parity, and stop bits for proper operation. The receiving UART may detect some mismatched settings and set a "framing error" flag bit for the host system; in exceptional cases, the receiving UART will produce an erratic stream of mutilated characters and transfer them to the host system.
Typical serial ports used with personal computers connected to modems use eight data bits, no parity, and one stop bit; for this configuration, the number of ASCII characters per second equals the bit rate divided by 10.
Some very low-cost home computers or embedded systems dispense with a UART and use the CPU to sample the state of an input port or directly manipulate an output port for data transmission. While very CPU-intensive (since the CPU timing is critical), the UART chip can thus be omitted, saving money and space. The technique is known as bit-banging.
History
Some early telegraph schemes used variable-length pulses (as in Morse code) and rotating clockwork mechanisms to transmit alphabetic characters. The first serial communication devices (with fixed-length pulses) were rotating mechanical switches (commutators). Various character codes using 5, 6, 7, or 8 data bits became common in teleprinters and later as computer peripherals. The teletypewriter made an excellent general-purpose I/O device for a small computer.
Gordon Bell of DEC designed the first UART, occupying an entire circuit board called a line unit, for the PDP series of computers beginning with the PDP-1.
According to Bell, the main innovation of the UART was its use of sampling to convert the signal into the digital domain, allowing more reliable timing than previous circuits that used analog timing devices with manually adjusted potentiometers. To reduce the cost of wiring, backplane and other components, these computers also pioneered flow control using XON and XOFF characters rather than hardware wires.
DEC condensed the line unit design into an early single-chip UART for their own use. Western Digital developed this into the first widely available single-chip UART, the WD1402A, around 1971. This was an early example of a medium-scale integrated circuit. Another popular chip was the SCN2651 from the Signetics 2650 family.
An example of an early 1980s UART was the National Semiconductor 8250 used in the original IBM PC's Asynchronous Communications Adapter card. In the 1990s, newer UARTs were developed with on-chip buffers. This allowed higher transmission speed without data loss and without requiring such frequent attention from the computer. For example, the popular National Semiconductor 16550 has a 16-byte FIFO, and spawned many variants, including the 16C550, 16C650, 16C750, and 16C850.
Depending on the manufacturer, different terms are used to identify devices that perform the UART functions. Intel called their 8251 device a "Programmable Communication Interface". MOS Technology 6551 was known under the name "Asynchronous Communications Interface Adapter" (ACIA). The term "Serial Communications Interface" (SCI) was first used at Motorola around 1975 to refer to their start-stop asynchronous serial interface device, which others were calling a UART. Zilog manufactured a number of Serial Communication Controllers or SCCs.
Starting in the 2000s, most IBM PC compatible computers removed their external RS-232 COM ports and used USB ports that can send data faster. For users who still need RS-232 serial ports, external USB-to-UART bridges are now commonly used. They combine the hardware cables and a chip to do the USB and UART conversion. Cypress Semiconductor and FTDI are two of the significant commercial suppliers of these chips. Although RS-232 ports are no longer available to users on the outside of most computers, many internal processors and microprocessors have UARTs built into their chips to give hardware designers the ability to interface with other chips or devices that use RS-232 or RS-485 for communication.
Structure
A UART usually contains the following components:
a clock generator, usually a multiple of the bit rate to allow sampling in the middle of a bit period
input and output shift registers
transmit/receive control
read/write control logic
Autobaud measurement (optional)
transmit/receive buffers (optional)
system data bus buffer (optional)
First-in, first-out (FIFO) buffer memory (optional)
Signals needed by a third party DMA controller (optional)
Integrated bus mastering DMA controller (optional)
Special transceiver conditions
Overrun error
An "overrun error" occurs when the receiver cannot process the character that just came in before the next one arrives. Various devices have different amounts of buffer space to hold received characters. The CPU or DMA controller must service the UART in order to remove characters from the input buffer. If the CPU or DMA controller does not service the UART quickly enough and the buffer becomes full, an Overrun Error will occur, and incoming characters will be lost.
Underrun error
An "underrun error" occurs when the UART transmitter has completed sending a character and the transmit buffer is empty. In asynchronous modes this is treated as an indication that no data remains to be transmitted, rather than an error, since additional stop bits can be appended. This error indication is commonly found in USARTs, since an underrun is more serious in synchronous systems.
Framing error
A UART will detect a framing error when it does not see a "stop" bit at the expected "stop" bit time. As the "start" bit is used to identify the beginning of an incoming character, its timing is a reference for the remaining bits. If the data line is not in the expected state (high) when the "stop" bit is expected (according to the number of data and parity bits for which the UART is set), the UART will signal a framing error. A "break" condition on the line is also signaled as a framing error.
Parity error
A parity error occurs when the parity of the number of one-bits disagrees with that specified by the parity bit. Parity checking is often used for the detection of transmission errors. Use of a parity bit is optional, so this error will only occur if parity-checking has been enabled.
Break condition
A break condition occurs when the receiver input is at the "space" (logic low, i.e., '0') level for longer than some duration of time, typically, for more than a character time. This is not necessarily an error, but appears to the receiver as a character of all zero-bits with a framing error. The term "break" derives from current loop signaling, which was the traditional signaling used for teletypewriters. The "spacing" condition of a current loop line is indicated by no current flowing, and a very long period of no current flowing is often caused by a break or other fault in the line.
Some equipment will deliberately transmit the "space" level for longer than a character as an attention signal. When signaling rates are mismatched, no meaningful characters can be sent, but a long "break" signal can be a useful way to get the attention of a mismatched receiver to do something (such as resetting itself). Computer systems can use the long "break" level as a request to change the signaling rate, to support dial-in access at multiple signaling rates. The DMX512 protocol uses the break condition to signal the start of a new packet.
UART models
A dual UART, or DUART, combines two UARTs into a single chip. Similarly, a quadruple UART or QUART, combines four UARTs into one package, such as the NXP 28L194. An octal UART or OCTART combines eight UARTs into one package, such as the Exar XR16L788 or the NXP SCC2698.
UART in modems
Modems for personal computers that plug into a motherboard slot must also include the UART function on the card. The original 8250 UART chip shipped with the IBM personal computer had a one character buffer for the receiver and the transmitter each, which meant that communications software performed poorly at speeds above 9600 bit/s, especially if operating under a multitasking system or if handling interrupts from disk controllers. High-speed modems used UARTs that were compatible with the original chip but which included additional FIFO buffers, giving software additional time to respond to incoming data.
A look at the performance requirements at high bit rates shows why the 16-, 32-, 64- or 128-byte FIFO is a necessity. The Microsoft specification for a DOS system requires that interrupts not be disabled for more than 1 millisecond at a time. Some hard disk drives and video controllers violate this specification. 9600 bit/s will deliver a character approximately every millisecond, so a 1-byte FIFO should be sufficient at this rate on a DOS system which meets the maximum interrupt disable timing. Rates above this may receive a new character before the old one has been fetched, and thus the old character will be lost. This is referred to as an overrun error and results in one or more lost characters.
A 16-byte FIFO allows up to 16 characters to be received before the computer has to service the interrupt. This increases the maximum bit rate the computer can process reliably from 9600 to 153,000 bit/s if it has a 1 millisecond interrupt dead time. A 32-byte FIFO increases the maximum rate to over 300,000 bit/s. A second benefit to having a FIFO is that the computer only has to service about 8 to 12% as many interrupts, allowing more CPU time for updating the screen, or doing other chores. Thus the computer's responses will improve as well.
See also
Autobaud
Baud
Bit rate
Comparison of synchronous and asynchronous signalling
Crystal oscillator frequencies
MIDI
Synchronous serial communication
References
Further reading
Serial Port Complete: COM Ports, USB Virtual COM Ports, and Ports for Embedded Systems; 2nd Edition; Jan Axelson; Lakeview Research; 380 pages; 2007; .
Serial Port Complete: Programming and Circuits for RS-232 and RS-485 Links and Networks; 1st Edition; Jan Axelson; Lakeview Research; 306 pages; 1998; .
Serial port and Microcontrollers: Principles, Circuits, and Source Codes; 1st Edition; Grzegorz Niemirowski; CreateSpace; 414 pages; 2013; .
Serial Programming (Wikibook).
External links
FreeBSD Serial and UART Tutorial, includes standard signal definitions, history of UART ICs, and pinout for commonly used DB25 connector.
UART Tutorial for Robotics, contains many practical examples.
Data transmission
pt:USART |
303613 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fernando%20J.%20Corbat%C3%B3 | Fernando J. Corbató | Fernando José "Corby" Corbató (July 1, 1926 – July 12, 2019) was a prominent American computer scientist, notable as a pioneer in the development of time-sharing operating systems.
Career
Corbató was born on July 1, 1926 in Oakland, California, to Hermenegildo Corbató, a Spanish literature professor from Villarreal, Spain, and Charlotte (née Carella Jensen) Corbató. In 1930 the Corbató family moved to Los Angeles for Hermenegildo's job at the University of California, Los Angeles.
In 1943, Corbató enrolled at UCLA, but due to World War II he was recruited by the Navy during his first year. During the war, Corbató "debug[ged] an incredible array of equipment", inspiring his future career.
Corbató left the Navy in 1946, enrolled at the California Institute of Technology, and received a bachelor's degree in physics in 1950. He then earned a PhD in physics from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1956. He joined MIT's Computation Center immediately upon graduation, became a professor in 1965, and stayed at MIT until he retired.
The first time-sharing system he was associated with was known as the MIT Compatible Time-Sharing System (CTSS), an early version of which was demonstrated in 1961. Corbató is credited with the first use of passwords to secure access to files on a large computer system, though he later claimed that this rudimentary security method had proliferated and became unmanageable.
The experience with developing CTSS led to a second project, Multics, which was adopted by General Electric for its high-end computer systems (later acquired by Honeywell). Multics pioneered many concepts now used in modern operating systems, including a hierarchical file system, ring-oriented security, access control lists, single-level store, dynamic linking, and extensive on-line reconfiguration for reliable service. Multics, while not particularly commercially successful in itself, directly inspired Ken Thompson to develop Unix, the direct descendants of which are still in extremely wide use; Unix also served as a direct model for many other subsequent operating system designs.
Awards
Among many awards, Corbató received the Turing Award in 1990, "for his pioneering work in organizing the concepts and leading the development of the general-purpose, large-scale, time-sharing and resource-sharing computer systems".
In 2012, he was made a Fellow of the Computer History Museum "for his pioneering work on timesharing and the Multics operating system".
Legacy
Corbató is sometimes known for "Corbató's Law" which states:
The number of lines of code a programmer can write in a fixed period of time is the same, independent of the language used.
Corbató is recognized as helping to create the first computer password.
Personal life and death
Corbató married programmer Isabel Blandford in 1962; she died in 1973.
Corbató had a second wife, Emily (née Gluck); two daughters, Carolyn Corbató Stone and Nancy Corbató, by his late wife Isabel; two step-sons, David Gish and Jason Gish; a brother, Charles; and five grandchildren.
Corbató lived on Temple Street in West Newton, MA. He died on July 12, 2019 in Newburyport, Massachusetts, at the age of 93 due to complications from diabetes.
Publications
F. J. Corbató, M. M. Daggett, R. C. Daley, An Experimental Time-Sharing System (IFIPS 1962) is a good description of CTSS
F. J. Corbató (editor), The Compatible Time-Sharing System: A Programmer's Guide (M.I.T. Press, 1963)
F. J. Corbató, V. A. Vyssotsky, Introduction and Overview of the Multics System (AFIPS 1965) is a good introduction to Multics
F. J. Corbató, (Datamation, May 6, 1969)
F. J. Corbató, C. T. Clingen, J. H. Saltzer, Multics -- The First Seven Years (AFIPS, 1972) is an excellent review, after a considerable period of use and improvement
F. J. Corbató, C. T. Clingen, A Managerial View of the Multics System Development ("Conference on Research Directions in Software Technology", Providence, Rhode Island, 1977) is a fascinating look at what it was like to manage such a large software project
F. J. Corbató, On Building Systems That Will Fail (Turing Award Lecture, 1991)
F. J. Corbató, A paging experiment with the Multics system. Included in a Festschrift published in honor of Prof. P.M. Morse. MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1969.
See also
Incompatible Timesharing System
Multilevel feedback queue
References
Further reading
Dag Spicer, "Fernando Corbató: Time-Sharing Pioneer, Part 1", IEEE Annals of the History of Computing, vol.37, no. 4, pp. 5-9, Oct.-Dec. 2015, doi:10.1109/MAHC.2015.81
Dag Spicer, "Fernando Corbató: Time-Sharing Pioneer, Part 2", IEEE Annals of the History of Computing, vol.38, no. 1, pp. 75-79, Jan.-Mar. 2016, doi:10.1109/MAHC.2016.7
External links
Oral history interview with Fernando J. Corbató at Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota. Corbató discusses computer science research, especially time-sharing, at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT).
Oral history interview with Fernando J. Corbató at the Computer History Museum in Mountain View, CA. Fernando Corbató reviews his early educational and naval experiences in the Eddy program during World War II, including the Compatible Time-Sharing System (CTSS), Project MAC, and Multics.
Computer Networks: The Heralds of Resource Sharing, documentary ca. 1972 about the ARPANET. Includes footage of Fernando Corbató.
, Corbato demonstrates MIT's Compatible Time-Sharing System.
Corby, by Tom Van Vleck on the Multics website. A background sketch that includes many further links and several photographs.
Corby Memorial - Transcript of the memorial held at MIT.
1926 births
2019 deaths
Turing Award laureates
California Institute of Technology alumni
Fellows of the Association for Computing Machinery
MIT Department of Physics alumni
Massachusetts Institute of Technology faculty
Members of the United States National Academy of Engineering
Multics people
Time-sharing
Writers from Oakland, California
Military personnel from California
American people of Spanish descent
United States Navy personnel of World War II |
855981 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code%20Lyoko | Code Lyoko | Code Lyoko () is a French animated television series created by Thomas Romain and Tania Palumbo and produced by the MoonScoop Group that premiered on France 3. The series centers on a group of teenagers who travel to the virtual world of Lyoko to battle against a malignant artificial intelligence known as X.A.N.A. who threatens Earth with powers to access the real world and cause trouble. The scenes in the real world have hand drawn backgrounds combined with 2D computer animation for characters and moving objects. The scenes in Lyoko are presented in 3D CGI animation.
The series began its first, 97-episode run on 3 September 2003, on France's France 3, and ended on 10 November 2007. It started airing in the United States on 19 April 2004 on Cartoon Network.
Code Lyoko aired every day on Cartoon Network, and was also in their Miguzi and Master Control programming blocks, at 5:00 or 5:30 P.M. U.S. Eastern Time, sometimes even showing two new back-to-back episodes consecutively, in the cases of season finales.
A follow-up series, Code Lyoko: Evolution, began airing at the end of 2012. This "sequel" to the series featured live-action sequences for scenes taking place in the real world instead of its traditional 2D animation but retained the iconic CGI for scenes taking place in Lyoko, now with an updated style. The show consisted of 26 episodes with the final episode airing in late 2013, leaving off on a cliffhanger with no second season planned as MoonScoop later filed for bankruptcy in 2014.
Plot
Jeremy Belpois, an 8th grade prodigy attending boarding school at Kadic Academy, discovers a quantum supercomputer in an abandoned factory near his school. Upon activating it, he discovers a virtual world called Lyoko with an artificially intelligent girl named Aelita trapped inside it. Jeremy learns of X.A.N.A., a fully autonomous, malevolent, and highly intelligent multi-agent system, that also dwells within the Supercomputer. Using Lyoko's powers, X.A.N.A can possess electronics and objects in the real world like a virus to wreak havoc. X.A.N.A.'s primary objective is to eliminate anyone aware of the Supercomputer's existence so that it will be free to conquer the real world and destroy all humanity.
Jeremy works tirelessly to materialize Aelita into the real world and stop attacks caused by X.A.N.A. Jeremy is aided by his three friends Odd Della Robbia, Ulrich Stern, and Yumi Ishiyama, who are virtualized into Lyoko to save both worlds from the sinister virtual entity. They achieve this by escorting Aelita to various Towers on Lyoko, which serve as interface terminals between Lyoko and Earth. Once the Tower is deactivated, Jeremy can launch a "Return to the Past" program, which sends the world back in time, while anyone scanned into the Supercomputer retains memory of the other timeline, to undo any damage caused by X.A.N.A. In "Code: Earth," Aelita is finally materialized, but the group discovers that X.A.N.A. had planted a virus inside of her that will kill her if the Supercomputer is turned off. They realize that they cannot destroy X.A.N.A, or Aelita will be destroyed along with it.
Aelita adjusts to life in the real world, while Jeremy attempts to develop an antivirus program to liberate her from X.A.N.A.'s power. On Lyoko, a fifth sector is discovered and the group explores more of Lyoko's secrets and mysteries. The gang begins to uncover information about a mysterious man named Franz Hopper, who went missing ten years ago. He supposedly created the Supercomputer, Lyoko, and X.A.N.A., and is eventually discovered to be Aelita's father. They finally find out that Franz Hopper is indeed alive somewhere, hiding in the uncharted parts of Lyoko to avoid X.A.N.A. further. All the while, X.A.N.A. attempts to steal Aelita's memory to gain the Keys to Lyoko and free itself. At the end of the season, the group discovers that Aelita is actually human and does not have a virus, and instead is missing a fragment of herself. In "The Key," X.A.N.A. tricks them with a fake and succeeds in stealing Aelita's memory and escaping the Supercomputer. Aelita appears to perish as a result but is revived when Franz Hopper restores her completely, along with her missing fragment: the memories of her life on Earth before she was virtualized on Lyoko.
Since succeeding in escaping the confinements of the supercomputer, X.A.N.A. targets the virtual world itself by destroying each of Lyoko's surface sectors, until only Sector Five is left. Initially reluctant, the Lyoko Warriors decide to invite William Dunbar as the sixth member. However, shortly after being virtualized, he is possessed by X.A.N.A. via the Scyphozoa. Shortly after, he destroys the Core of Lyoko, destroying the entire virtual world and rendering the group unable to fight X.A.N.A., putting the entire real world in danger. After what they thought was their defeat, Jeremy receives a coded message from Franz Hopper that allows him to recreate Lyoko and continue the fight against X.A.N.A.
Jeremy and Aelita construct a digital submarine, the Skidbladnir, to travel across the Digital Sea to destroy X.A.N.A.'s "Replikas," which are copies of Lyoko's sectors that are linked to X.A.N.A.-controlled supercomputers on Earth, all created for its goal of world domination. X.A.N.A. uses William as its general throughout the season to defend the Replikas and target the Lyoko Warriors in any way he can. To prevent suspicion regarding William's disappearance, Jeremy manages to program a specter to take William's place at Kadic, although the clone has low-level intelligence and acts very stupidly. Near the end of the season, X.A.N.A. decides to draw energy from all of its Replikas to create the Kolossus, a gigantic monster that later destroys the Skidbladnir. Before it is destroyed, Jeremy frees William from X.A.N.A.'s control. After his return, he has a difficult time gaining the trust of the group. While Ulrich defeats the Kolossus, Franz Hopper sacrifices himself to power Jeremy's "anti-X.A.N.A. program," which destroys X.A.N.A. forever upon activation. Shortly after, the group, albeit reluctant due to their nostalgia, decides to shut down the Supercomputer.
Episodes
Characters
Lyoko Warriors
Jeremy Belpois (French: Jérémy Belpois; formerly Jeremie (French: Jérémie) in season 1)
Voiced by: Raphaëlle Bruneau (French); Sharon Mann (English)
A 12-year-old (later 13-year-old) top-of-the-class student who finds and starts the factory's supercomputer while looking for parts to build a robot. By turning on the Supercomputer, he reawakened Aelita, the virtual world of Lyoko, and the malevolent multi-agent system X.A.N.A.. His goals are mainly driven by his desire to protect Aelita, whom he has a crush on, and to save her from the Supercomputer and X.A.N.A. by materializing her on Earth. As part of the group, he specializes in programming new ways to defeat X.A.N.A. and monitors the group while they are on Lyoko. Because he is not very athletic and is more computer savvy, Jeremy almost never goes to Lyoko, only going there once and vowing to never do it again. His workaholic attitude occasionally puts a strain on his relationships with the other members of the group.
Aelita Schaeffer
Voiced by: Sophie Landresse (French); Sharon Mann (English)
Mainly known by her alias Aelita Stones, Aelita is the smartest of the group alongside Jeremy. At the beginning of the series, she was trapped within Lyoko, inside the Supercomputer. She was originally thought to be an AI until it was revealed that she's the daughter of Franz Hopper, the creator of the world of Lyoko. As a little girl, she lost her mother. When a group of suited men came to her home, she and her father fled and virtualized themselves on Lyoko. Between the virtualization and Jeremy's discovery of the Supercomputer, X.A.N.A. stole an important memory fragment that inhibited her from becoming fully human again. After this fragment is retrieved, she is no longer linked to the Supercomputer. After becoming human, she often has nightmares of her past life. She later enrolls as a boarder at Kadic under the alias Aelita Stones, claiming to be Odd's cousin. She reciprocates Jeremy's feelings for her, but he often strains their relationship by overlooking Aelita and her passions in favor of working on the Supercomputer.
Aelita is the only one capable of deactivating towers on Lyoko to stop X.A.N.A.'s attacks. On Lyoko, she has an elf-like appearance, similar to that of "Mr. Pück," a toy elf from her childhood. She has the "power of creation": the ability to create or remove objects, such as rocks or bridges, from the virtual environment. She had no weapons or defense until season 3 of the show when she developed the ability to use "energy fields," pink balls of plasma that can be thrown or used to block enemy fire. In season 4, Jeremy programs light pink angel wings as part of her new virtual attire, allowing her to fly and carry one other person.
Odd Della Robbia
Voiced by: Raphaëlle Bruneau (French); Matthew Géczy (English)
The comic relief of the group. Odd is credited as having great potential when it comes to school, but rarely uses it, and as a result of this, he gets bad grades due to his lack of studying. He shares a dorm with Ulrich and has a dog named Kiwi, who he hides in a dresser because pets aren't allowed at Kadic. He's considered a ladies' man and has dated many of the girls at his school, but his romances tend to last only a few days. Before he attended Kadic, he lived with his parents and his five sisters. Odd's blond hair has a purple spot and is worn up in a spike.
On Lyoko, he is clothed like a cat, with a tail and clawed gloves that shoot "laser arrows." In season 1 he had a precognitive power named "Future Flash", but it was deleted before season 2 and is replaced by his defensive ability to create a purple energy shield by crossing his arms in front of his body, covering half of his body. Another one of Odd's abilities is being able to use his claws to climb on walls like a cat.
Ulrich Stern
Voiced by: Marie-Line Landerwijn (French); Barbara Weber-Scaff (English)
A more reserved member of the group, Ulrich has a hard time sharing his feelings. His parents pressure him to achieve well in school, but he has difficulty learning and living up to their expectations. In his off-time, he practices Pencak silat with Yumi, whom he has a crush on. He suffers from vertigo, which makes it hard to participate in activities such as rock climbing. Due to his many activities, Ulrich has a rather muscular build, thus many girls (particularly Sissi) consider him to be extremely handsome.
On Lyoko, he wears a yellow and brown outfit inspired by Japanese samurai. His main weapon is a katana, and can dual wield them. His "Supersprint" ability allows him to dash at high speed, and his "Triplicate" power lets him create two clones of himself. He can combine these abilities in a technique called "Triangulate," using his clones to form a triangle around an enemy and ambush it from behind when it is distracted.
Yumi Ishiyama
Voiced by: Géraldine Frippiat (French); Mirabelle Kirkland (English)
A fairly reserved student who lives near and attends Kadic. She is the oldest of the group. She is of Japanese descent and has one younger brother, Hiroki. Because of her parents and culture, she must maintain good grades and observe family values. At home, she generally has to deal with marital issues between her parents. She is a friend of William Dunbar, who transferred to Kadic during season 2. She practices pencak silat with Ulrich, whom she has a crush on, though it's not as obvious as Ulrich's crush on her. She always wears black and has enough basic knowledge of the Supercomputer to operate it in Jeremy and Aelita's absence.
On Lyoko, Yumi is dressed in a geisha-inspired outfit with an obi sash. Her main weapon is a Tessen fan, being given an additional one since the second season, and her one-and-only power is telekinesis, allowing her to move objects and levitate her three best friends with her mind alone; it is rarely used as it tires her out pretty quickly.
William Dunbar
Voiced by: Mathieu Moreau (French); David Gasman (English)
An overconfident student who starts attending Kadic Academy after he was expelled from his previous school for vandalism. Yumi befriends him and he soon develops feelings for her. He often fights with Ulrich for Yumi's attention and is sometimes disrespectful of Yumi's boundaries, causing her to become frustrated with his unwanted advances. After proving helpful to the group during several X.A.N.A. attacks, they vote on whether he should be allowed to join the group, but Yumi votes no and his memory is erased. Eventually, however, the vote becomes unanimous when William's membership is deemed necessary.
On his first mission on Lyoko, William is captured and possessed by X.A.N.A., who ensnares William as its puppet. From that point on, a clone of William, created by Jeremy, is used to pose as the real William until Jeremy is able to free him. Unfortunately, Jeremy's program is imperfect, causing the William clone to act either unintelligent or unpredictable. Near the end of the series, the clone starts developing several human-like traits, which he eventually uses to help the warriors. Towards the end of the series, William is finally released from X.A.N.A.'s control.
On Lyoko, William wears a white outfit and carries a giant sword, which can release shock waves. Under X.A.N.A.'s control, his outfit turns black and he gains a spiked gauntlet on his wrist, which can be used for defense. He has an array of powers including enhanced strength; "Supersmoke," which allows him to transform into a cloud of black smoke and move around at great speed, eventually gaining the ability to fly as well; a second sight allowing him to see across great distances; and levitation. X.A.N.A. sends William to stop the Lyoko Warriors on the virtual world, and thanks to his natural abilities strengthened even further by the artificial intelligence]], he proved to be a formidable opponent. He is finally released in "Down to Earth."
Villains
X.A.N.A.
Sometimes known as XANA, is an evil and powerful computer virus based on a multi-agent system. It is merciless, craves destruction, and serves as the central antagonist of the series. It was originally created by Franz Hopper to destroy Project Carthage: a military communications system that Franz Hopper had previously been involved with. He mentions that his motives were to prevent the French government from obtaining access to Project Carthage. Unfortunately, due to his repeated returns to the past, X.A.N.A. evolved until it achieved self-awareness, choosing to betray Franz and trap him and his daughter Aelita inside Lyoko. Franz has no choice but to shut down the Supercomputer to stop its rampage. After it was reawakened in the present day, X.A.N.A. continues to wreak havoc on Earth and displays no mercy towards those who stand in its way. It grows smarter and more powerful with every return in time, and can think of greater plans and goals beyond random destruction.
X.A.N.A. has no actual physical form as a program. Instead, X.A.N.A. activates Lyoko structures called "Towers" to access the real world with virus extensions of its multi-agent system while remaining inside the Supercomputer, and can only be stopped by deactivating the Towers. On Earth, X.A.N.A. can manipulate and channel electromagnetic phenomena and hack networks or manifest ghostly spectres from outlets at will to possess objects or living things like a virus to bend to its will (usually marked with its eye symbol as a sign of its control) to wreak havoc or target its enemies. After evolving further, X.A.N.A. learns to possess humans or manifest polymorphic spectres to follow its orders as pixelized vessels with its spectral or electrical abilities. On Lyoko, it creates deadly monsters to fight enemies and attack virtual targets, and uses programs to alter environments, plant bugs or viruses, manipulate incomplete warriors, or create virtual objects.
The only known physical incarnation of X.A.N.A. appeared in season 1, in the episode titled "Ghost Channel," where after having its disguise as Jeremy being exposed, he transformed into a demonic caricature figure of Jeremy and tried to kill all of the Warriors. X.A.N.A.'s voice was provided by David Gasman in this episode.
As X.A.N.A. continues to increase its power, its ambition also develop throughout the series. It steals the Keys to Lyoko from Aelita to escape from the Supercomputer and access the world network. Upon its escape, X.A.N.A. becomes more ruthless and aggressive, now trying to destroy Lyoko to make the team powerless against it (succeeded at the end of the third season, but was recreated after) and possessing William to become its weapon. After that, X.A.N.A. also targets Franz Hopper, the biggest threat and the reason why the group keeps surviving. At the same time, the heroes discover X.A.N.A. has infected hundreds of other supercomputers in the network to build weapons and technology to conquer the world. Near the end of the series, the group manage to free William and although it succeeded in killing Franz Hopper in the final battle, the team successfully destroyed X.A.N.A. everywhere in the network with Jeremy's multi-agent program, but only for a time.
Monsters
X.A.N.A. can program many types of monsters on Lyoko to fight, guard Towers, or attack important targets. The monsters generally appear to be organic/mechanical creatures based on various animals and insects. X.A.N.A.'s monster types include Kankrelats, Hornets, Bloks, Krabs, Megatanks, Tarantulas, Creepers, and Mantas. These monsters can be destroyed by hitting the Eye of X.A.N.A. on their bodies. In the Digital Sea, it uses monsters such as Kongers, Sharks, and the Kalamar. It also created the Scyphozoa, which it uses to steal data, drain energy, or brainwash warriors. There is also its ultimate monster, the Kolossus, which appeared in the last three episodes and is fueled by the combined power of its network Replikas.
Recurring characters
Elisabeth "Sissi" Delmas
Voiced by: Carole Baillien (French); Christine Flowers and Jodi Forrest (English)
The principal's daughter and a Kadic student. She is a mean, spoiled, conceited, but also beautiful and somewhat popular girl who has had a huge crush on Ulrich since before attending Kadic. Sissi and Odd quite often make fun of each other, with Odd making clever comebacks whenever Sissi says something rude or whenever they need her to go away. After Aelita is first materialized, she often does the same. Sissi tends to make fun of and openly insult Yumi in particular, mostly due to Ulrich liking Yumi more than her. Sissi is often followed by Herb and Nicolas, whom she often shows resentment towards, but uses them to her advantage anyway. She was initially part of the gang and knew about Lyoko, but was kicked out after breaking her oath to keep the Supercomputer a secret. Her memories of Lyoko were subsequently erased. She becomes friends with the Lyoko Warriors at the end of the series. Sissi also shows a dislike for her full name, Elisabeth, often making sounds of disgust when it's mentioned.
Herb Pichon (French: Hervé Pichon)
Voiced by: Bruno Mullenaerts (French); David Gasman (English)
An eighth-grader at Kadic and a classmate to the Lyoko Warriors. He is the second-in-command of Sissi's gang, and sometimes even the boss in times of emergency when Sissi proves to be incompetent, as he is the most intelligent member of their group. Herb is also shown to be in love with Sissi, although he doesn't tell her because of her crushes on various boys, most notably Ulrich. He is the second-best student in his class after Jeremy and the two often compete with each other, but Herb is almost always the loser. Herb is also shown to be easily scared off, quick to run away when something troubling happens.
Nicolas Poliakoff
Voiced by: Carole Baillien (French); Matthew Géczy (English)
An eighth-grader at Kadic. He is the third member of Sissi's gang. He usually does not show much intelligence, which is commonly conveyed through his frequent use of pauses and uhs in speech. He usually only does things when Sissi orders him to, and will otherwise not do much on his own. Nicolas also has also been shown to have a crush on Aelita, although he never acts on it. He can play the drums, and was in the Pop Rock Progressives, a band started by Odd. He is generally more tolerant of and less rude toward the Lyoko Warriors than Herb and Sissi are. In some episodes, it is shown that he has at least some degree of intelligence, as he wrote a script for a performance of Romeo and Juliet. Nicolas is also shown to be as easily frightened as Herb is.
Jean-Pierre Delmas
Voiced by: Bruno Mullenaerts (French); Allan Wenger (English)
The principal of Kadic Academy, who is easily controlled by his daughter Sissi. He can be stubborn and incredibly ignorant at times, especially when members of the Lyoko Warriors are trying to convince him of any dangerous activity caused by X.A.N.A.. His appearance is based on Hayao Miyazaki.
Jim Morales (French: Jim Moralès)
Voiced by: Frédéric Meaux (French); David Gasman (English)
The physical education teacher at Kadic Academy and the chief disciplinarian. He is frequently mentioned to have had an extensive job history, although whenever it comes up, he almost always ends up dismissing it by saying, "I'd rather not talk about it." Jim is often shown to digress from his lectures as he starts to reminisce on stories of his past, usually before being interrupted by someone or cutting himself off. On several occasions, Jim has discovered the existence of Lyoko or X.A.N.A. and displayed his helpfulness and willingness to keep it a secret, however, his memories are always erased through the use of a "Return to the Past." One of his more notable secrets is that he once starred in a film called Paco, the King of Disco.
Suzanne Hertz
Voiced by: Nathalie Stas (French); Jodi Forrest (English)
Usually referred to as Mrs. Hertz, she's a science teacher at Kadic. She is the most shown primary academics teacher in the series and appears to teach most branches of science at Kadic. She is also the only faculty member shown to organize field trips, which happens on several occasions. She has been shown to dislike or be disappointed in Odd and Ulrich, but takes a liking to Jeremy, and later Aelita.
Amelia "Milly" Solovieff and Tamiya Diop
Milly voiced by: Mirabelle Kirkland; (English)
Tamiya voiced by: Barbara Weber-Scaff (English)
The sole members of the Kadic News crew, who are both are in sixth grade and share a dorm room. Tamiya is of Franco-African descent and seems to be less driven by her emotions, which allows her to think more clearly than Milly when bad things happen to them.
Hiroki Ishiyama
Voiced by: Barbara Weber-Scaff (English)
Yumi's younger brother. He is often shown pestering her about things and purposely being annoying, such as asking her to do his homework or mentioning her feelings for Ulrich. He is frequently shown playing on a handheld gaming device, and is often shown with his friend, Johnny Clearly. Hiroki has, on occasion, assisted Yumi when she needed it, although he usually requires some form of bribe.
Takeho and Akiko Ishiyama
Takeho voiced by: David Gasman (English)
Akiko voiced by: Jodi Forrest (English)
The parents of Yumi and Hiroki. Takeho is shown to be a fairly typical semi-strict busy father and works for a local branch of a Japanese company. Akiko is depicted as a typical non-working housewife and is generally the first one to ask Yumi if something is wrong. When her parents appear in an episode, it usually focuses on Yumi's family issues.
It is implied that Takeho and Akiho have a low-key fractious relationship, with semi-frequent arguments that their children sometimes overhear. This seems to contribute to Yumi's reserve, and possibly, her reticence in pursuing a more serious emotional relationship with Ulrich.
Supporting characters
Waldo Franz Schaeffer
Voiced by: Mathieu Moreau (French); Paul Bandey (season 2), Alan Wenger (season 4) (English)
More commonly known as Franz Hopper (a combination of his middle name and the maiden name of his wife) he is/was the creator of both Lyoko and X.A.N.A., and was involved in the creation of Project Carthage. His wife Anthea was kidnapped by men in black suits and he was forced to flee with his young daughter Aelita. The two went to live in a house called the Hermitage, located in a park near Kadic Academy and the abandoned factory. While working as a science teacher at the school, he constructed the Supercomputer in the factory, and programmed X.A.N.A. and the virtual world of Lyoko within it. When the men in black suits tracked him down again, he took Aelita to the factory and virtualized her onto Lyoko with him, where he believed they would be safe. However, X.A.N.A. refused to obey its creator's orders or live in peace alongside Franz and his daughter. Franz was forced to shut the Supercomputer down until it was eventually discovered by Jeremy nearly ten years later. In one of the final episodes of the show, he sacrifices himself to allow Jeremy to finally destroy X.A.N.A.
Yolanda Perraudin
Voiced by: Alexandra Correa (French); Jodi Forrest (English)
The school nurse who often aids the students injuries from any incidents, in "X.A.N.A.'s Kiss" Jim was kissed by a Polymorphic Specter disguise as her and attempted to ask her for a date, much to her confusion.
Samantha "Sam" Knight
Voiced by: Jodi Forrest (English)
One of Odd's ex-girlfriends that only appears in two episodes, she first appears in "Rock Bottom?" where Odd hires her as a DJ to Yumi's party but was short lived after X.A.N.A. caused a earthquake to sink the school. She appears again in "Final Round" where both Odd and her enter a skating competition.
Johnny Clearly
Voiced by: Jodi Forrest (English)
Hiroki's best friend that introduced in Season 3, it is revealed in "The Pretender" that he has a crush on Yumi despite there age difference and asked Ulrich with advice (which is embarrassing because he also loves her).
Anthea Hopper-Schaeffer
Voiced by: Sharon Mann (English)
Aelita's mother who was kidnapped by a group of Men in Black when they lived at a Mountain Cabin, this traumatized Aelita with nightmares and hallucinations of her imaging the mysterious men as a pack of ravenous wolves while herself resembles her doll Mister Pück.
Development
Origins
Code Lyoko originates from the film short Les enfants font leur cinéma ("The children make their movies"), directed by Thomas Romain and produced by a group of students from Parisian visual arts school Gobelins School of the Image. Romain worked with Tania Palumbo, Stanislas Brunet, and Jerome Cottray to create the film, which was screened at the 2000 Annecy International Animated Film Festival. French animation company Antefilms took interest in the film due to its atmosphere and offered Romain and Palumbo a contract to turn it into a series. This led to the development of the pilot, Garage Kids.
Garage Kids was produced in 2001 by Antefilms. The project was created by Palumbo, Romain, and Carlo de Boutiny and developed by Anne de Galard. Its producers were Eric Garnet, Nicolas Atlan, Benoît di Sabatino, and Christophe di Sabatino.
Similar to its succeeding show Code Lyoko, Garage Kids was originally envisioned as a 26-episode miniseries detailing the lives of four French boarding school students who discover the secret of the virtual world of Xanadu; created by a research group headed by a character known as the "Professor". The pilot featured both traditional animation and CGI. The Matrix had "enormous influence" on the pilot according to Romain, citing the concept of a machine allowing the characters to dive in a virtual world, an operator who supervises the trip and the correlation between the action in the real world and the virtual world. Anime also served as inspiration, specifically Serial Experiments Lain for its "worrying digital dimension" and Neon Genesis Evangelion for its dangerous entities to fight. While similarities to Tron have been noted, Romain admitted to not having seen the film yet when the series was being developed.
When the concept on the virtual world was added, Antefilms suggested animating it with CGI to help make the series unique, promote a video game theme and make the separation between the virtual and real worlds clearer. While incorporating it, Palumbo and Romain wanted to avoid making the series "too playful and superficial" and sought to "get around the censoring done by TV channels that tend to soften youth programs" by writing episodes "with tension, suspense, even tragic scenes. Things that are hard to imagine seeing in a cartoon series for kids."
The desire to further separate the real world from the virtual world lead to the characters losing their powers in the real world, which was present in Garage Kids' pilot. A team of artists were also recruited in order to give the backgrounds of the real world a realistic appearance. The factory and boarding schools specifically were modelled after locations in France. The factory was based on a Renault production plant in Boulogne-Billancourt, which has since been demolished. The school, Kadic Academy, is based on Lycée Lakanal in Sceaux. Palumbo and Romain were adamant on keeping the locales based on "the France we knew", as they wanted to avoid what they perceived as "fantastical" or "Americanized" locations other French cartoons used at the time.
Networks were hesitant to Garage Kids due to its serial nature, as they feared it would alienate potential viewers who missed the first episodes and they wanted to rerun the series without worrying about episode order. This lead the writing team to shift to a more episodic format. Romain ultimately chose to leave the series after this change in 2003 to work on the French-Japanese anime series Ōban Star-Racers. Tania Palumbo remained on the series through its conclusion as creative director. She designed and named the main characters, with Jeremy being named after one of her and Romain's classmates at Gobelins. The series' human character designs were primarily influenced by Japanese animator Kōji Morimoto's style.
After the series was sold to France 3 and Canal J, producers felt "Garage Kids" was too unclear for a title and requested it be renamed. Pulambo and production manager Anne de Galard ultimately settled on "Code Lyoko", with Lyoko originating from the Japanese word "ryoko" meaning "travel" to further emphasis the dive into the virtual world. The virtual world was subsequently renamed "Lyoko" as well.
Writing
The writing process for Code Lyoko usually began with the head writer asking the other writers for story pitches. If they liked an idea, it next had to receive approval from the show's director, producers and broadcasters before it could be turned into a 4-page synopsis. After going through the approval process again, it was then expanded into a script and approved one last time to be sent off for production. Writing an episode typically lasted 2–3 weeks, though some took longer if higher-ups were unhappy with the story or it ran into issues. Sophie Decroisette, head writer of Code Lyoko's first three seasons, described Image Problem as "very difficult to write" after its original writer left the show following the synopsis phase, requiring another writer to step in and finish it. The writing team was also mandated by production to approve 4 scripts per month.
Following the success of the first season, the show was able to have more continuous storylines. Decroisette and show director Jérôme Mouscadet wrote the series' backstory during the break between season 1 and 2. Before Romain left the project, the idea of Lyoko being created by a team of researchers had changed to just one: Franz Hopper. However his motivations and identity were never established. Decroisette revealed during production of season 4 that the full backstory would not be told in the show, as she considered it "very complicated... dense and [not] really important to the story."
The show's international success in the United States also affected production. Romance elements were ultimately reduced after season 2 to appease American audiences. Aside from this, Decroisette otherwise noted that she "never felt censored" while working on the series, apart from a self-imposed restriction to write stories appropriate for children. Bruno Regeste became head writer for Code Lyoko'''s final season, though Decroisette continued writing scripts and closely monitored episodes involving Replikas.
Telecast and home media
The show was first premiered on France 3 on 3 September 2003 and ended on 10 November 2007 in France. In the U.S., the show was also premiered on 19 April 2004 on Cartoon Network. The second season started on 19 September 2005. The two-part XANA Awakens prequel aired on 2–3 October 2006, and the third season started a day later on 4 October 2006. The fourth and final season began on 18 May 2007. The final episode aired on Cartoon Network was "Cousins Once Removed", and the remaining seven episodes were released online at Cartoon Network Video. When the show aired on Cartoon Network, it was simultaneously both part of its after-school weekday afternoon action animation lighter-toned programming block, Miguzi from 2004 until 2007, and also a standalone show on its primetime timeslot. The show aired on Kabillion from 2007 to 2015.
The show also aired in Latin America and Japan on Jetix. In Italy, the show aired on Disney Channel and was published on DVD by Delta Pictures under the label 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment.
In January 2011, all four seasons of Code Lyoko were released on iTunes in the U.S. and France by MoonScoop Holdings, although as of May 2019, only seasons 1 and 2 are available and other seasons have been removed. In October 2011, all four seasons were released on Amazon Instant Streaming and on DVD in the U.S., however, these DVDs are now out of print.
All four seasons were made available on Netflix on 6 August 2012, but was removed for unknown reasons. The show was eventually returned to Netflix on 1 October 2020 after being taken down after the bankruptcy of MoonScoop for seven years. Since 2015, all of the English-dubbed episodes (including the prequel XANA Awakens) are currently viewable on YouTube. Since 2019, an upscaled HD version of the series is also available on Amazon Prime Video in the U.S. and the United Kingdom.
Reception
Emily Ashby of Common Sense Media gave the show 4/5 stars, writing: "Kids will like the battles in Lyoko -- each plays out much like a video game", and added: "Strategy and teamwork are themes throughout the series." In a 2020 retrospective of the show for Comic Book Resources, Noah Dominguez wrote: "Whether you're a returning traveler or are only visiting Lyoko for the first time, Code Lyoko still holds up as a unique, easily-accessible gem of the 2000s".Code Lyoko was voted as the best show by Canal J viewers in France, and has achieved international fame as well; the show has been rated as one of the best shows on Cartoon Network and Kabillion in the U.S., with Cartoon Network having it rated as the #3 best performing show in 2006 and Kabillion having it as #4 in monthly average views in 2010. The show has reached success in Spain as one of Clan TVE's highest-rated shows, on Italy's Rai2 network, and in Finland and the United Kingdom as well. The show also won France's Prix de l'Export 2006 Award for Animation in December 2006.
Merchandise
Several Code Lyoko products have been released, including DVDs, a series of cine-manga by Tokyopop, a series of four novels by Italian publisher Atlantyca Entertainment, apparel, and other accessories. In 2006, Marvel Toys released a line of Code Lyoko toys and action figures.
When the show started to come to an end in 2007, The Game Factory released three video games based on the show: Code Lyoko and Code Lyoko: Fall of X.A.N.A. for the Nintendo DS, and Code Lyoko: Quest for Infinity for the Wii, PSP, and PlayStation 2. The games were met with mixed to positive reviews from critics despite some criticisms of gameplay. There have been other games released through various mediums, one being Facebook.
A series of Clan TVE festivals in Spain included live stage shows based on Code Lyoko among other things. A game show known as Code Lyoko Challenge was planned to be released in late 2012, but fell through.
Novels
A series of five chapter books was released by Atlantyca Entertainment and distributed in Italy and other countries. The novels delve deeper into the unanswered questions of the series. Taking place after the end of the series, X.A.N.A. has miraculously survived and returns though weakened and initially missing its memories. X.A.N.A. possesses Eva Skinner, an American girl, and travels to France in order to infiltrate the gang and kill them off. Unaware of their enemy's presence, the group works to find clues about Aelita's past, left by her father Franz Hopper, and confirm whether or not her mother is still alive somewhere. But at the same time, a terrorist group, the Green Phoenix, has become interested in the supercomputer and intend to use both it and the virtual world of Lyoko for evil purposes.
It was confirmed that the series will never be released officially in English, nor the final two books released in French. However, sometime later, a fan community came together and sought to not only finish the series but translate it into more languages, including English. They have since completed their work and made it available for free download in September 2014.
See also
List of French animated television series
List of French television series
Code Lyoko: Evolution, a spin-off of Code Lyoko that continues after the events in the show
Tron Gridman the Hyper Agent Superhuman Samurai Syber-Squad Digimon Adventure Zixx ReBoot: The Guardian Code Neon Genesis Evangelion Sword Art Online World Trigger''
Notes
References
External links
2000s French animated television series
2003 French television series debuts
2007 French television series endings
Television series about artificial intelligence
Works set in computers
French computer-animated television series
French children's animated action television series
French children's animated adventure television series
French children's animated drama television series
French children's animated science fiction television series
Television series about time travel
Fiction about mind control
Television series about parallel universes
Animated television series about robots
Animated television series about teenagers
Television shows about spirit possession
Television shows about virtual reality
Anime-influenced Western animated television series
Television shows set in Paris
Television series by Splash Entertainment
Malware in fiction
France Télévisions children's television series |
69153451 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20lithium-ion%20battery | History of the lithium-ion battery | This is a history of the lithium-ion battery.
Prior work
Much of the basic research that led to the development of the intercalation compounds that form the core of lithium-ion batteries was carried out in the 1960s by Robert Huggins and Carl Wagner, who studied the movement of ions in solids. Reversible intercalation of lithium ions into graphite as anodes and intercalation of lithium ions into cathodic oxide as cathodes was discovered during 1974–76 by Jürgen Otto Besenhard at TU Munich. Besenhard proposed its application in lithium cells. Electrolyte decomposition and solvent co-intercalation into graphite were severe early drawbacks for battery life.
British chemist M. Stanley Whittingham, then a researcher at ExxonMobil, first reported a rechargeable lithium-ion battery (a precursor to modern lithium-ion batteries) in the 1970s. Drawing on previous research from his time at Stanford University, he used a layered titanium(IV) sulfide as cathode and as anode. However, this setup proved impractical. Titanium disulfide was expensive (~$1,000 per kilogram in the 1970s) and difficult to work with, since it has to be synthesized under completely oxygen and moisture-free conditions. When exposed to air, it reacts to form hydrogen sulfide compounds, which have an unpleasant odour and are toxic to humans and most animals. For this, and other reasons, Exxon discontinued development of Whittingham's lithium-titanium disulfide battery.
Batteries with metallic lithium electrodes presented safety issues, as lithium metal reacts with water, releasing flammable hydrogen gas. Consequently, research moved to develop batteries in which, instead of metallic lithium, only lithium compounds are present, being capable of accepting and releasing lithium ions.
Development
1973: Adam Heller proposed the lithium thionyl chloride battery, still used in implanted medical devices and in defense systems where a greater than 20-year shelf life, high energy density, and/or tolerance for extreme operating temperatures are required.
1977: Samar Basu demonstrated electrochemical intercalation of lithium in graphite at the University of Pennsylvania. This led to the development of a workable lithium intercalated graphite electrode at Bell Labs () to provide an alternative to the lithium metal electrode battery.
1979: Working in separate groups, Ned A. Godshall et al., and, shortly thereafter, John B. Goodenough (Oxford University) and Koichi Mizushima (Tokyo University), demonstrated a rechargeable lithium cell with voltage in the 4 V range using lithium cobalt dioxide () as the positive electrode and lithium metal as the negative electrode. This innovation provided the positive electrode material that enabled early commercial lithium batteries. is a stable positive electrode material which acts as a donor of lithium ions, which means that it can be used with a negative electrode material other than lithium metal. By enabling the use of stable and easy-to-handle negative electrode materials, enabled novel rechargeable battery systems. Godshall et al. further identified the similar value of ternary compound lithium-transition metal-oxides such as the spinel LiMn2O4, Li2MnO3, LiMnO2, LiFeO2, LiFe5O8, and LiFe5O4 (and later lithium-copper-oxide and lithium-nickel-oxide cathode materials in 1985)
1980: Rachid Yazami demonstrated the reversible electrochemical intercalation of lithium in graphite, and invented the lithium graphite electrode (anode). The organic electrolytes available at the time would decompose during charging with a graphite negative electrode. Yazami used a solid electrolyte to demonstrate that lithium could be reversibly intercalated in graphite through an electrochemical mechanism. As of 2011, Yazami's graphite electrode was the most commonly used electrode in commercial lithium-ion batteries.
The negative electrode has its origins in PAS (polyacenic semiconductive material) discovered by Tokio Yamabe and later by Shjzukuni Yata in the early 1980s. The seed of this technology was the discovery of conductive polymers by Professor Hideki Shirakawa and his group, and it could also be seen as having started from the polyacetylene lithium ion battery developed by Alan MacDiarmid and Alan J. Heeger et al.
1982: Godshall et al. were awarded for the use of LiCoO2 as cathodes in lithium batteries, based on Godshall's Stanford University Ph.D. dissertation and 1979 publications.
1983: Michael M. Thackeray, Peter Bruce, William David, and John B. Goodenough developed manganese spinel, Mn2O4, as a charged cathode material for lithium-ion batteries. It has two flat plateaus on discharge with lithium one at 4V, stoichiometry LiMn2O4, and one at 3V with a final stoichiometry of Li2Mn2O4.
1985: Akira Yoshino assembled a prototype cell using carbonaceous material into which lithium ions could be inserted as one electrode, and lithium cobalt oxide () as the other. This dramatically improved safety. enabled industrial-scale production and enabled the commercial lithium-ion battery.
1989: Arumugam Manthiram and John B. Goodenough discovered the polyanion class of cathodes. They showed that positive electrodes containing polyanions, e.g., sulfates, produce higher voltages than oxides due to the inductive effect of the polyanion. This polyanion class contains materials such as lithium iron phosphate.
1990: Jeff Dahn and two colleagues at Dalhousie University reported reversible intercalation of lithium ions into graphite in the presence of ethylene carbonate solvent, thus finding the final piece of the puzzle leading to the modern lithium-ion battery.
Commercialization and advances
The performance and capacity of lithium-ion batteries increased as development progressed.
1991: Sony and Asahi Kasei released the first commercial lithium-ion battery. The Japanese team that successfully commercialized the technology was led by Yoshio Nishi.
1996: Goodenough, Akshaya Padhi and coworkers proposed lithium iron phosphate () and other phospho-olivines (lithium metal phosphates with the same structure as mineral olivine) as positive electrode materials.
1998: C. S. Johnson, J. T. Vaughey, M. M. Thackeray, T. E. Bofinger, and S. A. Hackney report the discovery of the high capacity high voltage lithium-rich NMC cathode materials.
2001: Arumugam Manthiram and co-workers discovered that the capacity limitations of layered oxide cathodes is a result of chemical instability that can be understood based on the relative positions of the metal 3d band relative to the top of the oxygen 2p band. This discovery has had significant implications for the practically accessible compositional space of lithium ion battery layered oxide cathodes, as well as their stability from a safety perspective.
2001: Christopher Johnson, Michael Thackeray, Khalil Amine, and Jaekook Kim file a patent for lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC) lithium rich cathodes based on a domain structure.
2001: Zhonghua Lu and Jeff Dahn file a patent for the NMC class of positive electrode materials, which offers safety and energy density improvements over the widely used lithium cobalt oxide.
2002: Yet-Ming Chiang and his group at MIT showed a substantial improvement in the performance of lithium batteries by boosting the material's conductivity by doping it with aluminium, niobium and zirconium. The exact mechanism causing the increase became the subject of widespread debate.
2004: Yet-Ming Chiang again increased performance by utilizing lithium iron phosphate particles of less than 100 nanometers in diameter. This decreased particle density almost one hundredfold, increased the positive electrode's surface area and improved capacity and performance. Commercialization led to a rapid growth in the market for higher capacity lithium-ion batteries, as well as a patent infringement battle between Chiang and John Goodenough.
2005: Y Song, PY Zavalij, and M. Stanley Whittingham report a new two-electron vanadium phosphate cathode material with high energy density
2011: Lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC) cathodes, developed at Argonne National Laboratory, are manufactured commercially by BASF in Ohio.
2011: Lithium-ion batteries accounted for 66% of all portable secondary (i.e., rechargeable) battery sales in Japan.
2012: John Goodenough, Rachid Yazami and Akira Yoshino received the 2012 IEEE Medal for Environmental and Safety Technologies for developing the lithium ion battery.
2014: John Goodenough, Yoshio Nishi, Rachid Yazami and Akira Yoshino were awarded the Charles Stark Draper Prize of the National Academy of Engineering for their pioneering efforts in the field.
2014: Commercial batteries from Amprius Corp. reached 650 Wh/L (a 20% increase), using a silicon anode and were delivered to customers.
2016: Koichi Mizushima and Akira Yoshino received the NIMS Award from the National Institute for Materials Science, for Mizushima's discovery of the LiCoO2 cathode material for the lithium-ion battery and Yoshino's development of the lithium-ion battery.
2016: Z. Qi, and Gary Koenig reported a scalable method to produce sub-micrometer sized using a template-based approach.
2019: The Nobel Prize in Chemistry was given to John Goodenough, Stanley Whittingham and Akira Yoshino "for the development of lithium ion batteries".
Market
Industry produced about 660 million cylindrical lithium-ion cells in 2012; the 18650 size is by far the most popular for cylindrical cells. If Tesla were to have met its goal of shipping 40,000 Model S electric cars in 2014 and if the 85-kWh battery, which uses 7,104 of these cells, had proved as popular overseas as it was in the United States, a 2014 study projected that the Model S alone would use almost 40 percent of estimated global cylindrical battery production during 2014. , production was gradually shifting to higher-capacity 3,000+ mAh cells. Annual flat polymer cell demand was expected to exceed 700 million in 2013.
Prices of lithium-ion batteries have fallen over time. Overall, between 1991 and 2018, prices for all types of lithium-ion cells (in dollars per kWh) fell approximately 97%. Over the same time period, energy density more than tripled. Efforts to increase energy density contributed significantly to cost reduction. In 2015, cost estimates ranged from $300–500/kWh. In 2016 GM revealed they would be paying for the batteries in the Chevy Bolt EV. In 2017, the average residential energy storage systems installation cost was expected to drop from $1600 /kWh in 2015 to $250 /kWh by 2040 and to see the price with 70% reduction by 2030. In 2019, some electric vehicle battery pack costs were estimated at $150–200, and VW noted it was paying for its next generation of electric vehicles.
Batteries are used for grid energy storage and ancillary services. For a Li-ion storage coupled with photovoltaics and an anaerobic digestion biogas power plant, Li-ion will generate a higher profit if it is cycled more frequently (hence a higher lifetime electricity output) although the lifetime is reduced due to degradation.
Lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC) cells come in several commercial types, specified by the ratio of component metals. NMC 111 (or NMC 333) have equal parts of nickel, manganese and cobalt, whereas NMC 532 has 5 parts nickel, 3 parts manganese and 2 parts cobalt. , NMC 532 and NMC 622 were the preferred low-cobalt types for electric vehicles, with NMC 811 and even lower cobalt ratios seeing increasing use, mitigating cobalt dependency. However, cobalt for electric vehicles increased 81% from the first half of 2018 to 7,200 tonnes in the first half of 2019, for a battery capacity of 46.3 GWh.
In 2010, global lithium-ion battery production capacity was 20 gigawatt-hours.
By 2016, it was 28 GWh, with 16.4 GWh in China. Production in 2021 is estimated by various sources to be between 200 and 600 GWh, and predictions for 2023 range from 400 to 1,100 GWh.
An antitrust-violating price-fixing cartel among nine corporate families, including LG Chem, GS Yuasa, Hitachi Maxell, NEC, Panasonic/Sanyo, Samsung, Sony, and Toshiba was found to be rigging battery prices and restricting output between 2000 and 2011.
References
Lithium-ion batteries
History of technology
History of electrical engineering |
5313181 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Input%E2%80%93output%20memory%20management%20unit | Input–output memory management unit | In computing, an input–output memory management unit (IOMMU) is a memory management unit (MMU) that connects a direct-memory-access–capable (DMA-capable) I/O bus to the main memory. Like a traditional MMU, which translates CPU-visible virtual addresses to physical addresses, the IOMMU maps device-visible virtual addresses (also called device addresses or I/O addresses in this context) to physical addresses. Some units also provide memory protection from faulty or malicious devices.
An example IOMMU is the graphics address remapping table (GART) used by AGP and PCI Express graphics cards on Intel Architecture and AMD computers.
On the x86 architecture, prior to splitting the functionality of northbridge and southbridge between the CPU and Platform Controller Hub (PCH), I/O virtualization was not performed by the CPU but instead by the chipset.
Advantages
The advantages of having an IOMMU, compared to direct physical addressing of the memory (DMA), include:
Large regions of memory can be allocated without the need to be contiguous in physical memory the IOMMU maps contiguous virtual addresses to the underlying fragmented physical addresses. Thus, the use of vectored I/O (scatter-gather lists) can sometimes be avoided.
Devices that do not support memory addresses long enough to address the entire physical memory can still address the entire memory through the IOMMU, avoiding overheads associated with copying buffers to and from the peripheral's addressable memory space.
For example, x86 computers can address more than 4 gigabytes of memory with the Physical Address Extension (PAE) feature in an x86 processor. Still, an ordinary 32-bit PCI device simply cannot address the memory above the 4 GiB boundary, and thus it cannot directly access it. Without an IOMMU, the operating system would have to implement time-consuming bounce buffers (also known as double buffers).
Memory is protected from malicious devices that are attempting DMA attacks and faulty devices that are attempting errant memory transfers because a device cannot read or write to memory that has not been explicitly allocated (mapped) for it. The memory protection is based on the fact that OS running on the CPU (see figure) exclusively controls both the MMU and the IOMMU. The devices are physically unable to circumvent or corrupt configured memory management tables.
In virtualization, guest operating systems can use hardware that is not specifically made for virtualization. Higher performance hardware such as graphics cards use DMA to access memory directly; in a virtual environment all memory addresses are re-mapped by the virtual machine software, which causes DMA devices to fail. The IOMMU handles this re-mapping, allowing the native device drivers to be used in a guest operating system.
In some architectures IOMMU also performs hardware interrupt re-mapping, in a manner similar to standard memory address re-mapping.
Peripheral memory paging can be supported by an IOMMU. A peripheral using the PCI-SIG PCIe Address Translation Services (ATS) Page Request Interface (PRI) extension can detect and signal the need for memory manager services.
For system architectures in which port I/O is a distinct address space from the memory address space, an IOMMU is not used when the CPU communicates with devices via I/O ports. In system architectures in which port I/O and memory are mapped into a suitable address space, an IOMMU can translate port I/O accesses.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of having an IOMMU, compared to direct physical addressing of the memory, include:
Some degradation of performance from translation and management overhead (e.g., page table walks).
Consumption of physical memory for the added I/O page (translation) tables. This can be mitigated if the tables can be shared with the processor.
Virtualization
When an operating system is running inside a virtual machine, including systems that use paravirtualization, such as Xen and KVM, it does not usually know the host-physical addresses of memory that it accesses. This makes providing direct access to the computer hardware difficult, because if the guest OS tried to instruct the hardware to perform a direct memory access (DMA) using guest-physical addresses, it would likely corrupt the memory, as the hardware does not know about the mapping between the guest-physical and host-physical addresses for the given virtual machine. The corruption can be avoided if the hypervisor or host OS intervenes in the I/O operation to apply the translations. However, this approach incurs a delay in the I/O operation.
An IOMMU solves this problem by re-mapping the addresses accessed by the hardware according to the same (or a compatible) translation table that is used to map guest-physical address to host-physical addresses.
Published specifications
AMD has published a specification for IOMMU technology, called AMD-Vi.
IBM offered Extended Control Program Support: Virtual Storage Extended (ECPS:VSE) mode on its 43xx line; channel programs used virtual addresses.
Intel has published a specification for IOMMU technology as Virtualization Technology for Directed I/O, abbreviated VT-d.
Information about the Sun IOMMU has been published in the Device Virtual Memory Access (DVMA) section of the Solaris Developer Connection.
The IBM Translation Control Entry (TCE) has been described in a document entitled Logical Partition Security in the IBM eServer pSeries 690.
The PCI-SIG has relevant work under the terms I/O Virtualization (IOV) and Address Translation Services (ATS).
ARM defines its version of IOMMU as System Memory Management Unit (SMMU) to complement its Virtualization architecture.
See also
Heterogeneous System Architecture (HSA)
List of IOMMU-supporting hardware
Memory-mapped I/O
Memory protection
References
External links
Mastering the DMA and IOMMU APIs, Embedded Linux Conference 2014, San Jose, by Laurent Pinchart
Memory management
Computer peripherals |
1973221 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional%20design | Functional design | Functional Design is a paradigm used to simplify the design of hardware and software devices such as computer software and increasingly, 3D models. A functional design assures that each modular part of a device has only one responsibility and performs that responsibility with the minimum of side effects on other parts. Functionally designed modules tend to have low coupling.
Advantages
The advantage for implementation is that if a software module has a single purpose, it will be simpler, and therefore easier and less expensive, to design and implement.
Systems with functionally designed parts are easier to modify because each part does only what it claims to do.
Since maintenance is more than 3/4 of a successful system's life, this feature is a crucial advantage. It also makes the system easier to understand and document, which simplifies training. The result is that the practical lifetime of a functional system is longer.
In a system of programs, a functional module will be easier to reuse because it is less likely to have side effects that appear in other parts of the system.
Technique
The standard way to assure functional design is to review the description of a module. If the description includes conjunctions such as "and" or "or", then the design has more than one responsibility, and is therefore likely to have side effects. The responsibilities need to be divided into several modules in order to achieve a functional design.
Critiques and limits
Every computer system has parts that cannot be functionally pure because they exist to distribute CPU cycles or other resources to different modules. For example, most systems have an "initialization" section that starts up the modules. Other well-known examples are the interrupt vector table and the main loop.
Some functions inherently have mixed semantics. For example, a function "move the car from the garage" inherently has a side effect of changing the "car position". In some cases, the mixed semantics can extend over a large topological tree or graph of related concepts. In these unusual cases, functional design is not recommended by some authorities. Instead polymorphism, inheritance, or procedural methods may be preferred.
Applied to 3D modeling and simulation
Recently several software companies have introduced functional design as a concept to describe a Parametric feature based modeler for 3D modeling and simulation. In this context, they mean a parametric model of an object where the parameters are tied to real-world design criteria, such as an axle that will adjust its diameter based on the strength of the material and the amount of force being applied to it in the simulation. It is hoped that this will create efficiencies in the design process for mechanical and perhaps even architectural/structural assemblies by integrating the results of finite element analysis directly to the behavior of individual objects.
References
External links
Functional Design Specification
7 Essential Guidelines For Functional Design
Exemplar - CPU 1 FLIGHT SOFTWARE FUNCTIONAL DESIGN DOCUMENT
Software architecture
Computer-aided design
Design |
409938 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple%20Worldwide%20Developers%20Conference | Apple Worldwide Developers Conference | The Apple Worldwide Developers Conference (WWDC) is an information technology conference held annually by Apple Inc. The conference is usually held in the San Jose Convention Center in California. Due to the COVID-19 safety restrictions, WWDC 2021 (June 7–11) was presented online. The event is usually used to showcase new software and technologies in the macOS, iOS, iPadOS, watchOS, and tvOS families as well as other Apple software. Attendees can participate in hands-on labs with Apple engineers and attend in-depth sessions covering a wide variety of topics.
The first ever WWDC was held in 1983 with the introduction of Apple Basic, but it wasn't until 2002 that Apple started using the conference as a major launchpad for new products. Beginning in 1987, WWDC was held in Santa Clara. After 15 years in nearby San Jose, the conference moved to San Francisco, where it eventually became Apple's primary media event of the year and regularly sold out. WWDC returned to San Jose 13 years later. The most recent event, called WWDC 2021, was held online from June 7 to June 11 due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
Attendance
A $1,599 ticket is required to enter the conference. Tickets are obtained through an online lottery. Scholarships are available for students and members of STEM organizations. Attendees must be 13 years or older and must be a member of an Apple Developer program.
Until 2007, the number of attendees varied between 2,000 and 4,200; however, during WWDC 2007, Steve Jobs noted that there were more than 5,000 attendees. The WWDC events held from 2008 to 2015 were capped, and sold out at 5,000 attendees (5,200 including special attendees). WWDC 2018 had 6,000 attendees from 77 countries, including 350 scholarship recipients.
Content
WWDC is held annually from Monday to Friday on one week in June. The conference consists primarily of a keynote address, presentation sessions, one-on-one "lab" consultations, and special get-togethers and events.
The conference begins with a Monday morning keynote address by Tim Cook and other Apple executives. (From 1998 until his resignation and death in 2011, Steve Jobs gave the keynote address, which the media often called the Stevenote.) It is attended by both conference attendees and the media, since Apple regularly makes product announcements at the event. Hardware announced during the address is sometimes exhibited in the conference hall afterwards. The keynote address is followed in the afternoon by a Platforms State of the Union address, which highlights and demonstrates changes in Apple's software developer platforms that are detailed in sessions later in the week. The Apple Design Awards are also announced on the first day of the conference.
Several session tracks run simultaneously from Tuesday through Friday. The presentations cover programming, design, and other topics and range from introductory to advanced. Almost all regularly scheduled presentations are delivered by Apple employees. These presentations are streamed live, and recordings can be viewed on demand on the Apple Developer website in the conference's iOS and tvOS applications. Lunchtime sessions are given by a variety of guest speakers who are industry experts in technology and science; these sessions are not streamed or recorded. In the past, some sessions included question-and-answer time, and a popular Stump the Experts session featured interaction between Apple employees and attendees.
At the labs, which run throughout the week, Apple engineers are available for one-on-one consultations with developers in attendance. Experts in user interface design and accessibility are also available for consultations by appointment.
Apple organizes social get-togethers during the conference for various groups, such as women in technology or developers interested in internationalization or machine learning. The Thursday evening Bash (previously the Beer Bash) at a nearby park features live music, food, and drinks for all attendees 21 years or older.
History
1980s
1983
In 1983, the first WWDC was held. During this time, the event was called The Apple Independent Software Developers Conference. Participants of the event had to sign an NDA, so not much is known about the event, but what is known is that people got a first look at Lisa, the world's first personal computer with a graphical interface.
1984
In 1984, Jobs introduced the famous Macintosh, the second graphical interface personal computer, to developers. This was also the first year the conference was open to the media.
1989
In 1989, System 7 was announced.
1990s
1991
In 1991, WWDC saw the first public demonstration of QuickTime.
1995
In 1995, WWDC'95 focused almost fully on the Copland project, which by this time was able to be demonstrated to some degree. Gil Amelio stated that the system was on-schedule to ship in beta form in later summer with an initial commercial release in the very late fall. However, very few live demos were offered, and no beta of the operating system was offered.
1996
In 1996, WWDC'96's primary emphasis was a new software component technology called OpenDoc, which allowed end users to compile an application from components offering features they desired most. The OpenDoc consortium included Adobe, Lotus, others, and Apple. Apple touted OpenDoc as the future foundation for application structure under Mac OS. As proof of concept, Apple demonstrated a new end-user product called Cyberdog, a comprehensive Internet application component suite offering users an integrated browser, email, FTP, telnet, finger and other services built fully of user-exchangeable OpenDoc components. ClarisWorks (later renamed AppleWorks), a principal product in Apple's wholly owned subsidiary Claris Corporation, was demonstrated as an example of a pre-OpenDoc component architecture application modified to be able to contain functional OpenDoc components.
1997
In 1997, WWDC marked the return of Steve Jobs as a consultant, and he reacted for an insult by a developer. WWDC'97 was the first show after the purchase of NeXT, and focused on the efforts to use OPENSTEP as the foundation of the next Mac OS. The plan at that time was to introduce a new system then named Rhapsody, which would consist of a version of OPENSTEP modified with a more Mac-like look and feel, the Yellow Box, along with a Blue Box that allowed extant Mac applications to run under OS emulation. The show focused mainly on the work in progress, including a short history of development efforts since the two development teams had been merged on February 4. Several new additions to the system were also demonstrated, including tabbed and outline views, and a new object-based graphics layer (NSBezier).
1998
In 1998, in response to developer comments about the new operating system, the big announcement at WWDC'98 was the introduction of Carbon, effectively a version of the classic Mac OS API implemented on OpenStep. Under the original Rhapsody plans, classic applications would run in sandboxed installation of the classic Mac OS, (called the Blue Box) and have no access to the new Mac OS X features. To receive new features, such as protected memory and preemptive multitasking, developers had to rewrite applications using the Yellow Box API. Developer complaints about the major porting effort to what was then a shrinking market and warnings that they might simply abandon the platform, led Apple to reconsider the original plan. Carbon addressed the problem by dramatically reducing the effort needed, while exposing some of the new functions of the underlying OS. Another major introduction at WWDC'98 was the Quartz imaging model, which replaced Display PostScript with something akin to display PDF. Although the reasons for this switch remain unclear, Quartz also included better support for the extant QuickDraw model from the classic OS, and (as later learned) Java2D. Supporting QuickDraw directly in the graphics model also led to a related announcement, that the Blue Box would now be invisible, integrated into the extant desktop, instead of a separate window.
1999
In 1999, WWDC'99 was essentially a progress report as the plans outlined in WWDC'98 came to fruition. Three major announcements were the opening of the operating system underlying the new OS as Darwin, improvements to the Macintosh Finder, and the replacement of QuickDraw 3D with OpenGL as the primary 3D API. The system formerly named OpenStep, and during development termed Yellow Box, was formally renamed Cocoa. 2,563 developers attended.
2000s
2000
WWDC 2000 was another "progress report" before the upcoming release of Mac OS X. Recent changes included a modified dock and improved versions of the developer tools. Developer Preview 4 was released at the show, with the commercial release pushed back to January 2001. Also, WebObjects was dropped in price to a flat fee of US$699. Approximately 3,600 developers attended and the band The Rippingtons played at the Apple campus.
2001
In 2001, Mac OS X had only recently been released, but WWDC'01 added the first release of Mac OS X Server and WebObjects 5. Over 4,000 developers attended, and leather jackets with a large blue "X" embroidered on the back were distributed to attendees.
2002
In 2002, Mac OS X v.10.2, QuickTime 6 and Rendezvous (now named Bonjour) were presented. Apple also said farewell to Mac OS 9 with a mock funeral, and told the developers that no more Mac OS 9 development would occur, reinforcing that the future of the Mac was now entirely on Mac OS X.
2003
In 2003, WWDC 2003 demonstrated the Power Mac G5, previewed Mac OS X Panther (10.3), announced the launch of Safari 1.0 (concluding its beta phase), and introduced the iApps: iPhoto, iMovie, iDVD, etc. Attendees received Apple's first model of the iSight web camera (to coincide with the launch of iChat AV), pre-releases of Mac OS X 10.3 and Mac OS X 10.3 Server, the O'Reilly book Cocoa in a Nutshell, and a 17-inch notebook carry bag. Apple also screened the Pixar film Finding Nemo for attendees, ahead of its premiere in cinemas. Formerly scheduled for May 19 to 23 in San Jose, California, WWDC 2003 was rescheduled for June 23 to 27 at San Francisco's Moscone Center. Approximately 3,000 developers attended.
2004
In 2004, WWDC was held from June 28 to July 2. Jobs noted that 3,500 developers attended, a 17% increase from 2003. New displays were introduced in 23- and 30-inch widescreen. Mac OS X Tiger (10.4) was previewed and iTunes 4.9, the first version with integrated podcast support, was demoed by Jobs. All attendees received a developer preview of Tiger, a grey T-shirt with the Apple logo on the front and "WWDC 2004" on the back, a backpack able to hold a 17-inch PowerBook, and a copy of Apple Remote Desktop 2.0. The band Jimmy Eat World played at the Apple campus after attendees were taken there by bus from Moscone Center West.
2005
WWDC 2005 was held from June 6 to 10. After a basic market update, Jobs announced that Apple would transition the Macintosh platform from IBM's PowerPC to Intel's x86 CPU architecture. The keynote featured developers from Wolfram Research, who discussed their experience porting Mathematica to Mac OS X on the Intel platform. The conference consisted of 110 lab sessions and 95 presentation sessions, while more than 500 Apple engineers were on site alongside 3,800 attendees from 45 countries. The band The Wallflowers played at the Apple campus.
2006
In 2006, Jobs once again delivered the keynote presentation at the WWDC, which was held from August 7 to 11 in Moscone Center West, San Francisco. The Mac Pro was announced as a replacement to the Power Mac G5, which was Apple's prior pro desktop computer and the last remaining PowerPC-based Mac. The standard Mac Pro featured two 2.66 GHz dual core Xeon (Woodcrest) processors, 1 GB RAM, 250 GB hard drive, and a 256 MB video card. An Xserve update, based on the dual core Xeons, was also announced. Redundant power and Lights Out Management were further product improvements to Apple's server lineup. While certain key Mac OS X improvements were undisclosed, there were 10 improvements in the next iteration, Mac OS X Leopard (10.5), including: full 64-bit app support, Time Machine, Boot Camp, Front Row, Photo Booth, Spaces (Virtual Desktops), Spotlight enhancements, Core Animation, Universal Access enhancements, Mail enhancements, and Dashboard enhancements (including Dashcode, and iChat enhancements). Along with the Leopard features that were announced, a major revision to the Mac OS X Server product was announced. New features to the Server included: a simplified set-up process, iCal Server (based on the CalDAV standard), Apple Teams (a set of web-based collaborative services), Spotlight Server, and Podcast Producer. The 2006 WWDC attracted 4,200 developers from 48 countries, while there were 140 sessions and 100 hands-on labs for developers. More than 1,000 Apple engineers were present at the event, and the DJ BT performed at the Apple Campus in Cupertino.
2007
WWDC 2007 was held from June 11 to 15 in Moscone Center West, and started with a keynote presentation from Jobs. Apple presented a feature-complete beta of Mac OS X Leopard, even though its release date was pushed back to October. Jobs announced that a version of Safari, Apple's proprietary web browser, had been created for Windows, and that a beta release was being made available online that same day. Apple also announced support for third-party development of the then-upcoming iPhone via online web applications running in Safari on the handset. The announcement implied that Apple, at least for the time being, had no plans to release an iPhone software development kit (SDK), meaning that developers must use standard web protocols. Also, Jobs noted during the keynote that more than 5,000 attendees were present at WWDC 2007, breaking the prior year's record. The band Ozomatli played at the Yerba Buena Gardens.
2008
In 2008, WWDC 2008 took place from June 9 to 13 in Moscone Center West. Apple reported that, for the first time, the conference had sold out. There were three tracks for developers, iPhone, Mac, and IT. Announcements at the keynote included the App Store for iPhone and iPod Touch, the stable version of the iPhone SDK, a subsidized 3G version of the iPhone for Worldwide markets, version 2.0 of iPhone OS, Mac OS X Snow Leopard (10.6), and the replacement/rebranding of .Mac as MobileMe. Seven years later, Yahoo News would describe 2008 as "perhaps the peak year for WWDC product intros", which however was marred by problems with MobileMe that caused "one of the biggest PR disasters in Apple history". For the bash held June 12, the band Barenaked Ladies played at the Yerba Buena Gardens.
2009
In 2009, WWDC 2009 took place from June 8 to 12 in Moscone Center West, and Apple reported that the 2009 conference sold out in late April. Announcements at the keynote included the release of the iPhone OS 3.0 software announced to developers in March, a demonstration of Mac OS X Snow Leopard (10.6), the new 13" MacBook Pro, updates to the 15" and 17" MacBook Pros, and the new iPhone 3GS. Phil Schiller, Apple's SVP for Product Marketing, presented the WWDC keynote this year, instead of Jobs, who had taken medical leave of absence since the start of the year. Attendees received a neoprene messenger bag and the band Cake played at the Yerba Buena Gardens. This was the first year plastic badges were used instead of printed paper badges.
2010s
2010
WWDC 2010 was announced on April 28, 2010 and held at Moscone Center West from June 7 to 11. Apple reported that the conference was sold out within 8 days of tickets being made available, even though tickets were only available at the full price of US$1599 (2009 and prior, tickets could be bought with an early-bird discount of US$300). On June 7, 2010, Jobs announced the iPhone 4, whose technical problems, combined with Jobs blaming phone owners for them, would dominate the aftermath of the conference ("Antennagate"). Also at WWDC 2010, the renaming of iPhone OS to iOS was announced. The FaceTime and iMovie app for iPhone applications were also announced. The band OK Go played at the Yerba Buena Gardens. Attendees received a black track jacket with the letters "WWDC" across the vest and the number "10" stitched on the back.
2011
WWDC 2011 was held in Moscone Center West from June 6 to 10, 2011. The event reportedly sold out within just 12 hours of the 5,000 tickets being placed on sale on March 28, 2011. The ticket price also remained the same from the 2010 WWDC, selling at US$1,599, however, after-market pricing for tickets ranged from US$2,500 to US$3,500. At the keynote, Apple unveiled its next generation software: Mac OS X Lion, the eighth major release of Mac OS X; iOS 5, the next version of Apple's advanced mobile operating system which powers the iPad, iPhone and iPod Touch; and iCloud, Apple's upcoming cloud services offering. Michael Franti and Spearhead played at the Bash in Yerba Buena Gardens on June 9. Attendees received a black track jacket similar to that of the prior year, but with a smaller "WWDC" across the front and the number "11" stitched on the back. This was the final Apple event hosted by Jobs.
2012
WWDC 2012 was held in Moscone Center West from June 11 to 15. The ticket price remained the same as the 2010 WWDC, selling at US$1,599. Apple changed the purchasing process by requiring purchases to be made using an Apple ID associated with a paid Apple developer account. Tickets went on sale shortly after 8:30am Eastern Time on Wednesday April 25, 2012, and were sold out within 1 hour and 43 minutes. The keynote highlighted the launch of Apple Maps, and also announced new models of the MacBook Air, and MacBook Pro including one with Retina Display. Apple also showcased OS X Mountain Lion and iOS 6.
In prior years, attendees were required to be at least 18 years old. In 2012, Apple changed this requirement to at least 13 years after a minor who was "accidentally" awarded a student scholarship in 2011 successfully petitioned Tim Cook to retain the award. Despite the change, Beer Bash attendees were still required to be 18 years old, and 21 years old to consume alcohol, in accord with local and federal laws. Neon Trees performed at the WWDC Bash.
2013
In 2013, WWDC 2013 was held from June 10 to 14, 2013 in Moscone Center West. Tickets went on sale at 10am PDT on April 25, 2013, selling out within 71 seconds (1 minute and 11 seconds). Apple also announced that it would award 150 free WWDC 2013 Student Scholarship tickets for young attendees to benefit from the conference's many workshops.
In the keynote, Apple unveiled redesigned models of the Mac Pro, AirPort Time Capsule, AirPort Extreme, and MacBook Air, and showcased OS X Mavericks, iOS 7, iWork for iCloud, and a new music streaming service named iTunes Radio. Vampire Weekend performed at the Bash on June 13 at the Yerba Buena Gardens. Attendees received a black wind breaker with the letters "WWDC" across the front and the number "13" stitched on the back.
2014
WWDC 2014 was held from June 2 to 6, 2014 in Moscone Center West. For the first time, the opportunity to buy tickets was given at random to developers who were members of an Apple developer program at the time of the conference announcement, and who registered at Apple's developer web site. Apple also gave 200 free Student Scholarship tickets. The keynote began on June 2 and Apple unveiled several new software items, including iOS 8—the largest update to iOS since the release of the App Store—and OS X Yosemite, which features a redesigned interface inspired by iOS. Announcements included the new programming language Swift, many developer kits and tools for iOS 8, but no new hardware. Bastille performed at the Yerba Buena Gardens, and attendees received a black windbreaker with the letters "WWDC" across the front and the number "14" stitched on the back, along with a US$25 iTunes gift card to commemorate the 25th anniversary of WWDC.
2015
WWDC 2015 was held from June 8 to 12, 2015 in Moscone Center West in San Francisco. The major announcements were the new features of iOS 9, the next version of OS X called OS X El Capitan, the first major software update to the Apple Watch, the June 30 debut of Apple Music, and news that the language Swift was becoming open-source software supporting iOS, OS X, and Linux. The Beer Bash was held at the Yerba Buena Gardens on June 11. Walk the Moon performed there.
2016
WWDC 2016 was held from June 13 to June 17, 2016 at the Bill Graham Civic Auditorium and Moscone Center West in San Francisco. The announcements at the event included renaming OS X to macOS, the new version named macOS Sierra, as well as updates to iOS 10, watchOS 3, and tvOS 10. Apple proclaimed that the keynote would be the largest ever for developers; this became the reality when they allowed third-party developers to extend the functionality in Messages, Apple Maps, and Siri. Cisco Systems and Apple announced a partnership at the 2016 WWDC. Cisco APIs, accessed through Cisco DevNet, were to have greater interoperability with Apple iOS and APIs.
The keynote was more about software updates and features, as no new hardware was introduced. Apple released the Home App that works with HomeKit as a control center for all third-party applications which provide functions for the home. Also, Swift Playgrounds was announced as an iPad exclusive app that helps younger people learn to code with Apple's programming language Swift. APFS, Apple's new file system, was introduced.
The Bash was performed by Good Charlotte at the Bill Graham Civic Auditorium.
2017
WWDC 2017 (stylized as WWDC17) was held from June 5 to June 9, 2017 at the San Jose Convention Center in San Jose, California, which was the first time since 2002 that the conference took place in the city. Software announcements included iOS 11, watchOS 4, macOS High Sierra, and updates to tvOS. Hardware announcements included updates to iMac, MacBook and MacBook Pro, as well as the new iMac Pro, 10.5-inch iPad Pro and smart speaker HomePod. Fall Out Boy performed at the Bash held in Discovery Meadow on June 8.
2018
WWDC 2018 was held from June 4 to June 8, 2018, at the San Jose Convention Center in San Jose, California. The announcements at the event included iOS 12, macOS Mojave, watchOS 5, and updates to tvOS. As with 2016, there were no new hardware announcements. Panic! at the Disco performed at the Bash at Discovery Meadow Park.
2019
WWDC 2019 was held from June 3 to June 7, 2019 at the San Jose Convention Center in San Jose, California. The announcements at the event included iOS 13, macOS Catalina, watchOS 6, tvOS 13, iPadOS 13, the 3rd generation Mac Pro, and the Pro Display XDR. Weezer performed at the Bash at Discovery Meadow Park.
2020s
2020
WWDC 2020 was held from June 22 to June 26, 2020 as an online-only conference for the first time because of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. The announcements at the online Apple Special Event included iOS 14, iPadOS 14, watchOS 7, tvOS 14, macOS Big Sur, and Apple's transition to custom ARM processors for their Macintosh family of personal computers, including a prototype ARM-based Mac for developer use. The event video footage was recorded at Apple Park in Cupertino, California. In total, the event got over 22 million views with around 72 hours of content.
2021
WWDC 2021, with the tag line "Glow and Behold", was held from June 7 to June 11, 2021 as another online-only conference due to the COVID-19 pandemic. iOS 15, iPadOS 15, watchOS 8, tvOS 15, macOS Monterey, and other software updates were announced. As with 2020, the event video footage was recorded at Apple Park in Cupertino, California.
Related events
Several third-party conferences are held in conjunction with WWDC each year, including AltConf, Layers, and NextDoor. Prominent podcasters Jim Dalrymple and John Gruber hold events nearby, and former Apple evangelist James Dempsey performs a benefit concert.
Previously, Apple also announced new products at Macworld Expo and Apple Expo.
