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2484768 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithmic%20trading | Algorithmic trading | Algorithmic trading is a method of executing orders using automated pre-programmed trading instructions accounting for variables such as time, price, and volume. This type of trading attempts to leverage the speed and computational resources of computers relative to human traders. In the twenty-first century, algorithmic trading has been gaining traction with both retail and institutional traders. It is widely used by investment banks, pension funds, mutual funds, and hedge funds that may need to spread out the execution of a larger order or perform trades too fast for human traders to react to. A study in 2019 showed that around 92% of trading in the Forex market was performed by trading algorithms rather than humans.
The term algorithmic trading is often used synonymously with automated trading system. These encompass a variety of trading strategies, some of which are based on formulas and results from mathematical finance, and often rely on specialized software.
Examples of strategies used in algorithmic trading include market making, inter-market spreading, arbitrage, or pure speculation such as trend following. Many fall into the category of high-frequency trading (HFT), which is characterized by high turnover and high order-to-trade ratios. HFT strategies utilize computers that make elaborate decisions to initiate orders based on information that is received electronically, before human traders are capable of processing the information they observe. As a result, in February 2012, the Commodity Futures Trading Commission (CFTC) formed a special working group that included academics and industry experts to advise the CFTC on how best to define HFT. Algorithmic trading and HFT have resulted in a dramatic change of the market microstructure and in the complexity and uncertainty of the market macrodynamic, particularly in the way liquidity is provided.
History
Early developments
Computerization of the order flow in financial markets began in the early 1970s, when the New York Stock Exchange introduced the "designated order turnaround" system (DOT). SuperDOT was introduced in 1984 as an upgraded version of DOT. Both systems allowed for the routing of orders electronically to the proper trading post. The "opening automated reporting system" (OARS) aided the specialist in determining the market clearing opening price (SOR; Smart Order Routing).
With the rise of fully electronic markets came the introduction of program trading, which is defined by the New York Stock Exchange as an order to buy or sell 15 or more stocks valued at over US$1 million total. In practice, program trades were pre-programmed to automatically enter or exit trades based on various factors. In the 1980s, program trading became widely used in trading between the S&P 500 equity and futures markets in a strategy known as index arbitrage.
At about the same time, portfolio insurance was designed to create a synthetic put option on a stock portfolio by dynamically trading stock index futures according to a computer model based on the Black–Scholes option pricing model.
Both strategies, often simply lumped together as "program trading", were blamed by many people (for example by the Brady report) for exacerbating or even starting the 1987 stock market crash. Yet the impact of computer driven trading on stock market crashes is unclear and widely discussed in the academic community.
Refinement and growth
The financial landscape was changed again with the emergence of electronic communication networks (ECNs) in the 1990s, which allowed for trading of stock and currencies outside of traditional exchanges. In the U.S., decimalization changed the minimum tick size from 1/16 of a dollar (US$0.0625) to US$0.01 per share in 2001, and may have encouraged algorithmic trading as it changed the market microstructure by permitting smaller differences between the bid and offer prices, decreasing the market-makers' trading advantage, thus increasing market liquidity.
This increased market liquidity led to institutional traders splitting up orders according to computer algorithms so they could execute orders at a better average price. These average price benchmarks are measured and calculated by computers by applying the time-weighted average price or more usually by the volume-weighted average price.
A further encouragement for the adoption of algorithmic trading in the financial markets came in 2001 when a team of IBM researchers published a paper at the International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence where they showed that in experimental laboratory versions of the electronic auctions used in the financial markets, two algorithmic strategies (IBM's own MGD, and Hewlett-Packard's ZIP) could consistently out-perform human traders. MGD was a modified version of the "GD" algorithm invented by Steven Gjerstad & John Dickhaut in 1996/7; the ZIP algorithm had been invented at HP by Dave Cliff (professor) in 1996. In their paper, the IBM team wrote that the financial impact of their results showing MGD and ZIP outperforming human traders "...might be measured in billions of dollars annually"; the IBM paper generated international media coverage.
In 2005, the Regulation National Market System was put in place by the SEC to strengthen the equity market. This changed the way firms traded with rules such as the Trade Through Rule, which mandates that market orders must be posted and executed electronically at the best available price, thus preventing brokerages from profiting from the price differences when matching buy and sell orders.
As more electronic markets opened, other algorithmic trading strategies were introduced. These strategies are more easily implemented by computers, as they can react rapidly to price changes and observe several markets simultaneously.
Many broker-dealers offered algorithmic trading strategies to their clients - differentiating them by behavior, options and branding. Examples include Chameleon (developed by BNP Paribas), Stealth (developed by the Deutsche Bank), Sniper and Guerilla (developed by Credit Suisse). These implementations adopted practices from the investing approaches of arbitrage, statistical arbitrage, trend following, and mean reversion.
Emblematic examples
Profitability projections by the TABB Group, a financial services industry research firm, for the US equities HFT industry were US$1.3 billion before expenses for 2014, significantly down on the maximum of US$21 billion that the 300 securities firms and hedge funds that then specialized in this type of trading took in profits in 2008, which the authors had then called "relatively small" and "surprisingly modest" when compared to the market's overall trading volume. In March 2014, Virtu Financial, a high-frequency trading firm, reported that during five years the firm as a whole was profitable on 1,277 out of 1,278 trading days, losing money just one day, demonstrating the benefits of trading millions of times, across a diverse set of instruments every trading day.
A third of all European Union and United States stock trades in 2006 were driven by automatic programs, or algorithms. As of 2009, studies suggested HFT firms accounted for 60–73% of all US equity trading volume, with that number falling to approximately 50% in 2012. In 2006, at the London Stock Exchange, over 40% of all orders were entered by algorithmic traders, with 60% predicted for 2007. American markets and European markets generally have a higher proportion of algorithmic trades than other markets, and estimates for 2008 range as high as an 80% proportion in some markets. Foreign exchange markets also have active algorithmic trading, measured at about 80% of orders in 2016 (up from about 25% of orders in 2006). Futures markets are considered fairly easy to integrate into algorithmic trading, with about 20% of options volume expected to be computer-generated by 2010. Bond markets are moving toward more access to algorithmic traders.
Algorithmic trading and HFT have been the subject of much public debate since the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission and the Commodity Futures Trading Commission said in reports that an algorithmic trade entered by a mutual fund company triggered a wave of selling that led to the 2010 Flash Crash. The same reports found HFT strategies may have contributed to subsequent volatility by rapidly pulling liquidity from the market. As a result of these events, the Dow Jones Industrial Average suffered its second largest intraday point swing ever to that date, though prices quickly recovered. (See List of largest daily changes in the Dow Jones Industrial Average.) A July 2011 report by the International Organization of Securities Commissions (IOSCO), an international body of securities regulators, concluded that while "algorithms and HFT technology have been used by market participants to manage their trading and risk, their usage was also clearly a contributing factor in the flash crash event of May 6, 2010." However, other researchers have reached a different conclusion. One 2010 study found that HFT did not significantly alter trading inventory during the Flash Crash. Some algorithmic trading ahead of index fund rebalancing transfers profits from investors.
Strategies
Trading ahead of index fund rebalancing
Most retirement savings, such as private pension funds or 401(k) and individual retirement accounts in the US, are invested in mutual funds, the most popular of which are index funds which must periodically "rebalance" or adjust their portfolio to match the new prices and market capitalization of the underlying securities in the stock or other index that they track. Profits are transferred from passive index investors to active investors, some of whom are algorithmic traders specifically exploiting the index rebalance effect. The magnitude of these losses incurred by passive investors has been estimated at 21–28bp per year for the S&P 500 and 38–77bp per year for the Russell 2000. John Montgomery of Bridgeway Capital Management says that the resulting "poor investor returns" from trading ahead of mutual funds is "the elephant in the room" that "shockingly, people are not talking about".
Pairs trading
Pairs trading or pair trading is a long-short, ideally market-neutral strategy enabling traders to profit from transient discrepancies in relative value of close substitutes. Unlike in the case of classic arbitrage, in case of pairs trading, the law of one price cannot guarantee convergence of prices. This is especially true when the strategy is applied to individual stocks – these imperfect substitutes can in fact diverge indefinitely. In theory, the long-short nature of the strategy should make it work regardless of the stock market direction. In practice, execution risk, persistent and large divergences, as well as a decline in volatility can make this strategy unprofitable for long periods of time (e.g. 2004-2007). It belongs to wider categories of statistical arbitrage, convergence trading, and relative value strategies.
Delta-neutral strategies
In finance, delta-neutral describes a portfolio of related financial securities, in which the portfolio value remains unchanged due to small changes in the value of the underlying security. Such a portfolio typically contains options and their corresponding underlying securities such that positive and negative delta components offset, resulting in the portfolio's value being relatively insensitive to changes in the value of the underlying security.
Arbitrage
In economics and finance, arbitrage is the practice of taking advantage of a price difference between two or more markets: striking a combination of matching deals that capitalize upon the imbalance, the profit being the difference between the market prices. When used by academics, an arbitrage is a transaction that involves no negative cash flow at any probabilistic or temporal state and a positive cash flow in at least one state; in simple terms, it is the possibility of a risk-free profit at zero cost. Example: One of the most popular Arbitrage trading opportunities is played with the S&P futures and the S&P 500 stocks. During most trading days, these two will develop disparity in the pricing between the two of them. This happens when the price of the stocks which are mostly traded on the NYSE and NASDAQ markets either get ahead or behind the S&P Futures which are traded in the CME market.
Conditions for arbitrage
Arbitrage is possible when one of three conditions is met:
The same asset does not trade at the same price on all markets (the "law of one price" is temporarily violated).
Two assets with identical cash flows do not trade at the same price.
An asset with a known price in the future does not today trade at its future price discounted at the risk-free interest rate (or, the asset does not have negligible costs of storage; as such, for example, this condition holds for grain but not for securities).
Arbitrage is not simply the act of buying a product in one market and selling it in another for a higher price at some later time. The long and short transactions should ideally occur simultaneously to minimize the exposure to market risk, or the risk that prices may change on one market before both transactions are complete. In practical terms, this is generally only possible with securities and financial products which can be traded electronically, and even then, when first leg(s) of the trade is executed, the prices in the other legs may have worsened, locking in a guaranteed loss. Missing one of the legs of the trade (and subsequently having to open it at a worse price) is called 'execution risk' or more specifically 'leg-in and leg-out risk'. In the simplest example, any good sold in one market should sell for the same price in another. Traders may, for example, find that the price of wheat is lower in agricultural regions than in cities, purchase the good, and transport it to another region to sell at a higher price. This type of price arbitrage is the most common, but this simple example ignores the cost of transport, storage, risk, and other factors. "True" arbitrage requires that there be no market risk involved. Where securities are traded on more than one exchange, arbitrage occurs by simultaneously buying in one and selling on the other. Such simultaneous execution, if perfect substitutes are involved, minimizes capital requirements, but in practice never creates a "self-financing" (free) position, as many sources incorrectly assume following the theory. As long as there is some difference in the market value and riskiness of the two legs, capital would have to be put up in order to carry the long-short arbitrage position.
Mean reversion
Mean reversion is a mathematical methodology sometimes used for stock investing, but it can be applied to other processes. In general terms the idea is that both a stock's high and low prices are temporary, and that a stock's price tends to have an average price over time. An example of a mean-reverting process is the Ornstein-Uhlenbeck stochastic equation.
Mean reversion involves first identifying the trading range for a stock, and then computing the average price using analytical techniques as it relates to assets, earnings, etc.
When the current market price is less than the average price, the stock is considered attractive for purchase, with the expectation that the price will rise. When the current market price is above the average price, the market price is expected to fall. In other words, deviations from the average price are expected to revert to the average.
The standard deviation of the most recent prices (e.g., the last 20) is often used as a buy or sell indicator.
Stock reporting services (such as Yahoo! Finance, MS Investor, Morningstar, etc.), commonly offer moving averages for periods such as 50 and 100 days. While reporting services provide the averages, identifying the high and low prices for the study period is still necessary.
Scalping
Scalping is liquidity provision by non-traditional market makers, whereby traders attempt to earn (or make) the bid-ask spread. This procedure allows for profit for so long as price moves are less than this spread and normally involves establishing and liquidating a position quickly, usually within minutes or less.
A market maker is basically a specialized scalper. The volume a market maker trades is many times more than the average individual scalper and would make use of more sophisticated trading systems and technology. However, registered market makers are bound by exchange rules stipulating their minimum quote obligations. For instance, NASDAQ requires each market maker to post at least one bid and one ask at some price level, so as to maintain a two-sided market for each stock represented.
Transaction cost reduction
Most strategies referred to as algorithmic trading (as well as algorithmic liquidity-seeking) fall into the cost-reduction category. The basic idea is to break down a large order into small orders and place them in the market over time. The choice of algorithm depends on various factors, with the most important being volatility and liquidity of the stock. For example, for a highly liquid stock, matching a certain percentage of the overall orders of stock (called volume inline algorithms) is usually a good strategy, but for a highly illiquid stock, algorithms try to match every order that has a favorable price (called liquidity-seeking algorithms).
The success of these strategies is usually measured by comparing the average price at which the entire order was executed with the average price achieved through a benchmark execution for the same duration. Usually, the volume-weighted average price is used as the benchmark. At times, the execution price is also compared with the price of the instrument at the time of placing the order.
A special class of these algorithms attempts to detect algorithmic or iceberg orders on the other side (i.e. if you are trying to buy, the algorithm will try to detect orders for the sell side). These algorithms are called sniffing algorithms. A typical example is "Stealth".
Some examples of algorithms are VWAP, TWAP, Implementation shortfall, POV, Display size, Liquidity seeker, and Stealth. Modern algorithms are often optimally constructed via either static or dynamic programming
.
Strategies that only pertain to dark pools
Recently, HFT, which comprises a broad set of buy-side as well as market making sell side traders, has become more prominent and controversial. These algorithms or techniques are commonly given names such as "Stealth" (developed by the Deutsche Bank), "Iceberg", "Dagger", "Guerrilla", "Sniper", "BASOR" (developed by Quod Financial) and "Sniffer". Dark pools are alternative trading systems that are private in nature—and thus do not interact with public order flow—and seek instead to provide undisplayed liquidity to large blocks of securities. In dark pools, trading takes place anonymously, with most orders hidden or "iceberged". Gamers or "sharks" sniff out large orders by "pinging" small market orders to buy and sell. When several small orders are filled the sharks may have discovered the presence of a large iceberged order.
"Now it's an arms race," said Andrew Lo, director of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology's Laboratory for Financial Engineering. "Everyone is building more sophisticated algorithms, and the more competition exists, the smaller the profits."
Market timing
Strategies designed to generate alpha are considered market timing strategies. These types of strategies are designed using a methodology that includes backtesting, forward testing and live testing. Market timing algorithms will typically use technical indicators such as moving averages but can also include pattern recognition logic implemented using Finite State Machines.
Backtesting the algorithm is typically the first stage and involves simulating the hypothetical trades through an in-sample data period. Optimization is performed in order to determine the most optimal inputs. Steps taken to reduce the chance of over optimization can include modifying the inputs +/- 10%, schmooing the inputs in large steps, running monte carlo simulations and ensuring slippage and commission is accounted for.
Forward testing the algorithm is the next stage and involves running the algorithm through an out of sample data set to ensure the algorithm performs within backtested expectations.
Live testing is the final stage of development and requires the developer to compare actual live trades with both the backtested and forward tested models. Metrics compared include percent profitable, profit factor, maximum drawdown and average gain per trade.
High-frequency trading
As noted above, high-frequency trading (HFT) is a form of algorithmic trading characterized by high turnover and high order-to-trade ratios. Although there is no single definition of HFT, among its key attributes are highly sophisticated algorithms, specialized order types, co-location, very short-term investment horizons, and high cancellation rates for orders.
In the U.S., high-frequency trading (HFT) firms represent 2% of the approximately 20,000 firms operating today, but account for 73% of all equity trading volume. As of the first quarter in 2009, total assets under management for hedge funds with HFT strategies were US$141 billion, down about 21% from their high. The HFT strategy was first made successful by Renaissance Technologies.
High-frequency funds started to become especially popular in 2007 and 2008. Many HFT firms are market makers and provide liquidity to the market, which has lowered volatility and helped narrow bid–offer spreads making trading and investing cheaper for other market participants. HFT has been a subject of intense public focus since the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission and the Commodity Futures Trading Commission stated that both algorithmic trading and HFT contributed to volatility in the 2010 Flash Crash. Among the major U.S. high frequency trading firms are Chicago Trading Company, Optiver, Virtu Financial, DRW, Jump Trading, Two Sigma Securities, GTS, IMC Financial, and Citadel LLC.
There are four key categories of HFT strategies: market-making based on order flow, market-making based on tick data information, event arbitrage and statistical arbitrage. All portfolio-allocation decisions are made by computerized quantitative models. The success of computerized strategies is largely driven by their ability to simultaneously process volumes of information, something ordinary human traders cannot do.
Market making
Market making involves placing a limit order to sell (or offer) above the current market price or a buy limit order (or bid) below the current price on a regular and continuous basis to capture the bid-ask spread. Automated Trading Desk, which was bought by Citigroup in July 2007, has been an active market maker, accounting for about 6% of total volume on both NASDAQ and the New York Stock Exchange.
Statistical arbitrage
Another set of HFT strategies in classical arbitrage strategy might involve several securities such as covered interest rate parity in the foreign exchange market which gives a relation between the prices of a domestic bond, a bond denominated in a foreign currency, the spot price of the currency, and the price of a forward contract on the currency. If the market prices are different enough from those implied in the model to cover transaction cost then four transactions can be made to guarantee a risk-free profit. HFT allows similar arbitrages using models of greater complexity involving many more than 4 securities. The TABB Group estimates that annual aggregate profits of low latency arbitrage strategies currently exceed US$21 billion.
A wide range of statistical arbitrage strategies have been developed whereby trading decisions are made on the basis of deviations from statistically significant relationships. Like market-making strategies, statistical arbitrage can be applied in all asset classes.
Event arbitrage
A subset of risk, merger, convertible, or distressed securities arbitrage that counts on a specific event, such as a contract signing, regulatory approval, judicial decision, etc., to change the price or rate relationship of two or more financial instruments and permit the arbitrageur to earn a profit.
Merger arbitrage also called risk arbitrage would be an example of this. Merger arbitrage generally consists of buying the stock of a company that is the target of a takeover while shorting the stock of the acquiring company. Usually the market price of the target company is less than the price offered by the acquiring company. The spread between these two prices depends mainly on the probability and the timing of the takeover being completed, as well as the prevailing level of interest rates. The bet in a merger arbitrage is that such a spread will eventually be zero, if and when the takeover is completed. The risk is that the deal "breaks" and the spread massively widens.
Spoofing
One strategy that some traders have employed, which has been proscribed yet likely continues, is called spoofing. It is the act of placing orders to give the impression of wanting to buy or sell shares, without ever having the intention of letting the order execute to temporarily manipulate the market to buy or sell shares at a more favorable price. This is done by creating limit orders outside the current bid or ask price to change the reported price to other market participants. The trader can subsequently place trades based on the artificial change in price, then canceling the limit orders before they are executed.
Suppose a trader desires to sell shares of a company with a current bid of $20 and a current ask of $20.20. The trader would place a buy order at $20.10, still some distance from the ask so it will not be executed, and the $20.10 bid is reported as the National Best Bid and Offer best bid price. The trader then executes a market order for the sale of the shares they wished to sell. Because the best bid price is the investor's artificial bid, a market maker fills the sale order at $20.10, allowing for a $.10 higher sale price per share. The trader subsequently cancels their limit order on the purchase he never had the intention of completing.
Quote stuffing
Quote stuffing is a tactic employed by malicious traders that involves quickly entering and withdrawing large quantities of orders in an attempt to flood the market, thereby gaining an advantage over slower market participants. The rapidly placed and canceled orders cause market data feeds that ordinary investors rely on to delay price quotes while the stuffing is occurring. HFT firms benefit from proprietary, higher-capacity feeds and the most capable, lowest latency infrastructure. Researchers showed high-frequency traders are able to profit by the artificially induced latencies and arbitrage opportunities that result from quote stuffing.
Low latency trading systems
Network-induced latency, a synonym for delay, measured in one-way delay or round-trip time, is normally defined as how much time it takes for a data packet to travel from one point to another. Low latency trading refers to the algorithmic trading systems and network routes used by financial institutions connecting to stock exchanges and electronic communication networks (ECNs) to rapidly execute financial transactions. Most HFT firms depend on low latency execution of their trading strategies. Joel Hasbrouck and Gideon Saar (2013) measure latency based on three components: the time it takes for (1) information to reach the trader, (2) the trader's algorithms to analyze the information, and (3) the generated action to reach the exchange and get implemented. In a contemporary electronic market (circa 2009), low latency trade processing time was qualified as under 10 milliseconds, and ultra-low latency as under 1 millisecond.
Low-latency traders depend on ultra-low latency networks. They profit by providing information, such as competing bids and offers, to their algorithms microseconds faster than their competitors. The revolutionary advance in speed has led to the need for firms to have a real-time, colocated trading platform to benefit from implementing high-frequency strategies. Strategies are constantly altered to reflect the subtle changes in the market as well as to combat the threat of the strategy being reverse engineered by competitors. This is due to the evolutionary nature of algorithmic trading strategies – they must be able to adapt and trade intelligently, regardless of market conditions, which involves being flexible enough to withstand a vast array of market scenarios. As a result, a significant proportion of net revenue from firms is spent on the R&D of these autonomous trading systems.
Strategy implementation
Most of the algorithmic strategies are implemented using modern programming languages, although some still implement strategies designed in spreadsheets. Increasingly, the algorithms used by large brokerages and asset managers are written to the FIX Protocol's Algorithmic Trading Definition Language (FIXatdl), which allows firms receiving orders to specify exactly how their electronic orders should be expressed. Orders built using FIXatdl can then be transmitted from traders' systems via the FIX Protocol. Basic models can rely on as little as a linear regression, while more complex game-theoretic and pattern recognition or predictive models can also be used to initiate trading. More complex methods such as Markov chain Monte Carlo have been used to create these models.
Issues and developments
Algorithmic trading has been shown to substantially improve market liquidity among other benefits. However, improvements in productivity brought by algorithmic trading have been opposed by human brokers and traders facing stiff competition from computers.
Cyborg finance
Technological advances in finance, particularly those relating to algorithmic trading, has increased financial speed, connectivity, reach, and complexity while simultaneously reducing its humanity. Computers running software based on complex algorithms have replaced humans in many functions in the financial industry. Finance is essentially becoming an industry where machines and humans share the dominant roles – transforming modern finance into what one scholar has called, "cyborg finance".
Concerns
While many experts laud the benefits of innovation in computerized algorithmic trading, other analysts have expressed concern with specific aspects of computerized trading.
"The downside with these systems is their black box-ness," Mr. Williams said. "Traders have intuitive senses of how the world works. But with these systems you pour in a bunch of numbers, and something comes out the other end, and it's not always intuitive or clear why the black box latched onto certain data or relationships."
"The Financial Services Authority has been keeping a watchful eye on the development of black box trading. In its annual report the regulator remarked on the great benefits of efficiency that new technology is bringing to the market. But it also pointed out that 'greater reliance on sophisticated technology and modelling brings with it a greater risk that systems failure can result in business interruption'."
UK Treasury minister Lord Myners has warned that companies could become the "playthings" of speculators because of automatic high-frequency trading. Lord Myners said the process risked destroying the relationship between an investor and a company.
Other issues include the technical problem of latency or the delay in getting quotes to traders, security and the possibility of a complete system breakdown leading to a market crash.
"Goldman spends tens of millions of dollars on this stuff. They have more people working in their technology area than people on the trading desk...The nature of the markets has changed dramatically."
On August 1, 2012 Knight Capital Group experienced a technology issue in their automated trading system, causing a loss of $440 million.
This issue was related to Knight's installation of trading software and resulted in Knight sending numerous erroneous orders in NYSE-listed securities into the market. This software has been removed from the company's systems. ... Clients were not negatively affected by the erroneous orders, and the software issue was limited to the routing of certain listed stocks to NYSE. Knight has traded out of its entire erroneous trade position, which has resulted in a realized pre-tax loss of approximately $440 million.
Algorithmic and high-frequency trading were shown to have contributed to volatility during the May 6, 2010 Flash Crash, when the Dow Jones Industrial Average plunged about 600 points only to recover those losses within minutes. At the time, it was the second largest point swing, 1,010.14 points, and the biggest one-day point decline, 998.5 points, on an intraday basis in Dow Jones Industrial Average history.
Recent developments
Financial market news is now being formatted by firms such as Need To Know News, Thomson Reuters, Dow Jones, and Bloomberg, to be read and traded on via algorithms.
"Computers are now being used to generate news stories about company earnings results or economic statistics as they are released. And this almost instantaneous information forms a direct feed into other computers which trade on the news."
The algorithms do not simply trade on simple news stories but also interpret more difficult to understand news. Some firms are also attempting to automatically assign sentiment (deciding if the news is good or bad) to news stories so that automated trading can work directly on the news story.
"Increasingly, people are looking at all forms of news and building their own indicators around it in a semi-structured way," as they constantly seek out new trading advantages said Rob Passarella, global director of strategy at Dow Jones Enterprise Media Group. His firm provides both a low latency news feed and news analytics for traders. Passarella also pointed to new academic research being conducted on the degree to which frequent Google searches on various stocks can serve as trading indicators, the potential impact of various phrases and words that may appear in Securities and Exchange Commission statements and the latest wave of online communities devoted to stock trading topics.
"Markets are by their very nature conversations, having grown out of coffee houses and taverns," he said. So the way conversations get created in a digital society will be used to convert news into trades, as well, Passarella said.
"There is a real interest in moving the process of interpreting news from the humans to the machines" says Kirsti Suutari, global business manager of algorithmic trading at Reuters. "More of our customers are finding ways to use news content to make money."
An example of the importance of news reporting speed to algorithmic traders was an advertising campaign by Dow Jones (appearances included page W15 of The Wall Street Journal, on March 1, 2008) claiming that their service had beaten other news services by two seconds in reporting an interest rate cut by the Bank of England.
In July 2007, Citigroup, which had already developed its own trading algorithms, paid $680 million for Automated Trading Desk, a 19-year-old firm that trades about 200 million shares a day. Citigroup had previously bought Lava Trading and OnTrade Inc.
In late 2010, The UK Government Office for Science initiated a Foresight project investigating the future of computer trading in the financial markets, led by Dame Clara Furse, ex-CEO of the London Stock Exchange and in September 2011 the project published its initial findings in the form of a three-chapter working paper available in three languages, along with 16 additional papers that provide supporting evidence. All of these findings are authored or co-authored by leading academics and practitioners, and were subjected to anonymous peer-review. Released in 2012, the Foresight study acknowledged issues related to periodic illiquidity, new forms of manipulation and potential threats to market stability due to errant algorithms or excessive message traffic. However, the report was also criticized for adopting "standard pro-HFT arguments" and advisory panel members being linked to the HFT industry.
System architecture
A traditional trading system consists primarily of two blocks – one that receives the market data while the other that sends the order request to the exchange. However, an algorithmic trading system can be broken down into three parts:
Exchange
The server
Application
Exchange(s) provide data to the system, which typically consists of the latest order book, traded volumes, and last traded price (LTP) of scrip. The server in turn receives the data simultaneously acting as a store for historical database. The data is analyzed at the application side, where trading strategies are fed from the user and can be viewed on the GUI. Once the order is generated, it is sent to the order management system (OMS), which in turn transmits it to the exchange.
Gradually, old-school, high latency architecture of algorithmic systems is being replaced by newer, state-of-the-art, high infrastructure, low-latency networks. The complex event processing engine (CEP), which is the heart of decision making in algo-based trading systems, is used for order routing and risk management.
With the emergence of the FIX (Financial Information Exchange) protocol, the connection to different destinations has become easier and the go-to market time has reduced, when it comes to connecting with a new destination. With the standard protocol in place, integration of third-party vendors for data feeds is not cumbersome anymore.
Automated controls
Automated trading must be operated under automated controls, since manual interventions are too slow or late for real-time trading in the scale of micro- or milli-seconds. A trading desk or firm therefore must develop proper automated control frameworks to address all possible risk types, ranging from principal capital risks, fat-finger errors, counter-party credit risks, market-disruptive trading strategies such as spoofing or layering, to client-hurting unfair internalization or excessive usage of toxic dark pools.
Market regulators such as the Bank of England and the European Securities and Markets Authority have published supervisory guidance specifically on the risk controls of algorithmic trading activities, e.g., the SS5/18 of the Bank of England, and the MIFID II.
In response, there also have been increasing academic or industrial activities devoted to the control side of algorithmic trading.
Effects
One of the more ironic findings of academic research on algorithmic trading might be that individual trader introduce algorithms to make communication more simple and predictable, while markets end up more complex and more uncertain. Since trading algorithms follow local rules that either respond to programmed instructions or learned patterns, on the micro-level, their automated and reactive behavior makes certain parts of the communication dynamic more predictable. However, on the macro-level, it has been shown that the overall emergent process becomes both more complex and less predictable. This phenomena is not unique to the stock market, and has also been detected with editing bots on Wikipedia.
Though its development may have been prompted by decreasing trade sizes caused by decimalization, algorithmic trading has reduced trade sizes further. Jobs once done by human traders are being switched to computers. The speeds of computer connections, measured in milliseconds and even microseconds, have become very important.
More fully automated markets such as NASDAQ, Direct Edge and BATS (formerly an acronym for Better Alternative Trading System) in the US, have gained market share from less automated markets such as the NYSE. Economies of scale in electronic trading have contributed to lowering commissions and trade processing fees, and contributed to international mergers and consolidation of financial exchanges.
Competition is developing among exchanges for the fastest processing times for completing trades. For example, in June 2007, the London Stock Exchange launched a new system called TradElect that promises an average 10 millisecond turnaround time from placing an order to final confirmation and can process 3,000 orders per second. Since then, competitive exchanges have continued to reduce latency with turnaround times of 3 milliseconds available. This is of great importance to high-frequency traders, because they have to attempt to pinpoint the consistent and probable performance ranges of given financial instruments. These professionals are often dealing in versions of stock index funds like the E-mini S&Ps, because they seek consistency and risk-mitigation along with top performance. They must filter market data to work into their software programming so that there is the lowest latency and highest liquidity at the time for placing stop-losses and/or taking profits. With high volatility in these markets, this becomes a complex and potentially nerve-wracking endeavor, where a small mistake can lead to a large loss. Absolute frequency data play into the development of the trader's pre-programmed instructions.
In the U.S., spending on computers and software in the financial industry increased to $26.4 billion in 2005.
Algorithmic trading has caused a shift in the types of employees working in the financial industry. For example, many physicists have entered the financial industry as quantitative analysts. Some physicists have even begun to do research in economics as part of doctoral research. This interdisciplinary movement is sometimes called econophysics. Some researchers also cite a "cultural divide" between employees of firms primarily engaged in algorithmic trading and traditional investment managers. Algorithmic trading has encouraged an increased focus on data and had decreased emphasis on sell-side research.
Communication standards
Algorithmic trades require communicating considerably more parameters than traditional market and limit orders. A trader on one end (the "buy side") must enable their trading system (often called an "order management system" or "execution management system") to understand a constantly proliferating flow of new algorithmic order types. The R&D and other costs to construct complex new algorithmic orders types, along with the execution infrastructure, and marketing costs to distribute them, are fairly substantial. What was needed was a way that marketers (the "sell side") could express algo orders electronically such that buy-side traders could just drop the new order types into their system and be ready to trade them without constant coding custom new order entry screens each time.
FIX Protocol is a trade association that publishes free, open standards in the securities trading area. The FIX language was originally created by Fidelity Investments, and the association Members include virtually all large and many midsized and smaller broker dealers, money center banks, institutional investors, mutual funds, etc. This institution dominates standard setting in the pretrade and trade areas of security transactions. In 2006–2007, several members got together and published a draft XML standard for expressing algorithmic order types. The standard is called FIX Algorithmic Trading Definition Language (FIXatdl).
See also
2010 Flash Crash
Algorithmic tacit collusion
Alpha generation platform
Alternative trading system
Artificial intelligence
Best execution
Complex event processing
Electronic trading platform
Mirror trading
Quantitative investing
Technical analysis
Notes
References
External links
Electronic trading systems
Financial markets
Share trading |
1544191 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Removal%20of%20Internet%20Explorer | Removal of Internet Explorer | The idea of the removal of Internet Explorer (IE) from Windows was proposed during the United States v. Microsoft Corp. case. Later, security advocates took up the idea as a way to protect Windows systems from attacks via IE vulnerabilities.
The process of removing Internet Explorer from a personal computer has changed over the browser's version history, but the nature of many of its upgrades and installation methods has been a matter of public interest. The first version to be included was version 2 with Windows 95 in late 1996. Later, users who upgraded to IE3 (which came out in 1996), could still use the last IE, because the installation converted the previous version to separate directory. However, Internet Explorer 4 created a controversy with its shell integration with Windows Explorer. With later versions, removal (or inability to do so) became more complicated. With the release of Internet Explorer 7, shell integration began being reduced, such as changing ActiveX hosting and a different look than Windows Explorer.
It was proposed that a special version of Windows 7, Windows 7 E, would be shipped without Internet Explorer in Europe as a result of EU antitrust investigations against Microsoft. However, in July 2009, Microsoft cancelled the Windows 7 E editions due to negative reactions from computer manufacturers. In 2015, Microsoft released Microsoft Edge which firstly based on EdgeHTML on launch along with Windows 10, until it became Chromium-based on 2020 which replaced IE's status as the default browser in Windows 10. IE 11 is still available and preinstalled on Windows 10, but users setting up their computers for the first time have to actively seek it from the Windows Accessories folder in the Start menu since it is not pinned to the taskbar by default. The main reason for keeping Internet Explorer in Windows 10 is to run websites, based on legacy HTML technologies, which are not, or improperly, supported in Microsoft Edge.
On May 19, 2021, Microsoft announced that Internet Explorer will be no longer supported on June 15, 2022 and as part of transition, IE mode will be available on the new Microsoft Edge which allows launch older ActiveX controls and legacy websites until at least 2029. Windows 11 removed Internet Explorer, although it was disabled and some of its files are still stored in Windows' Program Files folder. Users that are trying to run iexplore.exe via Run command will redirected to Microsoft Edge. Additionaly, if it is run for the first time since the release of Edge Chromium, IE11 will now open a new tab that redirects to Edge's website, with a notice that "some websites no longer support Internet Explorer".
Overview
Internet Explorer comes as an integrated component of Windows that cannot be uninstalled. Newer versions of Internet Explorer are sometimes released for existing operating systems, replacing the older version. Optionally, users may later choose to revert this upgrade. Starting with Windows 2000, it is possible to disable Internet Explorer: The user can no longer launch it but its web browser engine remains operational for applications that use it.
This is not unique to Windows: Safari, the default browser on macOS, is similarly integrated into the operating system. While it is possible to delete the application itself without problem, Safari is in fact merely a front-end for Apple's open source WebKit framework, which is heavily integrated into the operating system and cannot be removed.
The idea of removing Internet Explorer was proposed during the United States v. Microsoft Corp. case. One of Microsoft's arguments during the trial, however, was that removing Internet Explorer from Windows may result in system instability.
Definition
It is unclear what it means to "remove IE" because such a removal depends on being able to determine which files or functions on an installed Windows system are part of IE — that is, to draw a line between IE and the rest of Windows. Microsoft has held that this is not meaningful; that in Windows 98 and newer versions, "Internet Explorer" is not a separate piece of software but simply a brand name for the web browsing and HTML rendering capacities of the Windows operating system. In this view, the result of removing IE is simply a damaged Windows system; to have a working system without IE one must replace Windows entirely.
In contrast, some programmers and security writers have held that it is possible to have a useful and working Windows system with IE excised. These people include consultant Fred Vorck, who advocates that consumers should have the choice to remove "integrated" features of Microsoft Windows and participates in the HFSLIP project; Dino Nuhagic, who is the creator of nLite, a product that allows users to remove Windows components like Internet Explorer and Windows Media Player; and Shane Brooks, who created 98lite and XPLite to remove and manage Windows components after the installation of the operating system. Some people have suggested the use of alternative browsers instead of Internet Explorer, to try reduce the risk of vulnerabilities.
Methods
Methods have been developed by these programmers and others to remove Internet Explorer from Windows 95 after installing, as well as before install time. Removing Internet Explorer from Windows 2000, Windows XP and Windows Server 2003 is also possible at installation time.
Australian computer scientist Shane Brooks demonstrated that Windows 98 could in fact run with Internet Explorer removed. Brooks made his work available as a freeware removal utility called IEradicator, which removes all versions of IE from all versions of Windows 9x, but leaving the rendering engine and some other components behind for application compatibility. Brooks went on to develop a more sophisticated program for Windows 98 and Windows ME, marketed as 98lite, which turns IE, along with several other "mandatory" Windows components, including the IE components left behind by IEradicator, into optional components that can be added or removed from the OS at will. He later created XPLite, which renders many parts of Windows 2000 and XP into optional components. Both of Brooks's programs can remove IE after the installation of the operating system.
Another programmer named Bruce Jensen published a similar utility called "Revenge of Mozilla", which was freeware and removed many other Windows 98 components identified as "bloatware" or as being of questionable value. Although Revenge of Mozilla asked the user to supply some files from the Windows 95 OEM Service Release 2 version of the Windows Explorer shell (necessary for compatibility with the FAT32 file system) that did not have the "Windows Desktop Update" that came with Internet Explorer 4/Windows 98. As a result of the shell replacement, Windows used significantly fewer resources than normal, the shell didn't leak resources like Windows 98's version did, and Windows crashed less. In 98Lite, using Explorer from Windows 95 OSR 2 was optional.
There are other methods of removing IE based on modifying the Windows installation process so that IE is never installed in the first place. 98lite can be used in this way. A method developed by Fred Vorck manually alters the setup scripts for Windows 2000 to prevent the installation of IE. His process has been automated as a feature of HFSLIP. nLite and HFSLIP are automated programs that allow users to modify the Windows installation process, both to incorporate patches and updates and to exclude IE and many other Windows components from installation as desired.
Impacts
Removing Internet Explorer does have a number of consequences. Some programs bundled with Windows, such as Outlook Express, and some basic Windows components, such as Help and Support, depend on libraries installed by IE in order to function. Before Windows Vista, it was not possible to run Windows Update without IE because the service used ActiveX technology, which no other web browser supports. With IE removed they fail to work, either partially or entirely. In addition, third-party web browsers based on MSHTML engine require IE and stop working without it.
Notes
References
Internet Explorer |
50894275 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DroidKungFu | DroidKungFu | DroidKungFu is a malware that affects Android OS. It primarily targets users in China. The first evidence of this malware was found in the Android Market in March 2011.
History
DroidKungFu was discovered by US-based researchers Yajin Zhou and Xuxian Jiang. The two discovered this malware while working at North Carolina State University. It targets the Android 2.2 platform and allows hackers to access and control devices. DroidKungFu malware can collect some user data through backdoor hacking.
Process of DroidKungFu malware
DroidkungFu encrypts two different root exploits: a udev exploit and a "RageAgainsTheCage" exploit, to break android security. Once executed, it decrypts the exploits and communicates with a remote server without user knowledge.
Function
Silent mobile device rooting
Unlocks all system files and functions
Installs itself without any user interaction
Data collected
IMEI number
Phone model
Android OS version
Network operator
Network type
Information stored in the Phone & SD Card memory
See also
Botnet
Command and control (malware)
Denial-of-service attack
File binder
Shedun
Trojan horse
Zombie (computer science)
Zeus (malware)
References
Android (operating system) malware
Denial-of-service attacks
Mobile malware |
41571333 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asus%20Transformer%20Book%20Duet | Asus Transformer Book Duet | The Transformer Book Duet TD300, was a 13.3 inch tablet computer that was developed by Asus. The device used two operating systems interchangeably: Windows 8.1 by Microsoft, and Android 4.1 by Google. The device featured a tablet screen and a detachable keyboard. The device was reported to be cancelled due to opposition from both Google and Microsoft in mid-March, 2014.
Design
The tablet portion of the Transformer Book Duet is thick with a 13.3 inch touch screen available in 1366×768 or 1920×1080 resolution. The back of the screen is a rubberized black plastic, with the volume and power buttons embedded at the top right of the lid. It has a detachable black chiclet keyboard with a key to switch between Windows and Android.
The interchangeability of Android and Windows, coupled with the ability to switch between tablet and ultrabook form-factors have led some news sources to call the Transformer Book Duet a "four-in-one device". Switching between the two operating systems takes about four seconds, according to Asus Chairman Jonney Shih. The computer has an Intel Core i7 processor, and 4GB of RAM. The tablet itself has a 128GB solid state drive, and the keyboard adds 1TB of hard drive storage. The computer also features various ports including HDMI, LAN, one USB 3.0, and two USB 2.0.
Daniel Griffiths of Forbes noted that this is not the first time Asus has experimented with "hybrid" devices. Asus has also developed the Eee PC, a laptop with a 7-inch display; and more recently, the PadFone, a smartphone marketed with companion tablet dock and keyboard dock accessories intended to improve functionality and battery life.
Reception
Since its announcement at the Consumer Electronics Show on January 6, 2014, the Transformer Book Duet has received a high degree of media attention from technology magazines and other mainstream news sources.
Vlad Savov of The Verge said that the Transformer Book Duet would work better as either a 10 or 11 inch device, rather than a 13-inch device, because Android "already struggles to fully capitalize on the real estate on screens of that size." Joel Santo Domingo of PC Magazine said that the Transformer Book Duet is helpful for any consumer or business-person who needs to use both operating systems.
Industry objection
In March 2014, The Wall Street Journal reported that because Microsoft and Google had both implemented policies which effectively ban the certification of devices which dual-boot both Android and Windows, the Transformer Book Duet would be cancelled, and Asus would pull its similar all-in-one desktops from the market. Both companies had reportedly objected to the concept of dual-OS devices of this nature as early as January 2014. Prior to CES, an analyst believed that Microsoft was discouraging manufacturers from releasing such devices because they would dilute Windows 8 and Windows Phone's software ecosystem (which Microsoft was reportedly planning to unify). He also speculated that Microsoft would penalize OEMs by forfeiting discounts on Windows licenses and refusing to provide them with financing for marketing. Additionally, even though Android is an open source operating system that is freely available, Google's application suite is proprietary, and can only be licensed for devices which are approved by the company. This would prevent such devices from including access to Google Play, Android's primary application store.
See also
Samsung Ativ Q
References
Tablet computers
Android (operating system) devices
Vaporware |
5653238 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PowerBook%20100 | PowerBook 100 | The PowerBook 100 is a portable subnotebook personal computer designed and manufactured by Sony for Apple Computer and introduced on October 21, 1991, at the COMDEX computer expo in Las Vegas, Nevada. Priced at US$2,500 with external floppy drive, the PowerBook 100 was the low-end model of the first three simultaneously released PowerBooks. Its CPU and overall speed closely resembled those of its predecessor, the Macintosh Portable. It had a Motorola 68000 processor at 16 MHz, 2-8 megabytes (MB) of RAM, a monochrome backlit liquid crystal display (LCD) with 640 × 400 pixel resolution, and the System 7.0.1 operating system. It did not have a built-in floppy disk drive and was noted for its unique compact design that placed a trackball pointing device in front of the keyboard for ease of use.
Apple's then-chief executive officer (CEO) John Sculley started the PowerBook project in 1990, allocating $1 million for marketing. Despite the small marketing budget, the new PowerBook line was a success, generating over $1 billion in revenue for Apple in its first year. Sony designed and manufactured the PowerBook 100 in collaboration with the Apple Industrial Design Group, Apple's internal design team. It was discontinued on September 3, 1992, and superseded by the PowerBook 145 and PowerBook Duo series. Since then, it has been praised several times for its design; PC World named the PowerBook 100 the tenth-greatest PC of all time in 2006, and US magazine Mobile PC chose the PowerBook 100 as the greatest gadget of all time in 2005.
History
From 1990, John Sculley, then CEO of Apple, oversaw product development personally to ensure that Apple released new computers to market more quickly. His new strategy was to increase market share by lowering prices and releasing more "hit" products. This strategy contributed to the commercial success of the low-end Macintosh Classic and Macintosh LC, desktop computers released by Apple in 1990. Sculley wanted to replicate the success of these products with Apple's new PowerBook line.
Sculley began the project in 1990 and wanted the PowerBook to be released within one year. The project had three managers: John Medica, who managed engineering for the new laptop; Randy Battat, who was the vice president for product marketing; and Neil Selvin, who headed the marketing effort. In 1991, the two leaders in the laptop computer industry were Toshiba and Compaq, both of which had introduced models weighing less than . Medica, Battat, and Selvin deliberately designed the PowerBook to weigh less than its competitors.
Sculley allocated a $1 million marketing budget to the PowerBook product line, in contrast to the $25 million used to market the Macintosh Classic. Medica, Battat, and Selvin used most of the money to produce and air a television commercial that viewers would remember. Advertising agency Chiat/Day filmed retired Los Angeles Lakers basketball star Kareem Abdul-Jabbar sitting uncomfortably in a small airline coach seat yet typing comfortably on his PowerBook. The ad caption read: "At least his hands are comfortable."
Apple unveiled the PowerBook 100 on October 21, 1991, at the Comdex computer expo in Las Vegas, alongside two other models: the PowerBook 140 and PowerBook 170. Both the advertisement and the product were successful. Apple projected US sales of more than 200,000 PowerBooks in the first year, with peak demand in the first three months of release. By January 1992, Apple had sold more than 100,000 PowerBooks, by which time they were in short supply. Apple soon solved the supply problems, and the proceeds from PowerBook sales reached $1 billion in the first year after launch. Apple surpassed Toshiba and Compaq as the market leader in worldwide share of portable computer shipments. The PowerBook 100, 140, and 170 contributed greatly to Apple's financial success in 1992. At the end of the financial year, Apple announced its highest figures yet, $7.1 billion in revenues and an increase in global market share from 8% to 8.5%, the highest it had been in four years.
However, the initial popularity of the PowerBook 100 did not last. Sales decreased, and by December 1991 the 140 and 170 models had become more popular because customers were willing to pay more for a built-in floppy disk drive and second serial port, which the PowerBook 100 lacked. In early 1992, the PowerBook 100 was offered at $2,300 without the external floppy drive. By August 10, 1992, Apple quietly dropped the PowerBook 100 from its price list but continued to sell existing stock through its own dealers and alternative discount consumer-oriented stores such as Price Club. In these stores, a 4MB RAM/40MB hard drive configuration with a floppy drive sold for less than $1,000 (more than $1,500 less than the similar 2MB/20MB configuration's original list price).
On September 17, 1992, Apple recalled 60,000 PowerBook 100s because of a potential safety problem. An electrical short, it was discovered, could melt a small hole in the casing, which occurred in three of the 60,000 notebooks manufactured between October 1991 and March 1992. On the day of the recall, Apple shares closed at $47, down $1.25, but some analysts discounted the recall's importance. In addition, the original power supplies had problems with insulation cracks that could cause a short in a fuse on the motherboard; and the computer was prone to cracks in the power adapter socket on the motherboard, which required a $400 replacement motherboard if the warranty had expired.
Features
Most of the PowerBook 100's internal components were based on its predecessor, the Macintosh Portable. It included a Motorola 68HC000 16 MHz processor, had 2 MB memory, no floppy disk drive, and cost approximately $2,500 with external floppy drive. Later the PowerBook 100 was offered without the external floppy drive for $2,300. An external floppy disk drive was available for $279. The dimensions of the PowerBook 100 were an improvement over the Portable. It was deep, wide, and high, compared to the Portable, which was deep, wide and high. Another significant difference was the less expensive passive matrix display used instead of the sharper active matrix used on the Portable (and the 170). The PowerBook 100 included the System 7.0.1 operating system as standard, with support for all versions up to System 7.5.5. Apple, however, released System 6.0.8L, which allowed the PowerBook 100 to run System 6. It could also be used with some earlier System 6 versions, although Apple did not officially support this.
The PowerBook 100 had one external serial port, designed for use with a printer or any compatible RS-422 device. It was the first Macintosh to omit an external modem port, instead offering an optional built-in 2400 baud modem for communications. As a result, for the first time a user could not print directly and access AppleTalk or a faster external modem simultaneously, and devices such as advanced MIDI interfaces could not be used because they required the dedicated use of both ports. A third-party serial modem port could, however, be installed in the internal modem slot for consumers who needed traditional functions.
When the computer was not in use, contents of the memory were preserved as long as the main lead-acid battery remained charged. The PowerBook 100 Power Manager was an integrated circuit, usually placed on the logic board of a PowerBook, and was responsible for the power management of the computer. Identical to that of the Macintosh Portable, it controlled the display's backlight, hard drive spin-down, sleep and wake, battery charging, trackball control, and input/output (I/O). The 100 did add a new feature: 3.5 V batteries backed up permanent and expansion random access memory (RAM) when the PowerBook 100's battery was being replaced or when the 100 was otherwise temporarily removed from all power sources. This made it a perfect candidate for use with Apple's RAM disk to help increase battery life by accessing the hard disk less frequently, since the 100 was the only PowerBook that maintained the contents of RAM on shutdown in order to reduce startup time.
The PowerBook 100 was the first PowerBook to incorporate SCSI Disk Mode, which allowed it to be used as an external hard disk on a desktop Macintosh. This provided a convenient method for software to be installed onto the PowerBook or transferred to the desktop, without the need for the 100's optional floppy disk drive. A specialized SCSI cable with a unique connector was required, however, to use any SCSI device on the PowerBook series. A second dedicated cable was required for SCSI Disk Mode. This feature was unique to the 100 until Apple introduced new PowerBooks more than a year later.
There are two versions of the PowerBook 100's QWERTY layout keyboard: a domestic US version with 63 keys and an international ISO version with 64 keys. The caps lock key on the PowerBook 100 did not have a locking position or a lighted indicator of its status, and to compensate, the System 7 operating system software includes an extension file that causes an icon of the international caps lock symbol (⇪) to appear in the upper right-hand corner of the menu bar when Caps Lock is active.
The internals of the PowerBook 100 were the basis of the Apple Wizzy Active Lifestyle Telephone prototype.
Design
Both the PowerBook 140 and 170 were designed before the 100 by the Apple Industrial Design Group, from March 1990-February 1991. The 100's styling was based on those computers and represents the first improvements to the PowerBook line as Apple benefited from the lessons learned in developing the more powerful models' enclosure. The 100 was designed between September and December 1990, and retained the same design elements, which were a variation on the Snow White design language Apple had been using since 1984. Specifically, raised ridges spaced apart intended to tie it into the existing product line.
Apple approached Sony in late 1989 because it did not have enough engineers to handle the number of new products that were planned for delivery in 1991. Using a basic blueprint from Apple, including a list of chips and other components, and the Portable's architecture, the 100 was miniaturized and manufactured by Sony in San Diego, California, and Japan. Sony engineers had little experience building personal computers but nonetheless completed Apple's smallest and lightest machine in under 13 months, cancelling other projects and giving the PowerBook 100 top priority. Sony president Norio Ohga gave project manager Kihey Yamamoto permission to recruit engineers from any Sony division.
Robert Brunner, Apple's head of industrial design at the time, led the design team that developed the laptop, including its trackball and granite color. Brunner said he designed the PowerBook "so it would be as easy to use and carry as a regular book". The dark granite grey color set it apart from other notebook computers of the time and also from Apple's other products, which traditionally were beige or platinum grey. The trackball, another new design element, was placed in the middle of the computer, allowing the PowerBook to be easily operated by both left- and right-handed users. The designers were trying to create a fashion statement with the overall design of the laptop, which they felt made it a more personal accessory, like a wallet or briefcase. Brunner said: "It says something about the identity of the person who is carrying it".
Reception
Crystal Waters of Home Office Computing praised the PowerBook 100's "unique, effective design" but was disappointed because the internal modem did not receive faxes, and the 100 had no monitor port. The low-capacity 20 MB hard drive was also criticized. Once a user's core applications had been installed, little room was left for optional programs and documents. Waters concluded: "Having used the 100 constantly in the past few weeks, I know I wouldn't feel cheated by buying it - if only it had a 40MB hard-disk drive option."
PC Week benchmarked the PowerBook 100, measuring it against its predecessor, the Macintosh Portable. The PowerBook 100 took 5.3 seconds to open a Microsoft Word document and 2.5 seconds to save it, while the Portable took 5.4 and 2.6 seconds respectively. PC Week tested the battery life, which delivered 3 hours 47 minutes of use. Byte magazines review concluded, "The PowerBook 100 is recommended for word processing and communications tasks; the higher-end products offer enough power for complex reports, large spreadsheets and professional graphics." MacWEEK described it as "ideal for writers and others on a tight budget."
The PowerBook 100 continues to receive recognition from the press. PC World named the PowerBook 100 the 10th-greatest PC of all time in 2006, and in 2005, US magazine Mobile PC chose the PowerBook 100 as the greatest gadget of all time, ahead of the Sony Walkman and Atari 2600. The PowerBook 100 received multiple awards for its design, including the 1999 IDSA Silver Design of the Decade Award, Form magazine's 1993 Designer's Design Awards, the 1992 ISDA Gold Industrial Design Excellence Award, the 1992 Appliance Manufacturer Excellence in Design award, and the Industry Forum Design 10 Best - Hannover Fair award.
Specifications
See also
Macintosh Portable
List of Macintosh models by case type
List of Macintosh models grouped by CPU type
References
External links
Vintage and obsolete products from Apple.com
PowerBook 100 on Low End Mac
PowerBook 100 Specs on Everymac.com
PowerBook 100 on Apple-History.com
100
68k Macintosh computers
Computer-related introductions in 1991 |
1909864 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smart%20cow%20problem | Smart cow problem | The smart cow problem is the concept that, when a group of individuals is faced with a technically difficult task, only one of their members has to solve it. When the problem has been solved once, an easily repeatable method may be developed, allowing the less technically proficient members of the group to accomplish the task.
The term smart cow problem is thought to be derived from the expression: "It only takes one smart cow to open the latch of the gate, and then all the other cows follow."
This concept has been applied to digital rights management (DRM), where, due to the rapid spread of information on the Internet, it only takes one individual's defeat of a DRM scheme to render the method obsolete.
See also
Jon Lech Johansen (aka "DVD Jon", among the first hackers to crack DVD encryption)
Script kiddie (an unskilled hacker who relies on tools created by others)
References
Digital rights management
Hacker culture
Technology neologisms |
567548 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One-key%20MAC | One-key MAC | One-key MAC (OMAC) is a message authentication code constructed from a block cipher much like the CBC-MAC algorithm.
Officially there are two OMAC algorithms (OMAC1 and OMAC2) which are both essentially the same except for a small tweak. OMAC1 is equivalent to CMAC, which became an NIST recommendation in May 2005.
It is free for all uses: it is not covered by any patents.
In cryptography, CMAC is a block cipher-based message authentication code algorithm. It may be used to provide assurance of the authenticity and, hence, the integrity of data. This mode of operation fixes security deficiencies of CBC-MAC (CBC-MAC is secure only for fixed-length messages).
The core of the CMAC algorithm is a variation of CBC-MAC that Black and Rogaway proposed and analyzed under the name XCBC and submitted to NIST. The XCBC algorithm efficiently addresses the security deficiencies of CBC-MAC, but requires three keys. Iwata and Kurosawa proposed an improvement of XCBC and named the resulting algorithm One-Key CBC-MAC (OMAC) in their papers. They later submitted OMAC1, a refinement of OMAC, and additional security analysis. The OMAC algorithm reduces the amount of key material required for XCBC. CMAC is equivalent to OMAC1.
To generate an ℓ-bit CMAC tag (t) of a message (m) using a b-bit block cipher (E) and a secret key (k), one first generates two b-bit sub-keys (k1 and k2) using the following algorithm (this is equivalent to multiplication by x and x2 in a finite field GF(2b)). Let ≪ denote the standard left-shift operator and ⊕ denote bit-wise exclusive or:
Calculate a temporary value k0 = Ek(0).
If msb(k0) = 0, then k1 = k0 ≪ 1, else k1 = (k0 ≪ 1) ⊕ C; where C is a certain constant that depends only on b. (Specifically, C is the non-leading coefficients of the lexicographically first irreducible degree-b binary polynomial with the minimal number of ones: 0x1B for 64-bit, 0x87 for 128-bit, and 0x425 for 256-bit blocks.)
If , then , else .
Return keys (k1, k2) for the MAC generation process.
As a small example, suppose , , and . Then and .
The CMAC tag generation process is as follows:
Divide message into b-bit blocks , where m1, ..., mn−1 are complete blocks. (The empty message is treated as one incomplete block.)
If mn is a complete block then else .
Let .
For , calculate .
Output .
The verification process is as follows:
Use the above algorithm to generate the tag.
Check that the generated tag is equal to the received tag.
Implementations
Python implementation: see the usage of the AES_CMAC() function in "impacket/blob/master/tests/misc/test_crypto.py", and its definition in "impacket/blob/master/impacket/crypto.py"
Ruby implementation
References
External links
The AES-CMAC Algorithm
The AES-CMAC-96 Algorithm and Its Use with IPsec
The Advanced Encryption Standard-Cipher-based Message Authentication Code-Pseudo-Random Function-128 (AES-CMAC-PRF-128)
OMAC Online Test
More information on OMAC
Rust implementation
Message authentication codes
Finite fields |
45576299 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fidelio%20Telemetry | Fidelio Telemetry | Fidelio Telemetry is a computer software company, located in Italy, to develop telemetry software for R/C Racing Car. Its products include "Fidelio Orchestra" and "Testbed".
Fidelio Telemetry develops telemetry software for processing and plotting telemetry data for R/C Car vehicles and RC racing setup.
History
The Fidelio Company was founded in 2013, and has been providing telemetry software.
In 2015 it claimed to have over 3000 customers.
Products
Telemetry in R/C Racing Car
The rise of radio controller with telemetry support in RC Car world joint the opportunities offered by computer calculation are bringing new challenges to maintaining effective tools and analyzing programs for critical data and situations.
The telemetry system in R/C world are introduced since 2010. The radio transmitter for R/C of last generation equipped with telemetry system can be store an enormous amount of data.
The Fidelio software are able to display, processing and analyze information from the following sensors:
Engine RPM
Temperature
Voltage
Throttle
Brake
Steering
The calculation modules offers the capability to evaluate variables such as:
Top speed
Dynamic response of the car (weight transfer study)
Ideal racing line
Optimal Racing Line & Camera Car support
In motorsport, the racing line or simply "the line" is the path taken by a driver through a corner or series of corners with the typical goal of minimizing lap times.
The software supports:
Camera Car monitor (linked to telemetry informations)
A computation of optimal racing line for the track drawn.
See also
Racing line
Radio control
Weight transfer
List of 2.4 GHz radio use
References
External links
Fidelio Telemetry Official Website
Radio-controlled cars |
634848 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Completely%20fair%20queueing | Completely fair queueing | Completely Fair Queuing (CFQ) is an I/O scheduler for the Linux kernel which was written in 2003 by Jens Axboe.
Description
CFQ places synchronous requests submitted by processes into a number of per-process queues and then allocates timeslices for each of the queues to access the disk. The length of the time slice and the number of requests a queue is allowed to submit depends on the I/O priority of the given process. Asynchronous requests for all processes are batched together in fewer queues, one per priority. While CFQ does not do explicit anticipatory I/O scheduling, it achieves the same effect of having good aggregate throughput for the system as a whole, by allowing a process queue to idle at the end of synchronous I/O thereby "anticipating" further close I/O from that process. It can be considered a natural extension of granting I/O time slices to a process.
History
Prior to the integration
In February 2003 Andrea Arcangeli put forward his idea for a Stochastic Fair Queueing I/O scheduler to Jens Axboe who then implemented it. Jens Axboe made improvements to his first implementation, calling the new version the Completely Fair Queueing scheduler, and produced a patch to apply it to the 2.5.60 development series kernel.
Kernel 2.6.6 (10 May 2004)
The CFQ I/O scheduler was first integrated into the mainline kernel as an optional I/O scheduler. It was possible to change the scheduler at boot time with the 'elevator' parameter to kernel.
Kernel 2.6.9 (19 October 2004)
Red Hat Enterprise Linux 4 used this I/O scheduler as the default even though it used a kernel based on a 2.6.9.
Kernel 2.6.10 (24 December 2004)
The second release of the CFQ scheduler dubbed CFQv2 is included in the 2.6.10, improvements include better responsiveness and the elimination of some starvation issues which were present in the earlier version. The scheduler now is also switchable at run time by modifying the /sys/block/<block_device>/queue/scheduler variable in the sysfs filesystem.
Kernel 2.6.13 (27 June 2005)
CFQ scheduler moved to a new time sliced design dubbed CFQv3. Among other things, it implements ioprio_get(2) and ioprio_set(2) which allows user to set per-process I/O priorities, usually using ionice(1) command (although using nice(1) also modifies I/O priorities somewhat)
Kernel 2.6.18 (20 September 2006)
CFQ became the default scheduler, replacing the anticipatory scheduler.
Kernel 5.0 (2019-03-03)
CFQ has been removed.
See also
Noop scheduler
Deadline scheduler
Anticipatory scheduling
References
Sources
Short detail about CFQ (archived from here)
Coming in 2.6.10
External links
Documentation of CFQ from the Linux source code
CFQ - Tuning guide from RedHat's knowledge base
Disk scheduling algorithms
Linux kernel features
Scheduling algorithms |
2961171 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media%20history%20of%20China | Media history of China | A timeline of China's media-related history since World War II, including computer hardware, software development, the history of the Internet, etc.
1950s
In 1956, the “Long-Range Plan for the Development of Science and Technology from 1956-1967” commissioned a group of scientists and researchers to develop computer technology for national defense. The Plan's goals included furthering radio, telecommunication, and atomic energy projects. Shorty thereafter, the first state-sanctioned computer development program began with the Chinese Academy of Sciences affiliated Beijing Institute of Computing Technology (ICT).
In 1958, the first Chinese-made computer was developed by the Institute of Military Engineering at the University of Harbin as part of the ICT. The computer, dubbed the 901, was a vacuum-tube computer. The 901 was a copy of an earlier Soviet model.
1960s
After the Chinese stopped receiving Soviet technical and financial assistance in 1960, there was a deeply felt loss of technical expertise that stunted development. Additionally, the Cultural Revolution slowed technological progress. However, transistor-based computers including the 109B, 109C, DJS-21, DJS-5 and C-2 were developed during the 1960s. Despite the large improvements in the computing power of these machines, and advances in the hardware like integrated-circuitry there is little evidence that computers were being designed for widespread consumer use.
During this period of Chinese "self-reliance," the computers developed in the second half of the 1960s did not resemble Soviet computers nor their Western counterparts. The new transistor-based machines were distinctly Chinese creations.
1970s
The Cultural Revolution continued to severely stagnate technological development in the first half of the 1970s.
Until the 1976 invention of the Cangjie input method, computing technologies lacked an efficient way of inputting Chinese characters into computers. The Cangjie method uses Chinese character radicals to construct characters.
In 1977, the first microcomputer, the DJS-050 was developed.
In 1978, China’s aggressive plan for technological development was announced at the Chinese National Conference on Science and Technology. Further developing microcomputers, integrated circuits, and national databases were all declared priorities.
1980s
In 1980, the Chinese computing technology was estimated to be about 15 years behind United States technology. From the early 1980s on, China’s leaders recognized that their nationalistic development strategy was inhibiting their scientific competitiveness with the West. Therefore, imports from the United States and Japanese companies such as IBM, DEC, Unisys, Fujitsu, Hitachi, and NEC greatly increased. However, high tariffs discouraged the direct import of computers, instead encouraging foreign corporations to provide hardware and software to domestic enterprises.
In 1980, the GB2312 Code of Chinese Graphic Character Set for Information Interchange-Primary Set was created allowing for 99% of contemporary characters to be easily expressed.
In 1982, the Shanghai Bureau of Education chose 8 elementary students and 8 middle-school students from each district, and gave them very basic computer training. This is the first experiment using a computer in Chinese children's education.
In 1983, the first Chinese supercomputer,"Galaxy," was developed.
In 1984, the New Technology Developer Inc. (the predecessor of the Legend Group and now known as Lenovo) was funded by the Chinese Academy of Sciences.
In 1985, the Great Wall 0520CH, was the first personal computer that used Chinese character generation and display technology, therefore capable of processing information in Chinese. The Great Wall models commanded a substantial share of the domestic computer market for the next decade.
The 1986, Seventh Development Plan marked a turning point in China’s commercial computer industry, as the electronics industry was designated as a "pillar" that would help drive the entire Chinese economy.
In 1987, Professor Qian Tianbai sent the first email from China, signifying China’s first use of the Internet. The email message was "Across the Great Wall we can reach every corner in the world."