See also
Apple Inc. advertising
Apple Music Festival
Google I/O
Build (developer conference)
List of Apple Inc. media events
References
External links |
24092190 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum%20complexity%20theory | Quantum complexity theory | Quantum complexity theory is the subfield of computational complexity theory that deals with complexity classes defined using quantum computers, a computational model based on quantum mechanics. It studies the hardness of computational problems in relation to these complexity classes, as well as the relationship between quantum complexity classes and classical (i.e., non-quantum) complexity classes.
Two important quantum complexity classes are BQP and QMA.
Background
A complexity class is a collection of computational problems that can be solved by a computational model under certain resource constraints. For instance, the complexity class P is defined as the set of problems solvable by a Turing machine in polynomial time. Similarly, quantum complexity classes may be defined using quantum models of computation, such as the quantum circuit model or the equivalent quantum Turing machine. One of the main aims of quantum complexity theory is to find out how these classes relate to classical complexity classes such as P, NP, BPP, and PSPACE.
One of the reasons quantum complexity theory is studied are the implications of quantum computing for the modern Church-Turing thesis. In short the modern Church-Turing thesis states that any computational model can be simulated in polynomial time with a probabilistic Turing machine. However, questions around the Church-Turing thesis arise in the context of quantum computing. It is unclear whether the Church-Turing thesis holds for the quantum computation model. There is much evidence that the thesis does not hold. It may not be possible for a probabilistic Turing machine to simulate quantum computation models in polynomial time.
Both quantum computational complexity of functions and classical computational complexity of functions are often expressed with asymptotic notation. Some common forms of asymptotic notion of functions are , , and . expresses that something is bounded above by where is a constant such that and is a function of , expresses that something is bounded below by where is a constant such that and is a function of , and expresses both and . These notations also their own names. is called Big O notation, is called Big Omega notation, and is called Big Theta notation.
Overview of complexity classes
Some important complexity classes are P, BPP, BQP, PP, and P-Space. To define these we first define a promise problem. A promise problem is a decision problem which has an input assumed to be selected from the set of all possible input strings. A promise problem is a pair . is the set of yes instances, is the set of no instances, and the intersection of these sets is such that . All of the previous complexity classes contain promise problems.
BQP
The class of problems that can be efficiently solved by a quantum computer with bounded error is called BQP ("bounded error, quantum, polynomial time"). More formally, BQP is the class of problems that can be solved by a polynomial-time quantum Turing machine with error probability of at most 1/3.
As a class of probabilistic problems, BQP is the quantum counterpart to BPP ("bounded error, probabilistic, polynomial time"), the class of problems that can be efficiently solved by probabilistic Turing machines with bounded error. It is known that and widely suspected, but not proven, that , which intuitively would mean that quantum computers are more powerful than classical computers in terms of time complexity. BQP is a subset of PP.
The exact relationship of BQP to P, NP, and PSPACE is not known. However, it is known that ; that is, the class of problems that can be efficiently solved by quantum computers includes all problems that can be efficiently solved by deterministic classical computers but does not include any problems that cannot be solved by classical computers with polynomial space resources. It is further suspected that BQP is a strict superset of P, meaning there are problems that are efficiently solvable by quantum computers that are not efficiently solvable by deterministic classical computers. For instance, integer factorization and the discrete logarithm problem are known to be in BQP and are suspected to be outside of P. On the relationship of BQP to NP, little is known beyond the fact that some NP problems are in BQP (integer factorization and the discrete logarithm problem are both in NP, for example). It is suspected that ; that is, it is believed that there are efficiently checkable problems that are not efficiently solvable by a quantum computer. As a direct consequence of this belief, it is also suspected that BQP is disjoint from the class of NP-complete problems (if any NP-complete problem were in BQP, then it follows from NP-hardness that all problems in NP are in BQP).
The relationship of BQP to the essential classical complexity classes can be summarized as:
It is also known that BQP is contained in the complexity class (or more precisely in the associated class of decision problems ), which is a subset of PSPACE.
Simulation of quantum circuits
There is no known way to efficiently simulate a quantum computational model with a classical computer. This means that a classical computer cannot simulate a quantum computational model in polynomial time. However, a quantum circuit of qubits with quantum gates can be simulated by a classical circuit with classical gates. This number of classical gates is obtained by determining how many bit operations are necessary to simulate the quantum circuit. In order to do this, first the amplitudes associated with the qubits must be accounted for. Each of the states of the qubits can be described by a two-dimensional complex vector, or a state vector. These state vectors can also be described a linear combination of its component vectors with coefficients called amplitudes. These amplitudes are complex numbers which are normalized to one, meaning the sum of the squares of the absolute values of the amplitudes must be one. The entries of the state vector are these amplitudes. Which entry each of the amplitudes are correspond to the none-zero component of the component vector which they are the coefficients of in the linear combination description. As an equation this is described as or using Dirac notation. The state of the entire qubit system can be described by a single state vector. This state vector describing the entire system is the tensor product of the state vectors describing the individual qubits in the system. The result of the tensor products of the qubits is a single state vector which has dimensions and entries that are the amplitudes associated with each basis state or component vector. Therefore, amplitudes must be accounted for with a dimensional complex vector which is the state vector for the qubit system. In order to obtain an upper bound for the number of gates required to simulate a quantum circuit we need a sufficient upper bound for the amount data used to specify the information about each of the amplitudes. To do this bits of precision are sufficient for encoding each amplitude. So it takes classical bits to account for the state vector of the qubit system. Next the application of the quantum gates on amplitudes must be accounted for. The quantum gates can be represented as sparse matrices. So to account for the application of each of the quantum gates, the state vector must be multiplied by a sparse matrix for each of the quantum gates. Every time the state vector is multiplied by a sparse matrix, arithmetic operations must be performed. Therefore, there are bit operations for every quantum gate applied to the state vector. So classical gate are needed to simulate qubit circuit with just one quantum gate. Therefore, classical gates are needed to simulate a quantum circuit of qubits with quantum gates. While there is no known way to efficiently simulate a quantum computer with a classical computer, it is possible to efficiently simulate a classical computer with a quantum computer. This is evident from the belief that .
Quantum query complexity
One major advantage of using a quantum computational system instead of a classical one, is that a quantum computer may be able to give a polynomial time algorithm for some problem for which no classical polynomial time algorithm exists, but more importantly, a quantum computer may significantly decrease the calculation time for a problem that a classical computer can already solve efficiently. Essentially, a quantum computer may be able to both determine how long it will take to solve a problem, while a classical computer may be unable to do so, and can also greatly improve the computational efficiency associated with the solution to a particular problem. Quantum query complexity refers to how complex, or how many queries to the graph associated with the solution of a particular problem, are required to solve the problem. Before we delve further into query complexity, let us consider some background regarding graphing solutions to particular problems, and the queries associated with these solutions.
Query models of directed graphs
One type of problem that quantum computing can make easier to solve are graph problems. If we are to consider the amount of queries to a graph that are required to solve a given problem, let us first consider the most common types of graphs, called directed graphs, that are associated with this type of computational modelling. In brief, directed graphs are graphs where all edges between vertices are unidirectional. Directed graphs are formally defined as the graph , where N is the set of vertices, or nodes, and E is the set of edges.
Adjacency matrix model
When considering quantum computation of the solution to directed graph problems, there are two important query models to understand. First, there is the adjacency matrix model, where the graph of the solution is given by the adjacency matrix: , with , if and only if .
Adjacency array model
Next, there is the slightly more complicated adjacency array model built on the idea of adjacency lists, where every vertex, , is associated with an array of neighboring vertices such that , for the out-degrees of vertices , where is the minimum value of the upper bound of this model, and returns the "" vertex adjacent to . Additionally, the adjacency array model satisfies the simple graph condition, , meaning that there is only one edge between any pair of vertices, and the number of edges is minimized throughout the entire model (see Spanning tree model for more background).
Quantum query complexity of certain types of graph problems
Both of the above models can be used to determine the query complexity of particular types of graphing problems, including the connectivity, strong connectivity (a directed graph version of the connectivity model), minimum spanning tree, and single source shortest path models of graphs. An important caveat to consider is that the quantum complexity of a particular type of graphing problem can change based on the query model (namely either matrix or array) used to determine the solution. The following table showing the quantum query complexities of these types of graphing problems illustrates this point well.
Notice the discrepancy between the quantum query complexities associated with a particular type of problem, depending on which query model was used to determine the complexity. For example, when the matrix model is used, the quantum complexity of the connectivity model in Big O notation is , but when the array model is used, the complexity is . Additionally, for brevity, we use the shorthand in certain cases, where . The important implication here is that the efficiency of the algorithm used to solve a graphing problem is dependent on the type of query model used to model the graph.
Other types of quantum computational queries
In the query complexity model, the input can also be given as an oracle (black box). The algorithm gets information about the input only by querying the oracle. The algorithm starts in some fixed quantum state and the state evolves as it queries the oracle.
Similar to the case of graphing problems, the quantum query complexity of a black-box problem is the smallest number of queries to the oracle that are required in order to calculate the function. This makes the quantum query complexity a lower bound on the overall time complexity of a function.
Grover's algorithm
An example depicting the power of quantum computing is Grover's algorithm for searching unstructured databases. The algorithm's quantum query complexity is , a quadratic improvement over the best possible classical query complexity , which is a linear search. Grover's algorithm is asymptotically optimal; in fact, it uses at most a fraction more queries than the best possible algorithm.
Deutsch-Jozsa algorithm
The Deutsch-Jozsa algorithm is a quantum algorithm designed to solve a toy problem with a smaller query complexity than is possible with a classical algorithm. The toy problem asks whether a function is constant or balanced, those being the only two possibilities. The only way to evaluate the function is to consult a black box or oracle. A classical deterministic algorithm will have to check more than half of the possible inputs to be sure of whether or not the function is constant or balanced. With possible inputs, the query complexity of the most efficient classical deterministic algorithm is . The Deutsch-Jozsa algorithm takes advantage of quantum parallelism to check all of the elements of the domain at once and only needs to query the oracle once, making its query complexity .
See also
Quantum computing
Quantum Turing machine
Polynomial hierarchy (PH)
Notes
References
Watrous J. (2009) Quantum Computational Complexity. In: Meyers R. (eds) Encyclopedia of Complexity and Systems Science. Springer, New York, NY
External links
MIT lectures by Scott Aaronson
Computational complexity theory
Quantum information science
Theoretical computer science |
16494 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josephus | Josephus | Flavius Josephus (; , ; 37 – 100) was a first-century Romano-Jewish historian and military leader, best known for The Jewish War, who was born in Jerusalem—then part of Roman Judea—to a father of priestly descent and a mother who claimed royal ancestry.
He initially fought against the Romans during the First Jewish–Roman War as head of Jewish forces in Galilee, until surrendering in 67 CE to Roman forces led by Vespasian after the six-week siege of Yodfat. Josephus claimed the Jewish Messianic prophecies that initiated the First Jewish–Roman War made reference to Vespasian becoming Emperor of Rome. In response, Vespasian decided to keep Josephus as a slave and presumably interpreter. After Vespasian became Emperor in 69 CE, he granted Josephus his freedom, at which time Josephus assumed the emperor's family name of Flavius.
Flavius Josephus fully defected to the Roman side and was granted Roman citizenship. He became an advisor and friend of Vespasian's son Titus, serving as his translator when Titus led the siege of Jerusalem in 70 CE. Since the siege proved ineffective at stopping the Jewish revolt, the city's pillaging and the looting and destruction of Herod's Temple (Second Temple) soon followed.
Josephus recorded Jewish history, with special emphasis on the first century CE and the First Jewish–Roman War (66–70 CE), including the siege of Masada. His most important works were The Jewish War ( 75) and Antiquities of the Jews ( 94). The Jewish War recounts the Jewish revolt against Roman occupation. Antiquities of the Jews recounts the history of the world from a Jewish perspective for an ostensibly Greek and Roman audience. These works provide valuable insight into first century Judaism and the background of Early Christianity. Josephus's works are the chief source next to the Bible for the history and antiquity of ancient Palestine, and provide a significant and independent extra-Biblical account of such figures as Pontius Pilate, Herod the Great, John the Baptist, James the Just, and possibly Jesus of Nazareth.
Biography
Josephus, son of Matthias (, ), was born into one of Jerusalem's elite families. He was the second-born son of a Jewish priest. His older full-blooded brother was also, like his father, called Matthias. Their mother was an aristocratic woman who descended from the royal and formerly ruling Hasmonean dynasty. Josephus's paternal grandparents were Josephus and his wife—an unnamed Hebrew noblewoman, distant relatives of each other. Josephus's family was wealthy. He descended through his father from the priestly order of the Jehoiarib, which was the first of the 24 orders of priests in the Temple in Jerusalem. Josephus was a descendant of the High Priest of Israel Jonathan Apphus. He was raised in Jerusalem and educated alongside his brother.
In his mid twenties, he traveled to negotiate with Emperor Nero for the release of some Jewish priests. Upon his return to Jerusalem, at the outbreak of the First Jewish–Roman War, Josephus was appointed the military governor of Galilee. His arrival in Galilee, however, was fraught with internal division: the inhabitants of Sepphoris and Tiberias opting to maintain peace with the Romans; the people of Sepphoris enlisting the help of the Roman army to protect their city, while the people of Tiberias appealing to King Agrippa's forces to protect them from the insurgents. Josephus also contended with John of Gischala who had also set his sight over the control of Galilee. Like Josephus, John had amassed to himself a large band of supporters from Gischala (Gush Halab) and Gabara, including the support of the Sanhedrin in Jerusalem. Meanwhile, Josephus fortified several towns and villages in Lower Galilee, among which were Tiberias, Bersabe, Selamin, Japha, and Tarichaea, in anticipation of a Roman onslaught. In Upper Galilee, he fortified the towns of Jamnith, Seph, Mero, and Achabare, among other places. Josephus, with the Galileans under his command, managed to bring both Sepphoris and Tiberias into subjection, but was eventually forced to relinquish his hold on Sepphoris by the arrival of Roman forces under Placidus the tribune and later by Vespasian himself. Josephus first engaged the Roman army at a village called Garis, where he launched an attack against Sepphoris a second time, before being repulsed. At length, he resisted the Roman army in its siege of Yodfat (Jotapata) until it fell to the Roman army in the lunar month of Tammuz, in the thirteenth year of Nero's reign.
After the Jewish garrison of Yodfat fell under siege, the Romans invaded, killing thousands; the survivors committed suicide. According to Josephus, he was trapped in a cave with 40 of his companions in July 67 CE. The Romans (commanded by Flavius Vespasian and his son Titus, both subsequently Roman emperors) asked the group to surrender, but they refused. According to Josephus's account, he suggested a method of collective suicide; they drew lots and killed each other, one by one, and Josephus happened to be one of two men that were left who surrendered to the Roman forces and became prisoners. In 69 CE, Josephus was released. According to his account, he acted as a negotiator with the defenders during the siege of Jerusalem in 70 CE, during which time his parents were held as hostages by Simon bar Giora.
While being confined at Yodfat (Jotapata), Josephus claimed to have experienced a divine revelation that later led to his speech predicting Vespasian would become emperor. After the prediction came true, he was released by Vespasian, who considered his gift of prophecy to be divine. Josephus wrote that his revelation had taught him three things: that God, the creator of the Jewish people, had decided to "punish" them; that "fortune" had been given to the Romans; and that God had chosen him "to announce the things that are to come". To many Jews, such claims were simply self-serving.
In 71 CE, he went to Rome in the entourage of Titus, becoming a Roman citizen and client of the ruling Flavian dynasty (hence he is often referred to as Flavius Josephus). In addition to Roman citizenship, he was granted accommodation in conquered Judaea and a pension. While in Rome and under Flavian patronage, Josephus wrote all of his known works. Although he uses "Josephus", he appears to have taken the Roman praenomen Titus and nomen Flavius from his patrons.
Vespasian arranged for Josephus to marry a captured Jewish woman, whom he later divorced. About 71 CE, Josephus married an Alexandrian Jewish woman as his third wife. They had three sons, of whom only Flavius Hyrcanus survived childhood. Josephus later divorced his third wife. Around 75 CE, he married his fourth wife, a Greek Jewish woman from Crete, who was a member of a distinguished family. They had a happy married life and two sons, Flavius Justus and Flavius Simonides Agrippa.
Josephus's life story remains ambiguous. He was described by Harris in 1985 as a law-observant Jew who believed in the compatibility of Judaism and Graeco-Roman thought, commonly referred to as Hellenistic Judaism. Before the 19th century, the scholar Nitsa Ben-Ari notes that his work was banned as those of a traitor, whose work was not to be studied or translated into Hebrew. His critics were never satisfied as to why he failed to commit suicide in Galilee, and after his capture, accepted the patronage of Romans.
Mary Smallwood is one historian who writes critically of Josephus:
[Josephus] was conceited, not only about his own learning, but also about the opinions held of him as commander both by the Galileans and by the Romans; he was guilty of shocking duplicity at Jotapata, saving himself by sacrifice of his companions; he was too naive to see how he stood condemned out of his own mouth for his conduct, and yet no words were too harsh when he was blackening his opponents; and after landing, however involuntarily, in the Roman camp, he turned his captivity to his own advantage, and benefited for the rest of his days from his change of side.
Author Joseph Raymond calls Josephus "the Jewish Benedict Arnold" for betraying his own troops at Jotapata.
Scholarship and impact on history
The works of Josephus provide crucial information about the First Jewish-Roman War and also represent important literary source material for understanding the context of the Dead Sea Scrolls and late Temple Judaism.
Josephan scholarship in the 19th and early 20th centuries took an interest in Josephus's relationship to the sect of the Pharisees. It consistently portrayed him as a member of the sect and as a traitor to the Jewish nation—a view which became known as the classical concept of Josephus. In the mid-20th century a new generation of scholars challenged this view and formulated the modern concept of Josephus. They consider him a Pharisee but restore his reputation in part as patriot and a historian of some standing. In his 1991 book, Steve Mason argued that Josephus was not a Pharisee but an orthodox Aristocrat-Priest who became associated with the philosophical school of the Pharisees as a matter of deference, and not by willing association.
Impact on history and archaeology
The works of Josephus include useful material for historians about individuals, groups, customs, and geographical places. Josephus mentions that in his day there were 240 towns and villages scattered across Upper and Lower Galilee, some of which he names. Josephus' works are the primary source for the chain of Jewish high priests during the Second Temple period. A few of the Jewish customs named by him include the practice of hanging a linen curtain at the entrance to one's house, and the Jewish custom to partake of a Sabbath-day's meal around the sixth-hour of the day (at noon). He notes also that it was permissible for Jewish men to marry many wives (polygamy). His writings provide a significant, extra-Biblical account of the post-Exilic period of the Maccabees, the Hasmonean dynasty, and the rise of Herod the Great. He also describes the Sadducees, the Pharisees and Essenes, the Herodian Temple, Quirinius' census and the Zealots, and such figures as Pontius Pilate, Herod the Great, Agrippa I and Agrippa II, John the Baptist, James the brother of Jesus, and Jesus. Josephus represents an important source for studies of immediate post-Temple Judaism and the context of early Christianity.
A careful reading of Josephus's writings and years of excavation allowed Ehud Netzer, an archaeologist from Hebrew University, to discover what he considered to be the location of Herod's Tomb, after searching for 35 years. It was above aqueducts and pools, at a flattened desert site, halfway up the hill to the Herodium, 12 km south of Jerusalem—as described in Josephus's writings. In October 2013, archaeologists Joseph Patrich and Benjamin Arubas challenged the identification of the tomb as that of Herod. According to Patrich and Arubas, the tomb is too modest to be Herod's and has several unlikely features. Roi Porat, who replaced Netzer as excavation leader after the latter's death, stood by the identification.
Josephus's writings provide the first-known source for many stories considered as Biblical history, despite not being found in the Bible or related material. These include Ishmael as the founder of the Arabs, the connection of "Semites", "Hamites" and "Japhetites" to the classical nations of the world, and the story of the siege of Masada.
Josephus's original audience
Scholars debate about Josephus's intended audience. For example, Antiquities of the Jews could be written for Jews—"a few scholars from Laqueur onward have suggested that Josephus must have written primarily for fellow-Jews (if also secondarily for Gentiles). The most common motive suggested is repentance: in later life he felt so badly about the traitorous War that he needed to demonstrate … his loyalty to Jewish history, law and culture." However, Josephus's "countless incidental remarks explaining basic Judean language, customs and laws … assume a Gentile audience. He does not expect his first hearers to know anything about the laws or Judean origins." The issue of who would read this multi-volume work is unresolved. Other possible motives for writing Antiquities could be to dispel the misrepresentation of Jewish origins or as an apologetic to Greek cities of the Diaspora in order to protect Jews and to Roman authorities to garner their support for the Jews facing persecution. Neither motive explains why the proposed Gentile audience would read this large body of material.
Manuscripts, textual criticism, editions, and influence
Josephus was a very popular writer with Christians in the 4th century and beyond as an independent witness to the events before, during, and after the life of Jesus of Nazareth. Josephus was always accessible in the Greek-reading Eastern Mediterranean. His works were translated into Latin, but often in abbreviated form such as Pseudo-Hegesippus's 4th century Latin version of The Jewish War (). Christian interest in The Jewish War was largely out of interest in the downfall of the Jews and the Second Temple, which was widely considered divine punishment for the crime of killing Jesus. Improvements in printing technology (the Gutenberg Press) led to his works receiving a number of new translations into the vernacular languages of Europe, generally based on the Latin versions. Only in 1544 did a version of the standard Greek text become available in French, edited by the Dutch humanist Arnoldus Arlenius. The first English translation, by Thomas Lodge, appeared in 1602, with subsequent editions appearing throughout the 17th century. The 1544 Greek edition formed the basis of the 1732 English translation by William Whiston, which achieved enormous popularity in the English-speaking world. It was often the book—after the Bible—that Christians most frequently owned. Whiston claimed that certain works by Josephus had a similar style to the Epistles of St. Paul. Later editions of the Greek text include that of Benedikt Niese, who made a detailed examination of all the available manuscripts, mainly from France and Spain. Henry St. John Thackeray and successors such as Ralph Marcus used Niese's version for the Loeb Classical Library edition widely used today.
On the Jewish side, Josephus was far more obscure, as he was perceived as a traitor. Rabbinical writings for a millennium after his death (e.g. the Mishnah) almost never call out Josephus by name, although they sometimes tell parallel tales of the same events that Josephus narrated. An Italian Jew writing in the 10th century indirectly brought Josephus back to prominence among Jews: he authored the Yosippon, which paraphrases Pseudo-Hegesippus's Latin version of The Jewish War, a Latin version of Antiquities, as well as other works. The epitomist also adds in their own snippets of history at times. Jews generally distrusted Christian translations of Josephus until the Haskalah ("Jewish Enlightenment") in the 19th century, when sufficiently "neutral" vernacular language translations were made. Kalman Schulman finally created a translation of the Greek text of Josephus into Hebrew in 1863, although many rabbis continued to prefer the Yosippon version. By the 20th century, Jewish attitudes toward Josephus had softened, as he gave the Jews a respectable place in classical history. Various parts of his work were reinterpreted as more inspiring and favorable to the Jews than the Renaissance translations by Christians had been. Notably, the last stand at Masada (described in The Jewish War), which had been interpreted as insane and fanatical in earlier eras, received a more positive reinterpretation as an inspiring call to action in this period.
The standard editio maior of the various Greek manuscripts is that of Benedictus Niese, published 1885–95. The text of Antiquities is damaged in some places. In the Life, Niese follows mainly manuscript P, but refers also to AMW and R. Henry St. John Thackeray for the Loeb Classical Library has a Greek text also mainly dependent on P. André Pelletier edited a new Greek text for his translation of Life. The ongoing Münsteraner Josephus-Ausgabe of Münster University will provide a new critical apparatus. There also exist late Old Slavonic translations of the Greek, but these contain a large number of Christian interpolations.
Historiography and Josephus
In the Preface to Jewish Wars, Josephus criticizes historians who misrepresent the events of the Jewish–Roman War, writing that "they have a mind to demonstrate the greatness of the Romans, while they still diminish and lessen the actions of the Jews." Josephus states that his intention is to correct this method but that he "will not go to the other extreme … [and] will prosecute the actions of both parties with accuracy." Josephus suggests his method will not be wholly objective by saying he will be unable to contain his lamentations in transcribing these events; to illustrate this will have little effect on his historiography, Josephus suggests, "But if any one be inflexible in his censures of me, let him attribute the facts themselves to the historical part, and the lamentations to the writer himself only."
His preface to Antiquities offers his opinion early on, saying, "Upon the whole, a man that will peruse this history, may principally learn from it, that all events succeed well, even to an incredible degree, and the reward of felicity is proposed by God." After inserting this attitude, Josephus contradicts himself: "I shall accurately describe what is contained in our records, in the order of time that belongs to them … without adding any thing to what is therein contained, or taking away any thing therefrom." He notes the difference between history and philosophy by saying, "[T]hose that read my book may wonder how it comes to pass, that my discourse, which promises an account of laws and historical facts, contains so much of philosophy."
In both works, Josephus emphasizes that accuracy is crucial to historiography. Louis H. Feldman notes that in Wars, Josephus commits himself to critical historiography, but in Antiquities, Josephus shifts to rhetorical historiography, which was the norm of his time. Feldman notes further that it is significant that Josephus called his later work "Antiquities" (literally, archaeology) rather than history; in the Hellenistic period, archaeology meant either "history from the origins or archaic history." Thus, his title implies a Jewish peoples' history from their origins until the time he wrote. This distinction is significant to Feldman, because "in ancient times, historians were expected to write in chronological order," while "antiquarians wrote in a systematic order, proceeding topically and logically" and included all relevant material for their subject. Antiquarians moved beyond political history to include institutions and religious and private life. Josephus does offer this wider perspective in Antiquities.
To compare his historiography with another ancient historian, consider Dionysius of Halicarnassus. Feldman lists these similarities: "Dionysius in praising Rome and Josephus in praising Jews adopt same pattern; both often moralize and psychologize and stress piety and role of divine providence; and the parallels between … Dionysius's account of deaths of Aeneas and Romulus and Josephus's description of the death of Moses are striking."
Works
The works of Josephus are major sources of our understanding of Jewish life and history during the first century.
( 75) War of the Jews, The Jewish War, Jewish Wars, or History of the Jewish War (commonly abbreviated JW, BJ or War)
( 94) Antiquities of the Jews, Jewish Antiquities, or Antiquities of the Jews/Jewish Archeology (frequently abbreviated AJ, AotJ or Ant. or Antiq.)
( 97) Flavius Josephus Against Apion, Against Apion, Contra Apionem, or Against the Greeks, on the antiquity of the Jewish people (usually abbreviated CA)
( 99) The Life of Flavius Josephus, or Autobiography of Flavius Josephus (abbreviated Life or Vita)
The Jewish War
His first work in Rome was an account of the Jewish War, addressed to certain "upper barbarians"—usually thought to be the Jewish community in Mesopotamia—in his "paternal tongue" (War I.3), arguably the Western Aramaic language. In 78 CE he finished a seven-volume account in Greek known as the Jewish War (Latin Bellum Judaicum or De Bello Judaico). It starts with the period of the Maccabees and concludes with accounts of the fall of Jerusalem, and the subsequent fall of the fortresses of Herodion, Macharont and Masada and the Roman victory celebrations in Rome, the mopping-up operations, Roman military operations elsewhere in the empire and the uprising in Cyrene. Together with the account in his Life of some of the same events, it also provides the reader with an overview of Josephus's own part in the events since his return to Jerusalem from a brief visit to Rome in the early 60s (Life 13–17).
In the wake of the suppression of the Jewish revolt, Josephus would have witnessed the marches of Titus's triumphant legions leading their Jewish captives, and carrying treasures from the despoiled Temple in Jerusalem. It was against this background that Josephus wrote his War, claiming to be countering anti-Judean accounts. He disputes the claim that the Jews served a defeated God and were naturally hostile to Roman civilization. Rather, he blames the Jewish War on what he calls "unrepresentative and over-zealous fanatics" among the Jews, who led the masses away from their traditional aristocratic leaders (like himself), with disastrous results. Josephus also blames some of the Roman governors of Judea, representing them as corrupt and incompetent administrators. According to Josephus, the traditional Jew was, should be, and can be a loyal and peace-loving citizen. Jews can, and historically have, accepted Rome's hegemony precisely because their faith declares that God himself gives empires their power.
Jewish Antiquities
The next work by Josephus is his twenty-one volume Antiquities of the Jews, completed during the last year of the reign of the Emperor Flavius Domitian, around 93 or 94 CE. In expounding Jewish history, law and custom, he is entering into many philosophical debates current in Rome at that time. Again he offers an apologia for the antiquity and universal significance of the Jewish people. Josephus claims to be writing this history because he "saw that others perverted the truth of those actions in their writings," those writings being the history of the Jews. In terms of some of his sources for the project, Josephus says that he drew from and "interpreted out of the Hebrew Scriptures" and that he was an eyewitness to the wars between the Jews and the Romans, which were earlier recounted in Jewish Wars.
He outlines Jewish history beginning with the creation, as passed down through Jewish historical tradition. Abraham taught science to the Egyptians, who, in turn, taught the Greeks. Moses set up a senatorial priestly aristocracy, which, like that of Rome, resisted monarchy. The great figures of the Tanakh are presented as ideal philosopher-leaders. He includes an autobiographical appendix defending his conduct at the end of the war when he cooperated with the Roman forces.
Louis H. Feldman outlines the difference between calling this work Antiquities of the Jews instead of History of the Jews. Although Josephus says that he describes the events contained in Antiquities "in the order of time that belongs to them," Feldman argues that Josephus "aimed to organize [his] material systematically rather than chronologically" and had a scope that "ranged far beyond mere political history to political institutions, religious and private life."
Against Apion
Josephus's Against Apion is a two-volume defence of Judaism as classical religion and philosophy, stressing its antiquity, as opposed to what Josephus claimed was the relatively more recent tradition of the Greeks. Some anti-Judaic allegations ascribed by Josephus to the Greek writer Apion and myths accredited to Manetho are also addressed.
Spurious works
(date unknown) Josephus's Discourse to the Greeks concerning Hades (spurious; adaptation of "Against Plato, on the Cause of the Universe" by Hippolytus of Rome)
See also
Josephus on Jesus
Josephus problem – a mathematical problem named after Josephus
Josippon
Pseudo-Philo
Notes and references
Explanatory notes
Citations
General sources
Further reading
()
Bilde, Per. Flavius Josephus between Jerusalem and Rome: his life, his works and their importance. Sheffield: JSOT, 1988.
Shaye J. D. Cohen. Josephus in Galilee and Rome: his vita and development as a historian. (Columbia Studies in the Classical Tradition; 8). Leiden: Brill, 1979.
Louis Feldman. "Flavius Josephus revisited: the man, his writings, and his significance". In: Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt 21.2 (1984).
Mason, Steve: Flavius Josephus on the Pharisees: a composition-critical study. Leiden: Brill, 1991.
Rajak, Tessa: Josephus: the Historian and His Society. 2nd ed. London: 2002. (Oxford D.Phil. thesis, 2 vols. 1974.)
The Josephus Trilogy, a novel by Lion Feuchtwanger
Der jüdische Krieg (Josephus), 1932
Die Söhne (The Jews of Rome), 1935
Der Tag wird kommen (The day will come, Josephus and the Emperor), 1942
Flavius Josephus Eyewitness to Rome's first-century conquest of Judea, Mireille Hadas-lebel, Macmillan 1993, Simon and Schuster 2001
Josephus and the New Testament: Second Edition, by Steve Mason, Hendrickson Publishers, 2003.
Making History: Josephus and Historical Method, edited by Zuleika Rodgers (Boston: Brill, 2007).
Josephus, the Emperors, and the City of Rome: From Hostage to Historian, by William den Hollander (Boston: Brill, 2014).
Josephus, the Bible, and History, edited by Louis H. Feldman and Gohei Hata (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1988).
Josephus: The Man and the Historian, by H. St. John Thackeray (New York: Ktav Publishing House, 1967).
A Jew Among Romans: The Life and Legacy of Flavius Josephus, by Frederic Raphael (New York: Pantheon Books, 2013).
A Companion to Josephus, edited by Honora Chapman and Zuleika Rodgers (Oxford, 2016).
External links
Works
PACE Josephus: text and resources in the Project on Ancient Cultural Engagement at York University, edited by Steve Mason.
works by Flavius Josephus at Perseus digital library – Greek (Niese) and English (Whiston) 1895 editions
The Works of Flavius Josephus at Christian Classics Ethereal Library (Whiston, lacks Loeb numbers)
De bello judaico digitized codex (1475) at Somni
Lecture, , June 2020.
Other
The AHRC Reception of Josephus in Jewish Culture Project and Josephus Reception Archive
Josephus.org, G. J. Goldberg
Flavius Josephus The Jewish History Resource Center – Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem
Flavius Josephus, Judaea and Rome: A Question of Context
Flavius Josephus at livius.org
Flavius Josephus at Jewish Virtual Library
1st-century historians
1st-century Jews
1st-century Romans
1st-century writers
37 births
Ancient Roman antiquarians
Flavii
Greco-Roman military writers
Hellenistic Jewish writers
Hellenistic Jews
Jewish apologists
Jewish historians
Jewish Roman (city) history
Judean people
Roman-era Greek historians
Year of death missing
Historians of Phoenicia
People from Jerusalem |
50466431 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tally%20Solutions | Tally Solutions | Tally Solutions Pvt. Ltd. is an Indian multinational technology company, that provides enterprise resource planning software. It is headquartered in Bangalore, Karnataka. The company reports that its software is used by more than 1.8 million customers.
History
Tally Solutions, then known as Peutronics, was co-founded in 1986 by Shyam Sunder Goenka and his son Bharat Goenka and incorporated in 1991. Shyam Sundar Goenka was running a company that supplied raw materials and machine parts to plants and textile mills in southern and eastern India. Unable to find software that could manage his books of accounts, he asked his son, Bharat Goenka, 23, a Maths graduate to create a software application that would handle financial accounts for his business. The first version of the accounting software was launched as an MS-DOS application. It had only basic accounting functions, and was named Peutronics Financial Accountant.
In 1999, the company formally changed its name to Tally Solutions.
In 2006, Tally launched Tally 8.1, a concurrent multi-lingual version, and also Tally 9.
In 2009, the company released Tally.ERP 9, a business management solution
In 2015, the company launched a program called Vriddhi to certify and classify its business partners. Also in 2015, Tally Solutions announced the launch of Tally.ERP 9 Release 5.0 with taxation and compliance features.
As of 2016, the company had 1 million customers.
In 2016, Tally Solutions was shortlisted as a GST Suvidha Provider to provide interface between the new Goods and Services Tax (GST) server and taxpayers, and in 2017, the company launched its updated GST compliance software.
In 2020, the company released TallyPrime.
References
Companies based in Bangalore
Software companies of India
ERP software companies
Indian brands
Software companies established in 1986
Indian companies established in 1986
1986 establishments in Karnataka |
43018518 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbonomic | Turbonomic | Turbonomic is an enterprise software company headquartered in Boston, MA.
The company's product simulates supply and demand forces in order to efficiently allocate resources such as computing, database, memory and storage. It was updated in 2017 for use with cloud computing platforms.
Turbonomic holds 18 patents (with 9 pending) related to its supply and demand abstraction. In 2011, Gartner named Turbonomic as a Cool Vendor in Cloud Management. In 2016, Turbonomic was listed as the top product for Virtualization Management in a report by IDG and IT Central Station. Turbonomic has made five appearances to the Inc. 5000, and made the Forbes Cloud 100 four times. In 2020, Fast Company named Turbonomic to their Best Workplaces for Innovators List. The company was also deemed a Vendor to Watch in AIOps by Enterprise Management Associates (EMA) for its combination of abstraction, analytics, and automation engine that continually assures performance of a customer’s applications.
To scale Turbonomic's Application Resource Management product, the company has formed alliance partnerships with companies including Cisco and IBM, entering into OEM agreements to bring Application Resource Management to a larger customer base.
Since its founding in 2009, Turbonomic had raised more than $250M from venture capital firms including Bain Capital Ventures and Highland Capital Partners.
In January 2017, Turbonomic announced that it closed a $50 million financing round led by former GE Chief Information Officer Gary Reiner.
The company was originally named VMTurbo and changed its name to Turbonomic in August 2017.
Turbonomic acquired ParkMyCloud and SevOne in 2019. As of March 2021, the company had over 3,000 customers, and 36% of the Fortune 500.
On April 29, 2021, IBM announced it will acquire Turbonomic. The acquisition was completed on June 17, 2021.
References
Further reading
External links
2008 establishments in Massachusetts
Business software companies
Cloud computing providers
Virtualization software
Companies based in Boston
American companies established in 2008
Software companies established in 2008
Software companies based in Massachusetts
Software companies of the United States
2021 mergers and acquisitions
IBM acquisitions
IBM subsidiaries |
7638739 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aricent | Aricent | Aricent was a global design and engineering services company. It was acquired by French-based company Altran in 2018 and renamed Altran North America in April 2019 and Altran Americas in early 2020. With Altran's acquisition by Capgemini, the successors of Aricent are incorporated into Capgemini Engineering and to a lesser extent, Capgemini Invent. Aricent has a long lasting legacy of developing Telecom software which are used by all telecom giants such as Cisco Systems, Juniper Networks, Nokia Networks, Oracle, Alcatel-Lucent Enterprise, and Nortel.
History
Aricent is the successor to Hughes Software Systems, which was established in 1991, as a subsidiary of Hughes Electronics, with funding from Sequoia Capital.
1991: Established as Hughes Software Systems (HSS) by KV Ramani in Nehru Place, New Delhi developing software solutions in the areas of VSAT-based networks for voice and data, cellular wireless telephony, packet switching, and multi-protocol routing. Pioneered the development of Protocol Stacks.
2004: Flextronics bought HSS to form Flextronics Software Systems and merged with Future Software headquartered in Chennai. Acquired Frog Design for approximately $25 million.
2005: Expanded development operations in Kyiv, Kherson and Vinnytsia in Ukraine; Randburg, South Africa; and Beijing, China. Was delisted from India's stock market in preparation for sale.
2006: Was acquired by Kohlberg Kravis Roberts and Sequoia Capital as part of a $900 million sales of software companies. The transaction represented the largest private equity buy-out in Indian history.
2007: Acquired Datalinx; launched service provider offerings.
2008: The Family Office, a multi-family office company with headquarters in Bahrain also joined in funding Aricent.
2011: Rebranded to Aricent Group.
2011: Opened engineering and development center for testing and wireless technologies in Vietnam
2013: Rebranded to Aricent.
2015: Acquired SmartPlay Technologies, a semiconductor service based firm for $180 million. As part of the deal, SmartPlay's 1,200-plus staff joined Aricent's staff.
2018: Altran acquired Aricent
2019: Altran changed Aricent's name to Altran North America; Capgemini announced plans to acquire Altran Group
2020: Altran North America renamed to Altran Americas; Capgemini acquired Altran Group in April, with the majority of Altran staff incorporated into Capgemini Engineering. Frog incorporated into Capgemini Invent.
See also
Fortune India 500
List of companies of India
References
Privately held companies based in New Jersey
Defunct technology companies of the United States
Companies based in Palo Alto, California
Technology companies established in 1991
Software companies of Ukraine
Kohlberg Kravis Roberts companies
1991 establishments in California
2020 disestablishments in California
Technology companies disestablished in 2020
2020 mergers and acquisitions |
12831000 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet%20censorship%20in%20Thailand | Internet censorship in Thailand | Most Internet censorship in Thailand prior to the September 2006 military coup d'état was focused on blocking pornographic websites. The following years have seen a constant stream of sometimes violent protests, regional unrest, emergency decrees, a new cybercrimes law, and an updated Internal Security Act. Year by year Internet censorship has grown, with its focus shifting to lèse majesté, national security, and political issues. By 2010, estimates put the number of websites blocked at over 110,000. In December 2011, a dedicated government operation, the Cyber Security Operation Center, was opened. Between its opening and March 2014, the Center told ISPs to block 22,599 URLs.
The subsequent 2014 Thai coup d'état has led to further restrictions on Internet content in the country, using the powers of the coup's National Council for Peace and Order.
The national constitution provides for freedom of expression and press "as regulated by law"; but, the government imposes overwhelming limitations on these rights. Internet filtering in Thailand was classified as selective in the social, political, and Internet tools areas, and no evidence of filtering was found in the conflict/security area by the OpenNet Initiative in November 2011. Thailand is on Reporters Without Borders list of countries under surveillance in 2011.
In 2013, Freedom House, one year prior to the 2014 coup d'état, awarded Thailand a 'partly free' rating for internet freedom. In 2014, it awarded Thailand an overall score of 62 ("not free") (0=best, 100=worst), citing substantial political censorship and the arrests of bloggers and other online users, ranking it 52 of 65 countries. As of 2019, Thailand remained 'not free', with an overall score of 35, fourth worst in the Asia-Pacific region, after China, Vietnam, and Pakistan.
History
Internet censorship is conducted by the Royal Thai Police, the Communications Authority of Thailand, and the Ministry of Information and Communication Technology (MICT).
Prior to the September 2006 military coup d'état, 34,411 web sites were blocked by all three government agencies. The cited reasons were as follows:
60% pornography,
14% sale of sex equipment,
11% threats to national security, which includes criticisms of the king, government or military,
8% illegal products and services,
4% copyright infringement,
2% illegal gambling, and
1% other.
Although the great majority of censored sites were pornographic, the list also includes anonymous proxy servers which circumvent web-blocking and provide access to Internet gambling sites. Pornography and gambling are specifically illegal in Thailand.
On 19 September 2006, the Thai military staged a bloodless coup d'état against the government of elected Prime Minister Thaksin Shinawatra. The fifth official order signed by coup leader General Sonthi Boonyaratglin on 20 September, the first day following the coup, was to enforce web censorship and appoint Dr. Sitthichai Pokaiudom, "The Official Censor of the Military Coup", as minister to head MICT.
In October 2006, MICT blocked 2,475 websites by "request"; by 11 January 2007, this number had risen to 13,435 websites, a jump of more than 500%. This brought the total number of websites blocked to more than 45,000. All websites are blocked in secret and the criteria for censorship has never been made public by government. However, the MICT blocklist must be made available to ISPs to block.
With the enactment of a new cybercrimes law in June 2007 (Act on Computer Crime B.E. 2550), Thailand became one of the only countries in Asia to require its government to obtain court authorization to block Internet content (section 20). Illegal activities under the Thai cybercrimes law include inputting obscene data, forged or false data likely to cause injury to another person, the public, or national security; and data which constitutes a criminal offense relating to national security or terrorism (section 14). Criminal liability is extended to ISPs that intentionally support or consent to these illegal activities (section 15). The law creates civil and criminal liability for individuals who publicly post photographs of others that are "likely to" impair their reputation or expose them to shame, public hatred, or contempt (section 16).
Ongoing political turmoil led Prime Minister Samak Sundaravej to declare a state of emergency on 2 September 2008. Upon his declaration, the Ministry of Information and Communications Technology ordered ISPs to immediately shut down around 400 websites and block 1,200 more, all alleged to have disturbed the social order or endangered national security.
ICT Minister Mun Patanotai announced on 29 October 2008, plans to introduce an internet gateway system costing up to 500 million baht to block sites considered to promote lèse majesté materials. The Minister said the system could also be used to block other websites considered inappropriate, such as those of terrorist groups or selling pornography, but the ministry will focus first on websites with content deemed insulting to the Thai monarchy.
A state of emergency was imposed on 7 April and lifted on 22 December 2010, but the Internal Security Act (ISA), which provides Thailand's leaders with broad powers unrestricted by judicial procedure, remains in place.
URLs blocked by court order:
{|
!Year !! CourtOrders !! BlockedURLs
|- align=center
||2007 || 1 || 2
|- align=center
||2008 || 13 || 2071
|- align=center
||2009 || 64 || 28,705
|- align=center
||2010 || 39 || 43,908
|-
|colspan=3 |
|- align=center
||Total || 117 || 74,686
|}
It is estimated that tens of thousands of additional URLs are blocked without court orders through informal requests or under the Emergency Decree on Public Administration in Emergency Situations.
Reasons for blocking:
{|
|- valign=bottom align=center
||URLsblocked || Percent
|align=left |Reason
|- valign=top align=center
|| 57,330 || 77%
|align=left |lèse majesté content (content that defames, insults, threatens, or is unflattering to the King, includes national security and some political issues)
|- valign=top align=center
|| 16,740 || 22%
|align=left |pornographic content
|- valign=top align=center
|| 357 || <1%
|align=left |information about abortion
|- valign=top align=center
|| 246 || <1%
|align=left |content related to gambling
|}
In late 2011, the government announced the creation of the Cyber Security Operations Center (CSOC). CSOC pro-actively monitors websites and social media, and provides ISPs with a rapidly updated blocklist, including postings on Twitter and Facebook. There is no judicial review of the CSOC blocklist.
Articles 18(2) and 18(3) of the 2017 Computer Crime Act (CCA) would allow user-related data and traffic data to be accessed by authorities without a court order under probable cause to assist with investigations related to an offense under the CCA or other laws. And Article 18(7) would allow authorities with a court order to compel service providers in assisting with the decryption of encoded data, undermining the use of encryption tools as a protection of user privacy.
Methods
MICT blocks indirectly by informally "requesting" the blocking of websites by Thailand's 54 commercial and non-profit Internet service providers (ISPs). Although ISPs are not legally required to accede to these "requests", MICT Permanent Secretary Kraisorn Pornsuthee wrote in 2006 that ISPs who fail to comply will be punitively sanctioned by government in the form of bandwidth restriction or even loss of their operating license. This is a powerful compulsion to comply.
Websites are blocked by Uniform Resource Locator (URL) and/or IP address. However, only about 20% of blocked sites are identified by IP address; the remaining 80% are unable to be identified at a specific physical location. If these sites could be identified as being located in Thailand, legal action could be taken against their operators. Thus, lack of IP address is a major oversight.
Several technologies are employed to censor the Internet such as caching, blacklisting domain name or IP address, or simply redirection to a government homepage. Blacklisting the website is beneficial for this kind of web censorship as the webmasters would be unaware that their websites are being blocked. This measure is said to be used to make unpleasant websites appear unavailable.
Many censored web sites previously redirected the user to a site hosted by the Ministry of Information and Communication Technology (MICT) which states that the requested destination could not be displayed due to improper content.
Censorship of the Internet in Thailand is currently for website access only. Unlike China's "Great Firewall", which censors all Internet traffic including chat conversation via Instant Messaging, Thai Internet users are still able to interact with other users without being censored. However, current policy is to use a system of transparent proxies so that the user receives system, server, TCP and browser error messages when trying to access blocked sites leading the user to believe that the failure is caused in the Internet itself.
Search engine giants, Google and Yahoo!, were approached to investigate the potential capability for blocking access to their cached web pages in Thailand, a common technique used to circumvent blocking. The search engines were also asked about keyword search blocking which is used effectively in China to censor the Internet. Google, at least, has made public a statement that it has no intention of blocking any sites to users in Thailand.
New OONI data reveals the blocking of 13 websites in Thailand across 6 different ISPs, between 6 November 2016 and 27 February 2017. Thai ISPs appear to primarily be implementing censorship through DNS hijacking and through the use of middle boxes (HTTP transparent proxies) which serve block pages.
Examples of websites blocked
19 September Network against Coup d'Etat
A trend is increased censorship of anti-coup websites such as 19 September Network against Coup d'Etat, which has been blocked six times as of February 2007, with the government refusing to acknowledge responsibility for the blocking.
Southern insurgency
Most sites concerning the violent political situation in Thailand's Muslim south are blocked, specifically those in support of the Patani United Liberation Organisation (PULO), a banned group which works for a separate Muslim state, including PULO's appeals to the United Nations for redress.
External news sites
Some web pages from BBC One, BBC Two, CNN, Yahoo! News, the Post-Intelligencer newspaper (Seattle, USA), and The Age newspaper (Melbourne, Australia) dealing with Thai political content are blocked. More recently, all international coverage of Thaksin-in-exile has been blocked, including interviews with the deposed PM.
Webboards and discussion forums
Internet webboards and discussion forums such as Midnight University, Prachatai.com and Pantip.com have all been blocked, making reasonable political discussion very difficult. Prachatai and Pantip have chosen to self-censor, closely monitoring each discussion, in order to remain unblocked.
Video sharing sites
Video sharing sites such as Camfrog have recently been blocked on the grounds that people were "behaving indecently" on webcams. The block was later reversed when it was discovered that Camfrog provided a principal means of communication for the handicapped, elderly and shut-ins. Other video sharing sites such as Metacafe remain blocked however.
The entire video upload website, YouTube, has been blocked several times, including a complete ban between 4 April and 31 August 2007 due to a video which was considered to be offensive to the monarchy. YouTube's parent company, Google, was reported to have agreed to assist MICT in blocking individual videos, thus making the remainder legal to display in Thailand. The YouTube site block persisted for nearly five months, despite the fact that the video challenged by MICT was voluntarily deleted by the user who posted it.
Websites containing lèse majesté content
The criminal code states that whoever defames, insults or threatens the king, queen, the heir-apparent, or the regent, shall be jailed for three to 15 years, but the statute is broadly interpreted to apply to any mention of the institution of royalty that is less than flattering.
On 29 April 2010, Wipas Raksakulthai was arrested following a post to his Facebook account allegedly insulting King Bhumibol. The arrest was reportedly the first lèse majesté charge against a Thai Facebook user. In response, Amnesty International named Wipas Thailand's first prisoner of conscience in nearly three decades.
According to the Associated Press, the Computer Crime Act has contributed to a sharp increase in the number of lèse majesté cases tried each year in Thailand. While between 1990 and 2005, roughly five cases were tried in Thai courts each year, since that time about 400 cases have come to trial—a 1,500 percent increase.
Websites about the book The King Never Smiles
Although the independent biography of Thailand's King Bhumibhol Adulyadej, The King Never Smiles by Paul Handley was published in July 2006, websites concerning the book had been blocked as far back as November 2005. As no advance reading copies or excerpts were made available, these sites were censored based on the book's title alone. All sites with links to sales of the book are still blocked, including Yale University Press, Amazon, Amazon UK, and many others.
Wikipedia articles
Accessing the Wikipedia article on Bhumibol Adulyadej from Thailand on 10 October 2008, led to a w3.mict.go.th announcement: "Under Construction The site you are trying to view does not currently have a default page. It may be in the process of being upgraded and configured." The link is now redirected to:
The blocking of the King of Thailand's Wikipedia page may be due to content regarding the king's succession that the Thai Government views unappealing or illegal under its lèse majesté laws. The fake error message seen in Thailand when attempting to view the king's Wikipedia page can be seen on YouTube.
The Thai baht article had all images removed.
WikiLeaks
On 28 June 2010, access to wikileaks.org was blocked in Thailand.
However the website today is currently accessible.
Wayback Machine Internet archive
Some pages from the Wayback Machine, an Archive.org project which as of 2011 stores snapshots of over 150 billion web pages, are being blocked by MICT.
Aftermath of 2014 coup d'état
Following the 2014 Thai coup d'état, the junta, through MICT, instructed Internet providers in Thailand to block access to Facebook temporarily on 28 May 2014. Despite claims of technical issues by the junta, the permanent secretary of MICT and Telenor, parent of Thai mobile phone operator dtac, later admitted that the blocks were done deliberately
Facebook
The Facebook page "Royalist Marketplace" was launched as a forum by academic Pavin Chachavalpongpun to discuss and criticize the Thai monarchy freely. The Thai authorities shut down access in Thailand to the Facebook page, which has accumulated around one million users, and which Facebook may be appealing, while Pavin is facing a charge of cybercrime. He has since launched a replacement Facebook page. A Facebook spokesperson stated, "Requests like this are severe, contravene international human rights law, and have a chilling effect on people’s ability to express themselves... We work to protect and defend the rights of all internet users and are preparing to legally challenge this request".
Opposition to Internet censorship
Interference in communications, including the Internet, was specifically prohibited by Section 37 and free speech protected by Section 39 of the 1997 "People's" Constitution. However, following the pattern of past coups, the military's first action was to scrap the constitution and begin drafting a new one. Nevertheless, MICT commissioned the law faculty of Sukhothai Thammathirat Open University to find laws or loopholes which permit such censorship, and several other organizations have filed petitions with Thailand's National Human Rights Commission (NHRC).
Midnight University
Midnight University has filed petitions simultaneously with the NHRC and Thailand's Administrative Court. As the court and the Council of State can find no laws which permit Internet censorship, Midnight University has been granted a restraining order against further blocking, pending resolution of its legal case. This makes Midnight University the only legally-protected website in Thailand.
Freedom Against Censorship Thailand (FACT)
Freedom Against Censorship Thailand (FACT) filed a petition against censorship before the NHRC on 15 November 2006. FACT's petition is still open for signatures and is actively seeking international support. Though NHRC has no enforcement capability and is therefore rarely able to extract evidence from government bodies, on 26 January 2007 MICT agreed to cooperate with the NHRC.
On 9 February 2007, FACT filed an official information request with MICT under the Official Information Act of 1997. The request contains 20 questions and is signed by 257 individuals supported by 57 international civil liberties and human rights groups. The MICT refused to reply citing grounds of "national security" and "interference with law enforcement"; its secret blocklist, criteria used for censorship and specific procedures it uses remain private. On 23 March 2007, FACT filed a complaint requiring an investigation within 60 days by the Official Information Commission in the prime minister's office. FACT stated that, should the complaint fail, it would seek a restraining order against further censorship through Thailand's legal system.
Circumvention software
Software applications for circumventing web-blocking are readily available. Tor is in use through software including XeroBank Browser (formerly Torpark) and Vidalia, and a number of other proxied solutions including Proxify, Six-Four, phproxy are also used. Freenet is another popular solution. Available for free download from the Internet, these packages are also published on disk by FACT. The MICT minister has said in an interview in the Bangkok Post that he has not blocked these methods because "using proxies to access illegal sites are illegal, whereas using proxies to access legal sites is legal."
Post-2014 coup situation
The 2014 coup worsened the state of internet freedom when the junta began amending the 2007 Computer Crime Act to enable greater suppression and surveillance. In 2016 the Foreign Correspondents Club of Thailand hosted a panel discussion entitled Dealing with Computer Crime, summarizing:
In August 2017, the National Broadcasting and Telecommunications Commission (NBTC) informed Internet Service providers like Facebook and YouTube that they needed to remove pages that violated Thai laws regarding internet content. The statement set a deadline of 7 August for the removal of all illegal web pages and threatened the providers with losing their licenses to provide content in the country.
In September 2020, the authorities attempted to block more than 2,200 websites ahead of a 19 September rally, part of the 2020 Thai protests. Following the rally, Buddhipongse Punnakanta, Minister of Digital Economy and Society, filed a complaint with police to prosecute Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube for failing to delete posts in a timely manner, the first time the Computer Crimes Act has been used against foreign service providers.
Royal Thai Army Information Operations
In October 2020, Twitter took down a "low-intensity" Royal Thai Army information operation apparently designed to stifle and influence democratic opinion on social media regarding Army scandals and democratic processes in the country, as part of a major wider investigation by Facebook and Twitter into attempts to influence the 2020 US Presidential Election.
See also
Censorship in Thailand
Censorship of Facebook
Internet in Thailand
Pavin Chachavalpongpun
References
External links
"Website Censorship in Thailand – 2008-2011", Daily News and Views, 2Bangkok.com, 31 July 2010
Wikileaks: Internet Censorship in Thailand, WikiLeaks, 18 November 2007; includes full block lists and a detailed analysis
Global Integrity: Internet Censorship, A Comparative Study; puts Thai online censorship in cross-country context.
Statistics of website censorship in Thailand, 2007-2012 by iLaw.or.th
Censorship in Thailand
•Censorship
Thailand
Thailand
Thai law |
6982134 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cakewalk%20Sonar | Cakewalk Sonar | Sonar was a digital audio workstation created by the former Boston, Massachusetts-based music production software company Cakewalk. It was acquired by Singaporean music company BandLab Technologies, and renamed Cakewalk by BandLab.
Notable features
Sonar's features included:
Record and manipulate an amount of multitrack digital audio limited by hardware only
Record and manipulate MIDI data
Apply any DirectX special effects, such as reverberation and delay
Automate the process of mixing audio
Use virtual instruments, such as software: synthesizers, samplers, and drum machines
Connect to other multimedia applications via Rewire
Some versions included a 64-bit mastering suite
Video and audio formats
Sonar provided limited facilities for video, surround sound (5.1, 7.1), and supported .avi, .mpeg, .wmv and .mov files. Sonar had the ability to show video as thumbnails contained in a separate track. With appropriate hardware, it was also possible to output the video to an external monitor screen via FireWire. Common SMPTE formats, frame sizes and frame rates were supported. It was possible to transfer audio loop files from other compatible software into Sonar and complete a final mixdown.
Various audio export options (including 64-bit masters) were AIFF, AU, CAF, FLAC, RAW, SD2, W64 (Sony Wave-64), and WAV (Microsoft).
Starting with version 6, Sonar could take advantage of 64-bit internal processing, a 64-bit audio engine, and a 64-bit mixer on 64-bit versions of Windows Vista and Windows 7. Before introduction of Sonar X2 in October 2012, the entry-level Essential versions of Sonar (Sonar Home Studio and Sonar Essential) were 32-bit only. With the release of Sonar X2, the full program family became native 64-bit.
Starting with Sonar Platinum (January 2016), releases moved to a monthly cycle, with new features and demo products introduced with each update.
Discontinuation and Relaunch
On 17 November 2017, parent company Gibson announced that it was ceasing active development and production of Cakewalk branded products, including all versions of SONAR. After 3 years, Cakewalk, Inc. ceased operation, with only the company's web forum and license authorization servers still being kept functional.
On 23 February 2018, Singapore-based BandLab Technologies announced its purchase of some of Cakewalk, Inc.’s assets and all of its intellectual property. BandLab's stated goal was continued development of the former company's flagship product, SONAR (now renamed Cakewalk by BandLab) as part of its portfolio of freeware digital audio workstation software.
See also
Cakewalk by BandLab
Cakewalk (sequencer)
Comparison of multitrack recording software
POW-R dithering algorithms
References
External links
Cakewalk brings back the E-MU Proteus
Digital audio workstation software |
12630111 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affect%20control%20theory | Affect control theory | In control theory, affect control theory proposes that individuals maintain affective meanings through their actions and interpretations of events. The activity of social institutions occurs through maintenance of culturally based affective meanings.
Affective meaning
Besides a denotative meaning, every concept has an affective meaning, or connotation, that varies along three dimensions: evaluation – goodness versus badness, potency – powerfulness versus powerlessness, and activity – liveliness versus torpidity. Affective meanings can be measured with semantic differentials yielding a three-number profile indicating how the concept is positioned on evaluation, potency, and activity (EPA). Osgood demonstrated that an elementary concept conveyed by a word or idiom has a normative affective meaning within a particular culture.
A stable affective meaning derived either from personal experience or from cultural inculcation is called a sentiment, or fundamental affective meaning, in affect control theory. Affect control theory has inspired assembly of dictionaries of EPA sentiments for thousands of concepts involved in social life – identities, behaviours, settings, personal attributes, and emotions. Sentiment dictionaries have been constructed with ratings of respondents from the US, Canada, Northern Ireland, Germany, Japan, China and Taiwan.
Impression formation
Each concept that is in play in a situation has a transient affective meaning in addition to an associated sentiment. The transient corresponds to an impression created by recent events.
Events modify impressions on all three EPA dimensions in complex ways that are described with non-linear equations obtained through empirical studies.
Here are two examples of impression-formation processes.
An actor who behaves disagreeably seems less good, especially if the object of the behavior is innocent and powerless, like a child.
A powerful person seems desperate when performing extremely forceful acts on another, and the object person may seem invincible.
A social action creates impressions of the actor, the object person, the behavior, and the setting.
Deflections
Deflections are the distances in the EPA space between transient and fundamental affective meanings. For example, a mother complimented by a stranger feels that the unknown individual is much nicer than a stranger is supposed to be, and a bit too potent and active as well – thus there is a moderate distance between the impression created and the mother's sentiment about strangers. High deflections in a situation produce an aura of unlikeliness or uncanniness. It is theorized that high deflections maintained over time generate psychological stress.
The basic cybernetic idea of affect control theory can be stated in terms of deflections. An individual selects a behavior that produces the minimum deflections for concepts involved in the action. Minimization of deflections is described by equations derived with calculus from empirical impression-formation equations.
Action
On entering a scene an individual defines the situation by assigning identities to each participant, frequently in accord with an encompassing social institution. While defining the situation, the individual tries to maintain the affective meaning of self through adoption of an identity whose sentiment serves as a surrogate for the individual's self-sentiment. The identities assembled in the definition of the situation determine the sentiments that the individual tries to maintain behaviorally.
Confirming sentiments associated with institutional identities – like doctor–patient, lawyer–client, or professor–student – creates institutionally relevant role behavior.
Confirming sentiments associated with negatively evaluated identities – like bully, glutton, loafer, or scatterbrain – generates deviant behavior.
Affect control theory's sentiment databases and mathematical model are combined in a computer simulation program for analyzing social interaction in various cultures.
Emotions
According to affect control theory, an event generates emotions for the individuals involved in the event by changing impressions of the individuals. The emotion is a function of the impression created of the individual and of the difference between that impression and the sentiment attached to the individual's identity Thus, for example, an event that creates a negative impression of an individual generates unpleasant emotion for that person, and the unpleasantness is worse if the individual believes she has a highly valued identity. Similarly, an event creating a positive impression generates a pleasant emotion, all the more pleasant if the individual believes he has a disvalued identity in the situation.
Non-linear equations describing how transients and fundamentals combine to produce emotions have been derived in empirical studies Affect control theory's computer simulation program uses these equations to predict emotions that arise in social interaction, and displays the predictions via facial expressions that are computer drawn, as well as in terms of emotion words.
Based on cybernetic studies by Pavloski and Goldstein, that utilise perceptual control theory, Heise hypothesizes that emotion is distinct from stress. For example, a parent enjoying intensely pleasant emotions while interacting with an offspring suffers no stress. A homeowner attending to a sponging house guest may feel no emotion and yet be experiencing substantial stress.
Interpretations
Others' behaviors are interpreted so as to minimize the deflections they cause. For example, a man turning away from another and exiting through a doorway could be engaged in several different actions, like departing from, deserting, or escaping from the other. Observers choose among the alternatives so as to minimize deflections associated with their definitions of the situation. Observers who assigned different identities to the observed individuals could have different interpretations of the behavior.
Re-definition of the situation may follow an event that causes large deflections which cannot be resolved by reinterpreting the behavior. In this case, observers assign new identities that are confirmed by the behavior. For example, seeing a father slap a son, one might re-define the father as an abusive parent, or perhaps as a strict disciplinarian; or one might re-define the son as an arrogant brat. Affect control theory's computer program predicts the plausible re-identifications, thereby providing a formal model for labeling theory.
The sentiment associated with an identity can change to befit the kinds of events in which that identity is involved, when situations keep arising where the identity is deflected in the same way, especially when identities are informal and non-institutionalized.
Applications
Affect control theory has been used in research on emotions, gender, social structure, politics, deviance and law, the arts, and business. Affect Control Theory was analyzed through the use of Quantitative Methods in research, using mathematics to look at data and interpret their findings. However, recent applications of this theory have explored the concept of Affect Control Theory through Qualitative Research Methods. This process involves obtaining data through the use of interviews, observations, and questionnaires. Affect Control Theory has been explored through Qualitative measures in interviewing the family, friends, and loved ones of individuals who were murdered, looking at how the idea of forgiveness changes based on their interpretation of the situation. Computer programs have also been an important part of understanding Affect Control Theory, beginning with the use of “Interact,” a computer program designed to create social situations with the user to understand how an individual will react based on what is happening within the moment. “Interact” has been an essential tool in research, using it to understand social interaction and the maintenance of affect between individuals. The use of interviews and observations have improved the understanding of Affect Control Theory through Qualitative research methods. A bibliography of research studies in these areas is provided by David R. Heise and at the research program's website.
Extensions
A probabilistic and decision theoretic extension of affect control theory generalizes the original theory in order to allow for uncertainty about identities, changing identities, and explicit non-affective goals.
See also
Affect display
References
Further reading
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Heise, David (1997). Interact On-Line (Java applet).
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. [This is a reprint of the Journal of Mathematical Sociology, Volume 13 (1-2), and it contains cited articles by Averett & Heise and Heise & MacKinnon.]
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External links
Affect Control Theory (copy of original site)
new ACT site
BayesACT webpage (with further links to current research on ACT)
Control theory
Cybernetics
Feeling |
8445754 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress%20testing%20%28software%29 | Stress testing (software) | Stress testing is a software testing activity that determines the robustness of software by testing beyond the limits of normal operation. Stress testing is particularly important for "mission critical" software, but is used for all types of software. Stress tests commonly put a greater emphasis on robustness, availability, and error handling under a heavy load, than on what would be considered correct behavior under normal circumstances.
Field experience
Failures may be related to:
characteristics of non-production like environments, e.g. small test databases
complete lack of load or stress testing
Rationale
Reasons for stress testing include:
The software being tested is "mission critical", that is, failure of the software (such as a crash) would have disastrous consequences.
The amount of time and resources dedicated to testing is usually not sufficient, with traditional testing methods, to test all of the situations in which the software will be used when it is released.
Even with sufficient time and resources for writing tests, it may not be possible to determine before hand all of the different ways in which the software will be used. This is particularly true for operating systems and middleware, which will eventually be used by software that doesn't even exist at the time of the testing.
Customers may use the software on computers that have significantly fewer computational resources (such as memory or disk space) than the computers used for testing.
Input data integrity cannot be guaranteed. Input data are software wide: it can be data files, streams and memory buffers, as well as arguments and options given to a command line executable or user inputs triggering actions in a GUI application. Fuzzing and monkey test methods can be used to find problems due to data corruption or incoherence.
Concurrency is particularly difficult to test with traditional testing methods. Stress testing may be necessary to find race conditions and deadlocks.
Software such as web servers that will be accessible over the Internet may be subject to denial of service attacks.
Under normal conditions, certain types of bugs, such as memory leaks, can be fairly benign and difficult to detect over the short periods of time in which testing is performed. However, these bugs can still be potentially serious. In a sense, stress testing for a relatively short period of time can be seen as simulating normal operation for a longer period of time.
Relationship to branch coverage
Branch coverage (a specific type of code coverage) is a metric of the number of branches executed under test, where "100% branch coverage" means that every branch in a program has been executed at least once under some test. Branch coverage is one of the most important metrics for software testing; software for which the branch coverage is low is not generally considered to be thoroughly tested. Note that code coverage metrics are a property of the tests for a piece of software, not of the software being tested.
Achieving high branch coverage often involves writing negative test variations, that is, variations where the software is supposed to fail in some way, in addition to the usual positive test variations, which test intended usage. An example of a negative variation would be calling a function with illegal parameters. There is a limit to the branch coverage that can be achieved even with negative variations, however, as some branches may only be used for handling of errors that are beyond the control of the test. For example, a test would normally have no control over memory allocation, so branches that handle an "out of memory" error are difficult to test.
Stress testing can achieve higher branch coverage by producing the conditions under which certain error handling branches are followed. The coverage can be further improved by using fault injection.
Examples
A web server may be stress tested using scripts, bots, and various denial of service tools to observe the performance of a web site during peak loads.
Load test vs. stress test
Stress testing usually consists of testing beyond specified limits in order to determine failure points and test failure recovery.
Load testing implies a controlled environment moving from low loads to high. Stress testing focuses on more random events, chaos and unpredictability. Using a web application as an example here are ways stress might be introduced:
double the baseline number for concurrent users/HTTP connections
randomly shut down and restart ports on the network switches/routers that connect the servers (via SNMP commands for example)
take the database offline, then restart it
rebuild a RAID array while the system is running
run processes that consume resources (CPU, memory, disk, network) on the Web and database servers
observe how the system reacts to failure and recovers
Does it save its state?
Does the application hang and freeze or does it fail gracefully?
On restart, is it able to recover from the last good state?
Does the system output meaningful error messages to the user and to the logs?
Is the security of the system compromised because of unexpected failures?
See also
Software testing
This article covers testing software reliability under unexpected or rare (stressed) workloads. See also the closely related:
Scalability testing
Load testing
List of software tools for load testing at Load testing#Load testing tools
Stress test for a general discussion
Black box testing
Software performance testing
Scenario analysis
Simulation
White box testing
Technischer Überwachungsverein (TÜV) - product testing and certification
Concurrency testing using the CHESS model checker
Jinx (defunct because of takeover and project cancellation) automated stress testing by automatically exploring unlikely execution scenarios.
Stress test (hardware)
References
Software testing
ru:Стресс-тестирование |
21108988 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X2x | X2x | x2x allows the console (keyboard and mouse) on one X server to be used to control another X server.
It also provides ancillary functions like clipboard sharing. x2x is an international trademark of Triple-S especially for software products.
The software was developed in 1996 by David Chaiken at DEC. It is currently maintained by Mikhail Gusarov.
See also
Comparison of remote desktop software
Synergy
References
External links
x2x man page hosted at freebsd.org
x2x is a software alternative to a KVM switch article at linux.com seen 2009-01-15
X window managers
Cross-platform software
1996 software
Free network-related software
Free software programmed in C
Software using the MIT license
Remote desktop software for Linux |
35956878 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apache%20CloudStack | Apache CloudStack | CloudStack is open-source cloud computing software for creating, managing, and deploying infrastructure cloud services. It uses existing hypervisor platforms for virtualization, such as KVM, VMware vSphere, including ESXi and vCenter, and XenServer/XCP. In addition to its own API, CloudStack also supports the Amazon Web Services (AWS) API and the Open Cloud Computing Interface from the Open Grid Forum.
History
CloudStack was originally developed by Cloud.com, formerly known as VMOps.
VMOps was founded by Sheng Liang, Shannon Williams, Alex Huang, Will Chan, and Chiradeep Vittal in 2008.
The company raised a total of $17.6M in venture funding from Redpoint Ventures, Nexus Ventures and Index Ventures (Redpoint and Nexus led the initial Series A funding round). The company changed its name from VMOps to Cloud.com on May 4, 2010, when it emerged from stealth mode by announcing its product. Cloud.com was based in Cupertino, California.
In May 2010, Cloud.com released most of CloudStack as free software under the GNU General Public License, version 3 (GPLv3). They kept about 5% proprietary. Cloud.com and Citrix both supported OpenStack, another Apache-licensed cloud computing program, at its announcement in July 2010.
In October 2010, Cloud.com announced a partnership with Microsoft to develop the code to provide integration and support of Windows Server 2008 R2 Hyper-V to the OpenStack project.
Citrix Systems purchased Cloud.com on July 12, 2011, for approximately $200 million. In August 2011, Citrix released the remaining code under the Apache Software License with further development governed by the Apache Foundation. In February 2012, Citrix released CloudStack 3.0. Among other features, this added support for Swift, OpenStack's S3-like object storage solution. In April 2012, Citrix donated CloudStack to the Apache Software Foundation (ASF), where it was accepted into the Apache Incubator; Citrix changed the license to the Apache License version 2. As part of this change, Citrix also ceased their involvement in OpenStack. On November 6, 2012, CloudStack 4.0.0-incubating was announced, the first stable release after joining ASF. On March 20, 2013, CloudStack graduated from Apache Incubator and became a Top-Level Project (TLP) of ASF. The first stable (maintenance) release after graduation is CloudStack 4.0.2.
Key features
Built-in high-availability for hosts and VMs
AJAX web GUI for management
AWS API compatibility
Hypervisor agnostic
Snapshot management
Usage metering
Network management (VLAN's, security groups)
Virtual routers, firewalls, load balancers
Multi-role support
Supported Hypervisors
BareMetal hosts
RHEL or CentOS, v7.x
Ubuntu 16.04
Deployment architecture
The minimum production installation consists of one machine running the CloudStack Management Server and another machine to act as the cloud infrastructure (in this case, a very simple infrastructure consisting of one host running hypervisor software). In its smallest deployment, a single machine can act as both the Management Server and the hypervisor host (using the KVM hypervisor).
Multiple management servers can be configured for redundancy and load balancing, all pointing to a common MySQL database.
Users
In July 2012 it was reported that Datapipe launched the largest international public cloud to be built on CloudStack, which included 6 data centers in the US, Britain, and Asia.
References
External links
CloudStack
Cloud platforms
Cloud infrastructure
Free software programmed in Java (programming language)
Virtualization-related software for Linux
Free software for cloud computing |
4629755 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Srm%20%28Unix%29 | Srm (Unix) | srm (or Secure Remove) is a command line utility for Unix-like computer systems for secure file deletion. srm removes each specified file by overwriting, renaming, and truncating it before unlinking. This prevents other people from undeleting or recovering any information about the file from the command line.
Platform-specific behaviours and bugs
Filesystems with hard links
Attempting to secure delete a file with multiple hard links results in a warning from srm stating that the current access path has been unlinked, but the data itself was not overwritten or truncated. This is an undocumented feature of srm 1.2.8 on Mac OS X 10.9, and is erroneously documented in 1.2.11 as a behaviour activated by the OpenBSD rm-compatible option -P. However, in both the OS X and SourceForge srm implementations, the behaviour of unlinking but not overwriting multi-linked files is always active, as long as the platform reports hard links.
srm 1.2.8 on Mac OS X 10.9 has a -n option, which means "overwrite file, but do not rename or unlink it." However, if the file has multiple links, the multiple-link file data protection feature activates first, removing the file, even though the -n option specifies "do not rename or unlink the file". The -n option has been removed from the code and manual of srm version 1.2.11, the latest SourceForge.net version. As a consequence, this option/feature conflict does not occur.
OS X
A number of file systems support file forks (called resource forks and named forks on OS X (particularly HFS+), and alternate data streams on NTFS), or extended attributes. However, OS X is the only platform on which srm securely deletes any of this additional data in files.
On OS X, only the most common non-data fork, the resource fork, is handled in this way. This support was included in Apple’s 1.2.8 and SourceForge's 1.2.9.
srm was removed from OS X/macOS in v10.11 El Capitan, as part of the removal of the "Secure Empty Trash" feature for security reasons.
OpenBSD
In srm 1.2.11, released on 25 November 2010, the OpenBSD rm-compatible option, -P, is documented have an overwriting pattern matching OpenBSD's rm. Additional functionality which protects multi-linked files is documented under the OpenBSD-compatible option, but is actually always active.
Windows
When securely deleting files recursively, srm 1.2.11 is unable to determine device boundaries on Windows. Therefore, the -x option, which restricts srm to one file system, is not supported.
See also
rm (Unix): remove file in Unix.
Data remanence
shred (Unix)
List of free and open-source software packages
References
External links
Sourceforge Page
Unix file system-related software
Unix security-related software
Data erasure software |
9481248 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connecticut%20v.%20Amero | Connecticut v. Amero | State of Connecticut v. Julie Amero is a court case in the 2000s concerning Internet privacy and DNS hijacking (specifically involving New.net). The defendant in the case, Julie Amero (born 1967), a substitute teacher, was previously convicted of four counts of risk of injury to a minor, or impairing the morals of a child, as the result of a computer that was infected with spyware and DNS hijacking software; the conviction was vacated on appeal.
Timeline
On October 19, 2004, Julie Amero was substituting for a seventh-grade language class at Kelly Middle School in Norwich, Connecticut. The teacher's computer was accessed by pupils while the regular teacher, Matthew Napp, was out of the room. When Amero took charge, the computer started showing pornographic images.
On January 5, 2007, Amero was convicted in Norwich Superior Court on four counts of risk of injury to a minor, or impairing the morals of a child. Her sentencing was delayed four times after her conviction, with both the prosecution and judge not satisfied that all aspects of the case had been assessed. The felony charges for which she was originally convicted carry a maximum prison sentence of 40 years.
On June 6, 2007, a New London superior court judge threw out the conviction of Amero, she was granted a new trial and entered a plea of not guilty.
On November 21, 2008, Julie Amero pleaded guilty to a single charge of disorderly conduct before Superior Court Judge Robert E. Young in Norwich., paying a US$100 charge and forfeiting her teaching credentials.
Controversy
The old computer, along with the school network, lacked up-to-date firewall or anti-spyware protection to prevent inappropriate pop-ups. The school used the Symantec WebNOT filter; however, it was not licensed for software updates and so did not block newly discovered pornographic websites.
Computer experts believe that spyware and malware programs hijacked the machine's browser so that it visited pornography sites without prompting and created the computer logs that helped convict Amero. According to the defense's expert witness, W. Herbert Horner, the defense at the first trial was not permitted to present prepared evidence in support of this theory. On March 6, 2007, a $2,400 advertisement appeared in the Hartford Courant signed by 28 computer science professors who said that they think that Amero could not have controlled the pornographic pop-ups. It was eventually discovered that the uncontrollable pop-ups were spawned by a Spyware program named NewDotNet which had been installed on October 14, 2004, 5 days prior to the alleged crime.
Norwich Police Detective Mark Lounsbury is the "computer forensics expert" who was used by the prosecution to help convict her. Lounsbury testified that he solely relied on ComputerCop Professional for his forensic analysis. By the company's own admission, the program is incapable of determining whether a site was visited intentionally or accidentally.
A paper in the 2007 Virus Bulletin Conference highlighted many other blunders. Amongst the most noteworthy, Detective Lounsbury stated in the trial that a red link proved that Amero had deliberately clicked on the link to visit a particular pornographic page. Huge blown up pictures were shown to the jury. In fact, forensic investigation showed that the link visited color for the browser was olive green. The link was colored red because there was a font tag on the page turning the link red. Further analysis of the cache on the machine and also of independent firewall logs showed that the page had never even been visited, let alone deliberately visited. Thus, one of the key pieces of prosecution evidence was actually completely technically incorrect.
An essay on the case by Nancy Willard (J.D.) at CSRIU describes Amero going for help when she was unable to prevent images popping up. At the original trial Detective Mark Lounsbury for the prosecution testified that the computer was never checked for the presence of malware. The case gained national attention when Alex Eckelberry, then president of Sunbelt Software, championed the case on his blog and led a team of forensic researchers to examine the trial testimony and the contents of the school computer's hard drive.
References
External links
Julie Amero's blog
Rick Green, A Court Case Doubling As An Obscenity, Hartford Courant
Crime and punishment and technology
Julie Amero Trial Transcript - "intended to be a significant improvement over the Norwich Bulletin version"
Mouse-Trapped - A forensic and legal overview of the Julie Amero trial
Radley Balko, The Prosecution of Julie Amero, Reason Magazine
United States pornography law
United States Internet case law
Connecticut state case law
Norwich, Connecticut
Education in New London County, Connecticut |
863402 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNU%20Assembler | GNU Assembler | The GNU Assembler, commonly known as gas or as, is the assembler developed by the GNU Project. It is the default back-end of GCC. It is used to assemble the GNU operating system and the Linux kernel, and various other software. It is a part of the GNU Binutils package.
The GAS executable is named , the standard name for a Unix assembler. GAS is cross-platform, and both runs on and assembles for a number of different computer architectures. GAS is free software released under the GNU General Public License v3.
History
The first version of GAS was released in 1986-1987. It was written by Dean Elsner, and supported the VAX architecture.
General syntax
GAS supports a general syntax that works for all of the supported architectures. The general syntax includes assembler directives and a method for commenting. The default syntax is AT&T syntax.
Directives
GAS uses assembler directives (also known as pseudo ops), which are keywords beginning with a period that behave similarly to preprocessor directives in the C programming language. While most of the available assembler directives are valid regardless of the target architecture, some directives are machine dependent.
Since version 2.10, Intel syntax can be used through use of the .intel_syntax directive.
Comments
GAS supports two comment styles.
Multi-line
As in C, multi-line comments start and end with mirroring slash-asterisk pairs:
/*
comment
*/
Single-line
Single line comments have a few different formats varying on which architecture is being assembled for.
A hash symbol (#) — i386, x86-64, i960, 68HC11, 68HC12, VAX, V850, M32R, PowerPC, MIPS, M680x0, and RISC-V
A semicolon (;) — AMD 29k family, ARC, H8/300 family, HPPA, PDP-11, picoJava, Motorola, and M32C
The at sign (@) — ARM
A double slash (//) — AArch64
A vertical bar (|) — 680x0
An exclamation mark (!) — Renesas SH
Usage
Being the back-end for a popular compiler suite, namely GCC, the GNU Assembler is very widely used in compiling modern open source software. GAS is often used as the assembler on GNU/Linux operating systems in conjunction with other GNU software. A modified version of GAS can also be found in the macOS development tools package since OS X.
Example program
A standard "Hello, world!" program for Linux on IA-32:
.global _start
.text
_start:
movl $4, %eax # 4 (code for "write" syscall) -> EAX register
movl $1, %ebx # 1 (file descriptor for stdout) -> EBX (1st argument to syscall)
movl $msg, %ecx # address of msg string -> ECX (2nd argument)
movl $len, %edx # len (32 bit address) -> EDX (3rd arg)
int $0x80 # interrupt with location 0x80 (128), which invokes the kernel's system call procedure
movl $1, %eax # 1 ("exit") -> EAX
movl $0, %ebx # 0 (with success) -> EBX
int $0x80 # see previous
.data
msg:
.ascii "Hello, world!\n" # inline ascii string
len = . - msg # assign (current address - address of msg start) to symbol "len"
See also
GNU toolchain
Binary File Descriptor library
Comparison of assemblers
References
External links
Gas manual
Assemblers
Free compilers and interpreters
GNU Project software
Linux programming tools
Unix programming tools |
100623 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jef%20Raskin | Jef Raskin | Jef Raskin (born Jeff Raskin; March 9, 1943 – February 26, 2005) was an American human–computer interface expert best known for conceiving and starting the Macintosh project at Apple in the late 1970s.
Early life and education
Jef Raskin was born in New York City to a secular Jewish family, whose surname is a matronymic from "Raske", Yiddish nickname for Rachel. He received a BA in mathematics and a BS in physics with minors in philosophy and music from Stony Brook University. In 1967, he received a master's degree in computer science from Pennsylvania State University, after having switched from mathematical logic due to differences of opinion with his advisor. Even though he had completed work for his PhD, the university was not accredited for a PhD in computer science. The first original computer application he wrote was a music application as part of his master's thesis.
Raskin later enrolled in a graduate music program at the University of California, San Diego (UCSD), but stopped to teach art, photography, and computer science there. He worked as an assistant professor in the Visual Arts department from 1968 until 1974. There, he did shows about toys as works of art. Raskin announced his resignation from the assistant professorship by flying over the Chancellor's house in a hot air balloon. He was awarded a National Science Foundation grant to establish a Computer and Humanities center which used several 16-bit Data General Nova computers and glass terminals rather than the teletypes which were more common at that time.
Along with his undergraduate student Jonathan (Jon) Collins, Raskin developed the FLOW programming language for use in teaching programming to the art and humanities students. The language was first used at the Humanities Summer Training Institute held in 1970 at the University of Kansas in Lawrence, Kansas. The language has only seven statements (, GET IT, PRINT IT, PRINT "text", JUMP TO, IF IT IS " " JUMP TO, and STOP) and can not manipulate numbers. The language was first implemented in Fortran by Collins in under a week. Later versions of the language utilized "typing amplification" in which only the first letter is typed and the computer provides the balance of the instruction eliminating typing errors. It was also the basis for programming classes taught by Raskin and Collins in the UCSD Visual Arts Department.
Raskin curated several art shows including one featuring his collection of unusual toys, and presenting toys as works of art. During this period, he changed the spelling of his name from "Jeff" to "Jef" after having met Jon Collins and liking the lack of extraneous letters.
Raskin occasionally wrote for computer publications, such as Dr. Dobb's Journal. He formed a company named Bannister and Crun, which was named for two characters playing in the BBC radio comedy The Goon Show.
Career history
Apple
Contractor writer
Raskin first met Apple Computer co-founders Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak in their garage workshop following the debut of their Apple II personal computer at the first West Coast Computer Faire. Jobs hired Raskin's company Bannister and Crun to write the Apple II BASIC Programming Manual. Raskin said "I was talking fifty dollars a page. They talked fifty dollars for the whole manual." Upon the Apple II unit with the serial number of "2", he reportedly wrote "a literate manual that became a standard for the young industry".
Management
In January 1978, Raskin joined Apple as Manager of Publications, the company's 31st employee. For some time he continued as Director of Publications and New Product Review, and also worked on packaging and other issues. He had concealed his degree in computer science, out of concern for cultural bias against academia among the hobby-driven personal computer industry. He explained, "If they had known ... they might not have let me in the company, because there was such an antiacademic bias in the early Apple days."
From his responsibility for documentation and testing, Raskin had great influence on early engineering projects. Because the Apple II only displayed uppercase characters on a 40-column screen, his department used the Polymorphic Systems 8813 (an Intel-8080-based machine running a proprietary operating system called Exec) to write documentation; this spurred the development of an 80-column display card and a suitable text editor for the Apple II. His experiences testing Applesoft BASIC inspired him to design a competing product, called Notzo BASIC, which was never implemented. When Wozniak developed the first disk drives for the Apple II, Raskin went back to his contacts at UCSD and encouraged them to port the UCSD P-System operating system (incorporating a version of the Pascal programming language) to it, which Apple later licensed and shipped as Apple Pascal.
Through this time, Raskin continually wrote memos about how the personal computer could become a true consumer appliance. While the Apple III was under development in 1978 and '79, Raskin was lobbying for Apple to create a radically different kind of computer that was designed from the start to be easy to use. In Computers by the Millions, he stated that expandable computers like the Apple II were too complex, and development was difficult due to the unknown nature of the machine the program ran on. The machine he envisioned was very different from the Macintosh that was eventually released and had much more in common with PDAs than modern desktop-based machines.
Macintosh
Raskin started the Macintosh project in 1979 to implement some of these ideas. He later hired his former student Bill Atkinson from UCSD to work at Apple, along with Andy Hertzfeld and Burrell Smith from the Apple Service Department, which was located in the same building as the Publications Department. Secretly bypassing Jobs's ego and authority by continually securing permission and funding directly at the executive level, Raskin created and solely supervised the Macintosh project for approximately its first year. This included selecting the name of his favorite apple, writing the mission document The Book of Macintosh, securing office space, and recruiting and managing the original staff. Author Steven Levy said, "It was Raskin who provided the powerful vision of a computer whose legacy would be low cost, high utility, and a groundbreaking friendliness."
The machine was similar in power to the Apple II and included a small black-and-white character display built into a small case with a floppy disk. It was text only, as Raskin disliked the computer mouse or anything else that could take his hands from the keyboard. A number of basic applications were built into the machine, selectable by pressing function keys. The machine also included logic that would understand user intentions and switch programs dynamically. For instance, if the user simply started typing text it would switch into editor mode, and if they typed numbers it would switch to calculator mode. In many cases these switches would be largely invisible to the user.
In 1981, after the Apple Lisa team had "kicked him out", Steve Jobs's attention drew toward Raskin's Macintosh project, intending to marry the Xerox PARC-inspired GUI-based Lisa design to Raskin's appliance-computing, "computers-by-the-millions" concept. Steve Wozniak was on hiatus from the company following a traumatic airplane accident, allowing Jobs to take managerial lead over the project.
Raskin takes credit for being one of the first to introduce Jobs and the Lisa engineers to the PARC concepts, though he ultimately dismissed PARC's technology and opposed the use of computer mouse. Raskin also claims to have had continued direct input into the eventual Mac design, including the decision to use a one-button mouse as part of the Apple interface, a departure from the Xerox PARC's 3-button mouse. Others, including Larry Tesler, acknowledge his advocacy for a one-button mouse but say that it was a decision reached simultaneously by others at Apple who had a stronger say on the issue. Raskin later stated that were he to redesign the mouse it would have three clearly labeled buttons—two buttons on top marked "Select" and "Activate", and a "Grab" button on the side that could be used by squeezing the mouse. This description nearly fits the Apple Mighty Mouse (renamed "Apple Mouse" in 2009), first marketed in 2005. It has the three described buttons (two invisible), but they are assigned to different functions than Raskin specified for his own interface and can be customized.
In a 2005 interview, Macintosh project member Andy Hertzfeld relates an anecdote about Raskin's reputation for often inaccurately claiming to have invented various technologies. Raskin's resume from 2002 lends credence by stating he was "Creator of Macintosh computer at Apple Computer, Inc." Raskin did create and solely supervise the Macintosh project for approximately its first year; however, Hertzfeld describes Raskin's relationship to the drastically different finished Mac product more like that of an "eccentric great uncle" than its father. In Jobs's "Lost Interview" from 1996, he refers to the Macintosh as a product of team effort while acknowledging Raskin's early role. Jobs reportedly co-opted some of Raskin's leadership philosophies, such as when he wrote the slogan on the Macintosh group's easel, "It's better to be a pirate than to join the Navy."
Apple acknowledged Raskin's role after he had left the company by giving him as a gift, the millionth Macintosh computer, with an engraved brass plaque on the front.
Pioneering the information appliance
Raskin left Apple in 1982 and formed Information Appliance, Inc. to implement the concepts of his original Macintosh concept. The first product is the SwyftCard, a firmware card for the Apple II containing an integrated application suite, also released on a disk as SwyftWare. Information Appliance later developed the Swyft as a stand-alone laptop computer. Raskin licensed this design to Canon, which shipped a similar desktop product as the Canon Cat. Released in 1987, the unit had an innovative interface that attracted much interest but it did not become a commercial success. Raskin claimed that its failure was due in some part to Steve Jobs, who successfully pitched Canon on the NeXT Computer at about the same time. It has also been suggested that Canon canceled the Cat due to internal rivalries within its divisions. After running a cryptic full page advertisement in the "Wall Street Journal" that the "Canon Cat is coming" months before it was available, Canon failed to follow through, never airing the completed TV commercial when the Cat went on sale, only allowed the Cat to be sold by its typewriter sales people, and prevented Raskin from selling the Cat directly with a TV demonstration of how easy it was to use. Shortly thereafter, the stock market crash of 1987 so panicked Information Appliance's venture capitalists that they drained millions of dollars from the company, depriving it of the capital needed to be able to manufacture and sell the Swyft.
Raskin also wrote a book, The Humane Interface (2000), in which he developed his ideas about human-computer interfaces.
Raskin was a long-time member of BAYCHI, the Bay-Area Computer-Human Interface group, a professional organization for human-interface designers. He presented papers on his own work, reviewed the human interfaces of various consumer products (such as a BMW car he'd been asked to review), and discussed the work of his colleagues in various companies and universities.
At the start of the new millennium, Raskin undertook the building of a new computer interface based on his 30 years of work and research, called The Humane Environment, THE. On January 1, 2005, he renamed it Archy. It is a system incarnating his concepts of the humane interface, by using open source elements within his rendition of a ZUI or Zooming User Interface. In the same period Raskin accepted an appointment as Adjunct Professor of Computer Science at the University of Chicago's Computer Science Department and, with Leo Irakliotis, started designing a new curriculum on humane interfaces and computer enterprises.
His work is being extended and carried on by his son Aza Raskin at Humanized, a company that was started shortly after Raskin's death to continue his legacy. Humanized released Enso, a linguistic command-line interface, which is based on Jef's work and dedicated in his memory. In early 2008, Humanized became part of Mozilla.
While the Archy project never managed to include a functional ZUI, a third party developed a commercial application called Raskin inspired by the same Zoomworld ZUI idea.
Cognetics
Raskin expanded the meaning of the term "cognetics" in his book The Humane Interface to mean "the ergonomics of the mind". According to Raskin Center, "Cognetics brings interface design out of the mystic realm of guruism, transforming it into an engineering discipline with a rigorous theoretical framework."
The term cognetics had earlier been coined and trademarked by Charles Kreitzberg in 1982 when he started Cognetics Corporation, one of the first user experience design companies. It is also used to describe educational programs intended to foster thinking skills in grades 3-12 (US) and for Cognetics, Inc., an economic research firm founded by David L. Birch, a Professor at MIT.
Raskin discouraged using the informal term "intuitive" in user interface design, claiming that easy to use interfaces are often due to exposure to previous, similar systems, thus the term "familiar" should be preferred. Aiming for "intuitive" interfaces (based on reusing existing skills with interaction systems) could lead designers to discard a better design solution only because it would require a novel approach.
Outside interests
Best known as a computer scientist, Raskin had other interests. He conducted the San Francisco Chamber Opera Society and played various instruments, including the organ and the recorder. His artwork was displayed at New York's Museum of Modern Art as part of its permanent collection, the Los Angeles County Museum of Art, and the University of California, San Diego. He received a patent for airplane wing construction, and designed and marketed radio controlled model gliders.
He was said to be an accomplished archer, target shooter, bicycle racer and an occasional model race car driver. He was a passionate musician and composer, publishing a series of collected recorder studies using the pseudonym of Aabel Aabius. In his later years he also wrote freelance articles for Macintosh magazines, such as Mac Home Journal, as well as many modeling magazines, Forbes, Wired, and computing journals. One of his most favorite pastimes was to play music with his children. He would accompany them on the piano while they played or sang while going through old fake-books passed down from his father. They would also routinely improvise together.
Raskin owned Jef's Friends, a small company which made model airplane kits, which were sold through hobby shops.
He was a toy designer. He designed Space Expander, a hanging cloth maze for a person to walk through. He designed Bloxes, a set of interlocking wood blocks.
One of Raskin's instruments was the organ. In 1978 he published an article in BYTE on using computers with the instrument.
Raskin published a paper highly critical of pseudoscience in nursing, such as therapeutic touch and Rogerian science, wherein he said: "Unlike science, nursing theory has no built-in mechanisms for rejecting falsehoods, tautologies, and irrelevancies."
Personal life
Jef Raskin married Linda S. Blum in 1982. They had three children together—Aza, Aviva, and Aenea, with honorary surrogate siblings R. Fureigh and Jenna Mandis. In 1985, Raskin described his house as "practically one large playground", with secret doors and passageways, an auditorium that seats 185, and a model airplane room. He said, "I decided when I grew up I was not going to give up the things I liked doing, and I've not."
He was diagnosed with pancreatic cancer in December 2004 and died in Pacifica, California, on February 26, 2005, at age 61.
See also
Information appliance
References
External links
Publications by Jef Raskin from Interaction-Design.org
Audio interviews with Jef Raskin and photos from various periods of his life
, February 27, 2005.
1943 births
2005 deaths
American computer scientists
20th-century American Jews
Apple Inc. employees
Canon (company) people
Deaths from cancer in California
Deaths from pancreatic cancer
Human–computer interaction researchers
Human–computer interaction
Pennsylvania State University alumni
People from Pacifica, California
Stony Brook University alumni
Writers from California
21st-century American Jews |
4649749 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oracle%20Fusion%20Middleware | Oracle Fusion Middleware | Oracle Fusion Middleware (FMW, also known as Fusion Middleware) consists of several software products from Oracle Corporation. FMW spans multiple services, including Java EE and developer tools, integration services, business intelligence, collaboration, and content management. FMW depends on open standards such as BPEL, SOAP, XML and JMS.
Oracle Fusion Middleware provides software for the development, deployment, and management of service-oriented architecture (SOA). It includes what Oracle calls "hot-pluggable" architecture,
designed to facilitate integration with existing applications and systems from other software vendors such as IBM, Microsoft, and SAP AG.
Evolution
Many of the products included under the FMW banner do not themselves qualify as middleware products: "Fusion Middleware" essentially represents a re-branding of many of Oracle products outside of Oracle's core database and applications-software offerings—compare Oracle Fusion.
Oracle acquired many of its FMW products via acquisitions. This includes products from BEA Systems and Stellent.
In order to provide standards-based software to assist with business process automation, HP has incorporated FMW into its "service-oriented architecture (SOA) portfolio".
Oracle leveraged its Configurable Network Computing (CNC) technology acquired from its PeopleSoft/JD Edwards 2005 purchase.
Oracle Fusion Applications, based on Oracle Fusion Middleware, were finally released in September 2010.
According to Oracle, as of 2013, over 120,000 customers were using Fusion Middleware. This includes over 35 of the world's 50 largest companies and more than 750 of the BusinessWeek Global 1000, with FMW also supported by 7,500 partners.
Assessments
In January 2008, Oracle WebCenter Content (formerly Universal Content Management) won InfoWorld's "Technology of the Year" award for "Best Enterprise Content Manager", with Oracle SOA Suite winning the award for "Best Enterprise Service Bus".
In 2007, Gartner wrote that "Oracle Fusion Middleware has reached a degree of completeness that puts it on par with, and in some cases ahead of, competing software stacks", and reported revenue from the suite of over US$1 billion during FY06, estimating the revenue from the genuinely middleware aspects at US$740 million.
Oracle Fusion Middleware components
Infrastructure / Application server
Oracle WebLogic Server (WLS)
Oracle Application Server (IAS)
JRockit – a JVM whose functionality has now been merged to OpenJDK
Tuxedo (software)
Oracle Coherence
Oracle Service Registry – metadata registry
application-server security
Oracle Web Cache
Integration and process-management
BPEL Process Manager
Oracle Business Activity Monitoring (Oracle BAM) – Business activity monitoring (BAM)
business rules
Business Process Analysis Suite
Oracle BPM – Business process management
Oracle Data Integrator (ODI) – an application using the database for set-based data integration
Enterprise connectivity (adapters)
Oracle Enterprise Messaging Service
Oracle Enterprise Service Bus
Oracle Application server B2B
Oracle Web Services Manager (OWSM) - a security and monitoring product for web services
Application development tools
Oracle Application Development Framework (ADF)
JDeveloper
Oracle SOA Suite
TopLink – a Java object-relational mapping package
Oracle Forms services
Oracle Developer Suite
Business intelligence
Oracle Business Intelligence (OBIEE)
Oracle Crystal Ball – enables stochastic forecasting and simulation using spreadsheet models
Oracle Discoverer
Data hubs
Oracle BI Publisher
Oracle Reports services
Systems management
Oracle Enterprise Manager
Web services manager
User interaction / content management
Oracle Beehive – collaboration platform
Unified messaging
Workspaces
Oracle WebCenter
Oracle Imaging and Process Management
Web content management
Records management
Enterprise search
Digital asset management
Email archiving
Identity management
Oracle Identity Management
Enterprise Single sign-on
Oracle Entitlements Server
Oracle Identity Manager
Oracle Access Manager
Oracle Adaptive Access Manager
Oracle Virtual Directory
See also
BEA Systems
Oracle Fusion Applications
Oracle Technology Network (OTN)
Stellent
References
External links
Oracle Fusion Middleware overview
KMWorld article on Oracle acquisition of Stellent
Stellent acquisition page
WebCenter Content Users Group - Yahoo! Groups
OTN Forum - WebCenter Content
Fujitsu.com-42 Real Life Examples of Fusion Middleware with Applications
Amazon.com Oracle Fusion Middleware Patterns - Harish Gaur (Author), Markus Zirn (Contributor)
Content.FM Content Management On Air. Broadcasting news, product updates and general purpose information about ECM and Oracle Universal Content Management
Fusion
Middleware
Service-oriented architecture-related products |
21621677 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office%20of%20the%20National%20Coordinator%20for%20Health%20Information%20Technology | Office of the National Coordinator for Health Information Technology | The Office of the National Coordinator for Health Information Technology (ONC) is a staff division of the Office of the Secretary, within the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. ONC leads national health IT efforts, charged as the principal federal entity to coordinate nationwide efforts to implement and use the most advanced health information technology and the electronic exchange of health information.
President George W. Bush created the position of National Coordinator on April 27, 2004 through . Congress later mandated ONC in the Health Information Technology for Economic and Clinical Health Act provisions of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009, under the Obama Administration.
Mission
With the passage of the HITECH Act, the Office of the National Coordinator for Health Information Technology (ONC) is charged with building an interoperable, private and secure nationwide health information system and supporting the widespread, meaningful use of health information technology.
ONC's mission is looking ahead as it begins its second decade in 2014.
ONC is working to improve these five areas:
Adoption: increase end user adoption of electronic health records and health IT to capture and use the information
Standards: establish standards so the various technologies can speak to each other
Incentives: provide the right incentives for the market to drive financial and clinical advances
Privacy and security: make sure protected (personal) health information remains private and secure
Governance: provide governance and structure for the exchange of health information
The concerted initiative on interoperability in 2014 seeks to achieve the ability of two or more systems to exchange health information and use the information once it is received.
The mission of ONC is to optimize the paths to reach these five health IT goals along with interoperability to support the Triple Aim. Widely adopted by the healthcare sector, the Triple Aim was developed by the Institute for Healthcare Improvement to 1) improve patient experience of care, 2) improve the health of populations, and 3) reduce per capita costs of healthcare.
The Federal Health IT Strategic Plan from 2011-2015 had set these five goals
Achieve adoption and information exchange through meaningful use of health IT
Improve care, improve population health, and reduce healthcare costs through the use of health IT
Inspire confidence and trust in health IT
Empower individuals with health IT to improve their health and the health care system
Achieve rapid learning and technological advancement
In its ongoing work, ONC is looking to address these priorities in 2014:
Evolve from ARRA structure of the ONC
Federal HIT Strategic Plan
Develop national consensus agenda
Health information exchange, use and infrastructure a priority focus
Meaningful use
Advance health IT tools in support of the Triple Aim
ONC's mission had previously been described as
Promoting development of a nationwide HIT infrastructure that allows for electronic use and exchange of information that:
Ensures secure and protected patient health information
Improves health care quality
Reduces health care costs
Informs medical decisions at the time/place of care
Includes meaningful public input in infrastructure development
Improves coordination of care and information among hospitals, labs, physicians, etc.
Improves public health activities and facilitates early identification/rapid response to public health emergencies
Facilitates health and clinical research
Promotes early detection, prevention, and management of chronic diseases
Promotes a more effective marketplace
Improves efforts to reduce health disparities
Providing leadership in the development, recognition, and implementation of standards and the certification of HIT products;
Health IT policy coordination;
Strategic planning for HIT adoption and health information exchange; and
Establishing governance for the Nationwide Health Information Network.
Leadership
The structure of the agency offers insight into its strategic goals, and the agency's continued interest in collaborative, transparent, experienced leadership.
National Coordinators
Micky Tripathi PhD. (January 20, 2021 – Present)
Don Rucker, MD (April 2017 – January 2021)
Jon White, MD (interim, January 2017 – April 2017)
White briefly served as acting National Coordinator prior to the appointment of Donald Rucker.
Vindell Washington (12 August 2016 – 19 January 2017)
Washington previously served as Principal Deputy National Coordinator.
Karen DeSalvo (13 January 2014 – 12 August 2016)
DeSalvo became National Coordinator for Health Information Technology on January 13, 2014, after serving as Health Commissioner for the City of New Orleans and Senior Health Policy Advisor to New Orleans Mayor Mitchell Landrieu. The role of National Coordinator is responsible for developing and executing the nation's Health Information Technology agenda. In New Orleans Dr. DeSalvo modernized and improved the effectiveness of the health department, and restored health care to devastated areas of the city, including leading the establishment of a public hospital. Prior to joining the Mayor's administration, DeSalvo was a professor of medicine and vice dean for community affairs and health policy at Tulane University School of Medicine. DeSalvo left ONC on August 12, 2016 to focus on her work as Acting Assistant Secretary of Health.
Jacob Reider (interim, 4 October 2013 – 13 January 2014)
Reider took the role of Acting National Coordinator for Health IT when Farzad Mostishari left ONC to become a visiting fellow at the Brookings Institution on October 4, 2013. He served as ONC's Deputy National Coordinator when Karen DeSalvo became National Coordinator.
Farzad Mostashari (2011 – 4 October 2013)
As National Coordinator Mostishari led ONC's major implementation phase after first joining ONC as its deputy national coordinator in July 2009. As deputy he developed a series of grant programs to promote electronic health record adoption, furthered the development of health information exchange, and helped construct the workforce development program. His vision has been instrumental in the formulation of the ONC’s Health IT Strategic Plan, the creation of ONC’s Authorized Testing and Certification Bodies, and influenced future stages of Meaningful Use.
David Blumenthal (20 April 2009 – 2011)
Physician and Harvard Medical School Professor David Blumenthal was appointed National Coordinator on March 20, 2009 and assumed the position on 20 April 2009. He set the inaugural tone and led the accelerated ramp up and development of the vastly expanded and fully funded role of ONC with the development of the many programs authorized by the HITECH Act, with the cooperation of the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services.
Robert Kolodner (interim, 18 September 2006; permanent, 18 April 2007 – 20 April 2009)
Psychiatrist Robert Kolodner became Acting National Coordinator on September 18, 2006, and was formally appointed as National Coordinator of Health Information Technology on April 18, 2007. He retired from the federal government on September 23, 2009.
Karen Bell (interim, April 2006 – 18 September 2006)
Bell briefly served as Acting National Coordinator between Brailer's departure in April 2006 and Kolodner's appointment later that year.
David Brailer (2004 – April 2006)
The first National Coordinator of Health Information Technology, physician and venture capitalist, David Brailer, laid critical groundwork for a vision of the role extensive use of electronic health records could play in the modernization of clinical paperwork and digitization of healthcare. Brailer resigned from the position on April 20, 2006.
Programs
The Health Information Technology for Economic and Clinical Health (HITECH) Act seeks to improve American health care delivery and patient care through an unprecedented investment in health information technology. The provisions of the HITECH Act are specifically designed to work together to provide the necessary assistance and technical support to providers, enable coordination and alignment within and among states, establish connectivity to the public health community in case of emergencies, and assure the workforce is properly trained and equipped to be meaningful users of Electronic Health Records (EHRs).
EHR Incentive Program Payments and Meaningful Use
The HITECH Act set meaningful use of interoperable EHR adoption in the health care system as a critical national goal and incentivized EHR adoption. The "goal is not adoption alone but 'meaningful use' of EHRs — that is, their use by providers to achieve significant improvements in care." The Centers for Medicare and Medicaid (CMS) managed and distributed these federal funds for the meaningful use of electronic health records in conjunction with state Medicaid departments with the cooperation and support of ONC and ONC programs.
As of March 2014, more than $22.5 billion in combined Medicare and Medicaid EHR Incentive Program payments have been made since 2011. More than $14.8 billion in Medicare EHR Incentive Program payments have been made between May 2011 and March 2014. More than $7.7 billion in Medicaid EHR Incentive Program payments have been made between January 2011 (when the first set of states launched their programs) and March 2014. More than 470,000 eligible professionals, eligible hospitals, and critical access hospitals are actively registered in the Medicare and Medicaid EHR Incentive Programs as of March 2014. According to Modern Healthcare, payments have been made to 90.4% of the 5,011 estimated eligible hospitals; and 69.6% of the estimated 527,200 eligible professionals.
ONC Programs
The following ONC programs help to build the foundation for every American to benefit from an electronic health record, as part of a modernized, interconnected, and vastly improved system of care delivery. Note: The list of programs below is in the process of being revised and updated.
Health Information Technology Extension Program: A grant program to establish Health Information Technology Regional Extension Centers (RECs) to offer technical assistance, guidance and information on best practices to support and accelerate health care providers’ efforts to become meaningful users of Electronic Health Records (EHRs). While RECs are no longer technically funded by ONC, many of these former grantees have no-cost extensions which allows them to spend whatever is left in their respective grants, as well as find ways to continue their work. The REC program goals were to enroll 100,000 Primary Care Providers (PCPs) in the REC program, help them go "live" on EHRs, and help them demonstrate Meaningful Use. As of January 2014, 136,303 PCPs were enrolled, 123,770 went "live," and 85,106 had demonstrated Meaningful Use. RECs were also encouraged to reach out to all providers, not only PCPs. Among all providers, 149,315 enrolled with RECs, 132,989 went "live" on EHRs, and 89,299 demonstrated Meaningful Use. ONC continues to partner with these former grantees.
State Health Information Exchange Cooperative Agreement Program: A grant program to support States or State Designated Entities (SDEs) in establishing health information exchange (HIE) capability among healthcare providers and hospitals in their jurisdictions. This program was initially envisioned to support query-based health information exchange programs in each state and territory (56 entities in all). The program transitioned into a mixture of query-based and directed exchange programs in order to support the implementation of Meaningful Use. Meaningful Use required healthcare professionals and hospitals to share authorized health information with each other as well as to send receive lab and prescription information with test labs and pharmacies respectively. ONC also issued challenge grants to those participating in the program to encourage breakthrough innovations for health information exchange that could be leveraged widely to support nationwide health information exchange and interoperability. The challenge grants sought to develop innovative and scalable solutions in five key areas: 1) achieving health goals through health information exchange, 2) improving long-term and post-acute care transitions, 3) consumer-mediated information exchange, 4) enabling enhanced query for patient care, and 5) fostering distributed population-level analytics. As of Quarter 3 of 2013, 44 states/territories had directed exchange broadly available, with another 6 reporting regional or piloted programs. As of Quarter 3 of 2013, 32 states/territories had operational query-based exchange broadly available statewide through single or multiple services/entities, 8 had query-based exchange broadly available in regions but not statewide, and 16 did not have operational query-based exchange options available. ONC is continuing to partner with these state entities.
Strategic Health IT Advanced Research Projects (SHARP) Program: A grant program to fund research focused on achieving breakthrough advances to address well-documented problems that have impeded adoption:
Security of Health Information Technology
Patient-Centered Cognitive Support
Healthcare Application and Network Platform Architectures
Secondary Use of EHR Data
Beacon Community Program: A grant program for communities to build and strengthen their health information technology (health IT) infrastructure and exchange capabilities. These communities will demonstrate the vision of a future where hospitals, clinicians, and patients are meaningful users of health IT, and together the community achieves measurable improvements in health care quality, safety, efficiency, and population health. According to a March 2013 Evaluation, "The Beacon Communities have implemented a wide variety of interventions, including innovations in care delivery, provider feedback and performance measurement initiatives, health IT development projects, and tools to improve the process of care for providers and consumers. Each Beacon Community has tailored its activities to reflect its unique resources, goals, and populations, resulting in a broad range of activities. In many cases, the Communities have chosen to focus all or some of their efforts on specific disease categories." While Beacon programs are no longer technically funded by ONC, many of these former grantees have no-cost extensions which allows them to spend whatever is left in their respective grants, as well as find ways to continue their work. ONC continues to partner with these former grantees.
Health IT Workforce Training Programs
Community College Consortia to Educate Health Information Technology Professionals Program: A grant program that seeks to rapidly create health IT education and training programs at Community Colleges or expand existing programs. Community Colleges funded under this initiative will establish intensive, non-degree training programs that can be completed in six months or less. This is one component of the Health IT Workforce Program.
Program of Assistance for University-Based Training: A grant program to rapidly increase the availability of individuals qualified to serve in specific health information technology professional roles requiring university-level training. This is one component of the Health IT Workforce Program.
*Combined Results of Community College and University-Based Training: In total the two programs trained 21,437 students from all 50 states, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands at 91 academic institutions.
Curriculum Development Centers Program: A grant program to provide $10 million in grants to institutions of higher education (or consortia thereof) to support health information technology (health IT) curriculum development. This is one component of the Health IT Workforce Program.
Competency Examination for Individuals Completing Non-Degree Training Program: A grant program to provide $6 million in grants to an institution of higher education (or consortia thereof) to support the development and initial administration of a set of health IT competency examinations. This is one component of the Health IT Workforce Program.
Advisory committees
In January 2018, the Health Information Technology Advisory Committee (HITAC) was established as required under the 21st Century Cures Act.
https://www.healthit.gov/hitac/committees/health-information-technology-advisory-committee-hitac
Term: 2021-current
Co-Chair: Aaron Miri
Co-Chair: Denise Webb
Term: 2018-2020
Co-Chair: Robert Wah
Co-Chair: Carolyn Peterson
ONC also created two Federal Advisory Committees (FACAs), the Health IT Policy Committee, which the National Coordinator chairs, and the Health IT Standards Committee. Both of these committees were disbanded in 2018 due to new legal requirements within the 21st century cures act.
Health IT Policy Committee
The Health IT Policy Committee recommends a policy framework for the development and adoption of a nationwide health information technology infrastructure that permits the electronic exchange and use of health information. Vice-chair of this committee is Paul Tang, MD, MS, who is Vice President, Chief Innovation and Technology Officer at Palo Alto Medical Foundation.
Health IT Standards Committee
The Health IT Standards Committee recommends to the National Coordinator standards, implementation specifications, and certification criteria. The Standards Committee also harmonizes, pilot tests, and ensures consistency with the Social Security Act. Vice-chair of this committee is John Halamka, MD, MS, who is Chief Information Officer of Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Professor at Harvard Medical School, and a practicing Emergency Physician.
References
Further reading
Health IT Policy Committee
Health IT Standards Committee
Health IT FACA Calendar
External links
ONC account on USAspending.gov
United States Department of Health and Human Services agencies
Health informatics organizations
Health policy in the United States |
4991568 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plattsville%20Lakers | Plattsville Lakers | The Plattsville Lakers are a junior ice hockey team based in the township of Blandford-Blenheim in Plattsville, Ontario, Canada. The Lakers joined the Greater Metro Junior A Hockey League in 2015. They were originally located in Port Stanley, Ontario, and then in West Lorne, Ontario, and London, Ontario. They also formerly played in the Southern Ontario Junior Hockey League of the Ontario Hockey Association (OHA). The Lakers left the OHA in 2008 and played as an independent team.
History
The Port Stanley Lakers were founded in 1989 as members of the Western Ontario Junior D Hockey League. A large league comprising the remnants of multiple other Southern Ontario Junior leagues. In 1991, this league renamed itself the OHA Junior Development League.
In 1994, the Lakers finished first amongst all OHAJDL teams in the regular season with a stellar record of 36 wins, 2 losses, and 2 ties. They made it all the way to the league finals in the playoffs and found themselves nose-to-nose with the Mitchell Hawks. The Hawks were not to be denied as they swept the Lakers aside 4-games-to-none to win the OHA Cup as league champions.
The 1995 season saw the Lakers pull off a solid performance, finishing second overall. They pushed all the way to the OHAJDL finals once again. Their opponents this time around were the Thamesford Trojans. The Trojans defeated the Lakers 4-games-to-2 to win the OHA Cup.
The next season, the Lakers entered the playoffs and met the Lambeth Lancers in the first round. The Lancers meant business and defeated the Lakers 4-games-to-2 to put them out of the playoffs.
The Lakers finished the 1996–97 season in fifth place overall. In the first round of the playoffs, they met the Thamesford Trojans. They defeated the Trojans 4-games-to-none. In the second round, the Lakers were defeated by the Mount Brydges Bulldogs 4-games-to-2.
The Lakers showed great promise in the 1997–98 season, finishing second overall. They entered the playoffs against the Lambeth Lancers, whom they defeated 4-games-to-1. In the second round, the Lakers were up against the Thamesford Trojans who they also beat in five games. In the conference final, Port Stanley ran into the Exeter Hawks. In a drawn out series, the Hawks bested the Lakers in the seventh game to win the series 4-games-to-3 and deny the Lakers a chance at the OHA Cup.
The 1999–00 proved to be one for the ages for the Port Stanley Lakers. After finishing first overall in the OHAJDL with a record of 31 wins and 9 losses, the Lakers pushed deep into the playoffs. Their first opponents were the Lambeth Lancers, who the Lakers defeat 4-games-to-2. In the second round, the Lakers came up against the Thamesford Trojans and swept them 4-games-to-none. The conference finals were next and the Lakers were up against a tough Lucan Irish squad. The Irish couldn't handle the Lakers, as Port Stanley took the series 4-games-to-1. This earned the Lakers their first OHAJDL final since 1995. The Lakers challenged the Burford Bulldogs and defeated them 4-games-to-1 to win their franchises first ever OHA Cup.
The 2000–01 season marked the end of an era of domination for the Lakers. This was the last season for many that they would ride amongst the top teams in the standings. After finishing first overall in the league, the Lakers entered the playoffs against the North Middlesex Stars. The Lakers swept the Stars 4-games-to-none. In the second round of the playoffs, the Lakers met the Seaforth Centenaires. The underdog Centenaires took the Lakers to game seven and defeated them in an upset.
In 2004, the Lakers met Thamesford in the first round of the playoffs and defeated them 4-games-to-none. In the second round, they met Lambeth and defeated them 4-games-to-2. In the conference final, the Lakers met the Exeter Hawks and were swept in four games.
During the off-season, the Lakers moved to West Elgin and became the West Lorne Lakers. In 2005, the Lakers met Lambeth in the first round of the playoffs and defeated them in seven games. They then met the Lucan Irish and again won the series in seven games. In the conference final, it appeared that the Lakers might do it again in game seven to the Mount Brydges Bulldogs. This time, the opponents prevailed and the Bulldogs won the series in seven games.
In 2006, the Lakers met the Exeter Hawks in the first round of the playoffs. The Hawks fell to the Lakers 4-games-to-2. In the second round of the playoffs, the Lakers fell to Thamesford 4-games-to-none.
In the off-season, the OHAJDL disbanded and the Southern Ontario Junior Hockey League was formed in its place. West Lorne finished low in the standings but still made the playoffs. They met the Lambeth Lancers in the first round and defeated them 4-games-to-2. In the second round of the playoffs, the Lakers lost to the North Middlesex Stars 4-games-to-2.
After nineteen seasons in the Ontario Hockey Association, the Lakers franchise announced that they will be leaving the OHA. "The Lakers will continue play in various forms at other venues outside the OHA," said team President Wayne Bedford. The team joined the GMHL in January 2015. Beginning in the 2008–09 season, the Lakers joined the local men's recreational league in London, posing a 19–1–0 record in their first year and winning their league in 2009, 2010, and 2011. The organization then went dormant in 2011.
Move to London
Beginning in 2015, the Lakers joined the Greater Metro Junior A Hockey League.
The Lakers gained international attention due to a video recorded during a road game against the Kingsville Kings on November 20, 2015. A brawl broke out when a London player struck Kingsville's goalie Jan Pechek. During the fight, a linesman struck a London player and then was attacked by a member of the London Lakers' bench staff.
The team left London in 2020.
Season-by-season records
Playoffs
1994
Mitchell Hawks defeated Port Stanley Lakers 4-games-to-none in finals
1995
Thamesford Trojans defeated Port Stanley Lakers 4-games-to-2 in finals
1996
Lambeth Lancers defeated Port Stanley Lakers 4-games-to-2 in conf. quarter-finals
1997
Port Stanley Lakers defeated Thamesford Trojans 4-games-to-none in conf. quarter-finals
Mount Brydges Bulldogs defeated Port Stanley Lakers 4-games-to-2 in conf. semi-finals
1998
Port Stanley Lakers defeated Lambeth Lancers 4-games-to-1 in conf. quarter-finals
Port Stanley Lakers defeated Thamesford Trojans 4-games-to-1 in conf. semi-finals
Exeter Hawks defeated Port Stanley Lakers 4-games-to-3 in conf. finals
2000
Port Stanley Lakers defeated Lambeth Lancers 4-games-to-2 in conf. quarter-finals
Port Stanley Lakers defeated Thamesford Trojans 4-games-to-none in conf. semi-finals
Port Stanley Lakers defeated Lucan Irish 4-games-to-1 in conf. finals
Port Stanley Lakers defeated Burford Bulldogs 4-games-to-1 in finals
2001
Port Stanley Lakers defeated North Middlesex Stars 4-games-to-none in conf. quarter-finals
Seaforth Centenaires defeated Port Stanley Lakers 4-games-to-3 in conf. semi-finals
2004
Port Stanley Lakers defeated Thamesford Trojans 4-games-to-none in conf. quarter-finals
Port Stanley Lakers defeated Lambeth Lancers 4-games-to-2 in conf. semi-finals
Exeter Hawks defeated Port Stanley Lakers 4-games-to-none in conf. finals
2005
West Lorne Lakers defeated Lambeth Lancers 4-games-to-3 in conf. quarter-finals
West Lorne Lakers defeated Lucan Irish 4-games-to-3 in conf. semi-finals
Mount Brydges Bulldogs defeated West Lorne 4-games-to-3 in conf. finals
2006
West Lorne Lakers defeated Exeter Hawks 4-games-to-2 in conf. quarter-finals
Thamesford Trojans defeated West Lorne Lakers 4-games-to-none in conf. semi-finals
2007
West Lorne Lakers defeated Lambeth Lancers 4-games-to-2 in conf. quarter-finals
North Middlesex Stars defeated West Lorne Lakers 4-games-to-2 in conf. semi-finals
2008
West Lorne Lakers defeated Lambeth Lancers 4-games-to-1 in conf. quarter-finals
Mount Brydges Bulldogs defeated West Lorne Lakers 4-games-to-none in conf. semi-finals
References
External links
London Lakers Jr. A Hockey Website
1989 establishments in Ontario
Ice hockey clubs established in 1989
Ice hockey teams in Ontario
Southern Ontario Junior Hockey League teams |
23064447 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smartbook | Smartbook | A smartbook was a class of mobile device that combined certain features of both a smartphone and netbook computer, produced between 2009 and 2010.
Smartbooks were advertised with features such as always on, all-day battery life, 3G, or Wi-Fi connectivity and GPS (all typically found in smartphones) in a laptop or tablet-style body with a screen size of 5 to 10 inches and a physical or soft touchscreen keyboard.
A German company sold laptops under the brand Smartbook and held a trademark for the word in many countries (not including some big markets like United States, China, Japan, or India). It acted to preempt others from using the term smartbook to describe their products.
Smartbooks tended to be designed more for entertainment purposes than for productivity and typically targeted to work with online applications. They were projected to be sold subsidized through mobile network operators, like mobile phones, along with a wireless data plan.
The advent of much more popular tablets like Android tablets and the iPad, coupled with the prevailing popularity of conventional desktop computers and laptops have displaced the smartbook.
History
The smartbook concept was mentioned by Qualcomm in May 2009 during marketing for its Snapdragon technology, with products expected later that year. Difficulties in adapting key software (in particular, Adobe's proprietary Flash Player) to the ARM architecture delayed releases until the first quarter of 2010.
Smartbooks would have been powered by processors which were more energy-efficient than traditional ones typically found in desktop and laptop computers. The first smartbooks were expected to use variants of the Linux operating system, such as Google's Android or Chrome OS. The ARM processor would have allowed them to achieve longer battery life than many larger devices using x86 processors.
In February 2010, ABI Research projected that 163 million smartbooks would ship in 2015.
In many countries the word Smartbook was a trademark registered by Smartbook AG. In August 2009 a German court ruled Qualcomm must block access from Germany to all its webpages containing the word Smartbook unless Smartbook AG is mentioned. Smartbook AG defended its trademark.
A February 2010 ruling prevented Lenovo from using the term.
By the end of 2010, Qualcomm CEO Paul Jacobs admitted that tablet computers such as the iPad already occupied the niche of the smartbook, so the name was dropped.
In February 2011 Qualcomm won its legal battle when the German patent office ruled the words "smart" and "book" could be used. However, several trademarks have been registered.
Designs
Always Innovating Touch Book
In March 2009 the Always Innovating company announced the Touch Book. It was based on the Texas Instruments OMAP 3530 which implemented the ARM Cortex-A8 architecture. It was originally developed from the Texas Instruments Beagle Board. It had a touchscreen and a detachable keyboard which contained a second battery. The device came with a Linux operating system and the company offered to license their hardware designs.
Sharp Netwalker
Sharp Electronics, introduced their PC-Z1 "Netwalker" device in August 2009 with a promised ship date of October 2009. It featured a 5.5" touchscreen, runs Ubuntu on an ARM Cortex-A8 based Freescale i.MX515 and was packaged in a small clamshell design. Sharp reported the device weighs less than 500 grams and will run 10 hours on one battery charge. The device is said to run 720p video, and have both 2D and 3D graphics acceleration. It comes with Adobe Flash Lite 3.1 installed.
Pegatron prototype
Pegatron, an Asus company, showed a working prototype of a smartbook in August 2009. It consisted of an ARM Cortex-A8 based Freescale i.MX515 supports 2D/3D graphics as well as 720p HD video, 512 MB DDR2 RAM, 1024x600 8.9" LCD screen, Bluetooth 2.0, 802.11g and run off a SD card. It also featured one USB and one micro USB port, a VGA port as well as a card reader. The smartbook ran Ubuntu Netbook 9.04 and contained a version of Adobe Flash Player which was out of date. The bill of materials for the Pegatron smartbook prototype was $120.
In November 2009 Pegatron said it had received a large number of orders for smartbooks that would launch in early 2010. The devices were rumored to sell for about $200 when subsidized. Asus announced plans to release their own smartbook in the first quarter of 2010.
Lenovo Skylight
Qualcomm was expected to announce a smartbook on November 12, 2009 at an analyst meeting.
A Lenovo device concept was shown, and announced in January 2010.
In May 2010 the Skylight was cancelled.
Compaq Airlife 100
In late January 2010 a U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) listing featured a device from HP that was referred as smartbook, while a prototype of the same device was already shown earlier. In beginning February on Mobile World Congress in Barcelona, HP announced it will bring this device to market. The specifications will most likely be following:
CPU: 1 GHz Qualcomm Snapdragon processor
Operating system: Android
Display: 10.1 inch touchscreen
Storage: 16 GB SSD
Networking: 3G and Wi-Fi
Battery: up to 12 hours, 10 days in standby mode
In the end of March 2010 the smartbook made an appearance at FCC again, this time listing its 3G capabilities. According to FCC, the device will support GSM 850 and 1900, as well as WCDMA II and V bands. These WCDMA bands may indicate the usage in AT&T network in the United States. Details of the product is now available on the HP website.
Toshiba AC100
In June 2010, a smartbook device from Toshiba was announced. It features Nvidia Tegra processor and is able to remain in stand-by mode for up to 7 days. The device was officially available at the Toshiba United Kingdom site. Originally delivered with Android v2.1 (upgradable to v2.2 since 2011 ) it can also be modified to run a customized Linux distribution.
In Japan, was sold as "Dynabook AZ".
Genesi Efika MX
The Genesi company announced an MX Smartbook as part of their Efika line in August 2010.
It was originally priced at US$349, and some reviewers questioned if it was small enough to fit this definition. It is ostensibly a derivative of the above-mentioned Pegatron design.
Others
In September 2009, Foxconn announced it is working on smartbook development.
In November 2009, a Quanta Computer pre-production Snapdragon powered sample smartbook device that ran Android was unveiled. Companies like Acer Inc. planned to release a smartbook, but due to the popularity of tablets, MacBook Air and Ultrabooks, plans were scrapped.
See also
Mobile internet device
Ultra-mobile PC
Virtual keyboard
Netbook
Subnotebook
References
External links
ARM Community Blogs on Smart Mobile Devices
News stories
Smartbook Playing Field Wide Open for Linux
ARM architecture
Classes of computers
Japanese inventions
History of telecommunications
History of computing hardware |
137174 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%C2%B2C | I²C | I2C (Inter-Integrated Circuit, ), alternatively known as I2C or IIC, is a synchronous, multi-controller/multi-target (controller/target), packet switched, single-ended, serial communication bus invented in 1982 by Philips Semiconductors. It is widely used for attaching lower-speed peripheral ICs to processors and microcontrollers in short-distance, intra-board communication.
Several competitors, such as Siemens, NEC, Texas Instruments, STMicroelectronics, Motorola, Nordic Semiconductor and Intersil, have introduced compatible I2C products to the market since the mid-1990s.
System Management Bus (SMBus), defined by Intel in 1995, is a subset of I2C, defining a stricter usage. One purpose of SMBus is to promote robustness and interoperability. Accordingly, modern I2C systems incorporate some policies and rules from SMBus, sometimes supporting both I2C and SMBus, requiring only minimal reconfiguration either by commanding or output pin use.
Applications
I2C is appropriate for peripherals where simplicity and low manufacturing cost are more important than speed. Common applications of the I2C bus are:
Describing connectable devices via small ROM configuration tables to enable plug and play operation, such as in serial presence detect (SPD) EEPROMs on dual in-line memory modules (DIMMs), and Extended Display Identification Data (EDID) for monitors via VGA, DVI and HDMI connectors.
System management for PC systems via SMBus; SMBus pins are allocated in both conventional PCI and PCI Express connectors.
Accessing real-time clocks and NVRAM chips that keep user settings.
Accessing low-speed DACs and ADCs.
Changing backlight, contrast, hue, color balance settings etc in monitors (via Display Data Channel).
Changing sound volume in intelligent speakers.
Controlling small (e.g. feature phone) LCD or OLED displays.
Reading hardware monitors and diagnostic sensors, e.g. a fan's speed.
Turning on and off the power supply of system components.
A particular strength of I2C is the capability of a microcontroller to control a network of device chips with just two general-purpose I/O pins and software. Many other bus technologies used in similar applications, such as Serial Peripheral Interface Bus (SPI), require more pins and signals to connect multiple devices.
Revisions
Design
I2C uses only two bidirectional open-collector or open-drain lines: serial data line (SDA) and serial clock line (SCL), pulled up with resistors. Typical voltages used are +5 V or +3.3 V, although systems with other voltages are permitted.
The I2C reference design has a 7-bit address space, with a rarely used 10-bit extension. Common I2C bus speeds are the 100 kbit/s standard mode and the 400 kbit/s fast mode. There is also a 10 kbit/s low-speed mode, but arbitrarily low clock frequencies are also allowed. Later revisions of I2C can host more nodes and run at faster speeds (400 kbit/s fast mode, 1 Mbit/s fast mode plus, 3.4 Mbit/s high-speed mode, and 5 Mbit/s ultra-fast mode). These speeds are more widely used on embedded systems than on PCs.
Note that the bit rates are quoted for the transfers between controller and target without clock stretching or other hardware overhead. Protocol overheads include a target address and perhaps a register address within the target device, as well as per-byte ACK/NACK bits. Thus the actual transfer rate of user data is lower than those peak bit rates alone would imply. For example, if each interaction with a target inefficiently allows only 1 byte of data to be transferred, the data rate will be less than half the peak bit rate.
The number of nodes which can exist on a given I2C bus is limited by the address space and also by the total bus capacitance of 400 pF, which restricts practical communication distances to a few meters. The relatively high impedance and low noise immunity requires a common ground potential, which again restricts practical use to communication within the same PC board or small system of boards.
Reference design
The aforementioned reference design is a bus with a clock (SCL) and data (SDA) lines with 7-bit addressing. The bus has two roles for nodes,
either controller or target:
Controller node: Node that generates the clock and initiates communication with targets.
Target node: Node that receives the clock and responds when addressed by the controller.
The bus is a multi-controller bus, which means that any number of controller nodes can be present. Additionally, controller and target roles may be changed between messages (after a STOP is sent).
There may be four potential modes of operation for a given bus device, although most devices only use a single role and its two modes:
Controller transmit: Controller node is sending data to a target.
Controller receive: Controller node is receiving data from a target.
Target transmit: Target node is sending data to the controller.
Target receive: Target node is receiving data from the controller.
In addition to 0 and 1 data bits, the I2C bus allows special START and STOP signals which act as message delimiters and are distinct from the data bits. (This is in contrast to the start bits and stop bits used in asynchronous serial communication, which are distinguished from data bits only by their timing.)
The controller is initially in controller transmit mode by sending a START followed by the 7-bit address of the target it wishes to communicate with, which is finally followed by a single bit representing whether it wishes to write (0) to or read (1) from the target.
If the target exists on the bus then it will respond with an ACK bit (active low for acknowledged) for that address. The controller then continues in either transmit or receive mode (according to the read/write bit it sent), and the target continues in the complementary mode (receive or transmit, respectively).
The address and the data bytes are sent most significant bit first. The start condition is indicated by a high-to-low transition of SDA with SCL high; the stop condition is indicated by a low-to-high transition of SDA with SCL high. All other transitions of SDA take place with SCL low.
If the controller wishes to write to the target, then it repeatedly sends a byte with the target sending an ACK bit. (In this situation, the controller is in controller transmit mode, and the target is in target receive mode.)
If the controller wishes to read from the target, then it repeatedly receives a byte from the target, the controller sending an ACK bit after every byte except the last one. (In this situation, the controller is in controller receive mode, and the target is in target transmit mode.)
An I2C transaction may consist of multiple messages. The controller terminates a message with a STOP condition if this is the end of the transaction or it may send another START condition to retain control of the bus for another message (a "combined format" transaction).
Message protocols
I2C defines basic types of transactions, each of which begins with a START and ends with a STOP:
Single message where a controller writes data to a target.
Single message where a controller reads data from a target.
Combined format, where a controller issues at least two reads or writes to one or more targets.
In a combined transaction, each read or write begins with a START and the target address. The START conditions after the first are also called repeated START bits. Repeated STARTs are not preceded by STOP conditions, which is how targets know that the next message is part of the same transaction.
Any given target will only respond to certain messages, as specified in its product documentation.
Pure I2C systems support arbitrary message structures. SMBus is restricted to nine of those structures, such as read word N and write word N, involving a single target. PMBus extends SMBus with a Group protocol, allowing multiple such SMBus transactions to be sent in one combined message. The terminating STOP indicates when those grouped actions should take effect. For example, one PMBus operation might reconfigure three power supplies (using three different I2C target addresses), and their new configurations would take effect at the same time: when they receive that STOP.
With only a few exceptions, neither I2C nor SMBus define message semantics, such as the meaning of data bytes in messages. Message semantics are otherwise product-specific. Those exceptions include messages addressed to the I2C general call address (0x00) or to the SMBus Alert Response Address; and messages involved in the SMBus Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) for dynamic address allocation and management.
In practice, most targets adopt request-response control models, where one or more bytes following a write command are treated as a command or address. Those bytes determine how subsequent written bytes are treated or how the target responds on subsequent reads. Most SMBus operations involve single-byte commands.
Messaging example: 24C32 EEPROM
One specific example is the 24C32 type EEPROM, which uses two request bytes that are called Address High and Address Low. (Accordingly, these EEPROMs are not usable by pure SMBus hosts, which support only single-byte commands or addresses.) These bytes are used for addressing bytes within the 32 kbit (or 4 kB) EEPROM address space. The same two-byte addressing is also used by larger EEPROMs, like the 24C512 which stores 512 kbits (or 64 kB). Writing and reading data to these EEPROMs uses a simple protocol: the address is written, and then data is transferred until the end of the message. The data transfer part of the protocol can cause trouble on the SMBus, since the data bytes are not preceded by a count, and more than 32 bytes can be transferred at once. I2C EEPROMs smaller than 32 kbit, like the 2 kbit 24C02, are often used on the SMBus with inefficient single-byte data transfers to overcome this problem.
A single message writes to the EEPROM. After the START, the controller sends the chip's bus address with the direction bit clear (write), then sends the two-byte address of data within the EEPROM and then sends data bytes to be written starting at that address, followed by a STOP. When writing multiple bytes, all the bytes must be in the same 32-byte page. While it is busy saving those bytes to memory, the EEPROM will not respond to further I2C requests. (That is another incompatibility with SMBus: SMBus devices must always respond to their bus addresses.)
To read starting at a particular address in the EEPROM, a combined message is used. After a START, the controller first writes that chip's bus address with the direction bit clear (write) and then the two bytes of EEPROM data address. It then sends a (repeated) START and the EEPROM's bus address with the direction bit set (read). The EEPROM will then respond with the data bytes beginning at the specified EEPROM data address — a combined message: first a write, then a read. The controller issues an ACK after each read byte except the last byte, and then issues a STOP. The EEPROM increments the address after each data byte transferred; multi-byte reads can retrieve the entire contents of the EEPROM using one combined message.
Physical layer
At the physical layer, both SCL and SDA lines are an open-drain (MOSFET) or open-collector (BJT) bus design, thus a pull-up resistor is needed for each line. A logic "0" is output by pulling the line to ground, and a logic "1" is output by letting the line float (output high impedance) so that the pull-up resistor pulls it high. A line is never actively driven high. This wiring allows multiple nodes to connect to the bus without short circuits from signal contention. High-speed systems (and some others) may use a current source instead of a resistor to pull-up only SCL or both SCL and SDA, to accommodate higher bus capacitance and enable faster rise times.
An important consequence of this is that multiple nodes may be driving the lines simultaneously. If any node is driving the line low, it will be low. Nodes that are trying to transmit a logical one (i.e. letting the line float high) can detect this and conclude that another node is active at the same time.
When used on SCL, this is called clock stretching and is a flow-control mechanism for targets. When used on SDA, this is called arbitration and ensures that there is only one transmitter at a time.
When idle, both lines are high. To start a transaction, SDA is pulled low while SCL remains high. It is illegal to transmit a stop marker by releasing SDA to float high again (although such a "void message" is usually harmless), so the next step is to pull SCL low.
Except for the start and stop signals, the SDA line only changes while the clock is low; transmitting a data bit consists of pulsing the clock line high while holding the data line steady at the desired level.
While SCL is low, the transmitter (initially the controller) sets SDA to the desired value and (after a small delay to let the value propagate) lets SCL float high. The controller then waits for SCL to actually go high; this will be delayed by the finite rise time of the SCL signal (the RC time constant of the pull-up resistor and the parasitic capacitance of the bus) and may be additionally delayed by a target's clock stretching.
Once SCL is high, the controller waits a minimum time (4 μs for standard-speed I2C) to ensure that the receiver has seen the bit, then pulls it low again. This completes transmission of one bit.
After every 8 data bits in one direction, an "acknowledge" bit is transmitted in the other direction. The transmitter and receiver switch roles for one bit, and the original receiver transmits a single "0" bit (ACK) back. If the transmitter sees a "1" bit (NACK) instead, it learns that:
(If controller transmitting to target) The target is unable to accept the data. No such target, command not understood, or unable to accept any more data.
(If target transmitting to controller) The controller wishes the transfer to stop after this data byte.
Only the SDA line changes direction during acknowledge bits; the SCL is always controlled by the controller.
After the acknowledge bit, the clock line is low and the controller may do one of three things:
Begin transferring another byte of data: the transmitter sets SDA, and the controller pulses SCL high.
Send a "Stop": Set SDA low, let SCL go high, then let SDA go high. This releases the I2C bus.
Send a "Repeated start": Set SDA high, let SCL go high, then pull SDA low again. This starts a new I2C bus message without releasing the bus.
Clock stretching using SCL
One of the more significant features of the I2C protocol is clock stretching. An addressed target device may hold the clock line (SCL) low after receiving (or sending) a byte, indicating that it is not yet ready to process more data. The controller that is communicating with the target may not finish the transmission of the current bit, but must wait until the clock line actually goes high. If the target is clock-stretching, the clock line will still be low (because the connections are open-drain). The same is true if a second, slower, controller tries to drive the clock at the same time. (If there is more than one controller, all but one of them will normally lose arbitration.)
The controller must wait until it observes the clock line going high, and an additional minimal time (4 μs for standard 100 kbit/s I2C) before pulling the clock low again.
Although the controller may also hold the SCL line low for as long as it desires (this is not allowed since Rev. 6 of the protocol – subsection 3.1.1), the term "clock stretching" is normally used only when targets do it. Although in theory any clock pulse may be stretched, generally it is the intervals before or after the acknowledgment bit which are used. For example, if the target is a microcontroller, its I2C interface could stretch the clock after each byte, until the software decides whether to send a positive acknowledgment or a NACK.
Clock stretching is the only time in I2C where the target drives SCL. Many targets do not need to clock stretch and thus treat SCL as strictly an input with no circuitry to drive it. Some controllers, such as those found inside custom ASICs may not support clock stretching; often these devices will be labeled as a "two-wire interface" and not I2C.
To ensure a minimal bus throughput, SMBus places limits on how far clocks may be stretched. Hosts and targets adhering to those limits cannot block access to the bus for more than a short time, which is not a guarantee made by pure I2C systems.
Arbitration using SDA
Every controller monitors the bus for start and stop bits and does not start a message while another controller is keeping the bus busy. However, two controllers may start transmission at about the same time; in this case, arbitration occurs. Target transmit mode can also be arbitrated, when a controller addresses multiple targets, but this is less common. In contrast to protocols (such as Ethernet) that use random back-off delays before issuing a retry, I2C has a deterministic arbitration policy. Each transmitter checks the level of the data line (SDA) and compares it with the levels it expects; if they do not match, that transmitter has lost arbitration and drops out of this protocol interaction.
If one transmitter sets SDA to 1 (not driving a signal) and a second transmitter sets it to 0 (pull to ground), the result is that the line is low. The first transmitter then observes that the level of the line is different from that expected and concludes that another node is transmitting. The first node to notice such a difference is the one that loses arbitration: it stops driving SDA. If it is a controller, it also stops driving SCL and waits for a STOP; then it may try to reissue its entire message. In the meantime, the other node has not noticed any difference between the expected and actual levels on SDA and therefore continues transmission. It can do so without problems because so far the signal has been exactly as it expected; no other transmitter has disturbed its message.
If the two controllers are sending a message to two different targets, the one sending the lower target address always "wins" arbitration in the address stage. Since the two controllers may send messages to the same target address, and addresses sometimes refer to multiple targets, arbitration must sometimes continue into the data stages.
Arbitration occurs very rarely, but is necessary for proper multi-controller support. As with clock stretching, not all devices support arbitration. Those that do, generally label themselves as supporting "multi-controller" communication.
One case which must be handled carefully in multi-controller I2C implementations is that of the controllers talking to each other. One controller may lose arbitration to an incoming message, and must change its role from controller to target in time to acknowledge its own address.
In the extremely rare case that two controllers simultaneously send identical messages, both will regard the communication as successful, but the target will only see one message. For this reason, when a target can be accessed by multiple controllers, every command recognized by the target either must be idempotent or must be guaranteed never to be issued by two controllers at the same time. (For example, a command which is issued by only one controller need not be idempotent, nor is it necessary for a specific command to be idempotent when some mutual exclusion mechanism ensures that only one controller can be caused to issue that command at any given time.)
Arbitration in SMBus
While I2C only arbitrates between controllers, SMBus uses arbitration in three additional contexts, where multiple targets respond to the controller, and one gets its message through.
Although conceptually a single-controller bus, a target device that supports the "host notify protocol" acts as a controller to perform the notification. It seizes the bus and writes a 3-byte message to the reserved "SMBus Host" address (0x08), passing its address and two bytes of data. When two targets try to notify the host at the same time, one of them will lose arbitration and need to retry.
An alternative target notification system uses the separate SMBALERT# signal to request attention. In this case, the host performs a 1-byte read from the reserved "SMBus Alert Response Address" (0x0C), which is a kind of broadcast address. All alerting targets respond with a data bytes containing their own address. When the target successfully transmits its own address (winning arbitration against others) it stops raising that interrupt. In both this and the preceding case, arbitration ensures that one target's message will be received, and the others will know they must retry.
SMBus also supports an "address resolution protocol", wherein devices return a 16-byte "universal device ID" (UDID). Multiple devices may respond; the one with the lowest UDID will win arbitration and be recognized.
Arbitration in PMBus
PMBus version 1.3 extends the SMBus alert response protocol in its "zone read" protocol. Targets may be grouped into "zones", and all targets in a zone may be addressed to respond, with their responses masked (omitting unwanted information), inverted (so wanted information is sent as 0 bits, which win arbitration), or reordered (so the most significant information is sent first). Arbitration ensures that the highest priority response is the one first returned to the controller.
PMBus reserves I2C addresses 0x28 and 0x37 for zone reads and writes, respectively.
Differences between modes
There are several possible operating modes for I2C communication. All are compatible in that the 100 kbit/s standard mode may always be used, but combining devices of different capabilities on the same bus can cause issues, as follows:
Fast mode is highly compatible and simply tightens several of the timing parameters to achieve 400 kbit/s speed. Fast mode is widely supported by I2C target devices, so a controller may use it as long as it knows that the bus capacitance and pull-up strength allow it.
Fast mode plus achieves up to 1 Mbit/s using more powerful (20 mA) drivers and pull-ups to achieve faster rise and fall times. Compatibility with standard and fast mode devices (with 3 mA pull-down capability) can be achieved if there is some way to reduce the strength of the pull-ups when talking to them.
High speed mode (3.4 Mbit/s) is compatible with normal I2C devices on the same bus, but requires the controller have an active pull-up on the clock line which is enabled during high speed transfers. The first data bit is transferred with a normal open-drain rising clock edge, which may be stretched. For the remaining seven data bits, and the ACK, the controller drives the clock high at the appropriate time and the target may not stretch it. All high-speed transfers are preceded by a single-byte "controller code" at fast or standard speed. This code serves three purposes:
it tells high-speed target devices to change to high-speed timing rules,
it ensures that fast or normal speed devices will not try to participate in the transfer (because it does not match their address), and
because it identifies the controller (there are eight controller codes, and each controller must use a different one), it ensures that arbitration is complete before the high-speed portion of the transfer, and so the high-speed portion need not make allowances for that ability.
Ultra-Fast mode is essentially a write-only I2C subset, which is incompatible with other modes except in that it is easy to add support for it to an existing I2C interface hardware design. Only one controller is permitted, and it actively drives data lines at all times to achieve a 5 Mbit/s transfer rate. Clock stretching, arbitration, read transfers, and acknowledgements are all omitted. It is mainly intended for animated LED displays where a transmission error would only cause an inconsequential brief visual glitch. The resemblance to other I2C bus modes is limited to:
the start and stop conditions are used to delimit transfers,
I2C addressing allows multiple target devices to share the bus without SPI bus style target select signals, and
a ninth clock pulse is sent per byte transmitted marking the position of the unused acknowledgement bits.
Some of the vendors provide a so called non-standard Turbo mode with a speed up to 1.4 Mbit/s.
In all modes, the clock frequency is controlled by the controller(s), and a longer-than-normal bus may be operated at a slower-than-nominal speed by underclocking.
Circuit interconnections
I2C is popular for interfacing peripheral circuits to prototyping systems, such as the Arduino and Raspberry Pi. I2C does not employ a standardized connector, however, board designers have created various wiring schemes for I2C interconnections. To minimize the possible damage due to plugging 0.1-inch headers in backwards, some developers have suggested using alternating signal and power connections of the following wiring schemes: (GND, SCL, VCC, SDA) or (VCC, SDA, GND, SCL).
The vast majority of applications use I2C in the way it was originally designed—peripheral ICs directly wired to a processor on the same printed circuit board, and therefore over relatively short distances of less than , without a connector. However using a differential driver, an alternate version of I2C can communicate up to 20 meters (possibly over 100 meters) over CAT5 or other cable.
Several standard connectors carry I2C signals. For example, the UEXT connector carries I2C;
the 10-pin iPack connector carries I2C; the 6P6C Lego Mindstorms NXT connector carries I2C; a few people use the 8P8C connectors and CAT5 cable normally used for Ethernet physical layer to instead carry differential-encoded I2C signals or boosted single-ended I2C signals; and every HDMI and most DVI and VGA connectors carry DDC2 data over I2C.
Buffering and multiplexing
When there are many I2C devices in a system, there can be a need to include bus buffers or multiplexers to split large bus segments into smaller ones. This can be necessary to keep the capacitance of a bus segment below the allowable value or to allow multiple devices with the same address to be separated by a multiplexer. Many types of multiplexers and buffers exist and all must take into account the fact that I2C lines are specified to be bidirectional. Multiplexers can be implemented with analog switches, which can tie one segment to another. Analog switches maintain the bidirectional nature of the lines but do not isolate the capacitance of one segment from another or provide buffering capability.
Buffers can be used to isolate capacitance on one segment from another and/or allow I2C to be sent over longer cables or traces. Buffers for bi-directional lines such as I2C must use one of several schemes for preventing latch-up. I2C is open-drain, so buffers must drive a low on one side when they see a low on the other. One method for preventing latch-up is for a buffer to have carefully selected input and output levels such that the output level of its driver is higher than its input threshold, preventing it from triggering itself. For example, a buffer may have an input threshold of 0.4 V for detecting a low, but an output low level of 0.5 V. This method requires that all other devices on the bus have thresholds which are compatible and often means that multiple buffers implementing this scheme cannot be put in series with one another.
Alternatively, other types of buffers exist that implement current amplifiers or keep track of the state (i.e. which side drove the bus low) to prevent latch-up. The state method typically means that an unintended pulse is created during a hand-off when one side is driving the bus low, then the other drives it low, then the first side releases (this is common during an I2C acknowledgement).
Sharing SCL between multiple buses
When having a single controller, it is possible to have multiple I2C buses share the same SCL line. The packets on each bus are either sent one after the other or at the same time. This is possible, because the communication on each bus can be subdivided in alternating short periods with high SCL followed by short periods with low SCL. And the clock can be stretched, if one bus needs more time in one state.
Advantages are using targets devices with the same address at the same time and saving connections or a faster throughput by using several data lines at the same time.
Line state table
These tables show the various atomic states and bit operations that may occur during an I2C message.
Addressing structure
7-bit addressing
10-bit addressing
Reserved addresses in 7-bit address space
Two groups of addresses are reserved for special functions:
SMBus reserves some additional addresses. In particular, 0001 000 is reserved for the SMBus host, which may be used by controller-capable devices, 0001 100 is the "SMBus alert response address" which is polled by the host after an out-of-band interrupt, and 1100 001 is the default address which is initially used by devices capable of dynamic address assignment.
This leaves a total of 107 unreserved 7-bit addresses in common between I2C, SMBus, and PMBus.
Non-reserved addresses in 7-bit address space
Although MSB 1111 is reserved for Device ID and 10-bit target addressing, it is also used by VESA DDC display dependent devices such as pointing devices.
Transaction format
An I2C transaction consists of one or more messages. Each message begins with a start symbol, and the transaction ends with a stop symbol. Start symbols after the first, which begin a message but not a transaction, are referred to as repeated start symbols.
Each message is a read or a write. A transaction consisting of a single message is called either a read or a write transaction. A transaction consisting of multiple messages is called a combined transaction. The most common form of the latter is a write message providing intra-device address information, followed by a read message.
Many I2C devices do not distinguish between a combined transaction and the same messages sent as separate transactions, but not all. The device ID protocol requires a single transaction; targets are forbidden from responding if they observe a stop symbol. Configuration, calibration or self-test modes which cause the target to respond unusually are also often automatically terminated at the end of a transaction.
Timing diagram
Data transfer is initiated with a start condition (S) signaled by SDA being pulled low while SCL stays high.
SCL is pulled low, and SDA sets the first data bit level while keeping SCL low (during blue bar time).
The data is sampled (received) when SCL rises for the first bit (B1). For a bit to be valid, SDA must not change between a rising edge of SCL and the subsequent falling edge (the entire green bar time).
This process repeats, SDA transitioning while SCL is low, and the data being read while SCL is high (B2 through Bn).
The final bit is followed by a clock pulse, during which SDA is pulled low in preparation for the stop bit.
A stop condition (P) is signaled when SCL rises, followed by SDA rising.
In order to avoid false marker detection, there is a minimum delay between the SCL falling edge and changing SDA, and between changing SDA and the SCL rising edge. Note that an I2C message containing data bits (including acknowledges) contains clock pulses.
Example of bit-banging the I2C protocol
Below is an example of bit-banging the I2C protocol as an I2C controller. The example is written in pseudo C. It illustrates all of the I2C features described before (clock stretching, arbitration, start/stop bit, ack/nack).
// Hardware-specific support functions that MUST be customized:
#define I2CSPEED 100
void I2C_delay(void);
bool read_SCL(void); // Return current level of SCL line, 0 or 1
bool read_SDA(void); // Return current level of SDA line, 0 or 1
void set_SCL(void); // Do not drive SCL (set pin high-impedance)
void clear_SCL(void); // Actively drive SCL signal low
void set_SDA(void); // Do not drive SDA (set pin high-impedance)
void clear_SDA(void); // Actively drive SDA signal low
void arbitration_lost(void);
bool started = false; // global data
void i2c_start_cond(void) {
if (started) {
// if started, do a restart condition
// set SDA to 1
set_SDA();
I2C_delay();
set_SCL();
while (read_SCL() == 0) { // Clock stretching
// You should add timeout to this loop
}
// Repeated start setup time, minimum 4.7us
I2C_delay();
}
if (read_SDA() == 0) {
arbitration_lost();
}
// SCL is high, set SDA from 1 to 0.
clear_SDA();
I2C_delay();
clear_SCL();
started = true;
}
void i2c_stop_cond(void) {
// set SDA to 0
clear_SDA();
I2C_delay();
set_SCL();
// Clock stretching
while (read_SCL() == 0) {
// add timeout to this loop.
}
// Stop bit setup time, minimum 4us
I2C_delay();
// SCL is high, set SDA from 0 to 1
set_SDA();
I2C_delay();
if (read_SDA() == 0) {
arbitration_lost();
}
started = false;
}
// Write a bit to I2C bus
void i2c_write_bit(bool bit) {
if (bit) {
set_SDA();
} else {
clear_SDA();
}
// SDA change propagation delay
I2C_delay();
// Set SCL high to indicate a new valid SDA value is available
set_SCL();
// Wait for SDA value to be read by target, minimum of 4us for standard mode
I2C_delay();
while (read_SCL() == 0) { // Clock stretching
// You should add timeout to this loop
}
// SCL is high, now data is valid
// If SDA is high, check that nobody else is driving SDA
if (bit && (read_SDA() == 0)) {
arbitration_lost();
}
// Clear the SCL to low in preparation for next change
clear_SCL();
}
// Read a bit from I2C bus
bool i2c_read_bit(void) {
bool bit;
// Let the target drive data
set_SDA();
// Wait for SDA value to be written by target, minimum of 4us for standard mode
I2C_delay();
// Set SCL high to indicate a new valid SDA value is available
set_SCL();
while (read_SCL() == 0) { // Clock stretching
// You should add timeout to this loop
}
// Wait for SDA value to be written by target, minimum of 4us for standard mode
I2C_delay();
// SCL is high, read out bit
bit = read_SDA();
// Set SCL low in preparation for next operation
clear_SCL();
return bit;
}
// Write a byte to I2C bus. Return 0 if ack by the target.
bool i2c_write_byte(bool send_start,
bool send_stop,
unsigned char byte) {
unsigned bit;
bool nack;
if (send_start) {
i2c_start_cond();
}
for (bit = 0; bit < 8; ++bit) {
i2c_write_bit((byte & 0x80) != 0);
byte <<= 1;
}
nack = i2c_read_bit();
if (send_stop) {
i2c_stop_cond();
}
return nack;
}
// Read a byte from I2C bus
unsigned char i2c_read_byte(bool nack, bool send_stop) {
unsigned char byte = 0;
unsigned char bit;
for (bit = 0; bit < 8; ++bit) {
byte = (byte << 1) | i2c_read_bit();
}
i2c_write_bit(nack);
if (send_stop) {
i2c_stop_cond();
}
return byte;
}
void I2C_delay(void) {
volatile int v;
int i;
for (i = 0; i < I2CSPEED / 2; ++i) {
v;
}
}
Operating system support
In AmigaOS one can use the i2c.resource component for AmigaOS 4.x and MorphOS 3.x or the shared library i2c.library by Wilhelm Noeker for older systems.
Arduino developers can use the "Wire" library.
Maximite supports I2C communications natively as part of its MMBasic.
PICAXE uses the i2c and hi2c commands.
eCos supports I2C for several hardware architectures.
ChibiOS/RT supports I2C for several hardware architectures.
FreeBSD, NetBSD and OpenBSD also provide an I2C framework, with support for a number of common controllers and sensors.
Since OpenBSD 3.9 (released ), a central subsystem probes all possible sensor chips at once during boot, using an ad hoc weighting scheme and a local caching function for reading register values from the I2C targets; this makes it possible to probe sensors on general-purpose off-the-shelf i386/amd64 hardware during boot without any configuration by the user nor a noticeable probing delay; the matching procedures of the individual drivers then only has to rely on a string-based "friendly-name" for matching; as a result, most I2C sensor drivers are automatically enabled by default in applicable architectures without ill effects on stability; individual sensors, both I2C and otherwise, are exported to the userland through the sysctl hw.sensors framework. , OpenBSD has over two dozen device drivers on I2C that export some kind of a sensor through the hw.sensors framework, and the majority of these drivers are fully enabled by default in i386/amd64 GENERIC kernels of OpenBSD.
In NetBSD, over two dozen I2C target devices exist that feature hardware monitoring sensors, which are accessible through the sysmon envsys framework as property lists. On general-purpose hardware, each driver has to do its own probing, hence all drivers for the I2C targets are disabled by default in NetBSD in GENERIC i386/amd64 builds.
In Linux, I2C is handled with a device driver for the specific device, and another for the I2C (or SMBus) adapter to which it is connected. Hundreds of such drivers are part of current Linux kernel releases.
In Mac OS X, there are about two dozen I2C kernel extensions that communicate with sensors for reading voltage, current, temperature, motion, and other physical status.
In Microsoft Windows, I2C is implemented by the respective device drivers of much of the industry's available hardware. For HID embedded/SoC devices, Windows 8 and later have an integrated I²C bus driver.
In Windows CE, I2C is implemented by the respective device drivers of much of the industry's available hardware.
Unison OS, a POSIX RTOS for IoT, supports I2C for several MCU and MPU hardware architectures.
In RISC OS, I2C is provided with a generic I2C interface from the IO controller and supported from the OS module system
In Sinclair QDOS and Minerva QL operating systems I2C is supported by a set of extensions provided by TF Services.
Development tools
When developing or troubleshooting systems using I2C, visibility at the level of hardware signals can be important.
Host adapters
There are a number of I2C host adapter hardware solutions for making a I2C controller or target connection to host computers, running Linux, Mac or Windows. Most options are USB-to-I2C adapters. Not all of them require proprietary drivers or APIs.
Protocol analyzers
I2C protocol analyzers are tools that sample an I2C bus and decode the electrical signals to provide a higher-level view of the data being transmitted on the bus.
Logic analyzers
When developing and/or troubleshooting the I2C bus, examination of hardware signals can be very important. Logic analyzers are tools that collect, analyze, decode, and store signals, so people can view the high-speed waveforms at their leisure. Logic analyzers display time stamps of each signal level change, which can help find protocol problems. Most logic analyzers have the capability to decode bus signals into high-level protocol data and show ASCII data.
Limitations
The assignment of target addresses is one weakness of I2C. Seven bits is too few to prevent address collisions between the many thousands of available devices. What alleviates the issue of address collisions between different vendors and also allows to connect to several identical devices is that manufacturers dedicate pins that can be used to set the target address to one of a few address options per device. Two or three pins is typical, and with many devices, there are three or more wiring options per address pin.
10-bit I2C addresses are not yet widely used, and many host operating systems do not support them. Neither is the complex SMBus "ARP" scheme for dynamically assigning addresses (other than for PCI cards with SMBus presence, for which it is required).
Automatic bus configuration is a related issue. A given address may be used by a number of different protocol-incompatible devices in various systems, and hardly any device types can be detected at runtime. For example, 0x51 may be used by a 24LC02 or 24C32 EEPROM, with incompatible addressing; or by a PCF8563 RTC, which cannot reliably be distinguished from either (without changing device state, which might not be allowed). The only reliable configuration mechanisms available to hosts involve out-of-band mechanisms such as tables provided by system firmware, which list the available devices. Again, this issue can partially be addressed by ARP in SMBus systems, especially when vendor and product identifiers are used; but that has not really caught on. The Rev. 3 version of the I2C specification adds a device ID mechanism.
I2C supports a limited range of speeds. Hosts supporting the multi-megabit speeds are rare. Support for the Fm+ 1 Mbit/s speed is more widespread, since its electronics are simple variants of what is used at lower speeds. Many devices do not support the 400 kbit/s speed (in part because SMBus does not yet support it). I2C nodes implemented in software (instead of dedicated hardware) may not even support the 100 kbit/s speed; so the whole range defined in the specification is rarely usable. All devices must at least partially support the highest speed used or they may spuriously detect their device address.
Devices are allowed to stretch clock cycles to suit their particular needs, which can starve bandwidth needed by faster devices and increase latencies when talking to other device addresses. Bus capacitance also places a limit on the transfer speed, especially when current sources are not used to decrease signal rise times.
Because I2C is a shared bus, there is the potential for any device to have a fault and hang the entire bus. For example, if any device holds the SDA or SCL line low, it prevents the controller from sending START or STOP commands to reset the bus. Thus it is common for designs to include a reset signal that provides an external method of resetting the bus devices. However many devices do not have a dedicated reset pin, forcing the designer to put in circuitry to allow devices to be power-cycled if they need to be reset.
Because of these limits (address management, bus configuration, potential faults, speed), few I2C bus segments have even a dozen devices. It is common for systems to have several such segments. One might be dedicated to use with high-speed devices, for low-latency power management. Another might be used to control a few devices where latency and throughput are not important issues; yet another segment might be used only to read EEPROM chips describing add-on cards (such as the SPD standard used with DRAM sticks).
Derivative technologies
I2C is the basis for the ACCESS.bus, the VESA Display Data Channel (DDC) interface, the System Management Bus (SMBus), Power Management Bus (PMBus) and the Intelligent Platform Management Bus (IPMB, one of the protocols of IPMI). These variants have differences in voltage and clock frequency ranges, and may have interrupt lines.
High-availability systems (AdvancedTCA, MicroTCA) use 2-way redundant I2C for shelf management. Multi-controller I2C capability is a requirement in these systems.
TWI (Two-Wire Interface) or TWSI (Two-Wire Serial Interface) is essentially the same bus implemented on various system-on-chip processors from Atmel and other vendors. Vendors use the name TWI, even though I2C is not a registered trademark as of 2014-11-07. Trademark protection only exists for the respective logo (see upper right corner), and patents on I2C have now lapsed. According to Microchip Technology, TWI and I2C have a few differences. One of them is that TWI does not support START byte.
In some cases, use of the term "two-wire interface" indicates incomplete implementation of the I2C specification. Not supporting arbitration or clock stretching is one common limitation, which is still useful for a single controller communicating with simple targets that never stretch the clock.
MIPI I3C sensor interface standard (I3C) is a development of I2C, under development in 2017.
See also
List of network buses
ACCESS.bus
I3C
Power Management Bus
System Management Bus
UEXT Connector
VESA Display Data Channel
References
Further reading
(248 pages)
(314 pages)
External links
Official I2C Specification Rev 6 (free) - NXP
Detailed I2C Introduction & Primer
I2C Pullup Resistor Calculation - TI
Effects of Varying I2C Pullup Resistors (Scope Captures of 5V I2C with 9 Different Pullup Resistances)
Serial buses |
521555 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient%20Rome | Ancient Rome | In modern historiography, ancient Rome refers to Roman civilization from the founding of the city of Rome in the 8th century BC to the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD. It encompasses the Roman Kingdom (753–509 BC), Roman Republic (509–27 BC) and Roman Empire (27 BC–476 AD) until the fall of the western empire.
Ancient Rome began as an Italic settlement, traditionally dated to 753 BC, beside the River Tiber in the Italian Peninsula. The settlement grew into the city and polity of Rome, and came to control its neighbours through a combination of treaties and military strength. It eventually dominated the Italian peninsula, and acquired an Empire that took in much of Europe and the nations surrounding the Mediterranean. It was among the largest empires in the ancient world, with an estimated 50 to 90 million inhabitants, roughly 20% of the world's population at the time. It covered around at its height in AD 117.
The Roman state evolved from an elective monarchy to a democratic classical republic and then to an increasingly autocratic semi-elective military dictatorship during the Empire. Through conquest, cultural, and linguistic assimilation, at its height it controlled the North African coast, Egypt, Southern Europe, and most of Western Europe, the Balkans, Crimea and much of the Middle East, including Anatolia, Levant and parts of Mesopotamia and Arabia. It is often grouped into classical antiquity together with ancient Greece, and their similar cultures and societies are known as the Greco-Roman world.
Ancient Roman civilisation has contributed to modern language, religion, society, technology, law, politics, government, warfare, art, literature, architecture and engineering. Rome professionalised and expanded its military and created a system of government called res publica, the inspiration for modern republics such as the United States and France. It achieved impressive technological and architectural feats, such as the empire-wide construction of aqueducts and roads, as well as more grandiose monuments and facilities.
The Punic Wars with Carthage gave Rome supremacy in the Mediterranean. The Roman Empire emerged with the principate of Augustus (from 27 BC); Rome's imperial domain now extended from the Atlantic to Arabia and from the mouth of the Rhine to North Africa. In 92 AD, Rome came up against the resurgent Persian Empire and became involved in history's longest-running conflict, the Roman–Persian Wars, which would have lasting effects on both empires. Under Trajan, Rome's empire reached its territorial peak, encompassing the entire Mediterranean Basin, the southern margins of the North Sea, and the shores of the Red and Caspian Seas. Republican mores and traditions started to decline during the imperial period, with civil wars becoming a common prelude to the rise of a new emperor. Splinter states, such as the Palmyrene Empire, would temporarily divide the Empire during the crisis of the 3rd century before some stability was restored in the Tetrarchy phase of imperial rule.
Plagued by internal instability and attacked by various migrating peoples, the western part of the empire broke up into independent barbarian kingdoms in the 5th century. The eastern part of the empire remained a power through the Middle Ages until its fall in 1453 AD.
Founding myth
According to the founding myth of Rome, the city was founded on 21 April 753 BC on the banks of the river Tiber in central Italy, by the twin brothers Romulus and Remus, who descended from the Trojan prince Aeneas, and who were grandsons of the Latin King Numitor of Alba Longa. King Numitor was deposed by his brother, Amulius, while Numitor's daughter, Rhea Silvia, gave birth to the twins. Since Rhea Silvia had been raped and impregnated by Mars, the Roman god of war, the twins were considered half-divine.
The new king, Amulius, feared Romulus and Remus would take back the throne, so he ordered them to be drowned. A she-wolf (or a shepherd's wife in some accounts) saved and raised them, and when they were old enough, they returned the throne of Alba Longa to Numitor.
The twins then founded their own city, but Romulus killed Remus in a quarrel over the location of the Roman Kingdom, though some sources state the quarrel was about who was going to rule or give his name to the city. Romulus became the source of the city's name. In order to attract people to the city, Rome became a sanctuary for the indigent, exiled, and unwanted. This caused a problem, in that Rome came to have a large male population but was bereft of women. Romulus visited neighboring towns and tribes and attempted to secure marriage rights, but as Rome was so full of undesirables he was refused. Legend says that the Latins invited the Sabines to a festival and stole their unmarried maidens, leading to the integration of the Latins with the Sabines.
Another legend, recorded by Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus, says that Prince Aeneas led a group of Trojans on a sea voyage to found a new Troy, since the original was destroyed at the end of the Trojan War. After a long time in rough seas, they landed on the banks of the Tiber River. Not long after they landed, the men wanted to take to the sea again, but the women who were traveling with them did not want to leave. One woman, named Roma, suggested that the women burn the ships out at sea to prevent their leaving. At first, the men were angry with Roma, but they soon realized that they were in the ideal place to settle. They named the settlement after the woman who torched their ships.
The Roman poet Virgil recounted this legend in his classical epic poem the Aeneid, where the Trojan prince Aeneas is destined by the gods to found a new Troy. In the epic, the women also refuse to go back to the sea, but they were not left on the Tiber. After reaching Italy, Aeneas, who wanted to marry Lavinia, was forced to wage war with her former suitor, Turnus. According to the poem, the Alban kings were descended from Aeneas, and thus Romulus, the founder of Rome, was his descendant.
Kingdom
The city of Rome grew from settlements around a ford on the river Tiber, a crossroads of traffic and trade. According to archaeological evidence, the village of Rome was probably founded some time in the 8th century BC, though it may go back as far as the 10th century BC, by members of the Latin tribe of Italy, on the top of the Palatine Hill.
The Etruscans, who had previously settled to the north in Etruria, seem to have established political control in the region by the late 7th century BC, forming an aristocratic and monarchical elite. The Etruscans apparently lost power by the late 6th century BC, and at this point, the original Latin and Sabine tribes reinvented their government by creating a republic, with much greater restraints on the ability of rulers to exercise power.
Roman tradition and archaeological evidence point to a complex within the Forum Romanum as the seat of power for the king and the beginnings of the religious center there as well. Numa Pompilius, the second king of Rome succeeding Romulus, began Rome's building projects with his royal palace, the Regia, and the complex of the Vestal virgins.
Republic
According to tradition and later writers such as Livy, the Roman Republic was established around 509 BC, when the last of the seven kings of Rome, Tarquin the Proud, was deposed by Lucius Junius Brutus and a system based on annually elected magistrates and various representative assemblies was established. A constitution set a series of checks and balances, and a separation of powers. The most important magistrates were the two consuls, who together exercised executive authority such as imperium, or military command. The consuls had to work with the Senate, which was initially an advisory council of the ranking nobility, or patricians, but grew in size and power.
Other magistrates of the Republic include tribunes, quaestors, aediles, praetors and censors. The magistracies were originally restricted to patricians, but were later opened to common people, or plebeians. Republican voting assemblies included the comitia centuriata (centuriate assembly), which voted on matters of war and peace and elected men to the most important offices, and the comitia tributa (tribal assembly), which elected less important offices.
In the 4th century BC, Rome had come under attack by the Gauls, who now extended their power in the Italian peninsula beyond the Po Valley and through Etruria. On 16 July 390 BC, a Gallic army under the leadership of tribal chieftain Brennus, met the Romans on the banks of the Allia River ten miles north of Rome. Brennus defeated the Romans, and the Gauls marched to Rome. Most Romans had fled the city, but some barricaded themselves upon the Capitoline Hill for a last stand. The Gauls looted and burned the city, then laid siege to the Capitoline Hill. The siege lasted seven months. The Gauls then agreed to give the Romans peace in exchange for 1000 pounds of gold. According to later legend, the Roman supervising the weighing noticed that the Gauls were using false scales. The Romans then took up arms and defeated the Gauls. Their victorious general Camillus remarked "With iron, not with gold, Rome buys her freedom."
The Romans gradually subdued the other peoples on the Italian peninsula, including the Etruscans. The last threat to Roman hegemony in Italy came when Tarentum, a major Greek colony, enlisted the aid of Pyrrhus of Epirus in 281 BC, but this effort failed as well. The Romans secured their conquests by founding Roman colonies in strategic areas, thereby establishing stable control over the region of Italy they had conquered.