1990s
In 1990, Professor Qian Prof. Werner Zorn registered the country code top level domain .CN.
In 1994, the National Computing & Networking Facilities of China project opened a 64K dedicated circuit to the Internet, Since then, China has been officially recognized as a country with full functional Internet accessibility.
In 1996, CHINANET is completed and operational. Nationwide internet services are available to the general public. China’s first Internet café soon followed.
The 1996 Ninth Five Year National Development Plan emphasized the development of technical infrastructure and expanding the personal computer industry.
In 1999, the National Research Center for Intelligent Computing Systems announced that it developed a super server system capable of conducting 20 billion floating-point operations per second, making China one of the few nations in the world that have developed high-performance servers.
By the end of 1999, there were approximately 20 million PCs in operation in China.
2020s
In 2020, China was the world’s largest jailor of journalists with at least 118 detained.
References
Mass media in China
Supercomputing in China
Chine, media history of |
46239930 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roberto%20Rosario | Roberto Rosario | Roberto Rosario Gonzalez; is a Puerto Rican software engineer, best known for his work evangelising and promoting Free Software use and creation in the government of Puerto Rico, and for his initiatives towards citizen open access to government data as well as civic hacking promotion. He is also a civil rights activist and privacy advocate, creating software in one instance specifically designed to circumvent the measures proposed by the SOPA legislation. He promotes the increase of students into STEM careers by sponsoring and volunteering at student hackathons and also by sponsoring groups that work towards increasing the number of women into STEM fields.
Career
Graduated from Adolfo Camarillo High School in Camarillo, California. Has a bachelor of science - BS Mechanical Engineering from Northern Arizona University. On April 14, 2015, Rosario announced the creation of Python Latino, an initiative to create the Latinamerican Python community. He is currently the main organizer of the initiative. As an extension of his desire to help create and grow the Latinamerican Python community, Rosario on April 30, 2015, announced his intention to run in the 2015 Python Software Foundation Board of Directors election. Being the first PSF candidate of Latino origins, his move has been applauded by members of the Python community, specially for his desire to turn PyCon Cuba from a joke into a reality.
Controversies
In August, 2012 it was discovered that there were companies redistributing the software Mayan EDMS under terms that violated the software's license. Roberto Rosario as copyright holder of the software in question made the discovery public which resulted in a discussion of the rights of the copyright holders under the GPL license.
Current Status
As of March 2019, he posted an announcement on one of his projects.
I have come to the decision to shut down all my projects.
I have been a software developer for 33 years and it saddens deeply me to see what has become of the industry that formed the basis of my identity for so long.
Due to many situations (some of which are already public knowledge and others that are not), I don't want to be associated with Python or Django (projects, organizations, and events). I can't in good conscience continue to put by weight and support (economic and technical) behind them. I have also stopped attending Django and Python events as a speaker or attendee. The risks and costs outweight the benefits. Many of them are not even about Python or Django anymore.
I've moved on and software development is no longer my main source of income. As such maintaining so many projects is a drain of my resources and time. I'm shutting down all active projects and closing or restricting the few social media accounts that have not yet censored me. I will only continue to participate in Mayan EDMS due to the huge number of people that rely on it and have supported it over the 8 years of its existence. If I ever release new projects in the future I would do so under pseudonyms to protect myself and those who support me.
Thank you very much for the huge support during these past years I wish things would have ended up differently. I have some faith that things will improve in the future as the industry self-corrects.
Best regards,
Roberto Rosario
References
American software engineers
Living people
Puerto Rican engineers
Northern Arizona University alumni
Year of birth missing (living people) |
8564378 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genesi | Genesi | Genesi is an international group of technology and consulting companies in the United States, Mexico and Germany. It is most widely known for designing and manufacturing ARM architecture and Power ISA-based computing devices. The Genesi Group consists of Genesi USA Inc., Genesi Americas LLC, Genesi Europe UG, Red Efika, bPlan GmbH and the affiliated non-profit organization Power2People.
Genesi is an official Linaro partner and its software development team has been instrumental in moving Linux on the ARM architecture towards a wider adoption of the hard-float application binary interface, which is incompatible with most existing applications but provides enormous performance gains for many use cases.
Products
The main products of Genesi are ARM-based computers that were designed to be inexpensive, quiet and highly energy efficient, and a custom Open Firmware compliant firmware. All products can run a multitude of operating systems.
Current products include
Aura - A comprehensive abstraction layer for embedded and desktop devices, with UEFI and IEEE1275. Desktop systems with AGP or PCI/PCI Express may take advantage of an embedded x86/BIOS emulator providing boot functionality for standard graphics cards.
EFIKA MX53
EFIKA MX6
Discontinued products include
EFIKA MX Smarttop - A highly energy efficient and compact computing device (complete system) powered by a Freescale ARM iMX515 CPU.
EFIKA MX Smartbook - A 10" smartbook (complete system) powered by the Freescale ARM iMX515 CPU.
High Density Blade - PowerPC based high density blade server.
Home Media Center - PowerPC based digital video recorder.
EFIKA 5200B - A small Open Firmware based motherboard powered by a Freescale MPC5200B SoC processor with 128 MB RAM, a 44-pin ATA connector for a 2.5" hard drive, sound in/out, USB, Ethernet, serial port, and a PCI slot.
Open Client - Thin Clients available with Freescale's Power Architecture or ARM SoCs.
Pegasos - An Open Firmware MicroATX motherboard powered by a PowerPC G3/G4 microprocessor, featuring PCI slots, AGP, Ethernet, USB, DDR and FireWire.
Open Desktop Workstation – A Pegasos II based Computer featuring a Freescale PowerPC 7447 processor. Complete specifications for the hardware are available through Genesi's PowerDeveloper.org website.
Community support
Genesi designed and maintains PowerDeveloper, an online platform for Genesi products and ARM products from other manufacturers. Via the PowerDeveloper Projects programs, hundreds of systems have been provided to the PowerDeveloper community so far, thereby supporting open source development in many countries. Linux distributions that directly benefited from the programs include but are not limited to Crux, Debian, Raspbian, Fedora, Gentoo, openSuSE and Ubuntu.
Genesi once funded the development of the MorphOS operating system but shifted its focus towards Linux in 2004. However, Genesi remains the main supporter of the operating system and continues to actively support its user and developer communities via the MorphZone social platform, which features discussion forums, a digital library, a software repository and a bounty system.
External links
Genesi USA Inc.
Power2People
PowerDeveloper
MorphZone
Genesi Group
Genesi Americas
Red Efika
bplan
Notes
ARM architecture
Computer companies of the United States
Computer hardware companies
Amiga companies |
36039189 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open-source%20software%20advocacy | Open-source software advocacy | Open-source software advocacy is the practice of attempting to increase the awareness and improve the perception of open-source software. In some cases, this may be in opposition to proprietary software or intellectual property concepts (e.g. patents and copyrights as a whole).
Leading open-source advocates include Brian Behlendorf, Tim O'Reilly, Eric Raymond, Linus Torvalds, Mitch Kapor, Jim Jagielski and Paul Vixie. Others that advocate the related free software movement include Richard Stallman, Alan Cox, Jimmy Wales and Eben Moglen. Bruce Perens is a prominent figure who works to promote both terms.
There are even broadcast and podcast radio shows whose sole subject is open source advocacy. Gutsy Geeks and Open Source (radio show) are but two examples.
See also
Technical evangelist
Category Open Source Advocates
External links
Further reading
Eren Niazi
Open-source movement
Free software culture and documents
Free software
Free culture movement |
2901261 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interdata%207/32%20and%208/32 | Interdata 7/32 and 8/32 | The Model 7/32 and Model 8/32 were 32-bit minicomputers introduced by Perkin-Elmer after they acquired Interdata, Inc., in 1973. Interdata computers are primarily remembered for being the first 32-bit minicomputers under $10,000. The 8/32 was a more powerful machine than the 7/32, with the notable feature of allowing user-programmable microcode to be employed.
The Model 7/32 provided fullword data processing power and direct memory addressing up to 1 million bytes through the use of 32-bit general registers and a comprehensive instruction set.
Background
After the commercial success of the microcoded, mainframe IBM 360-series of computers, startup companies arrived on the scene to scale microcode technology to the smaller minicomputers. Among these companies were Prime Computer, Microdata, and Interdata. Interdata used microcode to define an architecture that was heavily influenced by the IBM 360 instruction set. The DOS-type real-time serial/multitasking operating system was called OS/32.
Differences between the 7/32 and 8/32
General Register sets – The 7/32 has 2 sets while the 8/32 can have either 2 or 8
I/O Priority Levels – The 7/32 has none but the 8/32 can have up to 3
Writeable Control Store – The 7/32 does not have one and the 8/32 does
On average the 8/32 is 2.5x faster than the 7/32
Usage
The 7/32 and 8/32 became the computers of choice in large scale embedded systems, such as FFT machines used in real-time seismic analysis, CAT scanners, and flight simulator systems. They were also often used as non-IBM peripherals in IBM networks, serving the role of HASP workstations and spooling systems, so called RJE (Remote Job Entry) stations. For example, the computers behind the first Space Shuttle simulator consisted of thirty-six 32-bit minis inputting and/or outputting data to networked mainframe computers (both IBM and Univac), all in real-time.
The 8/32 was used in the Lunar and Planetary Laboratory, Department of Planetary Sciences at the University of Arizona for research purposes.
The 8/32 was also employed by Mathematical Applications Group, Inc. (MAGI) to produce the vast majority of the 3D computer-generated imagery (CGI) in the 1982 film Tron. While CGI had been used during the 1970s for minor segments of film work (such as titles), Tron was the first film by a major producer that made extensive use of CGI.
Operating systems
The standard operating system for the 7/32 and 8/32 was Interdata's OS/32.
At MIT, by 1976, Interdata (Perkin-Elmer) computers were being used by the Architecture Machine Group and Joint Computer Facility at MIT, using the FORTRAN and PL/1 programming languages.
Unix was ported to the platform in 1977 by two groups, working independently; to the 7/32 at Wollongong University, and to the 8/32 at Bell Labs, making the 32-bit Interdata machines the first non-PDP computers to run Unix. (See V6 Unix, portability). Bell chose the 8/32 for their port because it was as different from the DEC PDP-11 as possible.
By 1979 researchers at the Architecture Machine Group created an operating system modeled on Multics called Magic 6, which featured the Multics concepts of pages, segments and dynamic linking, but had no security checks.
Acquisition
The success of the Interdata 32-bit minis in these markets made the company attractive to Perkin-Elmer Corporation, a large, Norwalk, Connecticut-based scientific instruments and optics manufacturer with a large presence in the defense and aerospace industries. Perkin-Elmer was also a primary competitor of Varian, a company marketing its own computer systems. Interdata was acquired by Perkin-Elmer in 1973, and brought under the corporate name in 1976 as the Computer Systems Division (CSD), one of several divisions in P-E's newly formed Data Systems Group (DSG). In 1985, the DSG was broken apart and the CSD was sold to Concurrent Computer Corporation, who yet produce a vastly enhanced 3200-series of machines.
Simulation
SIMH, the historical computer simulator project, includes simulators for both the Interdata 32 bit (7/32 and 8/32) and their 16 bit minicomputers.
The Living Computer Museum has a 7/32 on display with attached teletype.
References
External links
Interdata 7/32 Reference Manual
Login into the Living Computer Museum, a portal into the Paul Allen collection of timesharing and interactive computers, including an operational Interdata 7/32
Minicomputers |
9433680 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scout%20%28operating%20system%29 | Scout (operating system) | Scout is a research operating system developed at the University of Arizona. It is communication-oriented and designed around the constraints of network-connected devices like set-top boxes.
The Scout researchers had in mind a class of devices that they called "network appliances", which include cameras and disks attached to a network. They believed that these devices have in common the following three characteristics:
Communication-Oriented
Specialized/Diverse Functionality
Predictable Performance with Scarce Resources
To satisfy these three requirements, Scout was designed around an abstraction called a "path"; was highly configurable; and offered scheduling and resource allocation policies that provided predictable performance under load.
See also
Single address space operating system
External links
Scout Home Page
Embedded operating systems
University of Arizona |
34335793 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CuBox | CuBox | CuBox and CuBox-i are series of small and fanless nettop-class computers manufactured by the Israeli company SolidRun Ltd. They are all cube-shaped and sized at approximately 2 × 2 × 2 inches (5 cm) and weigh 91 grams (0.2 lb, or 3.2 oz). CuBox was first announced in December 2011 and began shipping in January 2012, initially being marketed as a cheap open-source developer platform for embedded systems.
The first-generation CuBox was according to SolidRun the first commercially available desktop computer based on the Marvell Armada 500-series SoC (System-on-Chip) and at the time was said to be the world's smallest desktop computer.
In November 2013, SolidRun released the Cubox-i1, i2, i2eX, and i4Pro, containing i.MX6 processors.
Overview
CuBox is a low-power computer based on ARM-architecture CPU, using the Marvell Armada 510 (88AP510) SoC with an ARM v6/v7-compliant superscalar processor core, Vivante GC600 OpenGL 3.0 and OpenGL ES 2.0 capable 2D/3D graphics processing unit, Marvell vMeta HD Video Decoder hardware engine, and TrustZone security extensions, Cryptographic Engines and Security Accelerator (CESA) co-processor.
Despite being about 2-inch-square in size, the platform can stream and decode 1080p content, use desktop-class interfaces such as KDE or GNOME under Linux, while requiring less than 3 watts and less than 1 watt in standby.
SolidRun currently officially only supports Linux kernel 2.6.x or later and Android 2.2.x and later. It comes with Ubuntu Desktop 10.04 and Android 2.2 dual-boot pre-installed.
Newer models
In November 2013, SolidRun released a family of CuBox-i computers named CuBox-i1, i2, i2eX, and i4Pro, containing a range of different i.MX6 processors by Freescale Semiconductor.
They have also released a series of caseless i.MX6 models called the Hummingboard.
CuBoxTV
Announced in December 2014, CuBoxTV is a mid-range and simplified version of the CuBox-i computer. It is designed to exclusively operate KODI (formerly known as XBMC) on an OpenELEC operating system.
CuBoxTV weighs approximately 9.9oz (281 grams), and is around 2X2 Inches wide and 1.8 inches high, shaped like a cube with rounded sides. It features an i.MX6 Quad core processor at a 1GHz speed, 1GB of RAM memory, 8GB base storage memory and a GC2000 OpenGL quad shader GPU. It houses a couple of USB 2.0 ports, a HDMI port, microSD port and an Ethernet port.
See also
ARM architecture
Home theater PC
Industrial PC
Single-board computer
References
External links
CuBoxTV product page
Computer-related introductions in 2011
Linux-based devices
Computers and the environment
Nettop
Embedded Linux
Single-board computers
Educational hardware
ARM-based home computers |
1464418 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COLLADA | COLLADA | COLLADA (COLLAborative Design Activity) is an interchange file format for interactive 3D applications. It is managed by the nonprofit technology consortium, the Khronos Group, and has been adopted by ISO as a publicly available specification, ISO/PAS 17506.
COLLADA defines an open standard XML schema for exchanging digital assets among various graphics software applications that might otherwise store their assets in incompatible file formats. COLLADA documents that describe digital assets are XML files, usually identified with a .dae (digital asset exchange) filename extension.
History
Originally created at Sony Computer Entertainment by Rémi Arnaud and Mark C. Barnes, it has since become the property of the Khronos Group, a member-funded industry consortium, which now shares the copyright with Sony. The COLLADA schema and specification are freely available from the Khronos Group. The COLLADA DOM uses the SCEA Shared Source License 1.0.
Several graphics companies collaborated with Sony from COLLADA's beginnings to create a tool that would be useful to the widest possible audience, and COLLADA continues to evolve through the efforts of Khronos contributors. Early collaborators included Alias Systems Corporation, Criterion Software, Autodesk, Inc., and Avid Technology. Dozens of commercial game studios and game engines have adopted the standard.
In March 2011, Khronos released the COLLADA Conformance Test Suite (CTS). The suite allows applications that import and export COLLADA to test against a large suite of examples, ensuring that they conform properly to the specification. In July 2012, the CTS software was released on GitHub, allowing for community contributions.
ISO/PAS 17506:2012 Industrial automation systems and integration -- COLLADA digital asset schema specification for 3D visualization of industrial data was published in July 2012.
Software tools
COLLADA was originally intended as an intermediate format for transporting data from one digital content creation (DCC) tool to another application. Applications exist to support the usage of several DCCs, including:
Game engines
Although originally intended as an interchange format, many game engines now support COLLADA natively, including:
Applications
Some games and 3D applications have started to support COLLADA:
Libraries
There are several libraries available to read and write COLLADA files under programmatic control:
COLLADA DOM (C++) - The COLLADA DOM is generated at compile-time from the COLLADA schema. It provides a low-level interface that eliminates the need for hand-written parsing routines, but is limited to reading and writing only one version of COLLADA, making it difficult to upgrade as new versions are released.
FCollada (C++) - A utility library available from Feeling Software. In contrast to the COLLADA DOM, Feeling Software's FCollada provides a higher-level interface. FCollada is used in ColladaMaya, ColladaMax, and several commercial game engines. The development of the open source part was discontinued by Feeling Software in 2008. The company continues to support its paying customers and licenses with improved versions of its software.
OpenCOLLADA (C++) - The OpenCOLLADA project provides plugins for 3ds Max and Maya and the sources of utility libraries which were developed for the plugins.
pycollada (Python) - A Python module for creating, editing and loading COLLADA. The library allows the application to load a COLLADA file and interact with it as a Python object. In addition, it supports creating a COLLADA Python object from scratch, as well as in-place editing.
Scene Kit (Objective-C) - An Objective-C framework introduced in OS X 10.8 Mountain Lion that allows reading, high-level manipulation and display of COLLADA scenes.
GLGE (JavaScript) - a JavaScript library presenting COLLADA files in a web browser using WebGL.
Three.js (JavaScript) - a 3D Javascript library capable of loading COLLADA files in a web browser.
StormEngineC (JavaScript) - Javascript 3D graphics library with option of loading COLLADA files.
Physics
As of version 1.4, physics support was added to the COLLADA standard. The goal is to allow content creators to define various physical attributes in visual scenes. For example, one can define surface material properties such as friction. Furthermore, content creators can define the physical attributes for the objects in the scene. This is done by defining the rigid bodies that should be linked to the visual representations. More features include support for ragdolls, collision volumes, physical constraints between physical objects, and global physical properties such as gravitation.
Physics middleware products that support this standard include Bullet Physics Library, Open Dynamics Engine, PAL and NVIDIA's PhysX. These products support by reading the abstract found in the COLLADA file and transferring it into a form that the middleware can support and represent in a physical simulation. This also enables different middleware and tools to exchange physics data in a standardized manner.
The Physics Abstraction Layer provides support for COLLADA Physics to multiple physics engines that do not natively provide COLLADA support including JigLib, OpenTissue, Tokamak physics engine and True Axis. PAL also provides support for COLLADA to physics engines that also feature a native interface.
Versions
1.0: October 2004
1.2: February 2005
1.3: June 2005
1.4.0: January 2006; added features such as character skinning and morph targets, rigid body dynamics, support for OpenGL ES materials, and shader effects for multiple shading languages including the Cg programming language, GLSL, and HLSL. First release through Khronos.
1.4.1: July 2006; primarily a patch release.
1.5.0: August 2008; added kinematics and B-rep as well as some FX redesign and OpenGL ES support. Formalised as ISO/PAS 17506:2012.
See also
glTF Graphics Library Transmission Format
FBX
List of vector graphics markup languages
Open Game Engine Exchange (OpenGEX)
U3D
VRML
WebGL
X3D
References
External links
COLLADA DOM
OpenCOLLADA Project
pycollada
The Open-Asset-Importer-Lib (ASSIMP)
GLC-Player
Media Grid News / "Create Once, Experience Everywhere" 3D/VR Format Unveiled for Immersive Education / Cross-platform Open File Format Enables "Create Once, Experience Everywhere" 3D/VR Content
2004 software
3D graphics file formats
3D graphics software
CAD file formats
Graphics standards
XML-based standards |
33133808 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shwetak%20Patel | Shwetak Patel | Shwetak Naran Patel is an American computer scientist and entrepreneur best known for his work on developing novel sensing solutions and ubiquitous computing. He is the Washington Research Foundation Entrepreneurship Endowed Professor at the University of Washington in Computer Science & Engineering and Electrical Engineering, where he joined in 2008. His technology start-up company on energy sensing, Zensi, was acquired by Belkin International, Inc. in 2010. He was named a 2011 MacArthur Fellow. In 2016, He was elected as an ACM Fellow for contributions to sustainability sensing, low-power wireless sensing and mobile health and received Presidential Early Career Award for Scientists and Engineers (PECASE). He was named the recipient of the 2018 ACM Prize in Computing for contributions to creative and practical sensing systems for sustainability and health.
Biography
Personal life
Shwetak Patel was born on December 9, 1981 in Selma, Alabama, though he was raised in Birmingham, Alabama. He attended Jefferson County International Baccalaureate School for high school in Birmingham, graduating in 2000. He received his B.S. in Computer Science from the Georgia Institute of Technology in 2003, and then continued on to receive his Ph.D. in computer science in 2008 under the advisement of Dr. Gregory Abowd. He started as an assistant professor at the University of Washington in 2008, where he remains today. In July 2013, he was promoted to associate professor, and then in July 2014 was named the Washington Research Foundation Endowed Professor.
Patel is married to Dr. Julie A. Kientz, who is also a faculty member at the University of Washington, and lives in Seattle, Washington.
Professional career
Patel’s research is broadly in the areas of ubiquitous computing, human-computer interaction, and user interface software and technology. He has published over 50 articles since 2003 and has received numerous best paper awards. Patel focuses on developing easy-to-deploy sensing technologies, activity recognition, and applications for energy monitoring. He also has developed novel interaction techniques for mobile devices, mobile sensing systems, and wireless sensor platforms, many of which in collaboration with Microsoft Research, where is also a visiting researcher. Dr. Patel's primary research has been in building low-cost and easy-to-deploy sensing systems, which he calls Infrastructure Mediated Sensing. These approaches leverage utility infrastructures in a home to support whole-house sensing.
Patel co-founded a company called Zensi, Inc., while he was a graduate student at Georgia Tech. Zensi was a demand-side energy monitoring solutions provider. In 2010, Zensi was acquired by Belkin, Inc in 2010 for an undisclosed sum. This acquisition resulted in numerous awards for Patel, including making the cover of Seattle Business magazine, newsmaker of the year by TechFlash, and was named one of the top 10 start up stories of 2010 by TechFlash.
Dr. Patel has also received international recognition for his work, including the MacArthur Fellowship in 2011, the MIT Technology Review TR-35 award in 2009, the Microsoft Research Faculty Fellowship in 2011, the 2011 India Abroad Face of the Future award, and the Sloan Fellowship in 2012. His work was featured in the cover story of Wired Magazine, and his past work on camera blocking technology was also honored by the New York Times as a top technology of the year in 2005. He also has numerous other articles appearing in the popular media on his inventions.
In 2017 he became a Fellow of the Association for Computing Machinery.
Selected bibliography
Mariakakis, A., Baudin, J., Whitmire, E., Mehta, V., Banks, M.A., Law, A., Mcgrath, L. and Patel, S.N., 2017. PupilScreen: using smartphones to assess traumatic brain injury. Proceedings of the ACM on Interactive, Mobile, Wearable and Ubiquitous Technologies, 1(3), pp. 1–27.
Wang, E.J., Li, W., Hawkins, D., Gernsheimer, T., Norby-Slycord, C. and Patel, S.N., 2016, September. HemaApp: noninvasive blood screening of hemoglobin using smartphone cameras. In Proceedings of the 2016 ACM International Joint Conference on Pervasive and Ubiquitous Computing (pp. 593–604).
De Greef, L., Goel, M., Seo, M.J., Larson, E.C., Stout, J.W., Taylor, J.A. and Patel, S.N., 2014, September. Bilicam: using mobile phones to monitor newborn jaundice. In Proceedings of the 2014 ACM International Joint Conference on Pervasive and Ubiquitous Computing (pp. 331–342).
Larson, E.C., Goel, M., Boriello, G., Heltshe, S., Rosenfeld, M. and Patel, S.N., 2012, September. SpiroSmart: using a microphone to measure lung function on a mobile phone. In Proceedings of the 2012 ACM conference on ubiquitous computing (pp. 280–289).
Cohn, G., Morris, D., Patel, S.N., Tan, D.S. Your Noise is My Command: Sensing Gestures Using the Body as an Antenna. CHI 2011. ACM Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI 2011).
Gupta, S., Reynolds, M.S., Patel, S.N. ElectriSense: Single-Point Sensing Using EMI for Electrical Event Detection and Classification in the Home. Ubicomp 2010.
Froehlich, J. Larson, E., Campbell, T., Haggerty, C., Fogarty, J., and Patel, S.N. HydroSense: Infrastructure-Mediated Single-Point Sensing of Whole-Home Water Activity. UbiComp 2009.
Cohn, G., Stuntebeck, E., Pandey, J., Otis., B., Abowd, G.D., Patel, S.N. SNUPI: Sensor Nodes Utilizing Powerline Infrastructure. Ubicomp 2010.
Patel, S.N, Gupta, S., Reynolds, M. The Design and Evaluation of an End-User-Deployable, Whole House, Contactless Power Consumption Sensor. ACM Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI 2010).
Patel, S.N., Robertson, T., Kientz, J.A., Reynolds, M.S., Abowd, G.D. At the Flick of a Switch: Detecting and Classifying Unique Electrical Events on the Residential Power Line. Ubicomp 2007.
References
External links
Patel's personal home page
University of Washington Ubicomp Computing Research Group
University of Washington Computer Science & Engineering
University of Washington Electrical Engineering
Living people
People from Selma, Alabama
American computer scientists
Human–computer interaction researchers
University of Washington faculty
Ubiquitous computing researchers
1981 births
MacArthur Fellows
American academics of Indian descent
Fellows of the Association for Computing Machinery
American people of Gujarati descent |
3130820 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open%20Invention%20Network | Open Invention Network | Open Invention Network (OIN) is a company that acquires patents and licenses them royalty-free to its community members who, in turn, agree not to assert their own patents against Linux and Linux-related systems and applications.
History
The company was incorporated on 31 October 2005. Based in Durham, NC, it was founded on November 10 by IBM, Novell, Philips, Red Hat, and Sony. NEC subsequently became a Member. In December 2013, Google became a Member. In July 2016, it was announced that Toyota became a Member. On October 10, 2018, Erich Andersen announced that Microsoft joined as a licensee. Canonical and TomTom are Associate Members. Keith Bergelt is the chief executive of the company. Bergelt had previously served as President and CEO of Paradox Capital, LLC As of November, 2021 membership in the OIN stood at approximately 3,500 business licensees.
The list of applications considered by OIN, according to Red Hat's Mark Webbink, includes Apache, Eclipse, Evolution, Fedora Directory Server, Firefox, GIMP, GNOME, KDE, Mono, Mozilla, MySQL, Nautilus, OpenLDAP, OpenOffice.org, Open-Xchange, Perl, PostgreSQL, Python, Samba, SELinux, Sendmail, and Thunderbird.
There have been 10 updates, produced through a well-established process of carefully maintaining a balance between stability and adding innovative core open source technology, to the list of software components and packages covered by the Open Invention Network cross license. As of November, 2021 more than 3,570 packages have been listed.
On March 26, 2007, Oracle licensed OIN's portfolio, thus agreeing not to assert patents against the Linux-based environment, including competitors MySQL and PostgreSQL when used as part of a Linux system. Oracle exercised a Limitation Election on March 29, 2012. On August 7, 2007, Google also joined OIN as a licensee. On October 2, 2007, Barracuda Networks joined OIN as a licensee. On March 23, 2009 TomTom joined OIN as a licensee. In May 2011, the European Open Source software manufacturer Univention joined OIN as a licensee.
In early September 2009, Open Invention Network acquired 30 patents, from Allied Security Trust, another defensive patent management organization, that had been acquired from Microsoft through a private auction. If the patents had been acquired by patent trolls, they might have caused financial obstacles to Linux developers, distributors and users. OIN was able to avert this issue with the patent acquisition.
On October 10, 2018, Microsoft joined the Open Invention Network community despite holding more than 60,000 patents.
On November 19, 2019, Open Invention Network announced that it was teaming with IBM, Microsoft and the Linux Foundation to further protect Linux and open source from Patent Assertion Entities (PAE), commonly called Patent Trolls. Together, the organizations are funding a multi-million dollar, multi-year initiative with Unified Patents' Open Source Zone. This expands OIN’s and its partners’ patent non-aggression activities by deterring PAEs from targeting Linux and adjacent OSS technologies relied on by developers, distributors and users.
Every 18 months to two years, Open Invention Network updates the list of software packages that it defines at its Linux System definition. In January of 2022, Open Invention Network announced the ninth expansion of the definition, addressing more than 3,700 software packages and components.
As of January of 2022, OIN has grown its community to more than 3,600 business participants, a compounded annual growth rate (CAGR) of more than 50%.
On June 22, 2010, OIN announced an Associate Member program and the recruitment of Canonical (previously an OIN licensee) as its first associate member. The announcement drew criticism from anti-software-patent activist and a European lobbyist Florian Müller, who had previously criticized the OIN for a lack of transparency and for defining arbitrarily the scope of the patent protection it offers. Florian Mueller's credibility in attacking OIN has been called into question due to his paid relationship with corporate sponsors.
On August 30, 2021, Xiaomi joined the Open Invention Network community
Linux defenders
OIN encourages practices that eliminate low-quality patents—the foodstuff of aggressive strategics and patent trolls. Specifically, OIN encourages the Linux and open source communities to become active in:
Inter partes review is a procedure for challenging the validity of an issued patent owned by a third party. By challenging patents with IPRs, the Linux and broader open source community can help to eliminate them. Unified Patents has successfully invalidated a number of patents using Inter Partes Review.
Third-Party Preissuance Submissions provide for challenging the validity of a patent application. They provide a mechanism for third parties to submit prior art of potential relevance to the United States Patent and Trademark Office during the examination of another party’s patent application. In this way, the Linux and broader open source community can help to eliminate patents, and particularly help to mitigate the issuance of new low-quality patents. A patent application challenger may remain unnamed or anonymous by asking a firm to complete the Third-Party Preissuance Submission on its behalf.
Defensive publication, an intellectual property strategy used to prevent another party from obtaining a patent. The strategy consists in disclosing an enabling description and/or drawing of the product, apparatus, or method so that it enters the public domain and becomes prior art. Many defensive publications can be searched for free in IP.com’s Prior Art Database.
See also
Patent Commons Project
Patent pool
Software patent
Software patent debate
Software patents and free software
Open-source software
Free software
Allied Security Trust
RPX Corporation
LOT Network
References
External links
Companies established in 2005
Free software companies
Patent law organizations |
31156284 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alex%20Hood | Alex Hood | Alexander Stewart Ferguson "Alex" Hood (born 1935) is an Australian folk singer, writer, actor, children's entertainer/educator and folklorist. He is regarded as one of Australia's most prolific writers and entertainers.
Biography
Early life
Hood was born in Sydney and attended Homebush Boys High School, where he gained his Intermediate Certificate. As a teenager he was a keen cricketer but left school at age 15 to take up an apprenticeship as an electrician. He joined the Eureka Youth League, a communist youth association, meeting Bill Berry and Chris Kempster. Kempster, along with the older singer and folklorist John Meredith, a founding member of the (original) Bushwhackers (Australia's first bush band), were members of the Unity Singers, a Sydney left-wing choir formed in 1951.
Initial musical influences and career
In 1953 Reedy River, a new Australian musical play based around the 1891 Australian shearers' strike, was created, opening first at the Melbourne New Theatre and then subsequently in Sydney's New Theatre, also in 1953. For the Sydney production, Meredith's Bushwhackers group were selected to provide the musical accompaniment; Hood spent some time "hanging around backstage" and, when Kempster had to take three months leave to perform his national service, the nineteen year old Hood, then known as Alec, deputised for him playing the part of "Snowy". (Hood also later took on the part of "Bob the Swagman" for a time, otherwise played by Cecil Grivas).
As a result of this involvement, Hood acquired a love of traditional Australian "bush" music and both he and Kempster became accepted members of the band, which however eventually led to friction between them (as the younger members) and Meredith, who decided that the best course of action was to disband the group in 1957, telling the various members that if they wanted to carry on performing, it would be under the auspices of the Sydney "Bush Music Club" (still in existence as at 2020) with which they had all been associated, but no longer under the "Bushwhackers" band name. Hood, together with Kempster on guitar and banjo and Harry Kay on harmonica then formed "The Rambleers", utilizing their preference to sing in harmony as opposed to the unison singing style of the Bushwhackers. The group toured and released a 10-inch LP The Old Bark Hut followed with a 7-inch 33 rpm record Waltzing Matilda, both 1958, and also appeared in a 1960 stage production Fisher's Ghost, a play by Douglas Stewart based on the Fisher's Ghost legend, together with singers Barbara Lisyak and Denis Kevans.
In 1962 Hood teamed up with British singer Chuck Quinton as "The Rambling Boys", spending several months touring with the "Gill Brothers" circus troupe before taking off on their own touring throughout outback New South Wale. Hood and his first wife, Gabrielle, subsequently established the Folk Arts Centre at 90 Queen Street, Woollahra, modelled after Israel Young's Folklore Centre in Greenwich Village, New York City, however the Centre lasted only a year before closing.
From 1961-1962 Hood joined the Australian folk/jazz singer Marian Henderson and international jazz guitarist/ commercial artist Chris Daw, recently arrived in Sydney, in a trio "Daw, Hood And Henderson" which released an EP Oh Pay Me (1962); he also performed (solo) on a various artists 1964 EP Basic Wage Dream. He also worked with guitarist Brian Godden as "The Prodigal Sons" (active 1968-69), who recorded a single entitled The Didgeridoo/The Girl On The Five Dollar Note, released by Parlophone Australia in 1969.
Hood released his first solo LP Alex Hood Sings of Australia's First Hundred Years in 1964 in conjunction with a pocket songbook. This was followed by a number of other albums including The Second Hundred Years (1970), Songs From the Wallaby Track (c. 1971), Seasons of Change (1975), Songs While the Billy Boils (also released as Songs Of Australia) (1977), Me and My Friends (1979), Sydney or The Bush (c. 1982) and Me and More Friends (1991). He also contributed to a book + LP release The Restless Years in 1968, along with the actor/reciter Peter O'Shaughnessy and singer Marian Henderson (the package was a spin-off of a 1967 TV film of the same name written and acted in by O'Shaughnessy), and was instrumental in getting the Scottish-Australian singer Harry Robertson recorded for the label MFP Australia in 1971, during which he took the lead vocal on two of Harry's songs on the resulting Robertson album Whale Chasing Men: Songs of Whaling in Ice and Sun.
In conjunction with his albums of songs, Hood wrote a number of books, plays and folk operas for children, including "Pumpkin Paddy meets the Bunyip" and "Brumby Jack Saves the Wild Bush Horses" (both 1972), "The Flying Pieman" (1974), "Herman's German band meets Thunderbolt" (1974) with Robert Smith, and "Speewah" (1978). Songs from "The Flying Pieman" were also released on LP in c. 1974.
Field and oral history recordings
Hood began to record traditional music, folklore and oral histories when he was touring in rural New South Wales in 1968. In 1972 he recorded Aboriginal children of Arnhem Land singing and chanting while on an Arts Council tour of the Northern Territory. These recordings became part of the Alex and Annette Hood Collection now held at the National Library of Australia, which consists of about 200 recordings made between 1968 and 2006. The early recordings contain folk music and folklore, but most of the later recordings are oral histories including interviews with miners, drovers, bullock drivers, farmers, folk singers and dancers, as well as a cattle dealer, a photographer, a town planner, a jockey, a conservationist, a coach builder and a doctor, mostly recorded in New South Wales with some forays into Queensland. Included in the interviewees are politicians (Doug Anthony), photographers (Robert Walker), writers (Merv Lilley and Roger Milliss), singers (Marian Henderson) and the dancer Garry Lester.
Australian Folk Theatre (Alex and Annette Hood)
In 1982 Alex met Annette James (b. 1948 in Sydney), who had trained as a dancer, and together they created their "Alex and Annette Hood's Australian Folk Theatre". Subsequently married to Hood, she accompanied him on his country tours and in particular was responsible for the puppets, costumes and backdrops for the Folk Theatre show, which toured Australia for 24 years performing songs, dances, stories and yarns to audiences of children, having completed over 7,500 shows by 2012. The show often featured humanitarian and environmental themes and toured constantly, filling out its busy schools schedule with additional shows for adults and performances at Australian folk festivals.
Later career
Hood kept up a busy schedule as entertainer, recording musician, playwright and actor for many years and was featured in 2014 (aged 78-79) at Sydney's still-operational Bush Music Club, as well as the 2017 Illawarra Folk Festival. Together with his wife Annette, he eventually retired to the Kiama district of New South Wales, where he continues to perform in public on an occasional basis. Meanwhile, Alex and Annette continue to make oral history recordings for the National Library of Australia; by late 2019 there were 63 such sessions added to the relevant collection dated 2010 and later.
Alex and Annette Hood received the 2020 National Folk Festival Lifetime Achievement Award for "significant commitment and contribution to enriching folk music and culture in Australia".
Discography
With The Bushwhackers
Wattle Records "A Series" 78s
A1 The Bushwhackers: The Drover's Dream / The Bullockies' Ball (1956)
A2 The Bushwhackers: Travelling Down the Castlereagh / Australia's on the Wallaby (1956)
A3 The Bushwhackers: Old Bullock Dray / Nine Miles from Gundagai (1956)
A4 The Bushwhackers: Give a Fair Go / Rabbiter (not issued?)
A5 The Bushwhackers: Botany Bay / Click Go the Shears (1956)
A11 The Bushwhackers: Black Velvet Band / The Hut That's Upside-Down (1956)
"B Series" 7" 33rpm EPs
B1 The Bushwhackers: Australian Bush Songs (1957)
?? The Bushwhackers: Nine Miles from Gundagai (1957)
With The Rambleers
The Rambleers: The Old Bark Hut (10" LP) Wattle C 8, 1958
The Rambleers: Waltzing Matilda/The Shearer's Dream" (7" EP) 1958
The Rambleers: The Shearers Dream (78 rpm record) Wattle A17, 1958
...The above recordings reissued on CD with additional tracks as The Rambleers National Library Of Australia/Wattle Recordings (no number), 2002; also includes unreleased recordings for a performance of the Douglas Stewart play "Fisher's Ghost" with singers Barbara Lisyak & Denis Kevans, 1960.
Short films
The following short films were released under the name "Wattle Films". Silvia Salisbury stated in 2012: "These short films used Australian songs sung by Alex Hood as a background to a film version of the song. ... These films were sold to the ABC to be used as fillers when programmes finished early due to the ABC not having advertisements." It is not known whether the vocals used were new recordings, or were recordings already available on previous Wattle releases.
Wattle Ballad Series No. 1 Old Black Billy The Rambleers 1961
Wattle Ballad Series No. 3 Reedy River The Rambleers 1961
Wattle Ballad Series No. 4 The Old Bullock Dray The Bushwhackers 1961
Wattle Ballad Series No. 5 Click Go the Shears The Rambleers 1961
As "Daw, Hood And Henderson" (with Chris Daw and Marian Henderson)
Daw, Hood And Henderson: Oh Pay Me (6 track EP) Blue and White Collar Records BW 1, 1962
Solo and with others
Various artists: Basic Wage Dream (6 track EP) Blue and White Collar Records BW 2, 1964 (as Alec Hood; other tracks by Arthur Greig, Don Ayrton and David Lumsden)
Alex Hood Sings of Australia's First Hundred Years MFP-A8041, 1964
Peter O'Shaughnessy, Marian Henderson and Alex Hood: The Restless Years (Book and accompanying LP). Jacaranda Press, Sydney, 1968 (?1970)
The Second Hundred Years MFP-A8133, 1970
Songs From the Wallaby Track AXIS 6029, c.1971
The Flying Pieman AXIS 6146, c.1974
Seasons of Change AXIS 6218, 1975
Songs While the Billy Boils MFP-A8225, 1977 (?same as Songs Of Australia, AXIS 6007, 1977; the latter subsequently on CD by Sony BMG Music Entertainment 82876869672)
Me and My Friends MFP-A8220, 1979
Sydney or The Bush EMI, 1981 (?1982)
Me and More Friends Albert Productions 469322 2, 1991
Alex Hood sings Australian folk songs in the Alex Hood folklore collection - Recorded on 11 April 2002 in Canberra A.C.T. (not for commercial release, recording available via the National Library of Australia, catalogue record available here)
Included on Various artists: The Songs of Chris Kempster CKP041 2006
Included on Various artists: Songs of Don Henderson Shoestring Records SR 81 2009
Books, plays and notes
The Old Bark Hut (1958): Notes and text of songs to accompany 1958 Rambleers' recording of "The Old Bark Hut", Wattle Recordings
Australian Folksong Songster (1964). Description: "Australian folk songs songster, no. 1 : Authentic Australian folksongs from Alex Hood's L.P. record 'The first hundred years'"
Albert's Australian folksongs song folio. [No. 1] arranged by Alex & Gabrielle Hood (1964)
The Pumpkin Paddy Songster (1970) - Music; for medium voice with guitar chords.
The Wallaby Track : an Australian folk opera in ten episodes / songs presented by Alex Hood ; dialogues for the plays: Alex Hood (1971)
Pumpkin Paddy meets the Bunyip (1972) illustrated by Suzanne Dolesch
Brumby Jack Saves the Wild Bush Horses (1972) illustrated by Suzanne Dolesch
The Flying Pieman: a musical play by Alex Hood (1974)
Bill Jinks and the Whale (1974) illustrated by Bob Smith
Herman's German band meets Thunderbolt (1975) illustrated by Robert Smith
Speewah (1978) drama/musical; illustrated by Penelope Janjic
Eureka : Beneath the Southern Cross (1984) (ABC education radio feature for primary schools)
Songs of Australia (1988)
Queensland Arts Council presents Alex and Annette Hood in Across Capricorn: study guide (1998) [written and edited by Sandra Gattenhof]
References
External links
Alex Hood photographed in 1972 (Getty Images)
Annette and Alex Hood photographed in 2001 - portrait by Loui Seselja
Alex and Annette Hood with Australian Folk Theatre puppets (no further details given)
Alex Hood interviewed by Keith McKenry, 2002. Sound recording, catalogue record in National Library of Australia.
Alex Hood interviewed by Chris Sullivan, 2006. Sound recording, catalogue record in National Library of Australia.
Alex Hood discography on discogs.com
The Bushwhackers - Australian Bush Songs, Wattle Recordings, 1957 - includes reproduction of liner notes/leaflet accompanying the EP Australian Bush Songs
"The Restless Years" original 1967 TV production (review plus links to download as .avi file)
Bush Music Club Gallery - 1952-1957 Bushwhackers - collection of photos, record covers etc. featuring the Bushwhackers (including 2002 reunion)
Paul the Stockman reviews The Restless Years 1968 LP (with audio download file)
Chris and Virginia Woodland Collection - Wake for John Meredith, AM (1920 - 2001) - 24 March 2001 - includes photographs of original Bushwhackers members including Alex Hood
Photographs from the Rambleers reunion, Illawarra Folk Festival, Jamberoo 2002, including Harry Kay, Barbara Lysisk, Alex Hood and Chris Kempster
Alex Hood's reminiscences of the Bushwhackers, at the National Folk Festival 2012 - includes photos plus mp3 audio file of brief talk (2.5 mins)
Transcript of interview with Harry Kay, ex Bushwhackers and Rambleers conducted 17 March 2004 (covers early history of the Bushwhackers, Reedy River, the Rambleers, etc.) [offline as at September 2021]
List of Items authored by Alex Hood in the NLA (National Library of Australia) Collection
List of Items authored by Annette Hood in the NLA (National Library of Australia) Collection
Australian folk singers
Living people
1935 births |
42762240 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sysstat | Sysstat | sysstat (system statistics) is a collection of performance monitoring tools for Linux. It is available on Unix and Unix-like operating systems.
Software included in sysstat package:
sar [6], Collect, report, or save system activity information.
iostat (1) reports basic CPU statistics and input/output statistics for devices, partitions and network filesystems.
mpstat(1) reports individual or combined processor related statistics.
pidstat(1) reports statistics for Linux tasks (processes) : I/O, CPU, memory, etc.
nfsiostat(1) reports input/output statistics for network filesystems (NFS).
cifsiostat(1) reports I/O statistics for CIFS resources.
References
2. "http://sebastien.godard.pagesperso-orange.fr/". | SYSSTAT Utilities Homepage. Retrieved 21 September 2020
See also
sar (Unix)
Utility software |
40854 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell%20relay | Cell relay | In computer networking, cell relay refers to a method of statistically multiplexing small fixed-length packets, called "cells", to transport data between computers or kinds of network equipment. It is a reliable, connection-oriented packet switched data communications protocol.
Transmission Rates
Cell relay transmission rates usually are between 56 kbit/s and several gigabits per second. ATM, a particularly popular form of cell relay, is most commonly used for home DSL connections, which often runs between 128 kbit/s and 1.544 Mbit/s (DS1), and for high-speed backbone connections (OC-3 and faster).
Cell relay protocols have neither flow control nor error correction capability, are information-content independent, and correspond only to layers one and two of the OSI Reference Model.
Cell relay can be used for delay- and jitter-sensitive traffic such as voice and video.
How Cell Relay Works
Cell relay systems break variable-length user packets into groups of fixed-length cells, that add addressing and verification information. Frame length is fixed in networking hardware, based on time delay and user packet-length considerations. One user data message may be segmented over many cells.
Cell relay systems may also carry bitstream-based data such as PDH traffic, by breaking it into streams of cells, with a lightweight synchronization and clock recovery shim. Thus cell relay systems may potentially carry any combination of stream-based and packet-based data. This is a form of statistical time division multiplexing.
Cell relay is an implementation of fast packet-switching technology that is used in connection-oriented broadband integrated services digital networks (B-ISDN, and its better-known supporting technology ATM) and connectionless IEEE 802.6 switched multi-megabit data service (SMDS).
At any time there is information to be transmitted; the switch basically sends the data units. Connections don't have to be negotiated like circuit switching. Channels don't have to be allocated because channels do not exist in ATM, and on condition that there is an adequate amount of bandwidth to maintain it, there can be indefinite transmissions over the same facility.
Cell relay utilizes data cells of a persistent size. Frames are comparable to data packets; however they contrast from cells in that they may fluctuate in size based on circumstances. This type of technology is not secure for the reason that its procedures do not support error handling or data recovery. Per se, all delicate and significant transmissions may perhaps be transported faster via fixed-sized cells, which are simpler to transmit compared to variable-sized frames or packets.
Reliability
Cell relay is extremely reliable for transporting vital data. Switching devices give the precise method to cells as each endpoint address embedded in a cell. An example of cell relay is ATM, a prevalent form utilized to transfer a cell with a fixed size of 53 bytes.
References
Minoli, Daniel, and Michael Vitella. ATM and Cell Relay Service for Corporate Environments. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1994. Print.
Minoli, Daniel, and George Dobrowski. Principles of Signaling for Cell Relay and Frame Relay. Boston: Artech House, 1995. Print.
Minoli, Daniel, and George Dobrowski. Principles of Signaling for Cell Relay and Frame Relay. Boston: Artech House, 1995. Print.
Any Transport over MPLS - Cisco Systems." Cisco Systems, Inc. Web. 29 Nov. 2011. <http://www.cisco.com/en/US/docs/ios/12_0s/feature/guide/fsatom26.html>.
Davidson, Robert P. Broadband Networking ABCs for Managers: ATM, BISDN, Cell/frame Relay to SONET. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1994. Print.
Conti, Marco, Enrico Gregori, and Luciano Lenzini. Metropolitan Area Networks. London: Springer, 1997. Print.
Multiplexing
Network protocols
Packets (information technology)
fr:Commutation de paquets |
26558975 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lusus%20Troiae | Lusus Troiae | The Lusus Troiae, also as Ludus Troiae and ludicrum Troiae ("Troy Game" or "Game of Troy") was an equestrian event held in ancient Rome. It was among the ludi ("games"), celebrated at imperial funerals, temple foundings, or in honor of a military victory. The lusus was occasionally presented at the Saecular Games, but was not attached regularly to a particular religious festival.
Participation was a privilege for boys of the nobility (nobiles). It was a display of communal skill, not a contest.
Description
The fullest description of the exercise is given by Vergil, Aeneid 5.545–603, as the final event in the games held to commemorate the anniversary of the death of Aeneas's father, Anchises. The drill features three troops (turmae) — each made up of twelve riders, a leader, and two armor-bearers — who perform intricate drills on horseback:
… The column split apartAs files in the three squadrons all in lineTurned away, cantering left and right; recalledThey wheeled and dipped their lances for a charge.They entered then on parades and counter-parades,The two detachments, matched in the arena,Winding in and out of one another,And whipped into sham cavalry skirmishesBy baring backs in flight, then whirling roundWith leveled points, then patching up a truceAnd riding side by side. So intricateIn ancient times on mountainous Crete they sayThe Labyrinth, between walls in the dark,Ran criss-cross a bewildering thousand waysDevised by guile, a maze insoluble,Breaking down every clue to the way out.So intricate the drill of Trojan boysWho wove the patterns of their prancing horses,Figured, in sport, retreats and skirmishes …
Complex intertwining manoeuvres as a display of horsemanship were characteristic of Roman cavalry reviews on the parade ground. The Greek military writer Arrian describes these in his book The Art of Military Tactics (Technē Taktikē), and says they originated among the non-Roman cavalry units provided by the allies (auxilia), particularly the Gauls (that is, the continental Celts) and Iberians. The Troy Game, however, was purely ceremonial and involved youths too young for military service.
History and origin
The lusus Troiae was "revived" by Julius Caesar in 45 or 46 BC, perhaps in connection with his family claim to have descended from Iulus, the son of Aeneas who in the game of the Aeneid rides a horse that was a gift from the Carthaginian queen Dido. Given the mythological setting, the description of the lusus Troiae in the Aeneid is likely to have been the Augustan poet's fictional aetiology. Historically, the event cannot be shown to have been held before the time of Sulla, and it has been doubted that the lusus presented under Sulla was the Troy Game. A similar-sounding event during the ludi Romani at the time of the Second Punic War is also uncertain as evidence for an earlier staging.
The claim that the event "extends back at least to the sixth century B.C." is based in part on a late 7th-century Etruscan wine-server (oinochoë) from Tragliatella (near Caere) which depicts mounted youths emerging from a labyrinth with the legend TRUIA, one possible meaning of which is Troy. Vergil explicitly compares the patterns of the drill to the Cretan Labyrinth, which was associated with the geranos ("crane dance") taught by Theseus to the Athenian youth he rescued from the Minotaur there. In myth and ritual, the labyrinth, and hence the lusus, has been interpreted as "a return from danger, a triumph of life over death," or more specifically as an initiation ritual. The geranos of Theseus serves as a "mythic prototype for the escape of initiates from the rigors of initiation"; the feet of the shield-bearers on the Truia wine-server may suggest dance steps. Initiation iconography similar to that of the Etruscan oinochoë is found on a panel of the Gundestrup Cauldron, generally regarded as presenting Celtic subject matter with a Thracian influence in workmanship. At least one of the Celtic polities of central Gaul, the Aedui, claimed like the Romans to be of Trojan descent and were formally recognized by the Roman senate as the "brothers" as well as the allies of Rome long before they were incorporated into the empire.
The Etruscan designation of the game as "Truia", if that is what the vase depicts, may be a play on words, as truare means "to move," with a specialized sense in the vocabulary of weaving: it has been argued that the lusus Troiae is the "running thread game," intended to repair the "social fabric" of Rome after the recent civil wars. The Troy Game was performed on a purification day (dies lustri). Vergil uses two forms of the verb "to weave" to describe the equestrian movements, and in some versions of the Theseus myth, the hero's return from the labyrinth is made possible by following a daedalean thread provided by Ariadne. The game may have connections to Mars, who was associated with horses through his Equirria festivals and the ritual of the October Horse, as a patron of warrior youth. Mars' youthful armed priests the Salii performed dance steps expressed by forms of the verb truare, here perhaps meaning "to perform a truia dance." The Troy Game was supervised by the Tribunes of the Celeres, who are connected to the Salii in the Fasti Praenestini.
Augustus established the lusus Troiae as a regular event. Its performance was part of a general interest in Trojan origins reflected also in the creation of the Tabulae Iliacae or "Trojan Tablets," low reliefs that illustrate scenes from the Iliad and often present text in the form of acrostics or palindromes, suggesting patterned movement or literary mazes.
The young Tiberius led a turma at the games celebrating the dedication of the Temple of the Divine Julius, 18 August 29 BC. The lusus was also performed at the dedication of the Theater of Marcellus in 13 BC, and of the Temple of Mars Ultor, 1 August 2 BC. The children in eastern dress on the Ara Pacis have sometimes been interpreted as Gaius and Lucius Caesar in "Trojan" garb for the game in 13 BC. The Troy Game continued to be staged under other emperors of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Seneca mentions the event in his Troades (line 778). Nero participated in 47 AD, at the age of nine, along with Britannicus.
See also
Hippika gymnasia
Taurian Games
Troy Town
References
Ancient Roman sports
Horses in culture
Equestrian team sports
Cavalry units and formations of ancient Rome
Trojan War
Julio-Claudian dynasty |
324954 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea%20Peoples | Sea Peoples | The Sea Peoples are a purported seafaring confederation that attacked ancient Egypt and other regions in the East Mediterranean prior to and during the Late Bronze Age collapse (1200–900 BCE). Following the creation of the concept in the nineteenth century, the Sea Peoples’ incursions became one of the most famous chapters of Egyptian history, given its connection with, in the words of Wilhelm Max Müller, "the most important questions of ethnography and the primitive history of classic nations".
The origins of the Sea Peoples is undocumented. It has been proposed that the Sea Peoples originated from a number of different locations, such as western Asia Minor, the Aegean, the Mediterranean islands, and Southern Europe. Although the archaeological inscriptions do not include reference to a migration, the Sea Peoples are conjectured to have sailed around the eastern Mediterranean and invaded Anatolia, Syria, Phoenicia, Canaan, Cyprus, and Egypt toward the end of the Bronze Age.
French Egyptologist Emmanuel de Rougé first used the term (literally "peoples of the sea") in 1855 in a description of reliefs on the Second Pylon at Medinet Habu, documenting Year 8 of Ramesses III. In the late 19th century, Gaston Maspero, de Rougé's successor at the Collège de France, subsequently popularized the term "Sea Peoples" and an associated migration theory. Since the early 1990s, his migration theory has been brought into question by a number of scholars.
The Sea Peoples remain unidentified in the eyes of most modern scholars, and hypotheses regarding the origin of the various groups are the source of much speculation. Existing theories variously propose equating them with several Aegean tribes, raiders from Central Europe, scattered soldiers who turned to piracy or became refugees, and links with natural disasters such as earthquakes or climatic shifts.
History of the concept
The concept of the Sea Peoples was first described by Emmanuel de Rougé in 1855, then curator of the Louvre, in his work Note on Some Hieroglyphic Texts Recently Published by Mr. Greene, describing the battles of Ramesses III described on the Second Pylon at Medinet Habu, and based upon recent photographs of the temple by John Beasley Greene. De Rougé noted that "in the crests of the conquered peoples the Sherden and the Teresh bear the designation of the peuples de la mer", in a reference to the prisoners depicted at the base of the Fortified East Gate. In 1867, de Rougé published his Excerpts of a dissertation on the attacks directed against Egypt by the peoples of the Mediterranean in the 14th century BCE, which focused primarily on the battles of Ramesses II and Merneptah and which proposed translations for many of the geographic names included in the hieroglyphic inscriptions. De Rougé later became chair of Egyptology at the Collège de France and was succeeded by Gaston Maspero. Maspero built upon de Rougé's work and published The Struggle of the Nations, in which he described the theory of the seaborne migrations in detail in 1895–96 for a wider audience, at a time when the idea of population migrations would have felt familiar to the general population.
The migration theory was taken up by other scholars such as Eduard Meyer and became the generally accepted theory amongst Egyptologists and Orientalists. Since the early 1990s, however, it has been brought into question by a number of scholars.
The historical narrative stems primarily from seven Ancient Egyptian sources and although in these inscriptions the designation "of the sea" does not appear in relation to all of these peoples, the term "Sea Peoples" is commonly used in modern publications to refer to the following nine peoples, in alphabetical order:
Primary documentary records
The Medinet Habu inscriptions from which the Sea Peoples concept was first described remain the primary source and "the basis of virtually all significant discussions of them".
Three separate narratives from Egyptian records refer to more than one of the nine peoples, found in a total of six sources. The seventh and most recent source referring to more than one of the nine peoples is a list (Onomasticon) of 610 entities, rather than a narrative. These sources are summarized in the table below.
Ramesses II narrative
Possible records of sea peoples generally or in particular date to two campaigns of Ramesses II, a pharaoh of the militant 19th Dynasty: operations in or near the delta in Year 2 of his reign and the major confrontation with the Hittite Empire and allies at the Battle of Kadesh in his Year 5. The years of this long-lived pharaoh's reign are not known exactly, but they must have comprised nearly all of the first half of the 13th century BCE.
In his Second Year, an attack of the Sherden, or Shardana, on the Nile Delta was repulsed and defeated by Ramesses, who captured some of the pirates. The event is recorded on Tanis Stele II. An inscription by Ramesses II on the stela from Tanis which recorded the Sherden raiders' raid and subsequent capture speaks of the continuous threat they posed to Egypt's Mediterranean coasts:
The Sherden prisoners were subsequently incorporated into the Egyptian army for service on the Hittite frontier by Ramesses and fought as Egyptian soldiers in the Battle of Kadesh. Another stele usually cited in conjunction with this one is the "Aswan Stele" (there were other stelae at Aswan), which mentions the king's operations to defeat a number of peoples including those of the "Great Green (the Egyptian name for the Mediterranean)". It is plausible to assume that the Tanis and Aswan Stelae refer to the same event, in which case they reinforce each other.
The Battle of Kadesh was the outcome of a campaign against the Hittites and their allies in the Levant in the pharaoh's Year 5. The imminent collision of the Egyptian and Hittite empires became obvious to both, and they both prepared campaigns against the strategic midpoint of Kadesh for the next year. Ramesses divided his Egyptian forces, which were then ambushed piecemeal by the Hittite army and nearly defeated. Ramesses was separated from his forces and had to fight singlehandedly to get back to his troops. He then mustered several counterattacks while waiting for reinforcements. Once the reinforcements from the South and East arrived, the Egyptians managed to drive the Hittites back to Kadesh. While it was a strategic Egyptian victory, neither side managed to attain their operational objectives.
At home, Ramesses had his scribes formulate an official description, which has been called "the Bulletin" because it was widely published by inscription. Ten copies survive today on the temples at Abydos, Karnak, Luxor and Abu Simbel, with reliefs depicting the battle. The "Poem of Pentaur", describing the battle survived also.
The poem relates that the previously captured Sherden were not only working for the Pharaoh but were also formulating a plan of battle for him; i.e. it was their idea to divide Egyptian forces into four columns. There is no evidence of any collaboration with the Hittites or malicious intent on their part, and if Ramesses considered it, he never left any record of that consideration.
The poem lists the peoples who went to Kadesh as allies of the Hittites. Amongst them are some of the sea peoples spoken of in the Egyptian inscriptions previously mentioned, and many of the peoples who would later take part in the great migrations of the 12th century BCE (see Appendix A to the Battle of Kadesh).
Merneptah narrative
The major event of the reign of the Pharaoh Merneptah (1213 BCE – 1203 BCE), 4th king of the 19th Dynasty was his battle against a confederacy termed "the Nine Bows" at Perire in the western delta in the 5th and 6th years of his reign. Depredations of this confederacy had been so severe that the region was "forsaken as pasturage for cattle, it was left waste from the time of the ancestors".
The pharaoh's action against them is attested in a single narrative found in three sources. The most detailed source describing the battle is the Great Karnak Inscription, and two shorter versions of the same narrative are found in the "Athribis Stele" and the "Cairo Column". The "Cairo column" is a section of a granite column now in the Cairo Museum, which was first published by Maspero in 1881 with just two readable sentences – the first confirming the date of Year 5 and the second stating: "The wretched [chief] of Libya has invaded with ——, being men and women, Shekelesh (S'-k-rw-s) ——". The "Athribis stela" is a granite stela found in Athribis and inscribed on both sides, which, like the Cairo column was first published by Maspero, two years later in 1883. The Merneptah Stele from Thebes describes the reign of peace resulting from the victory, but does not include any reference to the Sea Peoples.
The Nine Bows were acting under the leadership of the king of Libya and an associated near-concurrent revolt in Canaan involving Gaza, Ashkelon, Yenoam and the people of Israel. Exactly which peoples were consistently in the Nine Bows is not clear, but present at the battle were the Libyans, some neighboring Meshwesh, and possibly a separate revolt in the following year involving peoples from the eastern Mediterranean, including the Kheta (or Hittites), or Syrians, and (in the Israel Stele) for the first time in history, the Israelites. In addition to them, the first lines of the Karnak inscription include some sea peoples, which must have arrived in the Western Delta or from Cyrene by ship:
Later in the inscription Merneptah receives news of the attack:
"His majesty was enraged at their report, like a lion", assembled his court and gave a rousing speech. Later, he dreamed he saw Ptah handing him a sword and saying, "Take thou (it) and banish thou the fearful heart from thee." When the bowmen went forth, says the inscription, "Amun was with them as a shield." After six hours, the surviving Nine Bows threw down their weapons, abandoned their baggage and dependents, and ran for their lives. Merneptah states that he defeated the invasion, killing 6,000 soldiers and taking 9,000 prisoners. To be sure of the numbers, among other things, he took the penises of all uncircumcised enemy dead and the hands of all the circumcised, from which history learns that the Ekwesh were circumcised, a fact causing some to doubt they were Greek.
Ramesses III narrative
Ramesses III, the second king of the Egyptian 20th Dynasty, who reigned for most of the first half of the 12th century BCE, was forced to deal with a later wave of invasions of the Sea Peoples—the best-recorded of these in his eighth year. This was recorded in two long inscriptions from his Medinet Habu mortuary temple, which are physically separate and somewhat different from one another.
The fact that several civilizations collapsed around 1175 BCE, has led to the suggestion that the Sea Peoples may have been involved at the end of the Hittite, Mycenaean and Mitanni kingdoms. The American Hittitologist Gary Beckman writes, on page 23 of Akkadica 120 (2000):
Ramesses' comments about the scale of the Sea Peoples' onslaught in the eastern Mediterranean are confirmed by the destruction of the states of Hatti, Ugarit, Ashkelon and Hazor around this time. As the Hittitologist Trevor Bryce observes:
This situation is confirmed by the Medinet Habu temple reliefs of Ramesses III which show that:
The inscriptions of Ramesses III at his Medinet Habu mortuary temple in Thebes record three victorious campaigns against the Sea Peoples considered bona fide, in Years 5, 8 and 12, as well as three considered spurious, against the Nubians and Libyans in Year 5 and the Libyans with Asiatics in Year 11. During Year 8 some Hittites were operating with the Sea Peoples.
The inner west wall of the second court describes the invasion of Year 5. Only the Peleset and Tjeker are mentioned, but the list is lost in a lacuna. The attack was two-pronged, one by sea and one by land; that is, the Sea Peoples divided their forces. Ramesses was waiting in the Nile mouths and trapped the enemy fleet there. The land forces were defeated separately.
The Sea Peoples did not learn any lessons from this defeat, as they repeated their mistake in Year 8 with a similar result. The campaign is recorded more extensively on the inner northwest panel of the first court. It is possible, but not generally believed, that the dates are only those of the inscriptions and both refer to the same campaign.
In Ramesses' Year 8, the Nine Bows appear again as a "conspiracy in their isles". This time, they are revealed unquestionably as Sea Peoples: the Peleset, Tjeker, Shekelesh, Denyen and Weshesh, which are classified as "foreign countries" in the inscription. They camped in Amor and sent a fleet to the Nile.
The pharaoh was once more waiting for them. He had built a fleet especially for the occasion, hid it in the Nile's mouths and posted coast watchers. The enemy fleet was ambushed there, their ships overturned, and the men dragged up on shore and executed ad hoc.
The land army was also routed within Egyptian controlled territory. Additional information is given in the relief on the outer side of the east wall. This land battle occurred in the vicinity of Djahy against "the northern countries". When it was over, several chiefs were captive: of Hatti, Amor and Shasu among the "land peoples" and the Tjeker, "Sherden of the sea", "Teresh of the sea" and Peleset or Philistines.