Punic Wars
In the 3rd century BC Rome faced a new and formidable opponent: Carthage. Carthage was a rich, flourishing Phoenician city-state that intended to dominate the Mediterranean area. The two cities were allies in the times of Pyrrhus, who was a menace to both, but with Rome's hegemony in mainland Italy and the Carthaginian thalassocracy, these cities became the two major powers in the Western Mediterranean and their contention over the Mediterranean led to conflict.
The First Punic War began in 264 BC, when the city of Messana asked for Carthage's help in their conflicts with Hiero II of Syracuse. After the Carthaginian intercession, Messana asked Rome to expel the Carthaginians. Rome entered this war because Syracuse and Messana were too close to the newly conquered Greek cities of Southern Italy and Carthage was now able to make an offensive through Roman territory; along with this, Rome could extend its domain over Sicily.
Although the Romans had experience in land battles, defeating this new enemy required naval battles. Carthage was a maritime power, and the Roman lack of ships and naval experience made the path to the victory a long and difficult one for the Roman Republic. Despite this, after more than 20 years of war, Rome defeated Carthage and a peace treaty was signed. Among the reasons for the Second Punic War was the subsequent war reparations Carthage acquiesced to at the end of the First Punic War.
The Second Punic War is famous for its brilliant generals: on the Punic side Hannibal and Hasdrubal; on the Roman, Marcus Claudius Marcellus, Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus and Publius Cornelius Scipio. Rome fought this war simultaneously with the First Macedonian War. The war began with the audacious invasion of Hispania by Hannibal, son of Hamilcar Barca, a Carthaginian general who had led operations on Sicily towards the end of the First Punic War. Hannibal rapidly marched through Hispania to the Italian Alps, causing panic among Rome's Italian allies. The best way found to defeat Hannibal's purpose of causing the Italians to abandon Rome was to delay the Carthaginians with a guerrilla war of attrition, a strategy propounded by Quintus Fabius Maximus, who would be nicknamed Cunctator ("delayer" in Latin), and whose strategy would be forever after known as Fabian. Due to this, Hannibal's goal was unachieved: he could not bring enough Italian cities to revolt against Rome and replenish his diminishing army, and he thus lacked the machines and manpower to besiege Rome.
Still, Hannibal's invasion lasted over 16 years, ravaging Italy. Finally, when the Romans perceived the depletion of Hannibal's supplies, they sent Scipio, who had defeated Hannibal's brother Hasdrubal in modern-day Spain, to invade the unprotected Carthaginian hinterland and force Hannibal to return to defend Carthage itself. The result was the ending of the Second Punic War by the famously decisive Battle of Zama in October 202 BC, which gave to Scipio his agnomen Africanus. At great cost, Rome had made significant gains: the conquest of Hispania by Scipio, and of Syracuse, the last Greek realm in Sicily, by Marcellus.
More than a half century after these events, Carthage was humiliated and Rome was no more concerned about the African menace. The Republic's focus now was only to the Hellenistic kingdoms of Greece and revolts in Hispania. However, Carthage, after having paid the war indemnity, felt that its commitments and submission to Rome had ceased, a vision not shared by the Roman Senate. When in 151 BC Numidia invaded Carthage, Carthage asked for Roman intercession. Ambassadors were sent to Carthage, among them was Marcus Porcius Cato, who after seeing that Carthage could make a comeback and regain its importance, ended all his speeches, no matter what the subject was, by saying: "Ceterum censeo Carthaginem esse delendam" ("Furthermore, I think that Carthage must be destroyed").
As Carthage fought with Numidia without Roman consent, the Third Punic War began when Rome declared war against Carthage in 149 BC. Carthage resisted well at the first strike, with the participation of all the inhabitants of the city. However, Carthage could not withstand the attack of Scipio Aemilianus, who entirely destroyed the city and its walls, enslaved and sold all the citizens and gained control of that region, which became the province of Africa. Thus ended the Punic War period. All these wars resulted in Rome's first overseas conquests (Sicily, Hispania and Africa) and the rise of Rome as a significant imperial power and began the end of democracy.
Late Republic
After defeating the Macedonian and Seleucid Empires in the 2nd century BC, the Romans became the dominant people of the Mediterranean Sea. The conquest of the Hellenistic kingdoms brought the Roman and Greek cultures in closer contact and the Roman elite, once rural, became a luxurious and cosmopolitan one. At this time Rome was a consolidated empire—in the military view—and had no major enemies.
Foreign dominance led to internal strife. Senators became rich at the provinces' expense; soldiers, who were mostly small-scale farmers, were away from home longer and could not maintain their land; and the increased reliance on foreign slaves and the growth of latifundia reduced the availability of paid work.
Income from war booty, mercantilism in the new provinces, and tax farming created new economic opportunities for the wealthy, forming a new class of merchants, called the equestrians. The lex Claudia forbade members of the Senate from engaging in commerce, so while the equestrians could theoretically join the Senate, they were severely restricted in political power. The Senate squabbled perpetually, repeatedly blocked important land reforms and refused to give the equestrian class a larger say in the government.
Violent gangs of the urban unemployed, controlled by rival Senators, intimidated the electorate through violence. The situation came to a head in the late 2nd century BC under the Gracchi brothers, a pair of tribunes who attempted to pass land reform legislation that would redistribute the major patrician landholdings among the plebeians. Both brothers were killed and the Senate passed reforms reversing the Gracchi brother's actions. This led to the growing divide of the plebeian groups (populares) and equestrian classes (optimates).
Marius and Sulla
Gaius Marius, a novus homo, who started his political career with the help of the powerful Metelli family, soon become a leader of the Republic, holding the first of his seven consulships (an unprecedented number) in 107 BC by arguing that his former patron Quintus Caecilius Metellus Numidicus was not able to defeat and capture the Numidian king Jugurtha. Marius then started his military reform: in his recruitment to fight Jugurtha, he levied the very poor (an innovation), and many landless men entered the army; this was the seed of securing loyalty of the army to the General in command.
Lucius Cornelius Sulla was born into a poor family that used to be a patrician family. He had a good education but became poor when his father died and left none of his will. Sulla joined the theater and found many friends there, prior to becoming a general in the Jugurthine war.
At this time, Marius began his quarrel with Sulla: Marius, who wanted to capture Jugurtha, asked Bocchus, son-in-law of Jugurtha, to hand him over. As Marius failed, Sulla, a general of Marius at that time, in a dangerous enterprise, went himself to Bocchus and convinced Bocchus to hand Jugurtha over to him. This was very provocative to Marius, since many of his enemies were encouraging Sulla to oppose Marius. Despite this, Marius was elected for five consecutive consulships from 104 to 100 BC, as Rome needed a military leader to defeat the Cimbri and the Teutones, who were threatening Rome.
After Marius's retirement, Rome had a brief peace, during which the Italian socii ("allies" in Latin) requested Roman citizenship and voting rights. The reformist Marcus Livius Drusus supported their legal process but was assassinated, and the socii revolted against the Romans in the Social War. At one point both consuls were killed; Marius was appointed to command the army together with Lucius Julius Caesar and Sulla.
By the end of the Social War, Marius and Sulla were the premier military men in Rome and their partisans were in conflict, both sides jostling for power. In 88 BC, Sulla was elected for his first consulship and his first assignment was to defeat Mithridates VI of Pontus, whose intentions were to conquer the Eastern part of the Roman territories. However, Marius's partisans managed his installation to the military command, defying Sulla and the Senate, and this caused Sulla's wrath. To consolidate his own power, Sulla conducted a surprising and illegal action: he marched to Rome with his legions, killing all those who showed support to Marius's cause and impaling their heads in the Roman Forum. In the following year, 87 BC, Marius, who had fled at Sulla's march, returned to Rome while Sulla was campaigning in Greece. He seized power along with the consul Lucius Cornelius Cinna and killed the other consul, Gnaeus Octavius, achieving his seventh consulship. In an attempt to raise Sulla's anger, Marius and Cinna revenged their partisans by conducting a massacre.
Marius died in 86 BC, due to age and poor health, just a few months after seizing power. Cinna exercised absolute power until his death in 84 BC. After returning from his Eastern campaigns, Sulla had a free path to reestablish his own power. In 83 BC he made his second march in Rome and began a time of terror: thousands of nobles, knights and senators were executed. Sulla also held two dictatorships and one more consulship, which began the crisis and decline of Roman Republic.
Caesar and the First Triumvirate
In the mid-1st century BC, Roman politics were restless. Political divisions in Rome became identified with two groupings, populares (who hoped for the support of the people) and optimates (the "best", who wanted to maintain exclusive aristocratic control). Sulla overthrew all populist leaders and his constitutional reforms removed powers (such as those of the tribune of the plebs) that had supported populist approaches. Meanwhile, social and economic stresses continued to build; Rome had become a metropolis with a super-rich aristocracy, debt-ridden aspirants, and a large proletariat often of impoverished farmers. The latter groups supported the Catilinarian conspiracy—a resounding failure, since the consul Marcus Tullius Cicero quickly arrested and executed the main leaders of the conspiracy.
Onto this turbulent scene emerged Gaius Julius Caesar, from an aristocratic family of limited wealth. His aunt Julia was Marius' wife, and Caesar identified with the populares. To achieve power, Caesar reconciled the two most powerful men in Rome: Marcus Licinius Crassus, who had financed much of his earlier career, and Crassus' rival, Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (anglicized as Pompey), to whom he married his daughter. He formed them into a new informal alliance including himself, the First Triumvirate ("three men"). This satisfied the interests of all three: Crassus, the richest man in Rome, became richer and ultimately achieved high military command; Pompey exerted more influence in the Senate; and Caesar obtained the consulship and military command in Gaul. So long as they could agree, the three were in effect the rulers of Rome.
In 54 BC, Caesar's daughter, Pompey's wife, died in childbirth, unraveling one link in the alliance. In 53 BC, Crassus invaded Parthia and was killed in the Battle of Carrhae. The Triumvirate disintegrated at Crassus' death. Crassus had acted as mediator between Caesar and Pompey, and, without him, the two generals manoeuvred against each other for power. Caesar conquered Gaul, obtaining immense wealth, respect in Rome and the loyalty of battle-hardened legions. He also became a clear menace to Pompey and was loathed by many optimates. Confident that Caesar could be stopped by legal means, Pompey's party tried to strip Caesar of his legions, a prelude to Caesar's trial, impoverishment, and exile.
To avoid this fate, Caesar crossed the Rubicon River and invaded Rome in 49 BC. Pompey and his party fled from Italy, pursued by Caesar. The Battle of Pharsalus was a brilliant victory for Caesar and in this and other campaigns he destroyed all of the optimates leaders: Metellus Scipio, Cato the Younger, and Pompey's son, Gnaeus Pompeius. Pompey was murdered in Egypt in 48 BC. Caesar was now pre-eminent over Rome, attracting the bitter enmity of many aristocrats. He was granted many offices and honours. In just five years, he held four consulships, two ordinary dictatorships, and two special dictatorships: one for ten years and another for perpetuity. He was murdered in 44 BC, on the Ides of March by the Liberatores.
Octavian and the Second Triumvirate
Caesar's assassination caused political and social turmoil in Rome; without the dictator's leadership, the city was ruled by his friend and colleague, Marcus Antonius. Soon afterward, Octavius, whom Caesar adopted through his will, arrived in Rome. Octavian (historians regard Octavius as Octavian due to the Roman naming conventions) tried to align himself with the Caesarian faction. In 43 BC, along with Antony and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, Caesar's best friend, he legally established the Second Triumvirate. This alliance would last for five years. Upon its formation, 130–300 senators were executed, and their property was confiscated, due to their supposed support for the Liberatores.
In 42 BC, the Senate deified Caesar as Divus Iulius; Octavian thus became Divi filius, the son of the deified. In the same year, Octavian and Antony defeated both Caesar's assassins and the leaders of the Liberatores, Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus, in the Battle of Philippi. The Second Triumvirate was marked by the proscriptions of many senators and equites: after a revolt led by Antony's brother Lucius Antonius, more than 300 senators and equites involved were executed on the anniversary of the Ides of March, although Lucius was spared. The Triumvirate proscribed several important men, including Cicero, whom Antony hated; Quintus Tullius Cicero, the younger brother of the orator; and Lucius Julius Caesar, cousin and friend of the acclaimed general, for his support of Cicero. However, Lucius was pardoned, perhaps because his sister Julia had intervened for him.
The Triumvirate divided the Empire among the triumvirs: Lepidus was given charge of Africa, Antony, the eastern provinces, and Octavian remained in Italia and controlled Hispania and Gaul. The Second Triumvirate expired in 38 BC but was renewed for five more years. However, the relationship between Octavian and Antony had deteriorated, and Lepidus was forced to retire in 36 BC after betraying Octavian in Sicily. By the end of the Triumvirate, Antony was living in Ptolemaic Egypt, an independent and rich kingdom ruled by his lover, Cleopatra VII. Antony's affair with Cleopatra was seen as an act of treason, since she was queen of another country. Additionally, Antony adopted a lifestyle considered too extravagant and Hellenistic for a Roman statesman. Following Antony's Donations of Alexandria, which gave to Cleopatra the title of "Queen of Kings", and to Antony's and Cleopatra's children the regal titles to the newly conquered Eastern territories, war between Octavian and Antony broke out. Octavian annihilated Egyptian forces in the Battle of Actium in 31 BC. Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide. Now Egypt was conquered by the Roman Empire, and for the Romans, a new era had begun.
Empire – the Principate
In 27 BC and at the age of 36, Octavian was the sole Roman leader. In that year, he took the name Augustus. That event is usually taken by historians as the beginning of Roman Empire—although Rome was an "imperial" state since 146 BC, when Carthage was razed by Scipio Aemilianus and Greece was conquered by Lucius Mummius. Officially, the government was republican, but Augustus assumed absolute powers.Langley, Andrew and Souza, de Philip: "The Roman Times" p.14, Candle Wick Press, 1996 His reform of the government brought about a two-century period colloquially referred to by Romans as the Pax Romana.
Julio-Claudian dynasty
The Julio-Claudian dynasty was established by Augustus. The emperors of this dynasty were Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius and Nero. The dynasty is so called due to the gens Julia, family of Augustus, and the gens Claudia, family of Tiberius. The Julio-Claudians started the destruction of republican values, but on the other hand, they boosted Rome's status as the central power in the Mediterranean region. While Caligula and Nero are usually remembered in popular culture as dysfunctional emperors, Augustus and Claudius are remembered as emperors who were successful in politics and the military. This dynasty instituted imperial tradition in Rome and frustrated any attempt to reestablish a Republic.
Augustus
Augustus gathered almost all the republican powers under his official title, princeps: he had the powers of consul, princeps senatus, aedile, censor and tribune—including tribunician sacrosanctity. This was the base of an emperor's power. Augustus also styled himself as Imperator Gaius Julius Caesar divi filius, "Commander Gaius Julius Caesar, son of the deified one". With this title he not only boasted his familial link to deified Julius Caesar, but the use of Imperator signified a permanent link to the Roman tradition of victory.
He also diminished the political influence of the senatorial class by boosting the equestrian class. The senators lost their right to rule certain provinces, like Egypt, since the governor of that province was directly nominated by the emperor. The creation of the Praetorian Guard and his reforms in the military, creating a standing army with a fixed size of 28 legions, ensured his total control over the army. Compared with the Second Triumvirate's epoch, Augustus' reign as princeps was very peaceful. This peace and wealth (obtained from the agrarian province of Egypt) led the people and the nobles of Rome to support Augustus, increasing his strength in political affairs. Augustus was absent at battles. His generals were responsible for the field command; gaining such commanders as Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, Nero Claudius Drusus and Germanicus much respect from the populace and the legions. Augustus intended to extend the Roman Empire to the whole known world, and in his reign, Rome conquered Cantabria, Aquitania, Raetia, Dalmatia, Illyricum and Pannonia.
Under Augustus' reign, Roman literature grew steadily in what is known as the Golden Age of Latin Literature. Poets like Virgil, Horace, Ovid and Rufus developed a rich literature, and were close friends of Augustus. Along with Maecenas, he sponsored patriotic poems, as Virgil's epic Aeneid and also historiographical works, like those of Livy. The works of this literary age lasted through Roman times, and are classics. Augustus also continued the changes to the calendar promoted by Caesar, and the month of August is named after him. Augustus brought a peaceful and thriving era to Rome, known as Pax Augusta or Pax Romana. Augustus died in 14 AD, but the empire's glory continued after his era.
From Tiberius to Nero
The Julio-Claudians continued to rule Rome after Augustus' death and remained in power until the death of Nero in 68 AD. Augustus' favorites to succeed him were already dead in his senescence: his nephew Marcellus died in 23 BC, his friend and military commander Agrippa in 12 BC and his grandson Gaius Caesar in 4 AD. Influenced by his wife, Livia Drusilla, Augustus appointed her son from another marriage, Tiberius, as his heir.
The Senate agreed with the succession, and granted to Tiberius the same titles and honors once granted to Augustus: the title of princeps and Pater patriae, and the Civic Crown. However, Tiberius was not an enthusiast for political affairs: after agreement with the Senate, he retired to Capri in 26 AD, and left control of the city of Rome in the hands of the praetorian prefect Sejanus (until 31 AD) and Macro (from 31 to 37 AD). Tiberius was regarded as an evil and melancholic man, who may have ordered the murder of his relatives, the popular general Germanicus in 19 AD, and his own son Drusus Julius Caesar in 23 AD.
Tiberius died (or was killed) in 37 AD. The male line of the Julio-Claudians was limited to Tiberius' nephew Claudius, his grandson Tiberius Gemellus and his grand-nephew Caligula. As Gemellus was still a child, Caligula was chosen to rule the empire. He was a popular leader in the first half of his reign, but became a crude and insane tyrant in his years controlling government. Suetonius states that he committed incest with his sisters, killed some men just for amusement and nominated a horse for a consulship. The Praetorian Guard murdered Caligula four years after the death of Tiberius, and, with belated support from the senators, proclaimed his uncle Claudius as the new emperor. Claudius was not as authoritarian as Tiberius and Caligula. Claudius conquered Lycia and Thrace; his most important deed was the beginning of the conquest of Britannia. Claudius was poisoned by his wife, Agrippina the Younger in 54 AD. His heir was Nero, son of Agrippina and her former husband, since Claudius' son Britannicus had not reached manhood upon his father's death.
Nero sent his general, Suetonius Paulinus, to invade modern-day Wales, where he encountered stiff resistance. The Celts there were independent, tough and resistant to tax collectors and fought Paulinus, as he battled his way across from east to west. It took him a long time to reach the north west coast, and in 60 AD he finally crossed the Menai Strait to the sacred island of Mona (Anglesey), the last stronghold of the druids. His soldiers attacked the island and massacred the druids: men, women and children, destroyed the shrine and the sacred groves and threw many of the sacred standing stones into the sea. While Paulinus and his troops were massacring druids in Mona, the tribes of modern-day East Anglia staged a revolt led by queen Boadicea of the Iceni. The rebels sacked and burned Camulodunum, Londinium and Verulamium (modern-day Colchester, London and St Albans respectively) before they were crushed by Paulinus. Boadicea, like Cleopatra before her, committed suicide to avoid the disgrace of being paraded in triumph in Rome. The fault of Nero in this rebellion is debatable but there was certainly an impact (both positive and negative) upon the prestige of his regime.
Nero is widely known as the first persecutor of Christians and for the Great Fire of Rome, rumoured to have been started by the emperor himself. Tacitus, Annales, XXXVIII. In 59 AD he murdered his mother and in 62 AD, his wife Claudia Octavia. Never very stable, he allowed his advisers to run the government while he slid into debauchery, excess, and madness. He was married three times, and had numerous affairs with both men and women, and, according to some rumors, even his mother. A conspiracy against Nero in 65 AD under Calpurnius Piso failed, but in 68 AD the armies under Julius Vindex in Gaul and Servius Sulpicius Galba in modern-day Spain revolted. Deserted by the Praetorian Guards and condemned to death by the senate, Nero killed himself.
Flavian dynasty
The Flavians were the second dynasty to rule Rome. By 68 AD, the year of Nero's death, there was no chance of a return to the Roman Republic, and so a new emperor had to arise. After the turmoil in the Year of the Four Emperors, Titus Flavius Vespasianus (anglicized as Vespasian) took control of the empire and established a new dynasty. Under the Flavians, Rome continued its expansion, and the state remained secure.
The most significant military campaign undertaken during the Flavian period was the siege and destruction of Jerusalem in 70 by Titus. The destruction of the city was the culmination of the Roman campaign in Judea following the Jewish uprising of 66. The Second Temple was completely demolished, after which Titus' soldiers proclaimed him imperator in honor of the victory. Jerusalem was sacked and much of the population killed or dispersed. Josephus claims that 1,100,000 people were killed during the siege, of whom a majority were Jewish. 97,000 were captured and enslaved, including Simon bar Giora and John of Giscala. Many fled to areas around the Mediterranean. Titus reportedly refused to accept a wreath of victory, as there was "no merit in vanquishing people forsaken by their own God".
Vespasian
Vespasian had been a general under Claudius and Nero. He fought as a commander in the First Jewish-Roman War along with his son Titus. Following the turmoil of the Year of the Four Emperors, in 69 AD, four emperors were enthroned in turn: Galba, Otho, Vitellius, and, lastly, Vespasian, who crushed Vitellius' forces and became emperor. He reconstructed many buildings which were uncompleted, like a statue of Apollo and the temple of Divus Claudius ("the deified Claudius"), both initiated by Nero. Buildings destroyed by the Great Fire of Rome were rebuilt, and he revitalized the Capitol. Vespasian also started the construction of the Flavian Amphitheater, more commonly known as the Colosseum. The historians Josephus and Pliny the Elder wrote their works during Vespasian's reign. Vespasian was Josephus' sponsor and Pliny dedicated his Naturalis Historia to Titus, son of Vespasian. Vespasian sent legions to defend the eastern frontier in Cappadocia, extended the occupation in Britannia (modern-day England, Wales and southern Scotland) and reformed the tax system. He died in 79 AD.
Titus and Domitian
Titus had a short-lived rule; he was emperor from 79 to 81 AD. He finished the Flavian Amphitheater, which was constructed with war spoils from the First Jewish-Roman War, and promoted games celebrating the victory over the Jews that lasted for a hundred days. These games included gladiatorial combats, chariot races and a sensational mock naval battle on the flooded grounds of the Colosseum. Suetonius, The Twelve Caesars, Titus, VII, 3. Titus died of fever in 81 AD, and was succeeded by his brother Domitian. As emperor, Domitian assumed totalitarian characteristics, thought he could be a new Augustus, and tried to make a personal cult of himself. Domitian ruled for fifteen years, and his reign was marked by his attempts to compare himself to the gods. He constructed at least two temples in honour of Jupiter, the supreme deity in Roman religion. He also liked to be called "Dominus et Deus" ("Master and God").
Nerva–Antonine dynasty
The Nerva–Antonine dynasty from 96 AD to 192 AD included the reigns of the emperors Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius, Lucius Verus, and Commodus. During this time, Rome reached its greatest territorial and economic extent. This was a time of peace for Rome. The criteria for choosing an emperor were the qualities of the candidate and no longer ties of kinship; additionally, there were no civil wars or military defeats in this period. Following Domitian's murder, the Senate rapidly appointed Nerva to hold the imperial dignity. This was the first time that senators chose the emperor since Octavian had been honored with the titles of princeps and Augustus. Nerva had a noble ancestry, and he had served as an advisor to Nero and the Flavians. His rule restored many of the liberties once assumed by Domitian and started the last golden era of Rome.
Trajan
Nerva died in 98 AD and his successor and heir was the general Trajan. Trajan was born in a non-patrician family from Hispania Baetica (modern-day Andalusia) and his preeminence emerged in the army, under Domitian. He is the second of the Five Good Emperors, the first being Nerva. Trajan was greeted by the people of Rome with enthusiasm, which he justified by governing well and without the bloodiness that had marked Domitian's reign. He freed many people who had been unjustly imprisoned by Domitian and returned private property that Domitian had confiscated; a process begun by Nerva before his death.
Trajan conquered Dacia (roughly modern-day Romania and Moldova), and defeated the king Decebalus, who had defeated Domitian's forces. In the First Dacian War (101–102), the defeated Dacia became a client kingdom; in the Second Dacian War (105–106), Trajan completely devastated the enemy's resistance and annexed Dacia to the Empire. Trajan also annexed the client state of Nabatea to form the province of Arabia Petraea, which included the lands of southern Syria and northwestern Arabia. He erected many buildings that survive to this day, such as Trajan's Forum, Trajan's Market and Trajan's Column. His main architect was Apollodorus of Damascus; Apollodorus made the project of the Forum and of the Column, and also reformed the Pantheon. Trajan's triumphal arches in Ancona and Beneventum are other constructions projected by him. In the Second Dacian War, Apollodorus made a great bridge over the Danube for Trajan.
Trajan's final war was against Parthia. When Parthia appointed a king for Armenia who was unacceptable to Rome (Parthia and Rome shared dominance over Armenia), he declared war. He probably wanted to be the first Roman leader to conquer Parthia, and repeat the glory of Alexander the Great, conqueror of Asia, whom Trajan next followed in the clash of Greek-Romans and the Persian cultures. In 113 he marched to Armenia and deposed the local king. In 115 Trajan turned south into the core of Parthian hegemony, took the Northern Mesopotamian cities of Nisibis and Batnae, organized a province of Mesopotamia (116), and issued coins announcing that Armenia and Mesopotamia were under the authority of the Roman people. In that same year, he captured Seleucia and the Parthian capital Ctesiphon (near modern Baghdad). After defeating a Parthian revolt and a Jewish revolt, he withdrew due to health issues. In 117, his illness grew and he died of edema. He nominated Hadrian as his heir. Under Trajan's leadership the Roman Empire reached the peak of its territorial expansion; Rome's dominion now spanned .
From Hadrian to Commodus
Many Romans emigrated to Hispania (modern-day Spain and Portugal) and stayed for generations, in some cases intermarrying with Iberians; one of these families produced the emperor Hadrian. Hadrian withdrew all the troops stationed in Parthia, Armenia and Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq), abandoning Trajan's conquests. Hadrian's army crushed a revolt in Mauretania and the Bar Kokhba revolt in Judea. This was the last large-scale Jewish revolt against the Romans, and was suppressed with massive repercussions in Judea. Hundreds of thousands of Jews were killed. Hadrian renamed the province of Judea "Provincia Syria Palaestina," after one of Judea's most hated enemies. He constructed fortifications and walls, like the celebrated Hadrian's Wall which separated Roman Britannia and the tribes of modern-day Scotland. Hadrian promoted culture, especially the Greek. He also forbade torture and humanized the laws. His many building projects included aqueducts, baths, libraries and theaters; additionally, he travelled nearly every province in the Empire to check the military and infrastructural conditions. Following Hadrian's death in 138 AD, his successor Antoninus Pius built temples, theaters, and mausoleums, promoted the arts and sciences, and bestowed honours and financial rewards upon the teachers of rhetoric and philosophy. On becoming emperor, Antoninus made few initial changes, leaving intact as far as possible the arrangements instituted by his predecessor. Antoninus expanded Roman Britannia by invading what is now southern Scotland and building the Antonine Wall. He also continued Hadrian's policy of humanizing the laws. He died in 161 AD.
Marcus Aurelius, known as the Philosopher, was the last of the Five Good Emperors. He was a stoic philosopher and wrote the Meditations. He defeated barbarian tribes in the Marcomannic Wars as well as the Parthian Empire. His co-emperor, Lucius Verus, died in 169 AD, probably victim of the Antonine Plague, a pandemic that killed nearly five million people through the Empire in 165–180 AD.
From Nerva to Marcus Aurelius, the empire achieved an unprecedented status. The powerful influence of laws and manners had gradually cemented the union of the provinces. All the citizens enjoyed and abused the advantages of wealth. The image of a free constitution was preserved with decent reverence. The Roman senate appeared to possess the sovereign authority, and devolved on the emperors all the executive powers of government. The Five Good Emperors' rule is considered the golden era of the Empire.
Commodus, son of Marcus Aurelius, became emperor after his father's death. He is not counted as one of the Five Good Emperors. Firstly, this was due to his direct kinship with the latter emperor; in addition, he was militarily passive compared to his predecessors, who had frequently led their armies in person. Commodus usually participated in gladiatorial combats, which were frequently brutal and rough. He killed many citizens, and Cassius Dio identifies his reign as the beginning of Roman decadence: "(Rome has transformed) from a kingdom of gold to one of iron and rust."
Severan dynasty
Commodus was killed by a conspiracy involving Quintus Aemilius Laetus and his wife Marcia in late 192 AD. The following year is known as the Year of the Five Emperors, during which Helvius Pertinax, Didius Julianus, Pescennius Niger, Clodius Albinus and Septimius Severus held the imperial dignity. Pertinax, a member of the senate who had been one of Marcus Aurelius's right hand men, was the choice of Laetus, and he ruled vigorously and judiciously. Laetus soon became jealous and instigated Pertinax's murder by the Praetorian Guard, who then auctioned the empire to the highest bidder, Didius Julianus, for 25,000 sesterces per man. The people of Rome were appalled and appealed to the frontier legions to save them. The legions of three frontier provinces—Britannia, Pannonia Superior, and Syria—resented being excluded from the "donative" and replied by declaring their individual generals to be emperor. Lucius Septimius Severus Geta, the Pannonian commander, bribed the opposing forces, pardoned the Praetorian Guards and installed himself as emperor. He and his successors governed with the legions' support. The changes on coinage and military expenditures were the root of the financial crisis that marked the Crisis of the Third Century.
Septimius Severus
Severus was enthroned after invading Rome and having Didius Julianus killed. His two other rivals, Pescennius Niger and Clodius Albinus, were both hailed by other factions as Imperator. Severus quickly subdued Niger in Byzantium and promised to Albinus the title of Caesar (which meant he would be a co-emperor). However, Severus betrayed Albinus by blaming him for a plot against his life. Severus marched to Gaul and defeated Albinus. For these acts, Machiavelli said that Severus was "a ferocious lion and a clever fox".
Severus attempted to revive totalitarianism and, addressing the Roman people and Senate, praised the severity and cruelty of Marius and Sulla, which worried the senators. When Parthia invaded Roman territory, Severus waged war against that country and seized the cities of Nisibis, Babylon and Seleucia. Reaching Ctesiphon, the Parthian capital, he ordered plundering and his army slew and captured many people. Notwithstanding this military success, Severus failed in invading Hatra, a rich Arabian city. Severus killed his legate, who was gaining respect from the legions; and his soldiers fell victim to famine. After this disastrous campaign, he withdrew. Severus also intended to vanquish the whole of Britannia. To achieve this, he waged war against the Caledonians. After many casualties in the army due to the terrain and the barbarians' ambushes, Severus himself went to the field. However, he became ill and died in 211 AD, at the age of 65.
From Caracalla to Alexander Severus
Upon the death of Severus, his sons Caracalla and Geta were made emperors. During their youth, their squabbles had divided Rome. In that same year Caracalla had his brother, a youth, assassinated in his mother's arms, and may have murdered 20,000 of Geta's followers. Like his father, Caracalla was warlike. He continued Severus' policy and gained respect from the legions. A cruel man, Caracalla was pursued by the guilt of his brother's murder. He ordered the death of people of his own circle, like his tutor, Cilo, and a friend of his father, Papinian.
Knowing that the citizens of Alexandria disliked him and were denigrating his character, Caracalla served a banquet for its notable citizens, after which his soldiers killed all the guests. From the security of the temple of Sarapis, he then directed an indiscriminate slaughter of Alexandria's people. Historia Augusta, The Life of Caracalla, VI. In 212, he issued the Edict of Caracalla, giving full Roman citizenship to all free men living in the Empire, with the exception of the dediticii, people who had become subject to Rome through surrender in war, and freed slaves. and at the same time raised the inheritance tax, levied only on Roman citizens, to ten percent. A report that a soothsayer had predicted that the Praetorian prefect Macrinus and his son were to rule over the empire was dutifully sent to Caracalla. But the report fell into the hands of Macrinus, who felt he must act or die. Macrinus conspired to have Caracalla assassinated by one of his soldiers during a pilgrimage to the Temple of the Moon in Carrhae, in 217 AD.
The incompetent Macrinus assumed power, but soon removed himself from Rome to the east and Antioch. His brief reign ended in 218, when the youngster Bassianus, high priest of the temple of the Sun at Emesa, and supposedly illegitimate son of Caracalla, was declared Emperor by the disaffected soldiers of Macrinus. Bribes gained Bassianus support from the legionaries and they fought against Macrinus and his Praetorian guards. He adopted the name of Antoninus but history has named him after his Sun god Elagabalus, represented on Earth in the form of a large black stone. An incompetent and lascivious ruler, Elagabalus offended all but his favourites. Cassius Dio, Herodian and the Historia Augusta give many accounts of his notorious extravagance. Elagabalus adopted his cousin Severus Alexander, as Caesar, but subsequently grew jealous and attempted to assassinate him. However, the Praetorian guard preferred Alexander, murdered Elagabalus, dragged his mutilated corpse through the streets of Rome, and threw it into the Tiber. Severus Alexander then succeeded him. Alexander waged war against many foes, including the revitalized Persia and also the Germanic peoples, who invaded Gaul. His losses generated dissatisfaction among his soldiers, and some of them murdered him during his Germanic campaign in 235 AD.
Crisis of the Third Century
A disastrous scenario emerged after the death of Alexander Severus: the Roman state was plagued by civil wars, external invasions, political chaos, pandemics and economic depression. The old Roman values had fallen, and Mithraism and Christianity had begun to spread through the populace. Emperors were no longer men linked with nobility; they usually were born in lower-classes of distant parts of the Empire. These men rose to prominence through military ranks, and became emperors through civil wars.
There were 26 emperors in a 49-year period, a signal of political instability. Maximinus Thrax was the first ruler of that time, governing for just three years. Others ruled just for a few months, like Gordian I, Gordian II, Balbinus and Hostilian. The population and the frontiers were abandoned, since the emperors were mostly concerned with defeating rivals and establishing their power. The economy also suffered during that epoch. The massive military expenditures from the Severi caused a devaluation of Roman coins. Hyperinflation came at this time as well. The Plague of Cyprian broke out in 250 and killed a huge portion of the population. In 260 AD, the provinces of Syria Palaestina, Asia Minor and Egypt separated from the rest of the Roman state to form the Palmyrene Empire, ruled by Queen Zenobia and centered on Palmyra. In that same year the Gallic Empire was created by Postumus, retaining Britannia and Gaul. These countries separated from Rome after the capture of emperor Valerian by the Sassanids of Persia, the first Roman ruler to be captured by his enemies; it was a humiliating fact for the Romans. The crisis began to recede during the reigns of Claudius Gothicus (268–270), who defeated the Gothic invaders, and Aurelian (271–275), who reconquered both the Gallic and Palmyrene Empires. Historia Augusta, The Life of Claudius, I. The crisis was overcome during the reign of Diocletian.
Empire – The Tetrarchy
Diocletian
In 284 AD, Diocletian was hailed as Imperator by the eastern army. Diocletian healed the empire from the crisis, by political and economic shifts. A new form of government was established: the Tetrarchy. The Empire was divided among four emperors, two in the West and two in the East. The first tetrarchs were Diocletian (in the East), Maximian (in the West), and two junior emperors, Galerius (in the East) and Flavius Constantius (in the West). To adjust the economy, Diocletian made several tax reforms.
Diocletian expelled the Persians who plundered Syria and conquered some barbarian tribes with Maximian. He adopted many behaviors of Eastern monarchs, like wearing pearls and golden sandals and robes. Anyone in the presence of the emperor had now to prostrate himself—a common act in the East, but never practiced in Rome before. Diocletian did not use a disguised form of Republic, as the other emperors since Augustus had done. Between 290 and 330, half a dozen new capitals had been established by the members of the Tetrarchy, officially or not: Antioch, Nicomedia, Thessalonike, Sirmium, Milan, and Trier. Diocletian was also responsible for a significant Christian persecution. In 303 he and Galerius started the persecution and ordered the destruction of all the Christian churches and scripts and forbade Christian worship. Diocletian abdicated in 305 AD together with Maximian, thus, he was the first Roman emperor to resign. His reign ended the traditional form of imperial rule, the Principate (from princeps) and started the Tetrarchy.
Constantine and Christianity
Constantine assumed the empire as a tetrarch in 306. He conducted many wars against the other tetrarchs. Firstly he defeated Maxentius in 312. In 313, he issued the Edict of Milan, which granted liberty for Christians to profess their religion. Constantine was converted to Christianity, enforcing the Christian faith. He began the Christianization of the Empire and of Europe—a process concluded by the Catholic Church in the Middle Ages. He was defeated by the Franks and the Alamanni during 306–308. In 324 he defeated another tetrarch, Licinius, and controlled all the empire, as it was before Diocletian. To celebrate his victories and Christianity's relevance, he rebuilt Byzantium and renamed it Nova Roma ("New Rome"); but the city soon gained the informal name of Constantinople ("City of Constantine").Constantine I (306–337 AD) by Hans A. Pohlsander. De Imperatoribus Romanis. 8 January 2004. Retrieved 20 March 2007.
The reign of Julian, who under the influence of his adviser Mardonius attempted to restore Classical Roman and Hellenistic religion, only briefly interrupted the succession of Christian emperors. Constantinople served as a new capital for the Empire. In fact, Rome had lost its central importance since the Crisis of the Third Century—Mediolanum was the western capital from 286 to 330, until the reign of Honorius, when Ravenna was made capital, in the 5th century. Constantine's administrative and monetary reforms, that reunited the Empire under one emperor, and rebuilt the city of Byzantium changed the high period of the ancient world.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire
In the late 4th and 5th centuries the Western Empire entered a critical stage which terminated with the fall of the Western Roman Empire. Under the last emperors of the Constantinian dynasty and the Valentinianic dynasty, Rome lost decisive battles against the Sasanian Empire and Germanic barbarians: in 363, emperor Julian the Apostate was killed in the Battle of Samarra, against the Persians and the Battle of Adrianople cost the life of emperor Valens (364–378); the victorious Goths were never expelled from the Empire nor assimilated. The next emperor, Theodosius I (379–395), gave even more force to the Christian faith, and after his death, the Empire was divided into the Eastern Roman Empire, ruled by Arcadius and the Western Roman Empire, commanded by Honorius, both of which were Theodosius' sons.
The situation became more critical in 408, after the death of Stilicho, a general who tried to reunite the Empire and repel barbarian invasion in the early years of the 5th century. The professional field army collapsed. In 410, the Theodosian dynasty saw the Visigoths sack Rome. During the 5th century, the Western Empire experienced a significant reduction of its territory. The Vandals conquered North Africa, the Visigoths claimed the southern part of Gaul, Gallaecia was taken by the Suebi, Britannia was abandoned by the central government, and the Empire suffered further from the invasions of Attila, chief of the Huns. Bury, J.B.: History of the Later Roman Empire, 6, §4. Bury, J.B.: History of the Later Roman Empire, 9. General Orestes refused to meet the demands of the barbarian "allies" who now formed the army, and tried to expel them from Italy. Unhappy with this, their chieftain Odoacer defeated and killed Orestes, invaded Ravenna and dethroned Romulus Augustus, son of Orestes. This event of 476, usually marks the end of Classical antiquity and beginning of the Middle Ages.Romulus Augustulus (475–476 AD) – Two Views by Ralph W. Mathisen and Geoffrey S. Nathan. De Imperatoribus Romanis. 26 August 1997. Retrieved 22 March 2007. The Roman noble and former emperor Julius Nepos continued to rule as emperor from Dalmatia even after the deposition of Romulus Augustus until his death in 480. Some historians consider him to be the last emperor of the Western Empire instead of Romulus Augustus.
After some 1200 years of independence and nearly 700 years as a great power, the rule of Rome in the West ended. Various reasons for Rome's fall have been proposed ever since, including loss of Republicanism, moral decay, military tyranny, class war, slavery, economic stagnation, environmental change, disease, the decline of the Roman race, as well as the inevitable ebb and flow that all civilizations experience. At the time many pagans argued that Christianity and the decline of traditional Roman religion were responsible; some rationalist thinkers of the modern era attribute the fall to a change from a martial to a more pacifist religion that lessened the number of available soldiers; while Christians such as Augustine of Hippo argued that the sinful nature of Roman society itself was to blame.
The Eastern Empire had a different fate. It survived for almost 1000 years after the fall of its Western counterpart and became the most stable Christian realm during the Middle Ages. During the 6th century, Justinian reconquered the Italian peninsula from the Ostrogoths, North Africa from the Vandals, and southern Hispania from the Visigoths. But within a few years of Justinian's death, Byzantine possessions in Italy were greatly reduced by the Lombards who settled in the peninsula. In the east, partially due to the weakening effect of the Plague of Justinian, the Byzantines were threatened by the rise of Islam. Its followers rapidly brought about the conquest of the Levant, the conquest of Armenia and the conquest of Egypt during the Arab–Byzantine wars, and soon presented a direct threat to Constantinople. In the following century, the Arabs also captured southern Italy and Sicily. On the west, Slavic populations were also able to penetrate deep into the Balkans.
The Byzantines, however, managed to stop further Islamic expansion into their lands during the 8th century and, beginning in the 9th century, reclaimed parts of the conquered lands. In 1000 AD, the Eastern Empire was at its height: Basil II reconquered Bulgaria and Armenia, and culture and trade flourished. However, soon after, this expansion was abruptly stopped in 1071 with the Byzantine defeat in the Battle of Manzikert. The aftermath of this battle sent the empire into a protracted period of decline. Two decades of internal strife and Turkic invasions ultimately led Emperor Alexios I Komnenos to send a call for help to the Western European kingdoms in 1095. The West responded with the Crusades, eventually resulting in the Sack of Constantinople by participants of the Fourth Crusade. The conquest of Constantinople in 1204 fragmented what remained of the Empire into successor states; the ultimate victor was the Empire of Nicaea. After the recapture of Constantinople by Imperial forces, the Empire was little more than a Greek state confined to the Aegean coast. The Byzantine Empire collapsed when Mehmed the Conqueror conquered Constantinople on 29 May, 1453.
Society
The imperial city of Rome was the largest urban center in the empire, with a population variously estimated from 450,000 to close to one million.Abstract of The population of ancient Rome. by Glenn R. Storey. HighBeam Research. 1 December 1997. Retrieved 22 April 2007. The public spaces in Rome resounded with such a din of hooves and clatter of iron chariot wheels that Julius Caesar had once proposed a ban on chariot traffic during the day. Historical estimates show that around 20 percent of the population under jurisdiction of ancient Rome (25–40%, depending on the standards used, in Roman Italy) lived in innumerable urban centers, with population of 10,000 and more and several military settlements, a very high rate of urbanization by pre-industrial standards. Most of those centers had a forum, temples, and other buildings similar to Rome's. Average life expectancy was about 28.
Law
The roots of the legal principles and practices of the ancient Romans may be traced to the Law of the Twelve Tables promulgated in 449 BC and to the codification of law issued by order of Emperor Justinian I around 530 AD (see Corpus Juris Civilis). Roman law as preserved in Justinian's codes continued into the Byzantine Empire, and formed the basis of similar codifications in continental Western Europe. Roman law continued, in a broader sense, to be applied throughout most of Europe until the end of the 17th century.
The major divisions of the law of ancient Rome, as contained within the Justinian and Theodosian law codes, consisted of Jus civile, Jus gentium, and Jus naturale. The Jus civile ("Citizen Law") was the body of common laws that applied to Roman citizens. The praetores urbani (sg. Praetor Urbanus) were the people who had jurisdiction over cases involving citizens. The Jus gentium ("Law of nations") was the body of common laws that applied to foreigners, and their dealings with Roman citizens. The praetores peregrini (sg. Praetor Peregrinus) were the people who had jurisdiction over cases involving citizens and foreigners. Jus naturale encompassed natural law, the body of laws that were considered common to all beings.
Class structure
Roman society is largely viewed as hierarchical, with slaves (servi) at the bottom, freedmen (liberti) above them, and free-born citizens (cives) at the top. Free citizens were also divided by class. The broadest, and earliest, division was between the patricians, who could trace their ancestry to one of the 100 patriarchs at the founding of the city, and the plebeians, who could not. This became less important in the later Republic, as some plebeian families became wealthy and entered politics, and some patrician families fell economically. Anyone, patrician or plebeian, who could count a consul as his ancestor was a noble (nobilis); a man who was the first of his family to hold the consulship, such as Marius or Cicero, was known as a novus homo ("new man") and ennobled his descendants. Patrician ancestry, however, still conferred considerable prestige, and many religious offices remained restricted to patricians.
A class division originally based on military service became more important. Membership of these classes was determined periodically by the censors, according to property. The wealthiest were the Senatorial class, who dominated politics and command of the army. Next came the equestrians (equites, sometimes translated "knights"), originally those who could afford a warhorse, and who formed a powerful mercantile class. Several further classes, originally based on the military equipment their members could afford, followed, with the proletarii, citizens who had no property other than their children, at the bottom. Before the reforms of Marius they were ineligible for military service and are often described as being just above freed slaves in wealth and prestige.
Voting power in the Republic depended on class. Citizens were enrolled in voting "tribes", but the tribes of the richer classes had fewer members than the poorer ones, all the proletarii being enrolled in a single tribe. Voting was done in class order, from top down, and stopped as soon as most of the tribes had been reached, so the poorer classes were often unable to cast their votes.
Women in ancient Rome shared some basic rights with their male counterparts, but were not fully regarded as citizens and were thus not allowed to vote or take part in politics. At the same time the limited rights of women were gradually expanded (due to emancipation) and women reached freedom from pater familias, gained property rights and even had more juridical rights than their husbands, but still no voting rights, and were absent from politics.
Allied foreign cities were often given the Latin Rights, an intermediary level between full citizens and foreigners (peregrini), which gave their citizens rights under Roman law and allowed their leading magistrates to become full Roman citizens. While there were varying degrees of Latin rights, the main division was between those cum suffragio ("with vote"; enrolled in a Roman tribe and able to take part in the comitia tributa) and sine suffragio ("without vote"; could not take part in Roman politics). Most of Rome's Italian allies were given full citizenship after the Social War of 91–88 BC, and full Roman citizenship was extended to all free-born men in the Empire by Caracalla in 212, with the exception of the dediticii, people who had become subject to Rome through surrender in war, and freed slaves.
Education
In the early Republic, there were no public schools, so boys were taught to read and write by their parents, or by educated slaves, called paedagogi, usually of Greek origin. The primary aim of education during this period was to train young men in agriculture, warfare, Roman traditions, and public affairs. Young boys learned much about civic life by accompanying their fathers to religious and political functions, including the Senate for the sons of nobles. The sons of nobles were apprenticed to a prominent political figure at the age of 16, and campaigned with the army from the age of 17 (this system was still in use among some noble families into the imperial era). Educational practices were modified after the conquest of the Hellenistic kingdoms in the 3rd century BC and the resulting Greek influence, although Roman educational practices were still much different from Greek ones. If their parents could afford it, boys and some girls at the age of 7 were sent to a private school outside the home called a ludus, where a teacher (called a litterator or a magister ludi, and often of Greek origin) taught them basic reading, writing, arithmetic, and sometimes Greek, until the age of 11.
Beginning at age 12, students went to secondary schools, where the teacher (now called a grammaticus) taught them about Greek and Roman literature. At the age of 16, some students went on to rhetoric school (where the teacher, usually Greek, was called a rhetor). Education at this level prepared students for legal careers, and required that the students memorize the laws of Rome. Pupils went to school every day, except religious festivals and market days. There were also summer holidays.
Government
Initially, Rome was ruled by kings, who were elected from each of Rome's major tribes in turn. The exact nature of the king's power is uncertain. He may have held near-absolute power, or may also have merely been the chief executive of the Senate and the people. At least in military matters, the king's authority (Imperium) was likely absolute. He was also the head of the state religion. In addition to the authority of the King, there were three administrative assemblies: the Senate, which acted as an advisory body for the King; the Comitia Curiata, which could endorse and ratify laws suggested by the King; and the Comitia Calata, which was an assembly of the priestly college that could assemble the people to bear witness to certain acts, hear proclamations, and declare the feast and holiday schedule for the next month.
The class struggles of the Roman Republic resulted in an unusual mixture of democracy and oligarchy. The word republic comes from the Latin res publica, which literally translates to "public business". Roman laws traditionally could only be passed by a vote of the Popular assembly (Comitia Tributa). Likewise, candidates for public positions had to run for election by the people. However, the Roman Senate represented an oligarchic institution, which acted as an advisory body.
In the Republic, the Senate held actual authority (auctoritas), but no real legislative power; it was technically only an advisory council. However, as the Senators were individually very influential, it was difficult to accomplish anything against the collective will of the Senate. New senators were chosen from among the most accomplished patricians by censors (Censura), who could also remove a senator from his office if he was found "morally corrupt"; a charge that could include bribery or, as under Cato the Elder, embracing one's wife in public. Later, under the reforms of the dictator Sulla, quaestors were made automatic members of the Senate, though most of his reforms did not survive.
The Republic had no fixed bureaucracy, and collected taxes through the practice of tax farming. Government positions such as quaestor, aedile, or praefect were funded by the office-holder. To prevent any citizen from gaining too much power, new magistrates were elected annually and had to share power with a colleague. For example, under normal conditions, the highest authority was held by two consuls. In an emergency, a temporary dictator could be appointed. Throughout the Republic, the administrative system was revised several times to comply with new demands. In the end, it proved inefficient for controlling the ever-expanding dominion of Rome, contributing to the establishment of the Roman Empire.
In the early Empire, the pretense of a republican form of government was maintained. The Roman Emperor was portrayed as only a princeps, or "first citizen", and the Senate gained legislative power and all legal authority previously held by the popular assemblies. However, the rule of the Emperors became increasingly autocratic, and the Senate was reduced to an advisory body appointed by the Emperor. The Empire did not inherit a set bureaucracy from the Republic, since the Republic did not have any permanent governmental structures apart from the Senate. The Emperor appointed assistants and advisers, but the state lacked many institutions, such as a centrally planned budget. Some historians have cited this as a significant reason for the decline of the Roman Empire.
Military
The early Roman army (c. 500 BC) was, like those of other contemporary city-states influenced by Greek civilization, a citizen militia that practiced hoplite tactics. It was small (the population of free men of military age was then about 9,000) and organized in five classes (in parallel to the comitia centuriata, the body of citizens organized politically), with three providing hoplites and two providing light infantry. The early Roman army was tactically limited and its stance during this period was essentially defensive.
By the 3rd century BC, the Romans abandoned the hoplite formation in favor of a more flexible system in which smaller groups of 120 (or sometimes 60) men called maniples could maneuver more independently on the battlefield. Thirty maniples arranged in three lines with supporting troops constituted a legion, totalling between 4,000 and 5,000 men.
The early Republican legion consisted of five sections, each of which was equipped differently and had different places in formation: the three lines of manipular heavy infantry (hastati, principes and triarii), a force of light infantry (velites), and the cavalry (equites). With the new organization came a new orientation toward the offensive and a much more aggressive posture toward adjoining city-states.
At nominal full strength, an early Republican legion included 3,600 to 4,800 heavy infantry, several hundred light infantry, and several hundred cavalrymen. Legions were often significantly understrength from recruitment failures or following periods of active service due to accidents, battle casualties, disease and desertion. During the Civil War, Pompey's legions in the east were at full strength because they were recently recruited, while Caesar's legions were often well below nominal strength after long active service in Gaul. This pattern also held true for auxiliary forces. Another important factor discussed by Goldsworthy was absence of legionaries on detached duty.
Until the late Republican period, the typical legionary was a property-owning citizen farmer from a rural area (an adsiduus) who served for particular (often annual) campaigns, and who supplied his own equipment and, in the case of equites, his own mount. Harris suggests that down to 200 BC, the average rural farmer might participate in six or seven campaigns. Freedmen, slaves, and urban citizens served only in rare emergencies.
After 200 BC, economic conditions in rural areas deteriorated as manpower needs increased, so that the property qualifications for compulsory service were gradually reduced. Beginning with Gaius Marius in 107 BC, citizens without property and some urban-dwelling citizens (proletarii) were enlisted and provided with equipment, although most legionaries continued to come from rural areas. Terms of service became continuous and long—up to twenty years if emergencies required although six- or seven-year terms were more typical.
Beginning in the 3rd century BC, legionaries were paid a stipend (stipendium). The amounts are disputed; Caesar doubled his troop payments to 225 denarii a year. Troops could anticipate booty and donatives from their commanders to reward successful campaigns and, beginning at the time of Marius, could be granted allotments of land on retirement.Brunt, pp. 259–265; Potter, pp. 80–83. The cavalry and light infantry attached to a legion (the auxilia) were often recruited from the areas where the legion served. Caesar formed a legion, the Fifth Alaudae, from non-citizens in Transalpine Gaul to serve in his campaigns in Gaul. By the time of Augustus, the ideal of the citizen-soldier had been abandoned and the legions had become fully professional. Ordinary legionaries received 900 sesterces a year and could expect 12,000 sesterces on retirement.
At the end of the Civil War, Augustus reorganized Roman military forces, discharging soldiers and disbanding legions. He retained 28 legions, distributed through the provinces of the Empire. During the Principate, the tactical organization of the Army continued to evolve. The auxilia remained independent cohorts, and legionary troops often operated as groups of cohorts rather than as full legions. A new and versatile type of unit, the cohortes equitatae, combined cavalry and legionaries in a single formation. They could be stationed at garrisons or outposts and could fight on their own as balanced small forces or combine with similar units as a larger, legion-sized force. This increase in organizational flexibility helped ensure the long-term success of Roman military forces.
The Emperor Gallienus (253–268 AD) began a reorganization that created the last military structure of the late Empire. Withdrawing some legionaries from the fixed bases on the border, Gallienus created mobile forces (the comitatenses or field armies) and stationed them behind and at some distance from the borders as a strategic reserve. The border troops (limitanei) stationed at fixed bases continued to be the first line of defense. The basic units of the field army were regimental; legiones or auxilia for infantry and vexillationes for cavalry. Nominal strengths may have been 1,200 men for infantry regiments and 600 for cavalry, but actual troop levels could have been much lower – 800 infantry and 400 cavalry.
Many infantry and cavalry regiments operated in pairs under the command of a comes. Field armies included regiments recruited from allied tribes and known as foederati. By 400 AD, foederati regiments had become permanently established units of the Roman army, paid and equipped by the Empire, led by a Roman tribune and used just as Roman units were used. The Empire also used groups of barbarians to fight along with the legions as allies without integration into the field armies, under overall command of a Roman general, but led by their own officers.
Military leadership evolved over the course of the history of Rome. Under the monarchy, the hoplite armies were led by the kings. During the early and middle Roman Republic, military forces were under the command of one of the two elected consuls for the year. During the later Republic, members of the Roman Senatorial elite, as part of the normal sequence of elected public offices known as the cursus honorum, would have served first as quaestor (often posted as deputies to field commanders), then as praetor. Julius Caesar's most talented, effective and reliable subordinate in Gaul, Titus Labienus, was recommended to him by Pompey.
Following the end of a term as praetor or consul, a Senator might be appointed by the Senate as a propraetor or proconsul (depending on the highest office held before) to govern a foreign province. More junior officers (down to but not including the level of centurion) were selected by their commanders from their own clientelae or those recommended by political allies among the Senatorial elite.
Under Augustus, whose most important political priority was to place the military under a permanent and unitary command, the Emperor was the legal commander of each legion but exercised that command through a legatus (legate) he appointed from the Senatorial elite. In a province with a single legion, the legate commanded the legion (legatus legionis) and also served as provincial governor, while in a province with more than one legion, each legion was commanded by a legate and the legates were commanded by the provincial governor (also a legate but of higher rank).
During the later stages of the Imperial period (beginning perhaps with Diocletian), the Augustan model was abandoned. Provincial governors were stripped of military authority, and command of the armies in a group of provinces was given to generals (duces) appointed by the Emperor. These were no longer members of the Roman elite but men who came up through the ranks and had seen much practical soldiering. With increasing frequency, these men attempted (sometimes successfully) to usurp the positions of the Emperors who had appointed them. Decreased resources, increasing political chaos and civil war eventually left the Western Empire vulnerable to attack and takeover by neighboring barbarian peoples.
Roman navy
Less is known about the Roman navy than the Roman army. Prior to the middle of the 3rd century BC, officials known as duumviri navales commanded a fleet of twenty ships used mainly to control piracy. This fleet was given up in 278 AD and replaced by allied forces. The First Punic War required that Rome build large fleets, and it did so largely with the assistance of and financing from allies. This reliance on allies continued to the end of the Roman Republic. The quinquereme was the main warship on both sides of the Punic Wars and remained the mainstay of Roman naval forces until replaced by the time of Caesar Augustus by lighter and more maneuverable vessels.
As compared with a trireme, the quinquereme permitted the use of a mix of experienced and inexperienced crewmen (an advantage for a primarily land-based power), and its lesser maneuverability permitted the Romans to adopt and perfect boarding tactics using a troop of about 40 marines in lieu of the ram. Ships were commanded by a navarch, a rank equal to a centurion, who was usually not a citizen. Potter suggests that because the fleet was dominated by non-Romans, the navy was considered non-Roman and allowed to atrophy in times of peace.
Information suggests that by the time of the late Empire (350 AD), the Roman navy comprised several fleets including warships and merchant vessels for transportation and supply. Warships were oared sailing galleys with three to five banks of oarsmen. Fleet bases included such ports as Ravenna, Arles, Aquilea, Misenum and the mouth of the Somme River in the West and Alexandria and Rhodes in the East. Flotillas of small river craft (classes) were part of the limitanei (border troops) during this period, based at fortified river harbors along the Rhine and the Danube. That prominent generals commanded both armies and fleets suggests that naval forces were treated as auxiliaries to the army and not as an independent service. The details of command structure and fleet strengths during this period are not well known, although fleets were commanded by prefects.
Economy
Ancient Rome commanded a vast area of land, with tremendous natural and human resources. As such, Rome's economy remained focused on farming and trade. Agricultural free trade changed the Italian landscape, and by the 1st century BC, vast grape and olive estates had supplanted the yeoman farmers, who were unable to match the imported grain price. The annexation of Egypt, Sicily and Tunisia in North Africa provided a continuous supply of grains. In turn, olive oil and wine were Italy's main exports. Two-tier crop rotation was practiced, but farm productivity was low, around 1 ton per hectare.
Industrial and manufacturing activities were small. The largest such activities were the mining and quarrying of stones, which provided basic construction materials for the buildings of that period. In manufacturing, production was on a relatively small scale, and generally consisted of workshops and small factories that employed at most dozens of workers. However, some brick factories employed hundreds of workers.
The economy of the early Republic was largely based on smallholding and paid labor. However, foreign wars and conquests made slaves increasingly cheap and plentiful, and by the late Republic, the economy was largely dependent on slave labor for both skilled and unskilled work. Slaves are estimated to have constituted around 20% of the Roman Empire's population at this time and 40% in the city of Rome. Only in the Roman Empire, when the conquests stopped and the prices of slaves increased, did hired labor become more economical than slave ownership.
Although barter was used in ancient Rome, and often used in tax collection, Rome had a very developed coinage system, with brass, bronze, and precious metal coins in circulation throughout the Empire and beyond—some have even been discovered in India. Before the 3rd century BC, copper was traded by weight, measured in unmarked lumps, across central Italy. The original copper coins (as) had a face value of one Roman pound of copper, but weighed less. Thus, Roman money's utility as a unit of exchange consistently exceeded its intrinsic value as metal. After Nero began debasing the silver denarius, its legal value was an estimated one-third greater than its intrinsic value.
Horses were expensive and other pack animals were slower. Mass trade on the Roman roads connected military posts, where Roman markets were centered. These roads were designed for wheels. As a result, there was transport of commodities between Roman regions, but increased with the rise of Roman maritime trade in the 2nd century BC. During that period, a trading vessel took less than a month to complete a trip from Gades to Alexandria via Ostia, spanning the entire length of the Mediterranean. Transport by sea was around 60 times cheaper than by land, so the volume for such trips was much larger.
Some economists consider the Roman Empire a market economy, similar in its degree of capitalistic practices to 17th century Netherlands and 18th century England.
Family
The basic units of Roman society were households and families. Groups of households connected through the male line formed a family (gens), based on blood ties, a common ancestry or adoption. During the Roman Republic, some powerful families, or Gentes Maiores, came to dominate political life. Families were headed by their oldest male citizen, the pater familias (father of the family), who held lawful authority (patria potestas, "father's power") over wives, sons, daughters, and slaves of the household, and the family's wealth.
The extreme expressions of this power – the selling or killing of family members for moral or civil offenses, including simple disobedience – were very rarely exercised, and were forbidden in the Imperial era. A pater familias had moral and legal duties towards all family members. Even the most despotic pater familias was expected to consult senior members of his household and gens over matters that affected the family's well-being and reputation. Traditionally, such matters were regarded as outside the purview of the state and its magistrates; under the emperors, they were increasingly subject to state interference and legislation.
Once accepted into their birth family by their fathers, children were potential heirs. They could not be lawfully given away, or sold into slavery. If parents were unable to care for their child, or if its paternity was in doubt, they could resort to infant exposure (Boswell translates this as being "offered" up to care by the gods or strangers). If a deformed or sickly newborn was patently "unfit to live", killing it was a duty of the pater familias. A citizen father who exposed a healthy freeborn child was not punished, but automatically lost his potestas over that child. Abandoned children were sometimes adopted; some would have been sold into slavery. Slavery was near-ubiquitous and almost universally accepted. In the early Republic, citizens in debt were allowed to sell their labour, and perhaps their sons, to their debtor in a limited form of slavery called nexum, but this violated the fundamental conditions of citizenship and was abolished in the middle Republic. Freedom was considered a natural and proper state for citizens; slaves could be lawfully freed, with consent and support of their owners, and still serve their owners' family and financial interests, as freedmen or freed women. This was the basis of the client-patron relationship, one of the most important features of Rome's economy and society.
In law, a pater familias held potestas over his adult sons with their own households. This could give rise to legal anomalies, such as adult sons also having the status of minors. No man could be considered a pater familias, nor could he truly hold property under law, while his own father lived.Family Values in Ancient Rome by Richard Saller. The University of Chicago Library Digital Collections: Fathom Archive. 2001. Visited 14 April 2007. During Rome's early history, married daughters came under the control (manus) of their husbands' pater familias. By the late Republic, most married women retained lawful connection to their birth family, though any children from the marriage belonged to her husband's family The mother or an elderly relative often raised both boys and girls. Roman moralists held that marriage and child-raising fulfilled a basic duty to family, gens, and the state. Marriage could help conserve or extend a family's wealth, bloodline and political connections. Multiple remarriages were not uncommon. Fathers usually began seeking husbands for their daughters when these reached an age between twelve and fourteen, but most commoner-class women stayed single until their twenties, and in general seem to have been far more independent than wives of the elite. Divorce required the consent of one party, along with the return of any dowry. Both parents had power over their children during their minority and adulthood, but husbands had much less control over their wives.
Roman citizen women held a restricted form of citizenship; they could not vote but were protected by law. They ran families, could own and run businesses, own and cultivate land, write their own wills, and plead in court on their own behalf, or on behalf of others, all under dispensation of the courts and the nominal supervision of a senior male relative. Throughout the late Republican and Imperial eras, a declining birthrate among the elite, and a corresponding increase among commoners was cause of concern for many gentes; Augustus tried to address this through state intervention, offering financial and other rewards to any woman who gave birth to three or more children, and penalising the childless. The latter was much resented, and the former had seemingly negligible results. Aristocratic women seem to have been increasingly disinclined to childbearing; it carried a high risk of mortality to mothers, and a deal of inconvenience thereafter for those who preferred an independent lifestyle.Galinsky, Karl, Augustan Culture: An Interpretive Introduction, Princeton University Press, 1998, pp. 130-132,
Time and dates
Roman hours were counted ordinally from dawn to dawn. Thus, if sunrise was at 6 am, then 6 to 7 am was called the "first hour", 12 noon to 1 pm the "sixth hour" and so on. Midday was called meridies and it is from this word that the terms am (ante meridiem) and pm (post meridiem) stem. The English word "noon" comes from nona ("ninth (hour)"), which referred to 3 pm in Ancient Rome. The Romans had clocks (horologia), which included giant public sundials (solaria) and water clocks (clepsydrae).
The ancient Roman week originally had eight days, which were identified by letters A to H, with the eighth day being the nundinum or market day, a kind of weekend when farmers sold their produce on the streets. The seven-day week, first introduced from the East during the early Empire, was officially adopted during the reign of Constantine. Romans named week days after celestial bodies from at least the 1st century AD, a custom that was inherited by other peoples and is still found in many modern languages, including English.
Roman months had three important days: the calends (first day of each month, always in plural), the ides (13th or 15th of the month), and the nones (ninth day before the ides, inclusive, i.e. 5th or 7th of the month). Other days were counted backwards from the next one of these days. For example, what we call February 6, the Romans called ante diem VIII idus Februarias (inclusively the eighth day before the ides of February, which was February 13).
The Roman year originally had ten months from Martius (March) to December, with the winter period not included in the calendar. The first four months were named after gods (Martius, Aprilis, Maius, Junius) and the others were numbered (Quintilis, Sextilis, September, October, November, and December). Numa Pompilius, the second king of Rome (716–673 BC), is said to have introduced the months of January and February, both also named after gods, beginning the 12-month calendar still in use today. In 44 BC, the month Quintilis was renamed to Julius (July) after Julius Caesar and in 8 BC, Sextilis was renamed to Augustus (August) after Augustus Caesar.
The Romans had several ways of tracking years. One widespread way was the consular dating, which identified years by the two consuls that ruled each year (their term was limited to one year); it was introduced in the Republic and continued to be used in the Empire, even though the consular post was reduced to a ceremonial one during that latter period. Another way, introduced in the late 3rd century AD, was counting years from the indictio, a 15-year period based on the announcement of the delivery of food and other goods to the government. Another way, less popular but more similar to the way we currently count years, was ab urbe condita, which simply counted years from the mythical foundation of Rome in 753 BC. Thus, the year 653 BC would be 100 AUC, 1000 AD would be 1752 AUC (as there was no year 0 AD or BC) and so on.
Culture
Life in ancient Rome revolved around the city of Rome, located on seven hills. The city had a vast number of monumental structures like the Colosseum, the Trajan's Forum and the Pantheon. It had theatres, gymnasiums, marketplaces, functional sewers, bath complexes complete with libraries and shops, and fountains with fresh drinking water supplied by hundreds of miles of aqueducts. Throughout the territory under the control of ancient Rome, residential architecture ranged from modest houses to country villas.
In the capital city of Rome, there were imperial residences on the elegant Palatine Hill, from which the word palace derives. The low plebeian and middle equestrian classes lived in the city center, packed into apartments, or insulae, which were almost like modern ghettos. These areas, often built by upper class property owners to rent, were often centred upon collegia or taberna. These people, provided with a free supply of grain, and entertained by gladiatorial games, were enrolled as clients of patrons among the upper class patricians, whose assistance they sought and whose interests they upheld.
Language
The native language of the Romans was Latin, an Italic language the grammar of which relies little on word order, conveying meaning through a system of affixes attached to word stems. Its alphabet was based on the Etruscan alphabet, which was in turn based on the Greek alphabet. Although surviving Latin literature consists almost entirely of Classical Latin, an artificial and highly stylized and polished literary language from the 1st century BC, the spoken language of the Roman Empire was Vulgar Latin, which significantly differed from Classical Latin in grammar and vocabulary, and eventually in pronunciation. Speakers of Latin could understand both until the 7th century when spoken Latin began to diverge so much that 'Classical' or 'Good Latin' had to be learned as a second language.
While Latin remained the main written language of the Roman Empire, Greek came to be the language spoken by the well-educated elite, as most of the literature studied by Romans was written in Greek. In the eastern half of the Roman Empire, which later became the Eastern Roman Empire, Latin was never able to replace Greek, and after the death of Justinian, Greek became the official language of the Eastern government. The expansion of the Roman Empire spread Latin throughout Europe, and Vulgar Latin evolved into dialects in different locations, gradually shifting into many distinct Romance languages.
Religion
Archaic Roman religion, at least concerning the gods, was made up not of written narratives, but rather of complex interrelations between gods and humans. Unlike in Greek mythology, the gods were not personified, but were vaguely defined sacred spirits called numina. Romans also believed that every person, place or thing had its own genius, or divine soul. During the Roman Republic, Roman religion was organized under a strict system of priestly offices, which were held by men of senatorial rank. The College of Pontifices was uppermost body in this hierarchy, and its chief priest, the Pontifex Maximus, was the head of the state religion. Flamens took care of the cults of various gods, while augurs were trusted with taking the auspices. The sacred king took on the religious responsibilities of the deposed kings. In the Roman Empire, deceased emperors who had ruled well were deified by their successors and the Senate. and the formalized imperial cult became increasingly prominent.
As contact with the Greeks increased, the old Roman gods became increasingly associated with Greek gods. Thus, Jupiter was perceived to be the same deity as Zeus, Mars became associated with Ares, and Neptune with Poseidon. The Roman gods also assumed the attributes and mythologies of these Greek gods. Under the Empire, the Romans absorbed the mythologies of their conquered subjects, often leading to situations in which the temples and priests of traditional Italian deities existed side by side with those of foreign gods.
Beginning with Emperor Nero in the 1st century AD, Roman official policy towards Christianity was negative, and at some points, simply being a Christian could be punishable by death. Under Emperor Diocletian, the persecution of Christians reached its peak. However, it became an officially supported religion in the Roman state under Diocletian's successor, Constantine I, with the signing of the Edict of Milan in 313, and quickly became dominant. All religions except Christianity were prohibited in 391 AD by an edict of Emperor Theodosius I.
Ethics and morality
Like many ancient cultures, concepts of ethics and morality, while sharing some commonalities with modern society, differed greatly in several important ways. Because ancient civilizations like Rome were under constant threat of attack from marauding tribes, their culture was necessarily militaristic with martial skills being a prized attribute. Whereas modern societies consider compassion a virtue, Roman society considered compassion a vice, a moral defect. Indeed, one of the primary purposes of the gladiatorial games was to inoculate Roman citizens from this weakness. Romans instead prized virtues such as courage and conviction (virtus), a sense of duty to one's people, moderation and avoiding excess (moderatio), forgiveness and understanding (clementia), fairness (severitas), and loyalty (pietas).
Contrary to popular descriptions, Roman society had well-established and restrictive norms related to sexuality, though as with many societies, the lion's share of the responsibilities fell on women. Women were generally expected to be monogamous having only a single husband during their life (univira), though this was much less regarded by the elite, especially under the empire. Women were expected to be modest in public avoiding any provocative appearance and to demonstrate absolute fidelity to their husbands (pudicitia). Indeed, wearing a veil was a common expectation to preserve modesty. Sex outside of marriage was generally frowned upon for men and women and indeed was made illegal during the imperial period. Nevertheless, prostitution was seen entirely differently and indeed was an accepted and regulated practice.
Art, music and literature
Roman painting styles show Greek influences, and surviving examples are primarily frescoes used to adorn the walls and ceilings of country villas, though Roman literature includes mentions of paintings on wood, ivory, and other materials.Roman Painting from Timeline of Art History. Department of Greek and Roman Art, The Metropolitan Museum of Art. 2004–10. Retrieved 22 April 2007. Several examples of Roman painting have been found at Pompeii, and from these art historians divide the history of Roman painting into four periods.
The first style of Roman painting was practiced from the early 2nd century BC to the early- or mid-1st century BC. It was mainly composed of imitations of marble and masonry, though sometimes including depictions of mythological characters.
The second style began during the early 1st century BC and attempted to depict realistically three-dimensional architectural features and landscapes. The third style occurred during the reign of Augustus (27 BC – 14 AD), and rejected the realism of the second style in favor of simple ornamentation. A small architectural scene, landscape, or abstract design was placed in the center with a monochrome background. The fourth style, which began in the 1st century AD, depicted scenes from mythology, while retaining architectural details and abstract patterns.
Portrait sculpture during the period utilized youthful and classical proportions, evolving later into a mixture of realism and idealism. During the Antonine and Severan periods, ornate hair and bearding, with deep cutting and drilling, became popular. Advancements were also made in relief sculptures, usually depicting Roman victories.
Latin literature was, from its start, influenced heavily by Greek authors. Some of the earliest extant works are of historical epics telling the early military history of Rome. As the Republic expanded, authors began to produce poetry, comedy, history, and tragedy.
Roman music was largely based on Greek music, and played an important part in many aspects of Roman life. In the Roman military, musical instruments such as the tuba (a long trumpet) or the cornu were used to give various commands, while the buccina (possibly a trumpet or horn) and the lituus (probably an elongated J-shaped instrument), were used in ceremonial capacities. Music was used in the Roman amphitheatres between fights and in the odea, and in these settings is known to have featured the cornu and the hydraulis (a type of water organ).
Most religious rituals featured musical performances, with tibiae (double pipes) at sacrifices, cymbals and tambourines at orgiastic cults, and rattles and hymns across the spectrum. Some music historians believe that music was used at almost all public ceremonies. Music historians are not certain if Roman musicians made a significant contribution to the theory or practice of music.
The graffiti, brothels, paintings, and sculptures found in Pompeii and Herculaneum suggest that the Romans had a sex-saturated culture.
Cuisine
Ancient Roman cuisine changed over the long duration of this ancient civilization. Dietary habits were affected by the influence of Greek culture, the political changes from Kingdom to Republic to Empire, and the Empire's enormous expansion, which exposed Romans to many new, provincial culinary habits and cooking techniques. In the beginning the differences between social classes were relatively small, but disparities evolved with the Empire's growth. Men and women drank wine with their meals, a tradition that has been carried through to the present day.
Ingredients
The ancient Roman diet included many items that are staples of modern Italian cooking. Pliny the Elder discussed more than 30 varieties of olive, 40 kinds of pear, figs (native and imported from Africa and the eastern provinces), and a wide variety of vegetables, including carrots (of different colors, but not orange) as well as celery, garlic, some flower bulbs, cabbage and other brassicas (such as kale and broccoli), lettuce, endive, onion, leek, asparagus, radishes, turnips, parsnips, beets, green peas, chard, cardoons, olives, and cucumber.
However, some foods now considered characteristic of modern Italian cuisine were not used. In particular, spinach and eggplant (aubergine) were introduced later from the Arab world, and tomatoes, potatoes, capsicum peppers, and maize (the modern source of polenta) only appeared in Europe following the discovery of the New World and the Columbian Exchange. The Romans knew of rice, but it was very rarely available to them. There were also few citrus fruits. Lemons were known in Italy from the second century AD but were not widely cultivated.
Butcher's meat such as beef was an uncommon luxury. The most popular meat was pork, especially sausages. Fish was more common than meat, with a sophisticated aquaculture and large-scale industries devoted to oyster farming. The Romans also engaged in snail farming and oak grub farming. Some fish were greatly esteemed and fetched high prices, such as mullet raised in the fishery at Cosa, and "elaborate means were invented to assure its freshness".
Meals
Traditionally, a breakfast called ientaculum was served at dawn. At mid-day to early afternoon, Romans ate cena, the main meal of the day, and at nightfall a light supper called vesperna. With the increased importation of foreign foods, the cena grew larger in size and included a wider range of foods. Thus, it gradually shifted to the evening, while the vesperna was abandoned completely over the course of the years. The mid-day meal prandium became a light meal to hold one over until cena. Among the lower classes of the Roman society, these changes were less pronounced as the traditional routines corresponded closely to the daily rhythms of manual labour.
Games and recreation
The youth of Rome had several forms of athletic play and exercise, such as jumping, wrestling, boxing, and racing. In the countryside, pastimes for the wealthy also included fishing and hunting. The Romans also had several forms of ball playing, including one resembling handball. Dice games, board games, and gamble games were popular pastimes. Women did not take part in these activities. For the wealthy, dinner parties presented an opportunity for entertainment, sometimes featuring music, dancing, and poetry readings. Plebeians sometimes enjoyed similar parties through clubs or associations, but for most Romans, recreational dining usually meant patronizing taverns. Children entertained themselves with toys and such games as leapfrog.
Public games were sponsored by leading Romans who wished to advertise their generosity and court popular approval; in the Imperial era, this usually meant the emperor. Several venues were developed specifically for public games. The Colisseum was built in the Imperial era to host, among other events, gladiatorial combats. These combats had begun as funeral games around the 4th century BC, and became popular spectator events in the late Republic and Empire. Gladiators had an exotic and inventive variety of arms and armour. They sometimes fought to the death, but more often to an adjudicated victory, dependent on a referee's decision. The outcome was usually in keeping with the mood of the watching crowd. Shows of exotic animals were popular in their own right; but sometimes animals were pitted against human beings, either armed professionals or unarmed criminals who had been condemned to a spectacular and theatrical public death in the arena. Some of these encounters were based on episodes from Roman or Greek mythology.
Chariot racing was extremely popular among all classes. In Rome, these races were usually held at the Circus Maximus, which had been purpose-built for chariot and horse-racing and, as Rome's largest public place, was also used for festivals and animal shows. It could seat around 150,000 people; The charioteers raced in teams, identified by their colours. The track was divided lengthwise by a barrier that contained obelisks, temples, statues and lap-counters. The best seats were at the track-side, close to the action; they were reserved for Senators. Behind them sat the equites (knights), and behind the knights were the plebs (commoners) and non-citizens. The donor of the games sat on a high platform in the stands alongside images of the gods, visible to all. Large sums were bet on the outcomes of races. Some Romans offered prayers and sacrifices on behalf of their favourites, or laid curses on the opposing teams, and some aficionados were members of extremely, even violently partisan circus factions.
Technology
Ancient Rome boasted impressive technological feats, using many advancements that were lost in the Middle Ages and not rivaled again until the 19th and 20th centuries. An example of this is insulated glazing, which was not invented again until the 1930s. Many practical Roman innovations were adopted from earlier Greek designs. Advancements were often divided and based on craft. Artisans guarded technologies as trade secrets.
Roman civil engineering and military engineering constituted a large part of Rome's technological superiority and legacy, and contributed to the construction of hundreds of roads, bridgess, aqueducts, public baths, theatres and arenas. Many monuments, such as the Colosseum, Pont du Gard, and Pantheon, remain as testaments to Roman engineering and culture.
The Romans were renowned for their architecture, which is grouped with Greek traditions into "Classical architecture". Although there were many differences from Greek architecture, Rome borrowed heavily from Greece in adhering to strict, formulaic building designs and proportions. Aside from two new orders of columns, composite and Tuscan, and from the dome, which was derived from the Etruscan arch, Rome had relatively few architectural innovations until the end of the Republic.
In the 1st century BC, Romans started to use Roman concrete widely. Concrete was invented in the late 3rd century BC. It was a powerful cement derived from pozzolana, and soon supplanted marble as the chief Roman building material and allowed many daring architectural forms. Also in the 1st century BC, Vitruvius wrote De architectura, possibly the first complete treatise on architecture in history. In the late 1st century BC, Rome also began to use glassblowing soon after its invention in Syria about 50 BC. Mosaics took the Empire by storm after samples were retrieved during Lucius Cornelius Sulla's campaigns in Greece.
The Romans also largely built using timber, causing a rapid decline of the woodlands surrounding Rome and in much of the Apennine Mountains due to the demand for wood for construction, shipbuilding and fire. The first evidence of long-distance wood trading come from the discovery of wood planks, felled between A.D. 40 and 60, coming from the Jura mountains in northeastern France and ending up more than 1,055 miles away, in the foundations of a lavish portico that was part of a vast wealthy patrician villa, in Central Rome. It is suggested that timber, around 4 meters long, came up to Rome via the Tiber River via ships traveling across the Mediterranean Sea from the confluence of the Saône and Rhône rivers in what is now the city of Lyon in present-day France.
With solid foundations and good drainage, Roman roads were known for their durability and many segments of the Roman road system were still in use a thousand years after the fall of Rome. The construction of a vast and efficient travel network throughout the Empire dramatically increased Rome's power and influence. They allowed Roman legions to be deployed rapidly, with predictable marching times between key points of the empire, no matter the season. These highways also had enormous economic significance, solidifying Rome's role as a trading crossroads—the origin of the saying "all roads lead to Rome". The Roman government maintained a system of way stations, known as the cursus publicus, that provided refreshments to couriers at regular intervals along the roads and established a system of horse relays allowing a dispatch to travel up to a day.
The Romans constructed numerous aqueducts to supply water to cities and industrial sites and to aid in their agriculture. By the third century, the city of Rome was supplied by 11 aqueducts with a combined length of . Most aqueducts were constructed below the surface, with only small portions above ground supported by arches. Sometimes, where valleys deeper than had to be crossed, inverted siphons were used to convey water across a valley.
The Romans also made major advancements in sanitation. Romans were particularly famous for their public baths, called thermae, which were used for both hygienic and social purposes. Many Roman houses came to have flush toilets and indoor plumbing, and a complex sewer system, the Cloaca Maxima, was used to drain the local marshes and carry waste into the Tiber river.
Some historians have speculated that lead pipes in the sewer and plumbing systems led to widespread lead poisoning, which contributed to the decline in birth rate and general decay of Roman society leading up to the fall of Rome. However, lead content would have been minimized because the flow of water from aqueducts could not be shut off; it ran continuously through public and private outlets into the drains, and only a few taps were in use. Other authors have raised similar objections to this theory, also pointing out that Roman water pipes were thickly coated with deposits that would have prevented lead from leaching into the water.
Legacy
Ancient Rome is the progenitor of Western civilization. The customs, religion, law, technology, architecture, political system, military, literature, languages, alphabet, government and many factors and aspects of western civilization are all inherited from Roman advancements. The rediscovery of Roman culture revitalized Western civilization, playing a role in the Renaissance and the Age of Enlightenment.
Genetics
A genetic study published in Science in November 2019 examined the genetic history of Rome from the Mesolithic up to modern times. The Mesolithic inhabitants of Rome were determined to be Western Hunter Gatherers (WHGs), who were almost entirely replaced by Early European Farmers (EEFs) around 6,000 BC coming from Anatolia and the Fertile Crescent. However, the authors observe that the EEFs studied carry a small amount of another component that is found at high levels in Neolithic Iranian farmers and Caucasus hunter-gatherers (CHG), suggesting different or additional population contributions from Near Eastern farmers during the Neolithic transition, according to the authors.
Between 2,900 BC and 900 BC, the EEF/WHG descended population of Rome was overwhelmed by peoples with steppe ancestry largely tracing their origin to the Pontic–Caspian steppe. The Iron Age Latin founding population of Rome which subsequently emerged overwhelmingly carried the paternal haplogroup R-M269, and were of about 30% steppe ancestry. However, two out of six individuals from Latin burials from Latium vetus were found to be a mixture of local Iron Age ancestry and a ancient Near Eastern population (best approximated by Bronze Age Armenian or Iron Age Anatolian population). In addition, one out of four individuals from Etruscan burials from Veio and Civitavecchia, a female, was found to be a mixture of local Iron Age ancestry and a North African population (best approximated by Late Neolithic Moroccan). Overall, the genetic differentiation between the Latins, Etruscans and the preceding proto-villanovan population of Italy was found to be insignificant.
Examined individuals from Rome during the time of the Roman Empire (27 BCE300 CE) bore almost no genetic resemblance to Rome's founding populations, and were instead shifted towards the Eastern Mediterranean and Near East, largely overlaping with modern such as Greeks, Maltese, Cypriot, and Syrian. The Imperial population of Rome was found to have been extremely diverse, with barely any of the examined individuals being of primarily western European ancestry. It was suggested that the large population size and the presence of megacities in the east, such as Athens, Antioch, and Alexandria, may have driven a net flow of people from east to west during antiquity; in addition, eastern ancestry could have reached Rome also through Greek, Phoenician, and Punic diasporas that were established through colonies across the Mediterranean prior to Roman Imperial expansion. During late antiquity, Rome's population was drastically reduced as a result of political instability, epidemics and economic changes. Repeated invasions of barbarians brought European ancestry back into Rome, resulting in the loss of genetic link to the Eastern Mediterranean and Middle East. By the Middle Ages, the people of Rome again genetically resembled European populations.
Physical appearance
As regards to the data on the pigmentation of eyes, hair, and skin, the following results were obtained from the study on ancient DNA of 11 individuals of the Iron Age/Republican period, coming from Latium and Abruzzo, and 27 individuals of Medieval/Early Modern period, coming from Latium.
In the Iron Age/Republic period, the eye color is blue in 27% of those examined and dark in the remaining 73%. Hair color is 9% blond, or dark blond, and 91% dark brown or black. The skin color is intermediate for 82%, intermediate or dark for 9%, and dark or very dark for the remaining 9%.
By contrast, the following results were obtained for the Medieval/Early Modern period: the eye color is blue in 26% of those examined and dark in the remaining 74%. Hair color is 22% blond or dark blond, 11% red, and 67% dark brown or black. The skin color is pale for 15%, intermediate for 68%, intermediate or dark for 10%, and dark or very dark for the remaining 7%.
Misconceptions
There is a number of individual misconceptions about the Roman period.
Greek and Roman sculptures were originally painted with bright colors; they only appear white or grey today because the original pigments have deteriorated. Some well-preserved statues still bear traces of their original coloration.
There is no evidence that the Roman salute, in which the arm is fully extended forwards or diagonally with fingers touching, was actually used in ancient Rome for greeting or any other purpose. The idea that the salute was popular in ancient times originated in the 1784 painting Oath of the Horatii by the French artist Jacques-Louis David, which inspired later salutes, most notably the Nazi salute.
Vomiting was not a regular part of Roman dining customs. In ancient Rome, the architectural feature called a vomitorium was the entranceway through which crowds entered and exited a stadium, not a special room used for purging food during meals.
Scipio Aemilianus did not plow over the city of Carthage and sow it with salt after defeating it in the Third Punic War.
Julius Caesar was not born via caesarean section. Such a procedure would have been fatal to the mother at the time, and historical evidence indicates Caesar's mother being alive during his own lifetime. Although the names are similar, the caesarean section was not named after Caesar, as is commonly believed; it is more likely related to "cease" and derived from the Latin verb caedere, meaning "to cut."
The death of the Greek philosopher Hypatia of Alexandria at the hands of a mob of Christian monks in 415 was mainly a result of her involvement in a bitter political feud between her close friend and student Orestes, the Roman prefect of Alexandria, and the bishop Cyril, not her religious views. Her death also had nothing to do with the destruction of the Library of Alexandria, which had likely already ceased to exist centuries before Hypatia was born.
Historiography
Although there has been a diversity of works on ancient Roman history, many of them are lost. As a result of this loss, there are gaps in Roman history, which are filled by unreliable works, such as the Historia Augusta and other books from obscure authors. However, there remains a number of reliable accounts of Roman history.
In Roman times
The first historians used their works for the lauding of Roman culture and customs. By the end of Republic, some historians distorted their histories to flatter their patrons—especially at the time of Marius's and Sulla's clash. Caesar wrote his own histories to make a complete account of his military campaigns in Gaul and during the Civil War.
In the Empire, the biographies of famous men and early emperors flourished, examples being The Twelve Caesars of Suetonius, and Plutarch's Parallel Lives. Other major works of Imperial times were that of Livy and Tacitus.
Polybius – The Histories
Sallust – Bellum Catilinae and Bellum Jugurthinum
Julius Caesar – De Bello Gallico and De Bello Civili
Livy – Ab urbe condita
Dionysius of Halicarnassus – Roman Antiquities
Pliny the Elder – Naturalis Historia
Josephus – The Jewish War
Suetonius – The Twelve Caesars (De Vita Caesarum)
Tacitus – Annales and Histories
Plutarch – Parallel Lives (a series of biographies of famous Roman and Greek men)
Cassius Dio – Historia Romana
Herodian – History of the Roman Empire since Marcus Aurelius
Ammianus Marcellinus – Res Gestae
In modern times
Interest in studying, and even idealizing, ancient Rome became prevalent during the Italian Renaissance, and continues until the present day. Charles Montesquieu wrote a work Reflections on the Causes of the Grandeur and Declension of the Romans. The first major work was The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire by Edward Gibbon, which encompassed the Roman civilization from the end of the 2nd century to the fall of the Byzantine Empire in 1453. Like Montesquieu, Gibbon paid tribute to the virtue of Roman citizens. Barthold Georg Niebuhr was a founder of the examination of ancient Roman history and wrote The Roman History, tracing the period until the First Punic war. Niebuhr tried to determine the way the Roman tradition evolved. According to him, Romans, like other people, had an historical ethos preserved mainly in the noble families.
During the Napoleonic period a work titled The History of Romans by Victor Duruy appeared. It highlighted the Caesarean period popular at the time. History of Rome, Roman constitutional law and Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, all by Theodor Mommsen, became very important milestones. Later the work Greatness and Decline of Rome by Guglielmo Ferrero was published. The Russian work Очерки по истории римского землевладения, преимущественно в эпоху Империи (The Outlines on Roman Landownership History, Mainly During the Empire) by Ivan Grevs contained information on the economy of Pomponius Atticus, one of the largest landowners at the end of the Republic.
Edward Gibbon (1737–1794) – The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire
John Bagnall Bury (1861–1927) – History of the Later Roman Empire
Michael Grant (1914–2004) – The Roman World
Barbara Levick (born 1932) – Claudius
Barthold Georg Niebuhr (1776–1831)
Michael Rostovtzeff (1870–1952)
Howard Hayes Scullard (1903–1983) – The History of the Roman World
Ronald Syme (1903–1989) – The Roman Revolution
Adrian Goldsworthy (born 1969) – Caesar: The Life of a Colossus and How Rome fell
See also
Outline of classical studies
Outline of ancient Rome
Timeline of Roman history
Regions in Greco-Roman antiquity
List of ancient Romans
List of Roman Emperors
List of Roman civil wars and revolts
ReferencesFootnotesCitations'''
Sources
Edward Gibbon, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire Goldsworthy, Adrian Keith (2008). Caesar: Life of a Colossus. Yale University Press
Livy. The Rise of Rome, Books 1–5, translated from Latin by T.J. Luce, 1998. Oxford World's Classics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. .
Further reading
Coarelli, Filippo. Rome and environs: An archaeological guide. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 2007.
Cornell, Tim J. The beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000–264 BC). London: Routledge, 1995.
Coulston, J. C, and Hazel Dodge, editors. Ancient Rome: The archaeology of the eternal city. Oxford: Oxford University School of Archaeology, 2000.
Forsythe, Gary. A critical history of early Rome. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005.
Fox, Matthew. Roman historical myths: The regal period in Augustan literature. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996.
Gabba, Emilio. Dionysius and the history of Archaic Rome. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991.
Holloway, R. Ross. The archaeology of early Rome and Latium. London: Routledge, 1994.
Keaveney, Arthur. Rome and the unification of Italy. 2nd edition. Bristol: Bristol Phoenix, 2005.
Kraus, Christina Shuttleworth, and A.J. Woodman. Latin historians. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997.
Mitchell, Richard E. Patricians and plebeians: The origin of the Roman state. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990.
Potter, T.W. Roman Italy. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987.
Raaflaub, Kurt A., editors. Social struggles in Archaic Rome: New perspectives on the conflict of the orders. 2nd edition. Oxford: Blackwell, 2004.
Rosenstein, Nathan S., and Robert Morstein-Marx, editors. A companion to the Roman Republic. Oxford: Blackwell, 2006.
Scheidel, Walter, Richard P Saller, and Ian Morris. The Cambridge Economic History of the Greco-Roman World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
Smith, Christopher J. Early Rome and Latium: Economy and society c. 1000–500 BC. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996.
Stewart, Roberta. Public office in early Rome: Ritual procedure and political practice. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1998.
Woolf, Greg. Rome: An Empire's Story. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012.
Wyke, Maria. Projecting the Past: Ancient Rome, Cinema, and History''. New York: Routledge, 1997.
External links
Ancient Rome resources for students from the Courtenay Middle School Library.
History of ancient Rome OpenCourseWare from the University of Notre Dame providing free resources including lectures, discussion questions, assignments, and exams.
Gallery of the Ancient Art: Ancient Rome
Lacus Curtius
Livius.Org
United Nations of Roma Victrix (UNRV) History
Water and Wastewater Systems in Imperial Rome
Roman DNA project
Rome
Articles which contain graphical timelines
8th-century BC establishments in Italy
5th-century disestablishments
Civilizations
States and territories disestablished in the 5th century |
946566 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backporting | Backporting | Backporting is the action of taking parts from a newer version of a software system or software component and porting them to an older version of the same software. It forms part of the maintenance step in a software development process, and it is commonly used for fixing security issues in older versions of the software and also for providing new features to older versions.
Overview
The simplest and probably most common situation of backporting is a fixed security hole in a newer version of a piece of software. Consider this simplified example:
Software v2.0 had a security vulnerability that is fixed by changing the text 'is_unsecured' to 'is_secured'.
The same security hole exists in Software v1.0, from which the codebase for the newer version is derived, but there the text may read 'is_notsecure'.
By taking the modification that fixes Software v2.0 and changing it so that it applies to Software v1.0, one has effectively backported the fix.
In real-life situations, the modifications that a single aspect of the software has undergone may be simple (only a few lines of code have changed) up to heavy and massive (many modifications spread across multiple files of the code). In the latter case, backporting may become tedious and inefficient and should only be undergone if the older version of the software is really needed in favour of the newer (if, for example, the newer version still suffers stability problems that prevent its use in mission-critical situations).
Procedures
The process of backporting can be roughly divided into these steps:
identification of the problem in the older version of the software that needs to be fixed by a backport
finding out which (usually recent) modification of the code fixed the problem
adapting the modification to the old code situation (the proper backporting)
one or several levels of quality control testing whether the backported version maintains previous functionality as well as if it properly implements the new functionality.
Usually, multiple such modifications are bundled in a patch set.
Backports can be provided by the core developer group of the software. Since backporting needs access to the source code of a piece of software, this is the only way that backporting is done for closed source software the backports will usually be incorporated in binary upgrades along the old version line of the software. With open-source software, backports are sometimes created by software distributors and later sent upstream (that is, submitted to the core developers of the afflicted software).
Examples
Many features of Windows Vista were backported to Windows XP when Service Pack 3 was released for Windows XP, thereby facilitating compatibility of applications (mostly games) originally with Vista as a minimum requirement to run on XP SP3 as a minimum requirement instead.
Debian Project since September 2010 provides an official backporting service for some Debian Linux software packages, and Ubuntu Linux also supports backports, however Ubuntu Backports receives no support at all from Canonical, and is entirely community-maintained.
See also
Backward compatibility
Retrofitting
Java backporting tools
References
Software maintenance
Software quality
Patch utilities |
5292312 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Institute%20of%20Technology%20Agartala | National Institute of Technology Agartala | National Institute of Technology Agartala (NIT Agartala or NITA) is a technology-oriented institute of higher education established by India's Ministry of Human Resource Development Government of India in Agartala, India. It was founded as Tripura Engineering College in 1965 and declared a National Institute of Technology (NIT) in 2006, thus being recognized as an Institute of National Importance.
The Institute was established in 1965 as Tripura Engineering College, with the branches of civil, electrical, and mechanical engineering. It was initially affiliated with Calcutta University and had the same curriculum structure and examination system as Bengal Engineering College (currently IIEST Shibpur).
After the establishment of Tripura University in 1987, the Institute was affiliated with it. Courses toward a degree in computer science and engineering were offered beginning in the 1999 2000 session, and three new degrees were offered beginning in the 2005 2006 session: Electrical & Electronics, Production and Transportation Engineering.
On 23 February 2006, the Union Cabinet approved the proposal of the state government for the conversion of Tripura Engineering College to the National Institute of Technology.
Campus
The Institute is 4 km off National Highway (NH-44) and about 24 km away from the capital city, Agartala. The nearest Rail station is about 2 km away, at Jirania.
Facilities
Student Activity center
Knowledge Center (library)
Computer Center
Gym (separate for boys and girls)
Sports Center
College Cafeteria
Table Tennis Room and Badminton Court
Hospital and Medical Center
Jogging Park
Night canteen
WiFi across campus
Indoor Games Center
History
The Institute was converted from Tripura Engineering College, a State Engineering College, to a National Institute of Technology in 2006. To better reflect this new status, the total seats were increased from 250 to 420 for the academic session 2007 2008 and undergraduate courses were introduced in electrical and electronics engineering, transportation engineering and production engineering. The Civil Engineering Department started a postgraduate programme in structural engineering to fulfill a state requirement. The campus, which had been nonresidential, was made residential for the 2007 2008 session with the reopening of two boys' hostels and one girls' hostel. The institute is built over 365.6 acres (1.48 km2) of land.
Organization and administration
Departments
Engineering
Department of Bio Engineering
Department of Chemical Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering
Department of Computer Science and Engineering (Incorporates Dept. of MCA)
Department of Electrical Engineering
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
Department of Electronics and Instrumentation Engineering
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Department of Production Engineering
Engineering Physics (B.Tech. and M.Tech.)
Sciences
Department of Chemistry
Department of Mathematics
Department of Physics
Management, Humanities & Social Sciences
Academics
Academic programs
NIT Agartala offers nine four-year undergraduate programs in engineering. All undergraduate programs lead to a Bachelor of Technology (B.Tech.) degree. Post graduate Master's of Technology (M.Tech.) courses in bio engineering, chemical engineering, civil engineering, computer science and engineering, electrical engineering, electronic and communication engineering, mechanical engineering and production engineering are also offered. From July 2013, dual-degree courses in engineering physics and a five-year integrated course in applied physics, chemistry and mathematics were started. NITA is the second NIT in India (after National Institute of Technology Calicut), and sixth among all NIT's and IIT's (Indian Institutes of Technology), to start a program in engineering physics. The Department of Computer Science and Engineering offers a three-year degree leading to a Master's in Computer Applications (MCA) course. PhD and post-doctorate fellowships are offered by some departments. NIT Agartala also offers a CDAC program.
Admission
Admission to the undergraduate program is based on the rank secured in the Joint Entrance Examination (Main). Candidates must also secure at least 75% marks in the 12th class examination, or be in the top 20 percentile in the 12th class examination conducted by the respective boards. For Scheduled Castes/Scheduled Tribes students, the qualifying marks would be 65% in the 12th class examination.
The NIMCET is a Common Entrance National Level Test, conducted by any of the NITs, for admission in to their MCA program. The admission into the MCA program of NIT-A is based on the Rank obtained in NIMCET exam only.
Accreditation
In 2013, the mechanical and civil engineering branches of the Institute were accredited by the National Board of Accreditation for five years, while the electrical engineering branch was provisionally accredited for two years.
Rankings
NIT Agartala was ranked 92nd among engineering colleges in India by the National Institutional Ranking Framework (NIRF) in 2021.
Student life
Sports
Cultural Fest
NIT Agartala's cultural fest is known as Moksha.
Tech Fest
NIT Agartala's tech fest is known as Aayam.
See also
National Institutes of Technology
Education in India
References
External links
Engineering colleges in Tripura
National Institutes of Technology
Education in Agartala
Educational institutions established in 2006
2006 establishments in Tripura
All India Council for Technical Education |
58786272 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019%20in%20Bellator%20MMA | 2019 in Bellator MMA | 2019 in Bellator MMA is the eleventh year in the history of Bellator MMA, a mixed martial arts promotion based in the United States. Bellator held 27 events in 2019.
Bellator Featherweight World Grand Prix Tournament
Current featherweight champion, Patrício Freire, is a participant and if he were to lose, the victor will be declared lineal champion until he loses or wins the tournament and becomes undisputed champion.
Bellator Welterweight World Grand Prix Tournament
In 2018, Bellator organised the 2018–2019 Welterweight Grand Prix that will crown the Bellator Welterweight champion. All fights will be five rounds. If Rory MacDonald were to lose, the victor will be declared lineal champion until he loses or wins the tournament and becomes undisputed champion.
Lorenz Larkin versus Ion Pascu took place to determine an tournament alternate, with Larkin winning to stand as the alternate.
Champion Rory MacDonald retained his title in a majority draw. He advanced to fight Neiman Gracie.
Bellator 214
Bellator 214: Fedor vs. Bader took place on January 26, 2019 at The Forum in Inglewood, California. The event aired live on Paramount Network and DAZN.
Background
This event concluded the Bellator Heavyweight World Grand Prix by awarding the winner of the main event with the Bellator Heavyweight World Championship. This belt was vacated in May 2016 by Vitaly Minakov, who had not defended the title since April 2014. Fedor Emelianenko and current Bellator Light Heavyweight World Champion Ryan Bader both advanced to the finals.
A featherweight bout between elite prospects Aaron Pico and Henry Corrales was announced for the event on November 7, 2018.
On November 19, 2018, it was announced that Bellator Middleweight World Champion Gegard Mousasi would be defending the title against Rafael Lovato Jr. in the co main event. However, Mousasi pulled out on December 19 due to back injury and Lovato was eventually pulled from the card.
On December 3, 2018, it was announced that Bellator 214 would feature the MMA debut of former WWE World Heavyweight Champion and NCAA Division I All-American Jake Hager.
Results
Bellator Newcastle
Bellator Newcastle: Pitbull vs. Scope took place on February 9, 2019 at Utilita Arena in Newcastle upon Tyne, England.
Background
The event marked the start of Bellator's new European series.
The event was headlined by a lightweight title bout between Patricky Freire and Ryan Scope.
Results
Bellator 215
Bellator 215: Mitrione vs. Kharitonov took place on February 15, 2019 at Mohegan Sun Arena in Uncasville, Connecticut The event aired on Paramount Network and DAZN.
Background
The event featured a heavyweight bout between Matt Mitrione and Sergei Kharitonov in the main event.
Results
Bellator 216
Bellator 216: MVP vs. Daley took place on February 16, 2019 at Mohegan Sun Arena in Uncasville, Connecticut. The event aired on DAZN and Sky Sports in the UK live.
Background
The event featured a Quarter-Final round bout in the Bellator Welterweight World Grand Prix between Michael Page and Paul Daley in the main event.
On January 10, 2019 it was reported that a welterweight bout between Erick Silva and Yaroslav Amosov was added to the event.
The card also featured the Bellator MMA debut of former K-1, Pride and UFC fighter Mirko Cro Cop, as he faced Roy Nelson in a rematch. The pair previously fought seven-and-a-half years ago at UFC 137.
Results
Bellator 217
Bellator 217: Gallagher vs. Graham took place on February 23, 2019 at 3Arena in Dublin, Ireland. The event aired on Paramount Network, DAZN and Sky Sports in the UK and Ireland.
Background
This card marked Bellator's third event held in Ireland.
The event featured a bantamweight bout between James Gallagher and Steven Graham in the main event.
Results
Bellator 218
Bellator 218: Sanchez vs. Karakhanyan 2 took place on March 22, 2019 at WinStar World Casino in Thackerville, Oklahoma The event aired on Paramount Network and DAZN.
Background
The event was to feature a featherweight main event bout between Emmanuel Sanchez and Ashleigh Grimshaw; However, the promotion announced that March 8 that Georgi Karakhanyan replaced Grimshaw due to undisclosed reasons. The two previous met at Bellator 170 where Sanchez won by a close decision.
A Light Heavyweight bout between Christian Edwards and Roman Huerta was cancelled the day of the weigh-in. Huerta did not weigh in as he was reportedly more than five pounds heavier than Edwards.
Results
Bellator 219
Bellator 219: Awad vs. Girtz took place on March 29, 2019 at Pechanga Resort & Casino in Temecula, California. The event aired on Paramount Network and DAZN.
Background
The event was expected to feature a welterweight bout between Andrey Koreshkov and Lorenz Larkin. However, Larkin pulled out on March 1 due to undisclosed reasons. Koreshkov remained on the card facing Michael Jasper.
A lightweight bout between Saad Awad and Brandon Girtz was announced as the new main event.
Results
Bellator 220
Bellator 220: MacDonald vs. Fitch took place on April 27, 2019 at SAP Center in San Jose, California. The event aired live on DAZN.
Background
The event featured in the main event a Bellator Welterweight World Championship bout between the champion Rory MacDonald and Jon Fitch. The bout served as both a title defense for MacDonald and a quarter-final match in the Bellator Welterweight World Grand Prix.
The event featured a Bellator Women's Flyweight World Championship bout between the champion Ilima-Lei Macfarlane and Veta Arteaga.
Results
Bellator Birmingham
Bellator Birmingham: Primus vs. Wilde took place on May 4, 2019 at Resorts World Arena in Birmingham, England.
Background
This is the second event in the Bellator European series.
The event featured a lightweight bout between former champion Brent Primus and Tim Wilde.
Results
Bellator 221
Bellator 221: Chandler vs. Pitbull took place on May 11, 2019 at Allstate Arena in Rosemont, Illinois. The event was aired exclusively on DAZN.
Background
The event featured a Bellator Lightweight Championship bout between the champion Michael Chandler and current Bellator Featherweight Champion Patrício Pitbull.
Results
Bellator 222
Bellator 222: MacDonald vs. Gracie took place on June 14, 2019 at Madison Square Garden in New York, New York. The event aired exclusively on DAZN.
Background
The event featured a Bellator Welterweight Championship bout between the champion Rory MacDonald and Neiman Gracie. The bout served as both a title defense for MacDonald and a semi-final match in the Bellator Welterweight World Grand Prix.
The event also featured a light heavyweight bout between former UFC Light Heavyweight Champion Lyoto Machida and Chael Sonnen, as well as a Bellator Bantamweight Championship bout between current champ Darrion Caldwell and Kyoji Horiguchi. The bout was a rematch from the 2018 meeting between the two that took place at RIZIN 14 on New Year's Eve.
Results
Bellator London/Bellator 223
Bellator London/Bellator 223 took place on June 22, 2019 at SSE Arena in London, England.
Background
The event marked the third event in Bellator's European series, with the Bellator London portion of the card airing on Channel 5 in the UK, including the five-round middleweight title fight between current champ Gegard Mousasi and Rafael Lovato Jr.
The five fights billed as Bellator 223 will take place on Paramount Network and DAZN, with the headlining bout featuring Paul Daley and Erick Silva in a welterweight contest.
The event featured a Bellator Middleweight World Championship bout between Gegard Mousasi and Rafael Lovato Jr.
Melvin Manhoef returned to action for the first time since 2017 at the event, facing England's Kent Kauppinen.
Results
Bellator 224
Bellator 224: Budd vs. Rubin took place on July 12, 2019 at WinStar World Casino in Thackerville, Oklahoma. The event took place on Paramount Network and DAZN.
Background
The event featured a Bellator Women's Featherweight Championship between Julia Budd and Olga Rubin.
Results
Bellator 225
Bellator 225: Mitrione vs. Kharitonov 2 was a mixed martial arts event that took place on August 24, 2019 at Webster Bank Arena in Bridgeport, Connecticut. The event took place on Paramount Network and DAZN.
Background
This marked the second major MMA event to take place in Connecticut proper, after CES 56, rather than on tribal or reservation land, and will be overseen by the Connecticut Boxing Commission.
The event featured a heavyweight rematch between Matt Mitrione and Sergei Kharitonov. The two met earlier in the year at Bellator 215 where the bout ended in a no contest 15 seconds into the bout due to an accidental groin kick.
Vitaly Minakov was originally scheduled to face Javy Ayala on the card. However, the day of the event it was announced that Ayala was pulled from the fight by the Connecticut Boxing Commission due to an undisclosed medical reason; as a result Timothy Johnson moved up from a preliminary bout against Azunna Anyanwu to face Minakov in the co-main event.
Bellator 225 became the first event in the organizational history where every bout ended via stoppage.
Results
Bellator 226
Bellator 226: Bader vs. Kongo took place on September 7, 2019 at SAP Center in San Jose, California. The event took place on DAZN.
Background
The event featured the first four bouts in the Bellator Featherweight World Grand Prix.
The event also featured a Bellator Heavyweight Championship bout between the champion Ryan Bader and Cheick Kongo.
Results
Bellator Dublin/Bellator 227
Bellator Dublin/Bellator 227 took place on September 27, 2019 at 3Arena in Dublin, Ireland. The event marked the fourth event in Bellator's European series, with the Bellator Dublin portion of the card airing on Channel 5 in the UK.
Background
The Bellator Dublin main event was original a bantamweight bout between James Gallagher and Cal Ellenor. However, Ellenor pulled out on September 16 due to injury. Gallagher instead fought UFC veteran Roman Salazar.
The fights billed as Bellator 227 took place on Paramount Network and DAZN, with the headlining bout featuring former WEC and UFC Lightweight Champion Benson Henderson and Myles Jury.
Brandon Girtz was expected to face Paul Redmond at the event. Redmond pulled out on September 4 due to injury. Girtz was instead to face Bellator newcomer Jon Tuck. The bout was canceled after Girtz pulled out due to injury.
Results
Bellator 228
Bellator 228: Machida vs. Mousasi 2 took place on September 28, 2019 at The Forum in Inglewood, California. The event will take place on DAZN.
Background
The event was headlined by a rematch between Lyoto Machida and Gegard Mousasi. The pair previously met on February 15, 2014 in the main event at UFC Fight Night 36. Machida won the earlier bout by unanimous decision.
The event also featured a Bellator Featherweight World Championship bout between the champion Patricio Freire and Juan Archuleta, a first round bout in the Bellator Featherweight World Grand Prix.
Results
Bellator 229
Bellator 229: Koreshkov vs. Larkin took place on October 4, 2019 at Pechanga Resort and Casino in Temecula, California. The event took place on Paramount Network and DAZN.
Background
The event featured a welterweight bout between former Bellator Welterweight Champion Andrey Koreshkov and Lorenz Larkin.
Results
Bellator Milan/Bellator 230
Bellator Milan/Bellator 230 took place on October 12, 2019 at Ex Palalido (Allianz Cloud) in Milan, Italy.
Background
The event marked the fifth event in Bellator's European series, with the Bellator Milan portion of the card airing on Channel 5 in the UK, including the light heavyweight bout between Alessio Sakara and Canaan Grigsby.
The fights billed as Bellator 230 were shown on Paramount Network and DAZN, with the headlining bout featuring former Bellator Middleweight Champion Rafael Carvalho and Vadim Nemkov.
Bellator Kickboxing was also featured on the card.
Results
Bellator 231
Bellator 231: Mir vs. Nelson 2 took place on October 25, 2019 at Mohegan Sun Arena in Uncasville, Connecticut. The event took place on Paramount Network and DAZN.
Background
The event featured a heavyweight bout between former UFC Heavyweight Champion Frank Mir and Roy Nelson. The two previously met at UFC 130 where Mir won by unanimous decision.
Results
Bellator 232
Bellator 232: MacDonald vs. Lima 2 took place on October 26, 2019 at Mohegan Sun Arena in Uncasville, Connecticut. The event aired on DAZN.
Background
The event featured the finals of the Bellator Welterweight World Grand Prix for the Bellator Welterweight World Championship between the champion Rory MacDonald and former champion Douglas Lima. The two previously met at Bellator 192 where MacDonald won by unanimous decision to claim the championship.
Vitaly Minakov was expected to face Javy Ayala at the event. Eventually, Minakov pulled out due to visa issues and the bout was cancelled.
A Featherweight bout between Robin van Roosmalen and Cris Lencioni was scheduled for the main card. However, Van Roosmalen missed the featherweight limit by nine pounds and the bout was cancelled. Isaiah Chapman also came in one-quarter pound over the allotted bantamweight limit.
Results
Bellator 233
Bellator 233: Salter vs. van Steenis took place on November 8, 2019 at WinStar World Casino in Thackerville, Oklahoma. The event aired on Paramount Network and DAZN.
Background
The event featured a middleweight bout between John Salter and Costello van Steenis.
Jason Perrotta and Robert Gidron missed weight for their respective bouts.
Results
Bellator 234
Bellator 234: Kharitonov vs. Vassell took place on November 14, 2019 at Menora Mivtachim Arena in Tel Aviv, Israel. The event will air on November 15 via tape delay on Paramount Network and DAZN.
Background
The event featured a heavyweight bout between Sergei Kharitonov and Linton Vassell.
Results
Bellator London 2
Bellator London: MVP vs. Melillo was an event for Bellator MMA that took place on November 23, 2019 at The SSE Arena in London, England.
Background
The event was the sixth event of the Bellator European Series and second of 2019 in London. The event was to be headlined by a welterweight bout between Michael Page and Derek Anderson. However, on November 12, it was announced Anderson had pulled out of the bout due to an undisclosed injury. Page instead fought Gianni Melillo.
Results
Bellator 235
Bellator USO Salute to the Troops: Misech vs. Perez was an event for Bellator MMA that took place on December 20, 2019 at Neal S. Blaisdell Arena in Honolulu, Hawaii. The event took place on Paramount Network and DAZN.
Background
The event was expected to feature a heavyweight bout between the former UFC Heavyweight Champion Josh Barnett and UFC veteran Ronny Markes. However, the bout was cancelled after Barnett was pulled due to illness just moments before the fight was scheduled to take place. The originally scheduled bantamweight bout between Toby Miesch and Erik Perez was bumped to the main event.
Results
Bellator 236
Bellator 236: Macfarlane vs. Jackson was an event for Bellator MMA that toom place on December 21, 2019 at Neal S. Blaisdell Arena in Honolulu, Hawaii. The event streamed on DAZN.
Background
The event featured a Bellator Women's Flyweight World Championship bout between the champion Ilima-Lei Macfarlane and Kate Jackson.
Neiman Gracie was expected to face Kiichi Kunimoto at the event. Gracie pulled out a few days before the event due to injury. Kunimoto instead fought Jason Jackson.
Results
Bellator 237
Bellator Japan (also known as Bellator 237: Fedor vs. Rampage) was a co-promotion event Bellator MMA and Rizin that took place on December 29, 2019 at Saitama Super Arena in Saitama, Japan. The event aired live on Paramount Network and DAZN in the United States on December 28, 2019. The preliminary matches featured RIZIN fighters.
Background
The event was announced by Bellator on October 9, 2019 and was the company's debut in Japan. The event was co-promoted by the Japanese mixed martial arts organization Rizin Fighting Federation. It featured a heavyweight bout between former Pride FC Heavyweight Champion Fedor Emelianenko and former UFC Light Heavyweight Champion Quinton Jackson.
A 160 pound catchweight bout between former Bellator Lightweight Champion Michael Chandler and former WEC and UFC Lightweight Champion Benson Henderson was expected to take place at the event. It was to have been a rematch from Bellator 165 where Chandler won by split decision over Henderson to remain the lightweight champion. However, Henderson pulled out on December 5 due to injury. Chandler instead faced Sidney Outlaw.
Results
References
External links
Bellator
2019 in mixed martial arts
Bellator MMA events |
35001711 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeff%20Offutt | Jeff Offutt | Jeff Offutt is a professor of Software Engineering at George Mason University. His primary interests are software testing and analysis, web software engineering, and software evolution and change-impact analysis.
He is the author of Introduction to Software Testing with Paul Ammann published by Cambridge University Press. He is the editor-in-chief of Software Testing, Verification and Reliability with Robert M. Hierons. He also helped create the IEEE International Conference on Software Testing, Verification, and Reliability and was the first chair of its steering committee.
In 2019, Offutt received the Outstanding Faculty Award from the State Council of Higher Education for Virginia, the highest honor for faculty at Virginia's public and private colleges and universities. The award recognizes accomplishments in teaching, research, and public service. He won the Teaching Excellence Award, Teaching with Technology, from George Mason University in 2013.
Offutt is known for many fundamental contributions to the field of software testing, in particular mutation testing, model-based testing,
bypass testing of web applications, and automatic test data generation.
Dr. Offutt received his undergraduate degree in mathematics and data processing in 1982 (double major) from Morehead State University, and master's (1985) and PhD (1988) in computer science from the Georgia Institute of Technology. He was on the faculty of Clemson University before joining George Mason in 1992.
He is the son of Andrew J. Offutt and brother of Chris Offutt. He is married to Jian and has three children, Stephanie, Joyce, and Andrew.
References
External links
Google Scholar page
STVR website
ICST Steering Committee website
Living people
American software engineers
George Mason University faculty
Georgia Tech alumni
1961 births
Engineering academics |
13144608 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verification%20and%20validation | Verification and validation | Verification and validation (also abbreviated as V&V) are independent procedures that are used together for checking that a product, service, or system meets requirements and specifications and that it fulfills its intended purpose. These are critical components of a quality management system such as ISO 9000. The words "verification" and "validation" are sometimes preceded with "independent", indicating that the verification and validation is to be performed by a disinterested third party. "Independent verification and validation" can be abbreviated as "IV&V".
In practice, as quality management terms, the definitions of verification and validation can be inconsistent. Sometimes they are even used interchangeably.
However, the PMBOK guide, a standard adopted by the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE), defines them as follows in its 4th edition:
"Validation. The assurance that a product, service, or system meets the needs of the customer and other identified stakeholders. It often involves acceptance and suitability with external customers. Contrast with verification."
"Verification. The evaluation of whether or not a product, service, or system complies with a regulation, requirement, specification, or imposed condition. It is often an internal process. Contrast with validation."
Overview
Verification is intended to check that a product, service, or system meets a set of design specifications. In the development phase, verification procedures involve performing special tests to model or simulate a portion, or the entirety, of a product, service, or system, then performing a review or analysis of the modeling results. In the post-development phase, verification procedures involve regularly repeating tests devised specifically to ensure that the product, service, or system continues to meet the initial design requirements, specifications, and regulations as time progresses. It is a process that is used to evaluate whether a product, service, or system complies with regulations, specifications, or conditions imposed at the start of a development phase. Verification can be in development, scale-up, or production. This is often an internal process.
Validation is intended to ensure a product, service, or system (or portion thereof, or set thereof) results in a product, service, or system (or portion thereof, or set thereof) that meets the operational needs of the user. For a new development flow or verification flow, validation procedures may involve modeling either flow and using simulations to predict faults or gaps that might lead to invalid or incomplete verification or development of a product, service, or system (or portion thereof, or set thereof). A set of validation requirements (as defined by the user), specifications, and regulations may then be used as a basis for qualifying a development flow or verification flow for a product, service, or system (or portion thereof, or set thereof). Additional validation procedures also include those that are designed specifically to ensure that modifications made to an existing qualified development flow or verification flow will have the effect of producing a product, service, or system (or portion thereof, or set thereof) that meets the initial design requirements, specifications, and regulations; these validations help to keep the flow qualified. It is a process of establishing evidence that provides a high degree of assurance that a product, service, or system accomplishes its intended requirements. This often involves acceptance of fitness for purpose with end users and other product stakeholders. This is often an external process.
It is sometimes said that validation can be expressed by the query "Are you building the right thing?" and verification by "Are you building it right?". "Building the right thing" refers back to the user's needs, while "building it right" checks that the specifications are correctly implemented by the system. In some contexts, it is required to have written requirements for both as well as formal procedures or protocols for determining compliance.
It is entirely possible that a product passes when verified but fails when validated. This can happen when, say, a product is built as per the specifications but the specifications themselves fail to address the user's needs.
Activities
Verification of machinery and equipment usually consists of design qualification (DQ), installation qualification (IQ), operational qualification (OQ), and performance qualification (PQ). DQ may be performed by a vendor or by the user, by confirming through review and testing that the equipment meets the written acquisition specification. If the relevant document or manuals of machinery/equipment are provided by vendors, the later 3Q needs to be thoroughly performed by the users who work in an industrial regulatory environment. Otherwise, the process of IQ, OQ and PQ is the task of validation. The typical example of such a case could be the loss or absence of vendor's documentation for legacy equipment or do-it-yourself (DIY) assemblies (e.g., cars, computers etc.) and, therefore, users should endeavour to acquire DQ document beforehand. Each template of DQ, IQ, OQ and PQ usually can be found on the internet respectively, whereas the DIY qualifications of machinery/equipment can be assisted either by the vendor's training course materials and tutorials, or by the published guidance books, such as step-by-step series if the acquisition of machinery/equipment is not bundled with on- site qualification services. This kind of the DIY approach is also applicable to the qualifications of software, computer operating systems and a manufacturing process. The most important and critical task as the last step of the activity is to generating and archiving machinery/equipment qualification reports for auditing purposes, if regulatory compliances are mandatory.
Qualification of machinery/equipment is venue dependent, in particular items that are shock sensitive and require balancing or calibration, and re-qualification needs to be conducted once the objects are relocated. The full scales of some equipment qualifications are even time dependent as consumables are used up (i.e. filters) or springs stretch out, requiring recalibration, and hence re-certification is necessary when a specified due time lapse. Re-qualification of machinery/equipment should also be conducted when replacement of parts, or coupling with another device, or installing a new application software and restructuring of the computer which affects especially the pre-settings, such as on BIOS, registry, disk drive partition table, dynamically-linked (shared) libraries, or an ini file etc., have been necessary. In such a situation, the specifications of the parts/devices/software and restructuring proposals should be appended to the qualification document whether the parts/devices/software are genuine or not. Torres and Hyman have discussed the suitability of non-genuine parts for clinical use and provided guidelines for equipment users to select appropriate substitutes which are capable of avoiding adverse effects. In the case when genuine parts/devices/software are demanded by some of regulatory requirements, then re-qualification does not need to be conducted on the non-genuine assemblies. Instead, the asset has to be recycled for non-regulatory purposes.
When machinery/equipment qualification is conducted by a standard endorsed third party such as by an ISO standard accredited company for a particular division, the process is called certification. Currently, the coverage of ISO/IEC 15408 certification by an ISO/IEC 27001 accredited organization is limited; the scheme requires a fair amount of efforts to get popularized.
Categories of validation
Validation work can generally be categorized by the following functions:
Prospective validation – the missions conducted before new items are released to make sure the characteristics of the interests which are functioning properly and which meet safety standards. Some examples could be legislative rules, guidelines or proposals, methods, theories/hypothesis/models products and services
Retrospective validation – a process for items that are already in use and distribution or production. The validation is performed against the written specifications or predetermined expectations, based upon their historical data/evidences that are documented/recorded. If any critical data is missing, then the work can not be processed or can only be completed partially. The tasks are considered necessary if:
prospective validation is missing, inadequate or flawed.
the change of legislative regulations or standards affects the compliance of the items being released to the public or market.
reviving of out-of-use items.
Some of the examples could be validation of:
ancient scriptures that remain controversial
clinical decision rules
data systems
Full-scale validation
Partial validation – often used for research and pilot studies if time is constrained. The most important and significant effects are tested. From an analytical chemistry perspective, those effects are selectivity, accuracy, repeatability, linearity and its range.
Cross-validation
Re-validation/locational or periodical validation – carried out, for the item of interest that is dismissed, repaired, integrated/coupled, relocated, or after a specified time lapse. Examples of this category could be relicensing/renewing driver's license, recertifying an analytical balance that has been expired or relocated, and even revalidating professionals. Re-validation may also be conducted when/where a change occurs during the courses of activities, such as scientific researches or phases of clinical trial transitions. Examples of these changes could be
sample matrices
production scales
population profiles and sizes
out-of-specification] (OOS) investigations, due to the contamination of testing reagents, glasswares, the aging of equipment/devices, or the depreciation of associated assets etc.
In GLP accredited laboratories, verification/revalidation will even be conducted very often against the monographs of the Ph.Eur., IP to cater for multinational needs or USP and BP etc to cater for national needs. These laboratories must have method validation as well.
Concurrent validation – conducted during a routine processing of services, manufacturing or engineering etc. Examples of these could be
duplicated sample analysis for a chemical assay
triplicated sample analysis for trace impurities at the marginalized levels of detection limit, or/and quantification limit
single sample analysis for a chemical assay by a skilled operator with multiplicated online system suitability testings
Aspects of validation
The most tested attributes in validation tasks may include, but are not limited to
Sensitivity and specificity
Accuracy and precision
Repeatability
Reproducibility
Limit of detection – especially for trace elements
Limit of quantification
Curve fitting and its range
System suitability – In a broad way, it usually includes a test of ruggedness among inter-collaborators, or a test of robustness within an organization However, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has specifically defined it for its administration, as "System suitability testing is an integral part of many analytical procedures. The tests are based on the concept that the equipment, electronics, analytical operations and samples to be analyzed constitute an integral system that can be evaluated as such. System suitability test parameters to be established for a particular procedure depend on the type of procedure being validated". In some cases of analytical chemistry, a system suitability test could be rather a method specific than universal. Such examples are chromatographic analysis, which is usually media (column, paper or mobile solvent) sensitive However to the date of this writing, this kind of approaches are limited to some of pharmaceutical compendial methods, by which the detecting of impurities, or the quality of the intest analyzed are critical (i.e., life and death). This is probably largely due to:
their intensive labouring demands and time consumption
their confinements by the definition of the term defined by different standards.
To solve this kind of difficulty, some regulatory bodies or methods provide advice on when performing of a specified system suitability test should be applied and compulsory.
Industry references
These terms generally apply broadly across industries and institutions. In addition, they may have very specific meanings and requirements for specific products, regulations, and industries. Some examples:
Software and computer systems
Food and Drug
Pharmaceuticals The design, production, and distribution of drugs are highly regulated. This includes software systems. For example, in the US, the Food and Drug Administration have regulations in Part 21 of the Code of Federal Regulations. Nash et al. have published a book which provides a comprehensive coverage on the various validation topics of pharmaceutical manufacturing processes. Some companies are taking a risk-based approach to validating their GAMP system if one understands the regulatory requirements very well while the most of others follows the conventional process It is a part of GxP management. The aspects of validation and verification are even more intense and emphasized if an OOS occurs. Very often under this circumstance, a multiplicated sample analysis is required for conducting the OOS investigation in a testing laboratory.
Medical devices The FDA (21 CFR) has validation and verification requirements for medical devices, as outlined in ASME V&V 40. Also see guidance: and ISO 13485
Manufacturing process and cleaning validation are compulsory and regulated by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration
Food hygiene: example
Clinical laboratory medicine: ISO 15198:2004 Clinical laboratory medicine—In vitro diagnostic medical devices—Validation of user quality control procedures by the manufacturer
Health care: example
Greenhouse gas: ISO 14064 ANSI/ISO: Greenhouse gases – Requirements for greenhouse gas validation and verification bodies for use in accreditation or other forms of recognition
Traffic and transport
Road safety audit
Periodic motor vehicle inspection
Aircraft noise: example
Aircraft:
Model:
(Ni-Cd) cells: example
ICT Industry: example
Civil engineering
Buildings –
Roads –
Bridges –
Economics
Accounting
Agriculture – applications vary from verifying agricultural methodology and production processes to validating agricultural modeling
Real estate appraisal – audit reporting and authentication
Arms control
See also
Certification of voting machines
Change control
Comparability
Data validation
Formal verification
Functional verification
ISO 17025
Process validation
Software verification and validation
Statistical model validation
System testing
Systematic political science
Usability testing
Validation master plan
Verification and validation of computer simulation models
Notes and references
Further reading
External links
Maturity of verification and validation in ICT companies
Organisational maturity and functional performance
Quality management
Product testing
Systems engineering
Pharmaceutical industry
Food safety |
1329953 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notepad%2B%2B | Notepad++ | Notepad++ is a text and source code editor for use with Microsoft Windows. It supports tabbed editing, which allows working with multiple open files in a single window. The product's name comes from the C increment operator.
Notepad++ is distributed as free software. At first the project was hosted on SourceForge.net, from where it has been downloaded over 28 million times, and twice won the SourceForge Community Choice Award for Best Developer Tool. The project was hosted on from 2010 to 2015; since 2015 Notepad++ has been hosted on GitHub. Notepad++ uses the Scintilla editor component.
History
Notepad++ was developed by Don Ho in September 2003. Ho first used JEXT (a Java-based text editor) at his company but, dissatisfied with its poor performance, he began to develop a text editor written in C++ with Scintilla. He developed it in his spare time since the idea was rejected by his company. Notepad++ was built as a Microsoft Windows application; the author considered, but rejected, the idea of using wxWidgets to port it to the Mac OS X and Unix platforms.
Notepad++ was first released on SourceForge on 25 November 2003, as a Windows-only application. It is based on the Scintilla editor component, and is written in C++ with only Win32 API calls using only the STL to increase performance and reduce program size.
In January 2010 the US government obliged US-based open source project hosts to deny access from Cuba, Iran, North Korea, Sudan, and Syria to comply with U.S. law. As a response to what the developer felt was a violation of the free and open-source software (FOSS) philosophy, in June 2010 Notepad++ moved out of US territorial jurisdiction by releasing a version on TuxFamily, in France. Some community services of Notepad++ (such as the forums and bug tracker) remained on SourceForge until 2015 when Notepad++ left SourceForge completely.
In 2011 Lifehacker described Notepad++ as "The Best Programming Text Editor for Windows", stating that "if you prefer a simple, lightweight, and extensible programming plain-text editor, our first choice is the free, open-source Notepad++". Lifehacker criticized its user interface, stating that "It is, in fact, fairly ugly. Luckily you can do a lot to customize its looks, and what it lacks in polish, it makes up for in functionality".
In 2014 Lifehacker readers voted Notepad++ as the "Most Popular Text Editor", with 40% of the 16,294 respondents specifying it as their most-loved editor. The Lifehacker team summarized the program as being "fast, flexible, feature-packed, and completely free".
In 2015 Stack Overflow conducted a worldwide Developer Survey, and Notepad++ was voted as the most used text editor worldwide with 34.7% of the 26,086 respondents claiming to use it daily. Stack Overflow noted that "The more things change, the more likely it is those things are written in JavaScript with NotePad++ on a Windows machine". The 2016 survey had Notepad++ at 35.6%.
In 2015, in response to the staff hijacking of projects hosted on SourceForge, Notepad++ left SourceForge completely with the forums being moved to NodeBB and the bug tracker to GitHub.
Features
Notepad++ is a source code editor. It features syntax highlighting, code folding and limited autocompletion for programming, scripting, and markup languages, but not intelligent code completion or syntax checking. As such, it may properly highlight code written in a supported schema, but whether the syntax is internally sound or compilable, cannot be verified. As of version 7.6.3, Notepad++ can highlight the elements of 78 syntaxes:
ActionScript
Ada
ASN.1
ASP
Assembly
AutoIt
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The language list also displays two special-case items for ordinary plain text: "Normal text" (default) or "MS-DOS Style", which tries to emulate DOS-era text editors.
Notepad++ has features for consuming and creating cross-platform plain text files. It recognizes three newline representations (, and ) and can convert between them on the fly. In addition, it supports reinterpreting plain text files in various character encodings and can convert them to ASCII, UTF-8 or UCS-2. As such, it can fix plain text that seem gibberish only because their character encoding is not properly detected.
Notepad++ also has features that improve plain text editing experience in general, such as:
Autosave
Finding and replacing strings of text with regular expressions
Searching text strings within opened tabs
Searching text strings in a directory
Guided indentation
Line bookmarking
Macros
Simultaneous editing
Split screen editing and synchronized scrolling
Line operations, including sorting, case conversion (Uppercase, lowercase, camel case, sentence case), and removal of redundant whitespace
Tabbed document interface
Plugins
Notepad++ has support for macros and plugins, and has been remarked for its robust plugin architecture which enabled various new features to be integrated into the program. Currently, over 140 compatible plugins are developed for Notepad++, 10 of which are included by default in the program. The first plugin to be included in the program was "TextFX", which includes W3C validation for HTML and CSS, text sorting, character case alteration and quote handling.
Internationalization
Notepad++ supports internationalization through XML files in an application-specific format containing all internationalized strings (dialog captions, menu titles and items, etc.) in a certain language; this file can be reloaded from the application settings. Translations to new languages can thus be written by simply editing an existing file.
Political messaging
In March 2008, the "Boycott Beijing 2008" banner was placed on Notepad++'s SourceForge.net homepage. A few months later most users in China were unable to reach the SourceForge.net website from 26 June to 24 July 2008. This led to the widespread belief that China had banned SourceForge.net in retaliation for the Boycott banner.
In January 2015, the Notepad++ website was hacked by activists from the Fallaga Team who objected to an Easter egg endorsing Je suis Charlie. The Fallaga Team has been linked to ISIL and is also believed to be responsible for the 2017 hacking of websites of the British National Health Service.
In October 2019, Notepad++ released a version codenamed "Free Uyghur" (v7.8.1). In the release notice, the author expressed concern that hundreds of thousands of Uyghurs are believed to have been "subjected to political indoctrination, and sometimes even torture" in the Xinjiang Re-education Camp. He called for "additional pressure on the Chinese government to stop their oppressive actions and crimes concerning the Uyghur people". The software's dedicated site came under a distributed-denial-of-service attack and its GitHub issue page bombarded with nationalistic rhetoric, though it later recovered after being moved behind Cloudflare's anti-DDoS service.
In July 2020, Notepad++ released a version codenamed "Stand with Hong Kong" (v7.8.9). In the release notice, the author expressed his concern on the Chinese government implementation of the National Security Law in Hong Kong. In retaliation, Chinese browsers developed by Tencent (QQ Browser and WeChat’s built-in browser), Alibaba (UC Browser), 360 and Sogou started blocking the official site's "Download" page, but not other pages.
In early and mid-February 2022, Notepad++ released a version codenamed "Boycott Beijing 2022" (v8.3) and (v8.3.1). In the release notice, the author expressed his concern on human rights in China, especially for Uyghurs and Hong Kong. He suggest his audience "not watch or pay attention to the games".
In late February 2022, Notepad++ released a version codenamed "Declare variables, not war" (v8.3.2). In the release notice, the author expressed his concern on Russian invasion of Ukraine.
See also
List of text editors
Comparison of text editors
Notes
References
External links
2003 software
Free HTML editors
Software that uses Scintilla
Software using the GPL license
Windows text editors
Windows-only free software
Windows-only software
Free text editors |
16009 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JPEG | JPEG | JPEG ( ) is a commonly used method of lossy compression for digital images, particularly for those images produced by digital photography. The degree of compression can be adjusted, allowing a selectable tradeoff between storage size and image quality. JPEG typically achieves 10:1 compression with little perceptible loss in image quality. Since its introduction in 1992, JPEG has been the most widely used image compression standard in the world, and the most widely used digital image format, with several billion JPEG images produced every day as of 2015.
The term "JPEG" is an acronym for the Joint Photographic Experts Group, which created the standard in 1992. JPEG was largely responsible for the proliferation of digital images and digital photos across the Internet, and later social media.
JPEG compression is used in a number of image file formats. JPEG/Exif is the most common image format used by digital cameras and other photographic image capture devices; along with JPEG/JFIF, it is the most common format for storing and transmitting photographic images on the World Wide Web. These format variations are often not distinguished, and are simply called JPEG.
The MIME media type for JPEG is image/jpeg, except in older Internet Explorer versions, which provides a MIME type of image/pjpeg when uploading JPEG images. JPEG files usually have a filename extension of .jpg or .jpeg. JPEG/JFIF supports a maximum image size of 65,535×65,535 pixels, hence up to 4 gigapixels for an aspect ratio of 1:1. In 2000, the JPEG group introduced a format intended to be a successor, JPEG 2000, but it was unable to replace the original JPEG as the dominant image standard.
History
Background
The original JPEG specification published in 1992 implements processes from various earlier research papers and patents cited by the CCITT (now ITU-T) and Joint Photographic Experts Group. The main basis for JPEG's lossy compression algorithm is the discrete cosine transform (DCT), which was first proposed by Nasir Ahmed as an image compression technique in 1972. Ahmed developed a practical DCT algorithm with T. Natarajan of Kansas State University and K. R. Rao of the University of Texas in 1973. Their 1974 paper is cited in the JPEG specification, along with several later research papers that did further work on DCT, including a 1977 paper by Wen-Hsiung Chen, C.H. Smith and S.C. Fralick that described a fast DCT algorithm, as well as a 1978 paper by N.J. Narasinha and S.C. Fralick, and a 1984 paper by B.G. Lee. The specification also cites a 1984 paper by Wen-Hsiung Chen and W.K. Pratt as an influence on its quantization algorithm, and David A. Huffman's 1952 paper for its Huffman coding algorithm.
The JPEG specification cites patents from several companies. The following patents provided the basis for its arithmetic coding algorithm.
IBM
February 4, 1986 Kottappuram M. A. Mohiuddin and Jorma J. Rissanen Multiplication-free multi-alphabet arithmetic code
February 27, 1990 G. Langdon, J.L. Mitchell, W.B. Pennebaker, and Jorma J. Rissanen Arithmetic coding encoder and decoder system
June 19, 1990 W.B. Pennebaker and J.L. Mitchell Probability adaptation for arithmetic coders
Mitsubishi Electric
(1021672) January 21, 1989 Toshihiro Kimura, Shigenori Kino, Fumitaka Ono, Masayuki Yoshida Coding system
(2-46275) February 26, 1990 Fumitaka Ono, Tomohiro Kimura, Masayuki Yoshida, and Shigenori Kino Coding apparatus and coding method
The JPEG specification also cites three other patents from IBM. Other companies cited as patent holders include AT&T (two patents) and Canon Inc. Absent from the list is , filed by Compression Labs' Wen-Hsiung Chen and Daniel J. Klenke in October 1986. The patent describes a DCT-based image compression algorithm, and would later be a cause of controversy in 2002 (see Patent controversy below). However, the JPEG specification did cite two earlier research papers by Wen-Hsiung Chen, published in 1977 and 1984.
JPEG standard
"JPEG" stands for Joint Photographic Experts Group, the name of the committee that created the JPEG standard and also other still picture coding standards. The "Joint" stood for ISO TC97 WG8 and CCITT SGVIII. Founded in 1986, the group developed the JPEG standard during the late 1980s. Among several transform coding techniques they examined, they selected the discrete cosine transform (DCT), as it was by far the most efficient practical compression technique. The group published the JPEG standard in 1992.
In 1987, ISO TC 97 became ISO/IEC JTC1 and, in 1992, CCITT became ITU-T. Currently on the JTC1 side, JPEG is one of two sub-groups of ISO/IEC Joint Technical Committee 1, Subcommittee 29, Working Group 1 (ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 29/WG 1) – titled as Coding of still pictures. On the ITU-T side, ITU-T SG16 is the respective body. The original JPEG Group was organized in 1986, issuing the first JPEG standard in 1992, which was approved in September 1992 as ITU-T Recommendation T.81 and, in 1994, as ISO/IEC 10918-1.
The JPEG standard specifies the codec, which defines how an image is compressed into a stream of bytes and decompressed back into an image, but not the file format used to contain that stream.
The Exif and JFIF standards define the commonly used file formats for interchange of JPEG-compressed images.
JPEG standards are formally named as Information technology – Digital compression and coding of continuous-tone still images. ISO/IEC 10918 consists of the following parts:
Ecma International TR/98 specifies the JPEG File Interchange Format (JFIF); the first edition was published in June 2009.
Patent controversy
In 2002, Forgent Networks asserted that it owned and would enforce patent rights on the JPEG technology, arising from a patent that had been filed on October 27, 1986, and granted on October 6, 1987: by Compression Labs' Wen-Hsiung Chen and Daniel J. Klenke. While Forgent did not own Compression Labs at the time, Chen later sold Compression Labs to Forgent, before Chen went on to work for Cisco. This led to Forgent acquiring ownership over the patent. Forgent's 2002 announcement created a furor reminiscent of Unisys' attempts to assert its rights over the GIF image compression standard.
The JPEG committee investigated the patent claims in 2002 and were of the opinion that they were invalidated by prior art, a view shared by various experts. By the time Chen had filed his patent for a DCT-based image compression algorithm with Klenke in 1986, most of what would later become the JPEG standard had already been formulated in prior literature. JPEG representative Richard Clark also claimed that Chen himself sat in one of the JPEG committees, but Forgent denied this claim.
Between 2002 and 2004, Forgent was able to obtain about US$105 million by licensing their patent to some 30 companies. In April 2004, Forgent sued 31 other companies to enforce further license payments. In July of the same year, a consortium of 21 large computer companies filed a countersuit, with the goal of invalidating the patent. In addition, Microsoft launched a separate lawsuit against Forgent in April 2005. In February 2006, the United States Patent and Trademark Office agreed to re-examine Forgent's JPEG patent at the request of the Public Patent Foundation. On May 26, 2006, the USPTO found the patent invalid based on prior art. The USPTO also found that Forgent knew about the prior art, yet it intentionally avoided telling the Patent Office. This makes any appeal to reinstate the patent highly unlikely to succeed.
Forgent also possesses a similar patent granted by the European Patent Office in 1994, though it is unclear how enforceable it is.
As of October 27, 2006, the U.S. patent's 20-year term appears to have expired, and in November 2006, Forgent agreed to abandon enforcement of patent claims against use of the JPEG standard.
The JPEG committee has as one of its explicit goals that their standards (in particular their baseline methods) be implementable without payment of license fees, and they have secured appropriate license rights for their JPEG 2000 standard from over 20 large organizations.
Beginning in August 2007, another company, Global Patent Holdings, LLC claimed that its patent () issued in 1993, is infringed by the downloading of JPEG images on either a website or through e-mail. If not invalidated, this patent could apply to any website that displays JPEG images. The patent was under reexamination by the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office from 2000 to 2007; in July 2007, the Patent Office revoked all of the original claims of the patent but found that an additional claim proposed by Global Patent Holdings (claim 17) was valid. Global Patent Holdings then filed a number of lawsuits based on claim 17 of its patent.
In its first two lawsuits following the reexamination, both filed in Chicago, Illinois, Global Patent Holdings sued the Green Bay Packers, CDW, Motorola, Apple, Orbitz, Officemax, Caterpillar, Kraft and Peapod as defendants. A third lawsuit was filed on December 5, 2007, in South Florida against ADT Security Services, AutoNation, Florida Crystals Corp., HearUSA, MovieTickets.com, Ocwen Financial Corp. and Tire Kingdom, and a fourth lawsuit on January 8, 2008, in South Florida against the Boca Raton Resort & Club. A fifth lawsuit was filed against Global Patent Holdings in Nevada. That lawsuit was filed by Zappos.com, Inc., which was allegedly threatened by Global Patent Holdings, and sought a judicial declaration that the '341 patent is invalid and not infringed.
Global Patent Holdings had also used the '341 patent to sue or threaten outspoken critics of broad software patents, including Gregory Aharonian and the anonymous operator of a website blog known as the "Patent Troll Tracker." On December 21, 2007, patent lawyer Vernon Francissen of Chicago asked the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office to reexamine the sole remaining claim of the '341 patent on the basis of new prior art.
On March 5, 2008, the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office agreed to reexamine the '341 patent, finding that the new prior art raised substantial new questions regarding the patent's validity. In light of the reexamination, the accused infringers in four of the five pending lawsuits have filed motions to suspend (stay) their cases until completion of the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office's review of the '341 patent. On April 23, 2008, a judge presiding over the two lawsuits in Chicago, Illinois granted the motions in those cases. On July 22, 2008, the Patent Office issued the first "Office Action" of the second reexamination, finding the claim invalid based on nineteen separate grounds. On Nov. 24, 2009, a Reexamination Certificate was issued cancelling all claims.
Beginning in 2011 and continuing as of early 2013, an entity known as Princeton Digital Image Corporation, based in Eastern Texas, began suing large numbers of companies for alleged infringement of . Princeton claims that the JPEG image compression standard infringes the '056 patent and has sued large numbers of websites, retailers, camera and device manufacturers and resellers. The patent was originally owned and assigned to General Electric. The patent expired in December 2007, but Princeton has sued large numbers of companies for "past infringement" of this patent. (Under U.S. patent laws, a patent owner can sue for "past infringement" up to six years before the filing of a lawsuit, so Princeton could theoretically have continued suing companies until December 2013.) As of March 2013, Princeton had suits pending in New York and Delaware against more than 55 companies. General Electric's involvement in the suit is unknown, although court records indicate that it assigned the patent to Princeton in 2009 and retains certain rights in the patent.
Typical usage
The JPEG compression algorithm operates at its best on photographs and paintings of realistic scenes with smooth variations of tone and color. For web usage, where reducing the amount of data used for an image is important for responsive presentation, JPEG's compression benefits make JPEG popular. JPEG/Exif is also the most common format saved by digital cameras.
However, JPEG is not well suited for line drawings and other textual or iconic graphics, where the sharp contrasts between adjacent pixels can cause noticeable artifacts. Such images are better saved in a lossless graphics format such as TIFF, GIF, PNG, or a raw image format. The JPEG standard includes a lossless coding mode, but that mode is not supported in most products.
As the typical use of JPEG is a lossy compression method, which reduces the image fidelity, it is inappropriate for exact reproduction of imaging data (such as some scientific and medical imaging applications and certain technical image processing work).
JPEG is also not well suited to files that will undergo multiple edits, as some image quality is lost each time the image is recompressed, particularly if the image is cropped or shifted, or if encoding parameters are changed – see digital generation loss for details. To prevent image information loss during sequential and repetitive editing, the first edit can be saved in a lossless format, subsequently edited in that format, then finally published as JPEG for distribution.
JPEG compression
JPEG uses a lossy form of compression based on the discrete cosine transform (DCT). This mathematical operation converts each frame/field of the video source from the spatial (2D) domain into the frequency domain (a.k.a. transform domain). A perceptual model based loosely on the human psychovisual system discards high-frequency information, i.e. sharp transitions in intensity, and color hue. In the transform domain, the process of reducing information is called quantization. In simpler terms, quantization is a method for optimally reducing a large number scale (with different occurrences of each number) into a smaller one, and the transform-domain is a convenient representation of the image because the high-frequency coefficients, which contribute less to the overall picture than other coefficients, are characteristically small-values with high compressibility. The quantized coefficients are then sequenced and losslessly packed into the output bitstream. Nearly all software implementations of JPEG permit user control over the compression ratio (as well as other optional parameters), allowing the user to trade off picture-quality for smaller file size. In embedded applications (such as miniDV, which uses a similar DCT-compression scheme), the parameters are pre-selected and fixed for the application.
The compression method is usually lossy, meaning that some original image information is lost and cannot be restored, possibly affecting image quality. There is an optional lossless mode defined in the JPEG standard. However, this mode is not widely supported in products.
There is also an interlaced progressive JPEG format, in which data is compressed in multiple passes of progressively higher detail. This is ideal for large images that will be displayed while downloading over a slow connection, allowing a reasonable preview after receiving only a portion of the data. However, support for progressive JPEGs is not universal. When progressive JPEGs are received by programs that do not support them (such as versions of Internet Explorer before Windows 7) the software displays the image only after it has been completely downloaded.
There are also many medical imaging, traffic and camera applications that create and process 12-bit JPEG images both grayscale and color. 12-bit JPEG format is included in an Extended part of the JPEG specification. The libjpeg codec supports 12-bit JPEG and there even exists a high-performance version.
Lossless editing
Several alterations to a JPEG image can be performed losslessly (that is, without recompression and the associated quality loss) as long as the image size is a multiple of 1 MCU block (Minimum Coded Unit) (usually 16 pixels in both directions, for 4:2:0 chroma subsampling). Utilities that implement this include:
jpegtran and its GUI, Jpegcrop.
IrfanView using "JPG Lossless Crop (PlugIn)" and "JPG Lossless Rotation (PlugIn)", which require installing the JPG_TRANSFORM plugin.
FastStone Image Viewer using "Lossless Crop to File" and "JPEG Lossless Rotate".
XnViewMP using "JPEG lossless transformations".
ACDSee supports lossless rotation (but not lossless cropping) with its "Force lossless JPEG operations" option.
Blocks can be rotated in 90-degree increments, flipped in the horizontal, vertical and diagonal axes and moved about in the image. Not all blocks from the original image need to be used in the modified one.
The top and left edge of a JPEG image must lie on an 8 × 8 pixel block boundary, but the bottom and right edge need not do so. This limits the possible lossless crop operations, and also prevents flips and rotations of an image whose bottom or right edge does not lie on a block boundary for all channels (because the edge would end up on top or left, where – as aforementioned – a block boundary is obligatory).
Rotations where the image is not a multiple of 8 or 16, which value depends upon the chroma subsampling, are not lossless. Rotating such an image causes the blocks to be recomputed which results in loss of quality.
When using lossless cropping, if the bottom or right side of the crop region is not on a block boundary, then the rest of the data from the partially used blocks will still be present in the cropped file and can be recovered. It is also possible to transform between baseline and progressive formats without any loss of quality, since the only difference is the order in which the coefficients are placed in the file.
Furthermore, several JPEG images can be losslessly joined, as long as they were saved with the same quality and the edges coincide with block boundaries.
JPEG files
The file format known as "JPEG Interchange Format" (JIF) is specified in Annex B of the standard. However, this "pure" file format is rarely used, primarily because of the difficulty of programming encoders and decoders that fully implement all aspects of the standard and because of certain shortcomings of the standard:
Color space definition
Component sub-sampling registration
Pixel aspect ratio definition.
Several additional standards have evolved to address these issues. The first of these, released in 1992, was the JPEG File Interchange Format (or JFIF), followed in recent years by Exchangeable image file format (Exif) and ICC color profiles. Both of these formats use the actual JIF byte layout, consisting of different markers, but in addition, employ one of the JIF standard's extension points, namely the application markers: JFIF uses APP0, while Exif uses APP1. Within these segments of the file that were left for future use in the JIF standard and are not read by it, these standards add specific metadata.
Thus, in some ways, JFIF is a cut-down version of the JIF standard in that it specifies certain constraints (such as not allowing all the different encoding modes), while in other ways, it is an extension of JIF due to the added metadata. The documentation for the original JFIF standard states:
JPEG File Interchange Format is a minimal file format which enables JPEG bitstreams to be exchanged between a wide variety of platforms and applications. This minimal format does not include any of the advanced features found in the TIFF JPEG specification or any application specific file format. Nor should it, for the only purpose of this simplified format is to allow the exchange of JPEG compressed images.
Image files that employ JPEG compression are commonly called "JPEG files", and are stored in variants of the JIF image format. Most image capture devices (such as digital cameras) that output JPEG are actually creating files in the Exif format, the format that the camera industry has standardized on for metadata interchange. On the other hand, since the Exif standard does not allow color profiles, most image editing software stores JPEG in JFIF format, and also includes the APP1 segment from the Exif file to include the metadata in an almost-compliant way; the JFIF standard is interpreted somewhat flexibly.
Strictly speaking, the JFIF and Exif standards are incompatible, because each specifies that its marker segment (APP0 or APP1, respectively) appear first. In practice, most JPEG files contain a JFIF marker segment that precedes the Exif header. This allows older readers to correctly handle the older format JFIF segment, while newer readers also decode the following Exif segment, being less strict about requiring it to appear first.
JPEG filename extensions
The most common filename extensions for files employing JPEG compression are .jpg and .jpeg, though .jpe, .jfif and .jif are also used. It is also possible for JPEG data to be embedded in other file types – TIFF encoded files often embed a JPEG image as a thumbnail of the main image; and MP3 files can contain a JPEG of cover art in the ID3v2 tag.
Color profile
Many JPEG files embed an ICC color profile (color space). Commonly used color profiles include sRGB and Adobe RGB. Because these color spaces use a non-linear transformation, the dynamic range of an 8-bit JPEG file is about 11 stops; see gamma curve.
If the image doesn't specify color profile information (untagged), the color space is assumed to be sRGB for the purposes of display on webpages.
Syntax and structure
A JPEG image consists of a sequence of segments, each beginning with a marker, each of which begins with a 0xFF byte, followed by a byte indicating what kind of marker it is. Some markers consist of just those two bytes; others are followed by two bytes (high then low), indicating the length of marker-specific payload data that follows. (The length includes the two bytes for the length, but not the two bytes for the marker.) Some markers are followed by entropy-coded data; the length of such a marker does not include the entropy-coded data. Note that consecutive 0xFF bytes are used as fill bytes for padding purposes, although this fill byte padding should only ever take place for markers immediately following entropy-coded scan data (see JPEG specification section B.1.1.2 and E.1.2 for details; specifically "In all cases where markers are appended after the compressed data, optional 0xFF fill bytes may precede the marker").
Within the entropy-coded data, after any 0xFF byte, a 0x00 byte is inserted by the encoder before the next byte, so that there does not appear to be a marker where none is intended, preventing framing errors. Decoders must skip this 0x00 byte. This technique, called byte stuffing (see JPEG specification section F.1.2.3), is only applied to the entropy-coded data, not to marker payload data. Note however that entropy-coded data has a few markers of its own; specifically the Reset markers (0xD0 through 0xD7), which are used to isolate independent chunks of entropy-coded data to allow parallel decoding, and encoders are free to insert these Reset markers at regular intervals (although not all encoders do this).
There are other Start Of Frame markers that introduce other kinds of JPEG encodings.
Since several vendors might use the same APPn marker type, application-specific markers often begin with a standard or vendor name (e.g., "Exif" or "Adobe") or some other identifying string.
At a restart marker, block-to-block predictor variables are reset, and the bitstream is synchronized to a byte boundary. Restart markers provide means for recovery after bitstream error, such as transmission over an unreliable network or file corruption. Since the runs of macroblocks between restart markers may be independently decoded, these runs may be decoded in parallel.
JPEG codec example
Although a JPEG file can be encoded in various ways, most commonly it is done with JFIF encoding. The encoding process consists of several steps:
The representation of the colors in the image is converted from RGB to , consisting of one luma component (Y'), representing brightness, and two chroma components, (CB and CR), representing color. This step is sometimes skipped.
The resolution of the chroma data is reduced, usually by a factor of 2 or 3. This reflects the fact that the eye is less sensitive to fine color details than to fine brightness details.
The image is split into blocks of 8×8 pixels, and for each block, each of the Y, CB, and CR data undergoes the discrete cosine transform (DCT). A DCT is similar to a Fourier transform in the sense that it produces a kind of spatial frequency spectrum.
The amplitudes of the frequency components are quantized. Human vision is much more sensitive to small variations in color or brightness over large areas than to the strength of high-frequency brightness variations. Therefore, the magnitudes of the high-frequency components are stored with a lower accuracy than the low-frequency components. The quality setting of the encoder (for example 50 or 95 on a scale of 0–100 in the Independent JPEG Group's library) affects to what extent the resolution of each frequency component is reduced. If an excessively low quality setting is used, the high-frequency components are discarded altogether.
The resulting data for all 8×8 blocks is further compressed with a lossless algorithm, a variant of Huffman encoding.
The decoding process reverses these steps, except the quantization because it is irreversible. In the remainder of this section, the encoding and decoding processes are described in more detail.
Encoding
Many of the options in the JPEG standard are not commonly used, and as mentioned above, most image software uses the simpler JFIF format when creating a JPEG file, which among other things specifies the encoding method. Here is a brief description of one of the more common methods of encoding when applied to an input that has 24 bits per pixel (eight each of red, green, and blue). This particular option is a lossy data compression method.
Color space transformation
First, the image should be converted from RGB (by default sRGB, but other color spaces are possible) into a different color space called (or, informally, YCbCr). It has three components Y', CB and CR: the Y' component represents the brightness of a pixel, and the CB and CR components represent the chrominance (split into blue and red components). This is basically the same color space as used by digital color television as well as digital video including video DVDs. The color space conversion allows greater compression without a significant effect on perceptual image quality (or greater perceptual image quality for the same compression). The compression is more efficient because the brightness information, which is more important to the eventual perceptual quality of the image, is confined to a single channel. This more closely corresponds to the perception of color in the human visual system. The color transformation also improves compression by statistical decorrelation.
A particular conversion to is specified in the JFIF standard, and should be performed for the resulting JPEG file to have maximum compatibility. However, some JPEG implementations in "highest quality" mode do not apply this step and instead keep the color information in the RGB color model, where the image is stored in separate channels for red, green and blue brightness components. This results in less efficient compression, and would not likely be used when file size is especially important.
Downsampling
Due to the densities of color- and brightness-sensitive receptors in the human eye, humans can see considerably more fine detail in the brightness of an image (the Y' component) than in the hue and color saturation of an image (the Cb and Cr components). Using this knowledge, encoders can be designed to compress images more efficiently.
The transformation into the color model enables the next usual step, which is to reduce the spatial resolution of the Cb and Cr components (called "downsampling" or "chroma subsampling"). The ratios at which the downsampling is ordinarily done for JPEG images are 4:4:4 (no downsampling), 4:2:2 (reduction by a factor of 2 in the horizontal direction), or (most commonly) 4:2:0 (reduction by a factor of 2 in both the horizontal and vertical directions). For the rest of the compression process, Y', Cb and Cr are processed separately and in a very similar manner.
Block splitting
After subsampling, each channel must be split into 8×8 blocks. Depending on chroma subsampling, this yields Minimum Coded Unit (MCU) blocks of size 8×8 (4:4:4 – no subsampling), 16×8 (4:2:2), or most commonly 16×16 (4:2:0). In video compression MCUs are called macroblocks.
If the data for a channel does not represent an integer number of blocks then the encoder must fill the remaining area of the incomplete blocks with some form of dummy data. Filling the edges with a fixed color (for example, black) can create ringing artifacts along the visible part of the border;
repeating the edge pixels is a common technique that reduces (but does not necessarily eliminate) such artifacts, and more sophisticated border filling techniques can also be applied.
Discrete cosine transform
Next, each 8×8 block of each component (Y, Cb, Cr) is converted to a frequency-domain representation, using a normalized, two-dimensional type-II discrete cosine transform (DCT), see Citation 1 in discrete cosine transform. The DCT is sometimes referred to as "type-II DCT" in the context of a family of transforms as in discrete cosine transform, and the corresponding inverse (IDCT) is denoted as "type-III DCT".
As an example, one such 8×8 8-bit subimage might be:
Before computing the DCT of the 8×8 block, its values are shifted from a positive range to one centered on zero. For an 8-bit image, each entry in the original block falls in the range . The midpoint of the range (in this case, the value 128) is subtracted from each entry to produce a data range that is centered on zero, so that the modified range is . This step reduces the dynamic range requirements in the DCT processing stage that follows.
This step results in the following values:
The next step is to take the two-dimensional DCT, which is given by:
where
is the horizontal spatial frequency, for the integers .
is the vertical spatial frequency, for the integers .
is a normalizing scale factor to make the transformation orthonormal
is the pixel value at coordinates
is the DCT coefficient at coordinates
If we perform this transformation on our matrix above, we get the following (rounded to the nearest two digits beyond the decimal point):
Note the top-left corner entry with the rather large magnitude. This is the DC coefficient (also called the constant component), which defines the basic hue for the entire block. The remaining 63 coefficients are the AC coefficients (also called the alternating components). The advantage of the DCT is its tendency to aggregate most of the signal in one corner of the result, as may be seen above. The quantization step to follow accentuates this effect while simultaneously reducing the overall size of the DCT coefficients, resulting in a signal that is easy to compress efficiently in the entropy stage.
The DCT temporarily increases the bit-depth of the data, since the DCT coefficients of an 8-bit/component image take up to 11 or more bits (depending on fidelity of the DCT calculation) to store. This may force the codec to temporarily use 16-bit numbers to hold these coefficients, doubling the size of the image representation at this point; these values are typically reduced back to 8-bit values by the quantization step. The temporary increase in size at this stage is not a performance concern for most JPEG implementations, since typically only a very small part of the image is stored in full DCT form at any given time during the image encoding or decoding process.
Quantization
The human eye is good at seeing small differences in brightness over a relatively large area, but not so good at distinguishing the exact strength of a high frequency brightness variation. This allows one to greatly reduce the amount of information in the high frequency components. This is done by simply dividing each component in the frequency domain by a constant for that component, and then rounding to the nearest integer. This rounding operation is the only lossy operation in the whole process (other than chroma subsampling) if the DCT computation is performed with sufficiently high precision. As a result of this, it is typically the case that many of the higher frequency components are rounded to zero, and many of the rest become small positive or negative numbers, which take many fewer bits to represent.
The elements in the quantization matrix control the compression ratio, with larger values producing greater compression. A typical quantization matrix (for a quality of 50% as specified in the original JPEG Standard), is as follows:
The quantized DCT coefficients are computed with
where is the unquantized DCT coefficients; is the quantization matrix above; and is the quantized DCT coefficients.
Using this quantization matrix with the DCT coefficient matrix from above results in:
For example, using −415 (the DC coefficient) and rounding to the nearest integer
Notice that most of the higher-frequency elements of the sub-block (i.e., those with an x or y spatial frequency greater than 4) are quantized into zero values.
Entropy coding
Entropy coding is a special form of lossless data compression. It involves arranging the image components in a "zigzag" order employing run-length encoding (RLE) algorithm that groups similar frequencies together, inserting length coding zeros, and then using Huffman coding on what is left.
The JPEG standard also allows, but does not require, decoders to support the use of arithmetic coding, which is mathematically superior to Huffman coding. However, this feature has rarely been used, as it was historically covered by patents requiring royalty-bearing licenses, and because it is slower to encode and decode compared to Huffman coding. Arithmetic coding typically makes files about 5–7% smaller.
The previous quantized DC coefficient is used to predict the current quantized DC coefficient. The difference between the two is encoded rather than the actual value. The encoding of the 63 quantized AC coefficients does not use such prediction differencing.
The zigzag sequence for the above quantized coefficients are shown below. (The format shown is just for ease of understanding/viewing.)
{| style="text-align: right"
|-
|style="width: 2em"| −26 || style="width: 2em"| || style="width: 2em"| || style="width: 2em"| || style="width: 2em"| || style="width: 2em"| || style="width: 2em"| || style="width: 2em"|
|-
| −3 || 0
|-
| −3 || −2 || −6
|-
| 2 || −4 || 1 || −3
|-
| 1 || 1 || 5 || 1 || 2
|-
| −1 || 1 || −1 || 2 || 0 || 0
|-
| 0 || 0 || 0 || −1 || −1 || 0 || 0
|-
| 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0
|-
| 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0
|-
| 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0
|-
| 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0
|-
| 0 || 0 || 0 || 0
|-
| 0 || 0 || 0
|-
| 0 || 0
|-
| 0
|}
If the i-th block is represented by and positions within each block are represented by where and , then any coefficient in the DCT image can be represented as . Thus, in the above scheme, the order of encoding pixels (for the -th block) is , , , , , , , and so on.
This encoding mode is called baseline sequential encoding. Baseline JPEG also supports progressive encoding. While sequential encoding encodes coefficients of a single block at a time (in a zigzag manner), progressive encoding encodes similar-positioned batch of coefficients of all blocks in one go (called a scan), followed by the next batch of coefficients of all blocks, and so on. For example, if the image is divided into N 8×8 blocks , then a 3-scan progressive encoding encodes DC component, for all blocks, i.e., for all , in first scan. This is followed by the second scan which encoding a few more components (assuming four more components, they are to , still in a zigzag manner) coefficients of all blocks (so the sequence is: ), followed by all the remained coefficients of all blocks in the last scan.
Once all similar-positioned coefficients have been encoded, the next position to be encoded is the one occurring next in the zigzag traversal as indicated in the figure above. It has been found that baseline progressive JPEG encoding usually gives better compression as compared to baseline sequential JPEG due to the ability to use different Huffman tables (see below) tailored for different frequencies on each "scan" or "pass" (which includes similar-positioned coefficients), though the difference is not too large.
In the rest of the article, it is assumed that the coefficient pattern generated is due to sequential mode.
In order to encode the above generated coefficient pattern, JPEG uses Huffman encoding. The JPEG standard provides general-purpose Huffman tables; encoders may also choose to generate Huffman tables optimized for the actual frequency distributions in images being encoded.
The process of encoding the zig-zag quantized data begins with a run-length encoding explained below, where:
is the non-zero, quantized AC coefficient.
RUNLENGTH is the number of zeroes that came before this non-zero AC coefficient.
SIZE is the number of bits required to represent .
AMPLITUDE is the bit-representation of .
The run-length encoding works by examining each non-zero AC coefficient and determining how many zeroes came before the previous AC coefficient. With this information, two symbols are created:
{| style="text-align: center" class="wikitable"
|-
! Symbol 1 || Symbol 2
|-
| (RUNLENGTH, SIZE) || (AMPLITUDE)
|}
Both RUNLENGTH and SIZE rest on the same byte, meaning that each only contains four bits of information. The higher bits deal with the number of zeroes, while the lower bits denote the number of bits necessary to encode the value of .
This has the immediate implication of Symbol 1 being only able store information regarding the first 15 zeroes preceding the non-zero AC coefficient. However, JPEG defines two special Huffman code words. One is for ending the sequence prematurely when the remaining coefficients are zero (called "End-of-Block" or "EOB"), and another when the run of zeroes goes beyond 15 before reaching a non-zero AC coefficient. In such a case where 16 zeroes are encountered before a given non-zero AC coefficient, Symbol 1 is encoded "specially" as: (15, 0)(0).
The overall process continues until "EOB" denoted by (0, 0) is reached.
With this in mind, the sequence from earlier becomes:
(0, 2)(-3);(1, 2)(-3);(0, 1)(-2);(0, 2)(-6);(0, 1)(2);(0, 1)(-4);(0, 1)(1);(0, 2)(-3);(0, 1)(1);(0, 1)(1);
(0, 2)(5);(0, 1)(1);(0, 1)(2);(0, 1)(-1);(0, 1)(1);(0, 1)(-1);(0, 1)(2);(5, 1)(-1);(0, 1)(-1);(0, 0);
(The first value in the matrix, −26, is the DC coefficient; it is not encoded the same way. See above.)
From here, frequency calculations are made based on occurrences of the coefficients. In our example block, most of the quantized coefficients are small numbers that are not preceded immediately by a zero coefficient. These more-frequent cases will be represented by shorter code words.
Compression ratio and artifacts
The resulting compression ratio can be varied according to need by being more or less aggressive in the divisors used in the quantization phase. Ten to one compression usually results in an image that cannot be distinguished by eye from the original. A compression ratio of 100:1 is usually possible, but will look distinctly artifacted compared to the original. The appropriate level of compression depends on the use to which the image will be put.
Those who use the World Wide Web may be familiar with the irregularities known as compression artifacts that appear in JPEG images, which may take the form of noise around contrasting edges (especially curves and corners), or "blocky" images. These are due to the quantization step of the JPEG algorithm. They are especially noticeable around sharp corners between contrasting colors (text is a good example, as it contains many such corners). The analogous artifacts in MPEG video are referred to as mosquito noise, as the resulting "edge busyness" and spurious dots, which change over time, resemble mosquitoes swarming around the object.
These artifacts can be reduced by choosing a lower level of compression; they may be completely avoided by saving an image using a lossless file format, though this will result in a larger file size. The images created with ray-tracing programs have noticeable blocky shapes on the terrain. Certain low-intensity compression artifacts might be acceptable when simply viewing the images, but can be emphasized if the image is subsequently processed, usually resulting in unacceptable quality. Consider the example below, demonstrating the effect of lossy compression on an edge detection processing step.
Some programs allow the user to vary the amount by which individual blocks are compressed. Stronger compression is applied to areas of the image that show fewer artifacts. This way it is possible to manually reduce JPEG file size with less loss of quality.
Since the quantization stage always results in a loss of information, JPEG standard is always a lossy compression codec. (Information is lost both in quantizing and rounding of the floating-point numbers.) Even if the quantization matrix is a matrix of ones, information will still be lost in the rounding step.
Decoding
Decoding to display the image consists of doing all the above in reverse.
Taking the DCT coefficient matrix (after adding the difference of the DC coefficient back in)
and taking the entry-for-entry product with the quantization matrix from above results in
which closely resembles the original DCT coefficient matrix for the top-left portion.
The next step is to take the two-dimensional inverse DCT (a 2D type-III DCT), which is given by:
where
is the pixel row, for the integers .
is the pixel column, for the integers .
is defined as above, for the integers .
is the reconstructed approximate coefficient at coordinates
is the reconstructed pixel value at coordinates
Rounding the output to integer values (since the original had integer values) results in an image with values (still shifted down by 128)
and adding 128 to each entry
This is the decompressed subimage. In general, the decompression process may produce values outside the original input range of . If this occurs, the decoder needs to clip the output values so as to keep them within that range to prevent overflow when storing the decompressed image with the original bit depth.
The decompressed subimage can be compared to the original subimage (also see images to the right) by taking the difference (original − uncompressed) results in the following error values:
with an average absolute error of about 5 values per pixels (i.e., ).
The error is most noticeable in the bottom-left corner where the bottom-left pixel becomes darker than the pixel to its immediate right.
Required precision
The encoding description in the JPEG standard does not fix the precision needed for the output compressed image. However, the JPEG standard (and the similar MPEG standards) includes some precision requirements for the decoding, including all parts of the decoding process (variable length decoding, inverse DCT, dequantization, renormalization of outputs); the output from the reference algorithm must not exceed:
a maximum of one bit of difference for each pixel component
low mean square error over each 8×8-pixel block
very low mean error over each 8×8-pixel block
very low mean square error over the whole image
extremely low mean error over the whole image
These assertions are tested on a large set of randomized input images, to handle the worst cases. The former IEEE 1180–1990 standard contained some similar precision requirements. The precision has a consequence on the implementation of decoders, and it is critical because some encoding processes (notably used for encoding sequences of images like MPEG) need to be able to construct, on the encoder side, a reference decoded image. In order to support 8-bit precision per pixel component output, dequantization and inverse DCT transforms are typically implemented with at least 14-bit precision in optimized decoders.
Effects of JPEG compression
JPEG compression artifacts blend well into photographs with detailed non-uniform textures, allowing higher compression ratios. Notice how a higher compression ratio first affects the high-frequency textures in the upper-left corner of the image, and how the contrasting lines become more fuzzy. The very high compression ratio severely affects the quality of the image, although the overall colors and image form are still recognizable. However, the precision of colors suffer less (for a human eye) than the precision of contours (based on luminance). This justifies the fact that images should be first transformed in a color model separating the luminance from the chromatic information, before subsampling the chromatic planes (which may also use lower quality quantization) in order to preserve the precision of the luminance plane with more information bits.