The campaign of Year 12 is attested by the Südstele found on the south side of the temple. It mentions the Tjeker, Peleset, Denyen, Weshesh and Shekelesh.
Papyrus Harris I of the period, found behind the temple, suggests a wider campaign against the Sea Peoples but does not mention the date. In it, the persona of Ramses III says, "I slew the Denyen (D'-yn-yw-n) in their isles" and "burned" the Tjeker and Peleset, implying a maritime raid of his own. He also captured some Sherden and Weshesh "of the sea" and settled them in Egypt. As he is called the "Ruler of Nine Bows" in the relief of the east side, these events probably happened in Year 8; i.e. the Pharaoh would have used the victorious fleet for some punitive expeditions elsewhere in the Mediterranean.
The Rhetorical Stela to Ramesses III, Chapel C, Deir el-Medina records a similar narrative.
Onomasticon of Amenope
The Onomasticon of Amenope, or Amenemipit (amen-em-apt), gives slight credence to the idea that the Ramesside kings settled the Sea Peoples in Canaan. Dated to about 1100 BCE (at the end of the 22nd dynasty) this document simply lists names. After six place names, four of which were in Philistia, the scribe lists the Sherden (Line 268), the Tjeker (Line 269) and the Peleset (Line 270), who might be presumed to occupy those cities. The Story of Wenamun on a papyrus of the same cache also places the Tjeker in Dor at that time. The fact that the Biblical maritime Tribe of Dan was initially located between the Philistines and the Tjekker, has prompted some to suggest that they may have originally been Denyen. Sherden seem to have been settled around Megiddo and in the Jordan Valley, and Weshwesh (connected by some with the Biblical tribe of Asher) may have been settled further north.
Other documentary records
Egyptian single-name sources
Other Egyptian sources refer to one of the individual groups without reference to any of the other groups.
The Amarna letters, around the mid-14th century BCE, including four relating to the Sea Peoples:
EA 151 refers to the Denyen, in a passing reference to the death of their king;
EA 38 refers to the Lukka, who are being accused of attacking the Egyptians in conjunction with the Alashiyans (Cypriotes), with the latter having stated that the Lukka were seizing their villages.
EA 81, EA 122 and EA 133 refer to the Sherden. The letters at one point refer to a Sherden man as an apparent renegade mercenary, and at another point to three Sherden who are slain by an Egyptian overseer.
Padiiset's Statue refers to the Peleset, the Cairo Column refers to the Shekelesh, the Story of Wenamun refers to the Tjekker, and 13 further Egyptian sources refer to the Sherden.
Byblos
The earliest ethnic group later considered among the Sea Peoples is believed to be attested in Egyptian hieroglyphs on the Abishemu obelisk found in the Temple of the Obelisks at Byblos by Maurice Dunand. The inscription mentions kwkwn son of rwqq- (or kukun son of luqq), transliterated as Kukunnis, son of Lukka, "the Lycian". The date is given variously as 2000 or 1700 BCE
Ugarit
Some Sea Peoples appear in four of the Ugaritic texts, the last three of which seem to foreshadow the destruction of the city around 1180 BCE. The letters are therefore dated to the early 12th century. The last king of Ugarit was Ammurapi ( 1191–1182 BCE), who, throughout this correspondence, is quite a young man.
RS 34.129, the earliest letter, found on the south side of the city, from "the Great King", presumably Suppiluliuma II of the Hittites, to the prefect of the city. He says that he ordered the king of Ugarit to send him Ibnadushu for questioning, but the king was too immature to respond. He, therefore, wants the prefect to send the man, whom he promises to return. What this language implies about the relationship of the Hittite empire to Ugarit is a matter of interpretation. Ibnadushu had been kidnapped by and had resided among a people of Shikala, probably the Shekelesh, "who lived on ships". The letter is generally interpreted as an interest in military intelligence by the king.
RS L 1, RS 20.238 and RS 20.18, are a set from the Rap'anu Archive between a slightly older Ammurapi, now handling his own affairs, and Eshuwara, the grand supervisor of Alasiya. Evidently, Ammurapi had informed Eshuwara, that an enemy fleet of 20 ships had been spotted at sea. Eshuwara wrote back and inquired about the location of Ammurapi's own forces. Eshuwara also noted that he would like to know where the enemy fleet of 20 ships are now located. Unfortunately for both Ugarit and Alasiya, neither kingdom was able to fend off the Sea People's onslaught, and both were ultimately destroyed. A letter by Ammurapi (RS 18.147) to the king of Alasiya—which was in fact a response to an appeal for assistance by the latter—has been found by archaeologists. In it, Ammurapi describes the desperate plight facing Ugarit. Ammurapi, in turn, appealed for aid from the viceroy of Carchemish, which actually survived the Sea People's onslaught; King Kuzi-Teshub I, who was the son of Talmi-Teshub—a direct contemporary of the last ruling Hittite king, Suppiluliuma II—is attested in power there, running a mini-empire which stretched from "Southeast Asia Minor, North Syria ... [to] the west bend of the Euphrates" from c. 1175 BCE to 990 BCE Its viceroy could only offer some words of advice for Ammurapi.
Hypotheses about origins
A number of hypotheses concerning the origins, identities and motives of the Sea Peoples described in the records have been formulated. They are not necessarily alternative or contradictory hypotheses about the Sea Peoples; any or all might be mainly or partly true.
Regional migration historical context
The Late Bronze Age Mycenaean Greek Linear B tablets of Pylos in the Peloponnese along the Ionian Sea demonstrate increased slave raiding and the spread of mercenaries and migratory peoples and their subsequent resettlement. Despite this, the actual identity of the Sea Peoples has remained enigmatic and modern scholars have only the scattered records of ancient civilizations and archaeological analysis to inform them. Evidence shows that the identities and motives of these peoples were known to the Egyptians. In fact, many had sought employment with the Egyptians or were in a diplomatic relationship for a few centuries before the Late Bronze Age collapse. For example, select groups, or members of groups, of the Sea People, such as the Sherden or Shardana, were used as mercenaries by Egyptian Pharaohs such as Ramesses II.
Prior to the Third Intermediate Period of Egypt (from the 15th century BCE), names of Semitic-speaking, cattle-raising pastoral nomads of the Levant appear, replacing previous Egyptian concern with the Hurrianised prw ('Apiru or Habiru). These were called the š3sw (Shasu), meaning "those who move on foot". e.g. the Shasu of Yhw. Nancy Sandars uses the analogous name "land peoples". Contemporary Assyrian records refer to them as Ahhlamu or Wanderers. They were not part of the Egyptian list of Sea Peoples, and were later referred to as Aramaeans.
Some people, such as the Lukka, were included in both categories of land and sea people.
Philistine hypothesis
The archaeological evidence from the southern coastal plain of ancient Canaan, termed Philistia in the Hebrew Bible, indicates a disruption of the Canaanite culture that existed during the Late Bronze Age and its replacement (with some integration) by a culture with a possibly foreign (mainly Aegean) origin. This includes distinct pottery, which at first belongs to the Mycenaean IIIC tradition (albeit of local manufacture) and gradually transforms into uniquely Philistine pottery. Mazar says:
Sandars, however, does not take this point of view but says:
Artifacts of the Philistine culture are found at numerous sites, in particular in the excavations of the five main cities of the Philistines: the Pentapolis of Ashkelon, Ashdod, Ekron, Gath, and Gaza. Some scholars (e.g. S. Sherratt, Drews, etc.) have challenged the theory that the Philistine culture is an immigrant culture, claiming instead that they are an in situ development of the Canaanite culture, but others argue for the immigrant hypothesis; for example, T. Dothan and Barako.
Trude and Moshe Dothan suggest that the later Philistine settlements in the Levant were unoccupied for nearly 30 years between their destruction and resettlement by the Philistines, whose Helladic IIICb pottery also shows Egyptian influences.
With the advent of Archaeogenetics, the Aegean hypothesis regarding the origin of the Philistines has received a major boost. A study by Michal Feldman and colleagues that carried out genomic testing of 10 Bronze Age and Iron Age individuals from Ashkelon, reported that the early Iron Age population was genetically distinct from both late Bronze Age and late Iron Age tested individuals as a result of transient European-related admixture. The authors concluded that a migration event occurred during the Bronze to Iron Age transition in Ashkelon from an Aegean-related source, even though this migration did not leave a long-lasting genetic signature.
Minoan hypothesis
Two of the peoples who settled in the Levant had traditions that may connect them to Crete: the Tjeker and the Peleset. The Tjeker may have left Crete to settle in Anatolia, and left there to settle Dor. According to the Old Testament, the Israelite God brought the Philistines out of Caphtor. The mainstream of Biblical and classical scholarship accepts Caphtor to refer to Crete, but there are alternative minority theories. Crete at the time was populated by peoples speaking many languages, among which were Mycenaean Greek and Eteocretan, the descendant of the language of the Minoans. It is possible, but by no means certain, that these two peoples spoke Eteocretan.
Recent examinations of the eruption of the Santorini volcano estimate its occurrence at between 1660 and 1613 BCE, centuries before the first appearances of the Sea Peoples in Egypt. The eruption is thus unlikely to be connected to the Sea Peoples.
Greek migrational hypothesis
The identifications of Denyen with the Greek Danaans and Ekwesh with the Greek Achaeans are long-standing issues in Bronze Age scholarship, whether Greek, Hittite or Biblical, especially as they lived "in the isles". The Greek identification of the Ekwesh is considered especially problematic as this group was clearly described as circumcised by the Egyptians, and according to Manuel Robbins: "Hardly anyone thinks that the Greeks of the Bronze Age were circumcised ..." Michael Wood described the hypothetical role of the Greeks (who have already been proposed as the identity of the Philistines above):
Wood would also include the Sherden and Shekelesh, pointing out that "there were migrations of Greek-speaking peoples to the same place [Sardinia and Sicily] at this time." He is careful to point out that the Greeks would have been only one element among many that comprised the sea peoples. Furthermore, the proportion of Greeks must have been relatively small. His major hypothesis is that the Trojan War was fought against Troy VI and Troy VIIa, the candidate of Carl Blegen, and that Troy was sacked by those now identified as Greek Sea Peoples. He suggests that Odysseus' assumed identity as a wandering Cretan coming home from the Trojan War, who fights in Egypt and serves there after being captured, "remembers" the campaign of Year 8 of Ramses III, described above. He points out also that places destroyed on Cyprus at the time (such as Kition) were rebuilt by a new Greek-speaking population. Several scholars have proposed that the Sea People were certainly Mycenaean Greeks.
Trojan hypothesis
The possibility that the Teresh were connected on the one hand with the Tyrrhenians, believed to be an Etruscan-related culture, and on the other with Taruisa, a Hittite name possibly referring to Troy, has been speculated. The Roman poet Virgil depicts Aeneas as escaping the fall of Troy by coming to Latium to found a line descending to Romulus, first king of Rome. Considering that Anatolian connections have been identified for other Sea Peoples, such as the Tjeker and the Lukka, Eberhard Zangger puts together an Anatolian hypothesis, but it is not accepted for archaeological, linguistic, anthropological and genetic reasons. Virgili's account refers to the foundation of Rome, and not to the Etruscans, and is not believed to contain true events. Furthermore, there is no archaeological or linguistic evidence of a migration in the late Bronze Age from Anatolia to Etruria. and the Etruscan language, as well as all the languages of the Tyrrhenian family, considered Pre-Indo-European and Paleo-European, belongs to a completely different family from the Anatolian one which is Indo-European. Moreover, both recent studies of anthropology and genetics have argued in favor of the indigenous origin of the Etruscans and against the hypothesis of the eastern origin.
Mycenaean warfare hypothesis
This theory suggests that the Sea Peoples were populations from the city-states of the Greek Mycenaean civilization, who destroyed each other in a disastrous series of conflicts lasting several decades. There would have been few or no external invaders and just a few excursions outside the Greek-speaking part of the Aegean civilization.
Archaeological evidence indicates that many fortified sites of the Greek domain were destroyed in the late 13th and early 12th century BCE, which was understood in the mid-20th century to have been simultaneous or nearly so and was attributed to the Dorian invasion championed by Carl Blegen of the University of Cincinnati. He believed Mycenaean Pylos was burned during an amphibious raid by warriors from the north (Dorians).
Subsequent critical analysis focused on the fact that the destructions were not simultaneous and that all the evidence of Dorians comes from later times. John Chadwick championed a Sea Peoples hypothesis, which asserted that, since the Pylians had retreated to the northeast, the attack must have come from the southwest, the Sea Peoples being, in his view, the most likely candidates. He suggests that they were based in Anatolia and, although doubting that the Mycenaeans would have called themselves "Achaeans", speculates that "it is very tempting to bring them into connexion." He does not assign a Greek identity to all of the Sea Peoples.
Considering the turbulence between and within the great families of the Mycenaean city-states in Greek mythology, the hypothesis that the Mycenaeans destroyed themselves is long-standing and finds support by the ancient Greek historian Thucydides, who theorized:
Although some advocates of the Philistine or Greek migration hypotheses identify all the Mycenaeans or Sea Peoples as ethnically Greek, John Chadwick (founder, with Michael Ventris, of Linear B studies) adopts instead the multiple ethnicity view.
Nuragic and Italian peoples hypotheses
Some archeologists believe that the Sherden are identifiable with the Sardinians from the Nuragic era.
Theories of the possible connections between the Sherden to Sardinia, Shekelesh to Sicily, and Teresh to Tyrrhenians, even though long-standing, are based on onomastic similarities.
Nuragic pottery of domestic use has been found at Pyla Kokkinokremos, a fortified settlement in Cyprus, during the 2010 and 2017 excavations. The site is dated to the period between the 13th and 12th centuries BCE, that of the Sea Peoples' invasions. This find has led archaeologist Vassos Karageorghis to identify the Nuragic Sardinians with the Sherden, one of the Sea Peoples. According to him, the Sherden went first to Crete and from there they joined the Cretans in an eastward expedition to Cyprus.
The Nuragic bronze statuettes, a great collection of Nuragic sculptures, includes a great number of horned helmet warriors wearing a similar skirt to the Sherdens' and a round shield; although they had been dated for a long time to the 10th or 9th century BCE, recent discoveries suggest that their production started around the 13th century BCE. Swords identical to those of the Sherden have been found in Sardinia, dating back to 1650 BCE
The self-name of the Etruscans, Rasna, does not lend itself to the Tyrrhenian derivation, although it has been suggested that this was itself derived from an earlier form T'Rasna. The Etruscan civilization has been studied, and the language partly deciphered. It has variants and representatives in Aegean inscriptions, but these may well be from travelers or colonists of Etruscans during their seafaring period before Rome destroyed their power.
There is no definitive archaeological evidence. About all that can be said for certain is that Mycenaean IIIC pottery was widespread around the Mediterranean in areas associated with Sea Peoples and its introduction at various places is often associated with cultural change, violent or gradual. An old theory is that the Sherden and Shekelesh brought those names with them to Sardinia and Sicily, "perhaps not operating from those great islands but moving toward them", and this is still accepted by Eric Cline and by Trevor Bryce, who explains that some of the Sea Peoples sprang out of the collapsing Hittite empire. Giovanni Ugas believes that the Sherden originated in Sardinia, and his studies have been echoed by Sebastiano Tusa, in his last book, and by Carlos Roberto Zorea, from the Complutense University of Madrid.
Anatolian famine hypothesis
A famous passage from Herodotus portrays the wandering and migration of Lydians from Anatolia because of famine:
However, the 1st-century BC historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus, a Greek living in Rome, dismissed many of the ancient theories of other Greek historians and postulated that the Etruscans were indigenous people who had always lived in Etruria and were different from the Lydians. Dionysius noted that the 5th-century historian Xanthus of Lydia, who was originally from Sardis and was regarded as an important source and authority for the history of Lydia, never suggested a Lydian origin of the Etruscans and never named Tyrrhenus as a ruler of the Lydians.
Tablet RS 18.38 from Ugarit also mentions grain to the Hittites, suggesting a long period of famine, connected further, in the full theory, to drought. Barry Weiss, using the Palmer Drought Index for 35 Greek, Turkish, and Middle Eastern weather stations, showed that a drought of the kinds that persisted from January 1972 would have affected all of the sites associated with the Late Bronze Age collapse. Drought could have easily precipitated or hastened socio-economic problems and led to wars. More recently, Brian Fagan has shown how mid-winter storms from the Atlantic were diverted to travel north of the Pyrenees and the Alps, bringing wetter conditions to Central Europe, but drought to the Eastern Mediterranean. More recent paleoclimatological research has also shown climatic disruption and increasing aridity in the Eastern Mediterranean, associated with the North Atlantic Oscillation at this time (See Bronze Age Collapse).
Invader hypothesis
The term "invasion" is used generally in the literature concerning the period to mean the documented attacks, implying that the aggressors were external to the eastern Mediterranean, though often hypothesized to be from the wider Aegean world. An origin outside the Aegean also has been proposed, as in this example by Michael Grant: "There was a gigantic series of migratory waves, extending all the way from the Danube valley to the plains of China."
Such a comprehensive movement is associated with more than one people or culture; instead, it was a "disturbance", according to Finley:
If different times are allowed on the Danube, they are not in the Aegean: "all this destruction must be dated to the same period about 1200 [BCE]."
The movements of the hypothetical Dorian Invasion, the attacks of the Sea Peoples, the formation of Philistine kingdoms in the Levant and the fall of the Hittite Empire were associated and compressed by Finley into the 1200 BCE window.
Robert Drews presents a map showing the destruction sites of 47 fortified major settlements, which he terms "Major Sites Destroyed in the Catastrophe". They are concentrated in the Levant, with some in Greece and Anatolia.
See also
Beder (ancient ruler)
Hyksos
Meryey
Thalassocracy
References
Citations
Notes
Sources
Primary sources: Early publications of the theory
Secondary sources
Mainz.
Beckman, Gary, "Hittite Chronology", Akkadica, 119/120 (2000).
Volume II on the 19th Dynasty is available for download from Google Books.
3 vols.
Chapter 16: Vagnetti, Lucia (2000), Western Mediterranean overview: Peninsular Italy, Sicily and Sardinia at the time of the Sea peoples
External links
Cline, Eric. 1177 BC: The Year Civilization Collapsed [video], recorded lecture, 2016, 1h10'17.
Philistine Kin Found in Early Israel, Adam Zertal, BAR 28:03, May/Jun 2002.
The Sea Peoples and the Philistines: a course at Penn State
Egyptians, Canaanites, and Philistines in the Period of the Emergence of Early Israel, paper by Itamar Singer at the UCLA Near Eastern Languages & Culture site
"Who Were the Sea People?", article by Eberhard Zangger in Saudi Aramco World, Volume 46, Number 3, May/June 1995
PlosOne dating the Sea People destruction of the Levant to 1192–90 BCE
"The Battle of the Nile – Circa 1190 B.C.", article by I Cornelius in Military History Journal, Vol. 7., No. 4 of the South African Military History Society
"The Greek Age of Bronze", Archaeological web site related to Greek Bronze Age and Sea Peoples weaponry and warfare
1850s neologisms
Ancient Egypt
Ancient Italian history
Ancient Levant
Ancient peoples
Ancient pirates
History of the Mediterranean
Indo-European history
Indo-European warfare
Invasions of Egypt
Iron Age Anatolia
Iron Age Greece
Late Bronze Age collapse |
511730 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mac%20OS%208 | Mac OS 8 | Mac OS 8 is an operating system that was released by Apple Computer, Inc. on July 26, 1997. It includes the largest overhaul of the classic Mac OS experience since the release of System 7, approximately six years before. It places a greater emphasis on color than prior versions. Released over a series of updates, Mac OS 8 represents an incremental integration of many of the technologies which had been developed from 1988 to 1996 for Apple's overly ambitious OS named Copland. Mac OS 8 helped modernize the Mac OS while Apple developed its next-generation operating system, Mac OS X (renamed in 2012 to OS X and then in 2016 to macOS).
Mac OS 8 is one of Apple's most commercially successful software releases, selling over 1.2 million copies in the first two weeks. As it came at a difficult time in Apple's history, many pirate groups refused to traffic in the new OS, encouraging people to buy it instead.
Mac OS 8.0 introduces the most visible changes in the lineup, including the Platinum interface and a native PowerPC multithreaded Finder. Mac OS 8.1 introduces a new, more efficient file system named HFS Plus. Mac OS 8.5 is the first version of the Mac OS to require a PowerPC processor. It features PowerPC native versions of QuickDraw, AppleScript, and the Sherlock search utility. Its successor, Mac OS 9, was released on October 23, 1999.
Copland
Starting in 1988, Apple's next-generation operating system, which it originally envisioned to be "System 8" was codenamed Copland. It was announced in March 1994 alongside the introduction of the first PowerPC Macs. Apple intended Copland as a fully modern system, including native PowerPC code, intelligent agents, a microkernel, a customizable interface named Appearance Manager, a hardware abstraction layer, and a relational database integrated into the Finder. Copland was to be followed by Gershwin, which promised memory protection spaces and full preemptive multitasking. The system was intended to be a full rewrite of the Mac OS, and Apple hoped to beat Microsoft Windows 95 to market with a development cycle of only one year.
The Copland development was hampered by many missed deadlines. The release date was first pushed back to the end of 1995, then to mid-1996, late 1996, and finally to the end of 1997. With a dedicated team of 500 software engineers and an annual budget of $250 million, Apple executives began to grow impatient with the project continually falling behind schedule. At the Worldwide Developers Conference in January 1997, Apple chief executive officer (CEO) Gil Amelio announced that, rather than release Copland as one monolithic release, Copland features would be phased into the Mac OS following a six-month release cycle. These updates began with Mac OS 7.6, released during WWDC. Mac OS 8.0, released six months later, continued to integrate Copland technologies into the Mac OS.
In August 1996, Apple chief technology officer Ellen Hancock froze development of Copland and Apple began a search for an operating system developed outside the company. This ultimately led to Apple buying NeXT and developing Rhapsody which would eventually evolve into Mac OS X in 2001 (now named macOS).
Mac OS 8.0
Developed under the codename "Tempo", Mac OS 8.0 was released on July 26, 1997. (after being introduced a few days earlier on July 22) The early beta releases of the product which were circulated to developers and Apple internal audiences, were branded as Mac OS 7.7, superseding the then-current release, Mac OS 7.6. The software was renamed Mac OS 8 before final release.
Major changes in this version included the Platinum theme, a Finder which was PowerPC-native and multithreaded, and greater customization of the user interface.
Other features introduced in Mac OS 8.0 include the following:
Customization of system fonts and increased use of the user-set accent color.
Pop-up context menus, accessed via ctrl-click with a one-button mouse.
Pop-up (or tabbed) windows in the Finder.
Spring-loaded folders.
Live scrolling.
WindowShade widget in window titlebars.
Multithreaded Finder — file copy operations run in a separate thread and don't block the Finder UI.
Redesigned color picker.
Desktop Pictures control panel, allowing photographs to be set as the desktop background; not only tiled patterns.
Simple Finder, an option which reduces Finder menus to basic operations, to avoid overwhelming new users.
Relocation of the 'Help' menu from an icon at the right end of the menu bar to a standard textual menu positioned after the application's menus.
A faster Apple Guide, featuring HTML help pages.
Native support of Apple Filing Protocol over IP.
Performance improvements to virtual memory, AppleScript execution and system startup times.
Faster desktop rebuilding.
Mac OS 8.1
Released on January 19, 1998, Mac OS 8.1 was the last version of the Mac OS to run on Motorola 68000 series processors. It addressed performance and reliability improvements. It introduced a new file system named HFS+, also named Mac OS Extended, which supported large file sizes and made more efficient use of larger hard drives via using a smaller block size. To upgrade, users must reformat the hard drive, which deletes the entire contents of the drive. Some third-party utilities later appeared that preserved the user's data while upgrading to HFS+. The 68040 systems do not support booting from HFS+ disks; the boot drive must be HFS.
Mac OS 8.1 was the first system to have a Universal Disk Format (UDF) driver, allowing for DVD support on the Mac for the first time. It also shipped with the new Java runtime (JDK 1.13).
Mac OS 8.1 also included an enhanced version of PC Exchange, allowing Macintosh users to see the long file names (up to 255 characters) on files that were created on PCs running Microsoft Windows, and supporting FAT32.
Mac OS 8.1 is the earliest version of the Mac OS that can run Carbon applications. Carbon support requires a PowerPC processor and installation of the CarbonLib software from Apple's website; it is not a standard component of Mac OS 8.1. Applications needing later versions of CarbonLib will not run on Mac OS 8.1. More recent versions of CarbonLib require Mac OS 8.6.
As part of Apple's agreement with Microsoft, 8.1 included Internet Explorer 3 initially, but soon switched to Internet Explorer 4 as its default browser.
Mac OS 8.1 was free for Mac OS 8 owners and was available in February 1998 via the apple.com website.
Mac OS 8.5
Released October 17, 1998, Mac OS 8.5 was the first version of the Mac OS to run solely on Macs equipped with a PowerPC processor. If Mac OS 8.5 is installed on a 68k system, the Sad Mac error screen will appear. As such, it replaced some, but not all, of the 680x0 code with PowerPC code, improving system performance by relying less on 680x0 emulation.
It introduced the Sherlock search utility. This allowed users to search the contents of documents on hard drives (if the user had let it index the drive), or extend a search to the Internet. Sherlock plug-ins started appearing at this time; these allowed users to search the contents of other websites.
Mac OS 8.5 includes several performance improvements. Copying files over a network was faster than prior versions and Apple advertised it as being "faster than Windows NT". AppleScript was also rewritten to use only PowerPC code, which improved AppleScript execution speed significantly.
Font Smoothing, system-wide antialiasing for type was also introduced. The HTML format for online help, first adopted by the Finder's Info Center in Mac OS 8, was now used throughout. This made it easier for software companies to write online help systems. The PPP control panel was removed and replaced with Remote Access, which provides the same functionality but also allows connections to AppleTalk Remote Access (ARA) servers.
The installation process was simplified considerably in Mac OS 8.5. In earlier versions the installer worked in segments and often required a user to click to continue in between stages of the installation. This was a holdover from the days when the OS was distributed on multiple floppy disks, disk swapping promoting a natural segmentation model. The Mac OS 8.5 installer generally required very little user interaction once it was started. Customisation options were also much more detailed yet simpler to manage.
From Mac OS 8.5 onward, MacLinkPlus document translation software is no longer bundled as part of the Mac OS.
Mac OS 8.5 was the first version of the Mac OS to support themes, or skins, which could change the default Apple Platinum look of the Mac OS to "Gizmo" or "HiTech" themes. This radical changing of the computer's appearance was removed at the last minute, and appeared only in beta versions, though users could still make (and share) their own themes and use them with the OS. The Appearance control panel was also updated to support proportional scroll bars, and added the option for both scroll arrows to be placed at the bottom of a scroll bar.
Along with themes support, 8.5 was the first version to support 32-bit icons. Icons now had 24-bit color (16.7 million colors) and an 8-bit alpha channel, allowing for transparency-translucency effects.
The application palette made its debut with 8.5 – the application menu at the right side of the menu bar could be resized to show the active application's name, or 'torn off' into a palette of buttons. This palette could be customized in many ways, by removing the window frame and changing the size and layout of the buttons. Apple provided no user interface to set these options, instead making them available via AppleScript and Apple Events and relying on third parties to provide a user interface for the task. By setting it to display horizontally and turning off the window border, the palette's look and function could be configured to resemble the Windows 95 task bar.
Mac OS 8.5.1
Mac OS 8.5.1, released December 7, 1998, was a minor update to Mac OS 8.5 that fixes several bugs that caused crashes and data corruption.
Mac OS 8.6
Released May 10, 1999, Mac OS 8.6 added support to the Mac OS nanokernel to handle preemptive tasks via the Multiprocessing Services 2.x and later developer API. This update improved PowerBook battery life and added Sherlock 2.1. This free update for Mac users running 8.5 and 8.5.1 was faster and much more stable than either version of 8.5.x and was also the first version of Mac OS to display the version number as part of the startup screen. However, there was still no process separation; the system still used cooperative multitasking between processes, and even a process that is Multiprocessing Services-aware still had a portion that ran in the "blue task", which also ran all programs that were unaware of it, and was the only task that could run 68k code.
Versions
Compatibility
See also
List of Apple operating systems
Notes
References
External links
from apple.com
from apple.com
from apple.com
from apple.com
Mac OS 8 Hardware Compatibility
1997 software
Classic Mac OS
PowerPC operating systems
Microkernel-based operating systems
Microkernels |
307133 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing%20787%20Dreamliner | Boeing 787 Dreamliner | The Boeing 787 Dreamliner is an American wide-body jet airliner developed and manufactured by Boeing Commercial Airplanes.
After dropping its Sonic Cruiser project, Boeing announced the conventional 7E7 on January 29, 2003, focused on efficiency.
The program was launched on April 26, 2004, with an order for 50 from All Nippon Airways (ANA), targeting a 2008 introduction.
On July 8, 2007, the prototype was rolled out without major systems, and experienced multiple delays until its maiden flight on December 15, 2009.
Type certification was received in August 2011 and the first 787-8 was delivered in September 2011 before entering commercial service on October 26, 2011, with ANA.
At launch, Boeing targeted for 20% less fuel burn than replaced aircraft like the Boeing 767, carrying 200 to 300 passengers on point-to-point routes up to 8,500 nmi (16,000 km), a shift from hub-and-spoke travel.
The twinjet is powered by General Electric GEnx or Rolls-Royce Trent 1000 high-bypass turbofans. It is the first airliner with an airframe primarily made of composite materials, and makes extensive use of electrical systems.
Externally, it is recognizable by its four-window cockpit, raked wingtips, and noise-reducing chevrons on its engine nacelles.
Development and production rely increasingly on subcontractors around the world, with final assembly at Boeing South Carolina in North Charleston, after having also been assembled in the Boeing Everett Factory in Washington until March 2021.
The initial, 186 ft (57 m) long 787-8 typically seats 242 passengers over a range of 7,355 nmi (13,620 km), with a 502,500 lb (228 t) MTOW compared to 560,000 lb (254 t) for later variants.
The stretched 787-9, 206 ft (63 m) long, can fly 7,635 nmi (14,140 km) with 290 passengers; it entered service on August 7, 2014, with ANA.
The further stretched 787-10, 224 ft (68 m) long, seating 330 over 6,430 nmi (11,910 km), entered service with Singapore Airlines on April 3, 2018.
Early operations encountered several problems caused by its lithium-ion batteries, culminating in fires on board.
In January 2013, the US FAA grounded all 787s until it approved the revised battery design in April 2013. The 787 has no fatalities and no hull losses through January 2022.
, the 787 had orders for 1,510 aircraft from 72 identified customers.
Due to ballooning production costs, Boeing has spent $32 billion on the program; estimates for the number of aircraft sales needed to break even vary between 1,300 and 2,000.
Development
Background
During the late 1990s, Boeing considered replacement aircraft programs as sales of the 767 and 747-400 slowed. Two new aircraft were proposed. The 747X would have lengthened the 747-400 and improved efficiency, and the Sonic Cruiser would have achieved 15% higher speeds (approximately Mach 0.98) while burning fuel at the same rate as the 767. Market interest for the 747X was tepid; however, several major American airlines, including Continental Airlines, showed initial enthusiasm for the Sonic Cruiser, although concerns about the operating cost were also expressed. The global airline market was disrupted by the September 11, 2001, attacks and increased petroleum prices, making airlines more interested in efficiency than speed. The worst-affected airlines, those in the United States, had been considered the most likely customers of the Sonic Cruiser; thus the Sonic Cruiser was officially cancelled on December 20, 2002. On January 29, 2003, Boeing announced an alternative product, the 7E7, using Sonic Cruiser technology in a more conventional configuration. The emphasis on a smaller midsize twinjet rather than a large 747-size aircraft represented a shift from hub-and-spoke theory toward the point-to-point theory, in response to analysis of focus groups.
Randy Baseler, Boeing Commercial Airplanes VP Marketing stated that airport congestion comes from large numbers of regional jets and small single-aisles, flying to destinations where a 550-seat Airbus A380 would be too large; to reduce the number of departures, smaller airplanes can increase 20% in size and airline hubs can be avoided with point-to-point transit.
In 2003, a recent addition to the Boeing board of directors, James McNerney (who would become Boeing's Chairman and CEO in 2005), supported the need for a new aircraft to regain market share from Airbus. The directors on Boeing's board, Harry Stonecipher (Boeing's President and CEO) and John McDonnell, issued an ultimatum to "develop the plane for less than 40 percent of what the 777 had cost to develop 13 years earlier, and build each plane out of the gate for less than 60 percent of the 777's unit costs in 2003", and approved a development budget estimated at US$7 billion as Boeing management claimed that they would "require subcontractors to foot the majority of costs". Boeing Commercial Airplanes president Alan Mulally, who had previously served as general manager of the 777 program, contrasted the difference in the approval process by the board between the 777 and 787 saying "In the old days, you would go to the board and ask for X amount of money, and they'd counter with Y amount of money, and then you'd settle on a number, and that's what you'd use to develop the plane. These days, you go to the board, and they say, 'Here's the budget for this airplane, and we'll be taking this piece of it off the top, and you get what's left; don't fuck up.'"
The replacement for the Sonic Cruiser project was named "7E7" (with a development code name of "Y2"). Technology from the Sonic Cruiser and 7E7 was to be used as part of Boeing's project to replace its entire airliner product line, an endeavor called the Yellowstone Project (of which the 7E7 became the first stage). Early concept images of the 7E7 included rakish cockpit windows, a dropped nose and a distinctive "shark-fin" tail. The "E" was said to stand for various things, such as "efficiency" or "environmentally friendly"; however, in the end, Boeing said that it merely stood for "Eight". In July 2003, a public naming competition was held for the 7E7, for which out of 500,000 votes cast online the winning title was Dreamliner. Other names included eLiner, Global Cruiser, and Stratoclimber.
On April 26, 2004, Japanese airline All Nippon Airways (ANA) became the launch customer for the 787, announcing a firm order for 50 aircraft with deliveries to begin in late 2008. The ANA order was initially specified as 30 787-3, 290–330 seat, one-class domestic aircraft, and 20 787-8, long-haul, 210–250 seat, two-class aircraft for regional international routes such as Tokyo Narita–Beijing, and could perform routes to cities not previously served, such as Denver, Moscow, and New Delhi. The 787-3 and 787-8 were to be the initial variants, with the 787-9 entering service in 2010.
On October 5, 2012, Indian state carrier Air India, became the first carrier to take possession of a Dreamliner that was manufactured out of the Charleston, South Carolina Boeing plant. This was the first Boeing Dreamliner that was manufactured outside of Washington state. Boeing would go on to use both the Everett and South Carolina plants to deliver the Dreamliner.
The 787 was designed to be the first production airliner with the fuselage comprising one-piece composite barrel sections instead of the multiple aluminum sheets and some 50,000 fasteners used on existing aircraft. Boeing selected two new engines to power the 787, the Rolls-Royce Trent 1000 and General Electric GEnx. Boeing stated the 787 would be approximately 20 percent more fuel-efficient than the 767, with approximately 40 percent of the efficiency gain from the engines, plus gains from aerodynamic improvements, increased use of lighter-weight composite materials, and advanced systems. The airframe underwent extensive structural testing during its design. The 787-8 and −9 were intended to have a certified 330 minute ETOPS capability.
During the design phase, the 787 underwent extensive wind tunnel testing at Boeing's Transonic Wind Tunnel, QinetiQ's five-meter wind tunnel at Farnborough, United Kingdom, and NASA Ames Research Center's wind tunnel, as well as at the French aerodynamics research agency, ONERA. The final styling was more conservative than earlier proposals, with the fin, nose, and cockpit windows changed to a more conventional form. By 2005, customer-announced orders and commitments for the 787 reached 237 aircraft. Boeing initially priced the 787-8 variant at US$120 million, a low figure that surprised the industry. In 2007, the list price was US$146–151.5 million for the 787-3, US$157–167 million for the 787-8 and US$189–200 million for the 787-9.
Manufacturing and suppliers
On December 16, 2003, Boeing announced that the 787 would be assembled in its factory in Everett, Washington. Instead of conventionally building the aircraft from the ground up, final assembly employed 800 to 1,200 people to join completed subassemblies and to integrate systems. Boeing assigned global subcontractors to do more assembly work, delivering completed subassemblies to Boeing for final assembly. This approach was intended to result in a leaner, simpler assembly line and lower inventory, with pre-installed systems reducing final assembly time by three-quarters to three days. Subcontractors had early difficulties procuring needed parts and finishing subassemblies on schedule, leaving remaining assembly work for Boeing to complete as "traveled work." In 2010, Boeing considered in-house construction of the 787-9 tail; the tail of the 787-8 is made by Alenia. The 787 was unprofitable for some subcontractors; Alenia's parent company, Finmeccanica, had a total loss of €750 million on the project by 2013.
Subcontracted assemblies included wing and center wing box (Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Japan; Subaru Corporation, Japan); horizontal stabilizers (Alenia Aeronautica, Italy; Korea Aerospace Industries, South Korea); fuselage sections (Global Aeronautica, Italy; Boeing, North Charleston, US; Kawasaki Heavy Industries, Japan; Spirit AeroSystems, Wichita, US; Korean Air, South Korea); passenger doors (Latécoère, France); cargo doors, access doors, and crew escape door (Saab AB, Sweden); software development (HCL Enterprise India); floor beams (TAL Manufacturing Solutions Limited, India); wiring (Labinal, France); wing-tips, flap support fairings, wheel well bulkhead, and longerons (Korean Air, South Korea); landing gear (Messier-Bugatti-Dowty, UK/France); and power distribution and management systems, air conditioning packs (Hamilton Sundstrand, Connecticut, US).
To speed up deliveries, Boeing modified four used 747-400s into 747 Dreamlifters to transport 787 wings, fuselage sections, and other smaller parts. Japanese industrial participation was key on the project. Japanese companies co-designed and built 35% of the aircraft; the first time that outside firms played a key design role on Boeing airliner wings. The Japanese government supported development with an estimated US$2 billion in loans. On April 26, 2006, Japanese manufacturer Toray Industries and Boeing signed a production agreement involving US$6 billion worth of carbon fiber, extending a 2004 contract. In May 2007, final assembly on the first 787 began at Everett.
Boeing worked to trim excess weight since assembly of the first airframe began; in late 2006, the first six 787s were stated to be overweight, with the first aircraft being heavier than specified. The seventh and subsequent aircraft would be the first optimized 787-8s expected to meet all goals. Accordingly, some parts were redesigned to include more use of titanium. Early built 787s were overweight and some carriers decided to take later aircraft; in early 2015, Boeing was trying to sell 10 such aircraft. In July 2015, Reuters reported that Boeing was considering reducing the use of titanium to reduce construction costs.
Boeing planned a first flight by the end of August 2007 and premiered the first 787 (registered N787BA) at a rollout ceremony on July 8, 2007. The 787 had 677 orders at this time, which is more orders from launch to roll-out than any previous wide-body airliner. The major systems were not installed at the time; many parts were attached with temporary non-aerospace fasteners requiring replacement with flight fasteners later.
In September 2007, Boeing announced a three-month delay, blaming a shortage of fasteners as well as incomplete software. On October 10, 2007, a second three-month delay to the first flight and a six-month delay to first deliveries was announced due to supply chain problems, a lack of documentation from overseas suppliers, and flight guidance software delays. Less than a week later, Mike Bair, the 787 program manager was replaced. On January 16, 2008, Boeing announced a third three-month delay to the first flight of the 787, citing insufficient progress on "traveled work." On March 28, 2008, in an effort to gain more control over the supply chain, Boeing announced plans to buy Vought Aircraft Industries' interest in Global Aeronautica; a later agreement was also made to buy Vought's factory in North Charleston.
On April 9, 2008, a fourth delay was announced, shifting the maiden flight to the fourth quarter of 2008, and delaying initial deliveries by around 15 months to the third quarter of 2009. The 787-9 variant was postponed to 2012 and the 787-3 variant was to follow at a later date. On November 4, 2008, a fifth delay was announced due to incorrect fastener installation and the Boeing machinists strike, stating that the first test flight would not occur in the fourth quarter of 2008. After assessing the program schedule with suppliers, in December 2008, Boeing stated that the first flight was delayed until the second quarter of 2009. Airlines, such as United Airlines and Air India, stated their intentions to seek compensation from Boeing for the delays.
Pre-flight ground testing
As Boeing worked with its suppliers towards production, the design proceeded through a series of test goals. On August 23, 2007, a crash test involving a vertical drop of a partial composite fuselage section from about onto a -thick steel plate occurred in Mesa, Arizona; the results matched predictions, allowing modeling of various crash scenarios using computational analysis instead of further physical tests. While critics had expressed concerns that a composite fuselage could shatter and burn with toxic fumes during crash landings, test data indicated no greater toxicity than conventional metal airframes. The crash test was the third in a series of demonstrations conducted to match FAA requirements, including additional certification criteria due to the wide-scale use of composite materials. The 787 meets the FAA's requirement that passengers have at least as good a chance of surviving a crash landing as they would with current metal airliners.
On August 7, 2007, on-time certification of the Rolls-Royce Trent 1000 engine by European and US regulators was received. The alternative GE GEnx-1B engine achieved certification on March 31, 2008. On June 20, 2008, the first aircraft was powered up, for testing the electrical supply and distribution systems. A non-flightworthy static test airframe was built; on September 27, 2008, the fuselage was successfully tested at 14.9 psi (102.7 kPa) differential, which is 150 percent of the maximum pressure expected in commercial service. In December 2008, the 787's maintenance program was passed by the FAA.
On May 3, 2009, the first test 787 was moved to the flight line following extensive factory-testing, including landing gear swings, systems integration verification, and a total run-through of the first flight. On May 4, 2009, a press report indicated a 10–15% range reduction, about instead of the originally promised 7,700 to 8,200 nmi (14,800–15,700 km), for early aircraft that were about 8% overweight. Substantial redesign work was expected to correct this, which would complicate increases in production rates; Boeing stated the early 787-8s would have a range of almost . As a result, some airlines reportedly delayed deliveries of 787s in order to take later planes that may be closer to the original estimates. Boeing expected to have the weight issues addressed by the 21st production model.
On June 15, 2009, during the Paris Air Show, Boeing said that the 787 would make its first flight within two weeks. However, on June 23, 2009, the first flight was postponed due to structural reasons. Boeing provided an updated 787 schedule on August 27, 2009, with the first flight planned to occur by the end of 2009 and deliveries to begin at the end of 2010. The company expected to write off US$2.5 billion because it considered the first three Dreamliners built unsellable and suitable only for flight tests. On October 28, 2009, Boeing selected Charleston, SC as the site for a second 787 production line, after soliciting bids from multiple states. On December 12, 2009, the first 787 completed high speed taxi tests, the last major step before flight.
Flight test program
On December 15, 2009, Boeing conducted the 787-8 maiden flight from Paine Field in Everett, Washington, at 10:27 am PST and landed three hours later at 1:33 p.m. at Seattle's Boeing Field, after reaching and . Originally scheduled for 5 hours, the test flight was shortened to three hours with the pilots wanting to complete the flight under visual meteorological conditions while visibility and cloud ceiling were low. The 6,800h, six-aircraft ground and flight test programme was scheduled in eight and a half months, the fastest certification campaign for a new Boeing commercial design.
The flight test program comprised six aircraft, ZA001 through ZA006, four with Rolls-Royce Trent 1000 engines and two with GE GEnx-1B64 engines. The second 787, ZA002 in All Nippon Airways livery, flew to Boeing Field on December 22, 2009, to join the flight test program; the third 787, ZA004 made its first flight on February 24, 2010, followed by ZA003 on March 14, 2010. On March 24, 2010, flutter and ground effects testing was completed, clearing the aircraft to fly its entire flight envelope. On March 28, 2010, the 787 completed the ultimate wing load test, which requires that the wings of a fully assembled aircraft be loaded to 150% of design limit load and held for 3 seconds. The wings were flexed approximately upward during the test. Unlike past aircraft, the wings were not tested to failure. On April 7, data showed the test had been a success.
On April 23, 2010, the newest 787, ZA003, arrived at the McKinley Climatic Laboratory hangar at Eglin Air Force Base, Florida, for extreme weather testing in temperatures ranging from , including takeoff preparations at both temperature extremes. ZA005, the fifth 787 and the first with GEnx engines, began ground engine tests in May 2010, and made its first flight on June 16, 2010. In June 2010, gaps were discovered in the horizontal stabilizers of test aircraft due to improperly installed shims; all aircraft were inspected and repaired. That same month, a 787 experienced its first in-flight lightning strike; inspections found no damage. As composites can have as little as 1/1,000th the electrical conductivity of aluminum, conductive material is added to alleviate potential risks and to meet FAA requirements. The FAA also planned requirement changes to help the 787 show compliance. In December 2019, it was reported that Boeing had removed the copper foil that formed part of the protection against lightning strikes to the wings of the aircraft; it then worked with the FAA to override concerns raised.
The 787 made its first appearance at an international air show at the Farnborough Airshow, United Kingdom, on July 18, 2010.
On August 2, 2010, a Trent 1000 engine suffered a blowout at Rolls-Royce's test facility during ground testing. This engine failure caused a reevaluation of the timeline for installing Trent 1000 engines; on August 27, 2010, Boeing stated that the first delivery to launch customer ANA would be delayed until early 2011. That same month, Boeing faced compensation claims from airlines owing to ongoing delivery delays. In September 2010, it was reported that a further two 787s might join the test fleet for a total of eight flight test aircraft. On September 10, 2010, a partial engine surge occurred in a Trent engine on ZA001 at Roswell. On October 4, 2010, the sixth 787, ZA006 joined the test program with its first flight.
On November 9, 2010, the second 787, ZA002 made an emergency landing at Laredo International Airport, Texas, after smoke and flames were detected in the main cabin during a test flight. The electrical fire caused some systems to fail before landing. Following this incident, Boeing suspended flight testing on November 10, 2010; ground testing continued. After investigation, the in-flight fire was primarily attributed to foreign object debris (FOD) that was present in the electrical bay. After electrical system and software changes, the 787 resumed flight testing on December 23, 2010.
On November 5, 2010, it was reported that some 787 deliveries would be delayed to address problems found during flight testing. In January 2011, the first 787 delivery was rescheduled to the third quarter of 2011 due to software and electrical updates following the in-flight fire. By February 24, 2011, the 787 had completed 80% of the test conditions for Rolls-Royce Trent 1000 engine and 60% of the conditions for the General Electric GEnx-1B engine. In July 2011, ANA performed a week of operations testing using a 787 in Japan. The test aircraft had flown 4,828 hours in 1,707 flights combined by August 15, 2011. During testing, the 787 visited 14 countries in Asia, Europe, North America, and South America to test in extreme climates and conditions and for route testing.
On August 13, 2011, certification testing of the Rolls-Royce powered 787-8 finished. The FAA and European Aviation Safety Agency certified the 787 on August 26, 2011, at a ceremony in Everett, Washington.
Entry into service
Certification cleared the way for deliveries and in 2011, Boeing prepared to increase 787 production rates from two to ten aircraft per month at assembly lines in Everett and Charleston over two years. Legal difficulties clouded production at Charleston; on April 20, 2011, the National Labor Relations Board alleged that a second production line in South Carolina violated two sections of the National Labor Relations Act. In December 2011, the National Labor Relations Board dropped its lawsuit after the Machinists' union withdrew its complaint as part of a new contract with Boeing. The first 787 assembled at South Carolina was rolled out on April 27, 2012.
The first 787 was officially delivered to All Nippon Airways (ANA) on September 25, 2011, at the Boeing Everett factory. A ceremony to mark the occasion was also held the next day. On September 27, it flew to Tokyo Haneda Airport. The airline took delivery of the second 787 on October 13, 2011.
On October 26, 2011, an ANA 787 flew the first commercial flight from Tokyo's Narita International Airport to Hong Kong International Airport. The Dreamliner entered service some three years later than originally planned. Tickets for the flight were sold in an online auction; the highest bidder had paid $34,000 for a seat. An ANA 787 flew its first long-haul flight to Europe on January 21, 2012, from Haneda to Frankfurt Airport.
Market and costs
The 787 Dreamliner program has reportedly cost Boeing $32 billion. In 2013, the 787 program was expected to be profitable after 1,100 aircraft have been sold.
At the end of 2013, the cost of producing a 787 exceeded the purchase price. Boeing's accounting method books sales immediately and distributes estimated production costs over ten years for the 1,300 aircraft it expects to deliver during that time. JPMorgan Chase analyst Joseph Nadol estimated the program's cash loss to be $45 million per airplane, decreasing as the program moves forward. The actual cash flow reflects Boeing collecting most of the purchase price upon delivery; Boeing expects deferred costs to total $25 billion before the company begins to break even on production; the comparable number for the Boeing 777, adjusted for inflation, is $3.7 billion.
Boeing lost $30 million per 787 delivered in the first quarter of 2015, although Boeing planned to break even by the end of the year.
The accumulated losses for the 787 totalled almost $27 billion by May 2015. The cost of producing the fuselage may increase because of a tentative deal reached with Spirit Aerosystems of Wichita, Kansas, wherein severe price cuts demanded by Boeing would be eased, in return for a comprehensive agreement that lowers the cost of fuselages for other jetliners that Spirit helps Boeing manufacture.
In the second quarter of 2015, Boeing lost $25 million on each 787 delivered but was planning to break even per plane before the year end. After that Boeing hopes to build 900 Dreamliners over six years at an average profit of more than $35 million each. But with deferred costs peaking in 2016 at $33 billion, Leeham analyst Bjorn Fehrm believes Boeing can't make an overall profit on the program. Ted Piepenbrock, an academic affiliated with the MIT and the University of Oxford, projects losses decreasing through the first 700 airliners, forecast the cumulative deferred costs to peak beyond $34 billion and its model most favorable to Boeing projects a program loss of $5 billion after delivering 2,000 Dreamliners. Boeing's original development investment, estimated at least at a further $20 billion, isn't included in these costs.
To recoup the deferred costs and earn its goal of "low single digit" overall profit margin, Boeing has to make an average profit of more than $50 million on the final 205 airplanes of the accounting block to be delivered from 2020: a profit margin of more than 30% while the mature Boeing 737 and 777 programs have 20% to 25% margins. Boeing is reaching it through a larger proportion of the 20% to 40% higher price −9/10s, costing only 5% to 10% more than the −8 with lower production costs from reliability and producibility investments and the expected experience curve. Former Douglas Aircraft chief economist Adam Pilarski notes that two assembly sites slows the experience curve. Boeing assumed a faster improvement than on previous programs which has not happened. Airbus competition with the A350 and the launch of the A330neo put strong pressure on the 787 pricing.
On July 21, 2016, Boeing reported charges of $847 million against two flight-test 787s built in 2009. Boeing had planned to refurbish and sell them, but instead wrote them off as research and development expense.
In 2017, Boeing's Jim Albaugh said that the requested return on net assets (RONA) led to outsourcing systems reducing investment, but improving RONA had to be balanced against the risk of loss of control.
From 2019, Boeing was to build 14 787s per month (168 per year), helping to offset the $28 billion in deferred production costs accumulated through 2015, and will add 100 aircraft to the current accounting block of 1,300 at the end of the 2017 third quarter.
In 2019, list price for a 787-8 was US$248.3M, $292.5M for a 787-9 and $338.4M for a 787-10.
The valuation for a new 787-9 is $145 million in 2018, up from $135 million in 2014, but it may have been sold for $110–15 million to prevent A330neo sales while an A330-900 is worth $115 million. In February 2018, Boeing priced six 787-9s for less than $100–115m each to Hawaiian Airlines, close to their production cost of $80–90m, to overcome its A330-800 order.
By late 2018, deferred production costs were reduced from a peak of $27.6 billion in early 2016 to $23.5 billion as assembly efficiency improved and the 800th production started.
Production rate
By 2014, Boeing planned to improve financial return by reorganizing the production line, renegotiating contracts with suppliers and labor unions, and increasing the 787 production rate, stepwise, to 12 airplanes per month by the end of 2016 and 14 airplanes per month by the end of the decade.
By April 2015, the production rate was 10 per month;
From late 2020, production rate is to be reduced from 14 to 12 airplanes per month due to the China–United States trade war.
Production could be trimmed to 10 monthly as demand for wide-body aircraft falters.
On October 1, 2020, Boeing announced the 787 would be produced only in North Charleston from mid-2021 due to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on aviation, as the production rate fell to six per month.
In December, the monthly rate was further reduced to five.
Quality-control issues (2019–2022)
2019
In 2019, it was reported that KLM complained about the quality control of the North Charleston factory that made its 787-10, categorizing it as "way below acceptable standards." KLM discovered loose seats, missing and incorrectly installed pins, nuts and bolts not fully tightened, and a fuel-line clamp left unsecured following the delivery of its jet. Previously, it was reported poor practices at the factory led to questions about the safety of the 787.
2020
In late August 2020, Boeing grounded eight 787s operated by United Airlines, Air Canada, All Nippon Airways, Singapore Airlines, Air Europa, Norwegian Air Shuttle and Etihad Airways due to improper fuselage shimming and inner skin surfacing at Boeing South Carolina. In typical service, these defects could result in premature material fatigue and structural failure under limit loads. Boeing identified the defective shims in August 2019. The groundings came a year after The New York Times reported on quality-control issues for the 787 at the North Charleston plant.
On September 7, The Wall Street Journal reported the FAA was investigating quality-control lapses at Boeing dating back to the introduction of the 787 in 2011. Boeing informed the FAA that "nonconforming" sections of the rear fuselage did not meet engineering standards, and the high-level FAA review is considering requiring additional inspections for as many as about 900 of the roughly 1,000 Dreamliners delivered since 2011. Boeing's Quality Management System (QMS) failed to detect either the shim or skin surface issue, adding to the FAA inquiry. Boeing previously argued QMS justified a reduction of 900 quality inspectors.
On the following day Boeing said it had identified a third quality-control issue with the 787's horizontal stabilizers, affecting as many as 893 Dreamliners. Workers in Salt Lake City had clamped portions of the tail section too tightly, which could lead to premature material fatigue. Boeing expected the recent quality issues to slow 787 deliveries, "in the near term" and was considering repairs for in-service 787s.
On September 10, Reuters cited KOMO News Radio reporting that Boeing engineers had complained six months prior about depressions in the 787's vertical tail fin, affecting hundreds of planes or the vast majority of the fleet. Workers in Charleston and Everett improperly discarded shims before the final installation of fasteners, which could lead to structural failure under limit loads. Pending discussions with the FAA, Boeing expected a one-time inspection during regularly scheduled maintenance to address the issue.
2021
By January 2021, Boeing had halted 787 deliveries to complete the inspection relating to the ongoing quality control issues. In March 2021, the FAA withdrew Boeing's delegated authority to inspect and sign off on four newly produced 787s, and said that it may extend this withdrawal to further aircraft if needed. Boeing resumed deliveries on March 26, 2021, handing over one 787-9 to United Airlines. Deliveries ceased again in May 2021, and remained blocked at the end of October 2021; meaning that almost all deliveries had been paused for nearly a year: a delay which had generated $1 billion in abnormal costs caused the company to cut production to around two planes a month.
On July 13, Boeing reduced production after the discovery of gaps at joints in the forward pressure bulkhead. The company was investigating whether the issue might affect 787s already in service. There are also questions about the inspection process that is used to check that work. The FAA said that this new problem "poses no immediate threat to flight safety." Boeing is working with the FAA to fix the problem and says that 787s already in service do not need to be grounded.
On September 4, the Wall Street Journal reported that the FAA had rejected Boeing's proposed new inspection method "that would speed deliveries with targeted checks rather than nose-to-tail teardowns" until at least late October; and in late November it was reported that the FAA had discovered further problems, including additional out of tolerance gaps and contamination and associated weakening of fuselage composites. The rectification process for existing aircraft was being made more complex by a lack of detailed configuration data on each individual aircraft. The new problems, and the extension of the (now 13 month long) disruption to 787 deliveries led to anger from buyers; a slide in the company's stock price; and demands by a subcommittee of the U.S. House of Representatives for a review of the FAA's oversight of the plane.
2022
In January 2022 it was reported that deliveries were not anticipated to restart until April 2022. In February, the FAA announced that it would withdraw Boeing's delegated authority to issue airworthiness certificates for individual 787 aircraft until Boeing can demonstrate consistent quality, stable delivery processes, and a robust plan for the rework needed on the undelivered aircraft in storage.
Design
The Boeing 787 Dreamliner is a long-haul, widebody, twin-engine jetliner, designed with lightweight structures that are 80% composite by volume; Boeing lists its materials by weight as 50% composite, 20% aluminum, 15% titanium, 10% steel, and 5% other. Aluminum has been used throughout the leading edges of wings and tailplanes, titanium is predominantly present within the elements of the engines and fasteners, while various individual components are composed of steel.
External features include a smooth nose contour, raked wingtips and engine nacelles with noise-reducing serrated edges (chevrons). The longest-range 787 variant can fly up to , or the even longer Qantas QF 9 flight between Perth Airport and London–Heathrow, over . Its cruising airspeed is . The aircraft has a design life of 44,000 flight cycles.
Flight systems
Among 787 flight systems, a key change from traditional airliners is the electrical architecture. The architecture is bleedless and replaces bleed air with electrically powered compressors and four of six hydraulic power sources with electrically driven pumps, while completely eliminating pneumatics and hydraulics from some subsystems, e.g. engine starters and brakes. Boeing says that this system extracts 35% less power from the engines, allowing increased thrust and improved fuel efficiency. Spoiler electromechanical actuators (SEMAs) control two of the seven spoiler pairs on each wing surface, providing roll control, air and ground speedbrake, and droop capabilities similar to those provided by the hydraulic actuators used on the remaining spoiler surfaces. The SEMAs are controlled by electronic motor control units (EMCUs).
The total available on-board electrical power is 1.45 megawatts, which is five times the power available on conventional pneumatic airliners; the most notable electrically powered systems include engine start, cabin pressurization, horizontal-stabilizer trim, and wheel brakes. Wing ice protection is another new system; it uses electro-thermal heater mats on the wing slats instead of traditional hot bleed air. An active gust alleviation system, similar to the system used on the B-2 bomber, improves ride quality during turbulence.
The 787 has a "fly-by-wire" control system similar in architecture to that of the Boeing 777. The flight deck features multi-function LCDs, which use an industry-standard graphical user interface widget toolkit (Cockpit Display System Interfaces to User Systems / ARINC 661). The 787 flight deck includes two head-up displays (HUDs) as a standard feature. Like other Boeing airliners, the 787 uses a yoke (as opposed to a side-stick). Under consideration is future integration of forward-looking infrared into the HUD for thermal sensing, allowing pilots to "see" through clouds. Lockheed Martin's Orion spacecraft will use a glass cockpit derived from Honeywell International's 787 flight deck systems.
Honeywell and Rockwell Collins provide flight control, guidance, and other avionics systems, including standard dual head-up guidance systems, Thales supplies the integrated standby flight display and power management, while Meggitt/Securaplane provides the auxiliary power unit (APU) starting system, electrical power-conversion system, and battery-control system with lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO2) batteries by GS Yuasa. One of the two batteries weighs 28.5 kg and is rated 29.6 V, 76 Ah, giving 2.2 kWh. Battery charging is controlled by four independent systems to prevent overcharging, following early lab testing. The battery systems were the focus of a regulatory investigation due to multiple lithium battery fires, which led to grounding of the 787 fleet starting in January 2013.
A version of Ethernet (Avionics Full-Duplex Switched Ethernet (AFDX) / ARINC 664) transmits data between the flight deck and aircraft systems. The control, navigation, and communication systems are networked with the passenger cabin's in-flight internet systems. In January 2008, FAA concerns were reported regarding possible passenger access to the 787's computer networks; Boeing has stated that various protective hardware and software solutions are employed, including air gaps to physically separate the networks, and firewalls for software separation. These measures prevent data transfer from the passenger internet system to the maintenance or navigation systems.
The −9/10 hybrid laminar flow control (HLFC) system delays the critical transition from laminar to turbulent flow as far back as possible on the vertical tail by passive suction from leading-edge holes to mid-fin low-pressure doors, but was dropped from the tailplane due to lower benefits than the extra complexity and cost.
Airframe
The 787 is the first commercial aircraft to have an airframe majority made of carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP), applied in: the empennage, fuselage, wings, doors, and in most other main components. Each 787 contains approximately of CFRP, made with of pure carbon fiber. CFRP materials have a higher strength-to-weight ratio than conventional aluminum structural materials, which contributes significantly to the 787's weight savings, as well as superior fatigue behavior. Historically, the first CFRP primary structure in Boeing commercial aircraft was put into service in 1984 on the horizontal tail of the Boeing 737 Classic, and in the mid 1990s on both vertical and horizontal tail (empennage) of the Boeing 777. In the early 2000s, while studying the proposed Sonic Cruiser, Boeing built and tested the first CFRP fuselage section for commercial aircraft, a 20 foot (6 meters) long anechoic chamber, which later applied to the Dreamliner. Instead of designing one-piece composite fuselage barrels like the 787, the competing Airbus A350 uses a slightly more conventional approach with CFRP panels on CFRP frames, which is considered less risky in terms of assembly tolerance between fuselage sections.
Safety can be a concern due to lower impact energy absorption and poorer fire, smoke and toxicity capability of CFRP fuselages in the event of a crash landing, leading to whistleblower complaints at Boeing by Vince Weldon, who was fired in 2006. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) later denied Weldon whistleblower status "largely on the grounds that Boeing's 787 design does not violate any FAA regulations or standards". Boeing further argued that CFRP structures have been used on empennages and other parts of airliners for many years without incident, and special damage detection procedures will be instituted for the 787 to detect any potential hidden damage.
In 2006, Boeing launched the 787 GoldCare program. This is an optional, comprehensive life-cycle management service, whereby aircraft in the program are routinely monitored and repaired, as needed. Although the first program of its kind from Boeing, post-sale protection programs are not new; such programs are usually offered by third party service centers. Boeing is also designing and testing composite hardware so inspections are mainly visual. This reduces the need for ultrasonic and other non-visual inspection methods, saving time and money.
Engines
The 787 is powered by two engines, which use all-electrical bleedless systems taken from the Sonic Cruiser, eliminating the superheated air conduits normally used for aircraft power, de-icing, and other functions. As part of its "Quiet Technology Demonstrator 2" project, Boeing adopted several engine noise-reducing technologies for the 787. These include an air inlet containing sound-absorbing materials and exhaust duct cover with a chevron-toothed pattern on the rim for a quieter mixing of exhaust and outside air. Boeing expects these developments to make the 787 significantly quieter both inside and out. The noise-reducing measures prevent sounds above 85 decibels from leaving airport boundaries.
The two different engine models compatible with the 787 use a standard electrical interface to allow an aircraft to be fitted with either Rolls-Royce Trent 1000 or General Electric GEnx-1B engines. This interchangeability aims to save time and cost when changing engine types; while previous aircraft could exchange engines for those of a different manufacturer, the high cost and time required made it rare. In 2006, Boeing addressed reports of an extended change period by stating that the 787 engine swap was intended to take 24 hours.
In 2016, Rolls-Royce began flight testing its new Trent 1000 TEN engine. It has a new compressor system based on the compressor in Rolls-Royce Trent XWB engine and a new turbine design for extra thrust, up to . Rolls-Royce plans to offer the TEN on the 787-8, −9 and −10.
In early 2020, of 1484 orders, 905 selected GE (61.0%), 476 selected RR (32.1%) and 103 were undecided (6.90%).
Interior
The 787-8 is designed to typically seat 234 passengers in a three-class setup, 240 in two-class domestic configuration, and 296 passengers in a high-density economy arrangement. Seat rows can be arranged in four to seven abreast in first or business, e.g. 1–2–1, 2–2–2, or 2–3–2. Eight or nine abreast are options in economy, e.g. 3–2–3, 2–4–2, or 3–3–3. Typical seat room ranges from pitch in first, in business, and in economy.
Cabin interior width is approximately at armrest level. The Dreamliner's cabin width is more than that of the Airbus A330 and A340, less than the A350, and less than the 777. The 787's economy seats can be up to wide for nine-abreast seating and up to wide for eight-abreast seating arrangements. Most airlines are selecting the nine-abreast (3–3–3) configuration. The 787's nine-abreast seating for economy provides passengers less space, particularly across the hips and shoulders, than any other jet airliner. Some observers recommended passengers avoid flying 787s with nine-abreast seating, although others suggested that the 787 is more comfortable than other airliners.
The 787's cabin windows are larger than any other civil air transport in-service or in development, with dimensions of , and a higher eye level so passengers can maintain a view of the horizon. The composite fuselage permits larger windows without the need for structural reinforcement. Instead of plastic window shades, the windows use electrochromism-based smart glass (supplied by PPG Industries) allowing flight attendants and passengers to adjust five levels of sunlight and visibility to their liking, reducing cabin glare while maintaining a view to the outside world, but the most opaque setting still has some transparency. The lavatory, however, has a traditional sunshade.