Sample photographs
For information, the uncompressed 24-bit RGB bitmap image below (73,242 pixels) would require 219,726 bytes (excluding all other information headers). The filesizes indicated below include the internal JPEG information headers and some metadata. For highest quality images (Q=100), about 8.25 bits per color pixel is required. On grayscale images, a minimum of 6.5 bits per pixel is enough (a comparable Q=100 quality color information requires about 25% more encoded bits). The highest quality image below (Q=100) is encoded at nine bits per color pixel, the medium quality image (Q=25) uses one bit per color pixel. For most applications, the quality factor should not go below 0.75 bit per pixel (Q=12.5), as demonstrated by the low quality image. The image at lowest quality uses only 0.13 bit per pixel, and displays very poor color. This is useful when the image will be displayed in a significantly scaled-down size. A method for creating better quantization matrices for a given image quality using PSNR instead of the Q factor is described in Minguillón & Pujol (2001).
{| class="wikitable"
|+ align="bottom"| Note: The above images are not IEEE / CCIR / EBU test images, and the encoder settings are not specified or available.
|-
! Image !! Quality !! Size (bytes) !! Compression ratio !! Comment
|-
|
| Highest quality (Q = 100)
| 81,447
| 2.7:1
| Extremely minor artifacts
|-
|
| High quality (Q = 50)
| 14,679
| 15:1
| Initial signs of subimage artifacts
|-
|
| Medium quality (Q = 25)
| 9,407
| 23:1
| Stronger artifacts; loss of high frequency information
|-
|
| Low quality (Q = 10)
| 4,787
| 46:1
| Severe high frequency loss leads to obvious artifacts on subimage boundaries ("macroblocking")
|-
|
| Lowest quality (Q = 1)
| 1,523
| 144:1
| Extreme loss of color and detail; the leaves are nearly unrecognizable.
|}
The medium quality photo uses only 4.3% of the storage space required for the uncompressed image, but has little noticeable loss of detail or visible artifacts. However, once a certain threshold of compression is passed, compressed images show increasingly visible defects. See the article on rate–distortion theory for a mathematical explanation of this threshold effect. A particular limitation of JPEG in this regard is its non-overlapped 8×8 block transform structure. More modern designs such as JPEG 2000 and JPEG XR exhibit a more graceful degradation of quality as the bit usage decreases – by using transforms with a larger spatial extent for the lower frequency coefficients and by using overlapping transform basis functions.
Lossless further compression
From 2004 to 2008, new research emerged on ways to further compress the data contained in JPEG images without modifying the represented image. This has applications in scenarios where the original image is only available in JPEG format, and its size needs to be reduced for archiving or transmission. Standard general-purpose compression tools cannot significantly compress JPEG files.
Typically, such schemes take advantage of improvements to the naive scheme for coding DCT coefficients, which fails to take into account:
Correlations between magnitudes of adjacent coefficients in the same block;
Correlations between magnitudes of the same coefficient in adjacent blocks;
Correlations between magnitudes of the same coefficient/block in different channels;
The DC coefficients when taken together resemble a downscale version of the original image multiplied by a scaling factor. Well-known schemes for lossless coding of continuous-tone images can be applied, achieving somewhat better compression than the Huffman coded DPCM used in JPEG.
Some standard but rarely used options already exist in JPEG to improve the efficiency of coding DCT coefficients: the arithmetic coding option, and the progressive coding option (which produces lower bitrates because values for each coefficient are coded independently, and each coefficient has a significantly different distribution). Modern methods have improved on these techniques by reordering coefficients to group coefficients of larger magnitude together; using adjacent coefficients and blocks to predict new coefficient values; dividing blocks or coefficients up among a small number of independently coded models based on their statistics and adjacent values; and most recently, by decoding blocks, predicting subsequent blocks in the spatial domain, and then encoding these to generate predictions for DCT coefficients.
Typically, such methods can compress existing JPEG files between 15 and 25 percent, and for JPEGs compressed at low-quality settings, can produce improvements of up to 65%.
A freely available tool called packJPG is based on the 2007 paper "Improved Redundancy Reduction for JPEG Files."
Derived formats for stereoscopic 3D
JPEG Stereoscopic
JPS is a stereoscopic JPEG image used for creating 3D effects from 2D images. It contains two static images, one for the left eye and one for the right eye; encoded as two side-by-side images in a single JPG file.
JPEG Stereoscopic (JPS, extension .jps) is a JPEG-based format for stereoscopic images. It has a range of configurations stored in the JPEG APP3 marker field, but usually contains one image of double width, representing two images of identical size in cross-eyed (i.e. left frame on the right half of the image and vice versa) side-by-side arrangement. This file format can be viewed as a JPEG without any special software, or can be processed for rendering in other modes.
JPEG Multi-Picture Format
JPEG Multi-Picture Format (MPO, extension .mpo) is a JPEG-based format for storing multiple images in a single file. It contains two or more JPEG files concatenated together. It also defines a JPEG APP2 marker segment for image description. Various devices use it to store 3D images, such as Fujifilm FinePix Real 3D W1, HTC Evo 3D, JVC GY-HMZ1U AVCHD/MVC extension camcorder, Nintendo 3DS, Panasonic Lumix DMC-TZ20, DMC-TZ30, DMC-TZ60, DMC-TS4 (FT4), and Sony DSC-HX7V. Other devices use it to store "preview images" that can be displayed on a TV.
In the last few years, due to the growing use of stereoscopic images, much effort has been spent by the scientific community to develop algorithms for stereoscopic image compression.
Implementations
A very important implementation of a JPEG codec is the free programming library libjpeg of the Independent JPEG Group. It was first published in 1991 and was key for the success of the standard. This library or a direct derivative of it is used in countless applications. Recent versions introduce proprietary extensions which broke ABI compatibility with previous versions.
In March 2017, Google released the open source project Guetzli, which trades off a much longer encoding time for smaller file size (similar to what Zopfli does for PNG and other lossless data formats).
ISO/IEC Joint Photography Experts Group maintains a reference software implementation which can encode both base JPEG (ISO/IEC 10918-1 and 18477–1) and JPEG XT extensions (ISO/IEC 18477 Parts 2 and 6–9), as well as JPEG-LS (ISO/IEC 14495).
JPEG XT
JPEG XT (ISO/IEC 18477) was published in June 2015; it extends base JPEG format with support for higher integer bit depths (up to 16 bit), high dynamic range imaging and floating-point coding, lossless coding, and alpha channel coding. Extensions are backward compatible with the base JPEG/JFIF file format and 8-bit lossy compressed image. JPEG XT uses an extensible file format based on JFIF. Extension layers are used to modify the JPEG 8-bit base layer and restore the high-resolution image. Existing software is forward compatible and can read the JPEG XT binary stream, though it would only decode the base 8-bit layer.
JPEG XL
Since August 2017, JTC1/SC29/WG1 issued a series of draft calls for proposals on JPEG XLthe next generation image compression standard with substantially better compression efficiency (60% improvement) comparing to JPEG. The standard is expected to exceed the still image compression performance shown by HEVC HM, Daala and WebP, and unlike previous efforts attempting to replace JPEG, to provide lossless more efficient recompression transport and storage option for traditional JPEG images. The core requirements include support for very high-resolution images (at least 40 MP), 8–10 bits per component, RGB/YCbCr/ICtCp color encoding, animated images, alpha channel coding, Rec. 709 color space (sRGB) and gamma function (2.4-power), Rec. 2100 wide color gamut color space (Rec. 2020) and high dynamic range transfer functions (PQ and HLG), and high-quality compression of synthetic images, such as bitmap fonts and gradients. The standard should also offer higher bit depths (12–16 bit integer and floating point), additional color spaces and transfer functions (such as Log C from Arri), embedded preview images, lossless alpha channel encoding, image region coding, and low-complexity encoding. Any patented technologies would be licensed on a royalty-free basis. The proposals were submitted by September 2018, leading to a committee draft in July 2019, with current target publication date in October 2019.
See also
Better Portable Graphics, a format based on intra-frame encoding of the HEVC
C-Cube, an early implementer of JPEG in chip form
Comparison of graphics file formats
Comparison of layout engines (graphics)
Deblocking filter (video), the similar deblocking methods could be applied to JPEG
Design rule for Camera File system (DCF)
File extensions
Graphics editing program
High Efficiency Image File Format, image container format for HEVC and other image coding formats
Lenna (test image), the traditional standard image used to test image processing algorithms
Lossless Image Codec FELICS
Motion JPEG
WebP
References
External links
JPEG Standard (JPEG ISO/IEC 10918-1 ITU-T Recommendation T.81) at W3.org
Official Joint Photographic Experts Group (JPEG) site
JFIF File Format at W3.org
JPEG viewer in 250 lines of easy to understand Python code
Example images over the full range of quantization levels from 1 to 100 at visengi.com
Public domain JPEG compressor in a single C++ source file, along with a matching decompressor at code.google.com
JPEG decoder open source code, copyright (C) 1995–1997, Thomas G. Lane
Articles containing video clips
Computer-related introductions in 1992
Discovery and invention controversies
ITU-T recommendations
ITU-T Recommendations Series
IEC standards
ISO standards
Lossy compression algorithms
Image compression
Open formats
Raster graphics file formats |
1583485 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meanings%20of%20minor%20planet%20names%3A%2012001%E2%80%9313000 | Meanings of minor planet names: 12001–13000 |
12001–12100
|-
| 12001 Gasbarini || || Ron Gasbarini (born 1960) is an amateur astronomer whose interest was inspired by the Apollo missions in the 1960s. He has served as president of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada's Niagara Centre and won the service award of the society in 1995. ||
|-id=002
| 12002 Suess || || Franz Eduard Suess (1867–1941), Austrian geologist who coined the term tektite. He was the son of geologist Eduard Suess (1831–1914) ||
|-id=003
| 12003 Hideosugai || || Hideo Sugai (born 1930), a retired teacher, is a Japanese amateur astronomer. He has been observing variable stars since 1951, and his data have been reported to the Variable Star Observers League in Japan. ||
|-id=005
| 12005 Delgiudice || || Maria del Giudice (born 1964), friend and now wife of one of the discovery team's observers and measurers, Frank Shelly ||
|-id=006
| 12006 Hruschka || 1996 OO || František Hruschka (1819–1888) invented the centrifugal honey extractor and demonstrated it at an exposition in Brno (now in the Czech Republic) in 1865. He gained recognition for the development of modern beekeeping ||
|-id=007
| 12007 Fermat || || Pierre de Fermat, (1601–1665), a lawyer in Toulouse, is considered the greatest amateur mathematician of all time. ||
|-id=008
| 12008 Kandrup || || Henry Kandrup (1955–2003), an American astrophysicist and professor at the University of Florida, Gainesville. His eccentric and energetic lecturing style and love of nonlinear dynamics are now reflected in his celestial namesake, an unusual minor planet on a chaotic trajectory. The asteroid was named in his memory. ||
|-id=010
| 12010 Kovářov || 1996 UN || Kovářov, first mentioned in 1220, is a south Bohemian village situated in a pleasant hilly landscape near Milevsko. It is known for its rich community life, including living folk customs as well as for its Gothic church and Brokoff's baroque statues. Its Czech name originates from blacksmith work. ||
|-id=012
| 12012 Kitahiroshima || || Kitahiroshima, a city in Hokkaido in northeastern Japan. ||
|-id=013
| 12013 Sibatahosimi || || Sibatamachi-hosiwomirukai, a Japanese amateur astronomer club in Sibata town, Miyagi prefecture, founded in 1986 ||
|-id=014
| 12014 Bobhawkes || || Robert Lewis Hawkes (born 1951), Canadian physicist Src ||
|-id=016
| 12016 Green || 1996 XC || George Green (1793–1841), a self-taught miller's son of Nottingham, was instrumental (along with Gauss) in making the theories of electricity and magnetism a part of mathematical physics. ||
|-id=022
| 12022 Hilbert || || David Hilbert (1862–1943), professor at Göttingen and one of the greatest mathematicians of all time. ||
|-id=027
| 12027 Masaakitanaka || || Japanese amateur astronomer Masaaki Tanaka (born 1952) uses a Schmidt camera and binoculars to observe comets. He was one of the observers who rediscovered comet 122P/de Vico on 17 September 1995 ||
|-id=028
| 12028 Annekinney || || Astronomer Anne L. Kinney (born 1950) quantified the misalignment of the central black hole accretion disk and galaxy disk in Seyfert galaxies. She served as Director of NASA's Universe Division and Director of Goddard's Solar System Exploration Division. In 2015 she was named Chief Scientist for the Keck Observatory. ||
|-id=031
| 12031 Kobaton || || Kobaton is a Eurasian collared dove (Shirakobato in Japanese), and is the official mascot character of Saitama Prefecture since 2005. ||
|-id=032
| 12032 Ivory || || Sir James Ivory (1765–1842), Scottish mathematician. ||
|-id=033
| 12033 Anselmo || || Anselmo Antonini (born 1946), an amateur astronomer in the Montelupo Group. ||
|-id=035
| 12035 Ruggieri || || Guido Ruggieri (1913–1976), an Italian amateur astronomer known for his visual observations of Mars and Jupiter ||
|-id=040
| 12040 Jacobi || || Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi, (1804–1851), professor at Königsberg and Berlin. ||
|-id=042
| 12042 Laques || 1997 FC || Pierre Laques (born 1934), a French astronomer and one of the co-discoverers of Helene (Saturn XII), a moon of Saturn, at the Pic du Midi Observatory ||
|-id=044
| 12044 Fabbri || 1997 FU || Luciano Fabbri (born 1945), an amateur astronomer in the Montelupo Group. ||
|-id=045
| 12045 Klein || || Felix Klein (1849–1925), a professor of mathematics at Erlangen and later at Göttingen. ||
|-id=047
| 12047 Hideomitani || || In 1975, Hideo Mitani (born 1946) founded a library of nature photographs, including astronomical photographs. It became the most famous library of its kind in Japan and cultivated many other nature photographers. ||
|-id=050
| 12050 Humecronyn || || Hume Blake Cronyn, Canadian businessman and politician † ||
|-id=051
| 12051 Pícha || 1997 JO || Jaroslav Pícha (1921–1998), Czech meteorologist and amateur astronomer ||
|-id=052
| 12052 Aretaon || || Aretaon, a Trojan warrior who was killed by Teucer. ||
|-id=053
| 12053 Turtlestar || || Turtle Star Observatory (obs. code 628) located in Mülheim-Ruhr, Germany. It was built in 1995, by Andreas Boeker, his wife Karolin, Axel Martin and M. Tator. † ||
|-id=056
| 12056 Yoshigeru || || Yoshida Shigeru (1952–1997), a Japanese physician. ||
|-id=057
| 12057 Alfredsturm || || Alfred Sturm co-founder with Martin Geffert of the Starkenburg Observatory (Starkenburg-Sternwarte) in Heppenheim, Germany † ‡ ||
|-id=059
| 12059 du Châtelet || || Emilie du Châtelet (1706–1749), an acknowledged scientist among the leading thinkers of her time, translated Newton's Principia Mathematica into French in 1749, this still being considered the best existing translation. In 1745 she showed that the energy of a moving object is proportional to its mass and the square of its velocity ||
|-id=061
| 12061 Alena || || Alena Ruth Robbins, the mother of the discoverer. ||
|-id=062
| 12062 Tilmanspohn || || Tilman Spohn (born 1950) was director of the Institute of Planetary Research at the German Aerospace Center (DLR) in Berlin. He pioneered in-situ measurements of thermal and mechanical properties of planetary surfaces and was Principal Investigator for the instrument MUPUS on the Rosetta lander Philae. ||
|-id=064
| 12064 Guiraudon || || Jean-Claude Guiraudon, who founded the in 1961, which later evolved into the . He now works at the international level with MILSET, the , which he helped create. ||
|-id=065
| 12065 Jaworski || || Victor Jaworski (born 1984), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=067
| 12067 Jeter || || Crystal Lynn Jeter (born 1984), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=068
| 12068 Khandrika || || Harish Gautam Khandrika (born 1987), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=070
| 12070 Kilkis || || Siir Sirinyasam Kilkis (born 1984), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=071
| 12071 Davykim || || Davy Kim (born 1985), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=072
| 12072 Anupamakotha || || Anupama Kotha (born 1985), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=073
| 12073 Larimer || || Curtis James Larimer (born 1986), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=074
| 12074 Carolinelau || || Caroline Sue-Yuk Lau (born 1984), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=075
| 12075 Legg || || Tiffany Amelia Legg (born 1987), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=079
| 12079 Kaibab || || The Kaibab Formation, a massive limestone layer of Permian age that forms the bedrock of much of Northern Arizona. ||
|-id=084
| 12084 Unno || || Juza Unno (a.k.a. Sano Shoichi), Japanese mystery writer and pioneer of science fiction ||
|-id=086
| 12086 Joshualevine || || Joshua Levine (born 1985), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=087
| 12087 Tiffanylin || || Tiffany Fangtse Lin (born 1984), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=088
| 12088 Macalintal || || Jeric Valles Macalintal (born 1986), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=089
| 12089 Maichin || || Diana Marie Maichin (born 1983), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=091
| 12091 Jesmalmquist || || Jessica Lea Malmquist (born 1987), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=093
| 12093 Chrimatthews || || Christina Marie Matthews (born 1986), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=094
| 12094 Mazumder || || Mark Mohan Mazumder (born 1985), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=095
| 12095 Pinel || || Philippe Pinel (1745–1826), a French physician who made revolutionary contributions to the treatment of patients suffering from mental illness, became chief physician at the La Salpêtrière clinic in Paris. His Traité médico-philosophique sur l´Aliénation mentale (1801) has been translated into several languages ||
|-id=099
| 12099 Meigooni || || David Nima Meigooni (born 1986), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=100
| 12100 Amiens || || The French city of Amiens, the capital of Picardy. It is famous for its cathedral, the tallest of the Gothic churches in France. Notable for its beautiful sculptures on the principal façade, it has been named the "Parthenon of Gothic architecture". The city is also worth a visit for its complex of gardens along the Somme river. ||
|}
12101–12200
|-
| 12101 Trujillo || || Chad Trujillo (born 1973), an American astronomer and discoverer of minor planets of the California Institute of Technology, specializes in the study of Kuiper belt objects. ||
|-id=102
| 12102 Piazzolla || || Astor Piazzolla (1921–1992) was an Argentinean composer best known for his distinct nuevo tango. His fusion of the tango with Western musical elements, especially jazz, was successful in producing a new individual musical style. ||
|-id=104
| 12104 Chesley || || Steven R. Chesley (born 1965), of the Solar System Dynamics Group at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, is an expert in determination of the orbits of minor planets and application to the study of earth-impact probability. ||
|-id=106
| 12106 Menghuan || || Meng Huan (born 1985), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=111
| 12111 Ulm || 1998 LU || Ulm, a city in Germany on the banks of the Danube river ||
|-id=112
| 12112 Sprague || || Ann Sprague (born 1946) is a senior research associate with the Lunar and Planetary Laboratory of the University of Arizona. She is known for her work on the atmospheres of Mercury, the moon and Mars, as well as on the Messenger mission to Mercury ||
|-id=113
| 12113 Hollows || || Fred Hollows (1929–1993), was a New Zealand-born ophthalmologist who saved the sight of thousands of aboriginal and poor people in third-world countries rather than make a comfortable living at home. His work outlives him, following his training of local doctors and establishing local interocular lens factories. ||
|-id=115
| 12115 Robertgrimm || || Robert Grimm (born 1960) is a planetary geophysicist. His thermal models led to the first mathematical representations of fluid flow on meteorite parent bodies and to a greater understanding of the thermal and collisional evolution of minor planets, including the heliocentric zonation of the main belt ||
|-id=117
| 12117 Meagmessina || || Meagan Elizabeth Messina (born 1985), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=118
| 12118 Mirotsin || || Yauhen Adolfovich Mirotsin (born 1985), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=119
| 12119 Memamis || || Megan Marie Miskowski (born 1984), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=123
| 12123 Pazin || || Pazin, a Croatian town in the Istrian Peninsula and the administrative center of Istria County. ||
|-id=124
| 12124 Hvar || || Hvar, a Croatian island in the Adriatic Sea, located off the Dalmatian coast. ||
|-id=125
| 12125 Jamesjones || || James Jones (born 1939) studied at Sheffield University in Yorkshire and has been professor of physics at the University of Western Ontario since 1966. Jones pioneered the video observation of meteors and single-station radar radiant mapping. ||
|-id=127
| 12127 Mamiya || || Rinzo Mamiya (1780–1844), an explorer and surveyor of the northern area of Japan. In 1809, he reached the north Sakhalin and showed that Karafuto (Sakhalin) is an island separated by a narrow channel, now called the Mamiya strait. ||
|-id=128
| 12128 Palermiti || || Mike Palermiti (born 1949) provides expert consultation to the astronomical community about optics, telescope design and CCDs. He contributed to the early development of low-light-level imaging and has made significant observations of novae, minor planets, comets and occultations. He is a director of an observatory in Florida. ||
|-id=130
| 12130 Mousa || || Ahmed Shaker Mousa (born 1984), 2002 Intel ISEF finalist. He attended the Avon Grove High School, Lincoln University, Pennsylvania, U.S.A. ||
|-id=131
| 12131 Echternach || 2085 P-L || Eddy Echternach (born 1961), a Dutch science writer and assistant editor of the Dutch astronomical magazine Zenit, has been popularizing astronomy since the late 1980s. He is co-author of numerous books on astronomy and astronomical exercises for use in primary and high schools. The name was suggested by C. E. Koppeschaar. ||
|-id=132
| 12132 Wimfröger || 2103 P-L || Willem Albertus Fröger (born 1962) is a Dutch amateur astronomer who lives in Argentina. He suggested names and prepared citations for more than 60 minor planets, one lunar crater and two craters on Mars. ||
|-id=133
| 12133 Titulaer || 2558 P-L || Chriet Titulaer (1943–2017), Dutch science writer and astronomer, co-presenter, with Henk Terlingen, of the Dutch television coverage of the Apollo Moon landings ||
|-id=134
| 12134 Hansfriedeman || 2574 P-L || Johannes Lambertus Maria ("Hans") Friedeman (1937–1996), was a Dutch journalist who enthusiastically reported on space travel, science and the environment. In 1977 he started his own weekly page, and in 1981 this led to the first complete section on science and society in a Dutch newspaper. ||
|-id=135
| 12135 Terlingen || 3021 P-L || Henk Terlingen (1941–1994), a Dutch journalist who presented the Apollo moon missions on Dutch television. Since the 1960s, his broadcasts in collaboration with Chriet Titulaer promoted a great interest in astronomy and space science in the Netherlands. The name was suggested by C. E. Koppeschaar. ||
|-id=136
| 12136 Martinryle || 3045 P-L || Martin Ryle (1918–1984) was a British astrophysicist who developed the aperture synthesis technique of interferometry and constructed large radio telescopes, using them to discover and catalogue numerous radio sources. ||
|-id=137
| 12137 Williefowler || 4004 P-L || William Alfred Fowler (1911–1995) was a nuclear astrophysicist who measured in the laboratory at Caltech the nuclear reactions that occur at lower energies in stars. He also worked on theories of supernovae and early nucleosynthesis. ||
|-id=138
| 12138 Olinwilson || 4053 P-L || Olin C. Wilson (1909–1994) was an American spectroscopist who worked on solar and stellar activity cycles. With M. K. V. Bappu he found a method of determining a star's luminosity from the widths of two spectral lines with (see Wilson-Bappu effect) ||
|-id=139
| 12139 Tomcowling || 4055 P-L || Thomas G. Cowling (1906–1990), British astrophysicist, was the first to compute a stellar model with a convective core and a radiative envelope. He also developed much of the theory of magnetic fields in stars and magnetospheres. ||
|-id=140
| 12140 Johnbolton || 4087 P-L || John G. Bolton (1922–1993) was a pioneer radio astronomer in Australia who used interferometry with direct and sea-reflected signals to identify the first radio sources with optical objects. He directed two major radio observatories. ||
|-id=141
| 12141 Chushayashi || 4112 P-L || Chushiro Hayashi (1920–2010) was a Japanese astrophysicist who made pioneering models of star formation and significant discoveries related to the formation of elements in the early universe. ||
|-id=142
| 12142 Franklow || 4624 P-L || Frank J. Low (1933–2009), American physicist and astronomer, invented the gallium-doped germanium bolometer and became a leader in infrared astronomy. He pioneered open-port airborne astronomy and helped develop infrared spaceborne astronomy. ||
|-id=143
| 12143 Harwit || 4631 P-L || Martin Harwit (born 1931), Czech-American astrophysicist and infrared astronomer, director (1987–1995) of the Smithsonian Institution's National Air and Space Museum ||
|-id=144
| 12144 Einhart || 4661 P-L || Einhart (also Eginhard or Einhard, ca. 770) was a Frankish scholar and historian. He was the chancellor of Charles the Great and of his son Ludwig the Pious. Einhard wrote Vita Karoli Magni, the biography of Charles the Great, one of the most precious books of the early Middle Ages ||
|-id=145
| 12145 Behaim || 4730 P-L || Martin Behaim (1459–1507) was a German merchant, astronomer and cosmographer from Nürnberg. He traveled through Europe and became a Portuguese knight. He developed the earliest terrestrial globe, Erdapfel, or `Earth Apple', with a diameter of about 50 cm ||
|-id=146
| 12146 Ostriker || 6035 P-L || Jeremiah P. Ostriker (born 1937) is an American astrophysicist who has contributed to many fields of theoretical astrophysics and cosmology, including the distribution of baryonic and dark matter and values of cosmological parameters. ||
|-id=147
| 12147 Bramante || 6082 P-L || Donato Bramante (1444–1514) was an Italian architect of the high Renaissance, working mainly in Milan and Rome. In Rome he designed his greatest work, St. Peter's Basilica ||
|-id=148
| 12148 Caravaggio || 6636 P-L || Caravaggio (1571–1610) was an Italian artist of the Renaissance. He was almost forgotten after his death, but in the twentieth century his importance was rediscovered because of his great influence on the Baroque style during the Counter Reformation ||
|-id=149
| 12149 Begas || 9099 P-L || Begas is the name of a German family of nineteenth-century artists, of whom the best known was Romantik-style painter Carl Joseph Begas (1794–1854). Of his four sons, Reinhold (1831–1911) and Carl Begas Jr. (1845–1916), were sculptors, and Oskar (1828–1883) and Adalbert (1836–1888) Begas were painters ||
|-id=150
| 12150 De Ruyter || 1051 T-1 || Michiel de Ruyter (1607–1676), in Dutch history a famous admiral, played a decisive role in the Anglo-Dutch Wars of the seventeenth century. De Ruyter was of humble origin but much loved by his sailors and soldiers. The name was suggested by C. E. Koppeschaar. ||
|-id=151
| 12151 Oranje-Nassau || 1220 T-1 || William the Silent, Prince of Orange (1533–1584), led the Netherlands provinces in their war of liberation against Spain during 1568–1648. "The Father of the Fatherland" was assassinated and is entombed in the Nieuwe Kerk in Delft. The Dutch national anthem, the Wilhelmus, was written in his honor ||
|-id=152
| 12152 Aratus || 1287 T-1 || Aratus of Soli (c. 315 BC/310 BC – 240 BC)) a Hellenistic poet and author of the Phaenomena, an influential didactic poem composed around 275 B.C. that describes the celestial sphere, the constellations and weather prognostications based on their rising and setting ||
|-id=153
| 12153 Conon || 3219 T-1 || Conon of Samos (c. 280-c. 220 B.C.) was a Hellenistic astronomer and mathematician who worked in Alexandria. In 246 B.C. he created the constellation of Coma Berenices, commemorating the sacrifice of Queen Berenice's tresses of hair after her husband's return from the Third Syrian War ||
|-id=154
| 12154 Callimachus || 3329 T-1 || Callimachus (c. 305–240 B.C.) was a Hellenistic scholar and poet who worked in Alexandria, where he compiled a catalogue of the famous library. He wrote the poem Aetia commemorating the creation of the eponymous constellation Coma Berenices by Conon of Samos in 246 B.C ||
|-id=155
| 12155 Hyginus || 4193 T-1 || Gaius Julius Hyginus (c. 64 B.C. – A.D. 17), Roman historian, philologer and mythographer, presided over the Palatine Library in Rome. His De Astronomia (or Poeticon Astronomicon) gives a comprehensive overview of the myths associated with the constellations. The name was suggested by R. H. van Gent ||
|-id=156
| 12156 Ubels || 1042 T-2 || Egbert Ubels (1969–2008), Dutch fireman who perished on 9 May 2008 while fighting a shipyard fire in De Punt (Drenthe, Netherlands), along with colleagues Raymond Patrick Soyer and Anne Kregel ||
|-id=157
| 12157 Können || 1070 T-2 || Günther Peter Können (born 1944), a researcher at the Koninklijk Nederlands Meteorologisch Instituut, specialized in atmospheric optics. He is famous for his book Polarized light in Nature, which describes phenomena such as halos and rainbows. The name was suggested by M. Drummen ||
|-id=158
| 12158 Tape || 1101 T-2 || Walter Tape (born 1941) is an Alaskan mathematician. With his book Atmospheric halos he made an outstanding contribution to the popularization of these beautiful phenomena. The name was suggested by G. P. Können and M. Drummen ||
|-id=159
| 12159 Bettybiegel || 1142 T-2 || Rebekka A. "Betty" Biegel (1886–1943) studied astronomy in Leiden, obtained her doctorate in Zürich, pursued psychology in Utrecht and developed psychological instruments for testing people. She committed suicide by cyanide rather than allow herself to be transported to Auschwitz. The name was suggested by W. R. Dick ||
|-id=160
| 12160 Karelwakker || 1152 T-2 || Karel F. Wakker (born 1944), professor of astrodynamics at Delft Technical University, has made important contributions to Dutch, ESA and NASA space projects, as well as inspiring numerous students. ||
|-id=161
| 12161 Avienius || 1158 T-2 || Avienius, who lived in the second half of the 4th century, was a Latin poet from Etruria. He composed didactic poems on astronomy and geography. His Aratea was based on earlier Latin translations of Aratus' Phaenomena. The name was suggested by R. H. van Gent ||
|-id=162
| 12162 Bilderdijk || 2145 T-2 || Willem Bilderdijk (1756–1831) was a Dutch poet and scholar who composed two didactic astronomical poems, Starrenkennis (1794) and De Starrenhemel (1807). These described the celestial sphere, the Milky Way and the constellations. The name was suggested by R. H. van Gent ||
|-id=163
| 12163 Manilius || 3013 T-2 || Marcus Manilius (1st century AD), was a Roman poet and astrologer who wrote the comprehensive astronomical-astrological poem Astronomica. The five-volume work was dedicated to Tiberius and contains a mythological description of the constellations and the Milky Way. The name was suggested by R. H. van Gent. ||
|-id=164
| 12164 Lowellgreen || 3067 T-2 || Lowell Clark Green (born 1925), a Lutheran pastor/theologian for more than half a century and Renaissance/Reformation scholar, now resident in Buffalo, New York, has given constant support and encouragement to the life and astronomical career of his son, D. W. E. Green, who found the identifications for this object. ||
|-id=165
| 12165 Ringleb || 3289 T-2 || Peter Ringleb (born 1965), German neurologist, member of the team who cared for co– discoverer Ingrid van Houten-Groeneveld ||
|-id=166
| 12166 Oliverherrmann || 3372 T-2 || Oliver Herrmann (born 1973), German neurologist, member of the team who cared for co– discoverer Ingrid van Houten-Groeneveld ||
|-id=167
| 12167 Olivermüller || 4306 T-2 || Oliver Müller (born 1971), German cardiologist, member of the team who cared for co– discoverer Ingrid van Houten-Groeneveld ||
|-id=168
| 12168 Polko || 5141 T-2 || Norbert Polko (born 1944) has scanned more than 200,000 glass plates, a world record, from the largest European astronomical plate archive, at the Sonneberg Observatory. The name was suggested by R. Hudec. ||
|-id=169
| 12169 Munsterman || 2031 T-3 || Henk Munsterman (born 1946), a Dutch amateur astrophotographer, known for his photographs of planets, minor planets, comets, nebulae, starclusters and galaxies. The name was suggested by Mat Drummen, see . ||
|-id=170
| 12170 Vanvollenhoven || 2372 T-3 || Pieter van Vollenhoven (born 1939), Dutch professor of risk management at the Technical University of Twente and Dutch ambassador of the International Year of Astronomy ||
|-id=171
| 12171 Johannink || 2382 T-3 || Carl F. Johannink (born 1959) is a Dutch high-school teacher and amateur astronomer. His main interests lie in meteor astronomy. He is a very prolific meteor observer, active within the Dutch Meteor Society. The name was suggested by K. Miskotte ||
|-id=172
| 12172 Niekdekort || 2390 T-3 || Niek De Kort (born 1956) has done outstanding work popularizing astronomy. He authored several books, including one about space research and the course book Modern Astronomy (1980) for a TV course with an enrollment of 25~000 people. The name was suggested by H. van Woerden and A. v. d. Brugge ||
|-id=173
| 12173 Lansbergen || 3135 T-3 || Philippus Lansbergen (1561–1632), Calvinist minister and active astronomical researcher in Middelburg, The Netherlands, in 1629 wrote the first popular book on astronomy in the Dutch language. The book promoted the Copernican system and became a best seller. ||
|-id=174
| 12174 van het Reve || 3164 T-3 || Karel van het Reve (1921–1999), professor of Slavic languages at Leiden University and a prolific writer, was considered to be one of the finest Dutch essayists with wide-ranging interests. The name was suggested by F. Israel ||
|-id=175
| 12175 Wimhermans || 3197 T-3 || Willem Frederik Hermans (1921–1995), a Dutch author considered one of the most important writers in the Netherlands in the postwar period. His oeuvre includes novels, short stories, plays, along with poetry and essays, as well as philosophical and scientific works. The name was suggested by F. Israel ||
|-id=176
| 12176 Hidayat || 3468 T-3 || Bambang Hidayat (born 1934) is an active promoter of astronomy in Indonesia. Known for his work on visual binaries and H-emission-line stars, he was director of Bosscha Observatory in Lembang during 1968–1999 and vice-president of the IAU during 1994–2000 ||
|-id=177
| 12177 Raharto || 4074 T-3 || Moedji Raharto (born 1954) is an Indonesian astronomer and senior lecturer at the Institut Teknologi Bandung. He was director of Bosscha Observatory in Lembang during 2000–2003 and is an authority on Galactic structure, based on the Hipparcos and IRAS-Point Source catalogues. ||
|-id=178
| 12178 Dhani || 4304 T-3 || Herdiwijaya Dhani (born 1963), an Indonesian astronomer and solar physicist. He was director of Bosscha Observatory in Lembang during 2004–2005. He is known for his work on binaries, solar magnetic activity and its influence on weather and climate. ||
|-id=179
| 12179 Taufiq || 5030 T-3 || Taufiq Hidayat (born 1965), an Indonesian astronomer and associate professor at the Institut Teknologi Bandung. He was director of Bosscha Observatory in Lembang during 2006–2009. Known for work on the solar system and extrasolar transits, he actively fights the adverse effects of urbanisation around the observatory ||
|-id=180
| 12180 Kistemaker || 5167 T-3 || Jacob Kistemaker (1917–2010), Teylers professor at Leiden University, was a pioneer in isotope separation, uranium enrichment, atomic and molecular collisions, and vacuum science and technology. Name suggested by H. Habing and F. Saris. ||
|-id=182
| 12182 Storm || || Theodor Storm (1817–1888), a German writer and local judge in his northern German hometown Husum. He wrote impressive poems and more than 50 novels. As a representative of "poetic realism", he described the landscapes and the people of his north Frisian coastal district. ||
|-id=183
| 12183 Caltonen || || Craig Steven Altonen (born 1965) is the Chief Engineer for the Lucy mission. ||
|-id=184
| 12184 Trevormerkley || || Trevor Franklin Merkley (born 1983) is the "Spacecraft Fault Protection Lead" of the Lucy mission. He also developed the software for Lucys photovoltaic array deployment. ||
|-id=185
| 12185 Gasprinskij || || Ismail Gasprinskij (1851–1914) was a Crimean-Tatar teacher, enlightener, writer, publisher and public figure. ||
|-id=186
| 12186 Mitukurigen || || Mitukuri Genpo (1799–1863), a physician of Western medicine in the late Edo period. ||
|-id=187
| 12187 Lenagoryunova || || Elena (Lena) Viktorovna Goryunova (born 1961), hydrologist at Sebastopol Institute of Hydrography. ||
|-id=188
| 12188 Kalaallitnunaat || 1978 PE || Greenland () is an autonomous country within the Kingdom of Denmark. Located on the largest island in the world, it has been inhabited during many millennia by indigenous arctic peoples with strong and unique cultural traditions, later joined by people from the Nordic countries. ||
|-id=189
| 12189 Dovgyj || || Stanislav Alekseevich Dovgyj (born 1954), a corresponding member of the Ukrainian National Academy of Sciences, is a scientist in the field of mechanics. ||
|-id=190
| 12190 Sarkisov || || Pavel Djibraelovich Sarkisov (born 1932), rector of the D. I. Mendeleev Moscow Chemical-Technological University. ||
|-id=191
| 12191 Vorontsova || || Margarita Alekseevna Vorontsova (born 1923), a pediatrician at the Simferopol children's hospital ||
|-id=192
| 12192 Gregbollendonk || || Gregory R. Bollendonk (born 1960) is the "Spacecraft Systems Engineer" of the Lucy mission and accompanied Lucys development from concept study to its launch. ||
|-id=195
| 12195 Johndavidniemann || || John David Niemann (born 1984) is the Mission Assurance Manager of the Lucy mission. ||
|-id=196
| 12196 Weems || || Weyman Weems (born 1965) is the "Solar Array Principal Engineer" of the Lucy mission. ||
|-id=197
| 12197 Jan-Otto || || Jan-Otto Carlsson (born 1943) is professor of inorganic chemistry at Uppsala University and has for nine years been the dean of the Faculty of Sciences and Technology. ||
|-id=199
| 12199 Sohlman || || Michael Sohlman (born 1944) is a well-known Swedish specialist in economics and finance, executive director of the Nobel Fund, a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences and the Royal Swedish Academy of Engineering Sciences. ||
|-id=200
| 12200 Richlipe || || Richard Loyde Lipe Jr. (born 1964) is the Program Manager and Engineering Manager of the Lucy mission at Lockheed Martin Space. ||
|}
12201–12300
|-
| 12201 Spink || || James W. Spink (born 1963) is the Program Manager for the Northrop Grumman's photovoltaic system. The UltraFlex solar array is an accordion fanfold blanket made of triangular-shaped lightweight panels that form a shallow umbrella-shaped membrane structure when tensioned (Src). ||
|-id=202
| 12202 Toddgregory || || Todd Gregory (born 1968) is the Technical Director for the photovoltaic array of the Lucy mission. ||
|-id=203
| 12203 Gehling || || Russell Neel Gehling (born 1959) was the "Solar Array Principal Engineer of the Lucy mission, until his retirement. ||
|-id=204
| 12204 Jonpineau || || Jon Paul Pineau (born 1978) is the "Aerospace Engineer" and "Lead Science Operations Center (SOC) Systems Engineer" for the Lucy mission. ||
|-id=205
| 12205 Basharp || || Bret Alan Sharp (born 1964) contributed to NASA's is the "Spacecraft Engineering Manager", "Thermal Manager", and the "Propulsion Manager" of the Lucy mission. ||
|-id=206
| 12206 Prats || || Rebecca Maria Prats (born 1989) is the Configuration Manager of the Lucy mission. ||
|-id=207
| 12207 Matthewbeasley || || Matthew Beasley (born 1973) is the "Deputy Payload Systems Engineer" of the Lucy mission. ||
|-id=208
| 12208 Jacobenglander || || Jacob Aldo Englander (born 1984) is the "Trajectory Optimization Lead" of the Lucy mission. ||
|-id=210
| 12210 Prykull || || Cory J. Prykull (born 1992) is the "Assembly, Test, and Launch Operations Mechanical Operations Lead" of the Lucy mission. ||
|-id=211
| 12211 Arnoschmidt || 1981 KJ || Arno Schmidt, German novelist. ||
|-id=214
| 12214 Miroshnikov || || Mikhail Mikhailovich Miroshnikov (born 1926), director of the Vavilov State Optical Institute from 1966 to 1989. ||
|-id=215
| 12215 Jessicalounsbury || || Jessica Lounsbury (née Thompson, born 1979) is the "NASA Project Systems Engineer" of the Lucy mission. ||
|-id=218
| 12218 Fleischer || 1982 RK || Randall Craig Fleischer (born 1959), the ebullient and multi-talented music director and conductor of the Flagstaff Symphony Orchestra. ||
|-id=219
| 12219 Grigor'ev || || Mikhail Grigor'evich Grigor'ev, Russian chief (1957–1962) of the space-vehicle launch site now known as the Plesetsk Cosmodrome (see also 11824) ||
|-id=220
| 12220 Semenchur || || Semen Ivanovich Churyumov, Ukrainian doctor of philosophy and socionics, senior lecturer in the mathematics department at the Kiev National Aviation University ||
|-id=221
| 12221 Ogatakoan || || Ogata Koan (1810–1863), a medical doctor with knowledge of European medicine in the late Edo period. ||
|-id=222
| 12222 Perotto || 1982 WA || Pier Giorgio Perotto, Italian electronics engineer ||
|-id=223
| 12223 Hoskin || 1983 TX || Michael A. Hoskin (born 1930) founded the Journal for the History of Astronomy in 1970 and has since served as its editor. He established the archives at Churchill College, Cambridge, is a leading expert on William Herschel and has done pioneering archeoastronomical work around the western Mediterranean basin. ||
|-id=224
| 12224 Jimcornell || || James Cornell, American astronomer ||
|-id=225
| 12225 Yanfernández || 1985 PQ || Yanga Rolando Fernández, Canadian astronomer † ‡ ||
|-id=226
| 12226 Caseylisse || 1985 TN || Carey M. ("Casey") Lisse (born 1961) is an expert on cometary dust and has made significant contributions to understanding the size distribution of the dust using infrared observations. The name was suggested by M. F. A'Hearn. ||
|-id=227
| 12227 Penney || || Big John Penney is representative of the team of workers who find a deep and abiding love for the challenges and rigors of wintering at South Pole Station. ||
|-id=229
| 12229 Paulsson || || Rolf Paulsson (born 1943), a lecturer at Uppsala University, has been an outstanding teacher of theoretical physics for generations of students ||
|-id=234
| 12234 Shkuratov || || Yurij G. Shkuratov (born 1952) is director of the Institute of Astronomy of Kharkiv National University. He is a well known expert in the theory of light scattering and in optical measurements of laboratory analogues of asteroid regolith and cometary particles. The citation was written by D. F. Lupishko. ||
|-id=235
| 12235 Imranakperov || || Akperov Imran Guru Ogly (born 1958), professor of economics and president of the inter-regional association of non-state education institutes in southern Russia, is also founder and rector of an institute in Rostov-on-Don. The name was suggested by S. S. Svetashev and R. Y. Gurnikovskaya. ||
|-id=237
| 12237 Coughlin || 1987 HE || Thomas B. Coughlin, of the Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous (NEAR) mission team and programs manager of the Applied Physics Laboratory of Johns Hopkins University. ||
|-id=238
| 12238 Actor || || Actor, the alleged father of Cteatos and Eurytos, two Greek warriors who beat Nestor in the chariot race. ||
|-id=239
| 12239 Carolinakou || || Carolina Carreira Nakou (born 2001), the daughter of Sandra Carreira and Thodoris Nakos. The latter works on galactic lenses at the Royal Observatory at Uccle. ||
|-id=240
| 12240 Droste-Hülshoff || || Annette von Droste-Hülshoff, German author and poet. ||
|-id=241
| 12241 Lefort || || Gertrud Freiin von le Fort (1876–1971), German poet. ||
|-id=242
| 12242 Koon || 1988 QY || Koon, a notable fighter, the eldest son of Antenor. ||
|-id=244
| 12244 Werfel || || Franz Werfel, Czech poet. ||
|-id=246
| 12246 Pliska || || Pliska was the first capital of the Bulgarian state, founded in 681. The conversion into Christianity under Knayz Boris I took place in Pliska in 855. There he welcomed the disciples of the brothers Saint Cyril and Saint Methodius, creators of the Slavic alphabet. It is also the birthplace of the discoverer ||
|-id=247
| 12247 Michaelsekerak || || Michael James Sekerak (born 1977) is the "NASA Deputy Project Systems Engineer" of the Lucy mission. ||
|-id=248
| 12248 Russellcarpenter || || James Russell Carpenter (born 1966) is the "Goddard Space Flight Center Technical Deputy Manager for Space Science Mission Operations" for the OSIRIS-REx and the Lucy mission. ||
|-id=252
| 12252 Gwangju || || Gwangju, Korea, became the seventh friendship city of Sendai, Japan on 20 April 2002. Gwangju and Sendai are famous for their cultural, artistic and academic facilities, and each will host World Cup soccer games this year. ||
|-id=257
| 12257 Lassine || || George Lassine (1953–2003), a member of the Belgian astronomical club Astronomie Centre Ardenne-Neufchâteau. ||
|-id=258
| 12258 Oscarwilde || || Oscar Wilde, Irish playwright, poet, and writer. ||
|-id=259
| 12259 Szukalski || || Albert Szukalski (1945–2000), Polish-born Belgian sculptor who worked in Antwerp and sometimes used very eccentric means for establishing his work. One of his foremost pieces of art concerns "La Cena", a monument of 13 statues that has been erected in the Nevada desert. ||
|-id=261
| 12261 Ledouanier || || Henri Rousseau, French post-impressionist painter, nicknamed "Le Douanier" ("The Customs Officer"). ||
|-id=262
| 12262 Nishio || 1989 UL || Tomoaki Nishio (born 1963), an editor of Gekkan Tenmon Guide, the Japanese monthly astronomical magazine. ||
|-id=267
| 12267 Denneau || || Larry Denneau (born 1968), American software engineer for the Moving Object Processing System of Pan-STARRS ||
|-id=270
| 12270 Bozar || || The name "Bozar" for the Palais des Beaux-Arts in Brussels was inspired by the language of Brussels residents. ||
|-id=272
| 12272 Geddylee || || Geddy Lee (Gary Lee Weinrib), Canadian bassist, vocalist and keyboardist for the band Rush ||
|-id=275
| 12275 Marcelgoffin || || Marcel Goffin (1913–1999), an accomplished amateur violin maker. ||
|-id=276
| 12276 IJzer || || IJzer, a river in Flanders. ||
|-id=277
| 12277 Tajimasatonokai || || Tajimasatonokai is an astronomy group which has long been engaged in popularizing astronomy by holding public viewing events and lectures around Toyooka city, Hyogo prefecture. ||
|-id=278
| 12278 Kisohinoki || || Japanese cypresses (hinoki), especially the Kiso cypresses (Kiso hinoki, in Japanese), were used as building materials for castles during the Edo era. They were protected like human beings. The Kiso cypresses form a natural forest 400 years old. ||
|-id=279
| 12279 Laon || || Laon, the capital of the Aisne department in northern France. ||
|-id=280
| 12280 Reims || || Reims, a city in the French department of Marne, the old capital (Durocortorum, later Remi) of the Roman province Belgica. ||
|-id=281
| 12281 Chaumont || || Chaumont, Haute-Marne, France ||
|-id=282
| 12282 Crombecq || || Michelle Crombecq (born 1946), a secretary at the port of Antwerp. ||
|-id=284
| 12284 Pohl || 1991 FP || Frederik Pohl, American author † ||
|-id=286
| 12286 Poiseuille || || Jean Louis Marie Poiseuille (1797–1869) was a French physicist and physiologist who, through his work on the pressure of blood, became interested in the resistance of the flow of viscous fluids in small tubes. This led to the formulation of the Hagen-Poiseuille Law. The unit of viscosity is named the poise ||
|-id=287
| 12287 Langres || || Langres, a French city in the south of the Haute-Marne department. ||
|-id=288
| 12288 Verdun || || Verdun, France. ||
|-id=289
| 12289 Carnot || || Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot, (1796–1832) a French physicist. ||
|-id=291
| 12291 Gohnaumann || || Gottfried O. H. Naumann (born 1935) is the director of the Universitäts-Augenklinik in Erlangen-Nürnberg and president of the International Council of Ophthalmology. He is considered one of the foremost ophthalmologists in the world and has received many honors. ||
|-id=292
| 12292 Dalton || || John Dalton, British physicist and chemist. ||
|-id=294
| 12294 Avogadro || || Amedeo Avogadro, Italian scientist. ||
|-id=295
| 12295 Tasso || || Torquato Tasso, an Italian writer and poet. ||
|-id=298
| 12298 Brecht || || Bertolt Brecht, German dramatist, stage director, and poet. ||
|}
12301–12400
|-
| 12301 Eötvös || || Loránd Eötvös, Hungarian physicist. ||
|-id=306
| 12306 Pebronstein || || Peter Bronstein (born 1947), father in-law of the discoverer. ||
|-id=309
| 12309 Tommygrav || || Tommy Grav, Norwegian astronomer ||
|-id=310
| 12310 Londontario || || London, Ontario, the Canadian city. ||
|-id=311
| 12311 Ingemyr || || Mikael Ingemyr (born 1991), a student at the high school for space studies in Kiruna, was one of the winners of "The Universe—yours to discover with the Nordic Optical Telescope" ||
|-id=312
| 12312 Väte || || Väte is a small parish on Gotland with a church from the thirteenth century. Here can also be found an old farm, Norrbys, reflecting agricultural life 70 years ago ||
|-id=317
| 12317 Madicampbell || || Margaret Diane Campbell (born 1976), a Ph.D. student at the University of Western Ontario, became interested in astronomy as a young girl. ||
|-id=318
| 12318 Kästner || || Erich Kästner, German author and journalist. ||
|-id=320
| 12320 Loschmidt || || Josef Loschmidt (1821–1895), Czech physicist. ||
|-id=321
| 12321 Zurakowski || || Paul R. Zurakowski (born 1927), volunteer director of the Chabot Observatory Telescope Makers' Workshop for more than 30 years. ||
|-id=323
| 12323 Haeckel || 1992 RX || Ernst Haeckel (1834–1919), German naturalist. ||
|-id=324
| 12324 Van Rompaey || || Pierre Van Rompaey (born 1921) is a Belgian architect and an artist of surreal figurative paintings. His popular work is displayed in private collections at Antwerp. ||
|-id=325
| 12325 Bogota || || Bogotá, the capital of Colombia ||
|-id=326
| 12326 Shirasaki || 1992 SF || Shuichi Shirasaki (born 1958), an anesthesiologist in Sapporo city, was the finalist in the selection of a Japanese astronaut candidate by the National Space Development Agency of Japan in 1999. ||
|-id=327
| 12327 Terbrüggen || || Dietrich Terbrüggen (born 1941), a well-known German surgeon. ||
|-id=329
| 12329 Liebermann || || Max Liebermann (1847–1935), a German painter. ||
|-id=335
| 12335 Tatsukushi || || Tatsukushi is a beach on the western side of Ashizuri peninsular in Kochi prefecture known for the unusual sight of rock pillars of various sizes sculpted by waves. An undersea viewing tower is built there to see many kinds of rare fishes. ||
|-id=339
| 12339 Carloo || || Carloo, a small hamlet south of the Royal Observatory at Uccle. ||
|-id=340
| 12340 Stalle || || Stalle, a hamlet in the eastern part of the municipality of Uccle. ||
|-id=341
| 12341 Calevoet || || Calevoet is a hamlet in the southwestern part of the municipality of Uccle. The name means "grassless ford". However, the name also means "bare foot", which gave birth to the legend that Charlemagne crossed the small river at Calevoet barefooted. ||
|-id=342
| 12342 Kudohmichiko || || Michiko Kudoh (born 1942) has been associated with the Gotoh Planetarium and Astronomical Museum in Tokyo. She reaches out to other astronomers through her web site. ||
|-id=343
| 12343 Martinbeech || || Martin Beech (born 1959) is an assistant professor of astronomy at the University of Regina, Saskatchewan. He does research on meteor light curves, the dynamics of meteoroid streams, cometary aging and meteoroid-stream formation. ||
|-id=350
| 12350 Feuchtwanger || || Lion Feuchtwanger, a German author. ||
|-id=352
| 12352 Jepejacobsen || || Jens Peter Jacobsen, a Danish writer and poet. ||
|-id=353
| 12353 Màrquez || || Gabriel Garc{í}a Màrquez (1927–2014), a Colombian novelist. ||
|-id=354
| 12354 Hemmerechts || || Kristien Hemmerechts, a Flemish author. ||
|-id=355
| 12355 Coelho || || Paulo Coelho (born 1947), a Brazilian lyricist and novelist. ||
|-id=356
| 12356 Carlscheele || || Carl Wilhelm Scheele, a Swedish apothecary. ||
|-id=357
| 12357 Toyako || || Lake Tōya ("Toyako" in Japanese), part of Shikotsu-Tōya National Park in Hokkaido ||
|-id=358
| 12358 Azzurra || || Azzurra (born 2010 Jan. 4) is the grandchild of the discoverer. Her name is a hope for clearer skies ||
|-id=359
| 12359 Cajigal || || With his founding in 1831 of the Military Academy of Mathematics, Juan Manuel Cajigal y Odoardo (1803–1856) initiated the study of mathematics and engineering in Venezuela. His installation of the first astronomical telescopes in Caracas was recognized with the establishment of El Observatorio Cajigal there in 1888. ||
|-id=360
| 12360 Unilandes || || The Universidad de Los Andes, founded in Mérida in 1785, is one of the most important educational institutions in Venezuela. ||
|-id=362
| 12362 Mumuryk || || Mumuryk Keiko Yuharo (born 1959) is a painter and illustrator. Having started painting as a 4-year-old, she works in oil, water, engraving and relief. Her illustrations were used for posters by the Japanese International Space Station and the STS-123 Mission. ||
|-id=363
| 12363 Marinmarais || || Marin Marais (1656–1728), the central figure in the French school of bass-viol composers and performers that flourished during the late 17th and early 18th centuries. ||
|-id=364
| 12364 Asadagouryu || || Asada Gouryu (1734–1799), an astronomer in the Japanese Edo period, studied positional astronomy. He also founded "Senjikan", a private school in astronomy, in Osaka, and educated many outstanding astronomers, including Takashi Yoshitoki and Hazama Shigetomi. ||
|-id=365
| 12365 Yoshitoki || 1993 YD || Takahashi Yoshitoki (1764–1804) was chief of the Edo National Astronomical Observatory at Edo, Japan, from 1795 to 1804. He mainly studied positional astronomy, devising a new calendar computation method, "Kansei reki", with Hazama Shigetomi. ||
|-id=366
| 12366 Luisapla || || Luisa Pla, Spanish-Venezuelan teacher of French, born in Villarrobledo co-founder (with her husband, Manuel Sanchez Jordan) of the Lope de Vega high school in Valencia, founder of Spanish history studies at La Universidad de Carabobo ||
|-id=367
| 12367 Ourinhos || || Ourinhos, São Paulo, Brazil ||
|-id=368
| 12368 Mutsaers || || Charlotte Mutsaers, Dutch writer † ||
|-id=369
| 12369 Pirandello || || Luigi Pirandello (1867–1936), a Sicilian writer. ||
|-id=370
| 12370 Kageyasu || || Takahashi Kageyasu (1785–1829) was the chief astronomer of the shogunal government of Japan. He was among the first to compile and publish maps of the world and East Asia based on the latest knowledge then available in scientific geography. He also established the book office of Western culture in 1811. ||
|-id=372
| 12372 Kagesuke || 1994 JF || Shibukawa Kagesuke (1787–1856), chief of the Edo National Astronomical Observatory in Edo, Japan, from 1809 to 1856. ||
|-id=373
| 12373 Lancearmstrong || || Lance Armstrong (born 1971), an American cyclist and cancer survivor. ||
|-id=374
| 12374 Rakhat || || Rakhat, a planet with the first known extraterrestrial life in the novel The Sparrow, by Mary Doria Russell. First contact is established when a group of specialists organized by Jesuits is sent to the planet. ||
|-id=376
| 12376 Cochabamba || || Cochabamba, a city in Bolivia. ||
|-id=378
| 12378 Johnston || || David Macarthur Johnston (1928–2022), an Australian farmer from Baradine, who was a birdwatcher in the Pilliga forest and an organizer of bird surveys. ||
|-id=379
| 12379 Thulin || || Ingrid Thulin (1929–2004), a Swedish screen actor. ||
|-id=380
| 12380 Sciascia || || Leonardo Sciascia (1921–1989), a Sicilian novelist and polemicist. ||
|-id=381
| 12381 Hugoclaus || || Hugo Claus, Flemish writer. ||
|-id=382
| 12382 Niagara Falls || || Niagara Falls † ||
|-id=383
| 12383 Eboshi || || Eboshi-iwa (also known as Uba Shima), a large hat-shaped rock visible from the coast, symbol of Southern Beach of Chigasaki, Kanagawa prefecture ||
|-id=384
| 12384 Luigimartella || || Luigi Martella (born 1956), a well-known Italian amateur astronomer. ||
|-id=386
| 12386 Nikolova || || Simona Rumenova Nikolova (born 1971), a graduate student at the University of Western Ontario, calculated comet data at the Royal Astronomical Observatory in Sofia and studied at the University of Regina, Saskatchewan. ||
|-id=387
| 12387 Tomokofujiwara || || Tomoko Fujiwara (born 1975) is an assistant professor at the Kyushu University. Her main interest consists of the long-term variability of stars and historical records of astronomy. She has been a member of IAU Commission 27 since 2006. The name was suggested by M. Hirai and K. Hurukawa. ||
|-id=388
| 12388 Kikunokai || || The traditional dance troupe "Kikunokai" was established in 1972 by Michiyo Hata (Onoe Kikunori). The Kikunokai has created numerous dance numbers that are based on classical Japanese dance and have been performed in many countries. ||
|-id=391
| 12391 Ecoadachi || || Adachi Ward (Eco-Adachi Ward), one of 23 wards of Tokyo, known for its environmentalism ||
|-id=395
| 12395 Richnelson || || Richard Nelson (born 1966) is well known for his work in developing computer simulations for n -body systems and applying these to planet formation, both in our solar system and in other systems. ||
|-id=396
| 12396 Amyphillips || || Amy Phillips (born 1956) received her MS in Optical Sciences from the University of Arizona. She has studied issues in remote sensing and properties of optical materials in harsh environments. She has also worked in the field of intellectual property, and is active in rural and suburban land-use issues. ||
|-id=397
| 12397 Peterbrown || || Peter Gordon Brown (born 1970) studied at the University of Alberta and the University of Western Ontario and was appointed to the faculty of the latter. His specialties are meteoroid streams, meteor analysis and meteorite recovery. ||
|-id=398
| 12398 Pickhardt || || Wilhelm Pickhardt (born 1923) studied geology at the Rheinische-Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität in Bonn. He conducted research at the Mining Research Institute for Bituminous Coal and held an adjunct professorship at the Technical University of Berlin. ||
|-id=399
| 12399 Bartolini || 1995 OD || Corrado Bartolini (born 1941), professor at the University of Bologna since 1970, has focused his interests on contact spectrophotometric binaries, RR Lyrae and magnetic stars and x-ray binaries. With colleagues, he was successful in 1997 in observing the first optical counterpart of a \gamma -ray burst. ||
|-id=400
| 12400 Katumaru || || Katumaru Okuni (born 1932), the younger brother of the discoverer. ||
|}
12401–12500
|-
| 12401 Tucholsky || || Kurt Tucholsky (1890–1935), a German author who was a masterly critic of philistinism, nationalism, militarism and corruptibility. He wrote poems, chansons and stories. His best-known novels were Rheinsberg and Schloá Gripsholm. In 1933, he was expatriated from his homeland and later committed suicide. ||
|-id=405
| 12405 Nespoli || 1995 RK || Paolo Angelo Nespoli, Italian Mission Specialist astronaut ||
|-id=406
| 12406 Zvíkov || || Zvíkov Castle, Czech Republic † ||
|-id=407
| 12407 Riccardi || || The historian of mathematics Pietro Riccardi (1828–1898) wrote the monumental work Biblioteca Matematica italiana dall'origine della stampa ai primi anni del XIX secolo, an annotated bibliography of all the books published by Italian scientists during the nineteenth century ||
|-id=408
| 12408 Fujioka || || Hiroshi Fujioka (born 1946), born in Kuma Town, is an actor, martial artist, and a dedicated volunteer in Iraq, Ethiopia and Cambodia. Since his debut in 1970, he has starred in more than 20 movies and a number of TV dramas, including the most popular Japanese television program in the 1970s, Kamen Rider ||
|-id=409
| 12409 Bukovanská || || Marcela Bukovanská (born 1935), a research worker in meteoritics, was head of the department of mineralogy and petrology of the National Museum in Prague. Name suggested by M. Šolc. ||
|-id=410
| 12410 Donald Duck || || Donald Duck, the famous character of Walt Disney's cartoons, has amused generations of children and adults alike ||
|-id=411
| 12411 Tannokayo || || Kayo Tanno, Japanese elementary school teacher and science educator, who worked on the staff of the Saga prefecture Space and Science Museum during 2002–2006 ||
|-id=412
| 12412 Muchisachie || || Muchi Sachie, Japanese music teacher ||
|-id=413
| 12413 Johnnyweir || || Johnny Weir (born July 2, 1984), American athlete, figure-skating champion and Olympian, talented in many spheres of artistic endeavor ||
|-id=414
| 12414 Bure || || Pavel Bure, ice hockey player † ||
|-id=415
| 12415 Wakatatakayo || || Takayo Wakata, mother of the Japanese astronaut Koichi Wakata ||
|-id=418
| 12418 Tongling || || Tongling, Anhui ||
|-id=421
| 12421 Zhenya || || Eugenia Krysina (born 1952), a chemist who lives in Moscow, is a friend of the discoverer and displays a keen interest in astronomy, especially in minor planets. Zhenya is the diminutive form of Eugenia ||
|-id=423
| 12423 Slotin || || Louis Slotin, Canadian physicist and chemist † ||
|-id=426
| 12426 Racquetball || || Racquetball evolved from the Mayan Meso American ball game played throughout Central America from 2000 B.C. through 1500 A.D. Today the sport is played on a four-wall court by two to four players with a short racquet and a small rubber ball. John Africano, an AMOS team member, has a passion for playing the game. ||
|-id=431
| 12431 Webster || || Alan Reginald Webster (born 1939), a professor in the department of electrical and computer engineering at the University of Western Ontario, has research interests that include meteor astronomy. ||
|-id=432
| 12432 Usuda || || The Usuda Deep Space Center of the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency, located in Saku city, Nagano prefecture, conducts command operations and receives telemetry and data from deep-space explorers such as Hayabusa and Kaguya. The site features a parabolic antenna of diameter 64 meters and weight 1980 tons ||
|-id=433
| 12433 Barbieri || || Giovanni Barbieri (born 1941) is an amateur astronomer in the Montelupo Group. ||
|-id=435
| 12435 Sudachi || 1996 BX || Citrus sudachi, a small, round, green citrus fruit that is a specialty of Tokushima prefecture, Japan ||
|-id=437
| 12437 Westlane || || Westlane Secondary School, Niagara Falls, Ontario, Canada † ||
|-id=439
| 12439 Okasaki || || During the past three decades amateur astronomer Kiyomi Okasaki (born 1950) has discovered two comets and three supernovae at his observatory in Kahoku, Yamagata prefecture ||
|-id=440
| 12440 Koshigayaboshi || || Koshigayaboshi, "the star of Koshigaya", southeast Saitama prefecture, Japan, in honour of the city's fiftieth anniversary in 2008 ||
|-id=442
| 12442 Beltramemass || || Massimiliano Beltrame (1942–2001) taught topography and the science of construction at a high school in Terni. He was also an amateur astronomer specializing in photography. An astronomy club in Terni has been named in his memory ||
|-id=443
| 12443 Paulsydney || || With the gracious support of his family, Paul Sydney, a physicist on the AMOS team, has dedicated many long hours to demonstrating that U.S. Air Force assets could be applied successfully to following up minor planets. In return, the Air Force has benefited significantly from collaboration with the astronomical community ||
|-id=444
| 12444 Prothoon || || Prothoon was a Trojan warrior who was killed by Teucer in the Trojan War ||
|-id=445
| 12445 Sirataka || || The town of Sirataka, where the discoverer was born, is located in the southern part of Yamagata prefecture. The town is famous for its textile industry and weir-fishing ||
|-id=446
| 12446 Juliabryant || || Australian astrophysicist Julia Bryant (born 1971) is recognized for her past, present and future contributions to science, family and friendship ||
|-id=447
| 12447 Yatescup || || Yates Cup, Canadian sports trophy † ||
|-id=448
| 12448 Mr. Tompkins || || Mr. Tompkins, character from George Gamow's books † ||
|-id=456
| 12456 Genichiaraki || || Genichi Araki (born 1954) is an amateur astronomer and a science teacher in Junior High School. He was one of the discoverers of comet C/1983 H1 (IRAS-Araki-Alcock) ||
|-id=460
| 12460 Mando || || Mando, the largest annual festival in Iruma, Saitama prefecture, involves thousands of lantern lights. Since 1978 the Mando Festival has been conducted with the coordinated efforts of the citizenry and administration under a theme of cooperation and communication ||
|-id=464
| 12464 Manhattan || || Manhattan, is the original island borough of New York City, which was obtained from the Indians by the Dutch in 1626. It became New York under the English in 1664, and is the commercial and cultural heart of the city. ||
|-id=465
| 12465 Perth Amboy || || The U.S. city of Perth Amboy, New Jersey city, was settled in 1683 and incorporated in 1718. It is an important industrial city and port of entry with a fine harbor near New York City. ||
|-id=468
| 12468 Zachotín || || Zachotín, Czech Republic † ||
|-id=469
| 12469 Katsuura || || Katsuura is a city in Chiba prefecture, where one can enjoy the wide ocean and forested hills. The Katsuura Tracking and Communication Station of the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency is located on a hill to conduct command operations and receive telemetry from satellites that observe the earth or the moon ||
|-id=470
| 12470 Pinotti || || Roberto Pinotti (born 1944), after getting his degree in political science in 1972, became a writer and amateur astronomer of the Montelupo Group ||
|-id=471
| 12471 Larryscherr || || Lawrence Scherr (born 1949), an optical engineer and lens designer, designed the optics for the NEAT/Oschin instrument. He has designed, built, tested or analyzed stray light for prototype medical instruments, intraocular lenses, scaterometers, large surveillance telescopes, automated optical test systems and Mars camera lenses ||
|-id=472
| 12472 Samadhi || || Samadhi Hindu/Buddhist concept ||
|-id=473
| 12473 Levi-Civita || || Tullio Levi-Civita (1873–1941), an Italian mathematician who developed and extended the tensor calculus, originally formulated by Ricci, which plays a central role in the theory of general relativity and in differential geometry. In 1938 Levi-Civita was removed from his professorship at the University of Rome because of his being Jewish. ||
|-id=477
| 12477 Haiku || || The Haiku, Japanese poetic form ||
|-id=478
| 12478 Suzukiseiji || || Seiji Suzuki (born 1933), a retired teacher, is secretary of the Yamagata Astronomers Liaison Conference (since 1997) and the Yamagata Astronomers Club ||
|-id=479
| 12479 Ohshimaosamu || || Osamu Ohshima (born 1954) is a high school teacher and one of Japan's leading observers of variable stars. He was a staff member at Bisei Astronomical Observatory and played an important role in the founding of the observatory, using his talent in mechanical and computer technology ||
|-id=481
| 12481 Streuvels || || Stijn Streuvels, Flemish writer † ||
|-id=482
| 12482 Pajka || || Paula Pravdová (born 1990) is the only daughter of the second discoverer. She inherited many of her father's interests (playing musical instruments, cycling, swimming, diving, singing, joking) and that is why she was very popular when visiting Modra Observatory. Pajka is her familiar name. ||
|-id=485
| 12485 Jenniferharris || || Jennifer Harris Trosper (born 1968) led the Mars Pathfinder Surface Operations Test program and was Flight Director for Mars Pathfinder when it landed on 1997 July 4 ||
|-id=490
| 12490 Leiden || || Leiden, Netherlands, seat of the University of Leiden † ||
|-id=491
| 12491 Musschenbroek || || Pieter van Musschenbroek, Dutch scientist, inventor of the Leyden jar † ||
|-id=492
| 12492 Tanais || || Tanais, ancient Greek name of the Don river ||
|-id=493
| 12493 Minkowski || || Hermann Minkowski (1864–1909) was awarded a prestigious prize from the Paris Academy of Sciences while still a student. He was Einstein's teacher at Zurich and later developed the concept of four-dimensional space-time—the mathematical foundation of the special theory of relativity. ||
|-id=494
| 12494 Doughamilton || || Douglas P. Hamilton (born 1/1/1966) is a dynamicist specializing in small particles in the solar system. His major contributions involve motions and resonances when several different forces are involved, work for which he received the American Astronomical Society's Urey prize in 1999. The name was suggested by M. A'Hearn. ||
|-id=496
| 12496 Ekholm || || Andreas G. Ekholm (1975–2001) was a planetary scientist who contributed to the fields of impact cratering processes, geophysics of icy satellites, and photometry of KBOs and Centaurs. He was also active in humanitarian causes before his premature death in an automobile accident in his native Sweden. ||
|-id=497
| 12497 Ekkehard || || Ekkehard Kührt (born 1954) is the head of the Asteroids and Comets Department of the DLR institute of Planetary Research. He has been active in minor bodies research for decades and was involved in many space missions. Ekkehard has been the project leader of the DLR contributions for the instruments of the Rosetta mission. ||
|-id=498
| 12498 Dragesco || || Jean Dragesco (born 1920) is an accomplished biologist and amateur astronomer. For many years, using various telescopes, he worked in Africa, where he made exquisite high-resolution photographs of the solar system that have inspired many amateur astronomers around the world. ||
|-id=500
| 12500 Desngai || || Desmond Ngai (born 1985), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|}
12501–12600
|-
| 12501 Nord || || Ashley Lynne Nord (born 1985), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=504
| 12504 Nuest || || Jennifer Elizabeth Nuest (born 1985), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=506
| 12506 Pariser || || Andrew Robert Pariser (born 1985), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=509
| 12509 Pathak || || Madhav Dilip Pathak (born 1987), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=511
| 12511 Patil || || Reshma Shivaputrappa Patil (born 1985), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=512
| 12512 Split || || Split is the largest Dalmatian city and the second-largest urban center in Croatia. Located on the shores of the eastern Adriatic Sea, it is a vital link to the numerous surrounding islands. The historic city of Split is built around the "Palace of Diocletian", the world's best preserved Roman palace ||
|-id=513
| 12513 Niven || || Ivan M. Niven, Canadian-American mathematician † ||
|-id=514
| 12514 Schommer || || Robert Schommer, an astronomer at Cerro Tololo InterAmerican Observatory. ||
|-id=515
| 12515 Suiseki || || Literally "Water-Stone" in Japanese, Suiseki is the Japanese art form of stone appreciation. ||
|-id=517
| 12517 Grayzeck || || Edwin John Grayzeck, American astronomer, Archive Manager, Small Bodies Node of the Planetary Data System, Department of Astronomy, University of Maryland, College Park † ||
|-id=519
| 12519 Pullen || || Sarah Adele Pullen (born 1985), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=522
| 12522 Rara || || Prem Vilas Fortran M. Rara, Filipino, an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=524
| 12524 Conscience || || Hendrik Conscience (1812–1883), a founder of Flemish literature. ||
|-id=526
| 12526 de Coninck || || Herman de Coninck (1944–1997), a Flemish poet and critic. ||
|-id=527
| 12527 Anneraugh || || Anne C. Raugh (born 1962), an astronomer and informatician worked as a programmer for the COBE mission and for more than a decade has been the lead applications programmer for the Small Bodies Node of NASA's Planetary Data System at the University of Maryland. ||
|-id=529
| 12529 Reighard || || Chelsea Lynne Reighard (born 1986), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=530
| 12530 Richardson || || Aaron Cole Richardson (born 1984), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=533
| 12533 Edmond || 1998 LA || Edmond, a city in central Oklahoma, was founded on 1889 Apr. 22 in the first of the Oklahoma land runs. ||
|-id=534
| 12534 Janhoet || || Jan Hoet (1936–2014), a Belgian art curator, has studied art history and archeology. In 1975 he was appointed director of the Museum of Contemporary Art in Ghent. Well known from his exposition Documenta IX (Düsseldorf, 1992), he has been responsible for several expositions in Europe, Japan and Canada. ||
|-id=537
| 12537 Kendriddle || || Kendra LeeAnn Riddle (born 1983), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=539
| 12539 Chaikin || || Andrew L. Chaikin (born 1956), a renowned author and space historian whose interests include the Apollo program. His landmark book A Man on the Moon served as the basis for the HBO miniseries From the Earth to the Moon, which dramatized the first lunar exploration. ||
|-id=540
| 12540 Picander || || Picander, pseudonym of Christian Friedrich Henrici (1700–1764), was one of Bach's most important librettists. ||
|-id=541
| 12541 Makarska || || Makarska is a town located on a horseshoe-shaped bay between the Biokovo mountains and the Adriatic Sea in the Croatian region of Dalmatia. It is the center of the Makarska riviera and noted for its palm-fringed promenade. Its Franciscan monastery houses a renowned seashell collection ||
|-id=542
| 12542 Laver || || Rodney Laver (born 1938), a tennis player from the discoverer's home state of Queensland and widely regarded as one of the greats of the game. ||
|-id=548
| 12548 Erinriley || || Erin Kathleen Riley (born 1983), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=553
| 12553 Aaronritter || || Aaron M. Ritter (born 1986), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=556
| 12556 Kyrobinson || || Kylan Thomas Robinson (born 1985), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=557
| 12557 Caracol || || "El Caracol" at Chichén Itza in Yucatán, Mexico, has been described as probably the most famous of all the astronomically related buildings in ancient Mesoamerica. ||
|-id=561
| 12561 Howard || || Ron Howard American Actor, director, producer. ||
|-id=562
| 12562 Briangrazer || || Brian Grazer American Producer. ||
|-id=564
| 12564 Ikeller || || Ingeborg Bickel-Keller (born 1941), the discoverer's wife. ||
|-id=565
| 12565 Khege || || Keith Hege (born 1932), of Steward Observatory, University of Arizona, is an expert in high angular resolution astronomy and instrumentation. ||
|-id=566
| 12566 Derichardson || || Derek C. Richardson (born 1968), an expert on computational techniques of the University of Maryland, has made major contributions to the study of rubble piles, particularly their tidal distortion and their collisions. He is also applying his codes to the formation of planets. The name was suggested by M. F. A'Hearn and P. Michel. ||
|-id=567
| 12567 Herreweghe || || Philippe Herreweghe, Belgian conductor. ||
|-id=568
| 12568 Kuffner || || Moriz von Kuffner (1854–1939), Austrian brewer, alpinist and founder of the Kuffner Observatory in Vienna, Austria ||
|-id=572
| 12572 Sadegh || || Cameron Sadegh (born 1984), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=574
| 12574 LONEOS || 1999 RT || Lowell Observatory Near-Earth-Object Search (LONEOS). ||
|-id=575
| 12575 Palmaria || || Palmaria is the most important island in the gulf of La Spezia, famous for its old quarry of a rare golden marble nicknamed "Portoro". ||
|-id=576
| 12576 Oresme || || Nicole Oresme(c. 1323 – 1382), bishop of Lisieux, conceived the representation of time-varying quantities by two-dimensional graphs, using the latitude-longitude analogy. ||
|-id=577
| 12577 Samra || || Shamsher Singh Samra (born 1986), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=578
| 12578 Bensaur || || Benjamin Paul Saur (born 1983), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=579
| 12579 Ceva || || The brothers Giovanni (1647–1734) and Tommaso (1648–1737) Ceva were Italian mathematicians interested in geometry and physics. ||
|-id=580
| 12580 Antonini || || Pierre Antonini a French amateur astronomer, discoverer of minor planets and supernovae at his private Bedoin observatory ||
|-id=581
| 12581 Rovinj || || Rovinj is a city on the western coast of the Istrian peninsula. It was initially built on an island but connected to the mainland in the eighteenth century. Saint Euphemia's basilica overlooks the medieval city and its 22 offshore islands ||
|-id=583
| 12583 Buckjean || || the discoverer's father, a railroad conductor, and his mother, a registered nurse. ||
|-id=584
| 12584 Zeljkoandreic || || Željko Andreić (born 1957), a renowned Croatian amateur astronomer and promoter of astronomy. ||
|-id=585
| 12585 Katschwarz || || Kathleen Alice Schwarz (born 1984), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=593
| 12593 Shashlov || || Anthon Michailovich Shashlov (born 1986), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=595
| 12595 Amandashaw || || Amanda Bryce Shaw (born 1985), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=596
| 12596 Shukla || || Kavita M. Shukla (born 1984), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=598
| 12598 Sierra || || Elizabeth Sierra (born 1985), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=599
| 12599 Singhal || || Akshat Singhal (born 1985), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|}
12601–12700
|-
| 12601 Tiffanyswann || || Tiffany Nichole Swann (born 1985), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=602
| 12602 Tammytam || || Tammy Tam (born 1985), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=603
| 12603 Tanchunghee || || Tan Chun Ghee (born 1984), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=604
| 12604 Lisatate || || Lisa Michelle Tate (born 1986), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=606
| 12606 Apuleius || 2043 P-L || Lucius Apuleius, 2nd-century Roman writer and orator ||
|-id=607
| 12607 Alcaeus || 2058 P-L || Alcaeus, 7th–6th-century B.C. Greek poet ||
|-id=608
| 12608 Aesop || 2091 P-L || Aesop (Herodotus Aisopos of Sardes), 6th-century B.C. Greek slave who won his freedom with his fine fables ||
|-id=609
| 12609 Apollodoros || 2155 P-L || Apollodoros of Athens, 2nd-century B.C. Greek scholar and stoic, author of a much used Chronika ||
|-id=610
| 12610 Hãfez || 2551 P-L || Schamsoddin Mohammed Hãfez (1324–1390) was a Persian poet. Hãfez means "a person who knows The Koran by heart". He wrote in Persian and Arabic. When the Mongolians came to Persia they respected Hãfez. His lyric poetry is admired in Europe, and it influenced Goethe in his West-östlicher Divan. ||
|-id=611
| 12611 Ingres || 2555 P-L || Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres, 18th–19th-century French painter ||
|-id=612
| 12612 Daumier || 2592 P-L || Honoré Daumier, 19th-century French painter and lithographer ||
|-id=613
| 12613 Hogarth || 4024 P-L || William Hogarth, 18th-century English painter and copper-plate engraver ||
|-id=614
| 12614 Hokusai || 4119 P-L || Katsushika Hokusai, 18th–19th-century Japanese wood-carver and painter ||
|-id=615
| 12615 Mendesdeleon || 4626 P-L || Pablo Mendes de Leon (born 1954) has directed the International Institute of Air and Space Law since its creation in 1985 and is a recognized expert in the field. He was recently appointed professor of Air and Space Law at the University of Leiden and delivered his inaugural lecture on 2009 Apr. 17 ||
|-id=616
| 12616 Lochner || 4874 P-L || Stephan Lochner, 15th-century German painter of the Cologne school ||
|-id=617
| 12617 Angelusilesius || 5568 P-L || Angelus Silesius (Johannes Scheffler), 17th-century German baroque poet ||
|-id=618
| 12618 Cellarius || 6217 P-L || Andreas Cellarius (c. 1596–1665), a German schoolmaster from Neuhausen near Worms, settled in Amsterdam in the early 1620s, becoming rector of the Latin School in Hoorn in 1637. His Harmonia Macrocosmica, published 1660 in Amsterdam, ranks amongst the most spectacular celestial atlases of the seventeenth century ||
|-id=619
| 12619 Anubelshunu || 6242 P-L || Anu Belshunu (249 B.C.-c. 185 B.C.) was lamentation priest and interpreter of the astrological omen series Enuma Anu Enlil at the Temple of Anu in Uruk. A collection of astrological cuneiform tablets from his library contains some of the earliest realistic depictions of the Babylonian constellations ||
|-id=620
| 12620 Simaqian || 6335 P-L || Sima Qian (c. 145 B.C.-c. 85 B.C.) was a Chinese historian, counselor and court astrologer of the Han emperor Wu Di. He wrote a treatise on the Chinese calendar. His Shiji ("Records of the Grand Historian") contains the earliest systematical description of the Chinese constellations ||
|-id=621
| 12621 Alsufi || 6585 P-L || The Persian astronomer Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi (Azophi; 903–986) worked in Isfahan. His influential star atlas, completed around 964 and based on both Ptolemy's Almagest and pre-Islamic star lore, contains the earliest description of the Andromeda Galaxy, M 31 ||
|-id=622
| 12622 Doppelmayr || 6614 P-L || German mathematician, astronomer and cartographer Johann Gabriel Doppelmayr (1677–1750) worked in Nürnberg. His Atlas Coelestis, published in 1742, was one of the major celestial atlases of the eighteenth century ||
|-id=623
| 12623 Tawaddud || 9544 P-L || A fictional character from the Arabian or 1001 Nights, Tawaddud was a talented slave-girl from Baghdad whose knowledge of astronomy, medicine and theology was superior to that of the best scholars in the court of Caliph Harun al-Rashid (who ruled from 786 to 809). The name was suggested by R. H. van Gent ||
|-id=624
| 12624 Mariacunitia || 9565 P-L || Maria Cunitia (c. 1604–1664), the daughter of a Polish physician, taught herself astronomy, mathematics, medicine and history. In 1650 she published the Urania Propitia, a collection of astronomical tables based on Kepler's Rudolphine Tables. The name was suggested by R. H. van Gent ||
|-id=625
| 12625 Koopman || 9578 P-L || Elizabetha Koopman (1647–1693), daughter of a Dutch merchant, was the second wife of Polish astronomer Johannes Hevelius. She assisted her husband with his astronomical observations, and after his death in 1687 she prepared his star atlas and catalogue for publication. The name was suggested by R. H. van Gent ||
|-id=626
| 12626 Timmerman || 1116 T-1 || Petronella Johanna de Timmerman (1724–1786), a Dutch poetess who was educated in astronomy and mathematics at the observatory of Jan de Munck in Middelburg. In 1769 she married the Utrecht astronomer Jan Frederik Hennert and assisted him in his work. The name was suggested by R. H. van Gent ||
|-id=627
| 12627 Maryedwards || 1230 T-1 || Mary Edwards (c. 1750–1815), of Ludlow, Shropshire, was a skillful mathematical and astronomical computer. From 1773 until her death she performed most of the astronomical computations necessary for the preparation of the Nautical Almanac. The name was suggested by R. H. van Gent ||
|-id=628
| 12628 Ackworthorr || 2120 T-1 || Mary Ackworth Orr (1867–1949), wife of the solar physicist and Kodaikanal Observatory director John Evershed, in 1913 published a detailed study of the numerous astronomical allusions in the works of the Italian poet Dante Alighieri. The name was suggested by R. H. van Gent ||
|-id=629
| 12629 Jandeboer || 2168 T-1 || Jan Allard de Boer (born 1943) has been secretary of the Royal Dutch amateur society for meteorology and astronomy (NVWS) since 1995. He has done much to initiate contact between amateurs and professionals. Name suggested by A. v. d. Brugge and H. van Woerden ||
|-id=630
| 12630 Verstappen || 3033 T-1 || René Verstappen (born 1948) has been comptroller of the Dutch center for dissemination of information on astronomy, space science and meteorology for 36 years. He has done much for Dutch amateur astronomers. Name suggested by A. v. d. Brugge and H. van Woerden ||
|-id=631
| 12631 Mariekebaan || 3051 T-1 || Marieke Baan (born 1961), a Dutch public information officer. In 2005 she became press officer of the Dutch Research School for Astronomy. As such, she promotes astronomy through press releases, media events, educational activities and other forms of public outreach. ||
|-id=632
| 12632 Mignonette || 3105 T-1 || Mignonette Saavedra (born 1931), Chilean psychologist, studied at Smith College and Yale. In her professional life she put emphasis on neuro-psychology. She retired from the chair of the Psychology department at the University of Chile, Santiago in 2007. ||
|-id=633
| 12633 Warmenhoven || 3119 T-1 || Adrie Warmenhoven (born 1961), Dutch astronomy popularizer and educator. He is director of the 18th-century mechanical Eise Eisinga Planetarium in Franeker, The Netherlands. ||
|-id=634
| 12634 LOFAR || 3178 T-1 || LOFAR (LOw-Frequency ARray), a novel radio telescope, proposed by Leiden astronomer George Miley and inaugurated in 2010. ||
|-id=635
| 12635 Hennylamers || 4220 T-1 || Henny Lamers (born 1941), a Dutch astrophysicist, studied the evolution and mass loss of the most massive stars. He also gave many dozens of popular astronomy lectures for a wide variety of audiences, including children. ||
|-id=636
| 12636 Padrielli || 4854 T-1 || Lucia Padrielli (1943–2003), an Italian radio-astronomer who was closely involved in the "northern cross" radio telescope and in VLBI observations. During her career sheparticipated actively in Italian research policy, and she was president of IAU Commission 40 (Radio Astronomy). ||
|-id=637
| 12637 Gustavleonhardt || 1053 T-2 || Gustav Leonhardt (1928–2012), Dutch harpsichord player and conductor. He was the founder of the Leonhardt Consort, dedicated to performing baroque music on period instruments. In 1971, together with N. Harnoncourt and his Concentus Musicus, Leonhardt initiated the first complete recording of Bach's Cantatas. ||
|-id=638
| 12638 Fransbrüggen || 1063 T-2 || Frans Brüggen (born 1934) is a Dutch recorder player and conductor. He was the founder of the Orchestra of the Eighteenth Century, which is dedicated to performing classical music as authentically as possible. In 2012 he was awarded the Edison Classical Music Award ||
|-id=639
| 12639 Tonkoopman || 1105 T-2 || Ton Koopman (born 1944) is a Dutch harpsichord player and conductor, specializing in Baroque music. He founded the Amsterdam Baroque Orchestra in 1979, and the Amsterdam Baroque Choir in 1993. With these ensembles, he has given renowned performances of Bach's St. Matthew's Passion ||
|-id=640
| 12640 Reinbertdeleeuw || 1231 T-2 || Reinbert de Leeuw (born 1938), a Dutch conductor, pianist and composer, is devoted to performing and recording classical music composed after 1900, preferably in the presence of the composer. In 1974 he founded the Schoenberg Ensemble. ||
|-id=641
| 12641 Hubertushenrichs || 1310 T-2 || Hubertus Frederik Henrichs (born 1949), a Dutch astronomer. ||
|-id=642
| 12642 Davidjansen || 1348 T-2 || David Jona Jansen (born 1968), a Dutch astronomer in Leiden. ||
|-id=643
| 12643 Henkolthof || 3180 T-2 || Henk Olthof (born 1944), a Dutch astronomer from Groningen. ||
|-id=644
| 12644 Robertwielinga || 3285 T-2 || Robert Wielinga (born 1962) is a Dutch physics teacher, active amateur astronomer and popularizer of astronomy. He has been head of the public observatory Sonnenborgh in Utrecht, a member of the European Association for Astronomy Education (EAAE) and secretary of the EAAE Board. ||
|-id=645
| 12645 Jacobrosales || 4240 T-2 || Jacob Rosales (born 1967) of Jalisco, Mexico, and his son, Jacob (Coby) Rosales Chase (born 1996) by Daniel W. E. Green, a close family friend. Jacob senior is an expert musician and teacher, specializing in violin and other stringed instruments; Coby is a student at Case Western Reserve University. ||
|-id=646
| 12646 Avercamp || 5175 T-2 || Hendrick Avercamp (1585–1634), Dutch painter who specialized in painting the Netherlands in winter during the time that is now known as the Little Ice Age. Many of Avercamp's paintings feature people ice skating on frozen lakes. Name suggested by W. A. Fröger ||
|-id=647
| 12647 Pauluspotter || 5332 T-2 || Paulus Potter (1625–1654) was a Dutch Golden Age painter who painted mostly farm scenes and animals. His realistic paintings put the animals in the forefront so they contrasted against the background and give them a lively appearance. His most famous painting is The Young Bull (c. 1647). Name suggested by W. A. Fröger ||
|-id=648
| 12648 Ibarbourou || 1135 T-3 || Uruguayan poet and writer Juana Fernández Morales de Ibarbourou (1892–1979) was one of the most popular South American poets. Her poems are notable for her identification of her feelings with nature around her. ||
|-id=649
| 12649 Ascanios || 2035 T-3 || Ascanios, the son of Aeneas. He is also named Julus and became under this name the ancestor of the Julius family. ||
|-id=650
| 12650 de Vries || 2247 T-3 || Martien de Vries (born 1932) is a Dutch astronomer who was part of a small group who developed the first Dutch 1-m telescope on La Silla. His main area of focus was the development and adjustment of the photometer, which he himself used for infrared star measurements. ||
|-id=651
| 12651 Frenkel || 2268 T-3 || Daan Frenkel (born 1948) is a leading Dutch scientist who has contributed to the development of Monte Carlo and Molecular Dynamics simulation methods that led to a greater understanding of the phase behavior of molecular systems. He shed light on the state of carbon in stars and has launched the careers of many young researchers. ||
|-id=652
| 12652 Groningen || 2622 T-3 || Groningen is a city in north-east Netherlands. It is home to the Kapteyn Astronomical Institute of the University of Groningen. ||
|-id=653
| 12653 van der Klis || 2664 T-3 || Michiel van der Klis (born 1953) is a Dutch astronomer and expert on the properties of neutron stars and black holes. He discovered quasi-periodic oscillations in X-ray binaries. He is the former Director of the Anton Pannekoek Institute in Amsterdam, and the winner of the Bruno Rossi prize (1987) and the Spinoza award (2004). ||
|-id=654
| 12654 Heinofalcke || 4118 T-3 || Heino Falcke (born 1966) is a German radio astronomer working in Nijmegen (Netherlands), known for his innovative use of radio telescopes and his work on the Galactic Centre black hole. He received the Spinoza award in 2011. ||
|-id=655
| 12655 Benferinga || 5041 T-3 || Ben Feringa (born 1951) is a renowned Dutch chemist, who won the 2016 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the development of molecular machines. He is a passionate lecturer and public advocate for science. ||
|-id=656
| 12656 Gerdebruijn || 5170 T-3 || Ger de Bruijn (1948–2017) was a renowned Dutch radio astronomer who worked at Dwingeloo and Groningen. His expertise was key to the scientific and technical success of both the Westerbork Synthesis Radio Telescope and LOFAR. ||
|-id=657
| 12657 Bonch-Bruevich || || Aleksej Mikhajlovich Bonch-Bruevich (born 1916), a corresponding member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. ||
|-id=658
| 12658 Peiraios || 1973 SL || Peiraios, son of Klytios, was a friend of Telemachos. ||
|-id=659
| 12659 Schlegel || || The brothers August Wilhelm (1767–1845) and Friedrich (1772–1829) Schlegel, both famous writers, philologists and teachers at the University of Jena. ||
|-id=661
| 12661 Schelling || || Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling (1775–1854), professor of philosophy in University of Jena. ||
|-id=663
| 12663 Björkegren || || the family Björkegren, friends and neighbours of the discoverer's summer house on Gotland ||
|-id=664
| 12664 Sonisenia || || Sonya (Sofiya) and Senya (Semen) are charming and talented children of Mark Ziselevich Orlovskij, Kiev journalist, executive in the publishing trade and friend of the discoverer. ||
|-id=665
| 12665 Chriscarson || || Christopher A. Carson (born 1968) is the "Observatory (Spacecraft) Manager" of the Lucy mission. ||
|-id=668
| 12668 Scottstarin || || Scott Robin Starin (born 1975) is the "Guidance, Navigation, and Control Systems Engineer" of the Lucy mission. ||
|-id=669
| 12669 Emilybrisnehan || || Emily Walters Brisnehan (born 1987) is the "Instrument Accommodations Systems Engineer" of the Lucy mission. ||
|-id=670
| 12670 Passargea || || Michael Paul Oskar Passarge (born 1950), a prominent German amateur astronomer. ||
|-id=671
| 12671 Thörnqvist || 1980 FU || Owe Thörnqvist (born 1929), a singer-songwriter who has written a large number of songs, many about life in Uppsala, where he was born. ||
|-id=672
| 12672 Nygårdh || || Hans Cristian Nygårdh (born 1950) is one of the most prolific compilers of cross-words in Sweden. ||
|-id=673
| 12673 Kiselman || || Dan Kiselman (born 1963), a solar physicist, who was for many years the secretary of the Swedish Astronomical Society. ||
|-id=674
| 12674 Rybalka || || Anatolij Nikolaevich Rybalka (born 1939), an obstetrician and gynaecologist, professor at the Crimean Medical University. ||
|-id=675
| 12675 Chabot || || Anthony Chabot (1813–1888), one of the pioneering hydraulic engineers of the late nineteenth century and a developer of municipal water facilities. ||
|-id=676
| 12676 Dianemerline || || Diane Elizabeth Miller Merline (born 1959) iss an administrative coordinator for the Lucy mission. ||
|-id=677
| 12677 Gritsavage || || Anthony Thomas Gritsavage (born 1974) is the "Lead Quality Engineer" of the Lucy mission. ||
|-id=678
| 12678 Gerhardus || || Joerg Gerhardus (born 1968) is the "Payload Safety and Mission Assurance Manager" of the Lucy mission. ||
|-id=679
| 12679 Jamessimpson || || James Edward Simpson (born 1970) is the "L'Ralph Instrument Project Manager" of the Lucy mission. ||
|-id=680
| 12680 Bogdanovich || || Carrie C. L. Bogdanovich, American amateur astronomer who assisted in organizing the photographic glass plate archive of the 1.2-m Schmidt Oschin Telescope at Palomar Observatory ||
|-id=681
| 12681 Pevear || || Kristina Pevear (born 1982) is the "Systems Engineering Verification Engineer" of the Lucy mission. ||
|-id=682
| 12682 Kawada || || Kawada Oukou (1830–1896), a Japanese classical scholar born in Tamashima, Okayama prefecture. ||
|-id=686
| 12686 Bezuglyj || || Michail Yur'evich Bezuglyj (born 1963), a Ukrainian surgeon. ||
|-id=687
| 12687 de Valory || || Guy Louis Henri, Marquis de Valory (1692–1774), was a French aristocrat, well known from his friendship with Voltaire. He became an ambassador for the Prussian King Frederic II. ||
|-id=688
| 12688 Baekeland || || Leo Baekeland, Belgian-American chemist † ||
|-id=690
| 12690 Kochimiraikagaku || || Kochi-Mirai-Kagakukan (Kochi city future science museum) is to be built in the heart of the city and will open in 2017. It will be equipped with a planetarium and is expected to play a role for astronomy education for children ||
|-id=694
| 12694 Schleiermacher || || Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher (1768–1834), German philosopher and Protestant theologian. He worked in Halle and Berlin. He contributed to theology, ethics, science, hermeneutics and aesthetics. His main philosophical work is the Dialektik (1839), but he is also known for his translations of Plato. ||
|-id=695
| 12695 Utrecht || || Utrechtis a city in the Netherlands renowned for its university and the Sonnenborgh Observatory. In 1945, the famous Flemish astronomer Marcel Minnaert introduced the discipline of solar spectroscopy there. In 2004 the city celebrates its 750th anniversary. ||
|-id=696
| 12696 Camus || || Albert Camus, French novelist and essayist, known for his novels L'Etranger and La Peste. Camus won the 1957 Nobel prize for literature. He defended truth, moderation and justice, adhering to liberal humanism and rejecting the dogmatic aspects of both Christianity and marxism. ||
|-id=697
| 12697 Verhaeren || || Émile Verhaeren, the Belgian poet. Although writing exclusively in French, she took much inspiration from "Flanders Fields", glorifying the greatness of its painters and enjoying the pleasures of its common people. Other important themes in his work are human progress, brotherhood of man and his love for his wife. ||
|}
12701–12800
|-
| 12701 Chénier || 1990 GE || André Chénier (1762–1794), was a French poet who died on the scaffold. The son of a Greek mother and an atheist father, he was inspired by Lucretius' De rerum natura, Holbach's Système de la Nature and d´Alembert's Rêve to write his naturalistic poem Hermès. ||
|-id=702
| 12702 Panamarenko || || Panamarenko (Henri Van Herwegen, born 1940) is a famous Belgian artist, well known for the construction of bizarre flying machines, the main theme for his work, in remembrance of the myth of Icarus. It remains a mystery whether his creations can actually fly. ||
|-id=704
| 12704 Tupolev || || Andrey Nikolaevich Tupolev (1888–1972) is known worldwide as an airplane designer. More than 100 types of airplanes were created under his guidance, including the first passenger jet aircraft Tu–104. Among the many notable accomplishments of his airplanes was the flight from Moscow over the North Pole to the US in 1937. ||
|-id=706
| 12706 Tanezaki || || Tanezaki is a beach on the eastern side of Urado Bay in Kōchi Prefecture. It is a beautiful parkland dotted with pine trees and a great place for swimming and relaxation for Kochi city residents. ||
|-id=708
| 12708 Van Straten || || Henri Van Straten (1892–1944) is considered one of the greatest lithographers that Belgium ever produced. His work includes more than 900 prints, using several materials and exposing different themes. ||
|-id=709
| 12709 Bergen op Zoom || || The Dutch city of Berg op Zoom. The medieval city in the southern part of The Netherlands was a fortress held by the Geuzen during the Eighty Years' War. Unsuccessfully besieged by Farnese in 1587 and by Spinola in 1622, this famous rebellion is archived in the beautiful hymn Merck toch hoe sterck. ||
|-id=710
| 12710 Breda || || Breda, a city dating from 1252 in the southern part of The Netherlands, was captured in 1581 by the Spaniards during the Eighty Years' War. In 1590 the town fell again into the hands of Maurice of Nassau, using a handful of men hidden under the turf of a peat-boat. ||
|-id=711
| 12711 Tukmit || 1991 BB || Tukmit from Native American mythology. He is the Father Sky, and with Tomaiyavit, bore the First People in the creation story of the Luiseño people, a tribe in San Diego County, California. ||
|-id=714
| 12714 Alkimos || || Alcimus, mythological son of Ares, who was, together with Automedon, in charge of Achilles' horses during the Trojan War ||
|-id=715
| 12715 Godin || || Louis Godin (1704–1760), French astronomer who proposed to send expeditions to the equator and the polar sea to measure in both places an arc of one degree in order to find out the true shape of the Earth; in 1753 he joined La Condamine and Bouguer on an expedition to Peru to do this very thing ||
|-id=716
| 12716 Delft || || Delft, Netherlands. The city dating from 1246 is famous for its blue pottery, its typical Dutch canal system and its highly esteemed University of Technology. ||
|-id=718
| 12718 Le Gentil || || Guillaume Le Gentil (1725–1792) was a French astronomer who discovered several deep-sky objects. He traveled to India to observe the transits of Venus in 1761 and 1769. After his return to France in 1771, he published the Voyage dans les Mers de l´Inde, which contains a wealth of data on natural sciences. ||
|-id=719
| 12719 Pingré || || Alexandre Guy Pingré (1711–1796), a French astronomer, was sent by the king to the isle of Rodrigue in the Indian Ocean to observe the transit of Venus in 1761. Pingré is particularly known from his two-volume Traité historique et théorique des comètes (1783–1784). ||
|-id=722
| 12722 Petrarca || || Francesco Petrarca (1304–1374), an Italian poet famous for his Sonnets (1327–1374), which were dedicated to his muse, Laura. He was born in Arezzo and died in the Euganean Hills. Petrarca may be regarded as one of the greatest scholars of his age. His critical spirit made him the founder of Renaissance humanism. ||
|-id=727
| 12727 Cavendish || || Henry Cavendish (1731–1810) was a British eccentric and a physicist. In 1798 he successfully determined the universal constant of gravitation using an apparatus with two small lead spheres, attached on a fiber, and two large lead spheres, by measuring the angular deflection of the fiber. ||
|-id=729
| 12729 Berger || || Hans Berger (1873–1941) was a German medical doctor and professor of neurology and psychiatry in Jena. He invented the electroencephalograph, placing electrical recording equipment on the surface of the skull. ||
|-id=734
| 12734 Haruna || || Haruna Takahashi (born 1994), the eldest daughter of Japanese co-discoverer Atsushi Takahashi ||
|-id=738
| 12738 Satoshimiki || 1992 AL || Satoshi Hayakawa (born 1992) and Miki Hayakawa (born 1995) are children of the second discoverer and partners in his observations. ||
|-id=742
| 12742 Delisle || || Joseph-Nicolas Delisle (1688–1768), was a French astronomer who went to Russia, where he founded the observatory of St. Petersburg. His brother, Guillaume Delisle (1675–1726), reformed French cartography by introducing a method for fixing positions by astronomical observation. ||
|-id=746
| 12746 Yumeginga || || The name Yumeginga is derived from the nickname of the Space and Science Museum in Takeo, Saga prefecture. "Yume" means "dream", and "ginga" means "galaxy". Yumeginga will be celebrating its tenth anniversary in July 2009 ||
|-id=747
| 12747 Michageffert || || Michael Geffert (born 1953) is a German astrometrist at Bonn University working on the precession of stars in globular clusters. He has done valuable work on the Hipparcos input catalog. He is also a discoverer of minor planets. Src ||
|-id=749
| 12749 Odokaigan || 1993 CB || Odokaigan is a beach on the Otsuki Peninsula at the south-western tip of Shikoku, Japan. ||
|-id=750
| 12750 Berthollet || || Claude-Louis Berthollet (1748–1822), a French chemist who analyzed ammonia and prussic acid. However, his greatest contributions to chemistry were his studies on chemical affinity and his discovery of the reversibility of reactions (Essai de statique chimique, 1830). ||
|-id=751
| 12751 Kamihayashi || 1993 EU || Kamihayashi, Niigata prefecture, Japan. From its mountains to its coastline, Kamihayashi features an abundance of natural topography. ||
|-id=752
| 12752 Kvarnis || || Kvarnis is the nickname of a school in Uppsala's Kvarngärdet district which hosts a scale model of the Saturnian moon Enceladus, as part of Sweden's Solar System ||
|-id=753
| 12753 Povenmire || 1993 HE || Katie Povenmire, an observer of meteor showers, lunar grazes and minor-planet occultations for determining a body's diameter together with her husband Hal Povenmire. By profession, Katie is a coronary critical care nurse (Src) ||
|-id=755
| 12755 Balmer || || Johann J. Balmer (1825–1898), a Swiss mathematician and high-school teacher who examined the four visible lines in the spectrum of the hydrogen atom. By playing around with the numbers of their wavelengths, he finally put all four wavelengths into one equation, i.e., Balmer's formula. ||
|-id=757
| 12757 Yangtze || || Yangtze River in China. It is the third longest river in the world. With its source at the base of several glaciers in the eastern part of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, the river has great importance for understanding the cultural origins of South China. Humans have lived in the region for at least 27000 years. ||
|-id=758
| 12758 Kabudari || || Kabudari ("big tree" in Arawak), a native name from Palavecino, Lara, Venezuela ||
|-id=759
| 12759 Joule || || James Joule (1818–1889), an English physicist who attempted to demonstrate the unity of forces in nature. In 1840 he determined the mechanical equivalent of heat and showed that heat is produced by motion. ||
|-id=760
| 12760 Maxwell || || James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879), was a Scottish mathematician and physicist, working in the discipline of electromagnetism. In A treatise on Electricity and Magnetism (1873), the Maxwell equations appear for the first time. He suggested that the rings of Saturn are composed of small individual particles. ||
|-id=761
| 12761 Pauwels || || Thierry Pauwels (born 1957/58), Belgian astronomer, astrometrist, and a discoverer of minor planets at the Uccle Observatory ||
|-id=762
| 12762 Nadiavittor || || Nadia Vittor (1949–1989), aunt of astronomer Alberto Toso, one of the uncredited discoverers of the staff at Farra d'Isonzo Observatory ||
|-id=766
| 12766 Paschen || || Louis Paschen (1865–1947), a German physicist and an outstanding spectroscopist ||
|-id=769
| 12769 Kandakurenai || 1994 FF || Kurenai Kanda (born 1952), Japanese actress and professional storyteller, member of the executive board of the Japan Space Forum. ||
|-id=771
| 12771 Kimshin || || Kim Shin (born 1955), Japanese musician and synthesizer performer, whose compact disc Everlasting Space traveled into space with the shuttle Discovery in 2000 ||
|-id=773
| 12773 Lyman || || Theodore Lyman (1874–1954), an American physicist who discovered, in 1906, a group of lines in the spectrum of the hydrogen atom that now bears his name. In 1970, a lunar crater was named after him by the IAU. ||
|-id=774
| 12774 Pfund || || August Hermann Pfund (1879–1949), an American physicist and professor of optics at Baltimore University. He predicted correctly the very far infrared spectrum of the hydrogen atom (the Pfund series). ||
|-id=775
| 12775 Brackett || || Frederick Sumner Brackett (1896–1988), an American physicist who predicted the far-infrared lines of the hydrogen spectrum ||
|-id=776
| 12776 Reynolds || || Osbourne Reynolds (1842–1912), was a British engineer and physicist known for his work in fluid dynamics. He is remembered for the Reynolds' number (1883), which is defined by the difference between laminar and turbulent flow. He wrote a remarkable book: The Sub-mechanics of the Universe (1903). ||
|-id=777
| 12777 Manuel || || Manuel Antolini (1959–2002), the son of the first discoverer, Plinio Antolini. ||
|-id=780
| 12780 Salamony || || Sandra Noel Salamony (born 1962), American creative director for Sky Publishing (Sky & Telescope, Night Sky, Beautiful Universe) ||
|-id=782
| 12782 Mauersberger || || Brothers Rudolf (1889–1971) and Erhard (1903–1982) Mauersberger were renowned German musicians and choirmasters. ||
|-id=787
| 12787 Abetadashi || || Tadashi Abe (born 1943), a Japanese amateur astronomer who published a number of scientific papers and a thesis based on his discoveries. ||
|-id=788
| 12788 Shigeno || || Toramatsu Shigeno (1898–1986), Japanese amateur astronomer, and father-in-law of the discoverer, Tomimaru Okuni ||
|-id=789
| 12789 Salvadoraguirre || 1995 TX || Salvador Aguirre (born 1952) is an avid amateur astronomer from Hermosillo, Mexico. He has conducted many observations of variable stars, asteroid occultations, meteors and comets. He has also helped popularize and coordinate amateur astronomical research within Mexico ||
|-id=790
| 12790 Cernan || || Gene Cernan (1934–2017), American astronaut and commander of the Apollo 17 mission. He was the 11th person to walk on the Moon. ||
|-id=793
| 12793 Hosinokokai || || Hoshinokokai is a star-loving group that has been working voluntarily for 20 years at the astronomical observatory on Tawara Junior High School in Utsunomiya City, Tochigi Prefecture. ||
|-id=796
| 12796 Kamenrider || 1995 WF || Kamen Rider, a Japanese TV character, played by Hiroshi Fujioka, is a cyborg and a lover of justice. Ninety-eight stories of Kamen Rider were broadcast from 1971 to 1973. His fighting action and heroic stories fascinated all boys in Japan, including the discoverer. ||
|-id=799
| 12799 von Suttner || || Bertha von Suttner (1843–1914), Austrian novelist and one of the first notable woman pacifists. She is credited with influencing Alfred Nobel in the establishment of the Nobel Prize for Peace, of which she was the recipient in 1905. ||
|-id=800
| 12800 Oobayashiarata || || Arata Oobayashi (1957–1999), a Japanese amateur astronomer and computer engineer. He was also famous as a photographic artist, leaving excellent astronomical photographs. The name was suggested by M. Namiki. ||
|}
12801–12900
|-
| 12801 Somekawa || 1995 XD || Somekawa Shuichi (1962–1997), a Japanese amateur astronomer and optical engineer ||
|-id=802
| 12802 Hagino || || Hagino Akira (1949–1999), Japanese amateur astronomer who died in an accident while observing. He worked as an instructor of popular astronomy at a small astronomical facility in Yamanashi prefecture and inspired many children and visitors with interests in the wonderful night sky. ||
|-id=810
| 12810 Okumiomote || 1996 BV || Okumiomote (奥三面), a Japanese archaeological site in northern Niigata prefecture, which was submerged by the damming of a river in 2000 ||
|-id=811
| 12811 Rigonistern || || Mario Rigoni Stern (1921–2008), was an Italian writer, who was born and lived in Asiago. He is known for his poetry and novels about mountain life and habitat. Stern's work has been translated into more than a dozen languages and has won several national and international awards. ||
|-id=812
| 12812 Cioni || || Giovanni Cioni (1943–2002) was an amateur astronomer of the Montelupo Group ||
|-id=813
| 12813 Paolapaolini || || Paola Paolini (1947–2002) was the wife of Mauro Gherardini, amateur astronomer of the Montelupo Group ||
|-id=814
| 12814 Vittorio || || Vittorio Beltrami (1926–2012) continuously promoted, supported and encouraged scientific and technological initiatives, in particular at the Belgirate Asteroids-Comets-Meteors Congress in 1993, and also during international events involving space and astronomy, with special attention to minor bodies of the solar system ||
|-id=817
| 12817 Federica || || Federica Mula (born 1995) is the talented daughter of Manuela Sciascia and Nuccio Mula. In the opera Empedocle from Mula-Portera (Agrigento, 2002), she performed the role of the girl who found and returned the sandal of Greek philosopher Empedocles near the Etna volcano ||
|-id=818
| 12818 Tomhanks || || Tom Hanks (born 1956), American actor who starred in such films as Splash, Sleepless in Seattle, Apollo 13 and Saving Private Ryan, winning Oscars for his roles in Philadelphia and Forrest Gump. He was executive producer for the miniseries From the Earth to the Moon, which dramatized the Apollo expeditions to the moon. ||
|-id=819
| 12819 Susumutakahasi || 1996 JO || Susumu Takahasi (born 1958), director of the Dynic Astronomical Observatory "Tenkyukan", is ardent about astronomical education and a fine observer of variable stars ||
|-id=820
| 12820 Robinwilliams || || Robin Williams (1951–2014), was an actor and a comedian whose television series Mork and Mindy launched his successful career in improvisational comedy and film. He starred in Good Morning Vietnam and Mrs. Doubtfire, as well as in Good Will Hunting, for which he won an Academy Award. ||
|-id=823
| 12823 Pochintesta || 1997 AP || Alberto E.C. Pochintesta (1909–1984) was an Uruguayan astronomer and school teacher who worked at the Observatorio de Montevideo . ||
|-id=828
| 12828 Batteas || || Frank Batteas (born 1955) is a pilot for the F/A–18 and C–17 flight research projects at NASA's Dryden Flight Research Center, Edwards, California. He has accumulated more than 4700 hours of flight experience in more than 40 different types of aircraft ||
|-id=833
| 12833 Kamenný Újezd || || The Czech village of Kamenný Újezd ||
|-id=834
| 12834 Bomben || || Craig R. Bomben (born 1962) is a pilot in the Flight Crew Branch of NASA's Dryden Flight Research Center, Edwards, California. He has more than 17 years and 3800 hours of flight experience in over 50 different aircraft types ||
|-id=835
| 12835 Stropek || || Václav Stropek (born 1938) has been a long-time technician at the Klet Observatory. ||
|-id=838
| 12838 Adamsmith || || Adam Smith, 18th-century key figure of the Scottish Enlightenment, author of An Enquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations ||
|-id=840
| 12840 Paolaferrari || || Paola Ferrari, Librarian of the town of San Marcello Pistoiese in Italy and contributor to the Pian dei Termini Observatory ||
|-id=843
| 12843 Ewers || || Richard G. Ewers (born 1946) is a pilot in the Flight Crew Branch of NASA's Dryden Flight Research Center, Edwards, California. He has more than 32 years and nearly 9000 hours of flight experience in all types of aircraft. ||
|-id=845
| 12845 Crick || || Francis Crick (1916–2004) was a British scientist who proposed, together with J. D. Watson, the double-helical structure for DNA in 1953. Subsequently, a general theory for the structure of small viruses was worked out. He has also investigated the nature of consciousness in The astonishing hypothesis (1994). ||
|-id=846
| 12846 Fullerton || 1997 MR || C. Gordon Fullerton (born 1936) is a research pilot at NASA's Dryden Flight Research Center, Edwards, California. With over 15~000 hours of flying time, he has piloted 135 different types of aircraft. He has logged 382 hours in space as a NASA astronaut, during two Space Shuttle missions ||
|-id=848
| 12848 Agostino || || Agostino Boattini (born 1932) is the father of the discoverer ||
|-id=850
| 12850 Axelmunthe || || Axel Munthe (1857–1949), a descendant of a Flemish family that settled in Sweden during the sixteenth century, was a physician and writer who had studied neurology under Charcot. In his autobiographical The story of San Michele (1929), he portrayed the foibles of the rich and the poor in a tragicomic fashion ||
|-id=852
| 12852 Teply || || Grant Teply, an American ISEF awardee in 2002 † ||
|-id=855
| 12855 Tewksbury || || Carolyn Morgan Tewksbury, an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=859
| 12859 Marlamoore || || Marla H. Moore (born 1940), a staff member at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center, is known worldwide for her studies of the irradiation of ices and the implications of the irradiation processes for interstellar grains, comets, and icy satellites. The name was suggested by M. F. A'Hearn. ||
|-id=860
| 12860 Turney || || Shannon Quinn Turney, an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=861
| 12861 Wacker || || David "Buzz" Wacker, an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=863
| 12863 Whitfield || || Meghan Elizabeth Whitfield (born 1985), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=866
| 12866 Yanamadala || || Vijay Yanamadala, an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=867
| 12867 Joëloïc || || Joël (born 1982) and Loïc (born 1985) are the children of Gérard Faure, accountant, amateur astronomer and active Magnitude Alert Project observer of minor planets. Both sons are now students at the University of Grenoble, in the disciplines of economy and computer science ||
|-id=868
| 12868 Onken || || Christopher S. Onken (born 1979) was a summer student at the Lowell Observatory in 1998. As an observer, he made the first LONEOS near-earth-asteroid discovery and suggested many useful improvements to the observing protocol ||
|-id=870
| 12870 Rolandmeier || || Roland C. Meier (born 1964), of Gretag Imaging, Zurich, is well known for his research on the chemistry of comets, ranging from studies of the chemistry observed in situ at 1P/Halley with Giotto to numerous optical and radio studies using ground-based telescopes. The name was suggested by M. F. A'Hearn ||
|-id=871
| 12871 Samarasinha || || Nalin Samarasinha (born 1958), a Sri Lanka planetary scientist and discoverer of minor planets of the National Optical Astronomy Observatories, Tucson, has carried out many studies of the dynamical evolution of cometary nuclei and the related dynamical processes of dust in cometary comae. This includes his demonstration of the excited rotational state of 1P/Halley. ||
|-id=872
| 12872 Susiestevens || || Susie Stevens, American teacher, 2002 winner of an Intel Foundation Excellence in Teaching Award ||
|-id=873
| 12873 Clausewitz || || Carl von Clausewitz (1780–1831) was a Prussian general and intellectual who gained extensive combat experience by fighting against the armies of the French Revolution and Napoleon. His famous book Vom Kriege ("On War") is considered one of the most influential works of military philosophy in the Western world. ||
|-id=874
| 12874 Poisson || 1998 QZ || Siméon Denis Poisson (1781–1840) was a prolific French mathematician and inspiring teacher who left his mark on many branches of applied mathematics, including electricity and magnetism, celestial mechanics and elasticity. His name is also associated with the Poisson distribution in probability theory. ||
|-id=878
| 12878 Erneschiller || || Ernest Schiller, American teacher, 2002 winner of an Intel Foundation Excellence in Teaching Award ||
|-id=880
| 12880 Juliegrady || || Julie Grady, American teacher, 2002 winner of an Intel Foundation Excellence in Teaching Award ||
|-id=881
| 12881 Yepeiyu || || Ye Peiyu, Chinese teacher, 2002 winner of an Intel Foundation Excellence in Teaching Award ||
|-id=893
| 12893 Mommert || || Michael Mommert (born 1982) has analysed Herschel and Spitzer space telescope observations of transneptunian and near-Earth objects, finding further evidence for links between these populations. He has provided insight into the physical properties of the Plutinos and the cometary component of the NEO population. ||
|-id=895
| 12895 Balbastre || || Claude-Bénigme Balbastre (1729–1799) was a French composer who, after writing more-or-less academic organ work at Dijon, blossomed as a fashionable Parisian harpsichord teacher and cosmopolite. La Lugeac and La d´Héricourt rank among the very finest keyboard works of the 1750s ||
|-id=896
| 12896 Geoffroy || || Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (1772–1844), French naturalist who established in Philosophie anat-omique (2 volumes, 1818–1822) the principle of unity of organic composition among vertebrates (and later also invertebrates). Opposing Cuvier, Geoffroy's concepts created a receptive scientific audience for Darwin's evolution theory. ||
|-id=897
| 12897 Bougeret || || Jean-Louis Bougeret (born 1945) is Director of the Laboratoire d´Etudes Spatiales et d´Instrumentation en Astrophysique at Paris Observatory. He is an expert in the solar wind and interplanetary medium, and is active in space research. The name was suggested by M. A. Barucci. ||
|-id=898
| 12898 Mignard || || François Mignard (born 1949) is a French astronomer, former director of CERGA who has been involved with ESA's Hipparcos and Gaia missions. ||
|}
12901–13000
|-id=908
| 12908 Yagudina || || Eleonora Ivanovna Yagudina (born 1941) is a staff member at the Institute of Applied Astronomy of the Russian Academy of Sciences. She has worked extensively on the motions of solar system bodies, and devotes much of her time to educating young people in astronomy ||
|-id=909
| 12909 Jaclifford || || Jack Clifford (born 1933), of Scottsdale, Arizona, is a pioneering cable television entrepreneur, avid amateur astronomer and a major contributor to numerous science and educational institutions. He has been of great service on the Lowell Trustee's Advisory Board, particularly in fund raising ||
|-id=910
| 12910 Deliso || || Joseph John Deliso (1906–1994), contractor, manufacturer, public servant and philanthropist, served many years as Chairman of the Trustees of Springfield Technical Community College, Massachusetts, and was a major endower of that institution. The name was suggested by W. L. Putnam ||
|-id=911
| 12911 Goodhue || || Samuel Harlowe Goodhue (born 1921), engineer and alpinist of Jackson, New Hampshire, was Chairman of the Trails Committee and then the Huts Committee for the Appalachian Mountain Club. He has been generous with his time and talents to both the Mount Washington (meteorological) and Lowell observatories ||
|-id=912
| 12912 Streator || || The US city of Streator, home town of Clyde W. Tombaugh (1906–1997), who discovered of Pluto ||
|-id=916
| 12916 Eteoneus || || Eteoneus, son of Boethous and King Menelaus of Sparta's weapon-carrier during the Trojan War, who helped Odysseus in his attempts to return home ||
|-id=919
| 12919 Tomjohnson || || Thomas J. Johnson (born 1923) developed a technique for creating Schmidt telescope correctors that allowed the mass production of Schmidt-Cassegrain telescopes. In 1978 the Optical Society of America awarded him the David Richardson Medal for this work ||
|-id=923
| 12923 Zephyr || || The word zephyr derives from the name of the ancient Greek god of the west wind, Zephyros. The name was suggested by M. Smitherman ||
|-id=926
| 12926 Brianmason || || Brian Harold Mason (1917–2009), New Zealand-born meteoriticist and lunar geologist ||
|-id=927
| 12927 Pinocchio || || Pinocchio, character from Carlo Collodi's eponymous tale ||
|-id=928
| 12928 Nicolapozio || || Nicola Pozio (born 1965), accountant for the Spaceguard Foundation ||
|-id=929
| 12929 Periboea || || Periboea was the grandmother of the Trojan ally Asteropaios and mother of Pelegon who she conceived by way of the river god Axius. ||
|-id=931
| 12931 Mario || || Mario Sposetti (1916–1959), father of Swiss discoverer Stefano Sposetti ||
|-id=932
| 12932 Conedera || || Marina Conedera (born 1962), wife of Swiss discoverer Stefano Sposetti ||
|-id=933
| 12933 Muzzonigro || || Livio Muzzonigro (born 1932) an Italian teacher of mathematics and physics at Duca degli in Gorizia, who was a teacher of one of the discoverers of this minor planet at the Farra d'Isonzo Observatory. ||
|-id=934
| 12934 Bisque || || Stephen Bisque (born 1960), Thomas Bisque (born 1963), Daniel Bisque (born 1965) and Matthew Bisque(born 1966). Since 1984, they have been developing and distributing software and instrumentation for the astronomical community that completely automates telescope control and CCD image acquisition. ||
|-id=935
| 12935 Zhengzhemin || || Zheng Zhemin (born 1924), an academician of the Chinese Academy of Sciences and Engineering and a foreign academician of the U.S. National Academy of Engineering, is one of the founders of the field of explosion mechanics. A leader of the field of mechanics in China, he has proposed and created new branches of mechanics ||
|-id=937
| 12937 Premadi || 3024 P-L || Premana W. Premadi (born 1964) is an astronomer at the ITB Observatorium Bosscha (Indonesia), an authority on cosmology, and teacher of theoretical astrophysics. Since 2005, she has been a member of the Universe Awareness (UNAWE) International Team, and is the founder and chair of UNAWE Indonesia (2007–2013). ||
|-id=972
| 12972 Eumaios || || Eumaeus (Eumaios), Odysseus's swineherd in Greek mythology. When Odysseus returned to Ithaca, Eumaios helped him to conquer the suitors of Penelope. ||
|-id=973
| 12973 Melanthios || || Melanthius (Melanthios), Odysseus's goatherd in Greek mythology. He mocked Odysseus when the latter came to Eumaios disguised as a beggar. Later Odysseus killed him ||
|-id=974
| 12974 Halitherses || || Halitherses, an Ithacan prophet in Greek mythology. He went together with Telemachos to search for Odysseus. He was also a friend of Odysseus himself. ||
|-id=975
| 12975 Efremov || || Yurij Nikolaevich Efremov (born 1937), Russian astronomer and a leading research scientist at the Sternberg Astronomical Institute, Moscow University. His works on variable stars and star-formation regions are well known. He discovered the period-age relationship for Cepheids and created the concept of large complexes of young stars. ||
|-id=976
| 12976 Kalinenkov || || Nikifor Dmitrievich Kalinenkov (1924–1996) was professor of physics and astronomy at the Nikolaev State Pedagogical Institute in Ukraine. He was the first director of the Institute's astronomical observatory and contributed much to its instrumentation through "make-it-yourself" telescopes and other devices ||
|-id=978
| 12978 Ivashov || || Vladimir Ivashov (1939–1995), a Russian Soviet actor who created a striking image of a defender of the motherland in the film Ballad about a soldier produced by Grigorij Chukhraj ||
|-id=979
| 12979 Evgalvasil'ev || || Evgenij Aleksandrovich Vasil'ev, Ukrainian educator, creator of the Artek pioneer camp "Lesnoj" in Crimea ||
|-id=980
| 12980 Pruetz || || Todd Orville Pruetz (born 1968) is the "Science Communications Publisher" of the Lucy mission. ||
|-id=981
| 12981 Tracicase || || Traci Case (born 1976) was a member of the Step-1 proposal team of the Lucy mission, as well as its "Cost, Schedule and Earned Value Lead, and Deputy Payload Manager" at the Southwest Research Institute. ||
|-id=982
| 12982 Kaseybond || || Kasey J. Bond (born 1991) is a "Resource Analyst" of the Lucy mission. ||
|-id=983
| 12983 Mattcox || || Matthew Anthony Cox (born 1966) is one of the "Spacecraft Program Manager" for the Lucy mission, leading the development team at Lockheed Martin. ||
|-id=984
| 12984 Lowry || || Stephen C. Lowry (born 1976), Irish astronomer who performs precise observations of cometary nuclei to reveal their bulk properties. He also studies physical and chemical properties of near-earth objects. ||
|-id=985
| 12985 Mattgarrison || || Matthew Brian Garrison (born 1983) is the "L'Ralph Instrument Systems Engineer" of the Lucy mission. ||
|-id=986
| 12986 Kretke || || Katherine A. Kretke (born 1982) is an astrophysicist and the "communications and public engagement lead" of the Lucy mission. ||
|-id=987
| 12987 Racalmuto || || Racalmuto is a town in Sicily with Greek and Roman origins. The municipal astronomical observatory promotes astronomical research and dissemination. ||
|-id=988
| 12988 Tiffanykapler || || Tiffany L. Kapler (born 1977) is the "Public Outreach Specialist" of the Lucy mission. ||
|-id=989
| 12989 Chriseanderson || || Chris Elaine Anderson (born 1957) is a typesetter and administrative assistant for the Lucy mission, who participated in the spacecraft's "Step-1 proposal" and the "Phase-A Concept Study Report". ||
|-id=990
| 12990 Josetillard || || Jose P. Tillard (born 1976) is the "Risk Manager and Systems Engineer" of the Lucy mission. ||
|-id=991
| 12991 Davidgriffiths || || David J. Griffiths (born 1961) is the "Flight Project Mechanical Systems and Solar Arrays Systems Engineer" of the Lucy mission. ||
|-id=999
| 12999 Toruń || || The Polish city of Toruń, birthplace of astronomer Nicolas Copernicus (1473–1543), whose Old Town is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and whose university houses the largest observatory in Poland ||
|}
References
012001-013000 |
5453871 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raven%20Rock%20Mountain%20Complex | Raven Rock Mountain Complex | The Raven Rock Mountain Complex (RRMC), also known as Site R, is a U.S. military installation with an underground nuclear bunker near Blue Ridge Summit, Pennsylvania, at Raven Rock Mountain that has been called an "underground Pentagon". The bunker has emergency operations centers for the United States Army, Navy, Air Force and Marine Corps. Along with Mount Weather Emergency Operations Center in Virginia and the Cheyenne Mountain Complex in Colorado, it formed the core bunker complexes for the US continuity of government plan during the Cold War to survive a nuclear attack.
Description
The installation's largest tenant unit is the Defense Threat Reduction Agency, and RRMC communications are the responsibility of the 114th Signal Battalion. The facility has 38 communications systems, and the Defense Information Systems Agency provides computer services at the complex.
History
Raven Rock Mountain is adjacent to Jacks Mountain on the north while Miney Branch flows west-to-east between them in the Potomac River Watershed. The 1820 Waynesboro-Emmitsburg Turnpike with toll station for the 1787 crossroad was constructed between the mountains, where the Fight at Monterey Gap was conducted after the 1863 Battle of Gettysburg (Stuart's artillery at Raven Rock Gap shelled Federal troops.) In 1870, copper ore was discovered to the north, and the nearby Fountain Dale Springs House was established in 1874. The scenic area's mountain recreation facilities to the west included the 1877 Pen Mar Park, the 1878 High Rock Tower, the 1885 Monterey Country Club, and several resorts (e.g., Blue Mountain House, Buena Vista Springs Hotels, & Washington Cliff House). The 1889 Jacks Mountain Tunnel on the Western Extension (Baltimore and Harrisburg Railway) was completed near Raven Rock Mountain, and nearby stations were at Blue Ridge Summit and Charmian. The Army's 1942 Camp Ritchie was built southwest of the resorts, and a local road was built eastward from Blue Ridge Summit and intersected the north-south Fountaindale-Sabillasville Road (the intersection now provides access to the RRMC main gate.)
Planning for a protected Cold War facility near Washington, D.C. began in 1948 for relocation of military National Command Authorities and the Joint Communications Service.
Underground communications center
The planned deep underground communications center was identified in the original 1950 federal petition to seize the Beard Lot, a 1,500-foot-high, mile-long hill located at Fountaindale and extending east and south along the Waynesboro-Emmitsburg road, The "Declaration of Taking" for United States of America v. 1,100 Acres of Land was filed at the Adams County courthouse on 23 January 1951, and made the government the official owner of the 280-acre tract seized from four properties (17 total properties had been requested by 15 February—some only for temporary use). South of and above the Carson service station on the Sunshine trail, bulldozers began work on 19 January 1951; by 3 February a roadway to the site had been leveled behind a farmhouse; and by 24 February underground work had commenced (40 men working "normally" on that date were only performing above-ground construction). By 26 May the Army had named the landform Raven Rock Mountain ("Raven Rock" is a pillar landform to the north along the mountain range) and listed its elevation as 1,527 feet.
By 17 October 1951, there had been two deaths: one, Roland P. Kelly, of PenMar MD due to premature dynamite detonation in the Beard Lot tunnel, and another due to crushing of a power-shovel operator. The S. A. Healy Company was working on the alternate Pentagon in November 1951, when the government announced a defense appropriations cutback that would affect the project. On 16 January 1952, the government indicated that when completed, the bunker would have a standby group of approximately 100 personnel. Because of construction damage to the Sunshine Trail, the US said it would rebuild the trail in any fashion the state desired.
By 29 March 1952, more than 100 workers were striking from building additional Raven Rock housing at Camp Ritchie, which was to be a supplemental installation for the underground Pentagon at Fountaindale. No work was going on in the Raven Rock (Beard Lot) tunnel at that time. Local travelers having to bypass on the serpentine on the slope between Monterey and Fountaindale grew frustrated during the delay (the incomplete tunnel was derogatorily dubbed "Harry's Hole," for President Truman.) By 7 April 1952, United Telephone Company rights of way had been secured for four tracts, including one in Cumberland Township. Easements for three additional private tracts were filed by the government in December 1953 (a 1954 lawsuit against the U.S. by Alfred Holt was seeking $2,000 an acre for his 140-acre woodlot atop the Beard Lot [after] turning down an offer of $2,800 from the government.)
A 1952 Army history disclosed Raven Rock information. Three underground buildings were completed in 1953, the year a guard shelter burned on the installation. By April 1954, "Little Pentagon" development had cost $35,000,000.
Automatic activation
After the 1954 Air Defense Command blockhouse was built at Ent Air Force Base, where the joint 1955 Continental Air Defense Command was activated, in August 1955 OSD approved the automatic activation of Raven Rock's Alternate Joint Communication Center on declaration of air defense warning or notice of surprise attack (SAC similarly completed a bunker in 1955). The AJCC was equipped with command and control (C2) hardware by the end of 1955.
1956 War Room Annex
In July 1956 at Raven Rock, a joint War Room Annex was established and was operated by the Air Force, and Raven Rock's readiness was broadened in April 1957 [for] activation prior to emergency if JCS thought it necessary. By 1959, the services as well as JCS regarded Raven Rock as their primary emergency deployment center. For the Air Force, it served as Headquarters USAF Advanced, capable of receiving the Chief of Staff and key officers. After President Dwight D. Eisenhower expressed concern about nuclear command and control, a 1958 reorganization in National Command Authority relations with the joint commands was implemented. On 1 July 1958 Raven Rock's USAF facility, ADCC (Blue Ridge Summit), became one of the 33 NORAD Alert Network Number 1 stations (but with receive-only capability as at TAC Headquarters, Sandia Base, and the Presidio at San Francisco.) On 20 October 1960, the JCS instructed the Joint Staff to establish a Joint Alternate Command Element (JACE) for rotating battle staffs to Raven Rock for temporary duty. In November 1960, consoles at the Pentagon's Joint War Room became operational, and the Raven Rock JACE was activated on 11 July 1961 under USAF Brig. Gen. Willard W. Smith [with the 5] staffs permanently stationed in Washington and an administrative section at Ft. Ritchie—rotations began in October 1961 (Fort Ritchie also had the OSD Defense Emergency Relocation Site.) An expansion project by the Frazier–Davis–McDonald Company was underway in December 1961 at the "little Pentagon", and bunker personnel were evacuated during a 1962 fire. Pentagon construction to provide an entire JCS center at the Joint War Room opened the National Military Command Center (NMCC) in early October 1962. It was initially considered an interim center until a nearby Deep Underground Command Center (DUCC) could be completed after which Raven Rock would be phased out as superfluous, whichever version [50-man or 300-man DUCC] was chosen, but neither was built—nor were SAC's similar Deep Underground Support Center or NORAD's Super Combat Centers.
1962 ANMCC
Raven Rock's joint War Room, USAF ADCC, and other facilities were designated the Alternate National Military Command Center (ANMCC) on 1 October 1962 when the Burroughs SS-416L Control and Warning Support System with the Semi Automatic Ground Environment had been deployed (Back-Up Interceptor Control began at North Bend AFS in December.) The term AJCC remained in use, only [for] the Army-managed communications complex. On 17 October 1962, DOD Directive S-5100.30 conceived the Worldwide Military Command and Control System with five groups of C2 systems: the National Military Command System was the primary group (to serve the President/SECDEF/JCS) and was to contain the Pentagon NMCC, Raven Rock's ANMCC, 3 NEACP aircraft on 24-hour ground alert, 2 NECPA ships, and interconnecting communications—the Raven Rock bunker was hardened further to about 140 psi blast resistance by 1963 when the Cheyenne Mountain nuclear bunker was being completed for tbd psi. The USAF's subsequent IBM 473L Command and Control System with AN/FYA-2 Integrated Data Transfer Consoles and Large Panel Display Subsystem had equipment deployed at both the NMCC and ANMCC (a 2nd IBM 1410 computer was installed by 15 December 1966.)
1976 Telecommunications Center
The USACC Site R Telecommunications Center was designated in 1976, and the 1977 Alternate National Military Command and Control Center Improvement Program was worked on by the DoD Special Projects Office (later renamed Protective Design Center) for a new deep underground C2 center with > of air entrainment tunnels (cancelled in 1979.) After the 2001 September 11 attacks, Vice President Dick Cheney used Raven Rock as a protected site away from President George W. Bush. The Raven Rock Mountain Complex was declared part of the Pentagon Reservation under and on May 25, 2007, DoD policy declared it is unlawful for any person entering or on the property ..."to make any photograph, sketch, picture, drawing, map or graphical representation of the Raven Rock Mountain Complex without first obtaining the necessary permission."
In 1977, the bunker had an Emergency Conference Room, and the Current Action Center was a military intelligence unit (an Air Force general was responsible for overseeing the installation's communications).
In popular culture
In the Fallout series of video games, it is home to the Enclave, a post-apocalyptic successor to the U.S. government. It was featured in 2008 video game Fallout 3 and referenced in Fallout 76 as having been in contact with the AI at the Whitespring Bunker (the real world Project Greek Island) until communications between them were deliberately cut. The games' publisher, Bethesda, also used the name for a location in the Elder Scrolls series of video games.
In the TV series Jeremiah, Raven Rock is where the sinister Valhalla Sector survived the pandemic which killed almost all of the other adults on the planet before emerging with plans of conquest.
In Prison Break, Raven Rock is an identified location.
The complex has an important role in the 2013 sci-fi movie Oblivion, in which it is the headquarters of an underground resistance movement against an alien invasion.
In the third book of the One Second After series, Raven Rock is referred to as "Site R" and is used by the U.S. government to house highly important citizens and government officials.
In the TV series Salvation, Raven Rock is referred to as a site to house government officials in the case of an asteroid collision with earth.
In the book series Mitch Rapp, the president and his cabinet are moved to "Site R" multiple times throughout the series.
Further reading
Mcyntire, H. J. (2000) Department of Defense Freedom Of Information Act Inquiry 00-F-0019 Site R Civil Defense Site
References
Military facilities in Pennsylvania
Nuclear bunkers in the United States
United States nuclear command and control
Continuity of government in the United States
Disaster preparedness in the United States
South Mountain Range (Maryland−Pennsylvania)
1951 establishments in Pennsylvania |
32576733 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HyperSizer | HyperSizer | HyperSizer is computer-aided engineering (CAE) software used for stress analysis and sizing optimization of metallic and composite structures. Originally developed at the US National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) as ST-SIZE, it was licensed for commercial use by Collier Research Corporation in 1996. Additional proprietary code was added and the software was marketed under the name HyperSizer.
History
HyperSizer developed from the NASA Langley Research Center (LaRC) ST-SIZE research code. ST-SIZE was originally developed because NASA identified a need for accurate methods of formulating panel stiffness and thermal expansion coefficients, leading to the development of ST-SIZE from 1988 to 1995. Another need was the reduction of mass on high-speed aircraft and weight reduction for optimization. ST-SIZE was developed by a team of engineers working on the National Aerospace Plane X-30. Two major versions of ST-SIZE were created. The original version included formulations for stiffness terms and thermal expansion coefficients based on approximations often taken in traditional design methods. In 1990, a version of ST-SIZE was formed for structural design and weight prediction. A new method for formulation of stiffened panel properties was developed starting in 1991. A method for including composite lamina and laminate data in the formulation of stiffened panel structural properties was first developed. Thermal coefficients were created to handle both in-plane and through-the-thickness temperature gradients for membrane, bending, and membrane-bending coupling. A method was then developed to enter these thermal expansion and bending coefficients into the MSC Software version of Nastran for finite element analysis (FEA) using a model with a single plane of finite elements. Other solvers are supported such as I-DEAS.
In May 1996, Collier Research Corporation was formed in Hampton, Virginia from the original ST-SIZE design team, which included Craig S. Collier. Collier Research obtained an exclusive, all-fields-of-use license, and became the first company to license NASA software for commercial use. They combined the NASA LaRC ST-SIZE copyright research code with other company proprietary software; the combined software became HyperSizer.
Uses
Commercial customers use HyperSizer software to design and analyze composite material and metallic structures. For example, the wind turbine design industry uses the program to design 100-meter long blades that are light and manufacturable.
Beginning with the NASA astronaut Composite Crew Module (CCM) of the Orion spacecraft, the CSeries and Learjet 85 of Bombardier Aerospace, HyperSizer has seen use on projects that are primarily or entirely composite structures. The record-setting Scaled Composites GlobalFlyer was designed with the help of Hypersizer, as well as the Lunar Atmosphere and Dust Environment Explorer.
Earlier codes were originally intended for weight prediction but evolved into ones that were able to assess structural integrity and find optimum sizes and materials. HyperSizer Version 6.1, released in May 2011, contains an integrated suite of failure analysis predictions verified by test data. New capabilities optimize manufacturing. Capabilities have been added to include: macromechanics, micromechanics, failure mode and effects analysis, panel concepts, composite optimization, and integration with Abaqus FEA software.
There are two available versions of HyperSizer, Pro and Express. Both HyperSizer Pro and Express can equally analyze and design laminates and sandwich panels, and update the FEM, and report margins. HyperSizer Express (released 2016) delivers key capabilities of HyperSizer Pro in a user-friendly packaged aimed at the composite engineer. While HyperSizer Pro specializes in aerospace and space launch, applications for Express include automotive, sporting goods, medical, industrial, and marine.
Details
HyperSizer is written in Fortran and Visual Basic and contains over 400,000 lines of code. The software is compatible with Microsoft Windows 7, Windows 8, and Windows 10.
Version 6.1 (released in May 2011) integrated with FEA solvers in an iterative loop conducting trade studies and examining potential design candidates. HyperSizer ensures structural integrity through failure analyses. It increases manufacturability by minimizing ply drops, identifying laminate transition add/drop boundaries, and defining ply shapes.
HyperSizer competes in the analysis and sizing software market with Firehole Composites, ESI, and ESAComp among others.
HyperSizer Pro was rated first in the "tools of the month" by Desktop Engineering magazine in July 2011. HyperSizer Express was named "Editor's Pick" by Desktop Engineering in March 2016.
References
Further reading
External links
HyperSizer Official Web site
Computer-aided design software
Computer-aided engineering software
Finite element software
Structural analysis |
48403776 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PlagScan | PlagScan | PlagScan is a plagiarism detection software, mostly used by academic institutions. PlagScan compares submissions with web documents, journals and internal archives. The software was launched in 2009 by Markus Goldbach and Johannes Knabe.
Functionality
PlagScan is offered as a Software as a Service and as an on-premise solution.
Users can either register as a single user or as an organization. Upon first-time registration, single users receive a free test credit and can purchase additional credits for future submissions, after the completion of a satisfactory trial.
Organizational users verify the organization's address prior to using the software. An obligation-free quote can be requested immediately on the website. Organizations can choose from a variety of options and create multiple administrators and groups, for example, to divide different departments within one institution.
After scanning a submission for plagiarism, PlagScan provides users with a detailed report that indicates potential plagiarism and lists the matched sources.
Markets
PlagScan serves schools and universities worldwide. The software aims to help academic institutions to increase students’ awareness toward plagiarism and academic integrity.
PlagScan also offers its services to the commercial market and publishers. Business users employ the software to improve SEO rankings or secure the proper usage of copyright material. They mostly aim to ensure unique content and its protection. The most common commercial customers are publishers, journalists, advertising agencies and law firms.
Privacy and data security
PlagScan is compliant to the European General Data Protection Regulation or GDPR, particularly following the German Bundesdatenschutzgesetz (BDSG), data security and copyright regulations. Each user has a variety of options regarding their data and submission settings, for example, whether to keep, delete or include submissions in an internal archive. According to the European data security and privacy laws.
Technology
PlagScan's two-step algorithm was developed in 2008 and compares submissions with millions of web sources and internal archives that users can optionally participate in. The software recognizes plagiarism as soon as at least three consecutive words match a different source.
PlagScan built an indexing tool based on Apache Solr and relies on Microsoft Bing’s search index for web documents.
The software can be integrated into Learning Management Systems such as Moodle, Canvas, Schoology, etc through an API and LTI integration.
Reviews
The plagiarism blog plagiarismtoday.com ranked PlagScan as the fourth-best plagiarism detection software on the market in 2011.
PlagScan participated in "Captivate", a three-month acceleration program by the German Accelerator in 2014, promoting German technology startups to enter the U.S. market.
PlagScan was ranked as one of the best information and communication technologies at the European Venture Summit in 2014.
Spotlight on Spanish Media, Congress and Senate
PlagScan came under the spotlight in Spain in September 2018 and created a lot of social debate, having even been discussed in Spanish Congress Of Deputies and Senate, after the Spanish Government used it to check alleged plagiarism on Spanish President Pedro Sanchez's Doctoral Thesis.
The program allegedly reported a 0.96% match when run by the Spanish Government, however those figures were later corrected by PlagScan CEO, Markus Goldbach to be 21% with the default configuration. Rival software TurnItIn had reported a rate of plagiarism of 15%, several times more than that reported by Spanish Government using PlagScan.
The company replied "After applying the software internally – using the default settings and no filters –
PlagScan cannot confirm this number. An initial scan revealed 21 percent of duplicated content.
In order to receive a 0.96 percent result, one must have applied specific settings and actively
disqualified sources. PlagScan has reached out to the Moncloa in order to gain an insight on the
government’s procedure and methodology."
This is an ongoing controversy and different newspapers, depending on their political bias, defend one result or the other.
See also
Plagiarism
Comparison of anti-plagiarism software
References
Software for teachers
Plagiarism detectors |
43291963 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kubernetes | Kubernetes | Kubernetes (, commonly stylized as K8s) is an open-source container orchestration system for automating software deployment, scaling, and management. Google originally designed Kubernetes, but the Cloud Native Computing Foundation now maintains the project.
Kubernetes works with Docker, Containerd, and CRI-O. Originally, it interfaced exclusively with the Docker runtime through a "Dockershim"; however, since 2016, Kubernetes has deprecated the shim in favor of directly interfacing with the container through Containerd, or replacing Docker with a runtime that is compliant with the Container Runtime Interface (CRI).
Amazon, Google, IBM, Microsoft, Oracle, Red Hat, SUSE and VMware offer Kubernetes-based platforms or infrastructure as a service (IaaS) that deploy Kubernetes.
History
Kubernetes (κυβερνήτης, Greek for "helmsman," "pilot," or "governor", and the etymological root of cybernetics) was first announced by Google in mid-2014. Ville Aikas, Joe Beda, Brendan Burns, and Craig McLuckie were the initial founders of Kubernetes, but other Google engineers, including Brian Grant and Tim Hockin, joined them shortly thereafter. Google's Borg system had a significant influence on the design and development of Kubernetes. Many of the top contributors to the project previously worked on Borg. The original codename for Kubernetes within Google was , a reference to the Star Trek ex-Borg character Seven of Nine. The seven spokes on the wheel of the Kubernetes logo are a reference to that codename. The original Borg project was entirely in C++, but Kubernetes source code is in the Go language.
Kubernetes 1.0 was released on July 21, 2015, along which Google partnered with the Linux Foundation to form the Cloud Native Computing Foundation (CNCF) and offered Kubernetes as a seed technology. In February 2016, the Helm package manager for Kubernetes was released. On March 6, 2018, Kubernetes Project reached the ninth place in the list of GitHub projects by the number of commits, and second place in authors and issues, after the Linux kernel.
Until version 1.18, Kubernetes followed an N-2 support policy, meaning that the three most recent minor versions receive security updates and bug fixes. Starting with version 1.19, Kubernetes follows an N-3 support policy.
Concepts
Kubernetes defines a set of building blocks ("primitives") that collectively provide mechanisms that deploy, maintain, and scale applications based on CPU, memory or custom metrics. Kubernetes is loosely coupled and extensible to meet different workloads. The internal components as well as extensions and containers that run on Kubernetes rely on the Kubernetes API. The platform exerts its control over compute and storage resources by defining resources as Objects, which can then be managed as such.
Kubernetes follows the primary/replica architecture. The components of Kubernetes can be divided into those that manage an individual node and those that are part of the control plane.
Control plane
The Kubernetes master is the main controlling unit of the cluster, managing its workload and directing communication across the system. The Kubernetes control plane consists of various components, each its own process, that can run both on a single master node or on multiple masters supporting high-availability clusters. The various components of the Kubernetes control plane are as follows:
etcd is a persistent, lightweight, distributed, key-value data store that CoreOS has developed. It reliably stores the configuration data of the cluster, representing the overall state of the cluster at any given point of time. etcd favors consistency over availability in the event of a network partition (see CAP theorem). The consistency is crucial for correctly scheduling and operating services.
The API server serves the Kubernetes API using JSON over HTTP, which provides both the internal and external interface to Kubernetes. The API server processes and validates REST requests and updates the state of the API objects in etcd, thereby allowing clients to configure workloads and containers across worker nodes. The API server uses etcd's watch API to monitor the cluster, roll out critical configuration changes, or restore any divergences of the state of the cluster back to what the deployer declared. As an example, the deployer may specify that three instances of a particular "pod" (see below) need to be running. etcd stores this fact. If the Deployment Controller finds that only two instances are running (conflicting with the etcd declaration), it schedules the creation of an additional instance of that pod.
The scheduler is the extensible component that selects on which node an unscheduled pod (the basic entity managed by the scheduler) runs, based on resource availability. The scheduler tracks resource use on each node to ensure that workload is not scheduled in excess of available resources. For this purpose, the scheduler must know the resource requirements, resource availability, and other user-provided constraints or policy directives such as quality-of-service, affinity vs. anti-affinity requirements, and data locality. The scheduler's role is to match resource "supply" to workload "demand".
A controller is a reconciliation loop that drives the actual cluster state toward the desired state, communicating with the API server to create, update, and delete the resources it manages (e.g., pods or service endpoints). One kind of controller is a Replication Controller, which handles replication and scaling by running a specified number of copies of a pod across the cluster. It also handles creating replacement pods if the underlying node fails. Other controllers that are part of the core Kubernetes system include a DaemonSet Controller for running exactly one pod on every machine (or some subset of machines), and a Job Controller for running pods that run to completion, e.g. as part of a batch job. Labels selectors that are part of the controller's definition specify the set of pods that a controller manages.
The controller manager is a process that manages a set of core Kubernetes controllers.
Nodes
A node, also known as a worker or a minion, is a machine where containers (workloads) are deployed. Every node in the cluster must run a container runtime such as Docker, as well as the below-mentioned components, for communication with the primary for network configuration of these containers.
Kubelet is responsible for the running state of each node, ensuring that all containers on the node are healthy. It takes care of starting, stopping, and maintaining application containers organized into pods as directed by the control plane. Kubelet monitors the state of a pod, and if not in the desired state, the pod re-deploys to the same node. Node status is relayed every few seconds via heartbeat messages to the primary. Once the primary detects a node failure, the Replication Controller observes this state change and launches pods on other healthy nodes.
Kube-proxy is an implementation of a network proxy and a load balancer, and it supports the service abstraction along with other networking operation. It is responsible for routing traffic to the appropriate container based on IP and port number of the incoming request.
A container resides inside a pod. The container is the lowest level of a micro-service, which holds the running application, libraries, and their dependencies. Containers can be exposed to the world through an external IP address. Kubernetes has supported Docker containers since its first version. In July 2016 the rkt container engine was added.
Namespaces
Kubernetes provides a partitioning of the resources it manages into non-overlapping sets called namespaces. They are intended for use in environments with many users spread across multiple teams, or projects, or even separating environments like development, test, and production.
Pods
The basic scheduling unit in Kubernetes is a pod, which consists of one or more containers that are guaranteed to be co-located on the same node. Each pod in Kubernetes is assigned a unique IP address within the cluster, allowing applications to use ports without the risk of conflict. Within the pod, all containers can reference each other. However, for a container within one pod to access another container within another pod, it has to use the pod IP address. Pod IP addresses are ephemeral, though. An application developer should never use hardcoded pod IP addresses because the specific pod that they are referencing may be assigned to another pod IP address on restart. Instead, they should use a reference to a service (see below), which holds a reference to the target pod at the specific pod IP address.
A pod can define a volume, such as a local disk directory or a network disk, and expose it to the containers in the pod. Pods can be managed manually through the Kubernetes API, or their management can be delegated to a controller. Such volumes are also the basis for the Kubernetes features of ConfigMaps (to provide access to configuration through the file system visible to the container) and Secrets (to provide access to credentials needed to access remote resources securely, by providing those credentials on the file system visible only to authorized containers).
DaemonSets
Normally, the Kubernetes Scheduler decides where to run pods. For some use cases, though, there could be a need to run a pod on every single node in the cluster. This is useful for use cases like log collection, ingress controllers, and storage services. DaemonSets implement this kind of pod scheduling.
ReplicaSets
A ReplicaSet’s purpose is to maintain a stable set of replica pods running at any given time. As such, it is often used to guarantee the availability of a specified number of identical Pods.
The ReplicaSets can also be said to be a grouping mechanism that lets Kubernetes maintain the number of instances that have been declared for a given pod. The definition of a ReplicaSet uses a selector, whose evaluation will result in identifying all pods that are associated with it.
Services
A Kubernetes service is a set of pods that work together, such as one tier of a multi-tier application. The set of pods that constitute a service are defined by a label selector. Kubernetes provides two modes of service discovery, using environmental variables or using Kubernetes DNS. Service discovery assigns a stable IP address and DNS name to the service, and load balances traffic in a round-robin manner to network connections of that IP address among the pods matching the selector (even as failures cause the pods to move from machine to machine). By default a service is exposed inside a cluster (e.g., back end pods might be grouped into a service, with requests from the front-end pods load-balanced among them), but a service can also be exposed outside a cluster (e.g., for clients to reach front-end pods).
Volumes
File systems in the Kubernetes container provide ephemeral storage, by default. This means that a restart of the pod will wipe out any data on such containers, and therefore, this form of storage is quite limiting in anything but trivial applications. A Kubernetes Volume provides persistent storage that exists for the lifetime of the pod itself. This storage can also be used as shared disk space for containers within the pod. Volumes are mounted at specific mount points within the container, which are defined by the pod configuration, and cannot mount onto other volumes or link to other volumes. The same volume can be mounted at different points in the file system tree by different containers.
ConfigMaps and secrets
A common application challenge is deciding where to store and manage configuration information, some of which may contain sensitive data. Configuration data can be anything as fine-grained as individual properties or coarse-grained information like entire configuration files or JSON / XML documents. Kubernetes provides two closely related mechanisms to deal with this need: "configmaps" and "secrets", both of which allow for configuration changes to be made without requiring an application build. The data from configmaps and secrets will be made available to every single instance of the application to which these objects have been bound via the deployment. A secret and/or a configmap is only sent to a node if a pod on that node requires it. Kubernetes will keep it in memory on that node. Once the pod that depends on the secret or configmap is deleted, the in-memory copy of all bound secrets and configmaps are deleted as well. The data is accessible to the pod through one of two ways: a) as environment variables (which will be created by Kubernetes when the pod is started) or b) available on the container file system that is visible only from within the pod.
The data itself is stored on the master which is a highly secured machine which nobody should have login access to. The biggest difference between a secret and a configmap is that the content of the data in a secret is base64 encoded. Recent versions of Kubernetes have introduced support for encryption to be used as well. Secrets are often used to store data like certificates, passwords, pull secrets (credentials to work with image registries), and ssh keys.
StatefulSets
Scaling stateless applications is only a matter of adding more running pods. Stateful workloads are harder, because the state needs to be preserved if a pod is restarted. If the application is scaled up or down, the state may need to be redistributed. Databases are an example of stateful workloads. When run in high-availability mode, many databases come with the notion of a primary instance and secondary instances. In this case, the notion of ordering of instances is important. Other applications like Apache Kafka distribute the data amongst their brokers; hence, one broker is not the same as another. In this case, the notion of instance uniqueness is important.
StatefulSets are controllers (see above) that enforce the properties of uniqueness and ordering amongst instances of a pod and can be used to run stateful applications.
Replication controllers and deployments
A ReplicaSet declares the number of instances of a pod that is needed, and a Replication Controller manages the system so that the number of healthy pods that are running matches the number of pods declared in the ReplicaSet (determined by evaluating its selector).
Deployments are a higher level management mechanism for ReplicaSets. While the Replication Controller manages the scale of the ReplicaSet, Deployments will manage what happens to the ReplicaSet - whether an update has to be rolled out, or rolled back, etc. When deployments are scaled up or down, this results in the declaration of the ReplicaSet changing - and this change in declared state is managed by the Replication Controller.
Labels and selectors
Kubernetes enables clients (users or internal components) to attach keys called "labels" to any API object in the system, such as pods and nodes. Correspondingly, "label selectors" are queries against labels that resolve to matching objects. When a service is defined, one can define the label selectors that will be used by the service router/load balancer to select the pod instances that the traffic will be routed to. Thus, simply changing the labels of the pods or changing the label selectors on the service can be used to control which pods get traffic and which don't, which can be used to support various deployment patterns like blue-green deployments or A-B testing. This capability to dynamically control how services utilize implementing resources provides a loose coupling within the infrastructure.
For example, if an application's pods have labels for a system tier (with values such as front-end, back-end, for example) and a release_track (with values such as canary, production, for example), then an operation on all of back-end and canary nodes can use a label selector, such as:
tier=back-end AND release_track=canary
Just like labels, field selectors also let one select Kubernetes resources. Unlike labels, the selection is based on the attribute values inherent to the resource being selected, rather than user-defined categorization. metadata.name and metadata.namespace are field selectors that will be present on all Kubernetes objects. Other selectors that can be used depend on the object/resource type.
Add-ons
Add-ons operate just like any other application running within the cluster: they are implemented via pods and services, and are only different in that they implement features of the Kubernetes cluster. The pods may be managed by Deployments, ReplicationControllers, and so on. There are many add-ons, and the list is growing. Some of the more important are:
DNS: All Kubernetes clusters should have cluster DNS; it is a mandatory feature. Cluster DNS is a DNS server, in addition to the other DNS server(s) in your environment, which serves DNS records for Kubernetes services. Containers started by Kubernetes automatically include this DNS server in their DNS searches.
Web UI: This is a general purpose, web-based UI for Kubernetes clusters. It allows users to manage and troubleshoot applications running in the cluster, as well as the cluster itself.
Container Resource Monitoring: Providing a reliable application runtime, and being able to scale it up or down in response to workloads, means being able to continuously and effectively monitor workload performance. Container Resource Monitoring provides this capability by recording metrics about containers in a central database, and provides a UI for browsing that data. The cAdvisor is a component on a slave node that provides a limited metric monitoring capability. There are full metrics pipelines as well, such as Prometheus, which can meet most monitoring needs.
Cluster-level logging: Logs should have a separate storage and lifecycle independent of nodes, pods, or containers. Otherwise, node or pod failures can cause loss of event data. The ability to do this is called cluster-level logging, and such mechanisms are responsible for saving container logs to a central log store with search/browsing interface. Kubernetes provides no native storage for log data, but one can integrate many existing logging solutions into the Kubernetes cluster.
Storage
Containers emerged as a way to make software portable. The container contains all the packages you need to run a service. The provided file system makes containers extremely portable and easy to use in development. A container can be moved from development to test or production with no or relatively few configuration changes.
Historically Kubernetes was suitable only for stateless services. However, many applications have a database, which requires persistence, which leads to the creation of persistent storage for Kubernetes. Implementing persistent storage for containers is one of the top challenges of Kubernetes administrators, DevOps and cloud engineers. Containers may be ephemeral, but more and more of their data is not, so one needs to ensure the data's survival in case of container termination or hardware failure. When deploying containers with Kubernetes or containerized applications, companies often realize that they need persistent storage. They need to provide fast and reliable storage for databases, root images and other data used by the containers.
In addition to the landscape, the Cloud Native Computing Foundation (CNCF), has published other information about Kubernetes Persistent Storage including a blog helping to define the container attached storage pattern. This pattern can be thought of as one that uses Kubernetes itself as a component of the storage system or service.
More information about the relative popularity of these and other approaches can be found on the CNCF's landscape survey as well, which showed that OpenEBS from MayaData and Rook - a storage orchestration project - were the two projects most likely to be in evaluation as of the Fall of 2019.
Container Attached Storage is a type of data storage that emerged as Kubernetes gained prominence. The Container Attached Storage approach or pattern relies on Kubernetes itself for certain capabilities while delivering primarily block, file, object and interfaces to workloads running on Kubernetes.
Common attributes of Container Attached Storage include the use of extensions to Kubernetes, such as custom resource definitions, and the use of Kubernetes itself for functions that otherwise would be separately developed and deployed for storage or data management. Examples of functionality delivered by custom resource definitions or by Kubernetes itself include retry logic, delivered by Kubernetes itself, and the creation and maintenance of an inventory of available storage media and volumes, typically delivered via a custom resource definition.
API
A key component of the Kubernetes control plane is the API Server, which exposes an HTTP API that can be invoked by other parts of the cluster as well as end users and external components. This API is a REST API and is declarative in nature. There are two kinds of API resources. Most of the API resources in the Kubernetes API are objects. These represent a concrete instance of a concept on the cluster, like a pod or namespace. A small number of API resource types are "virtual". These represent operations rather than objects, such as a permission check, using the "subjectaccessreviews" resource. API resources that correspond to objects will be represented in the cluster with unique identifiers for the objects. Virtual resources do not have unique identifiers.
Operators
Kubernetes can be extended using Custom Resources. These API resources represent objects that are not part of the standard Kubernetes product. These resources can appear and disappear in a running cluster through dynamic registration. Cluster administrators can update Custom Resources independently of the cluster.
Custom Controllers are another extension mechanism. These interact with Custom Resources, and allow for a true declarative API that allows for the lifecycle management of Custom Resource that is aligned with the way that Kubernetes itself is designed. The combination of Custom Resources and Custom Controllers are often referred to as an (Kubernetes) Operator. The key use case for Operators are to capture the aim of a human operator who is managing a service or set of services and to implement them using automation, and with a declarative API supporting this automation. Human operators who look after specific applications and services have deep knowledge of how the system ought to behave, how to deploy it, and how to react if there are problems. Examples of problems solved by Operators include taking and restoring backups of that application's state, and
handling upgrades of the application code alongside related changes such as database schemas or extra configuration settings.
Cluster API
The same API design principles have been used to define an API to programmatically create, configure, and manage Kubernetes clusters. This is called the Cluster API. A key concept embodied in the API is using Infrastructure as Software, or the notion that the Kubernetes cluster infrastructure is itself a resource / object that can be managed just like any other Kubernetes resources. Similarly, machines that make up the cluster are also treated as a Kubernetes resource. The API has two pieces - the core API, and a provider implementation. The provider implementation consists of cloud-provider specific functions that let Kubernetes provide the cluster API in a fashion that is well-integrated with the cloud-provider's services and resources.
Cluster API was originally proposed in 2017 by Jacob Beacham, Kris Nóva, and Robert Bailey.
Uses
Kubernetes is commonly used as a way to host a microservice-based implementation, because it and its associated ecosystem of tools provide all the capabilities needed to address key concerns of any microservice architecture. It is available in three forms: open source, commercial, and managed. Open source distributions include the original Kubernetes, Amazon EKS-D, Red Hat OpenShift, VMware Tanzu, Mirantis Kubernetes Engine, and D2iQ Kubernetes Platform. Managed offerings include GKE, Oracle Container Engine for Kubernetes, Amazon Elastic Kubernetes Service, IBM Kubernetes Service, and Platform9 Managed Kubernetes.
Release timeline
Support windows
The chart below visualises the period for which each release is/was supported
See also
Cloud Native Computing Foundation
Docker (software)
List of cluster management software
Open Service Mesh
OpenShift
References
External links
2014 software
Cloud infrastructure
Containerization software
Free software for cloud computing
Free software programmed in Go
Linux containerization
Linux Foundation projects
Software using the Apache license
Virtualization-related software for Linux
Orchestration software |
145922 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plumber%20%28program%29 | Plumber (program) | The plumber, in the Plan 9 from Bell Labs and Inferno operating systems, is a mechanism for reliable uni- or multicast inter-process communication of formatted textual messages. It uses the Plan 9 network file protocol, 9P, rather than a special-purpose IPC mechanism.
Any number of clients may listen on a named port (a file) for messages. Ports and port routing are defined by plumbing rules. These rules are dynamic. Each listening program receives a copy of matching messages. For example, if the data /sys/lib/plumb/basic is plumbed with the standard rules, it is sent to the edit port. The port will write a copy of the message to each listener. In this case, all running editors will interpret this message as a file name, and open the file.
The plumber is the 9P file server that provides this service. Clients may use libplumb to format messages. Since the messages are 9P, they are network transparent.
See also
Pipeline (software)
External links
"Plumbing and Other Utilities" by Rob Pike
A port of plumber to Unix-like operating systems
Plumbing extension for urxvt
Plan 9 from Bell Labs
Inferno (operating system)
Free special-purpose file systems |
21127381 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2009%20UCLA%20Bruins%20football%20team | 2009 UCLA Bruins football team | The 2009 UCLA Bruins football team represented the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) in the 2009 NCAA Division I FBS football season. Under second-year head coach Rick Neuheisel, they opened the season at the Rose Bowl on September 5 against San Diego State. The last game of the season, against USC was moved from the "Championship Saturday" weekend of December. Instead, the UCLA–USC rivalry game was played on Saturday, November 28 at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum.
Following the regular season, which they finished with six wins and six losses, the Bruins were invited to play in the 2009 EagleBank Bowl, thanks to the normal tie-in Army not being bowl eligible at 5–7. UCLA defeated Temple 30–21 to finish the season with a winning record.
All regular season UCLA football games were broadcast on the UCLA ISP Sports Network (AM 570 KLAC in Southern California) and SIRIUS Satellite Radio nationally.
Recruitment
On Wednesday, February 4, 2009, UCLA announced 22 letter-of-intent signings from high school football players, including Richard Brehaut, Rancho Cucamonga, CA; Randall Carroll, Los Angeles, CA; Todd Golper, Arcadia, CA; Stanley Hasiak, Kapolei, HI; Dalton Hilliard, Honolulu, HI; Jared Koster, Norco, CA; Taniela Maka, Long Beach, CA; Stan McKay, Long Beach, CA; Marlon Pollard, San Bernardino, CA; Morrell Presley, Carson, CA; Sheldon Price, La Puente, CA; Xavier Su'a-Filo, Provo, UT; Iuta Tepa, Long Beach, CA; Damien Thigpen, Manassas, VA. Two junior college signees, Ryan Taylor of Denison, TX and Eddie Williams of Walnut, CA picked the Bruins.
With these signings, Scout.com's national recruiting rankings has placed the Bruins at No. 4 (tie), surpassing USC, which is rated #7.
Spring practice
2009 Spring Practice Schedule:
Week One – April 2 (4:00 PM), April 3 (4:00 PM) and April 4 (11:00 AM)
Week Two – April 6 (4:00 PM), April 7 (4:00 PM), April 9 (4:00 PM) and April 11 (12:30 PM)
Week Three – April 13 (4:00 PM), April 14 (4:00 PM), April 16 (4:00 PM) and April 17 (4:00 PM)
Week Four – April 20 (4:00 PM), April 21 (4:00 PM), April 23 (4:00 PM) and April 25 (7:00 PM Spring Scrimmage at the Rose Bowl)
At spring practice, quarterback Kevin Craft battled with Kevin Prince and freshman Richard Brehaut for quarterback in 2009. Prince was selected by Coach Neuheisel as the starter.
Pre-season practice
Week One — August 10–14 (once a day), August 15 (twice a day)
Week Two — August 17–21 (twice a day on 17th, 19th and 21st)
Scrimmage — August 22, 5:00 PM, Drake Stadium
Notes
The Bosworth twins, Kyle and Korey, are back for another season, and they participated in the 2009 graduation ceremony.
Also participating in UCLA's 2009 commencement ceremonies were Troy Aikman, former linebacker Marcus Reece and Kevin Craft. Former quarterback John Sciarra was the keynote speaker at the sociology department ceremony.
Following the Spring scrimmage (April 26), Neuheisel announced the captains for the team: Reggie Carter and Alterraun Verner (defense) and Logan Paulsen and Terrence Austin (offense).
Aundre Dean, Raymond Carter, Chris Forcier and Dominique Johnson have been given releases to transfer from UCLA to another school. Dean will attend TCU. Forcier transferred to Furman University.
Coach Neuheisel participates in Coaches Tour 2009 to visit U.S. troops in Germany, Turkey, Iraq, Iraq, Kuwait, Djibouti, and Spain.
Tight end Joseph Fauria transferred from Notre Dame to UCLA prior to the start of the season following an undisclosed university violation that would have sidelined him for the season.
UCLA was ranked 24th by the Phil Steele pre-season poll.
Defensive tackle Willie Mobley, formerly with Ohio State, is transferring to UCLA but was unable to enroll in the fall quarter. He said that he lacked the necessary credits. Former Colorado receiver Josh Smith has transferred to UCLA after two seasons.
After winning the EagleBank Bowl game, Brian Price announced that he will enter the NFL draft and Xavier Su'a-Filo will go on a Mormon mission for two years.
Schedule
Game summaries
San Diego State
This was the season-opening game for both teams. Both San Diego State Offensive Coordinator Al Borges and Defensive Coordinator Rocky Long are former UCLA coaches, and Tony White, Aztecs cornerbacks coach, played and coached at UCLA. Free game tickets were given to firefighters and their families for fighting the "Station wildfire" at nearby Angeles National Forest.
Behind Rahim Moore’s three record-tying interceptions, UCLA Bruins defeated San Diego State 33–14. The Aztecs scored first on a 4-yard pass from Ryan Lindley to Matthe Kawulok. The Bruins’ Kai Forbath kicked a 49-yard field goal, but Lindley threw a 78-yard touchdown pass to Vincent Brown to give San Diego State a 14–3 lead in the first quarter.
Those were the final points for the Aztecs. Then the Bruins scored 30 unanswered points on Johnathan Franklin's 12-yard run in the first quarter, Derrick Coleman's 29-yard run and a 6-yard pass from Kevin Prince to Terrence Austin in the second quarter. In the third quarter, Kai Forbath kicked a 50-yard field goal and Alterraun Verner returned a blocked field goal for a 70-yard touchtown.
Tennessee
Lane Kiffin replaced Phillip Fulmer as the head coach of the Vols on December 1, 2008. The 33-year-old Kiffin was an assistant coach at USC with Coach Norm Chow for number of years.
Kai Forbath kicked four field goals to help the Bruins bring home a 19–15 victory at Tennessee. Rahim Moore again played an outstanding game with two interceptions. Chane Moline caught a 12-yard pass from Kevin Prince for the only UCLA touchdown. The Bruin defense kept the Tennessee team from the end zone for much of the game, allowing the Vols 208 total yards. Prince completed 11 of 23 passes for 101 yards.
Scoring for the Vols was Montario Hardesty (11-yard run), Daniel Lincoln (31, 28-yard field goals) and Dennis Rogan (safety), which was aided by two UCLA third-and-long penalties and a UCLA fumble. During the final minutes of the game, Prince had his right jaw broken. He was projected to be out for three to four weeks.
Kansas State
This was the first meeting between the two teams. Kansas State had a 1–1 record going into the game, having lost to the Louisiana-Lafayette Ragin' Cajuns 17–15 the previous week. Bill Snyder came out of retirement to coach the Wildcats. Former wide receiver Mike Sherrard, who played for 10 years with the NFL, was the honorary game captain. Kevin Craft, last year's starter, took over at quarterback in relief of Kevin Prince, who fractured his jaw the previous week against Tennessee.
Craft passed for 186 yards and a touchdown to lead the Bruins to a 23–9 victory over the Wildcats. Freshman Johnathan Franklin rushed for a career-best 119 yards on 23 carries and Kai Forbath kicked three field goals in the victory. Craft completed 13 of 24 passes with one interception including a game-clinching 51-yard scoring pass to Terrence Austin with 6:18 remaining.
Josh Cherry kicked a 26-yard field goal in the first quarter and Daniel Thomas had a 7-yard run in the third quarter for the Wildcats (Ryan Doerr's PAT pass failed). UCLA's one lost fumble and eight penalties for 80 yards were the ugly part of the victory. The Wildcats had two fumbles and four penalties for 50 yards. Alterraun Verner had two interceptions and returned them for 47 yards for the Bruins.
Stanford
Entering the game, the Bruins were the only undefeated team in the Pac-10 Conference. Toby Gerhart, the Cardinal's 237-pound tailback who had 138 yards against UCLA last year, was averaging 129 yards a game.