The 787's cabin features light-emitting diodes (LEDs) as standard equipment, allowing the aircraft to be entirely "bulbless". LED lights have previously been an option on the Boeing 777 and Airbus aircraft fitted with standard fluorescent lights. The system has three-color LEDs plus a white LED. The 787 interior was designed to better accommodate persons with mobility, sensory, and cognitive disabilities. For example, a convertible lavatory includes a movable center wall that allows two separate lavatories to become one large, wheelchair-accessible facility.
The 787's internal cabin pressure is the equivalent of altitude resulting in a higher pressure than for the altitude of older conventional aircraft. According to Boeing, in a joint study with Oklahoma State University, this will significantly improve passenger comfort. Cabin air pressurization is provided by electrically driven compressors, rather than traditional engine-bleed air, thereby eliminating the need to cool heated air before it enters the cabin. The cabin's humidity is programmable based on the number of passengers carried and allows 15% humidity settings instead of the 4% found in previous aircraft. The composite fuselage avoids metal fatigue issues associated with higher cabin pressure and eliminates the risk of corrosion from higher humidity levels. The cabin air-conditioning system improves air quality by removing ozone from outside air and, besides standard HEPA filters, which remove airborne particles, uses a gaseous filtration system to remove odors, irritants, and gaseous contaminants, as well as particulates like viruses, bacteria and allergens.
Operational history
On December 6, 2011, test aircraft ZA006 (sixth 787), powered by General Electric GEnx engines, flew non-stop from Boeing Field eastward to Shahjalal International Airport in Dhaka, Bangladesh, setting a new world distance record for aircraft in the 787's weight class, which is between . This flight surpassed the previous record of , set in 2002 by an Airbus A330. The Dreamliner then continued eastbound from Dhaka to return to Boeing Field, setting a world-circling speed record of 42 hours, 27 minutes. In December 2011, Boeing started a six-month promotion 787 world tour, visiting various cities in China, Africa, the Middle East, Europe, United States, and others. In April 2012, an ANA 787 made a delivery flight from Boeing Field to Haneda Airport partially using biofuel from cooking oil.
ANA surveyed 800 passengers who flew the 787 from Tokyo to Frankfurt: expectations were surpassed for 90% of passengers; features that met or exceeded expectations included air quality and cabin pressure (90% of passengers), cabin ambiance (92% of passengers), higher cabin humidity levels (80% of passengers), headroom (40% of passengers) and the larger windows (90% of passengers). 25% said they would go out of their way to again fly on the 787.
After its first six months of service, Rolls-Royce powered ANA aircraft were burning around 21% less fuel than the replaced 767-300ER on international flights, slightly better than the 20% originally expected, and 15–20% on domestic routes, while GE-powered Japan Airlines aircraft were potentially slightly better. Other 787 operators have reported similar fuel savings, ranging from 20 to 22% compared with the 767-300ER. An analysis by consultant AirInsight concluded that United Airlines' 787s achieved an operating cost per seat that was 6% lower than the Airbus A330. In November 2017, International Airlines Group chief Willie Walsh said that for its budget carrier Level the lower cost of ownership of its two A330-200 more than offsets the higher fuel burn ($3,500 on a Barcelona-Los Angeles flight). It would introduce three more A330s as there were not enough 787 pilots.
Early operators discovered that if the APS5000 Auxiliary power unit was shut down with the inlet door closed, heat continued to build up in the tail compartment and cause the rotor shaft to bow. It could take up to two hours for the shaft to straighten again. This was particularly acute on short haul flights as there was insufficient time to allow the unit to cool before a restart was needed. Procedures were modified and the APU was later redesigned to address the issue.
On September 15, 2012, the NTSB requested the grounding of certain 787s due to GE engine failures; GE believed the production problem had been fixed by that time. In December 2012, responding to unhappiness within the airline industry at the continuing issues affecting the aircraft, Boeing CEO James McNerney stated that he regretted the impact on passengers: he went on to say that the 787's issues had been no greater than those experienced with the introduction of other Boeing models such as the 777.
In March 2014, Mitsubishi Heavy Industries informed Boeing of a new problem that was caused by a change in manufacturing processes. Employees did not fill gaps with shims to connect wing rib aluminum shear ties to the carbon composite wing panels; the tightened fasteners, without shims, cause excessive stress that creates hairline cracks in the wings, which could enlarge and cause further damage. Forty-two aircraft awaiting delivery were affected, and each one required 1–2 weeks to inspect and repair. However, Boeing did not expect this problem to affect the overall delivery schedule, even if some airplanes were delivered late.
Dispatch reliability is an industry standard measure of the rate of departure from the gate with no more than 15 minutes delay due to technical issues. The 787-8 started out with a ~96% operational reliability, increasing to ~98.5% in April 2015. Daily utilization increased from five hours in 2013 to twelve hours in 2014. Dispatch reliability grew to 99.3% in 2017.
Airlines have often assigned the 787 to routes previously flown by larger aircraft that could not return a profit. For example, Air Canada offered a Toronto to New Delhi route, first utilizing a Lockheed L1011, then a Boeing 747, then an Airbus A340, but none of these types were efficient enough to generate profit. The airline operated the route profitably with a 787-9, and credits the right number of seats and greater fuel efficiency for this success.
Up to June 30, 2017, after 565 units were delivered since 2011: 60% -8 (340) and 40% -9 (225), the airports with most 787 departures are Haneda airport with 304 weekly, Narita with 276 and Doha Airport with 265. By the end of 2017, there were 39 airlines operating the 787 on 983 routes with an average length of , including 163 new routes (17%). , the 787's longest route is Qantas' Perth-London Heathrow, a distance of and the second-longest regular scheduled flight behind Qatar Airways' route from Doha to Auckland, flown with a Boeing 777-200LR. In March 2020, Air Tahiti Nui executed a record commercial flight of , from Papeete, Tahiti to Paris, on a route that would typically refuel at Los Angeles but was able to fly the Boeing 787-9 non-stop because it was "nowhere near full" due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
Variants
The shortest Dreamliner variant, the 787-8 was the first variant to fly in December 2009, then the longer 787-9 in September 2013, followed by the longest variant, the 787-10, in March 2017. These variants are called B788, B789, and B78X, respectively in the List of ICAO aircraft type designators. The short-range 787-3 was cancelled in 2010.
787-8
With a typical capacity of 242 passengers and a range of , the −8 is the base model of the 787 family and was the first to enter service in 2011. The 787-8 is targeted to replace the Boeing 767-200ER, as well as expand into new non-stop markets where larger planes would not be economically viable. , approximately 29% of 787 orders are for the 787-8 with 366 delivered. In 2018, Boeing said it would change the −8 manufacturing to raise its commonality with the −9 above the current 30% to be more like the 95% commonality between the −9 and −10, as it will benefit from learning from those.
When it was launched, a new 787-8 was to cost only slightly more than the 767-300ER, valued new for $85 million at its 1990s peak, but it ended being 20% more costly.
787-9
Keeping the same wingspan as the 787-8, the 787-9 is a lengthened and strengthened variant with a longer fuselage and a higher maximum take-off weight (MTOW), seating 280 passengers in a typical three-class arrangement over a range. It features active boundary-layer control on the tail surfaces, reducing drag.
It is targeted to replace the Boeing 767-300ER.
In 2005, the entry into service (EIS) was planned for 2010. The firm configuration was finalized on July 1, 2010. By October 2011, deliveries were scheduled to begin in 2014.
The prototype 787-9 made its maiden flight from Paine Field on September 17, 2013. By November 8, 2013, it had flown 141 hours. A 787-9 was on static display at the 2014 Farnborough Air Show prior to first delivery. On July 8, 2014, Launch customer Air New Zealand took its first 787-9, in a distinctive black livery in a ceremony at Paine Field. Its first commercial flight was from Auckland to Sydney on August 9, 2014.
The 787-9 was to begin commercial service with All Nippon Airways on August 7, 2014. United Airlines was to start the longest nonstop scheduled 787 service between Los Angeles and Melbourne in October 2014. Air China started a 787-9 route between Beijing and Chengdu in May 2016. , 57% of all 787 orders are for the 787-9, with 498 deliveries. A 2014 787-9 leased for $1.05 million per month, and fell to $925,000 per month in 2018.
The 20-ft stretch was achieved by adding a 10-ft (five-frame) extension forward and aft. The 787-8 and 787-9 have 50% commonality: the wing, fuselage and systems of the 787-8 had required radical revision to achieve the payload-range goals of the 787-9. Following a major revamp of the original 787-8 wing, the latest configuration for the 787-9 and −10 is the fourth design evolution.
On March 25, 2018, a Qantas 787-9 completed the first scheduled non-stop flight between Australia and the UK flying seventeen hours from Perth to London Heathrow. On October 20, 2019, a Qantas 787-9 was flight tested from New York to Sydney with a restricted payload. A team of researchers monitored passengers and crew to investigate wellness and performance on long flights. On March 16, 2020, an Air Tahiti Nui 787-9 achieved the longest commercial flight of 8,485 nmi (15,715 km).
787-10
In December 2005, pushed by the interest of Emirates and Qantas, Boeing was studying the possibility of stretching the 787-9 further to seat 290 to 310 passengers. This variant would be similar to the capacity of the Airbus A350-900 and Boeing 777-200ER. Customer discussions were continuing in early 2006. Mike Bair, Boeing's vice president and general manager for the 787 development program at the time, said it was easier to proceed with the 787-10 development after other customers followed Emirates' request.
It is targeted to replace the Boeing 767-400ER.
On May 30, 2013, Singapore Airlines became the launch customer by stating it would order 30 787-10s (provided Boeing launched the program), to be delivered in 2018–2019. On June 18, 2013, Boeing officially launched the 787-10 at the Paris Air Show, with orders or commitments for 102 aircraft from Air Lease Corporation (30), Singapore Airlines (30), United Airlines (20), British Airways (12), and GE Capital Aviation Services (10). As of August 2020 the aircraft has 211 orders out of which 58 have been delivered, 7 of which are stored.
The variant was envisioned as replacing Boeing 777-200, Airbus A330 and Airbus A340 aircraft. The −10 is to compete against the Airbus A350-900. According to Boeing, it offers better economics than the A350 on shorter routes. Steven Udvar-Hazy said, "If it's identically configured, the −10 has a little bit of an edge on the −900", but smaller than Boeing's estimate of 10 percent. The 787-10 is long, seats 336 passengers in a two-class cabin configuration, and has a range of .
Boeing completed detailed design for the −10 on December 2, 2015. Major assembly began in March 2016. Designers targeted 90% commonality between the 787-9 and −10 and achieved 95%; the 18-ft stretch was reached by adding 10 ft forward of the wing and 8 ft aft, and by strengthening the fuselage for bending loads in the center wingbox. Because of the length and additional tail strike protection needed, a semilevered landing gear enables rotation over the aft wheels rather than at the bogie center, like the 777-300ER, and the cabin air conditioning system has 15% more capacity. The first and third −10 test-platforms incorporate Rolls-Royce's new Trent 1000 TEN engines, while the second is powered by the competing General Electric GEnx-1B engine.
Major fuselage parts were received for final assembly on November 30, 2016. The 787-10's mid-fuselage sections are too large for transport to Everett, Washington and it is built only in Charleston, South Carolina; it is the first Boeing airliner assembled exclusively there. The first −10 was rolled out on February 17, 2017. The variant's first flight took place on March 31, 2017, and lasted 4 hours and 48 minutes.
The first test 787-10 aircraft is engaged in flight envelope expansion work and the second joined the program in early May 2017, while the third with a passenger cabin interior to test the uprated environmental control system and Trent fuel-burn performance was scheduled to join in June. The −10 was scheduled to appear at the 2017 Paris Air Show. The second −10 is being used to prove the GE Aviation engines and the third made its first flight on June 8, 2017, when the flight-test programme was 30% complete. Boeing finished final assembly and painting of the first production 787-10 in October 2017, before its certification. The flight tests are mainly ahead of schedule, with the last stages focused on fuel burn validation and revised flight control software, the phase should be completed in December 2017 and could advance first deliveries earlier than expected in 2018.
At the start of the November 2017 Dubai Air Show the 787-10 had 171 orders; Emirates committed to 40 787-10s, in two- and three-class cabins for 240 to 330 passengers, to be delivered from 2022 and with conversion rights to the smaller 787-9. These aircraft are adapted for 7–8.5 hour missions, in a 280-seat three–class layout. Emirates' Tim Clark was doubtful it would meet its MTOW for the payload-range required with initial thrust engines, but with the current turbofans and the −9 early margins gave the −10 "stellar economics". By early 2019, Emirates was considering canceling its 787-10 order, due to engine margins being insufficient for the hot Dubai weather, in favor of the Airbus A350 (which would also replace its last Airbus A380 order). The order was no longer mentioned in Emirates' May 2019 annual report, whereas it was listed as "authorised and not contracted" in the previous report. At the 2019 Dubai Air Show, Emirates placed an order for 30 787-9 aircraft rather than the 787-10.
In January 2018, the −10 was certified by the FAA after testing for 900 flight hours. Boeing received its production certificate on February 15. It was first delivered to launch customer Singapore Airlines on March 25, 2018. Fitted with 337 seats, 36 in business and 301 in economy, the −10 began commercial service on April 3, 2018.
The 8.7% fuselage stretch from the −9 to the −10 likely increased empty weight at a lower rate than the 7.4% growth from the −8 to the −9 due to the 10.7% stretch. Software changes increased the tailplane effectiveness to avoid modifying it. With the same wing but a longer fuselage than the −9, the flutter margin was reduced for the −10 but to avoid stiffening the wing or adding wingtip counterweights for commonality, software oscillates the elevators in the flaps up vertical mode suppression system (F0VMS), similar to the vertical gust load alleviation system.
To replace Air New Zealand's 777-200 fleet, Boeing wants to increase the 787-10 MTOW by over 13,000 lb (6 t) to 572,000 lb (260 t) with some reinforcements and updated fuel systems.
This would allow more range, such as the trip from Auckland to Los Angeles with no passenger restrictions and some cargo.
The increased performance could trickle down to the 787-9, allowing Auckland to New York flights.
BBJ 787
The 787-8 and −9 are offered as Boeing Business Jets, the first offering 2,415 sq ft (224.4 m2) of floor space and a range of 9,945 nmi (18,418 km), the other 2,775 sq ft (257,8 m2) and 9,485 nmi (17,566 km), both with 25 passengers.
Through June 2018, fifteen have been ordered, twelve delivered and four were in service.
Other proposals
Freighter and US Presidential Transport Versions
Although with no set date, Boeing expects to build, possibly in the 2018–2023 timeframe, a 787 freighter version. In 2009, Boeing also reportedly considered a 787 variant as a candidate to replace the 747-based Boeing VC-25 presidential transport; subsequently, two Boeing 747-8 aircraft were ordered in 2018 to replace the two older 747-200-based VC-25A Air Force One aircraft.
787-3
The 787-3 would have carried 290–330 passengers in two-class over range, limited by a MTOW. In April 2008, to keep the −8 on track for delivery, the −9 stretch was postponed from 2010 to at least 2012 and prioritized before the 787-3 and its 43 orders to follow without a firm delivery date.
It kept the −8 length but its 51.7 m wingspan would have fit in ICAO Aerodrome Reference Code D. It was designed to operate on Boeing 757-300/Boeing 767-200 sized regional routes from airports with restricted gate spacing. The wingspan was decreased by using blended winglets instead of raked wingtips.
By January 2010, all orders, from Japan Airlines and All Nippon Airways, had been converted to the 787-8. As it was designed specifically for the Japanese market, Boeing would likely scrap it after they switched orders. The −8's longer wingspan makes it more efficient on stages longer than 200 nmi (370 km). In December 2010, Boeing withdrew the short-haul model as it struggled to produce the 787-8 after program delays of three years.
Operators
There were 864 Boeing 787 aircraft in airline service , comprising 353 787-8s, 476 787-9s and 35 787-10s, with outstanding orders for further 546 aircraft. , the largest operators are All Nippon Airways (61), Japan Airlines (42), American Airlines (42), and United Airlines (34).
Orders and deliveries
In September 2011, the 787 was first officially delivered to launch customer All Nippon Airways. , the top four identified 787 customers are All Nippon Airways with 83 orders (36 -8s, 44 -9s and three −10s), ILFC (an aircraft leasing company) with 74 orders (23 -8s and 51 -9s), Etihad Airways with 71 orders (41 -9s, 30 -10s) and American Airlines with 70 orders (22 -8s and 48 -9s).
On December 13, 2018, the 787th Boeing 787 was delivered to AerCap. By then the 787 had flown 300 million passengers on 1.5 million flights and opened 210 new nonstop routes. The 1000th Dreamliner, a 787-10 for Singapore Airlines, made its maiden flight on April 3, 2020.
Accidents and incidents
The Boeing 787 has been involved in seven accidents and incidents , with no fatalities and zero hull losses.
Operational problems
A Japan Airlines (JAL) 787 experienced a fuel leak on January 8, 2013, and its flight from Boston was canceled. On January 9, United Airlines reported a problem in one of its six 787s with the wiring near the main batteries. After these incidents, the U.S. National Transportation Safety Board subsequently opened a safety probe. Fuel leaks also occurred on January 11, 2013 and on January 13, 2013, at Narita International Airport outside Tokyo. The aircraft reportedly was the same one that had a fuel leak on January 8. Japan's transport ministry also launched an investigation.
On January 11, 2013, the FAA completed a comprehensive review of the 787's critical systems including the design, manufacture, and assembly. The Department of Transportation secretary Ray LaHood stated the administration was "looking for the root causes" behind the recent issues. The head of the FAA, Michael Huerta, said that so far nothing found "suggests [the 787] is not safe."
On July 12, 2013, a fire started on an empty Ethiopian Airlines 787 parked at Heathrow Airport before it was extinguished by the airport fire and rescue service. No injuries were reported. The fire caused extensive heat damage to the aircraft. The FAA and NTSB sent representatives to assist in the investigation. The initial investigation found no direct link with the aircraft's main batteries. Further investigations indicated that the fire was due to lithium-manganese dioxide batteries powering an emergency locator transmitter (ELT). The UK Air Accidents Investigation Branch (AAIB) issued a special bulletin on July 18, 2013, requesting the US FAA ensure that the locator is removed or disconnected in Boeing 787s and to review the safety of lithium battery-powered ELT systems in other aircraft types. On August 19, 2015, the Associated Press reported that the fire was started by a short circuit caused by crossed wires located under the battery. The Air Accidents Investigation Branch's investigators recommended that "the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration, together with similar bodies in Europe and Canada, should conduct a review of equipment powered by lithium metal batteries to ensure they have 'an acceptable level of circuit protection.'"
On July 26, 2013, ANA said it had found wiring damage on two 787 locator beacons. United Airlines also reported that it had found a pinched wire in one 787 locator beacon. On August 14, 2013, the media reported a fire extinguisher fault affecting three ANA airplanes, which caused the fire extinguishers to discharge into the opposite engine from the one requested. The fault was caused by a supplier assembly error.
On September 28, 2013, Norwegian Long Haul decided to take one of its two 787s in its fleet at the time out of service after the two aircraft broke down on more than six occasions in September. The company planned to lease an Airbus A340 for its long-haul operations while the 787 is returned to Boeing for repair.
On November 22, 2013, Boeing issued an advisory to airlines using General Electric GEnx engines on 787 and 747-8 aircraft to avoid flying near high-level thunderstorms due to an increased risk of icing on the engines. The problem was caused by a buildup of ice crystals just behind the main fan causing a brief loss of thrust on six occasions.
On January 21, 2014, a Norwegian Air Shuttle 787 experienced a fuel leak which caused a 19-hour delay to a flight from Bangkok to Oslo. The leak became known to pilots only after it was pointed out by concerned passengers. It was found later that a faulty valve was responsible. This fuel leak is one of numerous problems experienced by Norwegian Air Shuttle's 787 fleet. Mike Fleming, Boeing's vice president for 787 support and services, subsequently met with executives of Norwegian Air Shuttle and expressed Boeing's commitment to improving the 787's dispatch reliability, "we're not satisfied with where the airplane is today, flying at a fleet average of 98 percent...The 777 today flies at 99.4 percent...and that's the benchmark that the 787 needs to attain."
In March 2016 the FAA accelerated the release of an airworthiness directive in response to reports indicating that in certain weather conditions "erroneous low airspeed may be displayed..." There was concern "abrupt pilot control inputs in this condition could exceed the structural capability of the airplane." Pilots were told not to apply "large, abrupt control column inputs" in the event of an "unrealistic" drop in displayed airspeed.
On April 22, 2016, the FAA issued an airworthiness directive following a January 29 incident in which a General Electric GEnx-1B PIP2 engine suffered damage and non-restartable power loss while flying at an altitude of 20,000 feet. The damage is thought to have been caused by a fan imbalance resulting from fan ice shedding.
On June 18, 2021, a British Airways 787-8, registration G-ZBJB, spontaneously suffered a nose gear collapse at London Heathrow Airport while stationary at Stand 583. Photographs circulated after the incident showed the aircraft resting on its nose, with some damage to its nose gear door. No passengers were on board, and the flight was in the process of being loaded with cargo for a cargo-only flight from Heathrow to Frankfurt Airport at the time of the incident. The incident is currently being investigated by the UK's Air Accidents Investigation Branch (AAIB).
Lithium-ion battery problems
On January 16, 2013, All Nippon Airways Flight NH-692, en route from Yamaguchi Ube Airport to Tokyo Haneda, had a battery problem warning followed by a burning smell while climbing from Ube about west of Takamatsu, Japan. The aircraft diverted to Takamatsu and was evacuated via the slides; three passengers received minor injuries during the evacuation. Inspection revealed a battery fire. A similar incident in a parked Japan Airlines 787 at Boston's Logan International Airport within the same week led the Federal Aviation Administration to ground all 787s. On January 16, 2013, both major Japanese airlines ANA and JAL voluntarily grounded their fleets of 787s after multiple incidents involving different 787s, including emergency landings. At the time, these two carriers operated 24 of the 50 787s delivered. The grounding reportedly cost ANA some 9 billion yen (US$93 million) in lost sales.
On January 16, 2013, the FAA issued an emergency airworthiness directive ordering all American-based airlines to ground their Boeing 787s until yet-to-be-determined modifications were made to the electrical system to reduce the risk of the battery overheating or catching fire. This was the first time that the FAA had grounded an airliner type since 1979. Industry experts disagreed on consequences of the grounding: Airbus was confident that Boeing would resolve the issue and that no airlines will switch plane type, while other experts saw the problem as "costly" and "could take upwards of a year".
The FAA also conducted an extensive review of the 787's critical systems. The focus of the review was on the safety of the lithium-ion batteries made of lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO2). The 787 battery contract was signed in 2005, when this was the only type of lithium aerospace battery available, but since then newer and safer types (such as LiFePO4), which provide less reaction energy with virtually no cobalt content to avoid cobalt's thermal runaway characteristic, have become available. FAA approved a 787 battery in 2007 with nine "special conditions". A battery approved by FAA (through Mobile Power Solutions) was made by Rose Electronics using Kokam cells; the batteries installed in the 787 are made by Yuasa.
On January 20, the NTSB declared that overvoltage was not the cause of the Boston incident, as voltage did not exceed the battery limit of 32 V, and the charging unit passed tests. The battery had signs of short circuiting and thermal runaway. Despite this, by January 24, the NTSB had not yet pinpointed the cause of the Boston fire; the FAA would not allow U.S.-based 787s to fly again until the problem was found and corrected. In a press briefing that day, NTSB Chairwoman Deborah Hersman said that the NTSB had found evidence of failure of multiple safety systems designed to prevent these battery problems, and stated that fire must never happen on an airplane.
The Japan Transport Safety Board (JTSB) has said on January 23 that the battery in ANA jets in Japan reached a maximum voltage of 31 V (below the 32 V limit like the Boston JAL 787), but had a sudden unexplained voltage drop to near zero. All cells had signs of thermal damage prior to runaway. ANA and JAL had replaced several 787 batteries before the mishaps. , JTSB approved the Yuasa factory quality control while the NTSB examined the Boston battery for defects. The failure rate, with two major battery thermal runaway events in 100,000 flight hours, was much higher than the rate of one in 10 million flight hours predicted by Boeing.
The only American airline that operated the Dreamliner at the time was United Airlines, which had six. Chile's Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGAC) grounded LAN Airlines' three 787s. The Indian Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA) directed Air India to ground its six Dreamliners. The Japanese Transport Ministry made the ANA and JAL groundings official and indefinite following the FAA announcement. The European Aviation Safety Agency also followed the FAA's advice and grounded the only two European 787s operated by LOT Polish Airlines. Qatar Airways grounded their five Dreamliners. Ethiopian Airlines was the final operator to temporarily ground its four Dreamliners. By January 17, 2013, all 50 of the aircraft delivered to date had been grounded. On January 18, Boeing halted 787 deliveries until the battery problem was resolved.
On February 7, 2013, the FAA gave approval for Boeing to conduct 787 test flights to gather additional data. In February 2013, FAA oversight of the 787's 2007 safety approval and certification was under scrutiny. On March 7, 2013, the NTSB released an interim factual report about the Boston battery fire on January 7, 2013. The investigation stated that "heavy smoke and fire coming from the front of the APU battery case." Firefighters "tried fire extinguishing, but smoke and flame (flame size about 3 inches) did not stop".
Boeing completed its final tests on a revised battery design on April 5, 2013. The FAA approved Boeing's revised battery design with three additional, overlapping protection methods on April 19, 2013. The FAA published a directive on April 25 to provide instructions for retrofitting battery hardware before the 787s could return to flight. The repairs were expected to be completed in weeks. Following the FAA approval in the U.S. effective April 26, Japan approved resumption of Boeing 787 flights in the country on April 26, 2013. On April 27, 2013, Ethiopian Airlines took a 787 on the model's first commercial flight after battery system modifications.
On January 14, 2014, a battery in a JAL 787 emitted smoke from the battery's protection exhaust while the aircraft was undergoing pre-flight maintenance at Tokyo Narita Airport. The battery partially melted in the incident; one of its eight lithium-ion cells had its relief port vent and fluid sprayed inside the battery's container. It was later reported that the battery may have reached a temperature as high as , and that Boeing did not understand the root cause of the failure.
The NTSB has criticized FAA, Boeing, and battery manufacturers for the faults in a 2014 report. It also criticized the GE-made flight data and cockpit voice recorder in the same report. The enclosure Boeing added is heavier, negating the lighter battery potential.
Aircraft on display
All three prototype 787-8s are preserved in museums.
N787BA (ZA001) – Chubu Centrair Airport in Nagoya, Japan—first prototype aircraft
N787EX (ZA002) – Pima Air & Space Museum in Tucson, Arizona—second prototype aircraft
N787BX (ZA003) – Museum of Flight in Seattle, Washington—third prototype aircraft
Specifications
See also
References
Citations
Bibliography
External links
and
Steep climb after takeoff.
Construction time-lapse.
787
Twinjets
Low-wing aircraft
2000s United States airliners
Aircraft first flown in 2009 |
22247557 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve%20Outtrim | Steve Outtrim | Steve Outtrim (born 1973) is a technology entrepreneur from New Zealand. He is best known for his success in the early "dot com years" of the Internet, as the creator of Sausage Software and its flagship product, the HotDog Web Editor. He has also founded software company Urbanise and environment solutions company ekoLiving and is the former owner of nutraceutical company Aussie Bodies. He is the editor and main writer of Burners.me, a website that discusses Burning Man culture.
Early life and education
Outtrim was born in Wellington, New Zealand in 1973 and graduated from Wellington College (New Zealand) high school in 1989. By 1992 he had completed a Bachelor of Commerce and Administration (BCA), from Victoria University of Wellington
First business success
Outtrim founded Sausage Software in 1995. At that stage of the Internet's development, graphics had only just come to the World Wide Web, with Marc Andreessen's breakthrough NCSA Mosaic, which later became Netscape. There were very few pages with images, and not much search capability. Yahoo was just a list of interesting content, before it was a search engine.
Outtrim wanted to make a Web page and put up a picture of himself and information about the music he liked. He tried using HoTMetaL and Web Edit but was frustrated when both programs crashed with the blue screen of death. He decided he could do a better job himself. He built HotDog, an HTML Authoring tool using Visual Basic. It could write Web pages like a word processor, with a WYSIWYG interface, an auto-save feature and other features designed to make it easy to manage sites with many pages. Steve incorporated easy to use, context sensitive help which the competing programs lacked.
He created his own superdistribution system using cryptography and the Windows Registry. This enabled the business model of Sausage Software, which was to give away something of value for free, but time limit its use to 30 days. This "Free/Pro" distribution model was known as Shareware, and was employed by many small software vendors on the Internet and Bulletin Board Systems (BBS). However very few of them used sophisticated techniques to enforce the 30-day time limit, or electronic direct marketing to convert users from the free version to the paid version.
Sausage Software grew rapidly despite competition from major software houses such as Microsoft, Adobe Systems, Symantec and IBM. In 1997 Wired magazine rated HotDog the No. 3 most popular program on the Internet, after Netscape (browser) and Eudora (mail client).
Dot-com pioneer
Outtrim was one of the first people to create a successful global e-commerce business on the Internet. Sausage.com was a fully automated business, open 24/7 in every country in the world and with no staff or inventory required to make a sale. Steve employed software developers and customer support staff, who used the internet to rapidly incorporate user suggestions into the product and release them back to the user community. Within a month of launch he had customers in more than 200 different countries. The customers would get the program for free, use it for 30 days, then if they wanted to keep using it, provide their credit card details to a secure web server, and receive an email with a 16-digit licensing code. This code was locked to the user name and email address using a cryptographic hash, to discourage piracy.
Outtrim took Sausage Software public on the Australian Stock Exchange in October 1996. This made him the youngest CEO of a public company in Australia. In 2000 he left the company when it merged with SMS Management and Technology, an IT consulting firm. He reportedly made A$51 million from the company after selling off large parts of his share before the dot com crash.
Outtrim was an early promoter of Java technology from Sun Microsystems, creating the first Java applets to be sold over the Internet and the first Java micropayments system.
Current activities
Outtrim left Sausage Software in an executive role in 1999 and departed from the board of directors in 2000.
Since then he has been involved in a number of start-up companies, most notably as:
Former owner of Aussie Bodies, which was acquired by Healtheries in 2004.
Founder of software company Majitek, which closed a Series B investment with Cisco Systems in February 2009 and opened an office in Dubai.
Founder and owner of ekoLiving which specialises in environmental technology solutions using software, hardware, and networks. ekoLiving is a pioneer in the emerging field of Smart Environments, which is sometimes referred to as pervasive computing or Ubiquitous computing.
He created an "energy group" (named eKoSchool) at his former school, Wellington College. The aim of this group is to find ways of reducing energy usage.
In 2014, Majitek changed its name to Urbanise.com and listed on the Australian Stock Exchange (ASX code: UBN). Its technology is being used in the world's 4 tallest buildings. Outtrim stepped down from the Board before the IPO.
In 2017, Steve Outtrim founded zMint to help companies get on the blockchain.
Outtrim is a supporter of the Internet Party as of 2017.
References
1973 births
People educated at Wellington College (New Zealand)
Living people
New Zealand businesspeople
Victoria University of Wellington alumni |
5356888 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TV%20Typewriter | TV Typewriter | The TV Typewriter is a video terminal that could display two pages of 16 lines of 32 upper case characters on a standard television set. The design, by Don Lancaster, appeared on the cover of Radio-Electronics magazine in September 1973.
The magazine included a 6-page description of the design but readers could send off for a 16-page package of construction details. Radio-Electronics sold thousands of copies for $2.00 each. The TV Typewriter is considered a milestone in the home computer revolution along with the Mark-8 and Altair 8800 computers.
Sometimes the term was used generically for any interactive computer display on a screen; until CRT displays were developed, the teleprinter was the standard output medium.
TVT I
Don Lancaster was an engineer at Goodyear Aerospace designing a high resolution video display for the military. Don was also a prolific author of hobbyist projects for Popular Electronics and Radio-Electronics magazines. The video project gave Don the inspiration for his most influential project, a low cost video terminal known as the TV Typewriter.
Build in the era before widespread availability of low-cost microprocessors or solid-state computer memory, the system used small-scale integration TTL digital logic and shift register memory. Much of the circuitry was involved in timing the output of the analog generator with the memory, which had to be shifted bit-at-a-time to the output.
The article appeared in the September 1973 issue. In addition to the six-page article, they also offered to ship out a larger 16-page version with complete layout plans for a mail-in fee of $2. Given its limited functionality, they initially estimated that the magazine would sell about 20 copies of the plans for $20 each. Instead, they were flooded by requests and eventually sent out 10,000 copies. With professional terminals costing over $1000 this $120 kit looked like a bargain.
In the November issue, the editors apologized for the delays in shipping the TV Typewriter booklets to the thousands of readers that ordered them. They also listed electronics parts sources for the difficult to find components. Don Lancaster also answered a series of reader questions and gave ideas for additional functions and uses for the TV Typewriter. The December issue had a page of corrections for the TV Typewriter booklet. Both of the notices were included in later printings of the booklet.
The compact design and complex circuitry made the TV Typewriter a challenging project for hobbyists. But many finished the project and some even connected it to their Intel 8008 based computers. The April 1975 issue of the Micro-8 Newsletter has 6 pages of user modifications and interface designs to connect the TV Typewriter to Mark-8 or SCELBI computers. The original TV Typewriter design did not include a serial interface, modem connection, or offline data storage on cassette tape. Don Lancaster wrote about these in the September 1975 issue of BYTE magazine and his TV Typewriter Cookbook. A serial interface board designed by Roger Smith was published in the February 1975 issue of Radio Electronics.
Keyboards
Today keyboards are readily available and inexpensive, and they have a standard interface. In 1973, new keyboards were only available to computer and terminal manufacturers. Surplus keyboards were available to hobbyists but they often produced codes other than ASCII, such as baudot or EBCDIC. The TV Typewriter project and kit did not include a keyboard. The unit on the September cover shows a keyboard project Don Lancaster did in the February 1973 issue. This project involved hand crafting 55 key-switches including fabricating the springs for each key-switch. Most hobbyists chose to use a surplus keyboard and modified it to produce ASCII codes. Don Lancaster's prototype TV Typewriter which is now on display at the Computer History Museum has a surplus keyboard with an ASCII encoder circuit that was published in the February 1974 issue of Radio-Electronics. The plans for this encoder were also included in the TV Typewriter booklet
Popular Electronics (April 1974) featured a complete keyboard kit designed by Don Lancaster and available from Southwest Technical Products for $39.50. The first version used simple RTL ICs to decode the key matrix. The design was soon improved to use a full featured keyboard encoder IC.
TVT II - CT-1024 Terminal
Southwest Technical Products got their start selling sets of bare circuit boards for $27 and the eight major integrated circuits for $49.50. The hobbyist had to acquire the rest of the components on their own.
The original TV Typewriter was difficult to assemble and some of the ICs were going out of production so Southwest Technical Products decided to redesign the kit. The replacement was featured in Radio Electronics as the TV Typewriter II. This time readers did not have to order a set of plans, since the complete design was published in 6 issues starting in February 1975.
Daniel Meyer of SWTPC enlisted Ed Colle, an engineer who had worked at Datapoint on terminal design, to design the new TV Typewriter. The SWTPC CT-1024 Terminal displayed 32 characters by 16 lines without scrolling. It used common TTL parts and 2102 static RAMs. The boards were laid out with very loose part spacing and wide traces to make it easy to assemble. A complete set of option boards was offered including a serial interface. The keyboard was based on Don Lancaster’s design. The rest of the terminal was done by Ed Colle.
The design was finished by late 1974 and the kits were ready for sale by December 1974. The first advertisement for the CT-1024 appeared in the January 1975 issue of Popular Electronics on the page facing the Altair 8800 computer article. The CT-1024 was very successful because a complete kit with options cost only $275. It was replaced in 1977 by the improved CT-64 that offered scrolling and 64 characters per line of upper and lower case.
TV Typewriter Cookbook
By 1975 Don Lancaster had written over 100 articles in magazines such as Popular Electronics and Radio-Electronics. He had also written a digital design book titled the RTL Cookbook in 1968. Resistor–transistor logic (RTL) was an early IC technology that was replaced by TTL, so in 1974 he published the TTL Cookbook. This book was in print for 20 years and sold a million copies.
The original TV Typewriter was designed before low cost RAM was available and the design was soon obsolete. Don had made many design improvements and published them as the TV Typewriter Cookbook in 1976. Portions had been serialized in the first issues of Byte magazine. The book was a guide on how to design a video computer terminal.
Some Basics
Integrated Circuits for TVT use
Memory
System Timing - Calculation and Circuits
Cursor and Update Circuits
Keyboards and Encoders
Serial Interfaces
Television Interfaces
Hard Copy and Color Graphics
This book guided many hobbyist and professionals in designing video displays for home computer systems. The cassette interface design from chapter 7 was the basis for the Kansas City standard. The circuits in this book did not rely on a microprocessor, just TTL. The TV Cheap Video Cookbook (1978) showed the TVT 6 5/8 that would work with a 6502 or 6800 microprocessor. The design was targeted at the KIM-1 Microcomputer.
The original TV Typewriter book cover shows an ASCII keyboard designed by Don Lancaster and sold by Southwest Technical Products. An early computer store chain, the Byte Shop, had the publisher add their logo to the covers and sold the TTL Cookbook and the TV Typewriter Cookbook in their stores. A later edition cover was designed for Radio Shack stores. The ninth printing of the first edition was in 1983.
See also
Home computer
Personal computer
History of computing hardware (1960s–present)
References
Bibliography
Books
Construction articles for TVT I
Construction articles for TVT II
Construction articles for TVT-6
Has video software written in 6502 assembly language for the KIM-1 microcomputer.
TV Typewriter Cookbook serialized in BYTE magazine
External links
Don Lancaster's TV Typewriter
Don Lancaster's autobiography
Early microcomputers
Character-oriented terminal |
1800329 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programming%20in%20the%20large%20and%20programming%20in%20the%20small | Programming in the large and programming in the small | In software engineering, programming in the large and programming in the small refer to two different aspects of writing software, namely, designing a larger system as a composition of smaller parts, and creating those smaller parts by writing lines of code in a programming language, respectively.
The terms were coined by Frank DeRemer and Hans Kron in their 1975 paper "Programming-in-the-large versus programming-in-the-small", in which they argue that the two are essentially different activities, and that typical programming languages, and the practice of structured programming, provide good support for the latter, but not for the former.
This may be compared to the later Ousterhout's dichotomy, which distinguishes between system programming languages (for components) and scripting languages (for glue code, connecting components).
Description
Fred Brooks identifies that the way an individual program is created is different from how a programming systems product is created. The former likely does one relatively simple task well. It is probably coded by a single engineer, is complete in itself, and is ready to run on the system on which it was developed. The programming activity was probably fairly short-lived as simple tasks are quick and easy to complete. This is the endeavor that DeRemer and Kron describe as programming in the small.
Compare with the activities associated with a programming systems project, again as identified by Brooks. Such a project is typified by medium-sized or large industrial teams working on the project for many months to several years. The project is likely to be split up into several or hundreds of separate modules which individually are of a similar complexity to the individual programs described above. However, each module will define an interface to its surrounding modules.
Brooks describes how programming systems projects are typically run as formal projects that follow industry best practices and will comprise testing, documentation and ongoing maintenance activities as well as activities to ensure that the product is generalized to work in different scenarios including on systems other than the development systems on which it was created.
Programming in the large
In software development, programming in the large can involve programming by larger groups of people or by smaller groups over longer time periods. Either of these conditions will result in large, and hence complicated, programs that can be challenging for maintainers to understand.
With programming in the large, coding managers place emphasis on partitioning work into modules with precisely-specified interactions. This requires careful planning and careful documentation.
With programming in the large, program changes can become difficult. If a change operates across module boundaries, the work of many people may need re-doing. Because of this, one goal of programming in the large involves setting up modules that will not need altering in the event of probable changes. This is achieved by designing modules so they have high cohesion and loose coupling.
Programming in the large requires abstraction-creating skills. Until a module becomes implemented it remains an abstraction. Taken together, the abstractions should create an architecture unlikely to need change. They should define interactions that have precision and demonstrable correctness.
Programming in the large requires management skills. The process of building abstractions aims not just to describe something that can work but also to direct the efforts of people who will make it work.
The concept was introduced by Frank DeRemer and Hans Kron in their 1975 paper "Programming-in-the-Large Versus Programming-in-the-Small", IEEE Trans. on Soft. Eng. 2(2).
In computer science terms, programming in the large can refer to programming code that represents the high-level state transition logic of a system. This logic encodes information such as when to wait for messages, when to send messages, when to compensate for failed non-ACID transactions, etc.
A language that was designed to explicitly support programming in the large is BPEL.
Programming in the small
In software development, programming in the small describes the activity of writing a small program. Small programs are typified by being small in terms of their source code size, are easy to specify, quick to code and typically perform one task or a few very closely related tasks very well.
Programming in the small can involve programming by individuals or small groups over short time periods and may involve less formal practices (for instance less emphasis on documentation or testing), tools and programming languages (e.g. the selection of a loosely typed scripting language in preference to a strictly typed programming language). Programming in the small can also describe an approach to making a prototype software or where rapid application development is more important than stability or correctness.
In computer science terms, programming in the small deals with short-lived programmatic behavior, often executed as a single ACID transaction and which allows access to local logic and resources such as files, databases, etc.
References
Further reading
Programming paradigms
Software engineering folklore |
17728624 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lalith%20Gamage | Lalith Gamage | Lalith Gamage , MBCS, MIEE is a Sri Lankan academic. He is a professor, currently serving as the president and Chief Executive Officer of Sri Lanka Institute of Information Technology, a position he has held since the beginning of the institute in 1999. He has also served as the Chairman of the Arthur C. Clarke Institute for Modern Technologies. As a leading Sri Lankan academic in the field of Computer Science, Prof Gamage has played an important role in the development of IT education, research and industry in Sri Lanka.
Education and research
Educated at St. Aloysius College, Galle, Gamage gained his BSc in Engineering from the University of Moratuwa after which he gained and MSc from the University of Leicester and a PhD from the University of British Columbia. His research areas include Computer Vision, Computational Intelligence and Robotics. Gamage has published numerous research papers and has won a prestigious Japanese Space Agency research award.
Academic career
Joining University of Moratuwa as a lecturer Gamage went on to serve as a senior lecturer and the Director of the Computing Services Centre of the Moratuwa University. He has also served as a Council Member of the University of Moratuwa.
In 1999 he played a prominent role in establishing Sri Lanka Institute of Information Technology (SLIIT) becoming its CEO and a senior lecturer, in 2003 he was made a Professor of SLIIT. Under his tenure SLIIT has become the largest technology institute in Sri Lanka, of which he is the current president.
Currently he also serves as a visiting professor at the Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of British Columbia and is attached to the Industrial Automation Group and is also an adjunct professor of the Curtin University.
Apart from his academic he has served the IT industry and the Government of Sri Lanka in many capacities. These include the Chairman of the ICT Cluster of the USAID sponsored competitiveness initiative, the executive director of Trade Information Network, Sri Lanka Export Development Board, and Chairman of the IT Task Force, Ministry of Enterprise Development, Industrial Policy, and Investment Promotion.
Family
He is married to a daughter of Kingsley T. Wickremeratne, who was the former Minister of Trade and Commerce and the Governor of the Southern Province.
Awards
The Outstanding Young Person award for his contribution towards academic development. - 2000
Japanese Space Agency research award.
References
External links
SLIIT faculty
https://web.archive.org/web/20071220003150/http://www.sliit.lk/News/News.htm
Sinhalese academics
Sinhalese engineers
Sri Lankan computer scientists
Alumni of the University of Ceylon
Alumni of the University of Leicester
University of British Columbia alumni
Members of the British Computer Society
Senior Members of the IEEE
University of British Columbia Faculty of Applied Science faculty
Faculty of the Sri Lanka Institute of Information Technology
Living people
Alumni of St. Aloysius' College, Galle
Year of birth missing (living people) |
48896023 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zi%20Corporation | Zi Corporation | Zi Corporation was a software company based in Calgary, Canada. The company was founded on 4 December 1987 as Cancom Ventures Inc, owning an Edmonton secretarial college and an industrial equipment rental business. On 30 August 1989 the name was changed to Multi-Corp Inc. In 1993, board member Michael Lobsinger took control of the company, became CEO, and turned the company towards the telecommunications industry, purchasing several privately held companies involved in the telecommunications businesses, and in November 1993, Multi-Corp entered into an exclusive licensing agreement with Eric Chappell for a stroke-based Chinese text entry system which they referred to as the Jiejing Licenses. A wholly owned subsidiary, Ziran Developments Inc, was formed to handle the Chinese text entry business.
The company was listed on the Toronto Stock Exchange on 9 June 1995 (symbol MCU). Under Lobsinger, the strategic importance of the Chinese text entry grew, and Ziran was renamed Zi Corporation in 1996; Zi meaning character in Chinese.
The telecommunications businesses were disposed of by 1997 In June 1997, the parent company was renamed Zi Corporation to reflect the importance of the new business. In 1999, co-founder Gary Kovacs joined as COO.
Having started with Chinese on personal computers, toward the end of the 1990s Zi's focus moved to text entry for all languages for mobile phones and other handheld devices, where efficient entry of text traditionally has been challenging due to limitations of a physically small device. This new business area was quickly quite successful, especially in the Chinese market, and in 1998 Zi entered into licensing agreements with Ericsson (later Sony Ericsson), who at that time was a very significant player in the Chinese market. Further license agreements with Ericsson and other companies were to follow, for a total of more than 1000 different device models being shipped with Zi text entry software,
in more than 100 million devices.
The introduction of touch screen technology for mobile devices made the company follow up with software for handwriting recognition, with focus on languages such as Chinese and Japanese.
In 2003, Mike Donnell took over as CEO from Lobsinger.
Zi Corporation was listed on NASDAQ from September 2007 .
Text entry on devices with limited number of keys was early subject to a number of software patents, and Zi was engaged in several costly patent disputes with Tegic Corporation, later Nuance Communications.
In August 2008, Nuance made a takeover bid to acquire the company for million, which the company declined. Shortly thereafter, Nuance filed a patent infringement lawsuit against Zi. The company was finally acquired by Nuance for million on 26 February 2009, and the acquisition was completed on 9 April 2009.
Products
Zi's main product was EZiText predictive text entry software, in competition with solutions such as the original T9 product from Tegic, later Nuance.
Other products include eZiType, a predictive text entry product for mobile email users, for keyboard-based mobile devices, Qix, a service discovery engine that provides a quick and easy method for accessing a phone's features, applications, and services, and Decuma which delivers an input method for pen-based devices by fusing handwriting recognition with predictive text technology.
Patent war
There was a series of patent infringement lawsuits between Tegic, the holder of the T9 patents, and Zi:
A patent infringement lawsuit by Zi against Tegic, filed in the District Court in Seattle for Japanese and Chinese character-based text input technologies was dismissed in September 1999.
In February 2002, the District Court for Northern California granted Zi a partial summary judgment that eZiText for alphabetic does not infringe on Tegic's patents.
In March 2002, the Federal District Court for the Western District of Washington granted Zi partial summary judgment stating that eZiText for alphabetic languages does not infringe Tegic's text input patents.
In September 2002, the U.S. District Court for Northern California awarded Tegic, owned by AOL Time Warner, million in damages for Zi's infringement of two Tegic patents. Zi's claim that the two Tegic patents were based on existing methods of inputting Chinese ideographic characters were rejected.
In August 2008 Nuance filed a patent infringement lawsuit against Zi in the Federal Court in Toronto, Canada, where Nuance accuses Zi of infringing Canadian Patent Numbers 2,399,961 and 2,278,549, each entitled "Reduced Keyboard Disambiguating System.
Other controversies
In 1995 the company sold stock to the wives of Alberta Premier Ralph Klein and his chief of staff Rod Love well below market value, with no payment required until they sold them. Klein had participated in a ribbon-cutting ceremony at the company's Hong Kong office while Love served as a company director. Klein was later cleared of wrongdoing in a decision by Alberta's Ethics Commissioner Bob Clark, although this decision was controversial.
In 1998, Eric Chappell receives 4.5 million shares as compensation for transfer of all rights of the Jiejing Licenses to Zi. 3 million shares, representing 11.5% of the shares, are sold to Lancer Funds without disclosure, as is required by law.
In 2003, the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission froze the assets of Lancer Group, a hedge fund investment management firm, when it discovered it owned 49.1% of Zi's shares, far beyond the 10% limit requiring disclosure. This was suspected to be for market manipulation, and the Lancer assets were taken over by an appointed receiver. Zi entered into a settlement agreement with the SEC.
References
External links
http://www.zicorp.com/ Original website on Wayback Machine
XBRL Voluntary Filing Program entries for Zi Corporation
Companies established in 1987
Defunct software companies of Canada
Mobile software |
49047725 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fwupd | Fwupd | fwupd is an open-source daemon for managing the installation of firmware updates on Linux-based systems, developed by GNOME maintainer Richard Hughes. It is designed primarily for servicing the Unified Extensible Firmware Interface (UEFI) firmware on supported devices via EFI System Resource Table (ESRT) and UEFI Capsule, which is supported in Linux kernel 4.2 and later. Previously, the initiation of UEFI firmware updates within an operating system could, on most systems, only be performed using Microsoft Windows or DOS-specific software. ESRT allows the firmware to expose updatable components to the operating system, which can pass a UEFI capsule with updated firmware for processing and installation on the next boot. Updates can be exposed via a command line tool, or within graphical package managers (such as GNOME Software) via a D-bus interface.
Linux Vendor Firmware Service
The Linux Vendor Firmware Service (LVFS) provides resources and support for helping vendors package their firmware updates to support the use of this framework, and serves as an online repository for obtaining these updates. To provide a test case on systems where ESRT is not yet supported, fwupd is also able to update firmware on the ColorHug color calibrator.
Adoption
Not only Fedora supports the use of fwupd, but also Ubuntu and several Linux distributions include it.
Arch from 2017-06-13
Debian 9 (Stretch) or newer
Fedora 22 or newer
openSUSE 15.0 or newer
RHEL and CentOS 7.4 or newer
Ubuntu 16.04 (Xenial) or newer
In December 2015, it was revealed that Hughes had been working with a Dell developer to test the system on actual hardware, and that its Dell Edge Gateway product will support firmware servicing via fwupd. Hughes reported that the company was also "considering expanding out the LVFS support to all new models supporting UEFI updates". In August 2018, Lenovo joined the project and provides update support for a wide range of their devices.
In September 2019, Acer joined the project, with initial support for their Aspire A315 model. Starting from December 2019, Google requires that firmware updates can be applied with fwupd for certified Chromebooks.
See also
Flashrom (utility)
References
External links
Applications using D-Bus
Firmware
Software that uses Meson
Unified Extensible Firmware Interface |
8055221 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franck%20Marchis | Franck Marchis | Franck Marchis (born April 6, 1973 in Caen, France), astronomer and planetary scientist, is best known for his discovery and characterization of multiple asteroids, his study of Io volcanism and imaging of exoplanets, planets around other stars.
The asteroid 6639 Marchis was named in his honor on April 4, 2007.
In 2017, he joined Unistellar as Chief Scientific Officer where he is in charge of the development of Citizen Science.
Background
Marchis was born in France. He is currently a Principal Investigator at the SETI Institute. He received his Ph.D. in 2000 from university of Toulouse, France in planetary science. Although his thesis was performed while living in several places: Mexico, France, Great-Britain; the main part of his studies were made while working at La Silla observatory in Chile for the European Southern Observatory, an intergovernmental organization aiming to develop astronomy in the southern hemisphere. He participated in the development of observations with the first adaptive optics system available to a large community (called ADONIS on the 3.6m telescope). He moved to California shortly after receiving his Ph.D. in November 2000 through a postdoctoral position at UC Berkeley.
Since then, he has dedicated most of his activity monitoring Io's volcanism with the Keck-10m telescope and the support of CfAO, an NSF science and technology center. In 2003, he was hired as an assistant researcher at UC Berkeley to conduct his research more independently and expanded it to a broader field, but still based on high angular resolution capabilities. In 2007, he was appointed as a Planetary Scientist at the Carl Sagan Center of the SETI Institute where he expanded his research on multiple asteroids using space-telescope facilities (HST, Spitzer telescope) and participating to development of space mission concepts to explore these new worlds. In June 2011, he took a full-time position at the Carl Sagan Center to lead the development of space mission concepts and new high-resolution & high contrast instruments for ground-based telescopes. He currently leads the Education and public outreach program of the Gemini Planet Imager, an instrument dedicated to the search of exoplanets, using direct imaging, spectroscopy and polarimetry which initiated its search campaign in March 2015.
He has also taught on several occasions "The Planets" class at UC-Berkeley (Astro 12) and several classes in Spanish in Chile. He is an associate astronomer at Observatoire de Paris since June 2003, IMCCE. (ref [1]). He has appeared and has been a science advisor of several TV shows and documentaries linked to his work on the search for life in our universe and the study of Io's volcanism and asteroids.
Discovery of companions of asteroids
Marchis exploited the high-resolution capabilities offered by adaptive optics from groundbased telescope to survey hundreds of main belt asteroids and Trojans.
Together with his team, they announced the discovery of the first triple asteroid system in August 2005 (87 Sylvia), and the first measurement of a Trojan bulk-density in February 2006 (617 Patroclus). Both discoveries were published in Nature journal (ref [2], [3])
In July 2006, Marchis and his team announced the discovery of a moonlet companion around 624 Hektor using the Keck Laser guide star AO system (ref [4]). This is the first multiple system in the L4 swarm and the first moonlet companion in the Trojan discovered.
The second triple system orbiting in the main-belt was discovered by the same team and announced in March 2007. Subsequent analysis of VLT-NACO images taken in Jan. 2004 revealed the presence of a second 6-km size moonlet orbiting around (45) Eugenia. Since 1999, this system was known to have a large moonlet, called Petit-Prince (~15 km) orbiting at 1200 km. ref[6]. In December 2014, the team led by Bin Yang re-observed a binary asteroid system 130 Elektra with the new Extreme AO system SPHERE of the VLT UT4 telescope and detected a smaller and closer satellite not yet seen on previous AO data.
Volcanic activity of Io
Using high imaging capability available on ground-based telescopes equipped with adaptive optics systems, F. Marchis and his team monitor and study the exotic volcanism of Io, Galilean satellite of Jupiter.
In February 2001, they witnessed the most energetic eruption ever seen on the solar system. Surt volcano, located on the north hemisphere of Io, was then starting an extremely active eruption. The observed energy indicates the presence of a vigorous, high-temperature volcanic eruption. The kind of eruption to produce this thermal signature has incandescent fire fountains of molten lava which are kilometers high, propelled at great speed out of the ground by expanding gases, accompanied by extensive lava flows on the surface. The Surt eruption appears to cover an area of 1,900 square kilometers, which is larger than the city of Los Angeles and even larger than the entire city of London [5].
References
Sources
[1] SFAA-Astronomy Lecture - Bio
[2] Discovery of the First Triple Asteroid System, Nature, Aug. 2005
[3] A low density of 0.8 g cm-3 for the Trojan binary asteroid 617 Patroclus, Nature, Feb. 2006
[4] IAU Circular 8732 Aug. 2006
[5] EXCEPTIONALLY BRIGHT ERUPTION ON IO RIVALS LARGEST IN SOLAR SYSTEM
[6] Discovery of a second moonlet orbiting around (45) Eugenia
External links
Franck Marchis' homepage
Franck Marchis' page at SETI Institute
Rubble-Pile Minor Planet Sylvia and Her Twins ESO PR
First triple asteroid system found, UC-Berkeley, PR
Binary asteroid in Jupiter's orbit may be icy comet from solar system's infancy, UC-Berkeley PR
Unique Triple Asteroid System Discovered, Scientific American
Solar system's first triple asteroid system found, NewScientist
Scientists discover asteroid with moons Tiny planetary system orbiting between Mars and Jupiter, San Francisco Chronicle, Aug. 11 2005
American astronomers
1973 births
Living people
Planetary scientists |
12187100 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Input%20%28magazine%29 | Input (magazine) | Input was a partwork published by Marshall Cavendish in the United Kingdom during 1984 and 1985, covering the subject of home computer programming. This magazine is not to be confused with Input, a website founded by former editor-in-chief of Engadget, and founder of The Verge, Joshua Topolsky.
Overview
Input was composed of 52 weekly editions which introduced several parallel themes (such as computer graphics, word processing, CAD, games etc.) in each edition. These themes then were slowly developed with each new edition into BASIC and assembly language programs. The resulting programs were intended to run on a selection of the most popular home computers in the UK at the time: the Sinclair ZX Spectrum, Commodore 64, BBC Micro, Acorn Electron and Dragon 32. A subset of the programs were also suitable for the Sinclair ZX81, Commodore VIC-20 and Tandy TRS-80 Color Computer.
The magazine was well-known among hobbyists using these early computer architectures, since it provided a useful source of interesting programs in a wide range of themes.
As was usually the case in home computer magazines of the era, the programs were listed in the pages of the magazine, and readers had to type them manually into their computers.
The magazine was published in other countries, such as Italy and Brazil.
Sections
Each magazine had various colour-coded sections which denoted the main subject of the article. These subjects included BASIC Programming, Machine Code, Applications, Games Programming, with occasional sections on Peripherals. Later issues included introductions to other computer languages: Logo, Pascal, Lisp, and Forth.
See also
The Home Computer Course
The Home Computer Advanced Course
References
External links
Input Magazine, Internet Archive:
Defunct computer magazines published in the United Kingdom
Home computer magazines
Magazines established in 1984
Magazines disestablished in 1985
Magazines published in London
Partworks
Weekly magazines published in the United Kingdom |
18782946 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SS%20King%20Orry%20%281946%29 | SS King Orry (1946) | TSS (RMS) King Orry (IV) - the fourth vessel in the line's history to be so named - was the lead ship of the King Orry Class of passenger ferries and packet ships. More commonly referred to as the six sisters, they were built for the Isle of Man Steam Packet Company between 1946 & 1955 primarily to replace war-time losses. The company's previous King Orry was one of three company losses during Operation Dynamo - the evacuation of British and French troops from the port of Dunkirk during May 1940.
The name King Orry is a corruption of King Gorree, from the Manx Gaelic Ree Gorree, the Manx name for Godred Crovan a Norse-Gael ruler of Dublin, and King of Mann and the Isles in the second half of the 11th century.
Construction & dimensions
King Orry was built at Cammell Laird, Birkenhead. The cost of the vessel was £402,095. Length 325 feet; beam 47 feet; depth 18 feet( see note), with a registered tonnage of . King Orry was driven by two sets of Parsons turbines with single reduction gearing producing 8,500 brake horsepower. This gave the vessel a design speed of 21 knots. King Orry was certificated to carry 2136 passengers, and had a crew complement of 68.
She had a single funnel, a cruiser stern and two pole masts.
King Orry was launched on 22 November 1945, and acquired by Isle of Man Steam Packet Company on 16 April 1946. She made her maiden voyage on 19 April, and completed 29 years service.
Note: the information on All the Six Sisters lists draught As 18 feet. This is actually the depth( the distance from main deck to keel) the draught was around 12/13 feet i.e. the depth of water required to float. This can be clearly seen on bow and stern as the draught in feet is marked in white numbers. The white line separating the red painted lower hull from the black painted portion has the number 16 on it at the bow and 14 at the stern. The actual waterline, even loaded, is a few feet lower.
Service life
The King Orry-class of six ships were the culmination of war-time experience and pre-war service by Isle of Man Steam Packet Company.
Essentially, the class were a modified design of the 1936 "Twins" - and .
King Orry was the first company vessel to adopt the system of prior booking for private cabins, which was considered to be a splendid innovation. Due to a rationalisation of company routes following problems with the berth at Fleetwood, her younger sister was disposed of in 1962.
King Orry was considered a reliable and efficient ship, her most noteworthy episode during her service occurred in 1953, when a great storm sank the Princess Victoria in the North Channel.
While that tragedy was in progress, King Orry was one of the only ships at sea and although late, reached Douglas safely under the command of Captain Bridson.
With the introduction into service of the company's third car ferry, in 1972, time was beginning to catch up with the King Orry.
King Orry made her final crossing from Douglas on Saturday, 30 August 1975; to the traditional farwell from her sister's ship's whistles, at 15:00hrs.
On Bank Holiday Monday, 31 August 1975, King Orry carried her last passengers from Llandudno to Liverpool.
Disposal
King Orry was bought by R. Taylor and Son of Bury for breaking up, and was taken to Glasson Dock to await her fate. She was berthed alongside for more than two months and there were rumours that she might be resold to Greek interests.
However, during a severe storm on the night of Friday, 2 January 1976, whilst laid-up at Glasson Dock on the lower estuary, King Orry broke away from her berth and drifted aground in the Lune Estuary, coming to rest on the mud flats. A great deal of energy was spent trying to re-float her, until she was finally re-floated on 15 April 1976.
Lynch and Son of Rochester, Kent broke her up in 1979.
King Orry's name was destined to survive. The breakers were approached by officials from the National Maritime Museum who purchased her starboard turbines, auxiliary machinery, a propeller and one of her three boilers. These were regarded as typical of the machinery used in the 1940s on cross-channel ships. On purchase the items were put into storage at Chatham Dockyard, the intention being to put them on display later at Greenwich. Subsequently, this occurred, and further information regarding her machinery arrangement and specifications were supplied by the Isle of Man Steam Packet Company.
References
Passenger ships of the United Kingdom
Ships of the Isle of Man Steam Packet Company
Steamships
Ships built on the River Mersey
1945 ships
Ferries of the Isle of Man
Steamships of the United Kingdom
Merchant ships of the United Kingdom
Maritime incidents in 1976 |
8499357 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MacHeist | MacHeist | MacHeist was a website that bundled and resold Mac OS X software. The site conducted marketing through challenges (or "heists") that allowed customers to win software licenses and/or discounts; and sold software in bundles that increased in size as more customers purchased the offer. The site was founded by John Casasanta, Phillip Ryu, and Scott Meinzer. After a final promotion in May 2016, the original incarnation went offline. As of November 2018, the website is a front-end for marketing by native advertising company StackCommerce.
MacHeist
MacHeist I was a six-week-long event that the site ran at the end of 2006. It culminated with a week-long sale of a bundle of ten Mac OS X software applications for US$49. Prior to the sale, a number of challenges (or "heists") were posted on the MacHeist site. These challenges typically offered cryptic clues to Mac-related websites, where the answers could be found. Users who successfully completed the heists were rewarded a US$2 discount on the bundle for each heist completed, as well as free licensed copies of various Mac OS X software applications that were not included in the final bundle. This inaugural promotion sold more than 16,000 copies in one week.
The final bundle sold for US$49 and was available to any Mac user, regardless of participation in the heists leading up to the sale. It contained Delicious Library, FotoMagico, ShapeShifter, DEVONthink, Disco, Rapidweaver, iClip, Newsfire, TextMate, and the choice of one Pangea Software game (Bugdom 2, Enigmo 2, Nanosaur 2, Pangea Arcade). Newsfire was added to the bundle after the sale of approximately 4,000 bundles, and TextMate was added after approximately 5,600 bundles were sold. The other applications were available from the beginning of the sale. After the two later applications were unlocked, they became available for no extra charge to the initial purchasers of the bundle.
Following MacHeist I, a portion of the proceeds (US$200,000) were donated to charities. This amount was divided between the following charities: United Way International, Direct Relief, AIDS Research Alliance, Cancer Research and Prevention Foundation, Nature Conservancy, World Wildlife Fund, Hunger Project and Save the Children.
MacHeist II
MacHeist II began in Nov. 2007 with the creation of a character named Malcor, a computer hacker with a grudge against "Apple fanbois." As a marketing stunt, the owners of a number of small Apple-related blogs were contacted by Philip Ryu and asked to participate in the lead-up to MacHeist II, by making their sites appear to have been hacked by Malcor. However, over the course of the stunt, many people in various communities became concerned they would be targeted or vulnerable.
On November 16, 2007, glennwolsey.com was defaced for 24hrs with the image of a rotting apple. The site was hosted by Media Temple and ran on the WordPress blogging engine. Both Media Temple and the site designer were apparently unaware of the stunt, but it later became clear that it was a stunt and Glenn Wolsey had defaced the site himself.
A few days later, the macapper.com site was defaced and the site owner, Miles Evans, wrote that the hack was due to a WordPress vulnerability. Evans later apologised for this, as many other WordPress users had been worried by this apparent vulnerability that did not really exist.
Finally, applematters.com and iphonematters.com were defaced. In this case, however, their hosting company (EngineHosting) immediately took the site down and began an investigation. When they discovered the prank, they notified both their clients and the public that it wasn't a hack and neither their commercial product (Expression Engine) nor their hosting service were vulnerable.
Over the course of these apparent hackings, the parties involved had remained silent and allowed the situation to escalate within both the Apple and Wordpress developer communities, who had grown very concerned by the vulnerabilities and the targeting of apple-related websites.
Over the following 24hrs, explanations and apologies were posted by the owners of macapper.com, macheist.com, glennwolsey.com and applematters.com over their involvement in the stunt and letting it get out-of-hand.
The final MacHeist II bundle contained 14 applications: 1Password, CoverSutra, Cha-Ching, iStopMotion, Tiki Magic Mini Golf, Wingnuts 2, Awaken, TaskPaper, Speed Download 4, AppZapper, CSSEdit, Snapz Pro X, Pixelmator with VectorDesigner unlocked after $300,000 had been raised. There was an offer for people who refer a friend to receive LaunchBar and NoteBook. In all, $500,000 was raised toward the various charities.
MacHeist III
In early 2009, enciphered ads started to appear on RSS feeds for Mac related blogs. They were encrypted with rot15, similar to rot13:
Ztte pc tnt dc BprWtxhi iwxh lttz. Hdbtiwxcv’h vdxcv sdlc…
wiie://lll.bprwtxhi.rdb
Decrypted:
Keep an eye on MacHeist this week. Something's going down...
http://www.macheist.com
Macheist III began on Friday, February 6, 2009 with the first nanoMission. On February 13, 2009 the first official Mission began introducing Sophia, a new secret agent played by Lisa Bettany. The member base was divided into four teams to compete.
The MacHeist III bundle's content was revealed during a scheduled live show lasting from 8:00PM EDT to 10:00PM EDT, March 24. Hosted by Veronica Belmont, Chris Pirillo, and Lisa Bettany, the show revealed each app one by one. The initial apps were iSale, Picturesque, SousChef, World of Goo, PhoneView, LittleSnapper, Acorn, and Kinemac. Big Bang Board Games was also given to the first 25,000 purchasers.
Users who referred friends received pop-pop and the Koingo Utility-Package for one and two referrals. The unlockables, in order, were Wiretap Studio (set to unlock at $100,000, and did so 16 hours after the bundle was released).
, BoinxTV (set to unlock at $400,000, and did so the morning of April 5)
, and a mega-unlock, The Hit List, and Espresso (set to unlock together at $500,000, which was achieved a while before the end of the promotion).
Additional "Bonus Applications" Cro-Mag Rally and Times were added March 31 and April 4, respectively, to boost sales.
The Bundle concluded April 7 at Midnight with a total of 88,401 copies sold and $842,648 raised for charity.
After the sale closed, one final app, AppShelf, was added along with a downloadable file containing a purchasers license info in an AppShelf plist file. Two days later, MacHeist donated $10,455 to make it an even $850,000.
After that, there were prizes for each team. 1st place (green) got 4 apps, 2nd (orange) got 3, 3rd (blue) got 2, and 4th (purple) got one (iClip).
MacHeist nanoBundle
On November 6, 2009, MacHeist's first nanoBundle was presented on a live stream. The bundle consisted of six applications: ShoveBox, WriteRoom, Twitterrific, TinyGrab, Hordes of Orcs, Mariner Write (unlockable when 500,000 users received the bundle). This bundle was available for one week and was free. MacHeist was also offering Virus Barrier for free if the bundle was shared on Facebook.
MacHeist nanoBundle II
On March 1, 2010, MacHeist's second nanoBundle was announced via an email to begin sales on March 3, 2010. In the time between the announcement and the sale, MacHeist offered Latenitesoft's Squeeze (Now known as Clusters) as a free download. The bundle consisted of seven applications: MacJournal, RipIt, Clips, CoverScout, Flow, Tales of Monkey Island (unlockable when 30,000 users received the bundle), and RapidWeaver (unlockable but not announced how many need to purchase). MacHeist also added Tracks, Airbust Extreme and Burning Monkey Solitaire for free if the bundle was shared on Twitter. This bundle was available until March 10, 2010 and was $19.95.
On March, 7, three days before the end of the offer, the number of purchases surpassed 30,000 and Tales of Monkey Island was unlocked. A target of 50,000 purchases was announced for unlocking RapidWeaver. As a teaser, Tweetie was briefly listed in the bundle. Later, Tweetie disappeared from the list, but its icon appeared half-occluded on MacHeist website. After the number of purchasers surpassed 50,000 and RapidWeaver got unlocked, it was announced that Tweetie would be unlocked at 56,789 bundle sales. The license for Tweetie was valid for Tweetie 2, and included pre-launch access to a beta of the software. On March 9, 2010, the number of bundle sales surpassed 56,789, and Tweetie was unlocked for all purchasers. The offer ended on March 11, 2010, and a total number of 87,854 bundles were sold.
MacHeist IV
On September 12, 2012, MacHeist released a camera app for iOS called "Who's Quilly." The next day, MacHeist tweeted a quote from the poem "the Spider and the Fly," notifying of a website 'blackout'. Both of these pages have materials hosted in a '/mh4' folder, indicating MH4 was coming.
At around 11:00 BST, MacHeist 4 begun with a message on their Facebook page and the release of the MacHeist Agent App. Ironically, the site's previous intentional blackout preceded an unintentional blackout, as the site was slow to respond due to the number of visits.
On September 16, 2012, MacHeist 4 officially launched, after a message from John Casasanta on the previous day. MacHeist 4 had eight series of puzzle games (called Missions and nanoMissions, from 1 to 4 each) at the end of which users would get free software as prizes and also discount coins for this season's bundle. Later on, all the 20 software programs collectively called "the loot" were made available to everyone in a "pay with a tweet" program in order to help promote MacHeist 4 on Twitter. Users who had already 'heisted' the loot were awarded another application, Favs. The puzzle games called the Missions/nanoMissions each had their own Mac, iPhone and iPad apps and there was also a MacHeist Agent app that displayed the site's announcements and also awarded those who used it another discount coin for the bundle.
One month later, on October 16, the MacHeist 4 reveal show launched the bundle, initially consisting of 15 Mac applications: Bejeweled 3, Scrivener, Realmac Software's Courier, PDF Signer, Mapdiva Artboard], Jurassic Park, Radium, MacWare DiskTools Pro, Ohanaware HDRtist], Firetask, BioShock 2, Corel Painter Lite (which was promoted as originally launched on MacHeist 4) and a 15-month subscription to Evernote Premium. Initially Firetask, BioShock 2, Painter Lite were 'locked' and were supposed to be unlocked as the sales grew. Firetask was supposed to be unlocked at 25.000 bundles sold, and the other two at an 'unknown' but supposedly higher sales figure. 25% from each bundle sale was announced to be donated to the charity that users choose at purchase time, from the list put together by the MacHeist team. Clean My Mac was also offered as a referral reward.
MacHeist 4 added a total of 6 more applications to the bundle: MacGourmet Deluxe 3, Printopia, Braid, Bartender, TuneUp and MoneyBag, unlocked Firetask and BioShock 2 ahead of time, sold 25,000 bundles of Painter Lite, and added three more days to the bundle sale duration. The final sales figures were: 44,149 bundles sold, raising $315,000 for charity and three times more for MacHeist and its partners.
MacHeist nanoBundle 3
NanoBundle 3 contained Fantastical, CleanMyMac 2, Totals, Clarify, xScope, iStopMotion, Path Finder and Little Inferno.
MacHeist nanoBundle 4
NanoBundle 4 contained Mac DVDRipper Pro, Intensify Pro, Swift Publisher, Hype, Chocolat, LaunchBar, djay, Limbo and PaintCode.
MacHeist nanoBundle 5
NanoBundle 5 contained Cinemagraph Pro, WebCode, Periscope Pro, Vitamin-R, Silo, MediaCentral, and Oscura: Second Shadow, with Intaglio and Data Rescue 3 added after participation goals were met.
Criticism
MacHeist I was criticized by several members of the Mac community, most notably John Gruber of the Daring Fireball blog, Paul Kafasis of Rogue Amoeba Software, and Gus Mueller of Flying Meat Software, who later participated in The Macheist III Bundle with Acorn. Some independent Mac software developers, who chose not to participate in MacHeist, felt that the proclamation from the MacHeist organisers that it was "The Week of the Independent Mac Developer" was an inappropriate form of marketing.
While exact royalty payment amounts have not been released to the public, Gruber and others questioned the value of the promotion to the participating developers, citing offers made to developers of around US$5,000 per application, whereas the MacHeist bundle grossed nearly US$800,000. Gruber's estimates indicate that the net profits for the MacHeist team likely far exceeded the total charity donation and the royalties paid to participating developers combined. Additionally, some thought that setting goals to "unlock" NewsFire and TextMate in terms of dollars raised for charity was deceptive and unethical.
However, several of the developers whose applications were featured in MacHeist I, including Wil Shipley, author of Delicious Library, defended their decision to participate in the promotion. They cited exposure to new users, the potential for increased upgrade revenue in the future, and other factors for their participation in MacHeist I, despite the seemingly low amount of revenue generated directly from MacHeist.
There has been criticism of MacHeist II, with some customers being charged multiple times for the software bundle despite the website proclaiming that 'the order can not be processed'. In addition to this, the support services provided by John Casasanta and the rest of the MacHeist team has been ridiculed as they initially refused to respond to customer complaints about the problem, or issue refunds for overcharging.
Community
MacHeist maintained an online user forum. During missions, members actively chat, post and talk about the presented puzzles and possible methods of approach. The Staff and Directorate (head staff) often participate in discussions. Developers also discuss their applications on the forum and can update their applications based on MacHeist member feedback and bug-reports.
Clones
After the initial MacHeist I promotion, several users of the site created imitation sites. Most of these sites proved to be much less successful than the original. On July 9, 2007, MacUpdate began a promotion that very closely resembled the MacHeist I bundle sale, in that it sold a bundle of Mac OS X software applications that increased in size with a greater number of sales. The MacUpdate bundle sold nearly 2,000 copies in the first two days. MacHeist became an affiliate with this bundle, selling additional applications that MacUpdate did not along with the MacUpdate bundle.
References
Online retailers of the United States |
71131 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QuarkXPress | QuarkXPress | QuarkXPress is a desktop publishing software for creating and editing complex page layouts in a WYSIWYG (What You See Is What You Get) environment. It runs on macOS and Windows. It was first released by Quark, Inc. in 1987 and is still owned and published by them.
The most recent version, QuarkXPress 2022 (internal version number 18.0.0), allows publishing in English ("International and U.S.") and 36 other languages, including Arabic, Chinese, Japanese, Portuguese, German, Korean, Russian, French and Spanish.
QuarkXPress is used by individual designers, large publishing houses and corporations to produce a variety of layouts, from single-page flyers and collateral to the multi-media projects required for magazines, newspapers, catalogs and the like. More recent versions have added support for ebooks, Web and mobile apps.
History
Founded by Tim Gill in 1981 with a $2,000 loan from his parents, with the introduction of Fred Ebrahimi as CEO in 1986.
The first version of QuarkXPress was released in 1987 for the Macintosh. Five years passed before a Microsoft Windows version (3.1) followed in 1992. In the 1990s, QuarkXPress became widely used by professional page designers, the typesetting industry and printers. In particular, the Mac version of 3.3 (released in 1996) was seen as stable and trouble-free, working seamlessly with Adobe's PostScript fonts as well as with Apple's TrueType fonts. Quark's AppleScript support was a significant factor in both Quark's and AppleScript's success.
In 1989, QuarkXPress incorporated an application programming interface called XTensions which allows third-party developers to create custom add-on features to the desktop application. Xtensions, along with Adobe's Photoshop plugins, was one of the first examples of a developer allowing others to create software add-ons for their application.
Although competitors like PageMaker existed, QuarkXPress was so dominant that it had an estimated 95% market share during the 1990s. After QuarkXPress 3.3, QuarkXPress was seen as needing significant improvements and users criticized it for its overly long innovation cycles.
Gill sold his 50% stake in the company in 1999 for a reported $500 million.
The release of QuarkXPress version 5 in 2002 led to disappointment from Apple's user base, as QuarkXPress did not support Mac OS X, while Adobe InDesign 2.0—launched in the same week—did. QuarkXPress also lost marketshare due to an increasing price gap between it and InDesign. InDesign CS cost $699, while QuarkXPress 6 cost $945. The later Adobe Creative Suite (2003), which users purchased for access to Photoshop and Illustrator, included InDesign.
In response to a shrinking user base, Quark started to lower its pricing levels in 2004. In December 2006, Quark licensed the Windows version of QuarkXPress 5 to be distributed for free on the cover of a UK computer magazine, Computer Shopper, with the idea of enticing consumers to upgrade to later versions.
Having arrived late with a Mac OS X version, Quark took a different approach to porting to Intel-native applications on Mac (Universal Binary), and released its Universal Binary version 7 months before Adobe ported InDesign.
QuarkXPress 9 won Product of the Year in 2011 (MacWorld Awards 2011: Grand Prix Winner).
Since 2015, QuarkXPress has been updated on an annual cycle, with major version releases in May 2015, May 2016, May 2017, May 2018, July 2019, 2020, October 2021
Use and features
The package provides the basic functionality of font, alignment, spacing, and color, but it also provides its users with professional typesetting options such as kerning, curving text along a line, and ligatures.
A QuarkXPress document contains text and graphics boxes. The boxes can be reshaped, layered, and given varying levels of transparency and text alignment (runaround). Both box positioning and graphic or text positioning is allowed within a box with an accuracy of one-thousandth of an inch.
Color control allows the full-use of printing-press standard Pantone or Hexachrome inks, along with a variety of other color-space options. Draft output can be printed on conventional desktop printers. Process color (CMYK) separation films can be produced for printing-presses. QuarkXPress also offers the ability for composite work-flows, both with PostScript and PDF output.
QuarkXPress offers layout synchronization, multiple undo/redo functionality, XML and web page (HTML) features, and support for direct PDF import and output. Documents can be verified (pre-flight) before printing. This high-level print preview automatically identifies conflicts and other printing problems. Adobe has a similar feature in InDesign.
Composition zones feature makes it the only desktop application with multi-user capabilities by allowing multiple users to edit different zones on the same page. Composition Zones pushes collaboration a step further than just simultaneous text/picture (as possible with Quark CopyDesk since 1991), as it allows layout and graphic elements to be edited outside the layout application.
User-defined rules, output specs, and layout specs can be used for intelligent templates and enable resource sharing (for example, server-based style sheet definitions).
Version 6.5, released at the end of 2004, added enhanced support for the Photoshop format (PSD). The PSD integration and picture manipulation features led to QuarkXPress receiving a number of awards, such as the Macworld Editor's Choice for 2004.
Version 7 added support for OpenType, Unicode, JDF, and also PDF/X-export. QuarkXPress 7 also added unique features, such as native transparency at the color level.
QuarkXPress 8 introduced a completely new user interface, support for drag and drop, PDF 1.7 import, AI Import and a global file format. Design grids can be assigned to pages and boxes to allow unlimited baseline grids. Hanging characters can be applied and customized by character and amount to hang outside the box. This is the first version to include built-in Adobe Flash authoring. Designers can create Flash content including sound, video, animation and interactivity without programming. In October 2008, QuarkXPress 8 won the MacUser Award for Print Publishing Software of the Year.
With version 9 QuarkXPress extended its crossmedia publishing approach and can be used now to also export to eBooks (ePub3 and Blio) and native apps (for the iPad). With App Studio, which is shipped with QuarkXPress, designers can even create and design their own apps. Additionally QuarkXPress 9 offers cascading styles (stylesheets based on text content), callouts (anchored objects that flow with the text based on position rules), create complex ad editable Bézier paths using a wizard (ShapeMaker), bullets and numbers (with import and export from/to Microsoft Word) and more.
The Mac version of QuarkXPress 9 is for Intel processors only, making QuarkXPress 8.5.1 the last choice for PPC-based Macs.
QuarkXPress 10, was described by Quark as a major re-write of the software on the Mac platform in particular to move it from the older Carbon API to Cocoa. It also included a new, modern graphics engine, Xenon. During the lifecycle of version 10, new features included Retina Display support, PDF pass-through transparency, notes, redlining, increased zoom (8000%) and the ability to create HTML5 animations for inclusion in App Studio tablet and smartphone apps.
QuarkXPress 2015 was the first version to use a different naming scheme. It was completely 64-bit and added fixed-layout ePub and Kindle export as well as exporting layouts as PDF/X-4. Quark claimed to have added the top 10 of all user-requested features.
QuarkXPress 2016 included the ability to import and copy and paste from other applications and file formats to native QuarkXPress objects. The release also includes revamped digital capabilities including being able to create HTML5 Publications. Top user requested features include multi-gradient blends and a color picker tool.
QuarkXPress 2017 continued the new naming scheme and established an annual release cycle. The headline features include non-destructive image editing, various typography enhancements such as text stroking and text shading, responsive HTML5, and unlimited iOS apps for no additional cost (outside of the Apple Developer fees). Other user-requested features included adaptive layout conversion for print, smart quotes, and proportional leading.
On March 1, 2018, Quark announced QuarkXPress 2018, stating it would be available on May 16, 2018, continuing its now familiar annual release cycle. The headline features in version 2018 include new OpenType controls, hyphenation strictness, support for color fonts, IDML import (to convert Adobe InDesign documents to QuarkXPress) and the ability to create unlimited Android apps for no additional cost (outside of the Google Play fees).
Server version
In the beginning of 2003 Quark released a server version of QuarkXPress, originally called QuarkDDS. Renamed in 2006 to "QuarkXPress Server", the product is now primarily sold with Quark Publishing Platform – the central hub of the company's content automation solutions. QuarkXPress Server is a Java application that takes content components (text, images, video, data, charts, etc.) and automatically assembles them into different formats from PDFs to responsive HTML and Web apps. As the content is assembled into templates using granular content components, the output can be highly customized for different audiences in terms of the content and the brand. The system relies on XML.
Extensions and tools
Quark Interactive Designer
Quark Interactive Designer is an extension and tool for creating Adobe Flash context from QuarkXPress documents. It enables the export QuarkXPress projects in SWF (Flash) file format. This allows documents created for print or web production to also be output as a Flash advertisement. No knowledge of timelines or ActionScript is necessary for this purpose. Since QuarkXPress is natively capable of creating HTML projects, this allows web designers to design and build their HTML and Flash elements and combine them all in a single application. Resulting files can be exported as SWF Flash files or standalone Projector applications for macOS or Windows. Quark Interactive Designer makes use of palette-based actions, similar to those found in PowerPoint, in order to animate text and graphics. It also allows some use of button-triggered behaviors and embedding of QuickTime and Flash Video, and audio files.
Version history
QuarkXPress 1 (1987) – Mac OS only.
QuarkXPress 2 (1989) – First non-English versions (e.g. French, German).
QuarkXPress 2.1 (1989) – Enhanced typographic control, such as user-definable kerning tables.
QuarkXPress 3 (1990) – First version with measurement palette and support for libraries.
QuarkXPress 3.1 (1992) – First version to also support Windows.
QuarkXPress 3.2 (1993) – First version to support Applescript and color management.
QuarkXPress 3.3 (1996) – First version to support PPC natively. First Passport Version (optional).
QuarkXPress 3.32 (1996) – Support for QuarkImmedia. This is the last version which works on Windows 3.x (requires Win32s to be installed).
QuarkXPress 4 (1997) – First version with bézier curves. Notable interface improvements include pop-up tools and tabbed dialog boxes.
QuarkXPress 4.1 (1999) – First version to also support PDF and XML.
QuarkXPress 5 (2002) – First version to offer tables and to export HTML.
QuarkXPress Server (QuarkDDS) released.
QuarkXPress 6 (2003) – First version to support Mac OS X.
QuarkXPress 6.1 (2004) – First version with Excel Import filter.
QuarkXPress 6.5 (2004) – First version to also support the Document Object Model and features for picture retouching.
QuarkXPress 6.52 (2006) – Bug fixes, released after Quark 7.
QuarkXPress 7 (2006) – First version to support OpenType, Unicode, PDF/X, Shadows/Transparencies, Job Definition Format and Composition Zones.
QuarkXPress 7.01 (8 August 2006) – First native version for Intel Macs (Universal binary), plus PPML support.
QuarkXPress 7.02 (2006) – Additional language support in Passport.
QuarkXPress 7.1 (2007) – Performance update.
QuarkXPress 7.2 (2007) – First version to support Windows Vista, additional languages.
QuarkXPress 7.3 (2007) – Increased UI localization and PDF support, improved performance and stability.
QuarkXPress 7.31 (2007) – Certification on Windows Vista, support for Mac OS X 10.5 ("Leopard"), enhancements to spell checking.
QuarkXPress 7.4 (2008) – non public release, only for QPS customers.
QuarkXPress 7.5 (2008) – Bug-fix release, released after release of Quark 8.
QuarkXPress 8 (2008) – New UI, drag-and-drop support, direct image manipulation, customizable optical margin alignment, multiple baseline grids, East Asian support, built-in Flash authoring.
QuarkXPress 8.01 (2008) – Spellchecker enhancements
QuarkXPress 8.02 (2009) – Five new languages and new Pantone libraries.
QuarkXPress 8.1 (2009) – Numerical scale, native transparency and layers in PDF, improved spell checker and other feature improvements. Supports Snow Leopard and Windows 7.
QuarkXPress 8.12 (2009) – Bug-fix release.
QuarkXPress 8.15 (2010) (Mac OS X only) – Fixes activation issues on certain Apple hardware.
QuarkXPress 8.1.6 (2010) – Speed optimizations
QuarkXPress 8.1.6.2 (2010) – Bug-fix release.
QuarkXPress 8.5 (2010) – Bug fixes, auto updater, DOCX import.
QuarkXPress 8.5.1 (2011) – Bug fixes, last Universal Binary version.
QuarkXPress 9 (2011) – Nested Styles, callouts (anchored elements outside text boxes), bullets and numbers, shape wizard, multi-image import, ePUB Export.
QuarkXPress 9.0.1 (2011) – Bug-fix release
QuarkXPress 9.1 (2011) – Addition of "App Studio", which allows to export multimedia apps for iPad out of QuarkXPress. First version to officially support Mac OS X Lion
QuarkXPress 9.2 (2012) – Export to ePUB 3.0, plus ability to create ePUB files from scratch. Improvements to App Studio, including iOS 5 support.
QuarkXPress 9.2.1 (2012) (Mac OS X only) – Fix "missing icons" bug caused by Lion 10.7.3
QuarkXPress 9.2.1.1 (2012) – Added support for exporting to the Retina iPad
QuarkXPress 9.3 (2012) – Export eBooks directly to Amazon Kindle format, plus other minor fixes including EPS and PDF color management.
QuarkXPress 9.3.1 (2012) – Compatibility with the OS X Mountain Lion (10.8) Gatekeeper feature.
QuarkXPress 9.3.1.1 (2012) – Fixes a spellchecker crash.
QuarkXPress 9.5 (2012) – Allows the creation of 100% HTML5-based content on native apps and platforms such as Android.
QuarkXPress 9.5.1 (2013) – Adds page stacks, bugfixes
QuarkXPress 9.5.1.1 (2013) – Bugfixes
QuarkXPress 9.5.2 (2013) – Download manager, bugfixes
QuarkXPress 9.5.3 (2013) – Fixes known issues with PDF export
QuarkXPress 9.5.4 (2013) – Support for OS X Mavericks
QuarkXPress 10 (September 2013)
QuarkXPress 10.0.1 (2013) – Support for OS X Mavericks and Windows 8.1
QuarkXPress 10.1 (2014) – 8000% zoom, smart guides, HTML5-based animations, image export, new book function
QuarkXPress 10.2 (2014) – Speed Improvements, Notes, Redlining
QuarkXPress 10.2.1 (2014) – Bug fixes
QuarkXPress 10.5 (2014) – Support for OS X Yosemite
QuarkXPress 2015
QuarkXPress 2015 Release 11.0 (April 2015) – 64-bit version only, over 5 meters max page size, fixed-layout interactive eBooks (FXL ePUB), footers and end notes, text variables, custom paper sizes, user-definable shortcut keys (Mac only), table styles, PDF/X-4.
May 2015 Release (11.0.0.1) – bug fixes
July 2015 Release (11.0.1) – faster launch speed
Sep 2015 Release (11.1) – Support for Windows 10
Oct 2015 Release (11.2) – Support for OS X El Capitan
QuarkXPress 2016
QuarkXPress 2016 Release 12.0 (May 2016) – Convert AI/EPS/PDF to editable objects, copy Illustrator, InDesign, MS Office as editable objects; create HTML5 Publications, multi-color gradients, OpenType Stylistic Sets, Eyedropper
QuarkXPress 2017
QuarkXPress 2017 Release 13.0 (May 2017) – Non-destructive image editing, transparency blend modes, text shading and test framing, stroke live text, merge/split columns, create responsive HTML5 Publications, create iOS Apps (for free, no monthly fees)
QuarkXPress 2017 Release 13.0.1 (June 2017)
QuarkXPress 2017 Release 13.0.2 (July 2017)
QuarkXPress 2017 Release 13.1 (October 2017) – Support for macOS High Sierra
QuarkXPress 2017 Release 13.1.1 (December 2017) – Fix for PSD filter
QuarkXPress 2017 Release 13.2 (January 2018) – Beta support for opening Adobe InDesign Markup Language (IDML) files
QuarkXPress 2017 Release 13.2.1 (January 2018) – Fix for PDF output
QuarkXPress 2017 Release 13.2.4 (June 2018)
QuarkXPress 2018
QuarkXPress 2018 Release 14.0 (May 2018) - OpenType enhancements, color fonts support, hyphenation strictness, InDesign IDML Import, tagged/accessible PDF, built-in JavaScript v8 support, create Android Apps, digital preview improvements, HTML5 export optimizations, unified Windows/Mac interface.
QuarkXPress 2018 Release 14.0.1 (July 2018)
QuarkXPress 2018 Release 14.1.2 (October 2018) – Now available in the Mac App Store. Dark Theme for Mojave.
QuarkXPress 2018 Release 14.2 (December 2018) – Adds typography for Indian languages like Hindi
QuarkXPress 2018 Release 14.2.1 (January 2019)
QuarkXPress 2019
QuarkXPress 2019 Release 15.0 (July 2019)
QuarkXPress 2020
QuarkXPress 2020 Release 16.0 (2020)
QuarkXPress 2021
QuarkXPress 2021 Release 17.0.01 (October 2021)
QuarkXPress 2022
QuarkXPress 2022 Release 18.0 (February 2022) - Quark extends reach of content design and digital publishing software with a new budget-friendly subscription offering in addition to their perpetual license option and access to a royalty-free stock image library to support customers wherever they are on the content-creation spectrum.
See also
Quark Publishing System
References
External links
Quark Inc. (official site)
QuarkXPress (official site)
QuarkXPress Server (official site)
Quark User Blog
QuarkXPress XTensions (Plug-ins / Add-ons for QuarkXPress)
Tutorials
QuarkEd free e-learning files on quark.com
Desktop publishing software
DTP for MacOS
DTP for Windows |
9101 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Device%20driver | Device driver | In computing, a device driver is a computer program that operates or controls a particular type of device that is attached to a computer or automaton. A driver provides a software interface to hardware devices, enabling operating systems and other computer programs to access hardware functions without needing to know precise details about the hardware being used.
A driver communicates with the device through the computer bus or communications subsystem to which the hardware connects. When a calling program invokes a routine in the driver, the driver issues commands to the device (drives it). Once the device sends data back to the driver, the driver may invoke routines in the original calling program.
Drivers are hardware dependent and operating-system-specific. They usually provide the interrupt handling required for any necessary asynchronous time-dependent hardware interface.
Purpose
The main purpose of device drivers is to provide abstraction by acting as a translator between a hardware device and the applications or operating systems that use it. Programmers can write higher-level application code independently of whatever specific hardware the end-user is using.
For example, a high-level application for interacting with a serial port may simply have two functions for "send data" and "receive data". At a lower level, a device driver implementing these functions would communicate to the particular serial port controller installed on a user's computer. The commands needed to control a 16550 UART are much different from the commands needed to control an FTDI serial port converter, but each hardware-specific device driver abstracts these details into the same (or similar) software interface.
Development
Writing a device driver requires an in-depth understanding of how the hardware and the software works for a given platform function. Because drivers require low-level access to hardware functions in order to operate, drivers typically operate in a highly privileged environment and can cause system operational issues if something goes wrong. In contrast, most user-level software on modern operating systems can be stopped without greatly affecting the rest of the system. Even drivers executing in user mode can crash a system if the device is erroneously programmed. These factors make it more difficult and dangerous to diagnose problems.
The task of writing drivers thus usually falls to software engineers or computer engineers who work for hardware-development companies. This is because they have better information than most outsiders about the design of their hardware. Moreover, it was traditionally considered in the hardware manufacturer's interest to guarantee that their clients can use their hardware in an optimum way. Typically, the Logical Device Driver (LDD) is written by the operating system vendor, while the Physical Device Driver (PDD) is implemented by the device vendor. However, in recent years, non-vendors have written numerous device drivers for proprietary devices, mainly for use with free and open source operating systems. In such cases, it is important that the hardware manufacturer provide information on how the device communicates. Although this information can instead be learned by reverse engineering, this is much more difficult with hardware than it is with software.
Microsoft has attempted to reduce system instability due to poorly written device drivers by creating a new framework for driver development, called Windows Driver Frameworks (WDF). This includes User-Mode Driver Framework (UMDF) that encourages development of certain types of drivers—primarily those that implement a message-based protocol for communicating with their devices—as user-mode drivers. If such drivers malfunction, they do not cause system instability. The Kernel-Mode Driver Framework (KMDF) model continues to allow development of kernel-mode device drivers, but attempts to provide standard implementations of functions that are known to cause problems, including cancellation of I/O operations, power management, and plug and play device support.
Apple has an open-source framework for developing drivers on macOS, called I/O Kit.
In Linux environments, programmers can build device drivers as parts of the kernel, separately as loadable modules, or as user-mode drivers (for certain types of devices where kernel interfaces exist, such as for USB devices). Makedev includes a list of the devices in Linux, including ttyS (terminal), lp (parallel port), hd (disk), loop, and sound (these include mixer, sequencer, dsp, and audio).
Microsoft Windows .sys files and Linux .ko files can contain loadable device drivers. The advantage of loadable device drivers is that they can be loaded only when necessary and then unloaded, thus saving kernel memory.
Kernel mode vs. user mode
Device drivers, particularly on Microsoft Windows platforms, can run in kernel-mode (Ring 0 on x86 CPUs) or in user-mode (Ring 3 on x86 CPUs). The primary benefit of running a driver in user mode is improved stability, since a poorly written user-mode device driver cannot crash the system by overwriting kernel memory. On the other hand, user/kernel-mode transitions usually impose a considerable performance overhead, thus making kernel-mode drivers preferred for low-latency networking.
Kernel space can be accessed by user module only through the use of system calls. End user programs like the UNIX shell or other GUI-based applications are part of user space. These applications interact with hardware through kernel supported functions.
Applications
Because of the diversity of hardware and operating systems, drivers operate in many different environments. Drivers may interface with:
Printers
Video adapters
Network cards
Sound cards
Local buses of various sorts—in particular, for bus mastering on modern systems
Low-bandwidth I/O buses of various sorts (for pointing devices such as mice, keyboards, etc.)
Computer storage devices such as hard disk, CD-ROM, and floppy disk buses (ATA, SATA, SCSI, SAS)
Implementing support for different file systems
Image scanners
Digital cameras
Digital terrestrial television tuners
Radio frequency communication transceiver adapters for wireless personal area networks as used for short-distance and low-rate wireless communication in home automation, (such as example Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE), Thread, ZigBee, and Z-Wave).
IrDA adapters
Common levels of abstraction for device drivers include:
For hardware:
Interfacing directly
Writing to or reading from a device control register
Using some higher-level interface (e.g. Video BIOS)
Using another lower-level device driver (e.g. file system drivers using disk drivers)
Simulating work with hardware, while doing something entirely different
For software:
Allowing the operating system direct access to hardware resources
Implementing only primitives
Implementing an interface for non-driver software (e.g. TWAIN)
Implementing a language, sometimes quite high-level (e.g. PostScript)
So choosing and installing the correct device drivers for given hardware is often a key component of computer system configuration.
Virtual device drivers
Virtual device drivers represent a particular variant of device drivers. They are used to emulate a hardware device, particularly in virtualization environments, for example when a DOS program is run on a Microsoft Windows computer or when a guest operating system is run on, for example, a Xen host. Instead of enabling the guest operating system to dialog with hardware, virtual device drivers take the opposite role and emulates a piece of hardware, so that the guest operating system and its drivers running inside a virtual machine can have the illusion of accessing real hardware. Attempts by the guest operating system to access the hardware are routed to the virtual device driver in the host operating system as e.g., function calls. The virtual device driver can also send simulated processor-level events like interrupts into the virtual machine.
Virtual devices may also operate in a non-virtualized environment. For example, a virtual network adapter is used with a virtual private network, while a virtual disk device is used with iSCSI. A good example for virtual device drivers can be Daemon Tools.
There are several variants of virtual device drivers, such as VxDs, VLMs, and VDDs.
Open source drivers
Graphics device driver
Printers: CUPS
RAIDs: CCISS (Compaq Command Interface for SCSI-3 Support)
Scanners: SANE
Video: Vidix, Direct Rendering Infrastructure
Solaris descriptions of commonly used device drivers:
fas: Fast/wide SCSI controller
hme: Fast (10/100 Mbit/s) Ethernet
isp: Differential SCSI controllers and the SunSwift card
glm: (Gigabaud Link Module) UltraSCSI controllers
scsi: Small Computer Serial Interface (SCSI) devices
sf: soc+ or social Fiber Channel Arbitrated Loop (FCAL)
soc: SPARC Storage Array (SSA) controllers and the control device
social: Serial optical controllers for FCAL (soc+)
APIs
Windows Display Driver Model (WDDM) – the graphic display driver architecture for Windows Vista and later.
Unified Audio Model (UAM)
Windows Driver Foundation (WDF)
Declarative Componentized Hardware (DCH) - Universal Windows Platform driver
Windows Driver Model (WDM)
Network Driver Interface Specification (NDIS) – a standard network card driver API
Advanced Linux Sound Architecture (ALSA) – the standard Linux sound-driver interface
Scanner Access Now Easy (SANE) – a public-domain interface to raster-image scanner-hardware
Installable File System (IFS) – a filesystem API for IBM OS/2 and Microsoft Windows NT
Open Data-Link Interface (ODI) – network card API similar to NDIS
Uniform Driver Interface (UDI) – a cross-platform driver interface project
Dynax Driver Framework (dxd) – C++ open source cross-platform driver framework for KMDF and IOKit
Identifiers
A device on the PCI bus or USB is identified by two IDs which consist of 4 hexadecimal numbers each. The vendor ID identifies the vendor of the device. The device ID identifies a specific device from that manufacturer/vendor.
A PCI device has often an ID pair for the main chip of the device, and also a subsystem ID pair which identifies the vendor, which may be different from the chip manufacturer.
See also
Driver (software)
Class driver
Controller (computing)
Device driver synthesis and verification
Driver wrapper
Free software
Firmware
Loadable kernel module
Makedev
Open-source hardware
Printer driver
Replicant (operating system)
udev
References
External links
Windows Hardware Dev Center
Linux Hardware Compatibility Lists and Linux Drivers
Understanding Modern Device Drivers(Linux)
BinaryDriverHowto, Ubuntu.
Linux Drivers Source
Linux drivers
Computing terminology
Windows NT kernel |
1260 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced%20Encryption%20Standard | Advanced Encryption Standard | The Advanced Encryption Standard (AES), also known by its original name Rijndael (), is a specification for the encryption of electronic data established by the U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) in 2001.
AES is a variant of the Rijndael block cipher developed by two Belgian cryptographers, Joan Daemen and Vincent Rijmen, who submitted a proposal to NIST during the AES selection process. Rijndael is a family of ciphers with different key and block sizes. For AES, NIST selected three members of the Rijndael family, each with a block size of 128 bits, but three different key lengths: 128, 192 and 256 bits.
AES has been adopted by the U.S. government. It supersedes the Data Encryption Standard (DES), which was published in 1977. The algorithm described by AES is a symmetric-key algorithm, meaning the same key is used for both encrypting and decrypting the data.
In the United States, AES was announced by the NIST as U.S. FIPS PUB 197 (FIPS 197) on November 26, 2001. This announcement followed a five-year standardization process in which fifteen competing designs were presented and evaluated, before the Rijndael cipher was selected as the most suitable (see Advanced Encryption Standard process for more details).
AES is included in the ISO/IEC 18033-3 standard. AES became effective as a U.S. federal government standard on May 26, 2002, after approval by the U.S. Secretary of Commerce. AES is available in many different encryption packages, and is the first (and only) publicly accessible cipher approved by the U.S. National Security Agency (NSA) for top secret information when used in an NSA approved cryptographic module (see Security of AES, below).
Definitive standards
The Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) is defined in each of:
FIPS PUB 197: Advanced Encryption Standard (AES)
ISO/IEC 18033-3: Block ciphers
Description of the ciphers
AES is based on a design principle known as a substitution–permutation network, and is efficient in both software and hardware. Unlike its predecessor DES, AES does not use a Feistel network. AES is a variant of Rijndael, with a fixed block size of 128 bits, and a key size of 128, 192, or 256 bits. By contrast, Rijndael per se is specified with block and key sizes that may be any multiple of 32 bits, with a minimum of 128 and a maximum of 256 bits.
AES operates on a 4 × 4 column-major order array of bytes, termed the state. Most AES calculations are done in a particular finite field.
For instance, 16 bytes, are represented as this two-dimensional array:
The key size used for an AES cipher specifies the number of transformation rounds that convert the input, called the plaintext, into the final output, called the ciphertext. The number of rounds are as follows:
10 rounds for 128-bit keys.
12 rounds for 192-bit keys.
14 rounds for 256-bit keys.
Each round consists of several processing steps, including one that depends on the encryption key itself. A set of reverse rounds are applied to transform ciphertext back into the original plaintext using the same encryption key.
High-level description of the algorithm
round keys are derived from the cipher key using the AES key schedule. AES requires a separate 128-bit round key block for each round plus one more.
Initial round key addition:
each byte of the state is combined with a byte of the round key using bitwise xor.
9, 11 or 13 rounds:
a non-linear substitution step where each byte is replaced with another according to a lookup table.
a transposition step where the last three rows of the state are shifted cyclically a certain number of steps.
a linear mixing operation which operates on the columns of the state, combining the four bytes in each column.
Final round (making 10, 12 or 14 rounds in total):
The step
In the step, each byte in the state array is replaced with a using an 8-bit substitution box. Note that before round 0, the state array is simply the plaintext/input. This operation provides the non-linearity in the cipher. The S-box used is derived from the multiplicative inverse over , known to have good non-linearity properties. To avoid attacks based on simple algebraic properties, the S-box is constructed by combining the inverse function with an invertible affine transformation. The S-box is also chosen to avoid any fixed points (and so is a derangement), i.e., , and also any opposite fixed points, i.e., .
While performing the decryption, the step (the inverse of ) is used, which requires first taking the inverse of the affine transformation and then finding the multiplicative inverse.
The step
The step operates on the rows of the state; it cyclically shifts the bytes in each row by a certain offset. For AES, the first row is left unchanged. Each byte of the second row is shifted one to the left. Similarly, the third and fourth rows are shifted by offsets of two and three respectively. In this way, each column of the output state of the step is composed of bytes from each column of the input state. The importance of this step is to avoid the columns being encrypted independently, in which case AES would degenerate into four independent block ciphers.
The step
In the step, the four bytes of each column of the state are combined using an invertible linear transformation. The function takes four bytes as input and outputs four bytes, where each input byte affects all four output bytes. Together with , provides diffusion in the cipher.
During this operation, each column is transformed using a fixed matrix (matrix left-multiplied by column gives new value of column in the state):
Matrix multiplication is composed of multiplication and addition of the entries. Entries are bytes treated as coefficients of polynomial of order . Addition is simply XOR. Multiplication is modulo irreducible polynomial . If processed bit by bit, then, after shifting, a conditional XOR with 1B16 should be performed if the shifted value is larger than FF16 (overflow must be corrected by subtraction of generating polynomial). These are special cases of the usual multiplication in .
In more general sense, each column is treated as a polynomial over and is then multiplied modulo with a fixed polynomial . The coefficients are displayed in their hexadecimal equivalent of the binary representation of bit polynomials from . The step can also be viewed as a multiplication by the shown particular MDS matrix in the finite field . This process is described further in the article Rijndael MixColumns.
The step
In the step, the subkey is combined with the state. For each round, a subkey is derived from the main key using Rijndael's key schedule; each subkey is the same size as the state. The subkey is added by combining each byte of the state with the corresponding byte of the subkey using bitwise XOR.
Optimization of the cipher
On systems with 32-bit or larger words, it is possible to speed up execution of this cipher by combining the and steps with the step by transforming them into a sequence of table lookups. This requires four 256-entry 32-bit tables (together occupying 4096 bytes). A round can then be performed with 16 table lookup operations and 12 32-bit exclusive-or operations, followed by four 32-bit exclusive-or operations in the step. Alternatively, the table lookup operation can be performed with a single 256-entry 32-bit table (occupying 1024 bytes) followed by circular rotation operations.
Using a byte-oriented approach, it is possible to combine the , , and steps into a single round operation.
Security
The National Security Agency (NSA) reviewed all the AES finalists, including Rijndael, and stated that all of them were secure enough for U.S. Government non-classified data. In June 2003, the U.S. Government announced that AES could be used to protect classified information:
The design and strength of all key lengths of the AES algorithm (i.e., 128, 192 and 256) are sufficient to protect classified information up to the SECRET level. TOP SECRET information will require use of either the 192 or 256 key lengths. The implementation of AES in products intended to protect national security systems and/or information must be reviewed and certified by NSA prior to their acquisition and use.
AES has 10 rounds for 128-bit keys, 12 rounds for 192-bit keys, and 14 rounds for 256-bit keys.
By 2006, the best known attacks were on 7 rounds for 128-bit keys, 8 rounds for 192-bit keys, and 9 rounds for 256-bit keys.
Known attacks
For cryptographers, a cryptographic "break" is anything faster than a brute-force attack – i.e., performing one trial decryption for each possible key in sequence (see Cryptanalysis). A break can thus include results that are infeasible with current technology. Despite being impractical, theoretical breaks can sometimes provide insight into vulnerability patterns. The largest successful publicly known brute-force attack against a widely implemented block-cipher encryption algorithm was against a 64-bit RC5 key by distributed.net in 2006.
The key space increases by a factor of 2 for each additional bit of key length, and if every possible value of the key is equiprobable, this translates into a doubling of the average brute-force key search time. This implies that the effort of a brute-force search increases exponentially with key length. Key length in itself does not imply security against attacks, since there are ciphers with very long keys that have been found to be vulnerable.
AES has a fairly simple algebraic framework. In 2002, a theoretical attack, named the "XSL attack", was announced by Nicolas Courtois and Josef Pieprzyk, purporting to show a weakness in the AES algorithm, partially due to the low complexity of its nonlinear components. Since then, other papers have shown that the attack, as originally presented, is unworkable; see XSL attack on block ciphers.
During the AES selection process, developers of competing algorithms wrote of Rijndael's algorithm "we are concerned about [its] use ... in security-critical applications." In October 2000, however, at the end of the AES selection process, Bruce Schneier, a developer of the competing algorithm Twofish, wrote that while he thought successful academic attacks on Rijndael would be developed someday, he "did not believe that anyone will ever discover an attack that will allow someone to read Rijndael traffic."
Until May 2009, the only successful published attacks against the full AES were side-channel attacks on some specific implementations. In 2009, a new related-key attack was discovered that exploits the simplicity of AES's key schedule and has a complexity of 2119. In December 2009 it was improved to 299.5. This is a follow-up to an attack discovered earlier in 2009 by Alex Biryukov, Dmitry Khovratovich, and Ivica Nikolić, with a complexity of 296 for one out of every 235 keys. However, related-key attacks are not of concern in any properly designed cryptographic protocol, as a properly designed protocol (i.e., implementational software) will take care not to allow related keys, essentially by constraining an attacker's means of selecting keys for relatedness.
Another attack was blogged by Bruce Schneier
on July 30, 2009, and released as a preprint
on August 3, 2009. This new attack, by Alex Biryukov, Orr Dunkelman, Nathan Keller, Dmitry Khovratovich, and Adi Shamir, is against AES-256 that uses only two related keys and 239 time to recover the complete 256-bit key of a 9-round version, or 245 time for a 10-round version with a stronger type of related subkey attack, or 270 time for an 11-round version. 256-bit AES uses 14 rounds, so these attacks are not effective against full AES.
The practicality of these attacks with stronger related keys has been criticized, for instance, by the paper on chosen-key-relations-in-the-middle attacks on AES-128 authored by Vincent Rijmen in 2010.
In November 2009, the first known-key distinguishing attack against a reduced 8-round version of AES-128 was released as a preprint.
This known-key distinguishing attack is an improvement of the rebound, or the start-from-the-middle attack, against AES-like permutations, which view two consecutive rounds of permutation as the application of a so-called Super-S-box. It works on the 8-round version of AES-128, with a time complexity of 248, and a memory complexity of 232. 128-bit AES uses 10 rounds, so this attack is not effective against full AES-128.
The first key-recovery attacks on full AES were by Andrey Bogdanov, Dmitry Khovratovich, and Christian Rechberger, and were published in 2011. The attack is a biclique attack and is faster than brute force by a factor of about four. It requires 2126.2 operations to recover an AES-128 key. For AES-192 and AES-256, 2190.2 and 2254.6 operations are needed, respectively. This result has been further improved to 2126.0 for AES-128, 2189.9 for AES-192 and 2254.3 for AES-256, which are the current best results in key recovery attack against AES.
This is a very small gain, as a 126-bit key (instead of 128-bits) would still take billions of years to brute force on current and foreseeable hardware. Also, the authors calculate the best attack using their technique on AES with a 128-bit key requires storing 288 bits of data. That works out to about 38 trillion terabytes of data, which is more than all the data stored on all the computers on the planet in 2016. As such, there are no practical implications on AES security. The space complexity has later been improved to 256 bits, which is 9007 terabytes.
According to the Snowden documents, the NSA is doing research on whether a cryptographic attack based on tau statistic may help to break AES.
At present, there is no known practical attack that would allow someone without knowledge of the key to read data encrypted by AES when correctly implemented.
Side-channel attacks
Side-channel attacks do not attack the cipher as a black box, and thus are not related to cipher security as defined in the classical context, but are important in practice. They attack implementations of the cipher on hardware or software systems that inadvertently leak data. There are several such known attacks on various implementations of AES.
In April 2005, D. J. Bernstein announced a cache-timing attack that he used to break a custom server that used OpenSSL's AES encryption. The attack required over 200 million chosen plaintexts. The custom server was designed to give out as much timing information as possible (the server reports back the number of machine cycles taken by the encryption operation). However, as Bernstein pointed out, "reducing the precision of the server's timestamps, or eliminating them from the server's responses, does not stop the attack: the client simply uses round-trip timings based on its local clock, and compensates for the increased noise by averaging over a larger number of samples".
In October 2005, Dag Arne Osvik, Adi Shamir and Eran Tromer presented a paper demonstrating several cache-timing attacks against the implementations in AES found in OpenSSL and Linux's dm-crypt partition encryption function. One attack was able to obtain an entire AES key after only 800 operations triggering encryptions, in a total of 65 milliseconds. This attack requires the attacker to be able to run programs on the same system or platform that is performing AES.
In December 2009 an attack on some hardware implementations was published that used differential fault analysis and allows recovery of a key with a complexity of 232.
In November 2010 Endre Bangerter, David Gullasch and Stephan Krenn published a paper which described a practical approach to a "near real time" recovery of secret keys from AES-128 without the need for either cipher text or plaintext. The approach also works on AES-128 implementations that use compression tables, such as OpenSSL. Like some earlier attacks, this one requires the ability to run unprivileged code on the system performing the AES encryption, which may be achieved by malware infection far more easily than commandeering the root account.
In March 2016, Ashokkumar C., Ravi Prakash Giri and Bernard Menezes presented a side-channel attack on AES implementations that can recover the complete 128-bit AES key in just 6–7 blocks of plaintext/ciphertext, which is a substantial improvement over previous works that require between 100 and a million encryptions. The proposed attack requires standard user privilege and key-retrieval algorithms run under a minute.
Many modern CPUs have built-in hardware instructions for AES, which protect against timing-related side-channel attacks.
NIST/CSEC validation
The Cryptographic Module Validation Program (CMVP) is operated jointly by the United States Government's National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) Computer Security Division and the Communications Security Establishment (CSE) of the Government of Canada. The use of cryptographic modules validated to NIST FIPS 140-2 is required by the United States Government for encryption of all data that has a classification of Sensitive but Unclassified (SBU) or above. From NSTISSP #11, National Policy Governing the Acquisition of Information Assurance: “Encryption products for protecting classified information will be certified by NSA, and encryption products intended for protecting sensitive information will be certified in accordance with NIST FIPS 140-2.”
The Government of Canada also recommends the use of FIPS 140 validated cryptographic modules in unclassified applications of its departments.
Although NIST publication 197 (“FIPS 197”) is the unique document that covers the AES algorithm, vendors typically approach the CMVP under FIPS 140 and ask to have several algorithms (such as Triple DES or SHA1) validated at the same time. Therefore, it is rare to find cryptographic modules that are uniquely FIPS 197 validated and NIST itself does not generally take the time to list FIPS 197 validated modules separately on its public web site. Instead, FIPS 197 validation is typically just listed as an "FIPS approved: AES" notation (with a specific FIPS 197 certificate number) in the current list of FIPS 140 validated cryptographic modules.
The Cryptographic Algorithm Validation Program (CAVP) allows for independent validation of the correct implementation of the AES algorithm. Successful validation results in being listed on the NIST validations page. This testing is a pre-requisite for the FIPS 140-2 module validation described below. However, successful CAVP validation in no way implies that the cryptographic module implementing the algorithm is secure. A cryptographic module lacking FIPS 140-2 validation or specific approval by the NSA is not deemed secure by the US Government and cannot be used to protect government data.
FIPS 140-2 validation is challenging to achieve both technically and fiscally. There is a standardized battery of tests as well as an element of source code review that must be passed over a period of a few weeks. The cost to perform these tests through an approved laboratory can be significant (e.g., well over $30,000 US) and does not include the time it takes to write, test, document and prepare a module for validation. After validation, modules must be re-submitted and re-evaluated if they are changed in any way. This can vary from simple paperwork updates if the security functionality did not change to a more substantial set of re-testing if the security functionality was impacted by the change.
Test vectors
Test vectors are a set of known ciphers for a given input and key. NIST distributes the reference of AES test vectors as AES Known Answer Test (KAT) Vectors.
Performance
High speed and low RAM requirements were criteria of the AES selection process. As the chosen algorithm, AES performed well on a wide variety of hardware, from 8-bit smart cards to high-performance computers.
On a Pentium Pro, AES encryption requires 18 clock cycles per byte, equivalent to a throughput of about 11 MB/s for a 200 MHz processor.
On Intel Core and AMD Ryzen CPUs supporting AES-NI instruction set extensions, throughput can be multiple GB/s (even over 10 GB/s).
Implementations
See also
AES modes of operation
Disk encryption
Network encryption
Whirlpool – hash function created by Vincent Rijmen and Paulo S. L. M. Barreto
List of free and open-source software packages
Notes
References
alternate link (companion web site contains online lectures on AES)
External links
AES algorithm archive information – (old, unmaintained)
Animation of Rijndael – AES deeply explained and animated using Flash (by Enrique Zabala / University ORT / Montevideo / Uruguay). This animation (in English, Spanish, and German) is also part of CrypTool 1 (menu Indiv. Procedures → Visualization of Algorithms → AES).
HTML5 Animation of Rijndael – Same Animation as above made in HTML5.
Advanced Encryption Standard
Cryptography |
23816967 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AES%20implementations | AES implementations | There are various implementations of the Advanced Encryption Standard, also known as Rijndael.
Libraries
Rijndael is free for any use public or private, commercial or non-commercial. The authors of Rijndael used to provide a homepage for the algorithm. Care should be taken when implementing AES in software, in particular around side-channel attacks.
The algorithm operates on plaintext blocks of 16 bytes. Encryption of shorter blocks is possible only by padding the source bytes, usually with null bytes. This can be accomplished via several methods, the simplest of which assumes that the final byte of the cipher identifies the number of null bytes of padding added.
Implementation Considerations
Careful choice must be made in selecting the mode of operation of the cipher. The simplest mode encrypts and decrypts each 128-bit block separately. In this mode, called electronic code book (ECB), blocks that are identical will be encrypted identically; this is entirely insecure. It makes some of the plaintext structure visible in the ciphertext. Selecting other modes, such as using a sequential counter over the block prior to encryption (i.e., CTR mode) and removing it after decryption avoids this problem. Another mode, Cipher Block Chaining (CBC) is one of the most commonly used modes of AES due to its use in TLS. CBC uses a random initialization vector (IV) to ensure that distinct ciphertexts are produced even when the same plaintext is encoded multiple times. The IV can be transmitted in the clear without jeopardizing security. A common practice is to prepend the 16 byte IV to the ciphertext, which gives the decrypter easy access to the IV. Care must be taken to use a new IV for every encryption operation, since otherwise an attacker can recover plaintext.
Current list of FIPS 197 validated cryptographic modules (hosted by NIST)
Current list of FIPS 140 validated cryptographic modules with validated AES implementations (hosted by NIST) – Most of these involve a commercial implementation of AES algorithms. Look for "FIPS-approved algorithms" entry in the "Level / Description" column followed by "AES" and then a specific certificate number.
C/ASM library
Libgcrypt
wolfSSL (previously CyaSSL)
GnuTLS
Network Security Services
OpenSSL
LibreSSL
mbed TLS (previously PolarSSL)
Reference original implementation
axTLS
Microsoft CryptoAPI uses Cryptographic Service Providers to offer encryption implementations. The Microsoft AES Cryptographic Provider was introduced in Windows XP and can be used with any version of the Microsoft CryptoAPI.
tiny-AES-c Small portable AES128/192/256 in C (suitable for embedded systems)
AES-256 A byte-oriented portable AES-256 implementation in C
Solaris Cryptographic Framework offers multiple implementations, with kernel providers for hardware acceleration on x86 (using the Intel AES instruction set) and on SPARC (using the SPARC AES instruction set). It is available in Solaris and derivatives, as of Solaris 10.
OpenAES portable C cryptographic library
LibTomCrypt is a modular and portable cryptographic toolkit that provides developers with well known published block ciphers, one-way hash functions, chaining modes, pseudo-random number generators, public key cryptography and other routines.
libSodium API for NaCl
AES Dust Compact implementation of AES-128 encryption in C, x86, AMD64, ARM32 and ARM64 assembly.
MSP430 AES Implementation for embedded 16-bit microcontroller
C++ library
Botan has implemented Rijndael since its very first release in 2001
Crypto++ A comprehensive C++ public-domain implementation of encryption and hash algorithms. FIPS validated
C/CUDA library
gKrypt has implemented Rijndael on CUDA with its first release in 2012
C# /.NET
As of version 3.5 of the .NET Framework, the System.Security.Cryptography namespace contains both a fully managed implementation of AES and a managed wrapper around the CAPI AES implementation.
Bouncy Castle Crypto Library
Go
The crypto/aes package in standard library
Java
Java Cryptography Extension, integrated in the Java Runtime Environment since version 1.4.2
IAIK JCE
Bouncy Castle Crypto Library
Python
PyCrypto – The Python Cryptography Toolkit PyCrypto, extended in PyCryptoDome
keyczar – Cryptography Toolkit keyczar
M2Crypto – M2Crypto is the most complete OpenSSL wrapper for Python.
Cryptography – Python library which exposes cryptographic recipes and primitives.
PyNaCl – Python binding for libSodium (NaCl)
JavaScript
SJCL library – contains JavaScript implementations of AES in CCM, CBC, OCB and GCM modes
AES-JS – portable JavaScript implementation of AES ECB and CTR modes
Forge – JavaScript implementations of AES in CBC, CTR, OFB, CFB, and GCM modes
asmCrypto – JavaScript implementation of popular cryptographic utilities with focus on performance. Supports CBC, CFB, CCM modes.
pidCrypt – open source JavaScript library. Only supports the CBC and CTR modes.
Rust
aes – Rust implementation.
LabVIEW
AES LabVIEW – LabVIEW implementation.
Applications
Archive and compression tools
7z
Amanda Backup
PeaZip
PKZIP
RAR
WinZip
UltraISO
File encryption
Away RJN Cryptography uses Rijndael Algorithm (NIST AES) 256-bit Data Blocks, Cipher Key and CTR (Counter Mode) for any and all Document or picture encryption in Windows only.
Gpg4win
Ncrypt
Encrypting file systems
Most encrypting file systems use AES, e.g. NTFS
Disk / partition encryption
BitLocker (part of certain editions of Windows operating systems)
CipherShed
DiskCryptor
FileVault (part of the Mac OS X operating system, and also the included Disk Utility makes AES-encrypted drive images)
GBDE
Geli (software)
LibreCrypt (discontinued)
LUKS
Private Disk
TrueCrypt (discontinued)
VeraCrypt
Security for communications in local area networks
IEEE 802.11i, an amendment to the original IEEE 802.11 standard specifying security mechanisms for wireless networks, uses AES-128 in CCM mode (CCMP).
The ITU-T G.hn standard, which provides a way to create a high-speed (up to 1 Gigabit/s) local area network using existing home wiring (power lines, phone lines and coaxial cables), uses AES-128 for encryption.
Miscellaneous
DataLocker Uses AES 256-bit CBC and XTS mode hardware encryption
Get Backup Pro uses AES-128 and AES-256
GPG, GPL-licensed, includes AES, AES-192, and AES-256 as options.
IPsec
IronKey Uses AES 128-bit and 256-bit CBC-mode hardware encryption
KeePass Password Safe
LastPass
Linux kernel's Crypto API, now exposed to userspace
NetLib Encryptionizer supports AES 128/256 in CBC, ECB and CTR modes for file and folder encryption on the Windows platform.
Pidgin (software), has a plugin that allows for AES Encryption
Javascrypt Free open-source text encryption tool runs entirely in web browser, send encrypted text over insecure e-mail or fax machine.
PyEyeCrypt Free open-source text encryption tool/GUI with user-selectable AES encryption methods and PBKDF2 iterations.
Signal Protocol
Google Allo (optional)
Facebook Messenger (optional)
Signal
TextSecure
WhatsApp
SocialDocs file encryption uses AES256 to provide a free-online file encryption tool
XFire uses AES-128, AES-192 and AES 256 to encrypt usernames and passwords
Certain games and engines, such as the Rockstar Advanced Game Engine used in Grand Theft Auto IV, use AES to encrypt game assets in order to deter hacking in multiplayer.
Hardware
x86-64 and ARM processors include the AES instruction set.
On IBM zSeries mainframes, AES is implemented as the KM series of assembler opcodes when various Message Security Assist facilities are installed.
SPARC S3 core processors include the AES instruction set, which is used with SPARC T4 and SPARC T5 systems.
References
Advanced Encryption Standard |
30876388 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centre%20for%20Quantum%20Computation | Centre for Quantum Computation | The Centre for Quantum Computation (CQC) is an alliance of quantum information research groups at the University of Oxford. It was founded by Artur Ekert in 1998.
Until recently, the CQC also included research groups at the University of Cambridge, but now the Cambridge groups operate as an independent entity called the Cambridge Centre for Quantum Information and Foundations (CQIF).
Research
The CQC conducts theoretical and experimental research into quantum computing, quantum cryptography and other forms of quantum information processing, into the implications of the quantum theory of information for physics itself, and into foundational and conceptual questions in quantum theory and quantum information theory.
Groups
Initially the CQC was based at the Clarendon Laboratory, but it has now grown to span several departments at the University of Oxford:
Physics
Atom-photon physics, group led by Axel Kuhn.
Ion trapping, group led by Andrew Steane and David Lucas.
Nuclear magnetic resonance, group led by Jonathan A. Jones.
Quantum spin dynamics, group led by Arzhang Ardavan and John Morton (group spans physics and materials).
Quantum theory, group led by Dieter Jaksch.
Ultracold quantum matter, group led by Christopher Foot.
Ultrafast quantum optics, group led by Ian Walmsley.
Materials
Photonic nanomaterials, group led by Jason Smith.
Quantum and nanotechnology theory, group led by Simon Benjamin.
Quantum spin dynamics, group led by John Morton and Arzhang Ardavan (group spans physics and materials).
Computer Science
Quantum Group, led by Samson Abramsky and Bob Coecke.
Mathematics
Mathematical physics, group led by Artur Ekert.
Origins
The centre has its origins in the early 1980s when the computer industry began to worry about the limits of computing. In 1981, Oxford physicist David Deutsch attended a party in Texas given by the famous American physicist John Wheeler who had invited a number of scientists interested in the foundations of computing. It was at this party that Deutsch gained the crucial insight that would lead to an entirely new branch of physics. At the time, computer scientists were turning to Newtonian physics to try to resolve certain fundamental puzzles in the field. But during a conversation at Wheeler's party, Deutsch realised that this was the wrong approach. Physics is fundamentally governed by quantum theory, and Deutsch could see immediately that using quantum theory instead of Newtonian physics would give a different result. As a consequence of this insight, Deutsch published the paper in 1985 that is now generally regarded as a classic in the field. The paper describes how a computer might run using quantum mechanics and why such a computer is fundamentally different from ordinary computers.
In 1987, Artur Ekert arrived at Oxford to work on a DPhil in physics, where he met Deutsch. Whilst working at Oxford, Ekert developed a theory of cryptography based on quantum entanglement. A chance meeting on the ski slopes of the Alps with John Rarity, a scientist at DRA (then the UK's main military research organisation), led to a collaboration in which Ekert's scheme was tested experimentally in the early 1990s. After finishing his DPhil, Ekert gained a junior research fellowship from Merton and took on his first DPhil student. With Deutsch, this created a small team that within a year had acquired the title of the Quantum Computation and Cryptography Group.
A breakthrough in 1994 by Peter Shor, a researcher at the labs of the American telecommunications giant AT&T, boosted the entire field of quantum information. Shor showed that Deutch's quantum computer could actually solve an important problem that an ordinary computer would find impossible. For the first time, it became clear that quantum computers were far from unimportant curiosities. After Shor's announcement, quantum information became increasingly popular with Oxford. In 1995, Andrew Steane began an experimental effort to study how quantum computers might be built from ionised atoms trapped by laser beams. In 1996, Jonathan Jones started a group working on a quantum computer based on the same techniques used in magnetic resonance imaging in medicine. And two years later, Dirk Bouwmeester arrived from Geneva to begin an experimental group working out how the quantum world could also revolutionise communication. The group changed its name to the Centre for Quantum Computation.
Cambridge
When Artur Ekert moved to Cambridge to become the first Leigh Trapnell Professor of Quantum Physics in 2002, the Cambridge Centre for Quantum Computation was created. It continued under this name until 2010, when the existing research group was joined by Richard Jozsa, and the centre was renamed the Cambridge Centre for Quantum Information and Foundations (CQIF), reflecting the broad range of its research activities.
The Cambridge CQIF is based at the Department of Applied Mathematics and Theoretical Physics (DAMTP), within the Centre for Mathematical Sciences.
The Cambridge CQC's permanent faculty were Artur Ekert, Leigh Trapnell Professor of Quantum Physics at Cambridge from 2002 to 2007, and Adrian Kent, currently Reader in Quantum Physics at Cambridge. The Cambridge CQIF's permanent faculty are Richard Jozsa, Leigh Trapnell Professor from 2010, and Adrian Kent.
See also
Quantum information
Artur Ekert
Richard Jozsa
University of Cambridge
University of Oxford
Centre for Quantum Technologies
References
External links
Oxford CQC
Cambridge CQIF
Departments of the University of Oxford
Quantum Computation
Physics institutes |
14351612 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenBinder | OpenBinder | OpenBinder is a system for inter-process communication. It was developed at Be Inc. and then Palm, Inc. and was the basis for the Binder framework now used in the Android operating system developed by Google.
OpenBinder allows processes to present interfaces which may be called by other threads. Each process maintains a thread pool which may be used to service such requests. OpenBinder takes care of reference counting, recursion back into the original thread, and the inter-process communication itself. On the Linux version of OpenBinder, the communication is achieved using ioctls on a given file descriptor, communicating with a kernel driver.
The kernel-side component of the Linux version of OpenBinder was merged into the Linux kernel mainline in kernel version 3.19, which was released on February 8, 2015.