Kai Forbath kicked a 29-yard field goal after a fumble recovery to give the Bruins the early lead. Then Gerhart rushed for 5 yards for a touchdown for Stanford in the first quarter. Aided by a UCLA personal foul in the second quarter, Gerhart scored his second touchdown. A partially blocked punt allowed the Bruins to kick a field goal just before halftime.
Using a 46-yard trick play in the third quarter to put Stanford in the red zone, Gerhart scored his third touchdown from the five-yard line. Unable to contain Gerhart, UCLA allowed Nate Whitaker to kick a 29-yard field goal for a 24-6 Stanford lead. The Bruins began the fourth quarter with a Johnathan Franklin 1-yard touchdown run. Forbath's 35-yard field goal reduced the Cardinal lead to 8 with about four minutes left. With Stanford failing to move the ball, UCLA took over with 3 minutes left but were unable to make a comeback win.
Oregon
After losing their first game to then #14 Boise State, the Ducks had won four straight games, over Purdue, Utah, California and Washington State. At game time, UCLA was leading the series, 39–23, since 1928.
With a solid performance in the first half and taking a field goal lead into the locker room, the Bruins gave up three quick touchdowns within few minutes of the third quarter to give the Ducks their fifth win of the season. The Ducks scored on Kenjon Barner's 100-yard kickoff return, on Talmadge Jackson's 31-yard interception, and on Nate Costa's 20-yard pass to Jeff Maehl that was aided by a UCLA fumble.
The Bruins scored their only touchdown when Akeem Ayers intercepted a Costa pass in the back of the Rose Bowl north end zone by keeping his feet in bounds. Kai Forbath kicked a 52-yard field goal to give UCLA the early lead. Oregon's Rob Beard attempted a 51-yard field goal, which was blocked by Jerzy Siewierski. Mogan Flint kicked a 33-yard field goal for the Ducks in the fourth quarter.
California
Both teams were looking for their first conference win, after losing the first two. Cal head coach Jeff Tedford was looking for his first road victory in Southern California, having lost all seven games to the Los Angeles schools as Cal's coach.
The Bears took advantage of the Bruins' mistakes and poor defensive performance to beat UCLA 45-26 for Tedford's first win in the Rose Bowl. Shane Vereen's 42 yard run and Marvin Jones' 43 yard pass from Kevin Riley were all the touchdowns the Bears needed in the first quarter. The scoring continued in the second quarter with Jahvid Best catching a 51-yard touchdown pass from Riley and running for a 93-yard touchdown.
Shane Vereen finished with 154 yards in 17 carries and Marvin Jones caught two TD passes from Kevin Riley in his four receptions for a total of 89 yards. Giorgio Tavecchio kicked a 24-yard field goal in the third quarter and Mychal Kendricks returned a 68-yard touchdown interception for Cal in the fourth quarter with 5 minutes remaining in the game.
Johnathan Franklin scored for UCLA with a 7-yard touchdown and a 74-yard touchdown, UCLA's longest scoring run in six years. As one of the best in the nation, Kai Forbath kicked four field goals, 24, 39, 46, and 35 yards. Quarterback Kevin Prince finished the game with 311 passing yards and that one interception in the fourth quarter. The Bruins had now lost three games in a row after starting the season with three victories, making it very difficult to have a winning season for Coach Rick Neuheisel.
To save $100,000 in transportation cost, Cal took a bus from Berkeley on Thursday for the Southland. The long bus ride didn't have any ill effect on the Golden Bears during the hot 3-hour 24-minute game.
Entertainment was provided by both schools' bands and high school bands from Southern California and one from Las Vegas.
Arizona
In the first quarter, Arizona's first drive ended when Rahim Moore intercepted a Nick Foles pass. But in their second drive, Nick Foles passed to Juron Criner for a 41-yard touchdown to give the Wildcats a lead. After Arizona recovered a Bruin fumble, Grigsby rushed into the end zone for a 6-yard touchdown, extra point blocked.
Both Moore and Jerzy Siewierski intercepted a Wildcats pass in the second quarter. Kai Forbath kicked a 53-yard field goal to put UCLA on the board before the half. UCLA's Datone Jones recovered a Foles fumble and Forbath kicked a field goal to begin the third quarter. Kevin Craft came in to replace Kevin Prince in UCLA's second possession, but Christian Ramirez fumbled the ball to Arizona, which led to the Wildcats' third touchdown, a Nick Foles 25-yard pass to Juron Criner. Tony Dye recovered a Wildcats fumble and ran in for a 28-yard UCLA touchdown. Late in the third quarter, Nick Booth rushed for 6 yards for a score to give Arizona a 27–13 lead.
In the fourth quarter, the Bruins were unable to do anything and lost their fourth game in a row.
Oregon State
Justin Kahut kicked two field goals, 48 yards and 42 yards, to give the Beavers a 6-point lead. Oregon State increased its lead to 13 when Jacquizz Rodgers passed to Brady Camp for a 14-yard touchdown. Kahut kicked another field goal to give the Beavers a 16–0 lead at the half.
UCLA got on the board on Kai Forbath's 24-yard field goal in the third quarter. Kahut's fourth field goal attempt was short. Kahut kicked his fourth field goal (31 yards) in the fourth quarter to give the Beavers a 19–3 lead. A 58-yard pass to Nelson Rosario from Kevin Prince, combined with a 2-point conversion to Rosario, put UCLA back in the game, behind by only 8 points. Then Taylor Embree caught a touchdown pass from Prince and Johnathan Franklin caught a conversion pass to tie the game for the Bruins with 2 minutes left. But James Rodgers ran into the end zone for an Oregon State touchdown on a drive of 7 plays and 70 yards. UCLA took over the ball with 44 seconds remaining in the game and failed to make a complete comeback. The Bruins lost their fifth game in a row after winning their first three.
Washington
For this Homecoming game, the Bruins donned throwback jerseys, the 1967-style jerseys worn by honorary captain Gary Beban's team. The game was also the UCLA Veterans and Armed Forces Appreciation Day.
Though they had five turnovers in the game, the Bruins did not lose their sixth conference game in a row. Kai Forbath kicked a 27-yard field goal early in the final period to win the game for the Bruins. Kevin Prince completed 13 of 17 passes for 212 yards and Kevin Craft had 10 of 14 completions for 159 yards. Both threw an interception. Wide receiver Nelson Rosario had seven receptions for 111 yards.
With the Huskies down by a point, Erik Folk missed a 38-yard field goal attempt in the fourth quarter. Folk kicked three field goals, two in the second quarter, and Jermaine Kearse scored two pass-touchdowns in the game. Jake Locker completed 23 of 40 passes for 235 yards for Washington. Coach Rick Neuheisel still has not lost to his former teams, Colorado and Washington.
Washington State
After an interception, the Bruins scored on a pass touchdown from Kevin Prince to Taylor Embree on their first offensive play.
Arizona State
Andy Meyers, former offensive guard on UCLA's Pac-10 championship teams of 1997 and 1998, was the honorary captain for this Senior Day game. Eighteen seniors were playing in their last home game: DL Chinonso Anyanwu, WR Terrence Austin, DL Korey Bosworth, LB Kyle Bosworth, LB Reggie Carter, QB Kevin Craft, OL Nick Ekbatani, WR Gavin Ketchum, RB Chane Moline, TE Ryan Moya, TE Logan Paulsen, QB Osaar Rasshan, RB Craig Sheppard, DL Jerzy Siewierski, FB Trevor Theriot, CB Alterraun Verner, DL Jess Ward, DB Aaron Ware.
USC
This was the UCLA–USC rivalry game for the Victory Bell. Both teams wore home jerseys, in a tradition that had been restarted the previous year. The Bruins wore their 1966 throwback powder blue jerseys. The Trojans defeated the Bruins 28-7. With the Trojans leading 21-7 after a touchdown with 1:30 in the fourth quarter, and having possession of the ball after UCLA turned it over on downs, Coach Neuheisel called a timeout to stop the clock. The Trojans immediately connected on a 48-yard pass play for the fourth touchdown.
EagleBank Bowl
UCLA played Temple at the 2009 EagleBank Bowl at RFK Stadium in Washington, D.C. The bowl game was scheduled to start at 4:30 PM US EST on Tuesday, December 29, 2009. Navy defeated Army, allowing UCLA to play in its first bowl game since the 2007 Las Vegas Bowl.
The Temple Owls were making their first bowl game in 30 years, but it was ruined by the UCLA Bruins. The game time temperature started at freezing, with significant windchill, and only decreased from there. This led notable Temple alum Bill Cosby to flaunt his Owls' distinct weather advantage.
The teams traded touchdowns early, but Temple built a big lead early, thanks to the play of the running back tandem of Bernard Price and Matt Brown. After trailing 21–10 at the half, UCLA converted a 4th and 1 pass to Terrence Austin into a touchdown to pull within 4. The game was won in the 4th quarter with a field goal by Kai Forbath, a 2-yard interception touchdown by Akeem Ayers, a two-point PAT catch by Nelson Rosario from Kevin Prince, and a safety from a bad snap on a Temple punt. Akeem Ayers was the MVP with several key tackles and the game-winning score, in which he fell attempting a pass rush, and was able to get up just in time to intercept the pass at the line of scrimmage and score easily.
Awards and honors
At their annual awards banquet at the Hyatt Century Plaza Hotel, running back Chane Moline, safety Rahim Moore and defensive tackle Brian Price were selected winners of UCLA's Henry R. "Red" Sanders Award for most valuable players. Tight end Logan Paulsen was awarded the Jackie R. Robinson Award for the highest scholarship of a senior player.
American Football Coaches Association (AFCA) Coaches' All-Americans First Team:
Kai Forbath, PK; Brian Price, DT
All-Pacific-10 Conference teams
Pat Tillman Defensive Player of the Year: Brian Price, DT
First Team: LB, Reggie Carter; PK, Kai Forbath; DB, Rahim Moore; DL, Brian Price; DB, Alterraun Verner
Second Team: KOR, Terrence Austin; P, Jeff Locke
Honorable mention: OLB, Akeem Ayers; OLB Kyle Bosworth; SE, Nelson Rosario; OT, Xavier Su'a-Filo
Lou Groza Collegiate Place-Kicker Award
Kai Forbath, the 2009 Lou Groza Collegiate Place-Kicker Award winner
Walter Camp Football Foundation All-America
Place kicker Kai Forbath, first team All-America
Defensive tackle Brian Price, second-team All-America
Safety Rahim Moore, second-team All-America
Coaches
Rick Neuheisel - Head Coach
Chuck Bullough - Def. Coordinator/Linebackers
Norm Chow - Offensive Coordinator
Frank Gansz, Jr. - Special Teams
Todd Howard - Defensive Line
Tim Hundley - Secondary
Carnell Lake - Cornerbacks
Reggie Moore - Wide Receivers
Wayne Moses - Running Backs
Bob Palcic - Offensive Line
Philip Rauscher - Graduate Assistant/Offense
Clark Lea - Graduate Assistant/Defense
References
Bibliography
UCLA Bruins football media guide 2008 Edition (preseason information)
UCLA
UCLA Bruins football seasons
Military Bowl champion seasons
UCLA Bruins football |
43620002 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ACD/ChemSketch | ACD/ChemSketch | ACD/ChemSketch is a molecular modeling program used to create and modify images of chemical structures. Also, there is a software that allows molecules and molecular models displayed in two and three dimensions, to understand the structure of chemical bonds and the nature of the functional groups.
Features
The program offers some advanced features that allows the molecules rotate and apply color to improve visualization. It has several templates with ions and functional groups with the possibility to add text and use other tools to optimize productions created by the software.
Applications
Using ACD/ChemSketch is primarily for educational use. With this program it is possible to write and perform chemical equations, diagrams laboratories and chemical structures of various entity.
See also
ChemDraw
Software design
3D graphics software
Molecule editor
References
External links
Types of Educational Software.
"Catalogue of Educational Software Libre". CIDETYS, 2011. PDF | OpenLibra ( En español).
ChemSketch for academic and personal use. Official website: Chemsketch (ACD/Labs)
Chemistry software
Educational software |
30605522 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1935%20USC%20Trojans%20football%20team | 1935 USC Trojans football team | The 1935 USC Trojans football team represented the University of Southern California (USC) in the 1935 college football season. In their 11th year under head coach Howard Jones, the Trojans compiled a 5–7 record (2–4 against conference opponents), finished in eighth place in the Pacific Coast Conference, and outscored their opponents by a combined total of 155 to 124.
Schedule
References
USC
USC Trojans football seasons
Poi Bowl champion seasons
USC Trojans football |
64400791 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20unnumbered%20minor%20planets%3A%202000%20P%E2%80%93R | List of unnumbered minor planets: 2000 P–R | This is a partial list of unnumbered minor planets for principal provisional designations assigned between 1 August and 15 September 2000. , a total of 461 bodies remain unnumbered for this period. Objects for this year are listed on the following pages: A–E · F–O · P–R · S–T and U–Y. Also see previous and next year.
P
|- id="2000 PN" bgcolor=#FFC2E0
| – || 2000 PN || APO || 22.5 || data-sort-value="0.11" | 110 m || single || 2 days || 03 Aug 2000 || 22 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2000 PE3" bgcolor=#FFC2E0
| 0 || || APO || 20.50 || data-sort-value="0.28" | 280 m || multiple || 2000–2021 || 11 Sep 2021 || 134 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2000 PF3" bgcolor=#FA8072
| 1 || || MCA || 17.6 || data-sort-value="0.90" | 900 m || multiple || 2000–2020 || 23 Dec 2020 || 185 || align=left | Disc.: LINEARAlt.: 2010 LZ65 ||
|- id="2000 PS3" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 1 || || MBA-I || 17.1 || 1.1 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 17 Jan 2021 || 154 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2000 PF5" bgcolor=#FFC2E0
| 4 || || AMO || 20.3 || data-sort-value="0.31" | 310 m || single || 66 days || 06 Oct 2000 || 139 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2000 PY5" bgcolor=#FFC2E0
| 6 || || APO || 21.1 || data-sort-value="0.21" | 210 m || single || 31 days || 02 Sep 2000 || 43 || align=left | Disc.: LINEARPotentially hazardous object ||
|- id="2000 PZ5" bgcolor=#FA8072
| 0 || || MCA || 17.61 || 1.7 km || multiple || 2000–2020 || 26 Jan 2020 || 427 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2000 PK6" bgcolor=#FA8072
| 1 || || MCA || 18.2 || data-sort-value="0.96" | 960 m || multiple || 2000–2017 || 23 Jun 2017 || 48 || align=left | Disc.: AMOS ||
|- id="2000 PW7" bgcolor=#FA8072
| 1 || || MCA || 18.0 || data-sort-value="0.75" | 750 m || multiple || 2000–2018 || 12 Apr 2018 || 127 || align=left | Disc.: LINEARAlt.: 2015 TG201 ||
|- id="2000 PH8" bgcolor=#FFC2E0
| 7 || || AMO || 24.3 || data-sort-value="0.049" | 49 m || single || 6 days || 09 Aug 2000 || 22 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2000 PL8" bgcolor=#FA8072
| 1 || || MCA || 16.9 || 2.3 km || multiple || 1989–2011 || 29 Nov 2011 || 106 || align=left | Disc.: LINEARAlt.: 2011 LW19 ||
|- id="2000 PN8" bgcolor=#FFC2E0
| 0 || || APO || 22.04 || data-sort-value="0.14" | 140 m || multiple || 2000–2021 || 17 Aug 2021 || 166 || align=left | Disc.: AMOS ||
|- id="2000 PP9" bgcolor=#FFC2E0
| 0 || || AMO || 19.1 || data-sort-value="0.54" | 540 m || multiple || 2000–2014 || 18 May 2014 || 195 || align=left | Disc.: LINEARPotentially hazardous object ||
|- id="2000 PA13" bgcolor=#FA8072
| 0 || || MCA || 17.21 || 1.5 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 17 Dec 2021 || 225 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2000 PX21" bgcolor=#FA8072
| 0 || || MCA || 18.1 || data-sort-value="0.71" | 710 m || multiple || 1996–2020 || 14 Jun 2020 || 118 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2000 PM25" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 1 || || MBA-O || 16.6 || 2.7 km || multiple || 2000–2016 || 28 Jul 2016 || 29 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2000 PQ27" bgcolor=#FFC2E0
| 0 || || AMO || 20.0 || data-sort-value="0.36" | 360 m || multiple || 2000–2021 || 09 Jan 2021 || 535 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2000 PS28" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 1 || || MBA-M || 17.3 || 1.5 km || multiple || 2000–2020 || 29 Jan 2020 || 142 || align=left | Disc.: Berg. GladbachAdded on 17 January 2021Alt.: 2018 VC35 ||
|- id="2000 PU29" bgcolor=#C2E0FF
| 5 || || TNO || 8.08 || 80 km || multiple || 1999–2021 || 12 Sep 2021 || 19 || align=left | Disc.: Mauna Kea Obs.LoUTNOs, cubewano (cold) ||
|- id="2000 PW29" bgcolor=#C2E0FF
| 4 || || TNO || 8.3 || 73 km || multiple || 1999–2001 || 20 Sep 2001 || 14 || align=left | Disc.: Mauna Kea Obs.LoUTNOs, cubewano (cold) ||
|- id="2000 PX29" bgcolor=#C2E0FF
| 4 || || TNO || 7.6 || 155 km || multiple || 2000–2019 || 04 Sep 2019 || 28 || align=left | Disc.: Mauna Kea Obs.LoUTNOs, cubewano (hot) ||
|- id="2000 PY29" bgcolor=#C2E0FF
| 3 || || TNO || 7.3 || 115 km || multiple || 2000–2012 || 11 Oct 2012 || 22 || align=left | Disc.: Mauna Kea Obs.LoUTNOs, cubewano (cold) ||
|- id="2000 PZ29" bgcolor=#C2E0FF
| E || || TNO || 7.5 || 109 km || single || 1 day || 06 Aug 2000 || 6 || align=left | Disc.: Mauna Kea Obs.LoUTNOs, cubewano? ||
|- id="2000 PA30" bgcolor=#C2E0FF
| 3 || || TNO || 8.0 || 83 km || multiple || 1999–2014 || 03 Sep 2014 || 18 || align=left | Disc.: Mauna Kea Obs.LoUTNOs, cubewano (cold) ||
|- id="2000 PB30" bgcolor=#C2E0FF
| E || || TNO || 8.1 || 82 km || single || 1 day || 06 Aug 2000 || 6 || align=left | Disc.: Mauna Kea Obs.LoUTNOs, cubewano? ||
|- id="2000 PC30" bgcolor=#C2E0FF
| 3 || || TNO || 7.6 || 100 km || multiple || 1999–2019 || 04 Sep 2019 || 24 || align=left | Disc.: Mauna Kea Obs.LoUTNOs, cubewano (cold) ||
|- id="2000 PD30" bgcolor=#C2E0FF
| 3 || || TNO || 7.0 || 132 km || multiple || 1999–2014 || 26 Sep 2014 || 40 || align=left | Disc.: Mauna Kea Obs.LoUTNOs, cubewano (cold) ||
|- id="2000 PF30" bgcolor=#C2E0FF
| 3 || || TNO || 7.9 || 99 km || multiple || 1999–2006 || 16 Apr 2006 || 27 || align=left | Disc.: Mauna Kea Obs.LoUTNOs, SDOAlt.: 1999 OL4 ||
|- id="2000 PG30" bgcolor=#C2E0FF
| 3 || || TNO || 7.7 || 96 km || multiple || 1999–2020 || 21 Sep 2020 || 20 || align=left | Disc.: Mauna Kea Obs.LoUTNOs, cubewano (cold) ||
|- id="2000 PH30" bgcolor=#C2E0FF
| 2 || || TNO || 7.8 || 104 km || multiple || 2000–2020 || 12 Aug 2020 || 23 || align=left | Disc.: Mauna Kea Obs.LoUTNOs, SDO ||
|- id="2000 PL30" bgcolor=#C2E0FF
| 4 || || TNO || 7.4 || 138 km || multiple || 2000–2019 || 04 Sep 2019 || 18 || align=left | Disc.: Mauna Kea Obs.LoUTNOs, other TNO ||
|- id="2000 PM30" bgcolor=#C2E0FF
| 3 || || TNO || 7.9 || 87 km || multiple || 1999–2019 || 04 Sep 2019 || 22 || align=left | Disc.: Mauna Kea Obs.LoUTNOs, cubewano (cold) ||
|- id="2000 PN30" bgcolor=#C2E0FF
| 3 || || TNO || 8.1 || 80 km || multiple || 1999–2012 || 11 Oct 2012 || 24 || align=left | Disc.: Mauna Kea Obs.LoUTNOs, cubewano (cold) ||
|- id="2000 PQ30" bgcolor=#C2E0FF
| 6 || || TNO || 8.6 || 63 km || multiple || 2000–2015 || 28 May 2015 || 11 || align=left | Disc.: La Silla Obs.LoUTNOs, cubewano (cold) ||
|- id="2000 PR30" bgcolor=#C2E0FF
| E || || TNO || 8.1 || 82 km || single || 1 day || 08 Aug 2000 || 6 || align=left | Disc.: La Silla Obs.LoUTNOs, cubewano? ||
|- id="2000 PS30" bgcolor=#C2E0FF
| E || || TNO || 8.8 || 66 km || single || 1 day || 08 Aug 2000 || 6 || align=left | Disc.: La Silla Obs.LoUTNOs, SDO ||
|- id="2000 PX30" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.9 || 1.1 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 08 Jun 2021 || 43 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 PB31" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 17.9 || data-sort-value="0.78" | 780 m || multiple || 2000–2021 || 17 Jan 2021 || 97 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro TololoAlt.: 2016 WG39 ||
|- id="2000 PU32" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.28 || data-sort-value="0.66" | 660 m || multiple || 2000–2021 || 10 May 2021 || 92 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 PV32" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 15.81 || 3.8 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 06 Apr 2021 || 135 || align=left | Disc.: SpacewatchAlt.: 2010 AG151, 2010 MG108 ||
|- id="2000 PW32" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.13 || 2.1 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 10 Aug 2021 || 76 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 PY32" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.62 || 2.6 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 11 May 2021 || 76 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 PZ32" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 18.18 || data-sort-value="0.69" | 690 m || multiple || 2000–2021 || 27 Nov 2021 || 115 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 PA33" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.3 || 1.9 km || multiple || 2000–2019 || 03 Oct 2019 || 68 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2000 PB33" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.0 || 3.5 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 08 Jun 2021 || 74 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 PC33" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.1 || data-sort-value="0.71" | 710 m || multiple || 2000–2019 || 29 Sep 2019 || 47 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 PD33" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.6 || data-sort-value="0.57" | 570 m || multiple || 2000–2016 || 03 Aug 2016 || 49 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 PE33" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.8 || 1.2 km || multiple || 2000–2020 || 12 Apr 2020 || 83 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 PF33" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.90 || data-sort-value="0.78" | 780 m || multiple || 2000–2021 || 06 Oct 2021 || 76 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 PJ33" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.49 || data-sort-value="0.60" | 600 m || multiple || 2000–2021 || 09 Oct 2021 || 55 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2000 PK33" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.0 || data-sort-value="0.75" | 750 m || multiple || 2000–2019 || 20 Dec 2019 || 82 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 PL33" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.82 || 1.1 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 08 Jul 2021 || 85 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 PN33" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 1 || || MBA-M || 18.2 || data-sort-value="0.68" | 680 m || multiple || 2000–2019 || 04 Feb 2019 || 88 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 PO33" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.35 || 1.9 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 05 Aug 2021 || 51 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 PQ33" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 1 || || MBA-O || 17.1 || 2.1 km || multiple || 2000–2019 || 04 Feb 2019 || 37 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 PR33" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.6 || 1.3 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 07 Jun 2021 || 55 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 PU33" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.89 || 2.3 km || multiple || 1995–2021 || 11 Jun 2021 || 91 || align=left | Disc.: SpacewatchAlt.: 1995 UL77 ||
|- id="2000 PV33" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 19.1 || data-sort-value="0.45" | 450 m || multiple || 2000–2019 || 03 Oct 2019 || 43 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 PW33" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.8 || 2.4 km || multiple || 2000–2020 || 04 Nov 2020 || 108 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2000 PX33" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.72 || data-sort-value="0.85" | 850 m || multiple || 2000–2021 || 25 Nov 2021 || 133 || align=left | Disc.: AMOS ||
|- id="2000 PY33" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.7 || 2.5 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 18 Jan 2021 || 30 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 PZ33" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.94 || data-sort-value="0.48" | 480 m || multiple || 2000–2020 || 22 Mar 2020 || 67 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 PA34" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.7 || 1.6 km || multiple || 2000–2019 || 28 Nov 2019 || 42 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 PB34" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 1 || || HUN || 19.2 || data-sort-value="0.43" | 430 m || multiple || 2000–2020 || 23 Jan 2020 || 33 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 PC34" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 2 || || MBA-I || 18.3 || data-sort-value="0.65" | 650 m || multiple || 2000–2021 || 18 Jan 2021 || 49 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 PE34" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 1 || || MBA-I || 18.72 || data-sort-value="0.54" | 540 m || multiple || 2000–2021 || 13 May 2021 || 64 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro TololoAdded on 19 October 2020 ||
|- id="2000 PF34" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 3 || || MBA-I || 19.6 || data-sort-value="0.36" | 360 m || multiple || 2000–2015 || 23 Oct 2015 || 16 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro TololoAdded on 19 October 2020 ||
|}
back to top
Q
|- id="2000 QC7" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 16.80 || 1.3 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 19 Nov 2021 || 273 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2000 QS7" bgcolor=#FFC2E0
| 0 || || APO || 19.5 || data-sort-value="0.45" | 450 m || multiple || 2000–2010 || 20 Feb 2010 || 59 || align=left | Disc.: LINEARPotentially hazardous object ||
|- id="2000 QT7" bgcolor=#FFC2E0
| 0 || || AMO || 20.27 || data-sort-value="0.31" | 310 m || multiple || 2000–2021 || 02 Nov 2021 || 266 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2000 QV7" bgcolor=#FFC2E0
| 0 || || APO || 21.55 || data-sort-value="0.17" | 170 m || multiple || 2000–2022 || 02 Jan 2022 || 177 || align=left | Disc.: LINEARPotentially hazardous object ||
|- id="2000 QL19" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.0 || 1.7 km || multiple || 2000–2020 || 28 Feb 2020 || 59 || align=left | Disc.: LINEARAlt.: 2015 BW14 ||
|- id="2000 QC34" bgcolor=#FA8072
| 2 || || MCA || 18.7 || 1.0 km || multiple || 2000–2011 || 27 Nov 2011 || 90 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2000 QO38" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 17.76 || data-sort-value="0.83" | 830 m || multiple || 1993–2021 || 17 Apr 2021 || 86 || align=left | Disc.: LINEARAlt.: 2004 TQ238 ||
|- id="2000 QB56" bgcolor=#FA8072
| 1 || || MCA || 18.4 || data-sort-value="0.62" | 620 m || multiple || 2000–2020 || 16 May 2020 || 143 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2000 QT69" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 18.22 || data-sort-value="0.95" | 950 m || multiple || 2000–2021 || 27 Nov 2021 || 119 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2000 QU69" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.6 || 1.7 km || multiple || 2000–2019 || 26 Sep 2019 || 44 || align=left | Disc.: SpacewatchAlt.: 2014 QP66 ||
|- id="2000 QX69" bgcolor=#FFC2E0
| 9 || || APO || 24.2 || data-sort-value="0.051" | 51 m || single || 5 days || 02 Sep 2000 || 29 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2000 QL74" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.31 || data-sort-value="0.65" | 650 m || multiple || 2000–2021 || 11 Jul 2021 || 121 || align=left | Disc.: LINEARAlt.: 2018 ST7 ||
|- id="2000 QD79" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 2 || || MBA-M || 17.6 || 1.3 km || multiple || 2000–2019 || 08 Jan 2019 || 81 || align=left | Disc.: LINEARAlt.: 2013 PH20 ||
|- id="2000 QM106" bgcolor=#fefefe
| – || || MBA-I || 18.0 || data-sort-value="0.75" | 750 m || single || 5 days || 03 Sep 2000 || 11 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2000 QV107" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.80 || data-sort-value="0.82" | 820 m || multiple || 2000–2022 || 06 Jan 2022 || 126 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2000 QM109" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 18.0 || 1.4 km || multiple || 2000–2019 || 24 Dec 2019 || 59 || align=left | Disc.: SpacewatchAlt.: 2014 QS235 ||
|- id="2000 QQ109" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.4 || 2.9 km || multiple || 2000–2020 || 17 May 2020 || 55 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2000 QF111" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 17.99 || data-sort-value="0.75" | 750 m || multiple || 2000–2021 || 08 Dec 2021 || 122 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2000 QA115" bgcolor=#FA8072
| 0 || || MCA || 18.45 || data-sort-value="0.61" | 610 m || multiple || 2000–2021 || 27 Nov 2021 || 270 || align=left | Disc.: LINEARAlt.: 2007 RR140 ||
|- id="2000 QW115" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.0 || data-sort-value="0.75" | 750 m || multiple || 2000–2019 || 04 Jul 2019 || 62 || align=left | Disc.: LINEARAdded on 11 May 2021Alt.: 2010 VU136 ||
|- id="2000 QN129" bgcolor=#FA8072
| 0 || || MCA || 18.3 || data-sort-value="0.65" | 650 m || multiple || 2000–2020 || 15 Dec 2020 || 129 || align=left | Disc.: Višnjan Obs. ||
|- id="2000 QB130" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.3 || 1.9 km || multiple || 2000–2020 || 31 Jan 2020 || 87 || align=left | Disc.: LINEARAlt.: 2014 QM295 ||
|- id="2000 QJ130" bgcolor=#FFC2E0
| 1 || || AMO || 19.4 || data-sort-value="0.47" | 470 m || multiple || 2000–2012 || 16 Nov 2012 || 135 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2000 QL130" bgcolor=#FFC2E0
| 4 || || AMO || 19.9 || data-sort-value="0.37" | 370 m || single || 92 days || 01 Dec 2000 || 45 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2000 QM130" bgcolor=#FA8072
| – || || MCA || 19.2 || data-sort-value="0.43" | 430 m || single || 5 days || 05 Sep 2000 || 35 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2000 QO130" bgcolor=#FFC2E0
| 4 || || AMO || 20.5 || data-sort-value="0.28" | 280 m || single || 92 days || 01 Dec 2000 || 71 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2000 QS130" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.3 || 1.5 km || multiple || 2000–2020 || 19 Apr 2020 || 104 || align=left | Disc.: Prescott Obs.Alt.: 2007 ED225, 2009 SH164, 2009 ST262, 2015 BG516, 2016 GE55 ||
|- id="2000 QF144" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.42 || 1.4 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 03 May 2021 || 86 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2000 QB148" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.47 || 1.3 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 23 Oct 2021 || 111 || align=left | Disc.: LINEARAdded on 21 August 2021Alt.: 2015 DG296 ||
|- id="2000 QE148" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 17.8 || data-sort-value="0.82" | 820 m || multiple || 2000–2019 || 31 Jul 2019 || 59 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2000 QM174" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 17.31 || 1.0 km || multiple || 1999–2021 || 17 Jun 2021 || 211 || align=left | Disc.: LINEARAlt.: 2003 KY36, 2007 VW35, 2010 GA121, 2018 SC12 ||
|- id="2000 QW179" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.26 || 2.0 km || multiple || 2000–2022 || 25 Jan 2022 || 105 || align=left | Disc.: SpacewatchAlt.: 2014 PM22 ||
|- id="2000 QM199" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 1 || || MBA-M || 17.2 || 2.0 km || multiple || 2000–2020 || 27 Jan 2020 || 56 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2000 QC210" bgcolor=#FA8072
| 1 || || MCA || 18.4 || data-sort-value="0.62" | 620 m || multiple || 2000–2020 || 21 Apr 2020 || 58 || align=left | Disc.: LINEARAlt.: 2000 RX59 ||
|- id="2000 QR210" bgcolor=#FA8072
| 1 || || MCA || 17.8 || 1.5 km || multiple || 2000–2018 || 27 Sep 2018 || 65 || align=left | Disc.: LINEARAlt.: 2009 PJ3 ||
|- id="2000 QS211" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 18.03 || data-sort-value="0.74" | 740 m || multiple || 2000–2021 || 26 Nov 2021 || 266 || align=left | Disc.: LINEARAlt.: 2017 XL63 ||
|- id="2000 QU211" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 1 || || MBA-I || 18.1 || data-sort-value="0.71" | 710 m || multiple || 2000–2019 || 31 Oct 2019 || 81 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2000 QA220" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.41 || data-sort-value="0.98" | 980 m || multiple || 2000–2022 || 06 Jan 2022 || 124 || align=left | Disc.: LONEOSAlt.: 2004 OJ15 ||
|- id="2000 QR221" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 17.8 || data-sort-value="0.82" | 820 m || multiple || 2000–2021 || 16 Jan 2021 || 130 || align=left | Disc.: LONEOSAlt.: 2015 BR163 ||
|- id="2000 QA224" bgcolor=#FA8072
| 0 || || MCA || 18.08 || 1.0 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 08 Jul 2021 || 77 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2000 QB224" bgcolor=#FA8072
| 0 || || MCA || 18.3 || data-sort-value="0.65" | 650 m || multiple || 2000–2019 || 04 Oct 2019 || 111 || align=left | Disc.: SpacewatchAlt.: 2016 SN23 ||
|- id="2000 QE225" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 17.77 || data-sort-value="0.83" | 830 m || multiple || 2000–2021 || 15 Apr 2021 || 107 || align=left | Disc.: LINEARAlt.: 2011 QB69, 2015 XY21 ||
|- id="2000 QB226" bgcolor=#C2E0FF
| E || || TNO || 6.6 || 164 km || single || 1 day || 30 Aug 2000 || 8 || align=left | Disc.: La Silla Obs.LoUTNOs, cubewano? ||
|- id="2000 QC226" bgcolor=#C2E0FF
| 3 || || TNO || 6.85 || 142 km || multiple || 2000–2018 || 18 Oct 2018 || 39 || align=left | Disc.: La Silla Obs.LoUTNOs, cubewano (cold), BR-mag: 1.88 ||
|- id="2000 QD226" bgcolor=#C2E0FF
| E || || TNO || 7.3 || 119 km || single || 1 day || 30 Aug 2000 || 6 || align=left | Disc.: La Silla Obs.LoUTNOs, cubewano? ||
|- id="2000 QE226" bgcolor=#C2E0FF
| 3 || || TNO || 6.44 || 171 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 12 Sep 2021 || 69 || align=left | Disc.: La Silla Obs.LoUTNOs, cubewano (cold) ||
|- id="2000 QF226" bgcolor=#C2E0FF
| E || || TNO || 8.3 || 75 km || single || 1 day || 30 Aug 2000 || 7 || align=left | Disc.: La Silla Obs.LoUTNOs, cubewano? ||
|- id="2000 QG226" bgcolor=#C2E0FF
| E || || TNO || 7.7 || 136 km || single || 5 days || 30 Aug 2000 || 9 || align=left | Disc.: La Silla Obs.LoUTNOs, plutino? ||
|- id="2000 QH226" bgcolor=#C2E0FF
| 2 || || TNO || 9.0 || 75 km || multiple || 2000–2017 || 23 Dec 2017 || 43 || align=left | Disc.: La Silla Obs.LoUTNOs, plutino ||
|- id="2000 QJ226" bgcolor=#C2E0FF
| E || || TNO || 8.1 || 113 km || single || 1 day || 30 Aug 2000 || 7 || align=left | Disc.: La Silla Obs.LoUTNOs, plutino? ||
|- id="2000 QK226" bgcolor=#C2E0FF
| E || || TNO || 8.9 || 63 km || single || 5 days || 30 Aug 2000 || 9 || align=left | Disc.: La Silla Obs.LoUTNOs, SDO ||
|- id="2000 QL226" bgcolor=#C2E0FF
| 2 || || TNO || 8.1 || 87 km || multiple || 2000–2018 || 18 Oct 2018 || 19 || align=left | Disc.: La Silla Obs.LoUTNOs, res4:7Alt.: 2013 SC113 ||
|- id="2000 QU231" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| – || || MBA-O || 18.6 || 1.1 km || single || 26 days || 24 Sep 2000 || 13 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2000 QM232" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 7 || || MBA-O || 18.1 || 1.3 km || multiple || 2000–2011 || 20 Sep 2011 || 7 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QW232" bgcolor=#fefefe
| – || || MBA-I || 19.6 || data-sort-value="0.36" | 360 m || single || 9 days || 03 Sep 2000 || 6 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QG233" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.2 || data-sort-value="0.68" | 680 m || multiple || 2000–2021 || 18 Jan 2021 || 45 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro TololoAdded on 21 August 2021Alt.: 2015 RK150 ||
|- id="2000 QH233" bgcolor=#fefefe
| – || || MBA-I || 19.8 || data-sort-value="0.33" | 330 m || single || 9 days || 03 Sep 2000 || 6 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QP233" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || HIL || 16.0 || 3.5 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 03 May 2021 || 67 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro TololoAdded on 17 June 2021Alt.: 2013 EK65, 2021 EH12 ||
|- id="2000 QU233" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.2 || 1.5 km || multiple || 1999–2020 || 02 Feb 2020 || 83 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QV233" bgcolor=#C2FFFF
| E || || JT || 15.1 || 5.3 km || single || 3 days || 28 Aug 2000 || 6 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro TololoTrojan camp (L5) ||
|- id="2000 QW233" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| – || || MBA-O || 18.6 || 1.1 km || single || 3 days || 28 Aug 2000 || 6 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QE234" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 3 || || MBA-M || 19.0 || data-sort-value="0.47" | 470 m || multiple || 2000–2020 || 22 May 2020 || 23 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro TololoAdded on 22 July 2020 ||
|- id="2000 QH234" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 2 || || MBA-M || 17.9 || 1.5 km || multiple || 2000–2019 || 24 Oct 2019 || 25 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QK234" bgcolor=#C2FFFF
| 0 || || JT || 14.1 || 8.4 km || multiple || 2000–2020 || 20 May 2020 || 100 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro TololoTrojan camp (L5) ||
|- id="2000 QJ235" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.7 || 2.5 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 07 Jun 2021 || 91 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro TololoAdded on 17 January 2021Alt.: 2015 FO257 ||
|- id="2000 QR235" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 1 || || MBA-M || 17.9 || 1.1 km || multiple || 2000–2020 || 25 Jan 2020 || 34 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QS235" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 18.66 || data-sort-value="0.55" | 550 m || multiple || 2000–2022 || 07 Jan 2022 || 39 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro TololoAdded on 17 January 2021 ||
|- id="2000 QF236" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.9 || 1.5 km || multiple || 2000–2019 || 28 Nov 2019 || 27 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro TololoAdded on 22 July 2020Alt.: 2014 SY89 ||
|- id="2000 QG236" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 18.3 || 1.2 km || multiple || 2000–2020 || 02 Feb 2020 || 49 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro TololoAdded on 21 August 2021Alt.: 2011 CT10 ||
|- id="2000 QU236" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 1 || || MBA-O || 17.4 || 1.8 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 14 Jun 2021 || 21 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro TololoAdded on 21 August 2021Alt.: 2021 JD36 ||
|- id="2000 QZ236" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 17.7 || data-sort-value="0.86" | 860 m || multiple || 2000–2019 || 24 Dec 2019 || 92 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro TololoAlt.: 2014 HK158 ||
|- id="2000 QD237" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 19.05 || data-sort-value="0.46" | 460 m || multiple || 2000–2021 || 30 Sep 2021 || 42 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QR237" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.9 || 2.3 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 12 Jun 2021 || 71 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro TololoAdded on 22 July 2020 ||
|- id="2000 QU237" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 1 || || MBA-M || 17.6 || 1.7 km || multiple || 2000–2018 || 08 Nov 2018 || 43 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QW237" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.1 || 2.1 km || multiple || 2000–2020 || 15 May 2020 || 42 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro TololoAlt.: 2011 SE46 ||
|- id="2000 QC238" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.38 || 1.9 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 14 Nov 2021 || 52 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo Obs.Added on 24 December 2021 ||
|- id="2000 QN238" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 3 || || MBA-O || 17.6 || 1.7 km || multiple || 2000–2020 || 29 Apr 2020 || 17 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro TololoAdded on 22 July 2020 ||
|- id="2000 QT238" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.72 || data-sort-value="0.54" | 540 m || multiple || 2000–2022 || 27 Jan 2022 || 65 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QU238" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 1 || || MBA-M || 18.2 || data-sort-value="0.96" | 960 m || multiple || 2000–2020 || 02 Feb 2020 || 30 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro TololoAdded on 22 July 2020 ||
|- id="2000 QX238" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 3 || || MBA-M || 18.7 || data-sort-value="0.54" | 540 m || multiple || 2000–2020 || 13 Sep 2020 || 19 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro TololoAdded on 17 June 2021 ||
|- id="2000 QZ238" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.5 || data-sort-value="0.59" | 590 m || multiple || 2000–2019 || 26 Nov 2019 || 52 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro TololoAlt.: 2011 ON3 ||
|- id="2000 QN239" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| – || || MBA-M || 20.1 || data-sort-value="0.40" | 400 m || single || 3 days || 28 Aug 2000 || 6 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QR239" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 3 || || MBA-I || 19.5 || data-sort-value="0.37" | 370 m || multiple || 2000–2019 || 23 Oct 2019 || 30 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QK240" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 2 || || MBA-M || 18.3 || data-sort-value="0.65" | 650 m || multiple || 2000–2019 || 14 Jan 2019 || 34 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro TololoAlt.: 2011 EJ109 ||
|- id="2000 QL240" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.5 || 1.8 km || multiple || 2000–2020 || 07 Dec 2020 || 76 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro TololoAdded on 19 October 2020Alt.: 2008 FG80 ||
|- id="2000 QN240" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || HUN || 18.9 || data-sort-value="0.49" | 490 m || multiple || 2000–2017 || 18 Nov 2017 || 22 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QU240" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| – || || MBA-O || 18.1 || 1.3 km || single || 28 days || 27 Aug 2000 || 6 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QK241" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.0 || 1.7 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 09 Jun 2021 || 209 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro TololoAlt.: 2014 UZ76 ||
|- id="2000 QT241" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 3 || || MBA-I || 19.1 || data-sort-value="0.45" | 450 m || multiple || 2000–2021 || 06 Oct 2021 || 43 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo Obs.Added on 5 November 2021Alt.: 2014 QU430 ||
|- id="2000 QZ241" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.2 || data-sort-value="0.68" | 680 m || multiple || 2000–2020 || 24 Dec 2020 || 36 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro TololoAdded on 22 July 2020 ||
|- id="2000 QH242" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.52 || 1.7 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 08 Apr 2021 || 141 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro TololoAlt.: 2005 UL390 ||
|- id="2000 QK242" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.08 || 3.4 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 31 Aug 2021 || 197 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro TololoAlt.: 2010 FL62 ||
|- id="2000 QM242" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.61 || 1.7 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 08 Sep 2021 || 57 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro TololoAdded on 22 July 2020 ||
|- id="2000 QP242" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 18.35 || data-sort-value="0.64" | 640 m || multiple || 2000–2021 || 03 Oct 2021 || 36 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QS242" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.89 || 1.1 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 31 May 2021 || 57 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QT242" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 17.9 || data-sort-value="0.78" | 780 m || multiple || 1999–2021 || 16 Jan 2021 || 76 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QY242" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.6 || data-sort-value="0.57" | 570 m || multiple || 2000–2019 || 04 Sep 2019 || 155 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro TololoAlt.: 2015 PU69 ||
|- id="2000 QM244" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.20 || 1.1 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 09 Dec 2021 || 155 || align=left | Disc.: LINEARAlt.: 2004 PF28, 2013 YY64, 2015 FY201 ||
|- id="2000 QX244" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.2 || data-sort-value="0.68" | 680 m || multiple || 2000–2020 || 11 Dec 2020 || 66 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QP245" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 18.23 || data-sort-value="0.67" | 670 m || multiple || 2000–2022 || 07 Jan 2022 || 44 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QK247" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.07 || 2.1 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 11 Oct 2021 || 50 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QZ247" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 18.41 || data-sort-value="0.62" | 620 m || multiple || 2000–2020 || 15 Oct 2020 || 61 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro TololoAlt.: 2016 QK64 ||
|- id="2000 QF248" bgcolor=#FA8072
| 0 || || MCA || 19.0 || data-sort-value="0.47" | 470 m || multiple || 1997–2019 || 02 May 2019 || 34 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro TololoAdded on 9 March 2021 ||
|- id="2000 QG248" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.54 || data-sort-value="0.92" | 920 m || multiple || 2000–2022 || 22 Jan 2022 || 62 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo Obs.Added on 29 January 2022 ||
|- id="2000 QV248" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 18.41 || data-sort-value="0.87" | 870 m || multiple || 2000–2021 || 02 Oct 2021 || 90 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QD249" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 3 || || MBA-I || 20.2 || data-sort-value="0.27" | 270 m || multiple || 2000–2019 || 26 Sep 2019 || 20 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro TololoAdded on 22 July 2020 ||
|- id="2000 QL251" bgcolor=#C2E0FF
| 2 || || TNO || 6.8 || 148 km || multiple || 2000–2019 || 26 Oct 2019 || 56 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro TololoLoUTNOs, twotino, albedo: 0.070; BR-mag: 1.36; taxonomy: BR; binary: 143 km ||
|- id="2000 QN251" bgcolor=#C2E0FF
| 3 || || TNO || 7.36 || 122 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 13 Sep 2021 || 26 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro TololoLoUTNOs, res3:5, BR-mag: 1.63; taxonomy: IR-RR ||
|- id="2000 QJ252" bgcolor=#C2E0FF
| E || || TNO || 7.6 || 104 km || single || 24 days || 25 Aug 2000 || 4 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro TololoLoUTNOs, cubewano? ||
|- id="2000 QK252" bgcolor=#C2E0FF
| E || || TNO || 6.3 || 189 km || single || 27 days || 27 Aug 2000 || 4 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro TololoLoUTNOs, cubewano? ||
|- id="2000 QL252" bgcolor=#C2E0FF
| 3 || || TNO || 7.6 || 114 km || multiple || 2000–2020 || 20 Oct 2020 || 9 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro TololoLoUTNOs, SDOAlt.: 2006 UN321 ||
|- id="2000 QN252" bgcolor=#C2E0FF
| E || || TNO || 7.7 || 120 km || single || 28 days || 28 Aug 2000 || 4 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro TololoLoUTNOs, other TNO ||
|- id="2000 QO252" bgcolor=#C2E0FF
| E || || TNO || 7.0 || 137 km || single || 29 days || 28 Aug 2000 || 4 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro TololoLoUTNOs, cubewano? ||
|- id="2000 QB253" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 15.8 || 3.9 km || multiple || 1994–2020 || 23 Dec 2020 || 101 || align=left | Disc.: AstrovirtelAlt.: 2001 VM130, 2010 AD145 ||
|- id="2000 QG253" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 1 || || MBA-O || 17.4 || 1.8 km || multiple || 2000–2016 || 03 Aug 2016 || 23 || align=left | Disc.: AstrovirtelAdded on 21 August 2021 ||
|- id="2000 QA255" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.13 || data-sort-value="0.70" | 700 m || multiple || 1994–2021 || 11 May 2021 || 140 || align=left | Disc.: LINEARAlt.: 2016 XC ||
|- id="2000 QG255" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.65 || data-sort-value="0.88" | 880 m || multiple || 2000–2021 || 09 Nov 2021 || 173 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2000 QM255" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.11 || data-sort-value="0.71" | 710 m || multiple || 2000–2021 || 31 Mar 2021 || 116 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QP255" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.7 || data-sort-value="0.54" | 540 m || multiple || 2000–2020 || 10 Dec 2020 || 204 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QR255" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.56 || 1.7 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 15 Apr 2021 || 71 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QS255" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.5 || 2.8 km || multiple || 2000–2020 || 14 May 2020 || 59 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QU255" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.3 || 1.9 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 18 Jan 2021 || 114 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QV255" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.4 || data-sort-value="0.62" | 620 m || multiple || 2000–2021 || 16 Jan 2021 || 60 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2000 QW255" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.2 || 2.0 km || multiple || 2000–2019 || 29 Mar 2019 || 54 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QX255" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.8 || data-sort-value="0.52" | 520 m || multiple || 2000–2020 || 15 Oct 2020 || 62 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QY255" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.22 || 1.1 km || multiple || 2000–2022 || 04 Jan 2022 || 92 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QB256" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.86 || 2.4 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 08 Sep 2021 || 59 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QC256" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.44 || data-sort-value="0.61" | 610 m || multiple || 2000–2021 || 08 May 2021 || 74 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QD256" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.6 || data-sort-value="0.57" | 570 m || multiple || 2000–2020 || 14 Sep 2020 || 71 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QF256" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.81 || data-sort-value="0.51" | 510 m || multiple || 2000–2021 || 09 Aug 2021 || 82 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QG256" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.7 || data-sort-value="0.54" | 540 m || multiple || 2000–2020 || 22 Aug 2020 || 73 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2000 QH256" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 17.89 || data-sort-value="0.79" | 790 m || multiple || 1995–2021 || 18 May 2021 || 98 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QJ256" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.7 || data-sort-value="0.54" | 540 m || multiple || 2000–2021 || 15 Jan 2021 || 59 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QK256" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.22 || 1.5 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 18 Jun 2021 || 135 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QL256" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 19.0 || data-sort-value="0.47" | 470 m || multiple || 2000–2018 || 13 Dec 2018 || 41 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QM256" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 1 || || MBA-I || 18.7 || data-sort-value="0.54" | 540 m || multiple || 2000–2021 || 17 Jan 2021 || 51 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2000 QO256" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.2 || 2.0 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 15 Jan 2021 || 81 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QP256" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.63 || data-sort-value="0.89" | 890 m || multiple || 2000–2021 || 31 Oct 2021 || 60 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QQ256" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.6 || 1.3 km || multiple || 2000–2020 || 26 Jan 2020 || 44 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2000 QR256" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 1 || || MBA-I || 18.1 || data-sort-value="0.71" | 710 m || multiple || 2000–2019 || 29 Oct 2019 || 55 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QS256" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 17.8 || data-sort-value="0.82" | 820 m || multiple || 2000–2020 || 10 Dec 2020 || 78 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QT256" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.80 || 1.2 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 03 Aug 2021 || 53 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QU256" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.78 || 2.5 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 07 Jul 2021 || 93 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QV256" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.7 || data-sort-value="0.54" | 540 m || multiple || 2000–2020 || 01 Feb 2020 || 47 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro TololoAlt.: 2013 EB44 ||
|- id="2000 QW256" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.3 || data-sort-value="0.65" | 650 m || multiple || 2000–2020 || 15 Dec 2020 || 57 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QX256" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 18.31 || data-sort-value="0.65" | 650 m || multiple || 2000–2021 || 02 Oct 2021 || 58 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QY256" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.7 || data-sort-value="0.54" | 540 m || multiple || 2000–2020 || 16 Sep 2020 || 92 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2000 QZ256" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.66 || data-sort-value="0.55" | 550 m || multiple || 2000–2021 || 03 Oct 2021 || 61 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QA257" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 17.8 || data-sort-value="0.82" | 820 m || multiple || 2000–2020 || 16 Dec 2020 || 47 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QB257" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.00 || 2.2 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 26 Sep 2021 || 48 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QC257" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 18.56 || data-sort-value="0.58" | 580 m || multiple || 2000–2021 || 28 Sep 2021 || 55 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QD257" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 1 || || MBA-I || 18.9 || data-sort-value="0.49" | 490 m || multiple || 2000–2020 || 13 May 2020 || 58 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QE257" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.39 || data-sort-value="0.62" | 620 m || multiple || 2000–2021 || 04 Aug 2021 || 39 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QF257" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 2 || || MBA-I || 19.8 || data-sort-value="0.33" | 330 m || multiple || 2000–2017 || 22 Oct 2017 || 38 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QG257" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.6 || data-sort-value="0.57" | 570 m || multiple || 2000–2020 || 23 Apr 2020 || 40 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QH257" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.4 || 1.8 km || multiple || 2000–2020 || 14 Dec 2020 || 51 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QK257" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.87 || 2.4 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 11 Sep 2021 || 53 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QL257" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.1 || 3.4 km || multiple || 2000–2020 || 11 May 2020 || 80 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QM257" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.8 || 2.4 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 15 Jan 2021 || 33 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QN257" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.81 || data-sort-value="0.51" | 510 m || multiple || 2000–2021 || 12 May 2021 || 55 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QO257" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.9 || data-sort-value="0.49" | 490 m || multiple || 2000–2020 || 02 Feb 2020 || 45 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QP257" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.0 || 2.2 km || multiple || 2000–2018 || 10 Jan 2018 || 31 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2000 QQ257" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.8 || 1.2 km || multiple || 2000–2020 || 13 Jul 2020 || 42 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QR257" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.88 || data-sort-value="0.50" | 500 m || multiple || 2000–2021 || 10 Oct 2021 || 108 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QS257" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.39 || data-sort-value="0.62" | 620 m || multiple || 2000–2021 || 10 Feb 2021 || 51 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QT257" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.6 || data-sort-value="0.57" | 570 m || multiple || 2000–2020 || 23 May 2020 || 80 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QU257" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 18.3 || data-sort-value="0.92" | 920 m || multiple || 2000–2017 || 16 Aug 2017 || 26 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QV257" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.86 || 1.1 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 24 Oct 2021 || 67 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QW257" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.6 || 1.7 km || multiple || 2000–2018 || 05 Aug 2018 || 27 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QX257" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.5 || data-sort-value="0.59" | 590 m || multiple || 2000–2020 || 22 Jul 2020 || 39 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2000 QZ257" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || HUN || 19.1 || data-sort-value="0.45" | 450 m || multiple || 2000–2019 || 22 Oct 2019 || 27 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QA258" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 1 || || MBA-M || 17.8 || 1.2 km || multiple || 2000–2017 || 14 Aug 2017 || 25 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QB258" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 18.05 || 1.4 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 15 Apr 2021 || 33 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QC258" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 2 || || MBA-O || 17.5 || 1.8 km || multiple || 2000–2017 || 14 Dec 2017 || 17 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QD258" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.2 || 2.0 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 18 Jan 2021 || 82 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QE258" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.81 || data-sort-value="0.81" | 810 m || multiple || 2000–2022 || 05 Jan 2022 || 83 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QF258" bgcolor=#C2FFFF
| 0 || || JT || 14.5 || 7.0 km || multiple || 2000–2020 || 24 Jun 2020 || 69 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro TololoTrojan camp (L5) ||
|- id="2000 QG258" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.7 || data-sort-value="0.54" | 540 m || multiple || 2000–2019 || 28 Nov 2019 || 59 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2000 QH258" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.72 || data-sort-value="0.54" | 540 m || multiple || 2000–2022 || 27 Jan 2022 || 75 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2000 QJ258" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 1 || || MBA-I || 18.2 || data-sort-value="0.68" | 680 m || multiple || 2000–2019 || 01 Nov 2019 || 57 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2000 QL258" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.2 || data-sort-value="0.68" | 680 m || multiple || 2000–2020 || 21 Jan 2020 || 62 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QM258" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 1 || || MBA-I || 18.7 || data-sort-value="0.54" | 540 m || multiple || 2000–2018 || 14 Dec 2018 || 60 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2000 QN258" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.29 || data-sort-value="0.65" | 650 m || multiple || 2000–2021 || 15 Apr 2021 || 66 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QP258" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.3 || 1.9 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 18 Jan 2021 || 67 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QQ258" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.1 || data-sort-value="0.71" | 710 m || multiple || 2000–2019 || 28 Aug 2019 || 49 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QR258" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.5 || data-sort-value="0.59" | 590 m || multiple || 2000–2019 || 02 Nov 2019 || 42 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QS258" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 18.3 || data-sort-value="0.92" | 920 m || multiple || 2000–2019 || 05 Feb 2019 || 57 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QT258" bgcolor=#C2FFFF
| 0 || || JT || 14.2 || 8.0 km || multiple || 1995–2020 || 23 Jun 2020 || 77 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro TololoTrojan camp (L5) ||
|- id="2000 QU258" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.9 || 1.1 km || multiple || 2000–2020 || 25 Mar 2020 || 48 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QV258" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 1 || || MBA-O || 16.9 || 2.3 km || multiple || 2000–2019 || 05 Apr 2019 || 46 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QX258" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.4 || 1.8 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 15 Jan 2021 || 52 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QY258" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.5 || data-sort-value="0.59" | 590 m || multiple || 2000–2019 || 03 Dec 2019 || 44 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QA259" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.68 || 1.6 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 03 May 2021 || 59 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QC259" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 1 || || MBA-I || 18.4 || data-sort-value="0.62" | 620 m || multiple || 2000–2018 || 02 Nov 2018 || 40 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QD259" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 18.03 || data-sort-value="0.74" | 740 m || multiple || 2000–2021 || 26 Nov 2021 || 86 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2000 QE259" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.61 || 1.7 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 14 May 2021 || 200 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QF259" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 18.0 || 1.4 km || multiple || 2000–2018 || 08 Nov 2018 || 38 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QG259" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.37 || 1.9 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 08 Aug 2021 || 52 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QH259" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.4 || 1.8 km || multiple || 2000–2019 || 28 Nov 2019 || 39 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QJ259" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.16 || 2.1 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 10 Sep 2021 || 59 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QK259" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 1 || || MBA-M || 17.4 || 1.8 km || multiple || 2000–2020 || 26 Jan 2020 || 47 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QL259" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 1 || || MBA-I || 18.9 || data-sort-value="0.49" | 490 m || multiple || 2000–2019 || 27 Nov 2019 || 38 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QM259" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.4 || data-sort-value="0.62" | 620 m || multiple || 2000–2018 || 11 Jul 2018 || 32 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QN259" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.4 || 1.8 km || multiple || 2000–2018 || 17 Aug 2018 || 30 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QO259" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.16 || 2.1 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 09 May 2021 || 50 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QP259" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 1 || || MBA-I || 18.88 || data-sort-value="0.50" | 500 m || multiple || 2000–2021 || 08 Sep 2021 || 45 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QQ259" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 19.24 || data-sort-value="0.42" | 420 m || multiple || 2000–2021 || 08 Jul 2021 || 36 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QR259" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 18.3 || 1.2 km || multiple || 2000–2019 || 06 Sep 2019 || 138 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QS259" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 17.6 || data-sort-value="0.90" | 900 m || multiple || 2000–2020 || 09 Dec 2020 || 87 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2000 QT259" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.6 || 1.7 km || multiple || 2000–2019 || 23 Sep 2019 || 59 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QU259" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.1 || 2.1 km || multiple || 2000–2020 || 20 Oct 2020 || 109 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QV259" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.1 || 2.1 km || multiple || 2000–2020 || 10 Oct 2020 || 86 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2000 QW259" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.5 || 1.8 km || multiple || 2000–2019 || 29 Sep 2019 || 49 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QY259" bgcolor=#C2FFFF
| 0 || || JT || 14.8 || 6.1 km || multiple || 2000–2020 || 17 Jun 2020 || 63 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro TololoTrojan camp (L5) ||
|- id="2000 QZ259" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.2 || 2.0 km || multiple || 2000–2019 || 07 Apr 2019 || 39 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QA260" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 19.0 || data-sort-value="0.47" | 470 m || multiple || 2000–2019 || 07 May 2019 || 42 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QD260" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.8 || data-sort-value="0.52" | 520 m || multiple || 2000–2019 || 03 Dec 2019 || 35 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2000 QE260" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.72 || 1.6 km || multiple || 2000–2022 || 25 Jan 2022 || 43 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QF260" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.7 || 1.6 km || multiple || 2000–2019 || 04 Feb 2019 || 28 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QG260" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.6 || 1.7 km || multiple || 2000–2019 || 01 Jul 2019 || 24 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QH260" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 2 || || MBA-I || 18.2 || data-sort-value="0.68" | 680 m || multiple || 2000–2019 || 29 Jul 2019 || 28 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QJ260" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 18.0 || 1.4 km || multiple || 2000–2019 || 28 Aug 2019 || 20 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QK260" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 19.3 || data-sort-value="0.41" | 410 m || multiple || 2000–2020 || 19 Aug 2020 || 30 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QL260" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.6 || 1.7 km || multiple || 2000–2019 || 28 Nov 2019 || 52 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QN260" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.7 || data-sort-value="0.54" | 540 m || multiple || 2000–2019 || 17 Dec 2019 || 50 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QO260" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 1 || || MBA-I || 18.8 || data-sort-value="0.52" | 520 m || multiple || 2000–2020 || 26 Jan 2020 || 39 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QP260" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 18.16 || 1.3 km || multiple || 2000–2019 || 27 Oct 2019 || 52 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QQ260" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 1 || || MBA-M || 17.9 || 1.5 km || multiple || 2000–2019 || 02 Dec 2019 || 39 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QR260" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.4 || 1.8 km || multiple || 2000–2020 || 22 Apr 2020 || 34 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QS260" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.27 || 2.0 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 09 Aug 2021 || 31 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QT260" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.7 || 1.2 km || multiple || 2000–2020 || 24 Mar 2020 || 61 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QU260" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.7 || 2.5 km || multiple || 2000–2020 || 27 Apr 2020 || 52 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QV260" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.7 || 2.5 km || multiple || 2000–2020 || 16 Mar 2020 || 47 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QW260" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.3 || data-sort-value="0.65" | 650 m || multiple || 2000–2020 || 22 Mar 2020 || 55 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QX260" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.83 || data-sort-value="0.81" | 810 m || multiple || 2000–2022 || 26 Jan 2022 || 88 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QY260" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.8 || data-sort-value="0.52" | 520 m || multiple || 2000–2020 || 24 Jan 2020 || 41 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QZ260" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 18.0 || 1.4 km || multiple || 2000–2019 || 26 Nov 2019 || 35 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QA261" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.55 || 2.7 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 09 Apr 2021 || 84 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro TololoAlt.: 2010 BP134, 2010 MJ88, 2010 MG146 ||
|- id="2000 QB261" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 18.27 || data-sort-value="0.66" | 660 m || multiple || 2000–2021 || 01 Nov 2021 || 54 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QC261" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.7 || data-sort-value="0.54" | 540 m || multiple || 2000–2020 || 21 Dec 2020 || 44 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QE261" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.4 || data-sort-value="0.62" | 620 m || multiple || 2000–2019 || 29 Sep 2019 || 26 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QF261" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || HIL || 16.02 || 3.5 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 11 May 2021 || 43 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QG261" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.2 || 2.0 km || multiple || 2000–2020 || 21 Apr 2020 || 28 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo ||
|- id="2000 QH261" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.1 || 2.1 km || multiple || 2000–2020 || 19 Jan 2020 || 25 || align=left | Disc.: Astrovirtel ||
|- id="2000 QJ261" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.6 || 1.7 km || multiple || 2000–2019 || 20 Dec 2019 || 53 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro TololoAdded on 22 July 2020 ||
|- id="2000 QK261" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.1 || 2.1 km || multiple || 2000–2018 || 06 Oct 2018 || 44 || align=left | Disc.: SpacewatchAdded on 19 October 2020 ||
|- id="2000 QL261" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 1 || || MBA-M || 19.05 || data-sort-value="0.46" | 460 m || multiple || 2000–2021 || 28 Nov 2021 || 23 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro TololoAdded on 19 October 2020 ||
|- id="2000 QM261" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 18.54 || data-sort-value="0.82" | 820 m || multiple || 1999–2021 || 15 Apr 2021 || 31 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro TololoAdded on 11 May 2021 ||
|- id="2000 QN261" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.9 || 2.3 km || multiple || 2000–2016 || 08 Aug 2016 || 26 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo Obs.Added on 5 November 2021 ||
|- id="2000 QO261" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 3 || || MBA-M || 17.7 || 1.6 km || multiple || 2000–2014 || 26 Nov 2014 || 17 || align=left | Disc.: Cerro Tololo Obs.Added on 24 December 2021 ||
|}
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R
|- id="2000 RJ12" bgcolor=#FFC2E0
| 4 || || AMO || 22.3 || data-sort-value="0.12" | 120 m || single || 91 days || 01 Dec 2000 || 57 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2000 RK12" bgcolor=#FFC2E0
| – || || APO || 21.3 || data-sort-value="0.20" | 200 m || single || 4 days || 05 Sep 2000 || 25 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2000 RN12" bgcolor=#FFC2E0
| 1 || || APO || 20.0 || data-sort-value="0.36" | 360 m || multiple || 2000–2008 || 13 Mar 2008 || 58 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2000 RR13" bgcolor=#FA8072
| 0 || || MCA || 17.77 || data-sort-value="0.83" | 830 m || multiple || 2000–2021 || 27 Dec 2021 || 113 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2000 RC37" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| – || || MBA-M || 17.6 || data-sort-value="0.90" | 900 m || single || 24 days || 27 Sep 2000 || 22 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2000 RD52" bgcolor=#FFC2E0
| 5 || || AMO || 20.6 || data-sort-value="0.27" | 270 m || single || 90 days || 01 Dec 2000 || 22 || align=left | Disc.: LONEOS ||
|- id="2000 RE52" bgcolor=#FFC2E0
| 2 || || APO || 22.3 || data-sort-value="0.149" | 149 m || multiple || 2000–2010 || 15 Mar 2010 || 105 || align=left | Disc.: LINEARAlt.: 2010 EK2 ||
|- id="2000 RF52" bgcolor=#FFC2E0
| 5 || || AMO || 24.0 || data-sort-value="0.056" | 56 m || single || 87 days || 01 Dec 2000 || 39 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2000 RP52" bgcolor=#FA8072
| 0 || || MCA || 17.13 || 1.6 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 21 Dec 2021 || 304 || align=left | Disc.: LINEARAlt.: 2014 AJ46 ||
|- id="2000 RO53" bgcolor=#FA8072
| 0 || || MCA || 18.89 || data-sort-value="0.50" | 500 m || multiple || 2000–2021 || 28 Nov 2021 || 250 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2000 RU56" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 1 || || MBA-M || 16.8 || 2.4 km || multiple || 2000–2019 || 02 Dec 2019 || 117 || align=left | Disc.: SpacewatchAlt.: 2014 OD393 ||
|- id="2000 RB57" bgcolor=#C2FFFF
| 0 || || JT || 14.19 || 8.1 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 29 Aug 2021 || 174 || align=left | Disc.: SpacewatchTrojan camp (L5)Alt.: 2010 HS ||
|- id="2000 RP57" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.1 || 2.1 km || multiple || 2000–2019 || 28 Nov 2019 || 70 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2000 RP58" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.60 || 1.3 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 03 Dec 2021 || 120 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2000 RD59" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.4 || data-sort-value="0.62" | 620 m || multiple || 2000–2021 || 17 Jan 2021 || 47 || align=left | Disc.: SpacewatchAlt.: 2008 VR99 ||
|- id="2000 RH59" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.9 || 2.3 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 11 Jun 2021 || 75 || align=left | Disc.: SpacewatchAlt.: 2006 UC325 ||
|- id="2000 RP59" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 15.9 || 3.7 km || multiple || 2000–2019 || 03 Apr 2019 || 85 || align=left | Disc.: SpacewatchAlt.: 2010 AH38 ||
|- id="2000 RT59" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.7 || 1.2 km || multiple || 2000–2019 || 08 Jan 2019 || 49 || align=left | Disc.: SpacewatchAlt.: 2004 PG70 ||
|- id="2000 RK60" bgcolor=#FFC2E0
| 6 || || AMO || 21.6 || data-sort-value="0.17" | 170 m || single || 28 days || 04 Oct 2000 || 69 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2000 RG75" bgcolor=#FA8072
| 3 || || MCA || 18.4 || data-sort-value="0.62" | 620 m || multiple || 2000–2020 || 08 Dec 2020 || 224 || align=left | Disc.: LINEARAlt.: 2010 RE14 ||
|- id="2000 RQ76" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.1 || 2.1 km || multiple || 2000–2019 || 28 Dec 2019 || 93 || align=left | Disc.: LINEARAlt.: 2014 SG263 ||
|- id="2000 RQ80" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 17.8 || data-sort-value="0.82" | 820 m || multiple || 2000–2020 || 19 Jan 2020 || 208 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2000 RH96" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.55 || data-sort-value="0.92" | 920 m || multiple || 2000–2022 || 04 Jan 2022 || 97 || align=left | Disc.: AMOS ||
|- id="2000 RP106" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 18.31 || data-sort-value="0.92" | 920 m || multiple || 2000–2021 || 01 Jul 2021 || 45 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAdded on 17 June 2021Alt.: 2013 QJ37 ||
|- id="2000 RQ106" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.19 || 2.0 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 05 Dec 2021 || 101 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAlt.: 2014 HJ186, 2015 RK211 ||
|- id="2000 RX106" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 1 || || MBA-M || 17.6 || data-sort-value="0.90" | 900 m || multiple || 2000–2020 || 16 Oct 2020 || 80 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2000 RY106" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.35 || 3.0 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 15 May 2021 || 89 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAlt.: 2009 DH58 ||
|- id="2000 RZ106" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 1 || || MBA-I || 19.3 || data-sort-value="0.41" | 410 m || multiple || 2000–2021 || 05 Jun 2021 || 23 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAdded on 21 August 2021Alt.: 2021 JS42 ||
|- id="2000 RE107" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.9 || 1.5 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 02 Oct 2021 || 42 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAdded on 5 November 2021Alt.: 2016 TJ178 ||
|- id="2000 RH107" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.1 || data-sort-value="0.71" | 710 m || multiple || 2000–2019 || 25 Sep 2019 || 27 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAdded on 22 July 2020 ||
|- id="2000 RK107" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.66 || 1.6 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 13 May 2021 || 49 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAdded on 17 June 2021Alt.: 2017 SS234 ||
|- id="2000 RZ107" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.56 || 1.7 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 15 Apr 2021 || 61 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2000 RB108" bgcolor=#C2FFFF
| 0 || || JT || 14.4 || 7.3 km || multiple || 2000–2020 || 24 Jun 2020 || 63 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSTrojan camp (L5) ||
|- id="2000 RC108" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.84 || data-sort-value="0.80" | 800 m || multiple || 2000–2022 || 07 Jan 2022 || 158 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2000 RD108" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.9 || 2.3 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 16 Jan 2021 || 125 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2000 RE108" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.1 || 3.4 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 07 Jun 2021 || 110 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2000 RF108" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.1 || data-sort-value="0.71" | 710 m || multiple || 2000–2021 || 05 Jan 2021 || 85 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2000 RG108" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.11 || 1.1 km || multiple || 1996–2021 || 27 Nov 2021 || 194 || align=left | Disc.: LONEOSAlt.: 2004 RZ137 ||
|- id="2000 RJ108" bgcolor=#C2FFFF
| 0 || || JT || 14.42 || 7.3 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 28 Jul 2021 || 93 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSTrojan camp (L5) ||
|- id="2000 RL108" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.52 || 2.8 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 08 Jul 2021 || 102 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2000 RM108" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.73 || data-sort-value="0.85" | 850 m || multiple || 2000–2022 || 12 Jan 2022 || 77 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2000 RN108" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 16.85 || 1.3 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 09 Dec 2021 || 119 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2000 RO108" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.1 || data-sort-value="0.71" | 710 m || multiple || 2000–2018 || 04 Jul 2018 || 54 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2000 RQ108" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.86 || 2.4 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 07 Jul 2021 || 102 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2000 RR108" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.93 || data-sort-value="0.49" | 490 m || multiple || 1994–2021 || 09 Apr 2021 || 98 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2000 RT108" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.32 || 1.9 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 04 Oct 2021 || 78 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2000 RU108" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.5 || 1.8 km || multiple || 1996–2019 || 19 Dec 2019 || 83 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2000 RW108" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.1 || data-sort-value="0.71" | 710 m || multiple || 2000–2019 || 05 Nov 2019 || 59 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2000 RZ108" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.84 || 1.5 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 08 Apr 2021 || 72 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2000 RB109" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.8 || 1.5 km || multiple || 2000–2018 || 13 Jan 2018 || 55 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2000 RC109" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.3 || 1.9 km || multiple || 2000–2018 || 06 Oct 2018 || 49 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2000 RE109" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.9 || 2.3 km || multiple || 2000–2020 || 23 Apr 2020 || 63 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2000 RF109" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.63 || 1.7 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 08 May 2021 || 98 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAlt.: 2018 RW8 ||
|- id="2000 RK109" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.7 || data-sort-value="0.54" | 540 m || multiple || 2000–2021 || 06 Jan 2021 || 112 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2000 RL109" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 18.07 || data-sort-value="0.72" | 720 m || multiple || 1996–2021 || 24 Nov 2021 || 92 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAlt.: 2010 EJ184 ||
|- id="2000 RM109" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.9 || 2.3 km || multiple || 2000–2020 || 21 Apr 2020 || 43 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2000 RN109" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.3 || 1.9 km || multiple || 2000–2020 || 23 Jan 2020 || 51 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2000 RO109" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 19.30 || data-sort-value="0.41" | 410 m || multiple || 2000–2022 || 26 Jan 2022 || 51 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2000 RP109" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.4 || 1.4 km || multiple || 2000–2020 || 27 Feb 2020 || 59 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2000 RQ109" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 18.10 || data-sort-value="0.71" | 710 m || multiple || 2000–2021 || 25 Nov 2021 || 92 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2000 RR109" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.3 || 3.1 km || multiple || 2000–2020 || 26 May 2020 || 77 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2000 RS109" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 19.1 || data-sort-value="0.45" | 450 m || multiple || 2000–2020 || 17 Jul 2020 || 43 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2000 RT109" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.7 || data-sort-value="0.54" | 540 m || multiple || 2000–2020 || 25 Jan 2020 || 46 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAlt.: 2009 AX38 ||
|- id="2000 RV109" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.8 || 2.4 km || multiple || 2000–2017 || 11 Oct 2017 || 37 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2000 RX109" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.4 || 1.4 km || multiple || 2000–2020 || 27 Feb 2020 || 46 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2000 RY109" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.57 || 1.3 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 08 Aug 2021 || 59 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2000 RZ109" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.8 || 1.2 km || multiple || 2000–2017 || 11 Oct 2017 || 43 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2000 RA110" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.4 || data-sort-value="0.62" | 620 m || multiple || 2000–2019 || 03 Oct 2019 || 56 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2000 RC110" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.7 || 1.2 km || multiple || 2000–2018 || 30 Sep 2018 || 32 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2000 RD110" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.53 || data-sort-value="0.58" | 580 m || multiple || 2000–2022 || 07 Jan 2022 || 44 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2000 RE110" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 18.02 || 1.0 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 15 May 2021 || 43 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2000 RF110" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.8 || 1.5 km || multiple || 2000–2019 || 03 Jan 2019 || 28 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2000 RG110" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.6 || data-sort-value="0.57" | 570 m || multiple || 2000–2019 || 28 Oct 2019 || 66 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2000 RH110" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.5 || data-sort-value="0.59" | 590 m || multiple || 2000–2020 || 20 Oct 2020 || 46 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2000 RJ110" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.3 || data-sort-value="0.65" | 650 m || multiple || 2000–2019 || 22 Oct 2019 || 55 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2000 RK110" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 18.11 || 1.0 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 30 Jun 2021 || 43 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2000 RL110" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.1 || data-sort-value="0.71" | 710 m || multiple || 2000–2020 || 25 Jan 2020 || 31 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2000 RM110" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.71 || data-sort-value="0.85" | 850 m || multiple || 2000–2021 || 31 Oct 2021 || 82 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2000 RN110" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.1 || data-sort-value="0.71" | 710 m || multiple || 2000–2019 || 29 Nov 2019 || 88 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2000 RO110" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.6 || data-sort-value="0.57" | 570 m || multiple || 2000–2020 || 22 Oct 2020 || 72 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2000 RP110" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.5 || 1.8 km || multiple || 2000–2019 || 20 Dec 2019 || 75 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2000 RQ110" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 17.7 || data-sort-value="0.86" | 860 m || multiple || 2000–2021 || 22 Jan 2021 || 100 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2000 RR110" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.1 || data-sort-value="0.71" | 710 m || multiple || 2000–2020 || 14 Nov 2020 || 61 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2000 RS110" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.2 || data-sort-value="0.68" | 680 m || multiple || 2000–2018 || 15 Sep 2018 || 51 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2000 RT110" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.2 || 2.0 km || multiple || 2000–2020 || 19 Nov 2020 || 55 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2000 RU110" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.2 || 2.0 km || multiple || 2000–2018 || 06 Oct 2018 || 58 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2000 RV110" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 17.86 || data-sort-value="0.80" | 800 m || multiple || 2000–2022 || 27 Jan 2022 || 88 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2000 RW110" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 17.7 || data-sort-value="0.86" | 860 m || multiple || 2000–2021 || 18 Jan 2021 || 60 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2000 RY110" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.2 || 2.0 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 18 Jan 2021 || 61 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2000 RZ110" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.21 || 2.0 km || multiple || 2000–2019 || 09 Feb 2019 || 57 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2000 RA111" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.5 || data-sort-value="0.59" | 590 m || multiple || 2000–2019 || 07 Jan 2019 || 50 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2000 RC111" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.44 || 2.9 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 09 May 2021 || 75 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2000 RD111" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.84 || data-sort-value="0.80" | 800 m || multiple || 2000–2021 || 09 Nov 2021 || 86 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2000 RE111" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.91 || 1.1 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 07 Apr 2021 || 48 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2000 RG111" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 1 || || MBA-I || 18.5 || data-sort-value="0.59" | 590 m || multiple || 2000–2020 || 29 Feb 2020 || 42 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2000 RH111" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.5 || data-sort-value="0.59" | 590 m || multiple || 2000–2019 || 19 Dec 2019 || 46 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAlt.: 2013 ED130 ||
|- id="2000 RJ111" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.9 || 2.3 km || multiple || 2000–2020 || 20 Apr 2020 || 54 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2000 RK111" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.4 || 1.8 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 12 Jan 2021 || 45 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2000 RL111" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 18.4 || 1.2 km || multiple || 2000–2019 || 02 Nov 2019 || 41 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2000 RM111" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.8 || 1.2 km || multiple || 2000–2019 || 10 Jan 2019 || 47 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2000 RN111" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.6 || 2.7 km || multiple || 2000–2020 || 16 Mar 2020 || 52 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2000 RO111" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 2 || || MBA-M || 17.9 || data-sort-value="0.78" | 780 m || multiple || 2000–2020 || 15 Sep 2020 || 80 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2000 RP111" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.4 || 1.4 km || multiple || 2000–2020 || 27 Feb 2020 || 50 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2000 RQ111" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 19.07 || data-sort-value="0.46" | 460 m || multiple || 2000–2021 || 10 May 2021 || 52 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2000 RR111" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 1 || || MBA-I || 18.8 || data-sort-value="0.52" | 520 m || multiple || 2000–2018 || 02 Nov 2018 || 31 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2000 RS111" bgcolor=#FA8072
| 1 || || MCA || 18.60 || data-sort-value="0.57" | 570 m || multiple || 2000–2022 || 27 Jan 2022 || 48 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2000 RT111" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.71 || data-sort-value="0.85" | 850 m || multiple || 2000–2021 || 27 Oct 2021 || 47 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2000 RU111" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 18.25 || data-sort-value="0.94" | 940 m || multiple || 2000–2021 || 27 Nov 2021 || 54 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2000 RV111" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 1 || || MBA-O || 18.1 || 1.3 km || multiple || 2000–2019 || 29 Aug 2019 || 104 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2000 RW111" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.4 || 1.8 km || multiple || 2000–2019 || 03 Dec 2019 || 58 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2000 RX111" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.8 || data-sort-value="0.52" | 520 m || multiple || 2000–2021 || 16 Jan 2021 || 62 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2000 RY111" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.5 || 1.8 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 15 Jan 2021 || 57 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2000 RB112" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.07 || 2.1 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 06 Nov 2021 || 61 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2000 RC112" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.32 || data-sort-value="0.64" | 640 m || multiple || 2000–2021 || 09 Nov 2021 || 74 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2000 RD112" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.64 || data-sort-value="0.88" | 880 m || multiple || 2000–2021 || 01 Dec 2021 || 51 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2000 RE112" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.98 || data-sort-value="0.48" | 480 m || multiple || 2000–2021 || 14 Apr 2021 || 30 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2000 RF112" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.3 || 1.9 km || multiple || 2000–2019 || 29 Sep 2019 || 52 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2000 RG112" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.5 || data-sort-value="0.59" | 590 m || multiple || 2000–2018 || 08 Nov 2018 || 41 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2000 RH112" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.72 || 2.5 km || multiple || 1995–2021 || 05 Oct 2021 || 71 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2000 RJ112" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.9 || 2.3 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 08 Jun 2021 || 46 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2000 RK112" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.5 || 1.8 km || multiple || 2000–2020 || 11 Dec 2020 || 71 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAlt.: 2013 HU91 ||
|- id="2000 RL112" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 1 || || MBA-O || 17.4 || 1.8 km || multiple || 2000–2017 || 26 Oct 2017 || 22 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2000 RM112" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.7 || data-sort-value="0.54" | 540 m || multiple || 2000–2016 || 08 Aug 2016 || 34 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2000 RN112" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.4 || 1.8 km || multiple || 2000–2017 || 10 Nov 2017 || 26 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2000 RO112" bgcolor=#C2FFFF
| 0 || || JT || 14.1 || 8.4 km || multiple || 2000–2020 || 26 May 2020 || 114 || align=left | Disc.: SpacewatchTrojan camp (L5)Alt.: 2010 GD45 ||
|- id="2000 RP112" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.6 || 1.7 km || multiple || 2000–2019 || 26 Sep 2019 || 60 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2000 RQ112" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.8 || 1.2 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 12 Jun 2021 || 69 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2000 RR112" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 2 || || MBA-M || 18.0 || 1.4 km || multiple || 2000–2018 || 17 Nov 2018 || 45 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2000 RS112" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 19.1 || data-sort-value="0.45" | 450 m || multiple || 2000–2018 || 07 Nov 2018 || 34 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2000 RT112" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 17.93 || data-sort-value="0.77" | 770 m || multiple || 2000–2021 || 31 Oct 2021 || 74 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2000 RU112" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 1 || || MBA-I || 18.5 || data-sort-value="0.59" | 590 m || multiple || 2000–2019 || 03 Oct 2019 || 25 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2000 RV112" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.4 || 2.9 km || multiple || 2000–2020 || 22 Apr 2020 || 92 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2000 RX112" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.9 || 1.5 km || multiple || 2000–2017 || 26 Sep 2017 || 25 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAdded on 19 October 2020 ||
|- id="2000 RZ112" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.63 || data-sort-value="0.89" | 890 m || multiple || 2000–2021 || 08 Dec 2021 || 51 || align=left | Disc.: SpacewatchAdded on 17 January 2021 ||
|- id="2000 RA113" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 19.2 || data-sort-value="0.43" | 430 m || multiple || 2000–2020 || 15 Sep 2020 || 38 || align=left | Disc.: SpacewatchAdded on 17 January 2021 ||
|- id="2000 RC113" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 1 || || MBA-M || 17.9 || data-sort-value="0.78" | 780 m || multiple || 2000–2020 || 10 Oct 2020 || 40 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAdded on 9 March 2021 ||
|- id="2000 RD113" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 3 || || MBA-M || 17.6 || 1.7 km || multiple || 2000–2014 || 27 Nov 2014 || 22 || align=left | Disc.: SpacewatchAdded on 9 March 2021 ||
|- id="2000 RF113" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 2 || || MBA-O || 17.7 || 1.6 km || multiple || 2000–2016 || 08 Sep 2016 || 16 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAdded on 24 December 2021 ||
|- id="2000 RG113" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.48 || 1.8 km || multiple || 2000–2021 || 06 Oct 2021 || 50 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAdded on 5 November 2021 ||
|- id="2000 RH113" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.85 || data-sort-value="0.80" | 800 m || multiple || 2000–2021 || 31 Oct 2021 || 80 || align=left | Disc.: SpacewatchAdded on 5 November 2021 ||
|- id="2000 RJ113" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.3 || data-sort-value="0.65" | 650 m || multiple || 2000–2021 || 18 Feb 2021 || 31 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAdded on 5 November 2021 ||
|- id="2000 RK113" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 1 || || MBA-I || 18.97 || data-sort-value="0.48" | 480 m || multiple || 2000–2021 || 10 Nov 2021 || 48 || align=left | Disc.: SpacewatchAdded on 5 November 2021 ||
|- id="2000 RL113" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 19.26 || data-sort-value="0.42" | 420 m || multiple || 2000–2021 || 29 Nov 2021 || 37 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAdded on 24 December 2021 ||
|- id="2000 RM113" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.8 || data-sort-value="0.52" | 520 m || multiple || 2000–2021 || 06 Nov 2021 || 28 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAdded on 24 December 2021 ||
|}
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References
Lists of unnumbered minor planets |
Subsets and Splits