References
Inter-process communication |
39656156 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialog%20i43 | Dialog i43 | The Dialog i43 is a dual-SIM slate format smartphone designed, developed in China by Innos and marketed in Sri Lanka by Dialog Axiata that runs the Android operating system. The device was launched with Android 2.3.5 Gingerbread. The Dialog i35 is the Predecessor of this phone.
Features
Software and Services
The Dialog i43 uses Google's Android mobile operating system, which was introduced commercially in 2008. The i43 comes with Android version 2.3.5, named "Gingerbread", which became commercially available in July 2011. Gingerbread Enhanced copy/paste functionality, allowing users to select a word by press-hold, copy, and paste. It has New audio effects such as reverb, equalization, headphone virtualization, and bass boost. It includes a new Download Manager, giving users easy access to any file downloaded from the browser, email, or another application. It support for voice or video chat using Google Talk. User can also make video calls using the front-facing camera.[more about android's gingerbread OS]
The Dialog i43 comes with a multitude of pre-installed applications including standard Android ones such as YouTube, Google talk, Google search, Google voice Search, Google Play, Gmail, Map and Calendar. The user is able to access Google Play, a digital-distribution multimedia-content service exclusive to Android, to download applications, movies, music, TV programs, games, books, and magazines. User can also get Sinhala, Tamil font on their smartphone. It also has some Dialog's applications such as Dialog traveler and Dapp.
Hardware and design
The Dialog i43 is 126.9mm long, 69.5mm wide, and 10.2mm thick, with the device weighing 165 grams. It contains Qualcomm MSM8225 chipset, 1 GHz ARM Cortex A5 CPU and 512 MB of LPDDR1 SD-RAM. The device comes with 4 GB of internal storage, additionally it supports micro SD card up to 32 GB. This handset has a 4.3-inch, IPS WVGA capacitive display 480x800 pixels. It has a 5-megapixel rear camera with dual LED flash and a 0.3-megapixel front-facing camera supports for video callings. This phone has autofocus, touchfocus, geo tagging and face detection. The Dialog i43's 1630 mAh battery has 360 hours standby time or 12 hours voice talk time. This device has Proximity sensor, Light sensor and Accelerator sensor.
Carrier
It is a dual SIM phone while one is a mini SIM, the other one is a micro SIM. The mini SIM slot is carrier locked as Dialog Axiata.
References
External links
Dialog i43
Dialog i43 Full Review
Android (operating system) devices |
7521637 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House%20%28operating%20system%29 | House (operating system) | House (acronym for Haskell User's Operating System and Environment) is an experimental open source operating system written in Haskell. It was written to explore system programming in a functional programming language.
It includes a graphical user interface, several demos, and its network protocol stack provides basic support for Ethernet, IPv4, ARP, DHCP, ICMP (ping), UDP, TFTP, and TCP.
References
External links
House, official home page
A Principled Approach to Operating System Construction in Haskell, technical paper on House details
Free software operating systems
Free software programmed in Haskell
Software using the BSD license |
198983 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel%20J.%20Bernstein | Daniel J. Bernstein | Daniel Julius Bernstein (sometimes known as djb; born October 29, 1971) is an American German mathematician, cryptologist, and computer scientist. He is a visiting professor at CASA at Ruhr University Bochum, as well as a Research Professor of Computer Science at the University of Illinois at Chicago. Before this, he was a professor ("persoonlijk hoogleraar") in the department of mathematics and computer science at the Eindhoven University of Technology.
Early life
Bernstein attended Bellport High School, a public high school on Long Island, graduating in 1987 at the age of 15. The same year, he ranked fifth in the Westinghouse Science Talent Search. In 1987 (at the age of 16), he achieved a Top 10 ranking in the William Lowell Putnam Mathematical Competition. Bernstein earned a B.A. in Mathematics from New York University (1991) and a Ph.D. in Mathematics from the University of California, Berkeley (1995), where he studied under Hendrik Lenstra.
Bernstein v. United States
The export of cryptography from the United States was controlled as a munition starting from the Cold War until recategorization in 1996, with further relaxation in the late 1990s. In 1995, Bernstein brought the court case Bernstein v. United States. The ruling in the case declared that software was protected speech under the First Amendment, which contributed to regulatory changes reducing controls on encryption. Bernstein was originally represented by the Electronic Frontier Foundation. He later represented himself.
Cryptography
Bernstein designed the Salsa20 stream cipher in 2005 and submitted it to eSTREAM for review and possible standardization. He later published the ChaCha20 variant of Salsa in 2008. In 2005, he proposed the elliptic curve Curve25519 as a basis for public-key schemes. He worked as the lead researcher on the Ed25519 version of EdDSA. The algorithms made their way into popular software. For example, since 2014, when OpenSSH is compiled without OpenSSL they power most of its operations, and OpenBSD package signing is based on Ed25519.
Nearly a decade later Edward Snowden's disclosure of mass surveillance by the National Security Agency and the discovery of a backdoor in their Dual_EC_DRBG, raised suspicions of the elliptic curve parameters proposed by NSA and standardized by NIST. Many researchers feared that the NSA had chosen curves that gave them a cryptanalytic advantage. Google selected ChaCha20 along with Bernstein's Poly1305 message authentication code for use in TLS, which is widely used for Internet security. Many protocols based on his works have been adopted by various standards organizations and are used in a variety of applications, such as Apple iOS, the Linux kernel, OpenSSH, and Tor.
In spring 2005, Bernstein taught a course on "high speed cryptography." He introduced new attacks against implementations of AES (cache attacks) in the same time period.
In April 2008, Bernstein's stream cipher "Salsa20" was selected as a member of the final portfolio of the eSTREAM project, part of a European Union research directive.
In 2011, Bernstein published RFSB, a variant of the Fast Syndrome Based Hash function.
He is one of the editors of the 2009 book Post-Quantum Cryptography.
Software
Starting in the mid-1990s, Bernstein has written a number of security-aware programs, including qmail, ezmlm, djbdns, ucspi-tcp, daemontools, and publicfile.
Bernstein criticized the leading DNS package at the time, BIND, and wrote djbdns as a DNS package with security as a primary goal. Bernstein offers "security guarantees" for qmail and djbdns in the form of monetary rewards for the identification of flaws. A purported exploit targeting qmail running on 64-bit platforms was published in 2005, but Bernstein believes that the exploit does not fall within the parameters of his qmail security guarantee. In March 2009, Bernstein awarded $1000 to Matthew Dempsky for finding a security flaw in djbdns.
In August 2008, Bernstein announced DNSCurve, a proposal to secure the Domain Name System. DNSCurve applies techniques from elliptic curve cryptography to provide a vast increase in performance over the RSA public-key algorithm used by DNSSEC. It uses the existing DNS hierarchy to propagate trust by embedding public keys into specially formatted, backward-compatible DNS records.
Bernstein proposed Internet Mail 2000, an alternative system for electronic mail, intended to replace the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), the Post Office Protocol (POP3) and the Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP).
Bernstein is also known for his string hashing function djb2 and the cdb database library.
Mathematics
Bernstein has published a number of papers on mathematics and computation. Many of his papers deal with algorithms or implementations.
In 2001, Bernstein circulated "Circuits for integer factorization: a proposal," which suggested that, if physical hardware implementations could be brought close to their theoretical efficiency, the then-popular estimates of adequate security parameters might be off by a factor of three. Since 512-bit RSA was breakable at the time, so might be 1536-bit RSA. Bernstein was careful not to make any actual predictions, and emphasized the importance of correctly interpreting asymptotic expressions. Several prominent researchers (among them Arjen Lenstra, Adi Shamir, Jim Tomlinson, and Eran Tromer) disagreed strongly with Bernstein's conclusions. Bernstein has received funding to investigate whether this potential can be realized.
Bernstein is also the author of the mathematical libraries DJBFFT, a fast portable FFT library, and primegen, an asymptotically fast small prime sieve with low memory footprint based on the sieve of Atkin (rather than the more usual sieve of Eratosthenes). Both have been used effectively in the search for large prime numbers.
In 2007, Bernstein proposed the use of a (twisted) Edwards curve, Curve25519, as a basis for elliptic curve cryptography; it is employed in Ed25519 implementation of EdDSA.
In February 2015, Bernstein and others published a paper on stateless post-quantum hash-based signatures, called SPHINCS.
In April 2017, Bernstein and others published a paper on Post-Quantum RSA that includes an integer factorization algorithm claimed to be "often much faster than Shor's".
Teaching
In 2004, Bernstein taught a course on computer software security where he assigned each student to find ten vulnerabilities in published software. The 25 students discovered 44 vulnerabilities, and the class published security advisories about the issues.
See also
CubeHash, Bernstein's submission to the NIST hash function competition
SipHash
NaCl (Software), a Networking and Cryptography library
Quick Mail Queuing Protocol (QMQP)
Quick Mail Transport Protocol (QMTP)
References
External links
DJBFFT
Daniel Bernstein on the Faculty Page at UIC
Faculty page at Eindhoven University of Technology
1971 births
Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences alumni
Living people
Modern cryptographers
American computer programmers
American people of German-Jewish descent
20th-century American mathematicians
21st-century American mathematicians
UC Berkeley College of Letters and Science alumni
Computer security academics
University of Illinois at Chicago faculty
Computer science educators
Eindhoven University of Technology faculty
Open content activists
People from East Patchogue, New York |
3208634 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Christians%20in%20science%20and%20technology | List of Christians in science and technology | This is a list of Christians in Science and Technology. People
in this list should have their Christianity as relevant to their notable activities or public life, and who have publicly identified themselves as Christians or as of a Christian denomination.
Before the 18th century
Hildegard of Bingen (1098–1179): also known as Saint Hildegard and Sibyl of the Rhine, was a German Benedictine abbess. She is considered to be the founder of scientific natural history in Germany
Robert Grosseteste (c.1175–1253): Bishop of Lincoln, he was the central character of the English intellectual movement in the first half of the 13th century and is considered the founder of scientific thought in Oxford. He had a great interest in the natural world and wrote texts on the mathematical sciences of optics, astronomy and geometry. He affirmed that experiments should be used in order to verify a theory, testing its consequences and added greatly to the development of the scientific method.
Albertus Magnus (c.1193–1280): patron saint of scientists in Catholicism who may have been the first to isolate arsenic. He wrote that: "Natural science does not consist in ratifying what others have said, but in seeking the causes of phenomena." Yet he rejected elements of Aristotelianism that conflicted with Catholicism and drew on his faith as well as Neo-Platonic ideas to "balance" "troubling" Aristotelian elements.
Jean Buridan (1300–58): French philosopher and priest. One of his most significant contributions to science was the development of the theory of impetus, that explained the movement of projectiles and objects in free-fall. This theory gave way to the dynamics of Galileo Galilei and for Isaac Newton's famous principle of inertia.
Nicole Oresme (c.1323–1382): Theologian and bishop of Lisieux, he was one of the early founders and popularizers of modern sciences. One of his many scientific contributions is the discovery of the curvature of light through atmospheric refraction.
Nicholas of Cusa (1401–1464): Catholic cardinal and theologian who made contributions to the field of mathematics by developing the concepts of the infinitesimal and of relative motion. His philosophical speculations also anticipated Copernicus’ heliocentric world-view.
Otto Brunfels (1488–1534): A theologian and botanist from Mainz, Germany. His Catalogi virorum illustrium is considered to be the first book on the history of evangelical sects that had broken away from the Catholic Church. In botany his Herbarum vivae icones helped earn him acclaim as one of the "fathers of botany".
William Turner (c.1508–1568): sometimes called the "father of English botany" and was also an ornithologist. He was arrested for preaching in favor of the Reformation. He later became a Dean of Wells Cathedral, but was expelled for nonconformity.
Ignazio Danti (1536–1586): As bishop of Alatri he convoked a diocesan synod to deal with abuses. He was also a mathematician who wrote on Euclid, an astronomer, and a designer of mechanical devices.
Francis Bacon (1561–1626): Considered among the fathers of empiricism and is credited with establishing the inductive method of experimental science via what is called the scientific method today.
Galileo Galilei (1564–1642): Italian astronomer, physicist, engineer, philosopher, and mathematician who played a major role in the scientific revolution during the Renaissance.
Laurentius Gothus (1565–1646): A professor of astronomy and Archbishop of Uppsala. He wrote on astronomy and theology.
Johannes Kepler (1571–1630): Prominent astronomer of the Scientific Revolution, discovered Kepler's laws of planetary motion.
Pierre Gassendi (1592–1655): Catholic priest who tried to reconcile Atomism with Christianity. He also published the first work on the Transit of Mercury and corrected the geographical coordinates of the Mediterranean Sea.
Anton Maria of Rheita (1597–1660): Capuchin astronomer. He dedicated one of his astronomy books to Jesus Christ, a "theo-astronomy" work was dedicated to the Blessed Virgin Mary, and he wondered if beings on other planets were "cursed by original sin like humans are."
Juan Lobkowitz (1606–1682): Cistercian monk who did work on Combinatorics and published astronomy tables at age 10. He also did works of theology and sermons.
Seth Ward (1617–1689): Anglican Bishop of Salisbury and Savilian Chair of Astronomy from 1649 to 1661. He wrote Ismaelis Bullialdi astro-nomiae philolaicae fundamenta inquisitio brevis and Astronomia geometrica. He also had a theological/philosophical dispute with Thomas Hobbes and as a bishop was severe toward nonconformists.
Blaise Pascal (1623–1662): Jansenist thinker; well known for Pascal's law (physics), Pascal's theorem (math), Pascal's calculator (computing) and Pascal's Wager (theology).
John Wilkins, FRS (14 February 1614 – 19 November 1672) was an Anglican clergyman, natural philosopher and author, and was one of the founders of the Royal Society. He was Bishop of Chester from 1668 until his death.
Francesco Redi (1626–1697): Italian physician and Roman Catholic who is remembered as the "father of modern parasitology".
Robert Boyle (1627–1691): Prominent scientist and theologian who argued that the study of science could improve glorification of God. A strong Christian apologist, he is considered one of the most important figures in the history of Chemistry.
Isaac Barrow (1630–1677): English theologian, scientist, and mathematician. He wrote Expositions of the Creed, The Lord's Prayer, Decalogue, and Sacraments and Lectiones Opticae et Geometricae.
Nicolas Steno (1638–1686): Lutheran convert to Catholicism, his beatification in that faith occurred in 1987. As a scientist he is considered a pioneer in both anatomy and geology, but largely abandoned science after his religious conversion.
Isaac Newton (1643–1727): Prominent scientist during the Scientific Revolution. Physicist, discoverer of gravity.
18th century (1701–1800)
John Ray (1627–1705): English botanist who wrote The Wisdom of God Manifested in the Works of the Creation (1691) and was among the first to attempt a biological definition for the concept of species. The John Ray Initiative of Environment and Christianity is also named for him.
Gottfried Leibniz (1646–1716): He was a philosopher who developed the philosophical theory of the Pre-established harmony; he is also most noted for his optimism, e.g., his conclusion that our Universe is, in a restricted sense, the best possible one that God could have created. He also made major contributions to mathematics, physics, and technology. He created the Stepped Reckoner and his Protogaea concerns geology and natural history. He was a Lutheran who worked with convert to Catholicism John Frederick, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg in hopes of a reunification between Catholicism and Lutheranism.
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723): Dutch Reformed Calvinist who is remembered as the "father of microbiology".
Stephen Hales (1677–1761): Copley Medal winning scientist significant to the study of plant physiology. As an inventor designed a type of ventilation system, a means to distill sea-water, ways to preserve meat, etc. In religion he was an Anglican curate who worked with the Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge and for a group working to convert black slaves in the West Indies.
Firmin Abauzit (1679–1767): physicist and theologian. He translated the New Testament into French and corrected an error in Newton's Principia.
Emanuel Swedenborg (1688–1772): He did a great deal of scientific research with the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences having commissioned work by him. His religious writing is the basis of Swedenborgianism and several of his theological works contained some science hypotheses, most notably the Nebular hypothesis for the origin of the Solar System.
Albrecht von Haller (1708–1777): Swiss anatomist, physiologist known as "the father of modern physiology." A Protestant, he was involved in the erection of the Reformed church in Göttingen, and, as a man interested in religious questions, he wrote apologetic letters which were compiled by his daughter under the name .
Leonhard Euler (1707–1783): significant mathematician and physicist, see List of topics named after Leonhard Euler. The son of a pastor, he wrote Defense of the Divine Revelation against the Objections of the Freethinkers and is also commemorated by the Lutheran Church on their Calendar of Saints on May 24.
Mikhail Lomonosov (1711–1765): Russian Orthodox Christian who discovered the atmosphere of Venus and formulated the law of conservation of mass in chemical reactions.
Antoine Lavoisier (1743–1794): considered the "father of modern chemistry". He is known for his discovery of oxygen's role in combustion, developing chemical nomenclature, developing a preliminary periodic table of elements, and the law of conservation of mass. He was a Catholic and defender of scripture.
Herman Boerhaave (1668–1789): remarkable Dutch physician and botanist known as the founder of clinical teaching. A collection of his religious thoughts on medicine, translated from Latin into English, has been compiled under the name Boerhaaveìs Orations.
John Michell (1724–1793): English clergyman who provided pioneering insights in a wide range of scientific fields, including astronomy, geology, optics, and gravitation.
Maria Gaetana Agnesi (1718–1799): mathematician appointed to a position by Pope Benedict XIV. After her father died she devoted her life to religious studies, charity, and ultimately became a nun.
Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778): Swedish botanist, physician, and zoologist, "father of modern taxonomy".
19th century (1801–1900)
Joseph Priestley (1733–1804): Nontrinitarian clergyman who wrote the controversial work History of the Corruptions of Christianity. He is credited with discovering oxygen.
Alessandro Volta (1745–1827): Italian physicist who invented the first electric battery. The unit Volt was named after him.
Samuel Vince (1749–1821): Cambridge astronomer and clergyman. He wrote Observations on the Theory of the Motion and Resistance of Fluids and The credibility of Christianity vindicated, in answer to Mr. Hume's objections. He won the Copley Medal in 1780, before the period dealt with here ended.
Isaac Milner (1750–1820): Lucasian Professor of Mathematics known for work on an important process to fabricate Nitrous acid. He was also an evangelical Anglican who co-wrote Ecclesiastical History of the Church of Christ with his brother and played a role in the religious awakening of William Wilberforce. He also led to William Frend being expelled from Cambridge for a purported attack by Frend on religion.
William Kirby (1759–1850): Parson-naturalist who wrote On the Power Wisdom and Goodness of God. As Manifested in the Creation of Animals and in Their History, Habits and Instincts and was a founding figure in British entomology. was an English chemist, physicist, and meteorologist. He is best known for introducing the atomic theory into chemistry. He was a Quaker Christian.
John Dalton (1766–1844): an English chemist, physicist, and meteorologist. He is best known for introducing the atomic theory into chemistry, and for his research into colour blindness, sometimes referred to as Daltonism in his honour.
Georges Cuvier (1769–1832): French naturalist and zoologist, sometimes referred to as the "father of paleontology".
Thomas Robert Malthus (1766–1834): English cleric and scholar whose views on population caps were an influence on pioneers of evolutionary biology, including Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace.
Andre Marie Ampere (1775–1836): one of the founders of classical electromagnetism. The unit for electric current, Ampere, is named after him.
Olinthus Gregory (1774–1841): wrote Lessons Astronomical and Philosophical in 1793 and became mathematical master at the Royal Military Academy in 1802. An abridgment of his 1815 Letters on the Evidences of Christianity was done by the Religious Tract Society.
John Abercrombie (1780–1844): Scottish physician and Christian philosopher who created the a textbook about neuropathology.
Augustin-Louis Cauchy (1789–1857): French mathematician, engineer, and physicist who made pioneering contributions to several branches of mathematics, including mathematical analysis and continuum mechanics. He was a committed Catholic and member of the Society of Saint Vincent de Paul. Cauchy lent his prestige and knowledge to the École Normale Écclésiastique, a school in Paris run by Jesuits, for training teachers for their colleges. He also took part in the founding of the Institut Catholique de Paris. Cauchy had links to the Society of Jesus and defended them at the academy when it was politically unwise to do so.
William Buckland (1784–1856): Anglican priest/geologist who wrote Vindiciae Geologiae; or the Connexion of Geology with Religion explained. He was born in 1784, but his scientific life did not begin before the period discussed herein.
Mary Anning (1799–1847): paleontologist who became known for discoveries of certain fossils in Lyme Regis, Dorset. Anning was devoutly religious, and attended a Congregational, then Anglican church.
Marshall Hall (1790–1857): notable English physiologist who contributed with anatomical understanding and proposed a number of techniques in medical science. A Christian, his religious thoughts were collected in the biographical book Memoirs of Marshall Hall, by his widow (1861). He was also an abolitionist who opposed slavery on religious grounds. He believed the institution of slavery was a sin against God and denial of the Christian faith.
John Stevens Henslow (1796–1861): British priest, botanist and geologist who was Charles Darwin's tutor and enabled him to get a place on .
Lars Levi Læstadius (1800–1861): botanist who started a revival movement within Lutheranism called Laestadianism. This movement is among the strictest forms of Lutheranism. As a botanist he has the author citation Laest and discovered four species.
Edward Hitchcock (1793–1864): geologist, paleontologist, and Congregationalist pastor. He worked on Natural theology and wrote on fossilized tracks.
Benjamin Silliman (1779–1864): chemist and science educator at Yale; the first person to distill petroleum, and a founder of the American Journal of Science, the oldest scientific journal in the United States. An outspoken Christian, he was an old-earth creationist who openly rejected materialism.
Bernhard Riemann (1826–1866): son of a pastor, he entered the University of Göttingen at the age of 19, originally to study philology and theology in order to become a pastor and help with his family's finances. Upon the suggestion of Gauss, he switched to mathematics. He made lasting contributions to mathematical analysis, number theory, and differential geometry, some of them enabling the later development of general relativity.
William Whewell (1794–1866): professor of mineralogy and moral philosophy. He wrote An Elementary Treatise on Mechanics in 1819 and Astronomy and General Physics considered with reference to Natural Theology in 1833. He is the wordsmith who coined the terms "scientist", "physicist", "anode", "cathode" and many other commonly used scientific words.
Michael Faraday (1791–1867): Glasite church elder for a time, he discussed the relationship of science to religion in a lecture opposing Spiritualism. He is known for his contributions in establishing electromagnetic theory and his work in chemistry such as establishing electrolysis.
James David Forbes (1809–1868): physicist and glaciologist who worked extensively on the conduction of heat and seismology. He was a Christian as can be seen in the work "Life and Letters of James David Forbes" (1873).
Charles Babbage (1791–1871): mathematician and analytical philosopher known as the first computer scientist who originated the idea of a programmable computer. He wrote the Ninth Bridgewater Treatise, and the Passages from the Life of a Philosopher (1864) where he raised arguments to rationally defend the belief in miracles.
Adam Sedgwick (1785–1873): Anglican priest and geologist whose A Discourse on the Studies of the University discusses the relationship of God and man. In science he won both the Copley Medal and the Wollaston Medal. His students included Charles Darwin.
John Bachman (1790–1874): wrote numerous scientific articles and named several species of animals. He also was a founder of the Lutheran Theological Southern Seminary and wrote works on Lutheranism.
Temple Chevallier (1794–1873): priest and astronomer who did Of the proofs of the divine power and wisdom derived from the study of astronomy. He also founded the Durham University Observatory, hence the Durham Shield is pictured.
Robert Main (1808–1878): Anglican priest who won the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1858. Robert Main also preached at the British Association of Bristol.
James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879): Although Clerk as a boy was taken to Presbyterian services by his father and to Anglican services by his aunt, while still a young student at Cambridge he underwent an Evangelical conversion that he described as having given him a new perception of the Love of God. Maxwell's evangelicalism "committed him to an anti-positivist position." He is known for his contributions in establishing electromagnetic theory (Maxwell's Equations) and work on the chemical kinetic theory of gases.
James Bovell (1817–1880): Canadian physician and microscopist who was member of Royal College of Physicians. He was the mentor of William Osler, as well as an Anglican minister and religious author who wrote about natural theology.
Andrew Pritchard (1804–1882): English naturalist and natural history dealer who made significant improvements to microscopy and wrote the standard work on aquatic micro-organisms. He devoted much energy to the chapel he attended, Newington Green Unitarian Church.
Gregor Mendel (1822–1884): Augustinian Abbot who was the "father of modern genetics" for his study of the inheritance of traits in pea plants. He preached sermons at Church, one of which deals with how Easter represents Christ's victory over death.
Lewis Carroll (1832–1898): [real name: Charles Lutwidge Dodgson], English writer, mathematician, and Anglican deacon. Robbins' and Rumsey's investigation of Dodgson's method, a method of evaluating determinants, led them to the Alternating Sign Matrix conjecture, now a theorem.
Heinrich Hertz (1857–1894): German physicist who first conclusively proved the existence of the electromagnetic waves.
Philip Henry Gosse (1810–1888): marine biologist who wrote Aquarium (1854), and A Manual of Marine Zoology (1855–56). He is more notable as a Christian Fundamentalist who coined the idea of Omphalos (theology).
Asa Gray (1810–1888): His Gray's Manual remains a pivotal work in botany. His Darwiniana has sections titled "Natural selection not inconsistent with Natural theology", "Evolution and theology", and "Evolutionary teleology." The preface indicates his adherence to the Nicene Creed in concerning these religious issues.
Julian Tenison Woods (1832–1889): co-founder of the Sisters of St Joseph of the Sacred Heart who won a Clarke Medal shortly before death. A picture from Waverley Cemetery, where he's buried, is shown.
Louis Pasteur (1822–1895): French biologist, microbiologist and chemist renowned for his discoveries of the principles of vaccination, microbial fermentation and pasteurization.
James Dwight Dana (1813–1895): geologist, mineralogist, and zoologist. He received the Copley Medal, Wollaston Medal, and the Clarke Medal. He also wrote a book titled Science and the Bible and his faith has been described as "both orthodox and intense."
James Prescott Joule (1818–1889): studied the nature of heat, and discovered its relationship to mechanical work. This led to the law of conservation of energy, which led to the development of the first law of thermodynamics. The SI derived unit of energy, the joule, is named after James Joule.
John William Dawson (1820–1899): Canadian geologist who was the first president of the Royal Society of Canada and served as president of both the British and the American Association for the Advancement of Science. A presbyterian, he spoke against Darwin's theory and came to write The Origin of the World, According to Revelation and Science (1877) where he put together his theological and scientific views.
Armand David (1826–1900): Catholic missionary to China and member of the Lazarists who considered his religious duties to be his principal concern. He was also a botanist with the author abbreviation David and as a zoologist he described several species new to the West.
Joseph Lister (1827–1912): British surgeon and a pioneer of antiseptic surgery. He raised as a Quaker, he subsequently left the Quakers, joined the Scottish Episcopal Church.
20th century (1901–2000)
According to 100 Years of Nobel Prizes a review of Nobel prizes award between 1901 and 2000 reveals that (65.4%) of Nobel Prizes Laureates, have identified Christianity in its various forms as their religious preference. Overall, 72.5% of all the Nobel Prizes in Chemistry, 65.3% in Physics, 62% in Medicine, 54% in Economics were either Christians or had a Christian background.
John Hall Gladstone (1827–1902): served as president of the Physical Society between 1874 and 1876 and during 1877–1879 was president of the Chemical Society. He also belonged to the Christian Evidence Society.
George Stokes (1819–1903): minister's son, he wrote a book on Natural Theology. He was also one of the Presidents of the Royal Society and made contributions to Fluid dynamics.
Henry Baker Tristram (1822–1906): founding member of the British Ornithologists' Union. His publications included The Natural History of the Bible (1867) and The Fauna and Flora of Palestine (1884).
Enoch Fitch Burr (1818–1907): astronomer and Congregational Church pastor who lectured extensively on the relationship between science and religion. He also wrote Ecce Coelum: or Parish Astronomy in 1867. He once stated that "an undevout astronomer is mad" and held a strong belief in extraterrestrial life.
Lord Kelvin (1824–1907): At the University of Glasgow he did important work in the mathematical analysis of electricity and formulation of the first and second laws of thermodynamics. He gave a famous address to the Christian Evidence Society. In science he won the Copley Medal and the Royal Medal.
William Dallinger (1839–1909): British minister in the Wesleyan Methodist Church and an accomplished scientist who studied the complete lifecycle of unicellular organisms under the microscope.
Emil Theodor Kocher (1841–1917): Swiss physician and medical researcher who received the 1909 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his work in the physiology, pathology and surgery of the thyroid. Kocher was a deeply religious man and also part of the Moravian Church, Kocher attributed all his successes and failures to God.
Georg Cantor (1845–1918): German mathematician who created the theory of transfinite numbers and set theory, which has become a fundamental theory in mathematics. He was a devout Lutheran whose explicit Christian beliefs shaped his philosophy of science. Joseph Dauben has traced the impact Cantor's Christian convictions had on the development of transfinite set theory.
J. J. Thomson (1856–1940): English physicist and Nobel Laureate in Physics, credited with the discovery and identification of the electron; and with the discovery of the first subatomic particle. He was an Anglican.
Wilhelm Röntgen (1845–1923): German engineer and physicist, who, on 8 November 1895, produced and detected electromagnetic radiation in a wavelength range known as X-rays or Röntgen rays, an achievement that earned him the first Nobel Prize in Physics in 1901
Giuseppe Mercalli (1850–1914): Italian volcanologist and Catholic priest. He is best remembered for the Mercalli intensity scale for measuring earthquakes.
Pierre Duhem (1861–1916): worked on Thermodynamic potentials and wrote histories advocating that the Roman Catholic Church helped advance science.
James Britten (1846–1924): botanist who was heavily involved in the Catholic Truth Society.
Charles Doolittle Walcott (1850–1927): paleontologist, most notable for his discovery of the Burgess Shale of British Columbia. Stephen Jay Gould said that Walcott, "discoverer of the Burgess Shale fossils, was a convinced Darwinian and an equally firm Christian, who believed that God had ordained natural selection to construct a history of life according to His plans and purposes."
Johannes Reinke (1849–1931): German phycologist and naturalist who founded the German Botanical Society. An opposer of Darwinism and the secularization of science, he wrote Kritik der Abstammungslehre (Critique of the theory of evolution), (1920), and Naturwissenschaft, Weltanschauung, Religion, (Science, philosophy, religion), (1923). He was a Lutheran.
Guglielmo Marconi (1874–1937): Italian inventor and electrical engineer known for his pioneering work on long-distance radio transmission and for his development of Marconi's law and a radio telegraph system. He shared the 1909 Nobel Prize in Physics.
Pierre Teilhard de Chardin (1881–1955): French Jesuit paleontologist, co-discoverer of the Peking Man, noted for his work on evolutionary theory and Christianity. He postulated the Omega Point as the end-goal of Evolution and he is widely regarded as one of the most important Catholic theologians of the 20th century.
William Williams Keen (1837–1932): first brain surgeon in the United States, and a prominent surgical pathologist who served as president of the American Medical Association. He also wrote I believe in God and in evolution.
Francis Patrick Garvan (1875–1937): Priestley Medalist who received a "Mendel Medal" from Villanova University, was mentioned by Catholic Action as a "prominent Catholic layman", and was involved with the Catholic University of America.
Pavel Florensky (1882–1937): Russian Orthodox priest who wrote a book on Dielectrics and wrote of imaginary numbers having a relationship to the Kingdom of God.
Eberhard Dennert (1861–1942): German naturalist and botanist who founded in 1907 the Kepler Association, a group of German intellectuals who strongly opposed Ernst Haeckel's Monist League and Darwin's theory. A Lutheran, he wrote Vom Sterbelager des Darwinismus, which had an authorized English translation under the name At The Deathbed of Darwinism (1904).
George Washington Carver (1864–1943): American scientist, botanist, educator, and inventor. Carver believed he could have faith both in God and science and integrated them into his life. He testified on many occasions that his faith in Jesus was the only mechanism by which he could effectively pursue and perform the art of science.
Arthur Eddington (1882–1944): British astrophysicist of the early 20th century. He was also a philosopher of science and a popularizer of science. The Eddington limit, the natural limit to the luminosity of stars, or the radiation generated by accretion onto a compact object, is named in his honor. He is famous for his work regarding the theory of relativity. Eddington was a lifelong Quaker, and gave the Gifford Lectures in 1927.
Alexis Carrel (1873–1944): French surgeon and biologist who was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1912 for pioneering vascular suturing techniques.
Charles Glover Barkla (1877–1944): British physicist, and the winner of the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1917 for his work in X-ray spectroscopy and related areas in the study of X-rays (Roentgen rays). Mr. Barkla was a Methodist and considered his work to be part of the quest for God, the Creator".
John Ambrose Fleming (1849–1945): noted for the Right-hand rule and work on vacuum tubes. He also won the Hughes Medal. In religious activities he was president of the Victoria Institute, and preached at St Martin-in-the-Fields.
Philipp Lenard (1862–1947): German physicist and the winner of the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1905 for his research on cathode rays and the discovery of many of their properties. He was also an active proponent of the Nazi ideology.
Robert Millikan (1868–1953): second son of Reverend Silas Franklin Millikan, he wrote about the reconciliation of science and religion in books like Evolution in Science and Religion. He won the 1923 Nobel Prize in Physics.
Karl Landsteiner (1868–1943): Austrian biologist, physician, and immunologist. In 1930, he received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Landsteiner converted from Judaism to Roman Catholicism in 1890.
Charles Stine (1882–1954): son of a minister who was VP of DuPont. In religion he wrote A Chemist and His Bible and as a chemist he won the Perkin Medal.
E. T. Whittaker (1873–1956): converted to Catholicism in 1930 and member of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences. His 1946 Donnellan Lecture was entitled on Space and Spirit. Theories of the Universe and the Arguments for the Existence of God. He also received the Copley Medal and had written on Mathematical physics before conversion.
Arthur Compton (1892–1962): won a Nobel Prize in Physics. He also was a deacon in the Baptist Church and wrote an article in Christianity Takes a Stand that supported the controversial idea of the United States maintaining the peace through a nuclear-armed air force.
Victor Francis Hess (1883–1964): practicing Roman Catholic who won a Nobel Prize in Physics and discovered cosmic rays. In 1946 he wrote on the topic of the relationship between science and religion in his article "My Faith", in which he explained why he believed in God.
Ronald Fisher (1890–1962): English statistician, evolutionary biologist and geneticist. He preached sermons and published articles in church magazines.
Georges Lemaître (1894–1966): Roman Catholic priest who was first to propose the Big Bang theory.
Kathleen Lonsdale (1903–1971): notable Irish crystallographer, the first woman tenured professor at University College London, first woman president of the International Union of Crystallography, and first woman president of the British Association for the Advancement of Science. She converted to Quakerism and was an active Christian pacifist. She was the first secretary of the Churches' Council of Healing and delivered a Swarthmore Lecture.
Igor Sikorsky (1889–1972): Russian–American aviation pioneer in both helicopters and fixed-wing aircraft. Sikorsky was a deeply religious Russian Orthodox Christian and authored two religious and philosophical books (The Message of the Lord's Prayer and The Invisible Encounter).
Neil Kensington Adam (1891–1973): British chemist who wrote the article A CHRISTIAN SCIENTIST'S APPROACH TO THE STUDY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.
David Lack (1910–1973): director of the Edward Grey Institute of Field Ornithology and in part known for his study of the genus Euplectes. He converted to Anglicanism at 38 and wrote Evolutionary Theory and Christian Belief in 1957.
Hugh Stott Taylor (1910–1974): chemist who received Villanova University's "Mendel Medal" and was made a Knight Commander of the Papal Order of St. Gregory the Great.
Charles Coulson (1910–1974): Methodist who wrote Science and Christian Belief in 1955. In 1970 he won the Davy Medal.
George R. Price (1922–1975): American population geneticist who while a strong atheist converted to Christianity. He went on to write commentaries on the New Testament and dedicated portions of his life to helping the poor.
Theodosius Dobzhansky (1900–1975): Russian Orthodox geneticist who criticized young Earth creationism in an essay, "Nothing in Biology Makes Sense Except in the Light of Evolution," and argued that science and faith did not conflict.
Werner Heisenberg (1901–1976): German theoretical physicist and one of the key pioneers of quantum mechanics. Heisenberg was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for 1932 "for the creation of quantum mechanics".
Michael Polanyi (1891–1976): born Jewish, but became a Christian. In 1926 he was appointed to a Chemistry chair in Berlin, but in 1933 when Hitler came to power he accepted a Chemistry chair (and then in 1948 a Social Sciences chair) at the University of Manchester. In 1946 he wrote Science, Faith, and Society .
Wernher von Braun (1912–1977): "one of the most important rocket developers and champions of space exploration during the period between the 1930s and the 1970s." He was a Lutheran who as a youth and young man had little interest in religion. But as an adult he developed a firm belief in the Lord and in the afterlife. He was pleased to have opportunities to speak to peers (and anybody else who would listen) about his faith and Biblical beliefs.
Pascual Jordan (1902–1980): German theoretical and mathematical physicist who made significant contributions to quantum mechanics and quantum field theory. He contributed much to the mathematical form of matrix mechanics, and developed canonical anticommutation relations for fermions.
Peter Stoner (1888–1980): co-founder of the American Scientific Affiliation who wrote Science Speaks.
Gerty Cori (1896–1957): Czech-American biochemist who became the third woman—and first American woman—to win a Nobel Prize in science, and the first woman to be awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Gerty converted to Catholicism.
Henry Eyring (1901–1981): American chemist known for developing the Eyring equation. Also a Latter-Day Saint whose interactions with LDS President Joseph Fielding Smith on science and faith are a part of LDS history.
Kurt Gödel (1906–1978): German-Austrian logician, mathematician, and analytic philosopher. He described his religion as "baptized Lutheran (but not member of any religious congregation). My belief is theistic, not pantheistic, following Leibniz rather than Spinoza." He described himself as religious and read the Bible in bed every Sunday morning. Gödel characterized his own philosophy in the following way: "My philosophy is rationalistic, idealistic, optimistic, and theological." Gödel's interest in theology is noticeable in the Max Phil Notebooks.
Mary Kenneth Keller (1914–1985): American nun who was the first woman to earn a PhD in computer science in the US.
William G. Pollard (1911–1989): Anglican priest who wrote Physicist and Christian. In addition he worked on the Manhattan Project and for years served as the executive director of Oak Ridge Institute of Nuclear Studies.
Frederick Rossini (1899–1990): American noted for his work in chemical thermodynamics. In science he received the Priestley Medal and the National Medal of Science. An example of the second medal is pictured. As a Catholic he received the Laetare Medal of the University of Notre Dame. He was dean of the College of Science at Notre Dame from 1960 to 1971, a position he may have taken partly due to his faith.
Aldert van der Ziel (1910–1991): researched Flicker noise and has the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers named an award for him. He also was a conservative Lutheran who wrote The Natural Sciences and the Christian Message.
Jérôme Lejeune (1926–1994): French pediatrician and geneticist known for research into chromosome abnormalities, particularly Down syndrome. He was the first president of the Pontifical Academy for Life and has been named a "Servant of God."
Alonzo Church (1903–1995): American mathematician and logician who made major contributions to mathematical logic and the foundations of theoretical computer science. He was a lifelong member of the Presbyterian church.
Ernest Walton (1903–1995): Irish physicist who won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1951 for his work with John Cockcroft with "atom-smashing" experiments done at Cambridge University in the early 1930s, and so became the first person in history to artificially split the atom, thus ushering the nuclear age. He spoke on science and faith topics.
Nevill Francis Mott (1905–1996): Anglican, was a Nobel Prize-winning physicist known for explaining the effect of light on a photographic emulsion. He was baptized at 80 and edited Can Scientists Believe?.
Mary Celine Fasenmyer (1906–1996): member of the Sisters of Mercy known for Sister Celine's polynomials. Her work was also important to WZ Theory.
John Eccles (1903-1997): Australian neuropsychologist who won the 1963 Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine for his work on synapse.
Arthur Leonard Schawlow (1921–1999): American physicist who is best remembered for his work on lasers, for which he shared the 1981 Nobel Prize in Physics. Shawlow was a "fairy Orthodox Protestant." In an interview, he commented regarding God: "I find a need for God in the universe and in my own life."
Carlos Chagas Filho (1910–2000): neuroscientist who headed the Pontifical Academy of Sciences for 16 years. He studied the Shroud of Turin and his "the Origin of the Universe", "the Origin of Life", and "the Origin of Man" involved an understanding between Catholicism and Science. He was from Rio de Janeiro.
21st century (2001–2100)
Sir Robert Boyd (1922–2004): pioneer in British space science who was vice president of the Royal Astronomical Society. He lectured on faith being a founder of the "Research Scientists' Christian Fellowship" and an important member of its predecessor Christians in Science.
Richard H. Bube (1927–2018): emeritus professor of the material sciences at Stanford University. He was a prominent member of the American Scientific Affiliation.
Rod Davies (1930–2015): professor of radio astronomy at the University of Manchester. He was the president of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1987–1989, and director of the Jodrell Bank Observatory in 1988–97. He is best known for his research on the cosmic microwave background and the 21 cm line.
Richard Smalley (1943–2005): Nobel laureate in Chemistry known for buckyballs. In his last years he renewed an interest in Christianity and supported Old Earth Creationism
Mariano Artigas (1938–2006): had doctorates in both physics and philosophy. He belonged to the European Association for the Study of Science and Theology and also received a grant from the Templeton Foundation for his work in the area of science and religion.
J. Laurence Kulp (1921–2006): Plymouth Brethren member who led major studies on the effects of nuclear fallout and acid rain. He was a prominent advocate in American Scientific Affiliation circles in favor of an Old Earth and against flood geology.
Arthur Peacocke (1924–2006): Anglican priest and biochemist, his ideas may have influenced Anglican and Lutheran views of evolution. Winner of the 2001 Templeton Prize
John Billings (1918–2007): Australian physician who developed the Billings ovulation method of Natural family planning. In 1969, Billings was made a Knight Commander of the Order of St. Gregory the Great (KCSG) by Pope Paul VI.
Russell L. Mixter (1906–2007): noted for leading the American Scientific Affiliation (ASA) away from anti-evolutionism, and for his advocacy of progressive creationism.
C. F. von Weizsäcker (1912–2007): German nuclear physicist who is the co-discoverer of the Bethe-Weizsäcker formula. His The Relevance of Science: Creation and Cosmogony concerned Christian and moral impacts of science. He headed the Max Planck Society from 1970 to 1980. After that he retired to be a Christian pacifist.
Stanley Jaki (1924–2009): Benedictine priest and Distinguished Professor of Physics at Seton Hall University, New Jersey, who won a Templeton Prize and advocated the idea modern science could only have arisen in a Christian society.
Allan Sandage (1926–2010): astronomer who did not really study Christianity until after age forty. He wrote the article A Scientist Reflects on Religious Belief and made discoveries concerning the Cigar Galaxy.
Ernan McMullin (1924–2011): ordained in 1949 as a catholic priest, McMullin was a philosopher of science who taught at the University of Notre Dame. McMullin wrote on the relationship between cosmology and theology, the role of values in understanding science, and the impact of science on Western religious thought, in books such as Newton on Matter and Activity (1978) and The Inference that Makes Science (1992). He was also an expert on the life of Galileo. McMullin also opposed intelligent design and defended theistic evolution.
Joseph Murray (1919–2012): Catholic surgeon who pioneered transplant surgery. He won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1990.
Ian Barbour (1923–2013): physicist who wrote Christianity and the Scientists in 1960, and When Science Meets Religion in 2000.
Charles H. Townes (1915–2015): in 1964 he won the Nobel Prize in Physics and in 1966 he wrote The Convergence of Science and Religion.
Peter E. Hodgson (1928–2008): British physicist, was one of the first to identify the K meson and its decay into three pions, and a consultant to the Pontifical Council for Culture.
Nicola Cabibbo (1935–2010): Italian physicist, discoverer of the universality of weak interactions (Cabibbo angle), president of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences from 1993 until his death.
Walter Thirring (1927–2014): Austrian physicist after whom the Thirring model in quantum field theory is named. He is the son of the physicist Hans Thirring, co-discoverer of the Lense-Thirring frame dragging effect in general relativity. He also wrote Cosmic Impressions: Traces of God in the Laws of Nature.
Edward Nelson (1932–2014): American mathematician known for his work on mathematical physics and mathematical logic. In mathematical logic, he was noted especially for his internal set theory, and views on ultrafinitism and the consistency of arithmetic. He also wrote on the relationship between religion and mathematics.
Peter Grünberg (1939–2018): German physicist; Nobel Prize in Physics laureate for his discovery with Albert Fert of giant magnetoresistance which brought about a breakthrough in gigabyte hard disk drives
Martin Bott (1926–2018): British geologist and now emeritus professor in the Department of Earth Sciences at the University of Durham, England. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1976 and was the 1992 recipient of the Wollaston Medal from the Geological Society of America.
R. J. Berry (1934–2018): former president of both the Linnean Society of London and the "Christians in Science" group. He wrote God and the Biologist: Personal Exploration of Science and Faith (Apollos 1996) He taught at University College London for over 20 years.
Derek Burke (1930–2019): British academic and molecular biologist. Formerly a vice-chancellor of the University of East Anglia. Specialist advisor to the House of Commons Select Committee on Science and Technology since 1985.
George Coyne (1933–2020): Jesuit astronomer and former director of the Vatican Observatory.
Katherine Johnson (1918–2020): space scientist, physicist, and mathematician whose calculations of orbital mechanics as a NASA employee were critical to the success of the first and subsequent U.S. manned spaceflights. She was portrayed as a lead character in the film Hidden Figures.
Freeman Dyson (1923–2020): English-born American theoretical physicist and mathematician, known for his work in quantum electrodynamics, solid-state physics, astronomy and nuclear engineering.
John T. Houghton (1931–2020): British atmospheric physicist who was the co-chair of the Nobel Peace Prize winning Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's (IPCC) scientific assessment working group. He was professor in atmospheric physics at the University of Oxford and former director general at the Met Office.
John D. Barrow (1952–2020): English cosmologist based at the University of Cambridge who did notable writing on the implications of the Anthropic principle. He is a United Reformed Church member and won the Templeton Prize in 2006. He once held the position of Gresham Professor of Astronomy as well as Gresham Professor of Geometry.
Henri Fontaine (1924–2020): French Roman Catholic missionary, pre-Tertiary geologist/paleontologist, Paleozoic corals specialist, and archaeologist.
John Polkinghorne (1930–2021): British particle physicist and Anglican priest who wrote Science and the Trinity (2004) . He was professor of mathematical physics at the University of Cambridge prior to becoming a priest. Winner of the 2002 Templeton Prize.
Paul Farmer (1959–2022): American medical anthropologist, physician and proponent of liberation theology. He is co-founder of Partners In Health, the Kolokotrones University Professor at Harvard University and Chief of the Division of Global Health Equity at Brigham and Women's Hospital in Boston, Massachusetts.
Currently living
Biological and biomedical sciences
Nii Addy: American neuroscientist who is an Associate Professor of Psychiatry and of Cellular and Molecular Physiology at the Yale School of Medicine. His research considers the neurobiological basis of substance abuse, depression and anxiety. He has worked on various initiatives to mitigate tobacco use and addiction.
Denis Alexander (born 1945): Emeritus Director of the Faraday Institute at the University of Cambridge and author of Rebuilding the Matrix – Science and Faith in the 21st Century. He also supervised a research group in cancer and immunology at the Babraham Institute.
Werner Arber (born 1929): Swiss microbiologist and geneticist. Along with American researchers Hamilton Smith and Daniel Nathans, he shared the 1978 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for the discovery of restriction endonucleases. In 2011, Pope Benedict XVI appointed Arber as president of the Pontifical Academy—the first Protestant to hold that position.
Robert T. Bakker (born 1945): paleontologist who was a leading figure in the "Dinosaur Renaissance" and known for the theory some dinosaurs were warm-blooded. He is also a Pentecostal preacher who advocates theistic evolution and has written on religion.
Dan Blazer (born 1944): American psychiatrist and medical researcher who is Professor of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at the Duke University School of Medicine. He is known for researching the epidemiology of depression, substance use disorders, and the occurrence of suicide among the elderly. He has also researched the differences in the rate of substance use disorders among races.
William Cecil Campbell (born 1930): Irish-American biologist and parasitologist known for his work in discovering a novel therapy against infections caused by roundworms, for which he was jointly awarded the 2015 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
Graeme Clark (born 1935): Australian biomedical engineer who is Professor of Otolaryngology at the University of Melbourne and the founder of the Bionics Institute. He is well known for being the inventor of the multiple-channel cochlear implant.
Francis Collins (born 1950): director of the National Institutes of Health and former director of the US National Human Genome Research Institute. He has also written on religious matters in articles and the book The Language of God: A Scientist Presents Evidence for Belief.
Kizzmekia Corbett (born 1986): American viral immunologist and the Shutzer Assistant Professor at the Harvard Radcliffe Institute and assistant professor of immunology and infectious diseases at the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health. She has been a leading figure in the development of the Moderna mRNA vaccine and the Eli Lilly therapeutic monoclonal antibody that were first to enter clinical trials in the U.S.
Peter Dodson (born 1946): American paleontologist who has published many papers and written and collaborated on books about dinosaurs. An authority on Ceratopsians, he has also authored several papers and textbooks on hadrosaurs and sauropods, and is a co-editor of The Dinosauria. He is a professor of Vertebrate Paleontology and of Veterinary Anatomy at the University of Pennsylvania.
Georgia M. Dunston (born 1944): American professor of human immunogenetics and founding director of the National Human Genome Center at Howard University. She was one of the first researchers to join the Visiting Investigator's Program (VIP) in the National Human Genome Research Institute where she collaborated with Francis Collins, publishing work on the genetics of type 2 diabetes in West Africa.
Lindon Eaves (born 1944): British behavioral geneticist who has published on topics as diverse as the heritability of religion and psychopathology. In 1996, he and Kenneth Kendler founded the Virginia Institute for Psychiatric and Behavioral Genetics at Virginia Commonwealth University, where he is currently professor emeritus and actively engaged in research and training.
Darrel R. Falk (born 1946): American biologist and the former president of the BioLogos Foundation.
Charles Foster (born 1962): science writer on natural history, evolutionary biology, and theology. A Fellow of Green Templeton College, Oxford, the Royal Geographical Society, and the Linnean Society of London, Foster has advocated theistic evolution in his book, The Selfless Gene (2009).
Joseph L. Graves Jr. (born 1955): American evolutionary biologist and geneticist. He is a professor of biological science at North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University. His current work includes the genomics of adaptation, as well as the response of bacteria to metallic nanoparticles. A particular application of this research has been to the evolutionary theory of aging. He is also interested in the history and philosophy of science as it relates to the biology of race and racism in western society.
John Gurdon (born 1933): British developmental biologist. In 2012, he and Shinya Yamanaka were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for the discovery that mature cells can be converted to stem cells. In an interview with EWTN.com on the subject of working with the Vatican in dialogue, he says "I'm not a Roman Catholic. I'm a Christian, of the Church of England...I've never seen the Vatican before, so that's a new experience, and I'm grateful for it."
Brian Heap (born 1935): biologist who was Master of St Edmund's College, University of Cambridge and was a founding member of the International Society for Science and Religion.
Malcolm Jeeves (born 1926): British neuropsychologist who is Emeritus Professor of Psychology at the University of St. Andrews, and was formerly president of The Royal Society of Edinburgh. He established the department of psychology at University of St. Andrews.
Harold G. Koenig (born 1951): professor of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Duke University and leading researcher on the effects of religion and spirituality on health. He is also a senior fellow in the Center for the Study of Aging and Human Development at Duke.
Howard Koh (born 1952): American public health expert, physician, and the Harvey V. Fineberg Professor of the Practice of Public Health Leadership at the Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health and the Harvard Kennedy School as well as Faculty Co-chair of the Harvard University Advanced Leadership Initiative. From 2009 to 2014, Dr. Koh was the 14th Assistant Secretary for Health for the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
Larry Kwak (born 1959): renowned American cancer researcher who works at City of Hope National Medical Center. He was formerly chairman of the Department of Lymphoma and Myeloma and co-director of the Center for Cancer Immunology Research at MD Anderson Hospital. He was included on Time's list of 2010's most influential people.
Doug Lauffenburger (born 1953): American bioengineer who is the Ford Professor of Biological Engineering, Chemical Engineering, and Biology at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He is a member of the David H. Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research and MIT Center for Gynepathology Research.
Egbert Leigh (born 1940): American evolutionary ecologist who spends much of his time studying tropical ecosystems. He is a researcher for the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute and is well known for the work he has done on Barro Colorado Island. He is also known for the research he has done related to the Isthmus of Panama and its historical significance on the evolution of South American species.
Noella Marcellino (born 1951): American Benedictine nun with a degree in microbiology. Her field of interests include fungi and the effects of decay and putrefaction.
Joel W. Martin (born 1955): American marine biologist and invertebrate zoologist who is currently Chief of the Division of Invertebrate Studies and Curator of Crustacea at the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County (NHMLAC). His main area of research is the morphology and systematics of marine decapod crustaceans.
Paul R. McHugh (born 1931): American psychiatrist whose research has focused on the neuroscientific foundations of motivated behaviors, psychiatric genetics, epidemiology, and neuropsychiatry. He is Professor of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine and former psychiatrist-in-chief at the Johns Hopkins Hospital.
Kenneth R. Miller (born 1948): molecular biologist at Brown University who wrote Finding Darwin's God .
Simon C. Morris (born 1951): British paleontologist and evolutionary biologist who made his reputation through study of the Burgess Shale fossils. He has held the chair of Evolutionary Palaeobiology in the Department of Earth Sciences, University of Cambridge since 1995. He was the co-winner of a Charles Doolittle Walcott Medal and also won a Lyell Medal. He is active in the Faraday Institute for study of science and religion and is also noted on discussions concerning the idea of theistic evolution.
William Newsome (born 1952): neuroscientist at Stanford University. A member of the National Academy of Sciences. Co-chair of the BRAIN Initiative, "a rapid planning effort for a ten-year assault on how the brain works." He has written about his faith: "When I discuss religion with my fellow scientists...I realize I am an oddity — a serious Christian and a respected scientist."
Martin Nowak (born 1965): evolutionary biologist and mathematician best known for evolutionary dynamics. He teaches at Harvard University and is also a member of the Board of Advisers of the Templeton Foundation.
Bennet Omalu (born 1968): Nigerian-American physician, forensic pathologist, and neuropathologist who was the first to discover and publish findings of chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) in American football players. He is a professor in the UC Davis Department of Medical Pathology and Laboratory Medicine.
Andrew Pollard (biologist) (born 1965): professor of Pediatric Infection and Immunity at the University of Oxford and a Fellow of St Cross College, Oxford. He is an Honorary Consultant Pediatrician at John Radcliffe Hospital and the Director of the Oxford Vaccine Group. He is the Chief Investigator on the University of Oxford COVID-19 Vaccine (ChAdOx-1 n-CoV-19) trials and has led research on vaccines for many life-threatening infectious diseases.
Ghillean Prance (born 1937): botanist involved in the Eden Project. He is a former president of Christians in Science.
Joan Roughgarden (born 1946): evolutionary biologist who has taught at Stanford University since 1972. She wrote the book Evolution and Christian Faith: Reflections of an Evolutionary Biologist.
Charmaine Royal: American geneticist and professor of African & African American Studies, Biology, Global Health, and Family Medicine & Community Health at Duke University. She studies the intersections of race, ethnicity, ancestry genetics, and health, especially as they pertain to historically marginalized and underrepresented groups in genetic and genomic research; and genomics and global health.
Mary Higby Schweitzer: paleontologist at North Carolina State University who believes in the synergy of the Christian faith and the truth of empirical science.
Tyler VanderWeele: American epidemiologist and biostatistician and Professor of Epidemiology in the Departments of Epidemiology and Biostatistics at the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health. He is also the co-director of Harvard University's Initiative on Health, Religion and Spirituality, the director of their Human Flourishing Program, and a faculty affiliate of the Harvard Institute for Quantitative Social Science. His research has focused on the application of causal inference to epidemiology, as well as on the relationship between religion and health.
Andrew Wyllie: Scottish pathologist who discovered the significance of natural cell death, later naming the process apoptosis. Prior to retirement, he was head of the Department of Pathology at the University of Cambridge.
Chemistry
Peter Agre (born January 30, 1949): American physician, Bloomberg Distinguished Professor, and molecular biologist at Johns Hopkins University who was awarded the 2003 Nobel Prize in Chemistry (which he shared with Roderick MacKinnon) for his discovery of aquaporins. Agre is a Lutheran.
Peter Budd (born 1957): British chemist and a professor in the Department of Chemistry at The University of Manchester. His research in general is based on polymer chemistry, energy and industrial separation processes, specifically on the areas of Polymers of intrinsic microporosity (PIMs), energy storage, polyelectrolytes and separation membranes.
Andrew B. Bocarsly (born 1954): American chemist known for his research in electrochemistry, photochemistry, solids state chemistry, and fuel cells. He is a professor of chemistry at Princeton University.
Gerhard Ertl (born 1936): 2007 Nobel Prize winner in Chemistry. He has said in an interview that "I believe in God. (...) I am a Christian and I try to live as a Christian (...) I read the Bible very often and I try to understand it."
John B. Goodenough (born 1922): American materials scientist, a solid-state physicist, and a Nobel Prize winner in chemistry. He is still a professor of mechanical engineering and materials science at the University of Texas at Austin. He is widely credited with the identification and development of the lithium-ion battery.
Brian Kobilka (born 1955): American Nobel Prize winner of Chemistry in 2012, and is professor in the departments of Molecular and Cellular Physiology at Stanford University School of Medicine. Kobilka attends the Catholic Community at Stanford, California. He received the Mendel Medal from Villanova University, which it says "honors outstanding pioneering scientists who have demonstrated, by their lives and their standing before the world as scientists, that there is no intrinsic conflict between science and religion."
Artem R. Oganov (born 1975): Russian theoretical crystallographer, mineralogist, chemist, physicist, and materials scientist. He is a parishioner of St. Louis Catholic Church in Moscow.
Jeffrey Reimer: American chemist who is Chair of the Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering Department at University of California, Berkeley. He has authored over 250 publications, has been cited over 14,000 times, and has a Google Scholar H-index of 63. His research is primarily focused to generate new knowledge to deliver environmental protection, sustainability, and fundamental insights via materials chemistry, physics, and engineering.
Henry F. Schaefer, III (born 1944): American computational and theoretical chemist, and one of the most highly cited scientists in the world with a Thomson Reuters H-Index of 116. He is the Graham Perdue Professor of Chemistry and director of the Center for Computational Chemistry at the University of Georgia.
Troy Van Voorhis: American chemist who is currently the Haslam and Dewey Professor of Chemistry and chair of the Department of Chemistry at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
John White (chemist): Australian chemist who is currently Professor of Physical and Theoretical Chemistry, Research School of Chemistry, at the Australian National University. He is a past president, Royal Australian Chemical Institute and president of Australian Institute of Nuclear Science and Engineering.
Physics and astronomy
Stephen Barr (born 1953): physicist who worked at Brookhaven National Laboratory and contributed papers to Physical Review as well as Physics Today. He also is a Catholic who writes for First Things and wrote Modern Physics and Ancient Faith. He teaches at the University of Delaware.
Jocelyn Bell Burnell (born 1943): astrophysicist from Northern Ireland who discovered the first radio pulsars in 1967. She is currently visiting professor of astrophysics at the University of Oxford.
Arnold O. Benz (born 1945): Swiss astrophysicist, currently professor emeritus at ETH Zurich. He is known for his research in plasma astrophysics, in particular heliophysics, and received honorary doctoral degrees from the University of Zurich and The University of the South for his contributions to the dialog with theology.
Katherine Blundell: British astrophysicist who is a professor of astrophysics at the University of Oxford and a supernumerary research fellow at St John's College, Oxford. Her research investigates the physics of active galaxies such as quasars and objects in the Milky Way such as microquasars.
Stephen Blundell (born 1967): British physicist who is a professor of physics at the University of Oxford. He was the previously head of Condensed Matter Physics at Oxford. His research is concerned with using muon-spin rotation and magnetoresistance techniques to study a range of organic and inorganic materials.
Andrew Briggs (born 1950): British quantum physicist who is Professor of Nanomaterials at the University of Oxford. He is best known for his early work in acoustic microscopy and his current work in materials for quantum technologies.
Joan Centrella: American astrophysicist known for her research on general relativity, gravity waves, gravitational lenses, and binary black holes. She is the former deputy director of the Astrophysics Science Division at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center, and is Executive in Residence for Science and Technology Policy at West Virginia University.
Raymond Chiao (born 1940): American physicist renowned for his experimental work in quantum optics. He is currently an emeritus faculty member at the University of California, Merced Physics Department, where he is conducting research on gravitational radiation.
Gerald B. Cleaver: professor in the department of physics at Baylor University and head of the Early Universe Cosmology and Strings (EUCOS) division of Baylor's Center for Astrophysics, Space Physics & Engineering Research (CASPER). His research specialty is string phenomenology and string model building. He is linked to BioLogos and among his lectures are ""Faith and the New Cosmology."
Guy Consolmagno (born 1952): American Jesuit astronomer who works at the Vatican Observatory.
Cees Dekker (born 1959): Dutch physicist and Distinguished University Professor at the Technical University of Delft. He is known for his research on carbon nanotubes, single-molecule biophysics, and nanobiology. Ten of his group publications have been cited more than 1000 times, 64 papers got cited more than 100 times, and in 2001, his group work was selected as "breakthrough of the year" by the journal Science.
George Francis Rayner Ellis (born 1939): professor of Complex Systems in the department of mathematics and applied mathematics at the University of Cape Town in South Africa. He co-authored The Large Scale Structure of Space-Time with University of Cambridge physicist Stephen Hawking, published in 1973, and is considered one of the world's leading theorists in cosmology. He is an active Quaker and in 2004 he won the Templeton Prize.
Paul Ewart (born 1948): professor of Physics and head of the sub-department of Atomic and Laser Physics within the Department of Physics, University of Oxford, and fellow and tutor in physics at Worcester College, Oxford, where he is now an emeritus fellow.
Heino Falcke (born 1966): German professor of radio astronomy and astroparticle physics at the Radboud University Nijmegen. He was a winner of the 2011 Spinoza Prize. His main field of study is black holes, and he is the originator of the concept of the 'black hole shadow'.
Kenneth C. Freeman (born 1940): Australian astronomer and astrophysicist who is currently Duffield Professor of Astronomy in the Research School of Astronomy and Astrophysics at the Mount Stromlo Observatory of the Australian National University in Canberra. He is regarded as one of the world's leading experts on dark matter.
Gerald Gabrielse (born 1951): American physicist renowned for his work on anti-matter. He is the George Vasmer Leverett Professor of Physics at Harvard University, incoming board of trustees professor of physics and director of the Center for Fundamental Physics at Low Energy at Northwestern University.
Pamela L. Gay (born 1973): American astronomer, educator and writer, best known for her work in astronomical podcasting. Doctor Gay received her PhD from the University of Texas, Austin, in 2002. Her position as both a skeptic and Christian has been noted upon.
Karl W. Giberson (born 1957): Canadian physicist and evangelical, formerly a physics professor at Eastern Nazarene College in Massachusetts, Giberson is a prolific author specializing in the creation-evolution debate and who formerly served as vice president of the BioLogos Foundation. He has published several books on the relationship between science and religion, such as The Language of Science and Faith: Straight Answers to Genuine Questions and Saving Darwin: How to be a Christian and Believe in Evolution.
Owen Gingerich (born 1930): Mennonite astronomer who went to Goshen College and Harvard. He is Professor Emeritus of Astronomy and of the History of Science at Harvard University and Senior Astronomer Emeritus at the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory. Mr. Gingerich has written about people of faith in science history.
J. Richard Gott (born 1947): professor of astrophysical sciences at Princeton University. He is known for developing and advocating two cosmological theories with the flavor of science fiction: Time travel and the Doomsday argument. When asked of his religious views in relation to his science, Gott responded that "I’m a Presbyterian. I believe in God; I always thought that was the humble position to take. I like what Einstein said: "God is subtle but not malicious." I think if you want to know how the universe started, that's a legitimate question for physics. But if you want to know why it's here, then you may have to know—to borrow Stephen Hawking's phrase—the mind of God."
Monica Grady (born 1958): leading British space scientist, primarily known for her work on meteorites. She is currently Professor of Planetary and Space Science at the Open University.
Robert Griffiths (born 1937): noted American physicist at Carnegie Mellon University. He has written on matters of science and religion.
Frank Haig (born 1928): American physics professor
Daniel E. Hastings: American physicist renowned for his contributions in spacecraft and space system-environment interactions, space system architecture, and leadership in aerospace research and education. He is currently the Cecil and Ida Green Education Professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Michał Heller (born 1936): Catholic priest, a member of the Pontifical Academy of Theology, a founding member of the International Society for Science and Religion. He also is a mathematical physicist who has written articles on relativistic physics and Noncommutative geometry. His cross-disciplinary book Creative Tension: Essays on Science and Religion came out in 2003. For this work he won a Templeton Prize.
Antony Hewish (born 1924): British radio astronomer who won the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1974 (together with Martin Ryle) for his work on the development of radio aperture synthesis and its role in the discovery of pulsars. He was also awarded the Eddington Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1969. Hewish is a Christian. Hewish also wrote in his introduction to John Polkinghorne's 2009 Questions of Truth, "The ghostly presence of virtual particles defies rational common sense and is non-intuitive for those unacquainted with physics. Religious belief in God, and Christian belief ... may seem strange to common-sense thinking. But when the most elementary physical things behave in this way, we should be prepared to accept that the deepest aspects of our existence go beyond our common-sense understanding."
Joseph Hooton Taylor Jr. (born 1941): American astrophysicist and Nobel Prize laureate in Physics for his discovery with Russell Alan Hulse of a "new type of pulsar, a discovery that has opened up new possibilities for the study of gravitation." He was the James S. McDonnell Distinguished University Professor in Physics at Princeton University.
Colin Humphreys (born 1941): British physicist. He is the former Goldsmiths’ Professor of Materials Science and a current director of research at the University of Cambridge, professor of experimental physics at the Royal Institution in London and a Fellow of Selwyn College, Cambridge. Humphreys also "studies the Bible when not pursuing his day-job as a materials scientist."
Ian Hutchinson (scientist): physicist and nuclear engineer. He is currently Professor of Nuclear Science and Engineering at the Plasma Science and Fusion Center, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Christopher Isham (born 1944): theoretical physicist who developed HPO formalism. He teaches at Imperial College London. In addition to being a physicist, he is a philosopher and theologian.
Stephen R. Kane (born 1973): Australian astrophysicist who specializes in exoplanetary science. He is a professor of Astronomy and Planetary Astrophysics at the University of California, Riverside and a leading expert on the topic of planetary habitability and the habitable zone of planetary systems.
Ard Louis: professor in theoretical physics at the University of Oxford. Prior to his post at Oxford he taught theoretical chemistry at the University of Cambridge where he was also director of studies in Natural Sciences at Hughes Hall. He has written for The BioLogos Forum.
Jonathan Lunine (born 1959): American planetary scientist and physicist, and the David C. Duncan Professor in the Physical Sciences and director of the Center for Radiophysics and Space Research at Cornell University.
Juan Maldacena (born 1968): Argentine theoretical physicist and string theorist, best known for the most reliable realization of the holographic principle – the AdS/CFT correspondence. He is a professor at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey and in 2016 became the first Carl P. Feinberg Professor of Theoretical Physics in the institute's School of Natural Sciences.
Robert B. Mann (born 1955): professor of physics, University of Waterloo and Perimeter Institute. He was president of Canadian Association of Physicists (2009–10) and of the Canadian Scientific & Christian Affiliation (CSCA). He was a plenary speaker at the 2018 conference of the CSCA and Trinity Western University.
Ross H. McKenzie (born 1960): Australian physicist who is Professor of Physics at the University of Queensland. From 2008 to 2012 he held an Australian Professorial Fellowship from the Australian Research Council. He works on quantum many-body theory of complex materials ranging from organic superconductors to biomolecules to rare-earth oxide catalysts.
Tom McLeish (born 1962): theoretical physicist whose work is renowned for increasing our understanding of the properties of soft matter. He was professor in the Durham University Department of Physics and director of the Durham Centre for Soft Matter. He is now the first chair of natural philosophy at the University of York.
Charles W. Misner (born 1932): American physicist and one of the authors of Gravitation. His work has provided early foundations for studies of quantum gravity and numerical relativity. He is Professor Emeritus of Physics at the University of Maryland.
Barth Netterfield (born 1968): Canadian astrophysicist and professor in the department of astronomy and the department of physics at the University of Toronto.
Don Page (born 1948): Canadian theoretical physicist and practicing Evangelical Christian, Page is known for having published several journal articles with Stephen Hawking.
William Daniel Phillips (born 1948): 1997 Nobel Prize laureate in Physics (1997) who is a founding member of The International Society for Science and Religion.
Karin Öberg (born 1982): Swedish astrochemist,<ref name=":0">{{cite web|last=Öberg|first=Karin I.|year=2009|title=Complex processes in simple ices – Laboratory and observational studies of gas-grain interactions during star formation (Ph.D.)|website=www.strw.leidenuniv.nl|url=https://www.strw.leidenuniv.nl/events/phdtheses/oberg/oberg_thesis.pdf|access-date=2018-04-02|archive-date=2011-01-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110104062809/http://www.strw.leidenuniv.nl/events/phdtheses/oberg/oberg_thesis.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> professor of Astronomy at Harvard University and leader of the Öberg Astrochemistry Group at the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics.
Eric Priest (born 1943): astrophysicist and authority on Solar Magnetohydrodynamics who won the George Ellery Hale Prize among others. He has spoken on Christianity and Science at the University of St. Andrews where he is an emeritus professor and is a member of the Faraday Institute. He is also interested in prayer, meditation, and Christian psychology.
Hugh Ross (born July 24, 1945) is a Canadian astrophysicist, Christian apologist, and old Earth creationist. Ross obtained his Ph.D. in Astronomy from the University of Toronto and his B.Sc. degree in physics from the University of British Columbia.
Suchitra Sebastian: Indian condensed matter physicist and Professor of Physics at the University of Cambridge. She is known for her work in quantum materials, particularly for the discovery of unconventional insulating materials which display simultaneous conduction-like behaviour. She was named as one of thirty 'Exceptional Young Scientists' by the World Economic Forum in 2013 and one of the top ten 'Next big names in Physics' by the Financial Times.
Marlan Scully (born 1939): American physicist best known for his work in theoretical quantum optics. He is a professor at Texas A&M University and Princeton University. Additionally, in 2012 he developed a lab at the Baylor Research and Innovation Collaborative in Waco, Texas.
Russell Stannard (born 1931): British particle physicist who has written several books on the relationship between religion and science, such as Science and the Renewal of Belief, Grounds for Reasonable Belief and Doing It With God?.
Andrew Steane: British physicist who is Professor of Physics at the University of Oxford. His major works to date are on error correction in quantum information processing, including Steane codes. He was awarded the Maxwell Medal and Prize of the Institute of Physics in 2000.https://users.physics.ox.ac.uk/~Steane/short_biog.pdf
Michael G. Strauss (born 1958): American experimental particle physicist. He is a David Ross Boyd Professor at the University of Oklahoma in Norman and a member of the ATLAS experiment at CERN that discovered the Higgs Boson in 2012. He is author of the book The Creator Revealed: A Physicist Examines the Big Bang and the Bible and one of the general editors of Zondervan's Dictionary of Christianity and Science.
Donna Strickland (born 1959): Canadian optical physicist and pioneer in the field of pulsed lasers. She was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2018 for the practical implementation of chirped pulse amplification. She is a professor at the University of Waterloo and she served as fellow, vice president, and president of The Optical Society, and is currently chair of their Presidential Advisory Committee.
Jeffery Lewis Tallon (born 1948): New Zealand physicist specializing in high-temperature superconductors. He was awarded the Rutherford Medal, the highest award in New Zealand science. In the 2009 Queen's Birthday Honours he was appointed a Companion of the New Zealand Order of Merit for services to science.
Frank J. Tipler (born 1947): mathematical physicist and cosmologist, holding a joint appointment in the Departments of Mathematics and Physics at Tulane University. Tipler has authored books and papers on the Omega Point, which he claims is a mechanism for the resurrection of the dead. His theological and scientific theorizing are not without controversy, but he has some supporters; for instance, Christian theologian Wolfhart Pannenberg has defended his theology, and physicist David Deutsch has incorporated Tipler's idea of an Omega Point.
Daniel C. Tsui (born 1939): Chinese-born American physicist whose areas of research included electrical properties of thin films and microstructures of semiconductors and solid-state physics. In 1998 Tsui was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for his contributions to the discovery of the fractional quantum Hall effect. He was the Arthur LeGrand Doty Professor of Electrical Engineering at Princeton University.https://www4.hku.hk/hongrads/citations/nobel-laureate-phd-fnas-faps-faaas-honorary-degree-of-doctor-of-science-daniel-chee-tsui-daniel-tsui-chee>
Rogier Windhorst (born 1955): Dutch astrophysicist who is Foundation Professor of Astrophysics at Arizona State University and co-director of the ASU Cosmology Initiative. He is one of the six Interdisciplinary Scientists worldwide for the James Webb Space Telescope, and member of the JWST Flight Science Working Group.
Jennifer Wiseman: Chief of the Laboratory for Exoplanets and Stellar Astrophysics at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center. An aerial of the center is shown. In addition she is a co-discoverer of 114P/Wiseman-Skiff. In religion is a Fellow of the American Scientific Affiliation and on June 16, 2010, became the new director for the American Association for the Advancement of Science's Dialogue on Science, Ethics, and Religion.
Antonino Zichichi (born 1929): Italian nuclear physicist and former president of the Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare. He has worked with the Vatican on relations between the Church and Science.
Earth sciences
Lorence G. Collins (born 1931): American petrologist, best known for his extensive research on metasomatism. He is known for his opposition to creationism and has written several articles presenting his Christian philosophy.
Katharine Hayhoe (born 1972): atmospheric scientist and professor of political science at Texas Tech University, where she is director of the Climate Science Center.
Mike Hulme (born 1960): professor of human geography in the department of geography at the University of Cambridge. He was formerly professor of Climate and Culture at King's College London (2013–2017) and is the author of Why We Disagree About Climate Change. He has said of his Christian faith, "I believe because I have not discovered a better explanation of beauty, truth and love than that they emerge in a world created – willed into being – by a God who personifies beauty, truth and love."
John Suppe (born 1943): professor of geology at National Taiwan University, Geosciences Emeritus at Princeton University. He has written articles like "Thoughts on the Epistemology of Christianity in Light of Science."
Robert (Bob) White: British geophysicist and Professor of Geophysics in the Earth Sciences department at the University of Cambridge. He is director of the Faraday Institute for Science and Religion.
Engineering
Audrey Ellerbee Bowden: American engineer and Dorothy J. Wingfield Phillips Chancellor's Faculty Fellow at Vanderbilt University, as well as an associate professor of biomedical engineering and electrical engineering. Her research in biomedical optics focuses on developing new imaging techniques and devices for optical coherence tomography and for applications in medical diagnostics, cancer therapy, and low-cost point-of-care technologies.
Fred Brooks (born 1931): American computer architect, software engineer, and computer scientist, best known for managing the development of IBM's System/360 family of computers and the OS/360 software support package, then later writing candidly about the process in his seminal book The Mythical Man-Month. Brooks has received many awards, including the National Medal of Technology in 1985 and the Turing Award in 1999. Brooks is an evangelical Christian who is active with InterVarsity Christian Fellowship and chaired the executive committee for the Central Carolina Billy Graham Crusade in 1973.
Jennifer Sinclair Curtis (born 1960): American engineer and the Dean of the University of California, Davis' College of Engineering from 2013 until 2020. She is credited with models of particulate flow that have been adopted extensively in commercial and open-source computational fluid dynamics software code.
John Dabiri (born 1980): Nigerian-American bioengineer and the Centennial Chair Professor at the California Institute of Technology, with appointments in the Graduate Aerospace Laboratories (GALCIT) and Mechanical Engineering. He is a MacArthur Fellow and one of Popular Science magazine's "Brilliant 10" scientists in 2008.
Raymond Vahan Damadian (born 1936): is a young-earth creationist, a medical practitioner and inventor who created the MRI (Magnetic Resonance Scanning Machine).
Steve Furber (born 1953): British computer scientist, mathematician and hardware engineer, currently the ICL Professor of Computer Engineering in the Department of Computer Science at the University of Manchester. He leads research into asynchronous systems, low-power electronics and neural engineering, where the Spiking Neural Network Architecture (SpiNNaker) project is delivering a computer incorporating a million ARM processors optimised for computational neuroscience.
Pat Gelsinger (born 1962): American computer engineer and architect who was the first chief technology officer of Intel Corporation and is currently the CEO of VMware. He was the architect and design manager on the Intel 80486 which provided the processing power needed for the personal computer revolution through the 1980s into the 1990s.
Jeremy Gibbons: British computer scientist and professor of computing at the University of Oxford. He serves as deputy director of the Software Engineering Programme in the Department of Computer Science, Governing Body Fellow at Kellogg College and Pro-Proctor of the University of Oxford.
Donald Knuth (born 1938): American computer scientist, mathematician, and professor emeritus at Stanford University. He is the author of the multi-volume work The Art of Computer Programming and 3:16 Bible Texts Illuminated (1991), .
Michael C. McFarland (born 1948): American computer scientist and president of the College of the Holy Cross in Worcester, Massachusetts
Jelani Nelson (born 1984): American computer scientist and Professor of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science at the University of California, Berkeley. He won the 2014 Presidential Early Career Award for Scientists and Engineers. He specializes in sketching and streaming algorithms.
Rosalind Picard (born 1962): professor of Media Arts and Sciences at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, director and also the founder of the Affective Computing Research Group at the MIT Media Lab, co-director of the Things That Think Consortium, and chief scientist and co-founder of Affectiva. Picard says that she was raised an atheist, but converted to Christianity as a young adult.
Peter Robinson (computer scientist) (born 1952): British computer scientist who is Professor of Computer Technology at the University of Cambridge Computer Laboratory in England, where he works in the Rainbow Group on computer graphics and interaction.
Lionel Tarassenko: holder of the chair in electrical engineering at the University of Oxford since 1997, and is most noted for his work on the applications of neural networks. He led the development of the Sharp LogiCook, the first microwave oven to incorporate neural networks.
James Tour (born 1959): professor of nanotechnology and materials at Rice University, Texas; recognized as one of the world's leading nano-engineers.
George Varghese (born 1960): currently the chancellor's professor in the department of computer science at UCLA and former principal researcher at Microsoft Research.
Larry Wall (born September 27, 1954): creator of Perl, a programming language.
Ian H. White (born 1959): British engineer who is the van Eck Professor of Engineering at the University of Cambridge, as well as Vice-Chancellor for the University of Bath. Highlights of his research have included: the development of the first all-optical laser diode flip-flop, the first negative chirp electroabsorption modulator and the invention of a technique for transmitting radio frequency signals over long distances of multimode optical fibre.
Others
Justin L. Barrett (born 1971): American experimental psychologist and director of the Thrive Center for Human Development and Professor of Psychology at Fuller Graduate School of Psychology after being a researcher at the University of Oxford, Barrett is a cognitive scientist specializing in the cognitive science of religion. He has published "Cognitive Science, Religion, and Theology" (Templeton Press, 2011). Barrett has been described by the New York Times as 'an observant Christian who believes in "an all-knowing, all-powerful, perfectly good God who brought the universe into being," as he wrote in an e-mail message. "I believe that the purpose for people is to love God and love each other."'
David A. Booth (born 1938): British applied psychologist whose research and teaching centre on the processes in the mind that situate actions and reactions by people, members of other species, and socially intelligent engineered systems. He is an honorary professor in the School of Psychology at the University of Birmingham.
Robert A. Emmons (born 1958): American psychologist who is regarded as the world's leading scientific expert on gratitude. He is a professor of psychology at UC Davis and the editor-in-chief of The Journal of Positive Psychology.
Nancy E. Hill: American developmental psychologist and the Charles Bigelow Professor of Education at Harvard University. Hill is an expert on the impact of parental involvement in adolescent development, cultural influences on minority youth development, and academic discourse socialization, defined as parents' academic beliefs, expectations, and behaviors that foster their children's academic and career goals.
William B. Hurlbut: bioethicist and consulting professor in the Department of Neurobiology at the Stanford University Medical Center. He served for eight years on the President's Council on Bioethics and is nationally known for his advocacy of Altered Nuclear Transfer (ANT). He is a Christian of no denomination and did three years of post-doctoral study in theology and medical ethics at Stanford.
Denis Lamoureux (born 1954): evolutionary creationist. He holds a professorial chair of science and religion at St. Joseph's College at the University of Alberta —the first of its kind in Canada. Co-wrote (with Phillip E. Johnson) Darwinism Defeated? The Johnson-Lamoureux Debate on Biological Origins (1999). Wrote Evolutionary Creation: A Christian Approach to Evolution (2008).
Alister McGrath (born 1953): prolific Anglican theologian who has written on the relationship between science and theology in A Scientific Theology. McGrath holds two doctorates from the University of Oxford, a DPhil in Molecular Biophysics and a Doctor of Divinity in Theology. He has responded to the new atheists in several books, i.e. The Dawkins Delusion?. He is the Andreas Idreos Professor of Science and Religion at Oxford.
David Myers (academic) (born 1942): American psychologist and Professor of Psychology at Hope College. He is the author of several books, including popular textbooks entitled Psychology, Exploring Psychology, Social Psychology and general-audience books dealing with issues related to Christian faith as well as scientific psychology.
Bienvenido Nebres (born 1940): Filipino mathematician, president of Ateneo de Manila University, and an honoree of the National Scientist of the Philippines award
Andrew Pinsent (born 1966): Catholic priest, is the Research Director of the Ian Ramsey Centre for Science and Religion at the University of Oxford.
Michael Reiss (born 1960): British bioethicist, science educator, and an Anglican priest. He was director of education at the Royal Society from 2006 to 2008. Reiss has campaigned for the teaching of evolution, and is Professor of Science Education at the Institute of Education, University of London, where he is Pro-Director of Research and Development.
Gerard Verschuuren (born 1946): human biologist, writer, speaker, and philosopher of science, working at the interface of science, philosophy, and religion.
Robert J. Wicks (born 1946): clinical psychologist who has written on the intersections of spirituality and psychology. Wicks for more than 30 years has been teaching at universities and professional schools of psychology, medicine, nursing, theology, and social work, currently at Loyola University Maryland. In 1996, he was a recipient of The Holy Cross Pro Ecclesia et Pontifice, the highest medal that can be awarded to the laity by the Papacy for distinguished service to the Roman Catholic Church.
J. Mark G. Williams (born 1952): British clinical psychologist who is Emeritus Professor of Clinical Psychology and Honorary Senior Research Fellow at the University of Oxford. His research is concerned with psychological models and treatment of depression and suicidal behaviour. He is one of the developers of Mindfulness-based Cognitive Therapy, and is an ordained priest in the Church of England.
See also
Christianity and science
American Scientific Affiliation
Association of Christians in the Mathematical Sciences
Catholic Church and science
Christians in Science
Issues in Science and Religion''
List of atheists in science and technology
List of Catholic scientists
List of Christian Nobel laureates
Lists of Christians
List of Jesuit scientists
List of Jewish scientists and philosophers
List of Muslim scientists
List of Roman Catholic cleric-scientists
List of science and religion scholars
Quakers in science
Society of Ordained Scientists
Veritas Forum
Victoria Institute
Notes
References
External links
Christians in Science website
Cambridge Christians in Science (CiS) group
Ian Ramsey Centre, Oxford
The Society of Ordained Scientists-Mostly Church of England
American Scientific Affiliation (ASA)
Canadian Scientific and Christian Affiliation (CSCA)
The Institute for the Study of Christianity in an Age of Science and Technology (ISCAST) – Australia
The International Society for Science & Religion's founding members.(Of various faiths including Christianity)
Association of Christians in the Mathematical Sciences
Secular Humanism.org article on Science and Religion
Christianity and science |
1371114 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black%20screen%20of%20death | Black screen of death | The black screen of death is a fatal system error displayed by some versions of the Microsoft Windows operating system after encountering a critical system error which can cause the system to shut down.
Windows 3.x
In Windows 3.x the black screen of death is the behavior that occurred when a DOS-based application failed to execute properly. It was often known to occur in connection with attempting certain operations while networking drivers were resident in memory. (Commonly, but not exclusively, it was seen while the Novell NetWare client for DOS, NETX, was loaded.).
The issue was fixed in most instances by adding an additional section in the SYSTEM.INI of affected clients with the text TimerCriticalSection = 10000. The following files were also updated, vtdapi.386re.386 and vipx.38id-1991 by Ed Brown, a technician with the Coca-Cola Company's IT department in Atlanta, GA. He reports that the company was rolling out Windows 3.0 within the Global Marketing group and when the users would attempt to run WordPerfect, they would receive a black screen. This is also just a black screen.
Later versions of Windows
MS-DOS, Windows 95, Windows 98, Windows 2000, Windows Me, Windows XP, Windows Vista, Windows 7, and Windows 8 also display a Black Screen of Death when the operating system cannot boot. This is usually due to a missing file. This also happens when the user enables file compression on all files and the operating system compresses. Often the user must reinstall Windows, if the missing file is critical to the boot process. However, more often than not the boot screen will inform the user of the missing file. If the operating system is compressed, it will not be able to boot, even into safe mode. However, booting from another device and uncompressing the files will usually solve the issue.
In late 2009, several new reports of the Black Screen of Death in Windows XP, Windows Vista, and Windows 7 emerged. At first several claims pointed at a Windows Update. It was later recanted by Prevx as an erroneous report. Microsoft reported that no security update was causing the issue, and it may be tied to malware. In other cases, the black screen was replaced with the blue screen of death. The Black Screen of Death may also be caused by certain components of a computer overheating, in place of the traditional blue screen, that appeared to indicate a Stop error. This black screen was simplified compared to the previous blue screen, omitting instructions that the user is recommended to take.
See also
Fatal system error
References
External links
Windows 7 black screen of death
Computer errors
Screens of death |
34640743 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palinurus | Palinurus | Palinurus (Palinūrus), in Roman mythology and especially Virgil's Aeneid, is the coxswain of Aeneas' ship. Later authors used him as a general type of navigator or guide.
Palinurus in the Aeneid
In Book 3, which tells of the Trojans' wanderings after The Fall of Troy, he is singled out as an experienced navigator. In Book 5, when the Trojans have left Carthage, he advises Aeneas to forestall sailing to Italy and to wait out a terrible storm on Sicily, where they hold the funeral games honoring Aeneas's father, Anchises. After they leave Sicily for Italy, Palinurus, at the helm of Aeneas's ship and leading the fleet, is singled out by Virgil in second person when it becomes clear that he is the one whom the gods will sacrifice to guarantee safe passage to Italy for the Trojans: unum pro multis dabitur caput, "one single life shall be offered to save many." Drugged by the god of sleep, he falls overboard; Aeneas takes over the helm and, unaware of the gods' influence, accuses Palinurus of complacency: "You, Palinurus, placed too much trust in the sky and the ocean's / Calm. You'll lie naked and dead on the sands of an unknown seashore."
Aeneas next encounters Palinurus in the underworld, before he crosses Cocytus (which the ghosts of the unburied dead cannot cross into the underworld proper), where he asks how it came to be that he died despite a prophecy from Apollo, that he would reach Italy unscathed. Palinurus responds that he survived the plunge into the sea and washed ashore after four days near Velia, and was killed there and left unburied. The Cumaean Sibyl, who has guided Aeneas into the underworld, predicts that locals will come and build him a mound; the place will be named Cape Palinuro in his honor.
Later references
One of Martial's epigrams (3.78) plays on Palinurus's name by turning it into an obscene pun:
Minxisti currente semel, Pauline, carina.
Meiere vis iterum? Iam Palinurus eris.
("You pissed one time, Paulinus, as the ship hurried along. / Do you want to piss again? Then you'll be Palinurus.")
"Palinurus" is assigned a humorous etymology, as though it were derived from πάλιν ("again") and the root of οὐρέω ("to urinate"), thus πάλιν-οὖρος ("again-pisser").
In the early thirteenth century, William the Breton compared Christ to Palinurus in the "Invocatio divini auxilii" of his epic poem, the Philippide, stating "You are the path, You are my guide, You are the ship, You are my Palinurus. Make my passage through the rough seas safe for me."
In the fifteenth century, Maffeo Vegio, famous for his continuations of the Aeneid, published a dialogue of the dead (in the vein of Lucian's Dialogi Mortuorum), Palinurus or On Happiness and Misery, consisting of a dialogue between Palinurus and Charon, in which Palinurus plays the part of the young man who bemoans his lot, while Charon, an older and wiser character, expounds on Stoic philosophy.
Since the nineteenth century, scholars have recognized that in Dante's Purgatorio Palinurus can be identified (though he is never named) with Manfred, King of Sicily, whom Dante and Virgil meet in Canto 3. Palinurus here stands for the dead soul who cannot be at rest (in Virgil's scheme, cross the river Cocytus; in Dante's, cross Acheron) because his bones are unburied: Manfred's remains, after being covered by a mound of stones, is disinterred by order of the Catholic Church because he had been excommunicated (by no fewer than three successive popes). Canto 3, the canto of the "sheepfold of the excommunicates", discusses the problem of the body and the soul (Dante's character casts a shadow at the foot of Mount Purgatory, in contrast to the bodiless souls that populate purgatory) and the concept of exclusion (from "physical burial,...safety, the sacraments of the church,...divine grace absolutely"). It opens with Virgil mentioning his own burial and the translation of his body from Brindisi to Naples, drawing a connection between Virgil himself and Palinurus. Worse than Palinurus, who can be at rest after he is reburied, Virgil's soul can never be at ease since he was unbaptized and thus is eternally "suspended" in Limbo.
Christian commentators saw "an anticipation of the sacrifice of Christ" in Palinurus--unum pro multis dabitur caput prefigures the biblical "that one man should die for the people" (). Palinurus's request to Aeneas, "save me from this vile doom", "resonates with the Catholic liturgy" in the Latin translation of Psalm 58, "Deliver me, Lord, from my enemies."
Palinurus is mentioned in Utopia by Sir Thomas More as a type of careless traveler. "'Then you're not quite right,' he replied, 'for his sailing has not been like that of Palinurus, but more that of Ulysses, or rather of Plato. This man, who is named Raphael.'"
Sir Walter Scott made reference to Palinurus in his Marmion, comparing him to William Pitt the Younger, who had died while Scott was working on the poem.
The name Palinurus was the pseudonym adopted by Cyril Connolly for The Unquiet Grave.
During the 1830s the East India Company had a ship named "Palinurus" surveying the coast of Arabia.
H. P. Lovecraft references Palinurus, probably via Dante, in The Tomb. The connection is made clearer through the opening quote of the story, which is from the Aeneid.
In W.S. Merwin's 1952 debut collection A Mask for Janus, there is a short, four line poem entitled "The Bones of Palinurus Pray to the North Star."
Peter Hammill, the British singer, did a song called "Palinurus (Castaway)" on his album The Future Now, produced in 1978.
The Swedish band Trettioåriga Kriget has a song about Palinurus, titled "Behold the pilot" on their 2016 album Seaside air.
See also
4832 Palinurus, Jovian asteroid
References
Notes
Bibliography
Characters in Roman mythology
Characters in the Aeneid
Characters in Book VI of the Aeneid
Fictional helmsmen |
67190421 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asahi%20Linux | Asahi Linux | Asahi Linux is a project that aims to port Linux to newer Apple Silicon-powered Macs. The project has been started and is led by Hector Martin.
References
External links
Official website
Linux |
1524734 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red%20Hat%20Enterprise%20Linux%20derivatives | Red Hat Enterprise Linux derivatives | Red Hat Enterprise Linux derivatives are Linux distributions that are based on the source code of Red Hat Enterprise Linux (RHEL).
History
Red Hat Linux was one of the first and most popular Linux distributions. This was largely because, while a paid-for supported version was available, a freely downloadable version was also available. Since the only difference between the paid-for option and the free option was support, a great number of people chose to use the free version.
Red Hat made the decision to split its Red Hat Linux product into two: Red Hat Enterprise Linux for customers who were willing to pay for it, and Fedora that was made available free of charge but gets updates for every release for approximately 13 months.
Fedora has its own beta cycle and has some issues fixed by contributors who include Red Hat staff. However, its quick and nonconservative release cycle means it might not be suitable for some users. Fedora is somewhat a test-bed for Red Hat, allowing them to beta test their new features before they get included in Red Hat Enterprise Linux. Since the release of Fedora, Red Hat has no longer made binary versions of its commercial product available free-of-charge.
Motivations
Red Hat does not make a compiled version of its Enterprise Linux product available for free download. However, as the license terms on which it is mostly based explicitly stipulate, Red Hat has made the entire source code available in RPM format via their network of servers. The availability of the complete source code of the distribution in RPM format makes it relatively easy to recompile the entire distribution. Several distributions were created that took Red Hat's source code, recompiled it, and released it.
Features
The Red Hat Enterprise Linux derivatives generally include the union set, which is included in the different versions of RHEL. The version numbers are typically identical to the ones featured in RHEL; as such, the free versions maintain binary compatibility with the paid-for version, which means software intended for RHEL typically runs just as well on a free version. Relatively few changes need to be made to the distributions. However, RHEL used to use Red Hat's own Up2date technology for providing updates. For convenience, several of the free alternatives ship with yum replacing up2date, something that makes providing mirrors for upgrades significantly easier. Red Hat Enterprise Linux 5 and above releases use yum as their native system for providing updates, with up2date being just its front end.
Legal aspects
Free redistributions are expressly permitted by the GNU General Public License upon which Red Hat's distributions are based. However, to avoid misrepresentation of Red Hat's trademark, material in the original distribution covered by the trademark must be stripped off or removed from the redistribution.
Where distributions (e.g., CentOS) have not been deemed sufficiently thorough in removing references to Red Hat, they have received warnings from Red Hat's legal counsel. CentOS received such a notice seeking to have it remove all mention of Red Hat's asserted trademarks from their website and their distribution. CentOS previously referred to Red Hat as the "Upstream Vendor", or more formally as a "Prominent North American Enterprise Linux vendor".
Notable Red Hat Enterprise Linux derivatives
AlmaLinux – A 100% Community-owned and governed replacement for CentOS developed under the 501(c)(6) non-profit, AlmaLinux OS Foundation.
Bull's XBAS or bullx – (for high-performance computing)
CentOS – (version 7 gets maintenance updates until 2024-06-30)
ClearOS
ClefOS – a port of CentOS for IBM Z by Sine Nomine Associates.
EulerOS – certified to The Open Group's UNIX 03 standard.
EuroLinux - created by EuroLinux company freely distributed in the open core model. Besides standard paid support company offers forking and rebuilding from sources for special purposes. Previous versions were built on top of Scientific Linux.
Inspur K-UX – certified to The Open Group's UNIX 03 standard.
Oracle Linux – free to download, distribute and use with public access to the latest errata and patches from the Oracle Linux yum server. Optional paid support subscriptions are available from Oracle.
Rocky Linux – a community-supported replacement for CentOS initiated by CentOS founder Gregory Kurtzer.
Redpesk - a secure embedded Linux targeting industrial connected devices with very long term support make by IoT.bzh
Scientific Linux – (version 7 gets maintenance updates until 2024-06-30)
SME Server – made by the Koozali Foundation (version 10 based on CentOS 7 gets maintenance updates until 2024-06-30)
Springdale Linux – formerly PUIAS Linux is a complete operating system for desktops and servers, built by compiling the source packages for Red Hat Enterprise Linux.
SUSE Liberty Linux – SUSE rebuild, aimed at near-perfect compatibility.
VzLinux – made by Virtuozzo and optimized to run in containers, virtual machines or on bare-metal servers.
Appliance-oriented derivatives based on RHEL:
Amazon.com Amazon Linux AMI – RHEL7 userland with a linux-xen-kernel
Google Search Appliance – derived from CentOS
VMware ESX's Service Console software
Distributions which have ceased production or outdated:
CAOS Linux – (multiple lineage)
Fermi Linux – a.k.a. Fermi Scientific Linux, derived from Scientific Linux with additional software specific for the Fermilab research facilities
Rocks Cluster Distribution – derived from RHEL (earlier versions) and CentOS (recent releases)
ROSA Enterprise Linux Server
StartCom Enterprise Linux
White Box Enterprise Linux – No formal announcement but no longer actively developed
Yellow Dog Linux
See also
List of commercial products based on Red Hat Enterprise Linux
Long-term support
References
External links
Revisiting RHEL Clones
rhel-forks
Lists of operating systems
Red Hat software
ru:Категория:Дистрибутивы семейства RedHat |
46728817 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classic%20Mac%20OS | Classic Mac OS | The classic Mac OS (System Software) is the series of operating systems developed for the Macintosh family of personal computers by Apple Inc. from 1984 to 2001, starting with System 1 and ending with Mac OS 9. The Macintosh operating system is credited with having popularized the graphical user interface concept. It was included with every Macintosh that was sold during the era in which it was developed, and many updates to the system software were done in conjunction with the introduction of new Macintosh systems.
Apple released the original Macintosh on January 24, 1984. The first version of the system software, which had no official name, was partially based on the Lisa OS, which Apple previously released for the Lisa computer in 1983. As part of an agreement allowing Xerox to buy shares in Apple at a favorable price, it also used concepts from the Xerox PARC Alto computer, which former Apple CEO Steve Jobs and other Lisa team members had previewed. This operating system consisted of the Macintosh Toolbox ROM and the "System Folder", a set of files that were loaded from disk. The name Macintosh System Software came into use in 1987 with System 5. Apple rebranded the system as Mac OS in 1996, starting officially with version 7.6, due in part to its Macintosh clone program. That program ended after the release of Mac OS 8 in 1997. The last major release of the system was Mac OS 9 in 1999.
Initial versions of the System Software ran one application at a time. With the Macintosh 512K, a system extension called the Switcher was developed to use this additional memory to allow multiple programs to remain loaded. The software of each loaded program used the memory exclusively; only when activated by the Switcher did the program appear, even the Finder's desktop. With the Switcher, the now familiar Clipboard feature allowed copy and paste between the loaded programs across switches including the desktop.
With the introduction of System 5, a cooperative multitasking extension called MultiFinder was added, which allowed content in windows of each program to remain in a layered view over the desktop, and was later integrated into System 7 as part of the operating system along with support for virtual memory. By the mid-1990s, however, contemporary operating systems such as Windows NT, OS/2, and NeXTSTEP had all brought pre-emptive multitasking, protected memory, access controls, and multi-user capabilities to desktop computers. The Macintosh's limited memory management and susceptibility to conflicts among extensions that provide additional functionality, such as networking or support for a particular device, led to significant criticism of the operating system, and was a factor in Apple's declining market share at the time.
After two aborted attempts at creating a successor to the Macintosh System Software called Taligent and Copland, and a four-year development effort spearheaded by Steve Jobs's return to Apple in 1997, Apple replaced Mac OS with a new operating system in 2001 named Mac OS X; the X signifying the underlying Unix system family base shared with Jobs's development of the NeXTSTEP operating systems on the NeXT computer. It retained most of the user interface design elements of the classic Mac OS, and there was some overlap of application frameworks for compatibility, but the two operating systems otherwise have completely different origins and architectures.
The final updates to Mac OS 9 released in 2001 provided interoperability with Mac OS X. The name "Classic" that now signifies the historical Mac OS as a whole is a reference to the Classic Environment, a compatibility layer that helped ease the transition to Mac OS X (now macOS).
Initial concept
The Macintosh project started in late 1978 with Jef Raskin, who envisioned an easy-to-use, low-cost computer for the average consumer. In September 1979, Raskin began looking for an engineer who could put together a prototype. Bill Atkinson, a member of the Apple Lisa team, introduced Raskin to Burrell Smith, a service technician who had been hired earlier that year.
Apple's concept for the Macintosh deliberately sought to minimize the user's awareness of the operating system. Many basic tasks that required more operating system knowledge on other systems could be accomplished by mouse gestures and graphic controls on a Macintosh. This would differentiate it from its contemporaries such as MS-DOS, which use a command-line interface consisting of terse, abbreviated textual commands.
In January 1981, Steve Jobs completely took over the Macintosh project. Jobs and a number of Apple engineers visited Xerox PARC in December 1979, three months after the Lisa and Macintosh projects had begun. After hearing about the pioneering GUI technology being developed at Xerox PARC from former Xerox employees like Raskin, Jobs negotiated a visit to see the Xerox Alto computer and Smalltalk development tools in exchange for Apple stock options. The final Lisa and Macintosh operating systems use concepts from the Xerox Alto, but many elements of the graphical user interface were created by Apple including the menu bar, pull-down menus, and the concepts of drag and drop and direct manipulation.
Unlike the IBM PC, which uses 8 kB of system ROM for power-on self-test (POST) and basic input/output system (BIOS), the Mac ROM is significantly larger (64 kB) and holds key OS code. Much of the original Mac ROM was coded by Andy Hertzfeld, a member of the original Macintosh team. He was able to conserve precious ROM space by writing routines in assembly language code optimized with "hacks," or clever programming tricks. In addition to the ROM, he also coded the kernel, the Macintosh Toolbox, and some of the desktop accessories (DAs). The icons of the operating system, which represent folders and application software, were designed by Susan Kare, who later designed the icons for Microsoft Windows 3.0. Bruce Horn and Steve Capps wrote the Macintosh Finder, as well as a number of Macintosh system utilities.
Apple aggressively advertised their new machine. After its release, the company bought all 39 pages of advertisement space in the 1984 November/December edition of Newsweek magazine. The Macintosh quickly outsold its more sophisticated but much more expensive predecessor, the Lisa. Apple quickly developed MacWorks, a product that allowed the Lisa to emulate Macintosh system software through System 3, by which time it had been discontinued as the rebranded Macintosh XL. Many of the Lisa's operating system advances would not appear in the Macintosh operating system until System 7 or later.
Architecture
Compatibility
Early versions of Mac OS are compatible only with Motorola 68000-family Macintoshes. As Apple introduced computers with PowerPC hardware, the OS was ported to support this architecture. Mac OS 8.1 is the last version that could run on a 68k processor (the 68040).
In systems prior to PowerPC G3-based systems, significant parts of the system are stored in physical ROM on the motherboard. The initial purpose of this is to avoid having the OS use up most of the 128KiB RAM of the initial Macintosh—the initial ROMs were 64KiB. This architecture also allows for a completely graphical OS interface at the lowest level without the need for a text-only console or command-line mode: boot time errors, such as finding no functioning disk drives, are communicated to the user graphically, usually with an icon or the distinctive Chicago bitmap font and a Chime of Death or a series of beeps. This is in contrast to MS-DOS and CP/M computers of the time, which display such messages in a mono-spaced font on a black background, and require the use of the keyboard rather than a mouse, for input. To provide such niceties at a low level, early Mac OS depends on core system software in ROM on the motherboard, which also ensured that only Apple computers or licensed clones (with the copyright-protected ROMs from Apple) can run Mac OS.
Mac clones
Several computer manufacturers over the years made Macintosh clones that were capable of running Mac OS. From 1995 to 1997, Apple licensed Macintosh ROMs to several companies, notably Power Computing, UMAX and Motorola. These machines normally ran various versions of classic Mac OS. Steve Jobs ended the clone-licensing program after returning to Apple in 1997.
Support for Macintosh clones was first exhibited in System 7.5.1, which was the first version to include the "Mac OS" logo (a variation on the original Happy Mac startup icon), and Mac OS 7.6 was the first to be named "Mac OS" instead of "System". These changes were made to disassociate the operating system from Apple's own Macintosh models.
File systems
The Macintosh originally used the Macintosh File System (MFS), a flat file system with only one level of folders. This was quickly replaced in 1985 by the Hierarchical File System (HFS), which had a true directory tree. Both file systems are otherwise compatible. An improved file system named HFS Plus ("HFS+" or "Mac OS Extended") was announced in 1997 and implemented in 1998.
Files in most file systems used with DOS, Windows, Unix, or other operating systems have only one "fork". By contrast, MFS and HFS give files two different "forks". The data fork contains the same sort of information as a file in other file systems, such as the text of a document or the bitmaps of an image file. The resource fork contains other structured data such as menu definitions, graphics, sounds, or code segments that would be incorporated into a program's file format on other systems. An executable file might consist only of resources (including code segments) with an empty data fork, while a data file might have only a data fork with no resource fork. A word processor file could contain its text in the data fork and styling information in the resource fork, so that an application which doesn't recognize the styling information can still read the raw text.
On the other hand, these forks would provide a challenge to interoperability with other operating systems. In copying or transferring a Mac OS file to a non-Mac system, the default implementations would simply strip the file of its resource fork. Most data files contained only nonessential information in their resource fork, such as window size and location, but program files would be inoperative without their resources. This necessitated such encoding schemes as BinHex and MacBinary, which allowed a user to encode a dual-forked file into a single stream, or inversely take a single stream so-encoded and reconstitute it into a dual-forked file usable by Mac OS.
Release history
System 1, 2, 3, and 4
As part of Apple's goal of creating a computer with appliance-like simplicity, there is no explicit distinction made between the operating system software and the hardware it runs on. Because of this, early versions of the operating system do not have a distinct name. The software consists of two user-visible files: the System file, and the Finder, an application used for file management that also displays the Desktop. The two files are contained in a folder directory labeled "System Folder", which contains other resource files, like a printer driver, needed to interact with the System. Version numbers of the operating system are based on the version numbers of these two files.
System 1.0, 1.1, and 2.0 use a flat file system named Macintosh File System (MFS). The Finder provides virtual folders that could be used to organize files, but these folders are not visible from any other application and do not actually exist on the disk.
System 2.0 added support for AppleTalk and the newly introduced LaserWriter to use it.
System 2.1 (Finder 5.0) introduced the Hierarchical File System (HFS) which has real directories. This version was specifically to support the Hard Disk 20 and only implements HFS in RAM; startup and most floppy disks remain MFS 400 K volumes.
System 3.0 (Finder 5.1) was introduced with the Macintosh Plus, officially implementing HFS, 800K startup drives, support for several new technologies including SCSI and AppleShare, and Trash "bulging" (i.e., when the Trash contains files, it gains a bulged appearance).
System 4.0 was released with the Macintosh SE and System 4.1 first shipped with the Macintosh II—these new machines required additional support for the first expansion slots, the Apple Desktop Bus (ADB), internal hard drives and, on the Macintosh II, external color displays and the first Motorola 68020 processor.
These releases can only run one application at a time, except for desk accessories, though special application shells such as Multi-Mac or Switcher (discussed under MultiFinder) could work around this. Visible changes are best reflected in the version number of the Finder, where major leaps are found between 1.x, 4.x, 5.x, and 6.x.
In the late 1990s, Apple retroactively gave these older releases a single name.
System Software 5
Towards the end of 1987, Apple introduced a package titled "Apple Macintosh System Software Update 5.0". For the first time, the Macintosh operating system was offered as a distinct retail product that included four 800K disks and three manuals, at a cost of US$49. The software itself was still freely available through user groups and bulletin board services. While the product box presented this update to the operating system as "version 5.0", this number does not appear in the software itself. Three of the four disks (System Tools 1, System Tools 2 and Utilities 1) are all bootable, and the user can boot off whichever floppy contain the tools the user needs. For instance, System Tools 2 is the only disk with printer drivers, and Utilities 1 is the only disk with Disk First Aid and Apple HD SC Setup. Because the disks are named System Tools, users and the press commonly referred to this version as "System Tools 5.0".
The primary new feature of System 5 is MultiFinder, an extension which lets the system run several programs at once. The system uses a cooperative multitasking model, meaning that time is given to the background applications only when the foreground application yields control. A change in system functions that applications were already calling to handle events make many existing applications share time automatically, as well as being allowed to perform tasks in the background. Users can also choose not to use MultiFinder, thereby using a single application at a time. In 1990 InfoWorld tested four multitasking options for PC and Mac, viewing MultiFinder positively overall, but noting that its presence halved the speed of file transfer and printing compared to the single-tasking System 6 without MultiFinder.
System Software 6
System Software 6 (also referred to as "System 6") is a consolidation release of the Macintosh system software, producing a complete, stable, and long-lasting operating system. Two major hardware introductions requiring additional support under System 6 are the 68030 processor and 1.44 MB SuperDrive debuting with the Macintosh IIx and Macintosh SE/30. Later updates include support for the first specialized laptop features with the introduction of the Macintosh Portable. From System 6 forward, the Finder has a unified version number closely matching that of the System, alleviating much of the confusion caused by the often considerable differences between earlier Systems.
System 7/Mac OS 7
On May 13, 1991, System 7 was released. It is a major upgrade over System 6, adding a significant user interface overhaul, new applications, stability improvements and many new features. Its introduction coincides with the release of and provided support for the 68040 Macintosh line. The System 7 era saw numerous changes in the Macintosh platform including a proliferation of Macintosh models, the 68k to Power Macintosh transition as well as the rise of Microsoft Windows, increasing use of computer networking and the explosion in popularity of the Internet.
One of the most significant features of System 7 is virtual memory support, an essential subsystem anticipated for years, which only exists for previous Systems in a third party extension named Virtual from Connectix. Accompanying this was a move to 32-bit memory addressing, necessary for the ever-increasing amounts of RAM available to the Motorola 68030 CPU, and 68020 CPUs with a 68851 PMMU. This process involves making all of the routines in OS code use the full 32-bits of a pointer as an address—prior systems used the upper 8 bits as flags. This change is known as being "32-bit clean". While System 7 itself is 32-bit clean, many existing machines and thousands of applications were not, so it was some time before the process was completed. To ease the transition, the "Memory" control panel contains a switch to disable this feature, allowing for compatibility with older applications.
Another notable System 7 feature is built-in cooperative multitasking. In System Software 6, this function was optional through the MultiFinder. System 7 also introduced aliases, similar to symbolic links on Unix, shortcuts that were introduced in later versions of Microsoft Windows, and shadows in IBM OS/2. System extensions were enhanced by being moved to their own subfolder; a subfolder in the System Folder was also created for the control panels. In System 7.5, Apple includes the Extensions Manager, a previously third-party program which simplified the process of enabling and disabling extensions.
The Apple menu, home only to desk accessories in System 6, was made more general-purpose: the user could now make often-used folders and applications—or anything else they desired—appear in the menu by placing aliases to them in an "Apple Menu Items" subfolder of the System Folder. System 7 also introduced the following: AppleScript, a scripting language for automating tasks; 32-bit QuickDraw, supporting so-called "true color" imaging, previously available as a system extension; and TrueType, an outline font standard.
The Trash, under System 6 and earlier, empties itself automatically when shutting down the computer—or, if MultiFinder is not running, when launching an application. System 7 reimplements the Trash as a special hidden folder, allowing files to remain in it across reboots until the user deliberately chose the "Empty Trash" command.
System 7.1
System 7.1 is mainly a bugfix release, with a few minor features added. One of the major new features of System 7.1 was moving fonts out of the System file into the Fonts folder in the System Folder. Previously a resource-copying utility such as ResEdit or Font D/A Mover was required for installing fonts. System 7.1 is not only the first Macintosh operating system to cost money (all previous versions were free or sold at the cost of the floppies), but also received a "Pro" sibling (version 7.1.1) with extra features. System 7.1.2 was the first version to support PowerPC-based Macs. System 7.1 also introduces the System Enablers as a method to support new models without updating the actual System file. This leads to extra files inside the system folder (one per new model supported).
System 7.5
System 7.5 introduces a large number of new features, many of which are based on shareware applications that Apple bought and included into the new system. On the newer PowerPC machines, System 7.5 may have stability problems partly due to a new memory manager (which can be turned off), and issues with the handling of errors in the PowerPC code (all PowerPC exceptions map to Type 11). These issues do not affect 68k-architecture machines. System 7.5 is contemporary with Apple's failed Copland effort as well as the release of Windows 95, which coincides with Apple's purchase of several shareware system enhancements to include as new system features.
Mac OS 7.6
Stability improved in PowerPC-based Macs with Mac OS 7.6, which dropped the "System" moniker as a more trademarkable name was needed in order to license the OS to the growing market of third-party Macintosh clone manufacturers. Mac OS 7.6 required 32-bit-clean ROMs, and so it dropped support for every Mac with a 68000 processor, as well as the Mac II, Mac IIx, Mac IIcx, and Mac SE/30.
Mac OS 8
Mac OS 8 was released on July 26, 1997, the same month Steve Jobs became the de facto CEO of Apple. It was mainly released to keep the Mac OS moving forward during a difficult time for Apple. Initially planned as Mac OS 7.7, it was renumbered "8" to exploit a legal loophole and accomplish Jobs's goal of terminating third-party manufacturers' licenses to System 7 and shutting down the Macintosh clone market.
Mac OS 8 added a number of features from the abandoned Copland project, while leaving the underlying operating system unchanged. A multi-threaded Finder was included; files could now be copied in the background. The GUI was changed in appearance to a new shaded greyscale look named Platinum, and the ability to change the appearance themes (also known as skins) was added with a new control panel (though Platinum was the only one shipped). This capability was provided by a new "appearance" API layer within the OS, one of the few significant changes.
Apple sold 1.2 million copies of Mac OS 8 in its first two weeks of availability and 3 million within six months. In light of Apple's financial difficulties at the time, there was a large grassroots movement among Mac users to upgrade and "help save Apple". Even some pirate groups refused to redistribute the OS.
Mac OS 8.1
Mac OS 8.1 introduced an updated version of the Hierarchical File System named HFS+, which fixed many of the limitations of the earlier system and continued to be used in macOS up until macOS High Sierra, when it was replaced with the Apple File System. There are some other interface changes such as separating network features from printing, and some improvements to application switching. However, in underlying technical respects, Mac OS 8 is not very different from System 7.
Mac OS 8.5
Mac OS 8.5 focuses on speed and stability, with most 68k code replaced by modern code native to the PowerPC. It also improved the appearance of the user interface, although the theming feature was cut late in development.
Mac OS 9
Mac OS 9, the last major revision of the classic Mac OS, was released on October 23, 1999. It is generally a steady evolution from Mac OS 8. Early development releases of Mac OS 9 were numbered 8.7.
Mac OS 9 added improved support for AirPort wireless networking. It introduced an early implementation of multi-user support. Though not a true multi-user operating system, Mac OS 9 does allow multiple desktop users to have their own data and system settings. An improved Sherlock search engine added several new search plug-ins. Mac OS 9 also provides a much improved memory implementation and management. AppleScript was improved to allow TCP/IP and networking control. Mac OS 9 also makes the first use of the centralized Apple Software Update to find and install OS and hardware updates.
Other new features included its on-the-fly file encryption software with code signing and Keychain technologies, Remote Networking and File Server packages, and much improved list of USB drivers.
Mac OS 9 also added some transitional technologies to help application developers adopt some Mac OS X features before the introduction of the new OS to the public, to help ease the transition. These included new APIs for the file system and the bundling of the Carbon library that apps could link against instead of the traditional API libraries—apps that were adapted to do this could be run natively on Mac OS X as well. Other changes were made beginning with the Mac OS 9.1 update to allow it to be launched in the Classic Environment within Mac OS X.
The final update to the classic Mac OS was version 9.2.2, released on December 5, 2001.
Transition to Mac OS X
macOS (originally named "Mac OS X" until 2012 and then "OS X" until 2016)
is Apple's current Mac operating system that officially succeeded the classic Mac OS in 2001. Although it was originally marketed as simply "version 10" of Mac OS, it has a history that is largely independent of the earlier Mac OS releases.
The macOS architectural legacy is the successor to Mac OS 9 and the classic Mac OS legacy. However, unlike the classic Mac OS, it is a Unix-based operating system built on NeXTSTEP and technology developed at NeXT from the late 1980s until early 1997, when Apple purchased the company, and its CEO Steve Jobs returned to Apple. macOS also makes use of the BSD codebase and the XNU kernel, and its core set of components is based upon Apple's open source Darwin operating system.
An early version of the operating system, Mac OS X Server 1.0, was released in 1999. It retains the "platinum" appearance from the classic Mac OS and even resembles OPENSTEP in places, with the first version to arrive with the new Aqua user interface. The desktop version, Mac OS X 10.0, followed on March 24, 2001, supporting the new Aqua user interface. Since then, several more versions of the operating system have been released. Mac OS X was renamed "OS X" in 2012 and "macOS" in 2016.
Users of the classic Mac OS generally upgraded to Mac OS X, but it was criticized in its early years as more difficult and less user-friendly than the original Mac OS, for the lack of certain features that had not yet been reimplemented in the new OS, for being slower on the same hardware (especially older hardware), and for incompatibilities with the older OS. Because drivers (for printers, scanners, tablets, etc.) written for the older Mac OS were not compatible with Mac OS X, inconsistent program support with the Classic Environment program used to run the older operating system's programs on Mac OS X, and the lack of Mac OS X support for older Apple computers before late 1997; some Macintosh users continued using the older classic Mac OS for a few years after the original release of Mac OS X. Steve Jobs encouraged people to upgrade to Mac OS X by staging a mock funeral for Mac OS 9 at WWDC 2002.
Classic
PowerPC versions of Mac OS X up to and including Mac OS X 10.4 Tiger include a compatibility layer for running older Mac applications, the Classic Environment. Originally codenamed the "blue box", the environment runs a nearly complete Mac OS 9 operating system, version 9.1 or later, as a Mac OS X application. This allows applications that have not been ported to the Carbon API to run on Mac OS X. This is reasonably seamless, though "classic" applications retain their original Mac OS 9 appearance and do not gain the Mac OS X "Aqua" appearance.
Early New World ROM PowerPC-based Macs shipped with Mac OS 9.2 as well as Mac OS X. Mac OS 9.2 had to be installed by the user—it was not installed by default on hardware revisions released after Mac OS X 10.4. Most well-written "classic" Mac OS applications function properly under this environment, but compatibility is assured only if the software was written to be unaware of the actual hardware and to interact solely with the operating system. The Classic Environment is not available on Intel-based Mac systems due to the incompatibility of Mac OS 9 with the x86 hardware.
Emulation
68k emulators
Third-party Macintosh emulators, such as vMac, Basilisk II, and Executor, eventually made it possible to run the classic Mac OS on Intel-based PCs. These emulators were restricted to emulating the 68k series of processors, and as such most couldn't run versions of the Mac OS that succeeded 8.1, which required PowerPC processors. Most also required a Mac ROM image or a hardware interface supporting a real Mac ROM chip; those requiring an image are of dubious legal standing as the ROM image may infringe on Apple's intellectual property.
A notable exception was the Executor commercial software product from Abacus Research & Development, the only product that used 100% reverse-engineered code without the use of Apple technology. It ran extremely quickly but never achieved more than a minor subset of functionality. Few programs were completely compatible and many were extremely crash-prone if they ran at all. Executor filled a niche market for porting 68k Mac applications to x86 platforms; development ceased in 2002 and the source code was released by the author in late 2008. Emulators using Mac ROM images offered near complete Mac OS compatibility, and later versions offered excellent performance as modern x86 processor performance increased exponentially.
Apple included its own Mac 68k emulator that ran seamlessly on all PowerPC-based versions of the classic Mac OS.
PowerPC emulators
As of 2021 the most capable PowerPC emulator is QEMU
In comparison with 68k-emulator development, PowerPC emulation is more complex and requires more CPU power. The emulator is capable of running Classic Mac OS and OS X at full speed with networking and sound in most cases. QEMU has official support for Classic Mac OS version 9.0 through 9.2 and Mac OS X 10.0 up to and including 10.5. QEMU has several advantages over other PowerPC emulators namely supporting a wide range of platforms from Linux to Mac and Windows on current CPU architectures.
Another PowerPC emulator is SheepShaver, which has been around since 1998 for BeOS on the PowerPC platform, but in 2002 was open sourced, and efforts began to port it to other platforms. Originally it was not designed for use on x86 platforms and required an actual PowerPC processor present in the machine it was running on similar to a hypervisor. Although it provides PowerPC processor support, it can run only up to Mac OS 9.0.4 because it does not emulate a memory management unit.
Other examples include ShapeShifter (by the same developer that created SheepShaver), Fusion, PearPC and iFusion. The latter ran classic Mac OS with a PowerPC "coprocessor" accelerator card. Using this method has been said to equal or better the speed of a Macintosh with the same processor, especially with respect to the 68k series due to real Macs running in MMU trap mode, hampering performance.
Apple's Rosetta was a PowerPC emulator allowing Intel-based Macs to run PowerPC MacOS X applications, but it did not support classic Mac OS (9.2.2 or earlier) applications.
Timeline
See also
List of Apple operating systems
Comparison of operating systems
History of the graphical user interface
Inside Macintosh
Apple Computer, Inc. v. Microsoft Corp.
List of old Macintosh software
Notes
References
External links
Apple Discussions: Classic Mac OS – Apple's official forum for Classic Mac OS
The Real History of the GUI – An article about the history of GUIs
Apple Macintosh before System 7 – A comprehensive guide to Mac OS releases prior to System 7
Folklore.org – A site of anecdotes shared by the creators of the first Macintosh
The Vintage Mac Museum – Information on Macintosh systems from System 1 to System 7
Macintosh System 1 in your browser – A web-based simulator
Macintosh System 7 in your browser – A web-based simulator
BYTE Magazine September 1986 – A feature on Amiga vs. Macintosh
Apple Inc. software
History of software
Macintosh operating systems
Software version histories
1984 software
Macintosh operating systems development
Discontinued operating systems
Pascal (programming language) software |
65680891 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony%20Rees%20%28scientist%29 | Tony Rees (scientist) | Anthony J. J. ("Tony") Rees (born 1953) is a British-born software developer, data manager and biologist resident in Australia since 1986, and previously a data manager with CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research. He is responsible for developing a number of software systems currently used in science data management, including c-squares, Taxamatch, and IRMNG, the Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera. He has also been closely involved with the development of other biodiversity informatics initiatives including the Ocean Biogeographic Information System (OBIS), AquaMaps, and the iPlant Taxonomic Name Resolution Service (TNRS).
Biography
Rees was born in Coventry, UK to an academic family and studied for a degree in Plant Sciences at the University of Leeds from 1971-1974, publishing one paper on the description of a new chrysophyte alga from his undergraduate work. Subsequently he obtained a Ph.D. from the same University, with a thesis entitled "The phytoplankton of a eutrophic lake: community dynamics and ultrastructural studies". In the 1980s he worked for the Micropalaeontology Unit of the Geology Department at University College London<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lord |first1=A.R. |last2=Cooper |first2=M.K.E. |last3=Corbett |first3=P.W.M. |last4=Fuller |first4=N.G. |last5=Rawson |first5=P.R. |last6=Rees|first6=A.J. |date=1987 |title=Microbiostratigraphy of the Volgian Stage (Upper Jurassic), Volga River, USSR |journal=Neues Jahrbuch für Geologie und Paläontologie Monatshefte |volume=1987 |issue= 10|pages=577–605 |doi= 10.1127/njgpm/1987/1987/577}}</ref> before migrating to Australia where he managed the electron microscope facility for the CSIRO Division of Fisheries until that facility's closure in 1996, whereupon he transitioned into the area of marine data management for the same science agency. In that position he combined oceanographic and marine biological data management and developed an interest in the emerging field of biodiversity informatics, also including a role assisting the technical development of the Ocean Biogeographic Information System (OBIS) being developed by J. Frederick Grassle in the U.S.A. From 2009-2014 he managed the Australian node of OBIS, located at CSIRO, and also collaborated with other national and international biodiversity informatics and data sharing initiatives including the Encyclopedia of Life, the Global Biodiversity Information Facility, the Atlas of Living Australia, the Open Tree of Life project, FishBase, and others. Rees left CSIRO in 2014, since when his Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera project has been hosted on data infrastructure at the Flanders Marine Institute (VLIZ) in Belgium, with which he continues an involvement as at 2022.
Development of data management tools
In 2002 Rees devised a grid-based identification system "c-squares" for units of geographic space to which areas of scientific operation by particular research projects in his agency could be allocated; by designing the system to cover any scale from global to local, c-squares was also a good fit for the initial spatial data handling of both the OBIS and the subsequent AquaMaps projects, in addition to its original implementation within CSIRO Fisheries' "MarLIN" metadata system. A 2006 upgrade of the "c-squares mapper" software to produce rotatable and zoomable "globe views" was an early, browser-based, implementation of a virtual globe, pre-dating the eventual availability of the (far better specified) Google Earth software as a user-addressable web application.
In 2003-2004, Rees was responsible for a redesign of the OBIS search and display software utilising both c-squares for rapid spatial search and mapping of the resulting marine species distribution information, and pre-indexing of all distributed content at a central data hub so that reliance on live, distributed queries to remote, federated data suppliers was removed; this redesign went live in the production version of OBIS in 2004. At the same time, he introduced a "backbone taxonomy" for OBIS data holdings based on the then-latest (2003) edition of the Catalogue of Life, with individual names flagged as either marine or nonmarine, since OBIS wished to expose only the marine element of content supplied by external systems which did not always discriminate between records on the basis of habitat.
Aware of taxonomic gaps in this last effort arising from incompleteness in the then Catalogue of Life, in 2006 Rees commenced a new taxonomic data compilation entitled the "Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera" (IRMNG) which attempted to list all published genera of the world and assign them either a marine, or nonmarine status (later this simple distinction was further broken down into marine/brackish/freshwater and terrestrial states), also an extant/fossil flag for the use of systems that wished in addition to discriminate between extant and fossil taxa. IRMNG, initially conceived as a short term data compilation project, turned out to be more complex to complete than initially envisaged and continues to the present time under the auspices first of CSIRO in Australia, then (2016 onwards) hosted at the Flanders Marine Institute (Dutch: Vlaams Instituut voor de Zee, VLIZ) in Belgium.
An additional software tool developed by Rees is a method for spell checking scientific names of organisms entitled "Taxamatch" that aims for high recall (no candidate correctly spelled names missed) and also good precision (rejection of "false hits"), when an input (potentially misspelled) name is supplied and a list of correctly spelled names is available against which it can be tested. This method has subsequently been adopted as a useful feature in a number of global taxonomic databases including the iPlant Taxonomic Name Resolution Service for plants, the World Register of Marine Species (WoRMS) and its dozens of component individual databases, the Euro+Med PlantBase and the EU-NOMEN portal to the Pan-European Species directories Infrastructure (PESI) in addition to its incorporation into IRMNG.
For his work in the area of biodiversity informatics including that on c-squares, OBIS, IRMNG and Taxamatch, the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF) awarded Rees the 2014 Ebbe Nielsen Prize. Part of the accompanying 2014 citation from GBIF reads:
For a period in the 2010s, Rees was a member of the Global Team of the Catalogue of Life, taking part in discussions regarding that projects's ongoing functionality and evolution. He is currently (2021) a member of the Catalogue of Life Taxonomy Group. He was also a member of the international teams responsible for designing and implementing the biodiversity-related AquaMaps (global predictive maps for aquatic organisms) and iPlant TNRS (Taxonomic Name Resolution Service) projects, described in the scientific literature in 2010 and 2013, respectively. Five-degree global "c-squares" cells were also used as the fundamental reporting and analysis units for the first standardized data analysis and mapping of global marine biogeographic realms by M. Costello et al.'' in 2017. In 2020, data from IRMNG were used to release as a data table, and provide summary statistics on, all of the known genera of the world and their synonyms, as held in IRMNG at that time. Meanwhile, the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) have most recently been using c-squares as the underlying spatial grid for managing all of their vessel monitoring systems (VMS) and fishing logbook data, and have also built several applications around this including "FishFrame" (refer C-squares article for more information), and the EU-funded Horizon 2020 ATLAS Project which studied vulnerable marine ecosystems (VMEs) in the North-East Atlantic also adopted c-squares as the underlying spatial grid for its main data structure, the VME Index.
See also
C-squares
Ocean Biogeographic Information System
Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera
CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research
Notes
References
External links
List of Tony Rees' publications on Google Scholar
Tony Rees research profile at Researchgate
C-squares home page and project page on SourceForge
Home page for the Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera
Taxamatch resources page at csiro.au, project page on SourceForge, plus a poster explaining the principle and operation of Taxamatch, prepared for the 2009 London e-biosphere conference in Biodiversity Informatics
Tony Rees 2014 plenary talk "Selected Innovations in Biodiversity Informatics" (invited presentation for 2014 GBIF Ebbe Nielsen Prize): details and official recording on Vimeo
Living people
1953 births
21st-century Australian scientists |
53155253 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenKeychain | OpenKeychain | OpenKeychain is a free and open-source mobile app for the Android operating system that provides strong, user-based encryption which is compatible with the OpenPGP standard. This allows users to encrypt, decrypt, sign, and verify signatures for text, emails, and files. The app allows the user to store the public keys of other users with whom they interact, and to encrypt files such that only a specified user can decrypt them. In the same manner, if a file is received from another user and its public keys are saved, the receiver can verify the authenticity of that file and decrypt it if necessary.
K-9 Mail Support
Together with K-9 Mail, it supports end-to-end encrypted emails via the OpenPGP INLINE and PGP/MIME formats. The developers of OpenKeychain and K-9 Mail are trying to change the way user interfaces for email encryption are designed. They propose to remove the ability to create encrypted-only emails and hide the case of signed-only emails. Instead, they focus on end-to-end security that provides confidentiality and authenticity by always encrypting and signing emails together.
Reception
OpenKeychain is listed on the official OpenPGP homepage and the well-known developer collective Guardian Project recommends it instead of APG to encrypt emails. TechRepublic published an article about it and conclude that "OpenKeychain happens to be one of the easiest encryption tools available for Android (that also happens to best follow OpenPGP standards)." The publisher Heise reviewed it in their c't Android magazine 2016 and discussed OpenKeychain's backup mechanism. The academic community uses OpenKeychain for experimental evaluations: It has been used as an example where cryptographic operations could be executed in a Trusted Execution Environment. Furthermore, modern alternatives for public key fingerprints have been implemented by other researchers. In 2016, the German Federal Office for Information Security published a study about OpenPGP on Android and evaluated OpenKeychain's functionality. OpenKeychain has been adapted to work with smartcards and NFC rings resulting in a usability study published on Ubicomp 2017.
Funding
The OpenKeychain developers participated in 3 Google Summer of Code programs with a total of 6 successful students. In 2015, one of the main developers got a one-year funding to improve the OpenPGP support in K-9 Mail paid by the Open Technology Fund.
History
OpenKeychain has been created as a fork of Android Privacy Guard (APG) in March 2012. Between December 2010 and October 2013 no new version of APG was released. Thus, OpenKeychain has been started with the intention of picking up the development to improve the user interface and API. A first version 2.0 has been released in January 2013. After three years without updates, APG merged back security fixes from OpenKeychain and some months later rebased an entire new version on OpenKeychain’s source code. However, this process stopped in March 2014, while the OpenKeychain developers continued to regularly release new versions. A number of vulnerabilities found by Cure53 have been fixed in OpenKeychain. These are still not fixed in APG since its last release in March 2014. Since K-9 Mail version 5.200, APG is no longer supported as a cryptography provider.
References
External links
Website of OpenKeychain
GitHub repository of OpenKeychain
Free and open-source Android software
OpenPGP
Cryptographic software |
229119 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hobbyist%20operating%20system | Hobbyist operating system | The development of a hobbyist operating system is one of the more involved and technical options for a computer hobbyist.
The definition of a hobby operating system can sometimes be vague. It can be from the developer's view, where the developers do it just for fun or learning; it can also be seen from the user's view, where the users are only using it as a toy; or it can be defined as an operating system which doesn't have a very big user base.
Development can begin from existing resources like a kernel, an operating system, or a bootloader, or it can also be made completely from scratch. The development platform could be a bare hardware machine, which is the nature of an operating system, but it could also be developed and tested on a virtual machine.
Since the hobbyist must claim more ownership for adapting a complex system to the ever-changing needs of the technical terrain, much enthusiasm is common amongst the many different groups attracted to operating system development.
Development
Elements of operating system development include:
Kernel:
Bootstrapping
Memory management
Process management and scheduling
Device driver management
Program API
External programs
User interface
The C programming language is frequently used for hobby operating system programming, as well as assembly language, though other languages can be used as well.
The use of assembly language is common with small systems, especially those based on eight bit microprocessors such as the MOS Technology 6502 family or the Zilog Z80, or in systems with a lack of available resources because of its small output size and low-level efficiency.
User interface
Most hobby operating systems use a command-line interface or a simple text user interface due to ease of development. More advanced hobby operating systems may have a graphical user interface. For example, AtheOS was a hobby operating system with a graphical interface written entirely by one programmer.
Examples
Use of BIOS
This section is predominantly x86 oriented.
The term BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) refers to firmware that initialises computer hardware and has provisions to load an operating system. The BIOS also sets up a standard interface for several low-level device drivers at boot time. BIOS resources are often used by hobbyist operating systems, especially those written on 16-bit x86 machines, as many hobby operating systems developers lack the time to write complex low level drivers themselves or they simply want to get into writing software for the system as soon as possible.
The most commonly used BIOS functions are VideoBIOS and Disk services. These are used because video cards and disk drives vary significantly on different machines and specialised drivers are often difficult to write.
The use of the BIOS is uncommon in operating systems that operate in Protected mode or Long mode, because the system must switch back to real mode which BIOS drivers run in.
See also
List of hobbyist operating systems
Computer architecture
References
External links
OSDev.org - A hobby OSDev community
Independent Software - Set of tutorials on boot loader development and entering protected mode
The little book about OS development - This book is a practical guide to writing your own x86 operating system
Kernel 101 – Let’s write a Kernel
aodfaq - OS development FAQ
Bona Fide OS Development - Store of OS development tutorials and other documents
A step by step tutorial
Operating System Resource Center - Information and resources on various OSDev topics (both software and hardware)
Operating system technology |
28634979 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TMW%20Systems | TMW Systems | TMW Systems is a developer of enterprise management software for the surface transportation services industry, including logistics, freight, trucking and heavy-duty repair and maintenance. The company was founded in Cleveland, Ohio and now has offices in Dallas, Indianapolis, Mayfield Heights, Nashville, Oklahoma City, Raleigh, Vancouver and Melbourne, Australia.
History
Following the Motor Carrier Act of 1980, which deregulated the trucking industry, Tom Weisz founded TMW Systems in 1983.
In 2005, Wachovia Capital Partners and PepperTree Capital Management acquired TMW Systems. In 2006, TMW Systems acquired Vancouver-based Maddocks Systems, Canada's largest provider of trucking software. TMW Systems also acquired Durham-based TMT Software Company, a fleet maintenance software provider, in May 2007. TMW Systems completed its acquisition of Integrated Decision Support Corporation in September 2007. In late 2009, TMW Systems acquired Innovative Computing Corporation of Nashville, an enterprise software company. In May 2011, TMW Systems announced the acquisition of Appian Logistics Software—a leading logistics and supply chain software provider.
On August 27, 2012, TMW Systems was acquired by Trimble of Sunnyvale, California for $335 Million in cash.
Today, TMW supplies solutions covering the transportation services sector. It supplies technology for improved operational efficiencies, improved transactional velocity, resource utilization and long-term profitability.
TMW Systems has customers in the trucking, 3PL, brokerage, private fleet, construction, municipal government, retail repair and waste management industries.
Products
TMW Systems products are broken down into four categories: Enterprise Transportation Software (for brokers, carriers, 3PLs and fleet operations), Optimization Software (for transportation), Asset Maintenance Software (for captive fleets or repair centers), and Appian Software (for logistics).
Enterprise Transportation Software
TMWSuite
TMW Go! (Apple iPhone app)
TruckMate
TL2000
Innovative IES, Innovative Access and Innovative Access Plus
Optimization Software
IDSC Netwise
IDSC ExpertFuel
IDSC TripAlert
IDSC MatchAdvice
Asset Maintenance Software
TMT Fleet Maintenance
TMT Service Center
Cloud Services Hosting
in.sight
TMW Systems hosts an annual user conference called in.sight User Conference + Expo (formerly TransForum). The conference is open to other Trimble companies, vendors, and TMW customers. At the conference, TMW customers attend classroom sessions on TMW software, listen to guest speakers and network with TMW staff and other customers.
Notes
Project management software |
28835644 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Callpod | Callpod | Callpod is a Chicago-based technology company. Its products include encryption software, battery chargers, device adaptors, Bluetooth-enabled devices for the consumer, business and government markets.
Co-founded in 2001 by Darren Guccione and Craig Lurey, Callpod was created to pursue patents in mobile conferencing. In October 2004, Callpod received its first U.S. utility patent—the first of its kind in the new category of mobile conferencing.
The company's first product, which launched in 2007, is a six-way mobile device charger called the Chargepod. Following the Chargepod, Callpod's product catalog grew to include a line of bluetooth headsets designed for mobile conferencing, such as the Phoenix, Dragon, Onyx and Vetro. These products were the first of their kind to include multiplex chipsets, allowing for the transmission of multiple voice signals within the devices. Callpod's engineering team worked on several other products devised by Guccione and Lurey, creating an extensive portfolio of technology patents. Callpod shares its engineering innovations by allowing product developers to license its patents for continued advancements.
In 2009, the company ventured into the arena of software through its creation of Keeper Password and Data Vault, an application designed to encrypt people's sensitive and personal information in mobile devices and computers. Since its release, Keeper has been a top downloaded app on mobile devices around the world (millions of downloads) and has been developed on every major mobile platform and operating system. The program offers secure cloud backup, restore and device sync features.
In late 2011, Callpod created a wholly owned subsidiary called Keeper Security, Inc., to differentiate and separately market its mobile device products and software.
Biographies
Darren Guccione
President & CEO, Co-Founder
Darren Guccione is the CEO and Co-Founder of the company. Darren Guccione has extensive experience in product design, engineering and development. Prior to Callpod, Darren Guccione served as Chief Financial Officer and financial advisor to JiWire, a media and technology service provider for the WiFi industry. He was formerly the Chief Financial Officer and a primary shareholder of Apollo Solutions, Inc., which he and his partners sold to CNET Networks, Inc. in June 2000.
Early in his career, Darren Guccione lived in Asia for several years, where he coordinated product development for Bell Sports, in the bicycle accessories market. He then served Arthur Andersen LLP as a management consultant for publicly owned manufacturing-based companies.
Darren Guccione holds a Master of Science in Accountancy with Distinction from the Kellstadt Graduate School of Business at DePaul University of Chicago and has a Bachelor of Science in Mechanical and Industrial Engineering from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, where he was the recipient of the Evans Scholarship and Morton Thiokol Excellence in Engineering Design Award. Darren Guccione is a licensed Certified Public Accountant.
A board member of the Chicago Entrepreneurial Center supporting the development of early stage companies, Darren Guccione is also an advisor to Excelerate Labs, a Chicago-based technology incubator for innovative start ups. Formerly, Guccione served on the Committee of Technology Infrastructure under Mayor Richard Daley.
Craig Lurey
CTO, Co-Founder
Craig Lurey is CTO and Co-Founder of Callpod. Lurey leads Callpod's software development and technology infrastructure. Lurey and Guccione have been active business partners in a series of successful ventures for over ten years.
Prior to Callpod, Lurey was the CTO of JiWire, Inc. a media and technology service provider to the WiFi industry. Lurey led development of JiWire's technology from the ground up to deliver web services and security applications to users worldwide.
In 1998, Craig created a software platform for what would become CNET ChannelOnline, a turnkey sales-cycle automation solution for the computer industry. Craig's company Apollo Solutions was acquired by CNET Networks Inc. in June 2000. ChannelOnline now manages the e-commerce and daily operations of computer resellers in the United States.
Prior to founding Apollo Solutions, Craig served Motorola as a software engineer creating firmware for cellular base stations. Craig holds a bachelor's degree in electrical engineering from Iowa State University.
References
8.https://www.brtechnical.info/2019/01/Vivo-Y83-Pro-Offer.html
Companies established in 2001
Electronics companies of the United States |
31785787 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben%20NanoNote | Ben NanoNote | The Ben NanoNote (officially the 本 NanoNote) is a pocket computer using the Linux-based OpenWrt operating system. An open-source hardware device developed by Qi Hardware, it has been called possibly "the world's smallest Linux laptop for the traditional definition of the word.". In addition, the Ben NanoNote is noteworthy for being one of the few devices on the market running entirely on copyleft hardware.
The computer takes its name from the Chinese character běn (本), translated as "an origin or the beginning place."
History
Originally the hardware was developed by a third party as a digital dictionary. After the effort of several Qi Hardware developers, the design was freed as open source hardware while using free and open source software.
The product used to be manufactured by Qi hardware and Sharism At Work Ltd. As of 2011, more than 1,000 units had been sold.
Software
The device is shipped with the OpenWrt software stack; the custom compilation includes a graphical menu called gmenu2x, with other graphical and command line applications available from the menu.
OpenEmbedded is also available through the Jlime distribution. The Pyneo software stack, a Debian-like distribution aimed for mobiles has been ported. The MIPS architecture port of Debian Linux can be run on the NanoNote. Additionally there is NanoNixOS, a cross-compiled distribution based on the Nix package manager.
Reception
After the 2010 introduction of the Ben NanoNote, reviewers praised its small size and low cost (US$99), but also criticized the device for its initial lack of any networking capability and for its extremely modest data storage and RAM capabilities in comparison to other contemporary devices.
Product development
Because the device lacked wireless connectivity, implementing this was one of the first goals for the Qi Hardware movement. This add-on, the Ben WPAN, was developed by Werner Almesberger, and mainly consists of an IEEE 802.15.4 subsystem, made up of two boards: a USB dongle (ATUSB) connected to the computer and another card connected to the SDIO port of the device (ATBEN).
All source code, documentation and test procedures, software and hardware schematics are available under copyleft licenses.
UBB, or Universal Breakout Board, is a PCB shaped like a microSD card, focused on DIY projects and general purpose interfacing using the available MMC/SDIO port.
So far two hacks had been published: one of them, the integration with a 443 MHz RF transceiver for power sockets control purposes and later a mix of bit banging and SDIO/DMA features turning the SD card slot into a VGA port.
As the Ben NanoNote uses an Ingenic JZ4720 processor it supports booting from USB without use of the NAND flash memory.
Derivatives
The SIE board is an adaptation of the NanoNote. It has twice the memory and features a XC3S Xilinx FPGA on board. It is based on the XBurst JZ4725 SoC, which has more I/O pins available due to not having a keyboard.
Technical specifications
XBurst JZ4720 336 MHz MIPS processor from Ingenic Semiconductor
3.0" 320x240 pixels colour TFT LCD
32 MB SDRAM
2 GB NAND flash memory
1 SDHC slot (SDIO/DMA capable)
59-key keyboard
Stereo headphones connector, mono speaker and microphone
USB Client 2.0 High-Speed Device, Mini B connector
3.7 V, 850 mAh Li-ion battery
Overall dimension (lid closed): 99 * 75 * 17.5mm. (display: 7.5mm, keyboard: 10mm)
Weight: (including battery)
See also
List of open source computing hardware
List of open source hardware projects
Milkymist
References
Further reading
Melanson, Donald ( March 15, 2010). "Qi Hardware's tiny, hackable Ben NanoNote now shipping." AOL Engadget.
External links
Qi Hardware Launches Open-Source Computer PCMag.com
Hands-on: Ben NanoNote Micronotebook Linux Magazine Online
Open-source hardware group puts out vid system-on-a-chip. The Register.
A Review: Ben NanoNote Gets Small with Embedded Linux Linux.com
Computer-related introductions in 2010
Consumer electronics brands
Open computers
Linux-based devices
Personal digital assistants
Embedded Linux |
7425428 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PlayNET | PlayNET | PlayNet (or PlayNET) was an American online service for Commodore 64 personal computers that operated from 1984 to 1987. It was operated by the PlayNet, Inc of Troy, New York.
History
PlayNet was founded in 1983 by two former GE Global Research employees, Dave Panzl and Howard Goldberg, as the first person-to-person, online communication and game network to feature home computer based graphics.
The founders launched the business initially with their own money. They then raised over $2.5 million from a variety of investors, including the venture capital funds of the Town of North Greenbush NY, Key Bank, Alan Patricof & Associates, and the New York State Science and Technology Foundation, and a group of individual investors through a limited R&D partnership led by McGinn Smith.
In 1985 PlayNet licensed their system to Control Video Corporation (CVC, later renamed Quantum Computer Services), which in October 1991 changed its name to America Online. The modified version of the PlayNet software (Quantum Link or Q-Link) was ported by Quantum to the PC to create the first version of the AOL software. As recently as 2005, some aspects of the original PlayNet communication protocols still appeared to be used by AOL.
The PlayNet offices were initially located in the J Building on Peoples Avenue in Troy, NY part of the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute incubator program. It subsequently moved to RPI's Technology Park in North Greenbush NY.
PlayNet declared bankruptcy in February, 1986 and ceased operations in 1988 after Quantum stopped paying royalties.
The service had two membership options, an $8/month service charge plus $2.75/hour connect time charge, or no service charge and $3.75 per hour connection charge. File downloads were charged a flat rate of $0.50 each
Software details
PlayNet was originally designed around online interactive games which allowed chatting while playing. PlayNet also featured electronic mail, online chat, bulletin boards, file sharing libraries, online shopping, and instant messaging (using On Line Messages, or OLMs). Games were mostly 'traditional' games and some well-known boardgames. Games were programmed in a mixture of BASIC and assembly language.
Unlike other online systems of the era, PlayNet was highly graphical and required client software, and included error correction in the communication protocols. The server software for PlayNet ran on Stratus fault-tolerant computers and was written in PL/1. AOL continued to use Stratus computers and parts of the PlayNet server software until the late 1990s or later.
The client software on the Commodore 64 ran a multitasking pseudo-operating system based on a Finite State Machine language.
Game list
Checkers
Chess
Backgammon
Hangman
Bridge
Stratego
Connect 4
Chinese Chess
Go
Several others
Games/features never finished/released:
Multiplayer Dungeons and Dragons
Poker
Various other card games and wargames
Auditoriums and panel discussions
Connections to PlayNet were made by modems at 300 baud via X.25 providers such as Tymnet and Telenet. In 1985, pricing was $6 per month, with additional fees of $2 per hour, after a one-time membership fee of $30.
The system competed with many other online services like CompuServe and The Source (service), as well as Bulletin board systems (single or multiuser). PlayNet's graphical display was better than many of these competing systems because it used specialized client software with a nonstandard protocol. However, this specialized software and nonstandard protocol limited its market to the Commodore 64.
In 2005, hobbyists managed to reverse engineer the communications protocol and allow people running the QuantumLink software on an emulator or original hardware (via a serial cable) to run a reduced version of the service called Quantum Link Reloaded.
Reception
Ahoy! in 1986 called PlayNET "one of the best values around for Commodore users". The reviewer stated that he had found the network's users "to be just about the friendliest group of people around", but criticized the slow disk load times and the network's weekday hours of operation.
References
External links
PlayNET page
Remember Q-Link
Remembering Q-Link
AOL Disk Collection: Q-Link
Quantum Link Reloaded
RUN Magazine Issue 20
Commodore 64
Online video game services
Pre–World Wide Web online services
Internet properties established in 1984
1984 establishments in New York (state) |
1626435 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MSAV | MSAV | Microsoft Anti-Virus (MSAV) is an antivirus program introduced by Microsoft for its MS-DOS operating system. The program first appeared in MS-DOS version 6.0 (1993)
and last appeared in MS-DOS 6.22. The first version of the antivirus program was basic, had no inbuilt update facility (updates had to be obtained from a BBS and manually installed by the user) and could scan for 1,234 different viruses. Microsoft Anti-Virus for Windows (MWAV), included as part of the package, was a front end that allowed MSAV to run properly on Windows 3.1x.
In 2009, Microsoft launched an in-house antivirus solution named Microsoft Security Essentials, which later was phased out in favor of Microsoft Defender.
History
Microsoft Anti-Virus was supplied by Central Point Software Inc. (later acquired by Symantec in 1994 and integrated into Symantec's Norton AntiVirus product) and was a stripped down version of the Central Point Anti-Virus (CPAV) product which Central Point Software Inc., had licensed from Carmel Software Engineering in Haifa, Israel. Carmel Software sold the product as Turbo Anti-Virus both domestically and abroad.
Microsoft Anti-Virus for Windows was also provided by Central Point Software.
Features
MSAV featured the "Detect and Clean" strategy and the detection of boot sector and Trojan horse-type viruses (which were typical virus problems at that time).
The program also had an anti-stealth and check sum feature that could be used to detect any changes in normal files. This technology was intended to make up for the unavailability of regular update packages. The final update of MSAV was released in June 1996 by Symantec. The update added the ability to detect polymorphic viruses and the virus definitions were updated to scan for a total of 2,371 viruses.
VSafe TSR
VSafe is a terminate and stay resident component of MSAV that provided real-time virus protection.
By default, VSafe does the following:
Checks executable files for viruses (on execution).
Checks all disks (hard drive and floppy) for boot sector viruses.
Warns of attempts to write to the boot sector or partition table of the hard disk
Warns of formatting that could erase the hard disk.
There are more features that can be enabled, VSafe can:
Warn of attempts of executable files to terminate and stay resident (by normal methods).
Prevent programs from writing to disk.
Warn of attempts to write to the boot sector of a floppy disk.
Warn of attempts to modify executable files.
VSafe had a number of virus definitions embedded within its executable and was capable of loading additional signatures (updates) from an external definition file.
See also
Internet Security
Comparison of antivirus software
Comparison of firewalls
References
Anti-Virus
Antivirus software
1993 software
DOS software
de:Central Point Anti-Virus#Microsoft Anti-Virus |
17635462 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20atheists%20in%20science%20and%20technology | List of atheists in science and technology | This is a list of atheists in science and technology. A mere statement by a person that he or she does not believe in God does not meet the criteria for inclusion on this list. Persons in this list are people (living or not) who both have publicly identified themselves as atheists and whose atheism is relevant to their notable activities or public life.
A
Scott Aaronson (1981–): American theoretical computer scientist and faculty member in the Electrical Engineering and Computer Science department at MIT. His primary area of research is quantum computing and computational complexity theory.
Ernst Abbe (1840–1905): German physicist, optometrist, entrepreneur, and social reformer. Together with Otto Schott and Carl Zeiss, he laid the foundation of modern optics. Abbe developed numerous optical instruments. He was a co-owner of Carl Zeiss AG, a German manufacturer of research microscopes, astronomical telescopes, planetariums and other optical systems.
Fay Ajzenberg-Selove (1926–2012): American nuclear physicist who was known for her experimental work in nuclear spectroscopy of light elements, and for her annual reviews of the energy levels of light atomic nuclei. She was a recipient of the 2007 National Medal of Science.
Jean le Rond d'Alembert (1717–1783): French mathematician, mechanician, physicist, philosopher, and music theorist. He was also co-editor with Denis Diderot of the Encyclopédie.
Zhores Alferov (1930–2019): Belarusian, Soviet, and Russian physicist who contributed substantially to the creation of modern heterostructure physics and electronics. He is an inventor of the heterotransistor and co-winner (with Herbert Kroemer and Jack Kilby) of the 2000 Nobel Prize in Physics.
Hannes Alfvén (1908–1995): Swedish electrical engineer and plasma physicist. He received the 1970 Nobel Prize in Physics for his work on magnetohydrodynamics (MHD). He is best known for describing the class of MHD waves now known as Alfvén waves.
Jim Al-Khalili OBE (1962–): Iraqi-born British quantum physicist, author and science communicator. He is professor of Theoretical Physics and Chair in the Public Engagement in Science at the University of Surrey
Philip W. Anderson (1923–2020): American physicist. He was one of the recipients of the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1977. Anderson has made contributions to the theories of localization, antiferromagnetism and high-temperature superconductivity.
Jacob Appelbaum (1983–): American computer security researcher and hacker. He is a core member of the Tor project.
François Arago (1786–1853): French mathematician, physicist, astronomer and politician.
Svante Arrhenius (1859–1927): Swedish scientist and the first Swedish Nobel Prize winner.
Abhay Ashtekar (1949–): Indian theoretical physicist. As the creator of Ashtekar variables, he is one of the founders of loop quantum gravity and its subfield loop quantum cosmology.
Larned B. Asprey (1919–2005): American chemist noted for his work on actinide, lanthanide, rare earth, and fluorine chemistry, and for his contributions to nuclear chemistry on the Manhattan Project and later at the Los Alamos National Laboratory.
Peter Atkins (1940–): English quantum chemist and professor of chemistry at Lincoln College, Oxford, in England.
Scott Atran (1952–): American-French cultural anthropologist who is Emeritus Director of Research in Anthropology at the Centre national de la recherche scientifique in Paris, Research Professor at the University of Michigan, and cofounder of ARTIS International and of the Centre for the Resolution of Intractable Conflict at Oxford University.
Julius Axelrod (1912–2004): American Nobel Prize–winning biochemist, noted for his work on the release and reuptake of catecholamine neurotransmitters and major contributions to the understanding of the pineal gland and how it is regulated during the sleep-wake cycle.
B
Sir Edward Battersby Bailey FRS (1881–1965): British geologist, director of the British Geological Survey.
Gregory Bateson (1904–1980): English anthropologist, social scientist, linguist, visual anthropologist, semiotician and cyberneticist whose work intersected that of many other fields.
Sir Patrick Bateson FRS (1938–2017): English biologist and science writer, Emeritus Professor of ethology at the University of Cambridge and president of the Zoological Society of London.
William Bateson (1861–1926): English geneticist, a Fellow of St. John's College, Cambridge, where he eventually became Master. He was the first person to use the term "genetics" to describe the study of heredity and biological inheritance, and the chief populariser of the ideas of Gregor Mendel following their rediscovery.
George Beadle (1903–1989): American scientist in the field of genetics, and Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine laureate who, with Edward Tatum, discovered the role of genes in regulating biochemical events within cells in 1958.
John Stewart Bell FRS (1928–1990): Irish physicist. Best known for his discovery of Bell's theorem.
Richard E. Bellman (1920–1984): American applied mathematician, best known for his invention of dynamic programming in 1953, along with other important contributions in other fields of mathematics.
Charles H. Bennett (1943–): American physicist, information theorist and IBM Fellow at IBM Research. He is best known for his work in quantum cryptography, quantum teleportation and is one of the founding fathers of modern quantum information theory.
John Desmond Bernal (1901–1971): British biophysicist. Best known for pioneering X-ray crystallography in molecular biology.
Tim Berners-Lee (1955-): English computer scientist, best known as the inventor of the World Wide Web.
Marcellin Berthelot (1827–1907): French chemist and politician noted for the Thomsen-Berthelot principle of thermochemistry. He synthesized many organic compounds from inorganic substances and disproved the theory of vitalism.
Claude Louis Berthollet (1748–1822): French chemist.
Hans Bethe (1906–2005): German-American nuclear physicist, and Nobel laureate in physics for his work on the theory of stellar nucleosynthesis. A versatile theoretical physicist, Bethe also made important contributions to quantum electrodynamics, nuclear physics, solid-state physics and astrophysics. During World War II, he was head of the Theoretical Division at the secret Los Alamos laboratory which developed the first atomic bombs. There he played a key role in calculating the critical mass of the weapons, and did theoretical work on the implosion method used in both the Trinity test and the "Fat Man" weapon dropped on Nagasaki, Japan.
Norman Bethune (1890–1939): Canadian physician and medical innovator.
Patrick Blackett OM, CH, FRS (1897–1974): Nobel Prize-winning English experimental physicist known for his work on cloud chambers, cosmic rays, and paleomagnetism.
Colin Blakemore (1944–): British neurobiologist, specialising in vision and the development of the brain, who is Professor of Neuroscience and Philosophy in the School of Advanced Study, University of London and Emeritus Professor of Neuroscience at the University of Oxford.
Christian Bohr (1855–1911): Danish physician; father of physicist and Nobel laureate Niels Bohr, and of mathematician Harald Bohr; grandfather of physicist and Nobel laureate Aage Bohr. Christian Bohr is known for having characterized respiratory dead space and described the Bohr effect.
Niels Bohr (1885–1962): Danish physicist. Best known for his foundational contributions to understanding atomic structure and quantum mechanics, for which he received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1922.
Sir Hermann Bondi KCB, FRS (1919–2005): Anglo-Austrian mathematician and cosmologist, best known for co-developing the steady-state theory of the universe and important contributions to the theory of general relativity.
Paul D. Boyer (1918–2018): American biochemist and Nobel Laureate in Chemistry in 1997.
Sydney Brenner (1927–2019): South African molecular biologist and a 2002 Nobel prize in Physiology or Medicine laureate, shared with Bob Horvitz and John Sulston. Brenner made significant contributions to work on the genetic code, and other areas of molecular biology while working in the Medical Research Council (MRC) Laboratory of Molecular Biology in Cambridge, England.
Calvin Bridges (1889–1938): American geneticist, known especially for his work on fruit fly genetics.
Percy Williams Bridgman (1882–1961): American physicist who won the 1946 Nobel Prize in Physics for his work on the physics of high pressures.
Louis de Broglie (1892–1987): French physicist who made groundbreaking contributions to quantum theory and won the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1929.
Ruth Mack Brunswick (1897–1946): American psychologist, a close confidant of and collaborator with Sigmund Freud.
Mario Bunge (1919–2020): Argentine-Canadian philosopher and physicist. His philosophical writings combined scientific realism, systemism, materialism, emergentism, and other principles.
Sir Frank Macfarlane Burnet FRS FAA FRSNZ (1899–1985): Australian virologist best known for his contributions to immunology. He won the Nobel Prize in 1960 for predicting acquired immune tolerance and was best known for developing the theory of clonal selection.
Geoffrey Burnstock (1929–2020): Australian neurobiologist and President of the Autonomic Neuroscience Centre of the UCL Medical School. He is best known for coining the term purinergic signaling, which he discovered in the 1970s. He played a key role in the discovery of ATP as neurotransmitter.
C
Robert Cailliau (1947–): Belgian informatics engineer and computer scientist who, together with Sir Tim Berners-Lee, developed the World Wide Web.
Sir Paul Callaghan (1947–2012): New Zealand physicist who, as the founding director of the MacDiarmid Institute for Advanced Materials and Nanotechnology at Victoria University of Wellington, held the position of Alan MacDiarmid Professor of Physical Sciences and was President of the International Society of Magnetic Resonance.
Sean B. Carroll (1960–): American evolutionary developmental biologist, author, educator and executive producer. He is the Allan Wilson Professor of Molecular Biology and Genetics at the University of Wisconsin–Madison.
Sean M. Carroll (1966–): American cosmologist and theoretical physicist specializing in dark energy and general relativity.
Raymond Cattell (1905–1998): British and American psychologist, known for his psychometric research into intrapersonal psychological structure and his exploration of many areas within empirical psychology. Cattell authored, co-authored, or edited almost 60 scholarly books, more than 500 research articles, and over 30 standardized psychometric tests, questionnaires, and rating scales and was among the most productive, but controversial psychologists of the 20th century.
James Chadwick (1891–1974): English physicist. He won the 1935 Nobel Prize in Physics for his discovery of the neutron.
Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar (1910–1995): Indian-American astrophysicist known for his theoretical work on the structure and evolution of stars. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1983.
Georges Charpak (1924–2010): French physicist who was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1992.
Boris Chertok (1912–2011): Prominent Soviet and Russian rocket designer, responsible for control systems of a number of ballistic missiles and spacecraft. He was the author of a four-volume book Rockets and People, the definitive source of information about the history of the Soviet space program.
William Kingdon Clifford FRS (1845–1879): English mathematician and philosopher, co-introducer of geometric algebra, the first to suggest that gravitation might be a manifestation of an underlying geometry, and coiner of the expression "mind-stuff".
Samuel T. Cohen (1921–2010): American physicist who invented the W70 warhead and is generally credited as the father of the neutron bomb.
John Horton Conway (1937–2020): British mathematician active in the theory of finite groups, knot theory, number theory, combinatorial game theory and coding theory. He is best known for the invention of the cellular automaton called Conway's Game of Life.
Sir John Cornforth FRS, FAA (1917–2013): Australian–British chemist who won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1975 for his work on the stereochemistry of enzyme-catalysed reactions.
Jerry Coyne (1949–): American evolutionary biologist and professor, known for his books on evolution and commentary on the intelligent design debate.
Francis Crick (1916–2004): English molecular biologist, physicist, and neuroscientist; noted for being one of the co-discoverers of the structure of the DNA molecule in 1953. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1962.
George Washington Crile (1864–1943): American surgeon. Crile is now formally recognized as the first surgeon to have succeeded in a direct blood transfusion.
Pierre Curie (1859–1906): French physicist, a pioneer in crystallography, magnetism, piezoelectricity and radioactivity, and Nobel laureate. In 1903 he received the Nobel Prize in Physics with his wife, Marie Curie, and Henri Becquerel, "in recognition of the extraordinary services they have rendered by their joint researches on the radiation phenomena discovered by Professor Henri Becquerel".
D
Sir Howard Dalton FRS (1944–2008): British microbiologist, Chief Scientific Advisor to the UK's Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs from March 2002 to September 2007.
Richard Dawkins (1941–): English evolutionary biologist, creator of the concept of the meme; outspoken atheist and populariser of science, author of The God Delusion and founder of the Richard Dawkins Foundation for Reason and Science.
Christian de Duve (1917–2013): Belgian cytologist and biochemist. He made serendipitous discoveries of two cell organelles, the peroxisome and lysosome, for which he shared the 1974 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with Albert Claude and George E. Palade ("for their discoveries concerning the structural and functional organization of the cell"). In addition to discovering and naming the peroxisome and lysosome, on a single occasion in 1963 he coined the scientific terms "autophagy", "endocytosis", and "exocytosis".
Wander Johannes de Haas (1878–1960): Dutch physicist and mathematician who is best known for the Shubnikov–de Haas effect, the de Haas–van Alphen effect and the Einstein–de Haas effect.
Augustus De Morgan (1806–1871): British mathematician and logician. He formulated De Morgan's laws and introduced the term mathematical induction, making its idea rigorous.
Arnaud Denjoy (1884–1974): French mathematician, noted for his contributions to harmonic analysis and differential equations.
David Deutsch (1953–): Israeli-British quantum physicist at the University of Oxford. He pioneered the field of quantum computation by being the first person to formulate a description for a quantum Turing machine, as well as specifying an algorithm designed to run on a quantum computer.
William G. Dever (1933–): American archaeologist, specialising in the history of Israel and the Near East in biblical times.
Jared Diamond (1937–): American geographer, historian, and author best known for his popular science books.
Paul Dirac (1902–1984): British theoretical physicist, one of the founders of quantum mechanics, predicted the existence of antimatter, and won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1933.
Carl Djerassi (1923–2015): Austrian-born Bulgarian-American chemist, novelist, and playwright best known for his contribution to the development of oral contraceptive pills. He also developed Pyribenzamine (tripelennamine), his first patent and one of the first commercial antihistamines
Emil du Bois-Reymond (1818–1896): German physician and physiologist, the discoverer of nerve action potential, and the father of experimental electrophysiology.
Eugene Dynkin (1924–2014): Soviet and American mathematician. He has made contributions to the fields of probability and algebra, especially semisimple Lie groups, Lie algebras, and Markov processes. The Dynkin diagram, the Dynkin system, and Dynkin's lemma are named after him.
E
Paul Ehrenfest (1880–1933): Austrian and Dutch theoretical physicist, who made major contributions to the field of statistical mechanics and its relations with quantum mechanics, including the theory of phase transition and the Ehrenfest theorem.
Albert Ellis (1913–2007): American psychologist who in 1955 developed Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy.
Paul Erdős (1913–1996): Hungarian mathematician. He published more papers than any other mathematician in history, working with hundreds of collaborators. He worked on problems in combinatorics, graph theory, number theory, classical analysis, approximation theory, set theory, and probability theory.
Daniel Everett (1951–): American linguistic anthropologist and author best known for his study of the Amazon Basin's Pirahã people and their language.
Hugh Everett III (1930–1982): American physicist who first proposed the many-worlds interpretation (MWI) of quantum physics, which he termed his "relative state" formulation.
Hans Eysenck (1916–1997): German psychologist and author who is best remembered for his work on intelligence and personality, though he worked in a wide range of areas. He was the founding editor of the journal Personality and Individual Differences, and authored about 80 books and more than 1600 journal articles.
F
Gustav Fechner (1801–1887): German experimental psychologist. An early pioneer in experimental psychology and founder of psychophysics.
Leon Festinger (1919–1989): American social psychologist famous for his Theory of Cognitive Dissonance.
Richard Feynman (1918–1988): American theoretical physicist, best known for his work in renormalizing Quantum electrodynamics (QED) and his path integral formulation of quantum mechanics . He won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1965.
Irving Finkel (1951–): British philologist, Assyriologist, and the Assistant Keeper of Ancient Mesopotamian script, languages and cultures in the Department of the Middle East in the British Museum, where he specialises in cuneiform inscriptions on tablets of clay from ancient Mesopotamia.
Sir Raymond Firth CNZM, FBA (1901–2002): New Zealand ethnologist, considered to have singlehandedly created a form of British economic anthropology.
Helen Fisher (1945–): American biological anthropologist and member of the Center For Human Evolutionary Studies at Rutgers University.
James Franck (1882–1964): German physicist. Won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1925.
Carlos Frenk (1951–): Mexican-British cosmologist and the Ogden Professor of Fundamental Physics at Durham University, whose main interests lie in the field of cosmology, studying galaxy formation and computer simulations of cosmic structure formation.
Sigmund Freud (1856–1939): Austrian neurologist known as the father of psychoanalysis.
Jerome Isaac Friedman (1930–): American physicist who won the 1990 Nobel Prize in Physics along with Henry Kendall and Richard Taylor, for work showing an internal structure for protons later known to be quarks.
Christer Fuglesang (1957–): Swedish astronaut and physicist.
G
George Gamow (1904–1968): Russian-born theoretical physicist and cosmologist. An early advocate and developer of Lemaître's Big Bang theory.
Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac (1772–1850): French chemist and physicist. He is known mostly for two laws related to gases.
Ivar Giaever (1929–): Norwegian-American physicist who shared the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1973 with Leo Esaki and Brian Josephson "for their discoveries regarding tunnelling phenomena in solids". Giaever is an institute professor emeritus at the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, a professor-at-large at the University of Oslo, and the president of Applied Biophysics.
Sheldon Glashow (1932–): American theoretical physicist. He shared the 1979 Nobel Prize in Physics with Steven Weinberg and Abdus Salam for his contribution to the electroweak unification theory.
Camillo Golgi (1843–1926): Italian physician, biologist, pathologist, scientist, and Nobel laureate. Several structures and phenomena in anatomy and physiology are named for him, including the Golgi apparatus, the Golgi tendon organ and the Golgi tendon reflex. He is recognized as the greatest neuroscientist and biologist of his time.
Herb Grosch (1918–2010): Canadian-American computer scientist, perhaps best known for Grosch's law, which he formulated in 1950.
David Gross (1941–): American theoretical physicist and string theorist who was awarded a Nobel Prize in Physics for his co-discovery of asymptotic freedom.
H
Jacques Hadamard (1865–1963): French mathematician who made major contributions in number theory, complex function theory, differential geometry and partial differential equations.
Jonathan Haidt (c.1964–): Associate professor of psychology at the University of Virginia, focusing on the psychological bases of morality across different cultures, and author of The Happiness Hypothesis.
J. B. S. Haldane (1892–1964): British polymath well known for his works in physiology, genetics and evolutionary biology. He was also a mathematician making innovative contributions to statistics and biometry education in India. Haldane was also the first to construct human gene maps for haemophilia and colour blindness on the X chromosome and he was one of the first people to conceive abiogenesis.
Alan Hale (1958–): American professional astronomer, who co-discovered Comet Hale–Bopp, and specializes in the study of sun-like stars and the search for extra-solar planetary systems, and has side interests in the fields of comets and near-Earth asteroids.
Sir James Hall (1761–1832): Scottish geologist and chemist, President of the Royal Society of Edinburgh and leading figure in the Scottish Enlightenment.
G. Stanley Hall (1846–1924): Pioneering American psychologist and educator. His interests focused on childhood development and evolutionary theory. Hall was the first president of the American Psychological Association and the first president of Clark University.
Beverly Halstead (1933–1991): British paleontologist and populariser of science.
Gerhard Armauer Hansen (1841–1912): Norwegian physician, remembered for his identification of the bacterium Mycobacterium leprae in 1873 as the causative agent of leprosy.
G. H. Hardy (1877–1947): Prominent English mathematician, known for his achievements in number theory and mathematical analysis.
Herbert A. Hauptman (1917–2011): American mathematician. Along with Jerome Karle, won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1985.
Stephen Hawking (1942–2018): British theoretical physicist, cosmologist, author, and Director of Research at the Centre for Theoretical Cosmology within the University of Cambridge.
Ewald Hering (1834–1918): German physiologist who did much research into color vision, binocular perception and eye movements. He proposed opponent color theory in 1892.
Peter Higgs (1929–): British theoretical physicist, recipient of the Dirac Medal and Prize, known for his prediction of the existence of a new particle, the Higgs boson, nicknamed the "God particle". He won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2013.
Roald Hoffmann (1937–): American theoretical chemist who won the 1981 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.
Lancelot Hogben (1895–1975): English experimental zoologist and medical statistician, now best known for his popularising books on science, mathematics and language.
Brigid Hogan FRS (1943–): British developmental biologist noted for her contributions to stem cell research and transgenic technology and techniques. She is the George Barth Geller Professor of Research in Molecular Biology and Chair of the Department of Cell Biology at Duke University, as well as the director of the Duke Stem Cell Program.
Fred Hollows (1929–1993): New Zealand and Australian ophthalmologist. He became known for his work in restoring eyesight for countless thousands of people in Australia and many other countries.
Fred Hoyle (1915–2001): English astronomer noted primarily for his contribution to the theory of stellar nucleosynthesis and his often controversial stance on other cosmological and scientific matters—in particular his rejection of the "Big Bang" theory, a term originally coined by him on BBC radio.
Nicholas Humphrey (1943–): English neuropsychologist, working on consciousness and belief in the supernatural from a Darwinian perspective, and primatological research into Machiavellian intelligence theory.
Sir Julian Huxley FRS (1887–1975): English evolutionary biologist, a leading figure in the mid-twentieth century evolutionary synthesis, Secretary of the Zoological Society of London (1935–1942), the first Director of UNESCO, and a founding member of the World Wildlife Fund.
I
Saiful Islam (1963–): British materials chemist, a Professor of Materials Chemistry at the University of Bath and a recipient of the Royal Society Wolfson Research Merit award.
J
John Hughlings Jackson FRS (1835–1911): English neurologist. He is best known for his research on epilepsy. Jackson was one of the founders of the important Brain journal, which was dedicated to the interaction between experimental and clinical neurology (still being published today).
François Jacob (1920–2013): French biologist who, together with Jacques Monod, originated the idea that control of enzyme levels in all cells occurs through feedback on transcription. He shared the 1965 Nobel Prize in Medicine with Jacques Monod and André Lwoff.
Donald Johanson (1943–): American paleoanthropologist, who's known for discovering – with Yves Coppens and Maurice Taieb – the fossil of a female hominin australopithecine known as "Lucy" in the Afar Triangle region of Hadar, Ethiopia.
Frédéric Joliot-Curie (1900–1958): French physicist and Nobel Laureate in Chemistry in 1935.
Irène Joliot-Curie (1897–1956): French scientist. She is the daughter of Marie Curie and Pierre Curie. She along with her husband, Frédéric Joliot-Curie, was awarded the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1935.
Steve Jones (1944–): Welsh geneticist, professor of genetics and head of the biology department at University College London, and television presenter and a prize-winning author on biology, especially evolution; one of the best known contemporary popular writers on evolution.
K
Daniel Kahneman (1934–): Israeli psychologist and behavioral economist notable for his work on the psychology of judgment and decision-making.
Paul Kammerer (1880–1926): Austrian biologist who studied and advocated the now abandoned Lamarckian theory of inheritance – the notion that organisms may pass to their offspring characteristics they have acquired in their lifetime.
Samuel Karlin (1924–2007): American mathematician. He did extensive work in mathematical population genetics.
Grete Kellenberger-Gujer (1919–2011): Swiss molecular biologist known for her discoveries on genetic recombination and restriction modification system of DNA. She was a pioneer in the genetic analysis of bacteriophages and contributed to the early development of molecular biology.
Alfred Kinsey (1894–1956): American biologist, sexologist and professor of entomology and zoology.
Melanie Klein (1882–1960): Austrian-born British psychoanalyst who devised novel therapeutic techniques for children that influenced child psychology and contemporary psychoanalysis. She was a leading innovator in theorizing object relations theory.
Alfred Dillwyn Knox (1884–1943): British classics scholar and papyrologist at King's College, Cambridge, and a cryptologist. As a member of the World War I Room 40 codebreaking unit, he helped decrypt the Zimmermann Telegram, which brought the United States into the war. At the end of World War I, he joined the Government Code and Cypher School (GCCS) and on 25 July 1939, as Chief Cryptographer, participated in the Polish-French-British Warsaw meeting that disclosed Polish achievements, since December 1932, in the continuous breaking of German Enigma ciphers, thus kick-starting the British World War II Ultra operations at Bletchley Park.
Damodar Dharmananda Kosambi (1907–1966): Indian mathematician, statistician, historian and polymath who contributed to genetics by introducing Kosambi's map function.
Lawrence Krauss (1954–): American theoretical physicist, professor of physics at Arizona State University and popularizer of science. Krauss speaks regularly at atheist conferences such as Beyond Belief and Atheist Alliance International.
Harold Kroto (1939–2016): 1996 Nobel Laureate in Chemistry.
Ray Kurzweil (1948–): American inventor, futurist, and author. He is the author of several books on health, artificial intelligence (AI), transhumanism, the technological singularity, and futurism.
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Jacques Lacan (1901–1981): French psychoanalyst and psychiatrist who made prominent contributions to psychoanalysis and philosophy, and has been called "the most controversial psycho-analyst since Freud".
Joseph Louis Lagrange (1736–1813): Italian mathematician and astronomer that made significant contributions to the fields of analysis, number theory, and both classical and celestial mechanics.
Jérôme Lalande (1732–1807): French astronomer and writer.
Lev Landau (1908–1968): Russian physicist. He received the 1962 Nobel Prize in Physics for his development of a mathematical theory of superfluidity.
Alexander Langmuir (1910–1993): American epidemiologist. He is renowned for creating the Epidemic Intelligence Service.
Paul Lauterbur (1929–2007): American chemist who shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2003 with Peter Mansfield for his work which made the development of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) possible.
Richard Leakey (1944–2022): Kenyan paleoanthropologist, conservationist, and politician.
Félix Le Dantec (1869–1917): French biologist and philosopher of science, noted for his work on bacteria.
Leon M. Lederman (1922–2018): American physicist who, along with Melvin Schwartz and Jack Steinberger, received the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1988 for their joint research on neutrinos.
Jean-Marie Lehn (1939–): French chemist. He received the 1987 Nobel Prize in Chemistry, together with Donald Cram and Charles Pedersen.
Sir John Leslie (1766–1832): Scottish mathematician and physicist best remembered for his research into heat; he was the first person to artificially produce ice, and gave the first modern account of capillary action.
Nikolai Lobachevsky (1792–1856): Russian mathematician. Known for his works on hyperbolic geometry.
Jacques Loeb (1859–1924): German-born American physiologist and biologist.
H. Christopher Longuet-Higgins FRS (1923–2004): English theoretical chemist and a cognitive scientist.
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Paul MacCready (1925–2007): American aeronautical engineer. He was the founder of AeroVironment and the designer of the human-powered aircraft that won the Kremer prize.
Ernst Mach (1838–1916): Austrian physicist and philosopher. Known for his contributions to physics such as the Mach number and the study of shock waves.
Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis FRS (1893–1972): Indian scientist and applied statistician. He is best remembered for the Mahalanobis distance, a statistical measure and for being one of the members of the first Planning commission of free india. He made pioneering studies in anthropometry in India and founded the Indian Statistical Institute.
Paolo Mantegazza (1831–1910): Italian neurologist, physiologist and anthropologist, noted for his experimental investigation of coca leaves into its effects on the human psyche.
Andrey Markov (1856–1922): Russian mathematician. He is best known for his work on stochastic processes.
Phil Mason (1972–): British chemist at the Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, who is known for his online activities and YouTube career.
Abraham Maslow (1908–1970): American psychologist. He was a professor of psychology at Brandeis University, Brooklyn College, New School for Social Research and Columbia University who created Maslow's hierarchy of needs.
Hiram Stevens Maxim (1840–1916): American-born British inventor. He invented the Maxim gun, the first portable, fully automatic machine gun; and other devices, including an elaborate mousetrap.
Ernst Mayr (1904–2005): Renowned taxonomist, tropical explorer, ornithologist, historian of science, and naturalist. He was one of the 20th century's leading evolutionary biologists.
John McCarthy (1927–2011): American computer scientist and cognitive scientist who received the Turing Award in 1971 for his major contributions to the field of Artificial Intelligence (AI). He was responsible for the coining of the term "Artificial Intelligence" in his 1955 proposal for the 1956 Dartmouth Conference and was the inventor of the Lisp programming language.
Sir Peter Medawar (1915–1987): Nobel Prize-winning British scientist best known for his work on how the immune system rejects or accepts tissue transplants.
Simon van der Meer (1925–2011): Dutch particle accelerator physicist who shared the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1984 with Carlo Rubbia for contributions to the CERN project which led to the discovery of the W and Z particles, two of the most fundamental constituents of matter.
Élie Metchnikoff (1845–1916): Russian biologist, zoologist and protozoologist. He is best known for his research into the immune system. Mechnikov received the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 1908, shared with Paul Ehrlich.
Marvin Minsky (1927–2016): American cognitive scientist and computer scientist in the field of artificial intelligence (AI) in MIT.
Peter D. Mitchell (1920–1992): 1978–Nobel-laureate British biochemist. His mother was an atheist and he himself became an atheist at the age of 15.
Jacob Moleschott (1822–1893): Dutch physiologist and writer on dietetics.
Gaspard Monge (1746–1818): French mathematician. Monge is the inventor of descriptive geometry.
Jacques Monod (1910–1976): French biologist who won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1965 for discoveries concerning genetic control of enzyme and virus synthesis.
Rita Levi-Montalcini (1909–2012): Italian neurologist who, together with colleague Stanley Cohen, received the 1986 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their discovery of nerve growth factor (NGF).
Joseph-Michel Montgolfier (1740–1810): French chemist and paper-manufacturer. In 1783, he made the first ascent in a balloon (inflated with warm air).
Thomas Hunt Morgan (1866–1945): American evolutionary biologist, geneticist and embryologist. He won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1933 for discoveries relating the role the chromosome plays in heredity.
Desmond Morris (1928–): English zoologist and ethologist, famous for describing human behaviour from a zoological perspective in his books The Naked Ape and The Human Zoo.
David Morrison (1940–): American astronomer and senior scientist at the Solar System Exploration Research Virtual Institute, at NASA Ames Research Center, whose research interests include planetary science, astrobiology, and near earth objects.
Luboš Motl (1973–): Theoretical physicist and string theorist. He said he is a Christian atheist.
Hermann Joseph Muller (1890–1967): American geneticist and educator, best known for his work on the physiological and genetic effects of radiation (X-ray mutagenesis). He won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1946.
PZ Myers (1957–): American evolutionary developmental biologist at the University of Minnesota and a blogger via his blog, Pharyngula.
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John Forbes Nash, Jr. (1928–2015): American mathematician whose works in game theory, differential geometry, and partial differential equations. He shared the 1994 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences with game theorists Reinhard Selten and John Harsanyi.
Yuval Ne'eman (1925–2006): Israeli theoretical physicist, military scientist, and politician. One of his greatest achievements in physics was his 1961 discovery of the classification of hadrons through the SU(3)flavour symmetry, now named the Eightfold Way, which was also proposed independently by Murray Gell-Mann.
Ted Nelson: (1937–): American pioneer of information technology, philosopher, and sociologist who coined the terms hypertext and hypermedia in 1963 and published them in 1965.
Alfred Nobel (1833–1896): Swedish chemist, engineer, inventor, businessman, and philanthropist who is known for inventing dynamite and holding 355 patents. He was a benefactor of the Nobel Prize.
Paul Nurse (1949–): English geneticist, President of the Royal Society and Chief Executive and Director of the Francis Crick Institute. He was awarded the 2001 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine along with Leland Hartwell and Tim Hunt for their discoveries of protein molecules that control the division (duplication) of cells in the cell cycle.
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Mark Oliphant (1901–2000): Australian physicist and humanitarian. He played a fundamental role in the first experimental demonstration of nuclear fusion and also the development of the atomic bomb.
Alexander Oparin (1894–1980): Soviet biochemist.
Frank Oppenheimer (1912–1985): American particle physicist, professor of physics at the University of Colorado, and the founder of the Exploratorium in San Francisco. A younger brother of renowned physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer, Frank Oppenheimer conducted research on aspects of nuclear physics during the time of the Manhattan Project, and made contributions to uranium enrichment.
J. Robert Oppenheimer (1904–1967): American theoretical physicist and professor of physics at the University of California, Berkeley; along with Enrico Fermi, he is often called the "father of the atomic bomb" for his role in the Manhattan Project. Oppenheimer's achievements in physics include the Born–Oppenheimer approximation for molecular wavefunctions, work on the theory of electrons and positrons, the Oppenheimer–Phillips process in nuclear fusion, and the first prediction of quantum tunneling. With his students he made important contributions to the modern theory of neutron stars and black holes, as well as to quantum mechanics, quantum field theory, and the interactions of cosmic rays.
Wilhelm Ostwald (1853–1932): Baltic German chemist. He received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1909 for his work on catalysis, chemical equilibria and reaction velocities. He, along with Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff and Svante Arrhenius, are usually credited with being the modern founders of the field of physical chemistry.
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Linus Pauling (1901–1994): American chemist, Nobel Laureate in Chemistry (1954) and Peace (1962)
John Allen Paulos (1945–): Professor of mathematics at Temple University in Philadelphia and writer, author of Irreligion: A Mathematician Explains Why the Arguments for God Just Don't Add Up (2007)
Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936): Nobel Prize–winning Russian physiologist, psychologist, and physician, widely known for first describing the phenomenon of classical conditioning.
Ruby Payne-Scott (1912–1981): Australian pioneer in radiophysics and radio astronomy, and the first female radio astronomer.
Judea Pearl (1936–): Israeli American computer scientist and philosopher, best known for championing the probabilistic approach to artificial intelligence and the development of Bayesian networks. He won the Turing Award in 2011.
Karl Pearson FRS (1857–1936): Influential English mathematician and biostatistician. He has been credited with establishing the discipline of mathematical statistics. He founded the world's first university statistics department at University College London in 1911, and contributed significantly to the field of biometrics, meteorology, theories of social Darwinism and eugenics.
Sir Roger Penrose (1931–): English mathematical physicist and Emeritus Rouse Ball Professor of Mathematics at the Mathematical Institute, University of Oxford and Emeritus Fellow of Wadham College. He is renowned for his work in mathematical physics, in particular his contributions to general relativity and cosmology. He is also a recreational mathematician and philosopher.
Francis Perrin (1901–1992): French physicist, co-establisher of the possibility of nuclear chain reactions and nuclear energy production.
Max Perutz (1914–2002): Austrian-born British molecular biologist, who shared the 1962 Nobel Prize for Chemistry with John Kendrew, for their studies of the structures of hemoglobin and globular proteins.
Robert Phelps (1926–2013): American mathematician who was known for his contributions to analysis, particularly to functional analysis and measure theory. He was a professor of mathematics at the University of Washington from 1962 until his death.
Steven Pinker (1954–): Canadian-born American psychologist, psycholinguist, and popular science author.
Norman Pirie FRS (1907–1997): British biochemist and virologist co-discoverer in 1936 of viral crystallization, an important milestone in understanding DNA and RNA.
Henri Poincaré (1854–1912): French mathematician, theoretical physicist, engineer, and philosopher of science. He is often described as a polymath, and in mathematics as The Last Universalist, since he excelled in all fields of the discipline as it existed during his lifetime.
Carolyn Porco (1953–): American planetary scientist, known for her work in the exploration of the outer Solar System, beginning with her imaging work on the Voyager missions to Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune in the 1980s. She led the imaging science team on the Cassini mission to Saturn.
Donald Prothero (1954–): American geologist, paleontologist, and author who specializes in mammalian paleontology and magnetostratigraphy. He is the author or editor of more than 30 books and over 250 scientific papers, including five geology textbooks.
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Isidor Isaac Rabi (1898–1988): American physicist and Nobel Prize–winning scientist who discovered nuclear magnetic resonance in 1944 and was also one of the first scientists in the US to work on the cavity magnetron, which is used in microwave radar and microwave ovens.
Frank P. Ramsey (1903–1930): British mathematician who also made significant contributions in philosophy and economics.
Lisa Randall (1962–): American theoretical physicist working in particle physics and cosmology, and the Frank B. Baird, Jr. Professor of Science on the physics faculty of Harvard University.
Marcus J. Ranum (1962–): American computer and network security researcher and industry leader. He is credited with a number of innovations in firewalls.
Grote Reber (1911–2002): American astronomer. A pioneer of radio astronomy.
Martin Rees, Baron Rees of Ludlow (1942–): British cosmologist and astrophysicist.
Wilhelm Reich (1897–1957): Austrian psychiatrist and psychoanalyst, known as one of the most radical figures in the history of psychiatry.
Charles Francis Richter (1900–1985): American seismologist and physicist who is most famous as the creator of the Richter magnitude scale, which, until the development of the moment magnitude scale in 1979, quantified the size of earthquakes.
Alice Roberts (1973–): English evolutionary biologist, biological anthropologist, and science communicator at the University of Birmingham.
Mark Roberts (1961–): English archaeologist specializing in the study of the Palaeolithic, and is best known for his discovery and subsequent excavations at the Lower Palaeolithic site of Boxgrove Quarry in southern England.
Richard J. Roberts (1943–): British biochemist and molecular biologist. He won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1993 for the discovery of introns in eukaryotic DNA and the mechanism of gene-splicing.
Carl Rogers (1902–1987): American psychologist and among the founders of the humanistic approach to psychology. Rogers is widely considered to be one of the founding fathers of psychotherapy research and was honored for his pioneering research with the Award for Distinguished Scientific Contributions by the American Psychological Association in 1956.
Bertrand Russell (1872–1970): British philosopher, logician, mathematician, historian, writer, social critic and political activist. He is considered one of the founders of analytic philosophy along with his predecessor Gottlob Frege, colleague G. E. Moore, and his protégé Ludwig Wittgenstein. He is widely held to be one of the 20th century's premier logicians. With A. N. Whitehead he wrote Principia Mathematica, an attempt to create a logical basis for mathematics. His philosophical essay "On Denoting" has been considered a "paradigm of philosophy". His work has had a considerable influence on logic, mathematics, set theory, linguistics, artificial intelligence, cognitive science, computer science (see type theory and type system), and philosophy, especially the philosophy of language, epistemology, and metaphysics.
Adam Rutherford (1975–): British geneticist, author, and broadcaster. He was an audio-visual content editor for the journal Nature for a decade, is a frequent contributor to the newspaper The Guardian, hosts the BBC Radio 4 programme Inside Science, has produced several science documentaries and has published books related to genetics and the origin of life.
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Gad Saad (1964–): Lebanese-Canadian evolutionary psychologist at the John Molson School of Business who is known for applying evolutionary psychology to marketing and consumer behaviour.
Oliver Sacks (1933–2015): United States-based British neurologist, who has written popular books about his patients, the most famous of which is Awakenings.
Carl Sagan (1934–1996): American astronomer and astrochemist, a highly successful popularizer of astronomy, astrophysics, and other natural sciences, and pioneer of exobiology and promoter of the SETI. Although Sagan has been identified as an atheist according to some definitions, he rejected the label, stating "An atheist has to know a lot more than I know." He was an agnostic who, while maintaining that the idea of a creator of the universe was difficult to disprove, nevertheless disbelieved in God's existence, pending sufficient evidence.
Meghnad Saha (1893–1956): Indian astrophysicist noted for his development in 1920 of the thermal ionization equation, which has remained fundamental in all work on stellar atmospheres. This equation has been widely applied to the interpretation of stellar spectra, which are characteristic of the chemical composition of the light source. The Saha equation links the composition and appearance of the spectrum with the temperature of the light source and can thus be used to determine either the temperature of the star or the relative abundance of the chemical elements investigated.
Andrei Sakharov (1921–1989): Soviet nuclear physicist, dissident and human rights activist. He gained renown as the designer of the Soviet Union's Third Idea, a code name for Soviet development of thermonuclear weapons. Sakharov was an advocate of civil liberties and civil reforms in the Soviet Union. He was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1975. The Sakharov Prize, which is awarded annually by the European Parliament for people and organizations dedicated to human rights and freedoms, is named in his honor.
Robert Sapolsky (1957–): American neuroendocrinologist and professor of biology, neurology, and neurobiology at Stanford University.
Mahendralal Sarkar (1833–1904): Indian physician and academic.
Marcus du Sautoy (1965–): mathematician and holder of the Charles Simonyi Chair for the Public Understanding of Science.
Hans Joachim Schellnhuber (1950–): German atmospheric physicist, climatologist and founding director of the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research (PIK) and ex-chair of the German Advisory Council on Global Change (WBGU).
Erwin Schrödinger (1887–1961): Austrian-Irish physicist and theoretical biologist. A pioneer of quantum mechanics and winner of the 1933 Nobel Prize for Physics.
Laurent Schwartz (1915–2002): French mathematician, awarded the Fields medal for his work on distributions.
Dennis W. Sciama (1926–1999): British physicist who played a major role in developing British physics after the Second World War. His most significant work was in general relativity, with and without quantum theory, and black holes. He helped revitalize the classical relativistic alternative to general relativity known as Einstein-Cartan gravity. He is considered one of the fathers of modern cosmology.
Nadrian Seeman (1945–2021): American nanotechnologist and crystallographer known for inventing the field of DNA nanotechnology.
Celâl Şengör (1955–): Turkish geologist, and currently on the faculty at Istanbul Technical University.
Claude Shannon (1916–2001): American electrical engineer and mathematician, has been called "the father of information theory", and was the founder of practical digital circuit design theory.
William Shockley (1910–1989): American physicist and inventor. Along with John Bardeen and Walter Houser Brattain, Shockley co-invented the transistor, for which all three were awarded the 1956 Nobel Prize in Physics.
William James Sidis (1898–1944): American mathematician, cosmologist, inventor, linguist, historian and child prodigy.
Boris Sidis (1867–1923): Russian American psychologist, physician, psychiatrist, and philosopher of education. Sidis founded the New York State Psychopathic Institute and the Journal of Abnormal Psychology. He was the father of child prodigy William James Sidis.
Ethan Siegel (1978–): American theoretical astrophysicist and science writer, whose area of research focuses on quantum mechanics and the Big Bang theory.
Herbert A. Simon (1916–2001): American Nobel laureate, was a political scientist, economist, sociologist, psychologist, computer scientist, and Richard King Mellon Professor—most notably at Carnegie Mellon University—whose research ranged across the fields of cognitive psychology, cognitive science, computer science, public administration, economics, management, philosophy of science, sociology, and political science, unified by studies of decision-making.
Michael Smith (1932–2000): British-born Canadian biochemist and Nobel Laureate in Chemistry in 1993.
John Maynard Smith (1920–2004): British theoretical evolutionary biologist and geneticist. Maynard Smith was instrumental in the application of game theory to evolution and theorised on other problems such as the evolution of sex and signalling theory.
Oliver Smithies (1925–2017): British-born American Nobel Prize–winning geneticist and physical biochemist. He is known for introducing starch as a medium for gel electrophoresis in 1955 and for the discovery, simultaneously with Mario Capecchi and Martin Evans, of the technique of homologous recombination of transgenic DNA with genomic DNA, a much more reliable method of altering animal genomes than previously used, and the technique behind gene targeting and knockout mice.
George Smoot (1945–): American astrophysicist and cosmologist who won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2006 for his work on the Cosmic Background Explorer with John C. Mather that led to the measurement "of the black body form and anisotropy of the cosmic microwave background radiation.
Alan Sokal (1955–): American professor of physics at New York University and professor of mathematics at University College London. To the general public he is best known for his criticism of postmodernism, resulting in the Sokal affair in 1996.
Dan Sperber (1942–): French social and cognitive scientist, whose most influential work has been in the fields of cognitive anthropology and linguistic pragmatics.
Robert Spitzer (1932–2015): American psychiatrist, Professor of Psychiatry at Columbia University, a major architect of the modern classification of mental disorders.
Jack Steinberger (1921–2020): German-American-Swiss physicist and Nobel Laureate in 1988, co-discoverer of the muon neutrino.
Hugo Steinhaus (1887–1972): Polish mathematician and educator.
Victor J. Stenger (1935–2014): American physicist, emeritus professor of physics and astronomy at the University of Hawaii and adjunct professor of philosophy at the University of Colorado. Author of the book God: The Failed Hypothesis.
Eleazar Sukenik (1889–1953): Israeli archaeologist and professor of Hebrew University in Jerusalem, undertaking excavations in Jerusalem, and recognising the importance of the Dead Sea Scrolls to Israel.
John Sulston (1942–2018): British biologist. He is a joint winner of the 2002 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.
Leonard Susskind (1940–): American theoretical physicist; a founding father of superstring theory and professor of theoretical physics at Stanford University.
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Igor Tamm (1895–1971): Soviet physicist who received the 1958 Nobel Prize in Physics, jointly with Pavel Alekseyevich Cherenkov and Ilya Frank, for their 1934 discovery of Cherenkov radiation.
Arthur Tansley (1871–1955): English botanist who was a pioneer in the science of ecology.
Alfred Tarski (1901–1983): Polish logician, mathematician and philosopher, a prolific author best known for his work on model theory, metamathematics, and algebraic logic.
Kip Thorne (1940–): American theoretical physicist and winner of the 2017 Nobel Prize in physics, known for his contributions in gravitational physics and astrophysics and also for the popular-science book, Black Holes and Time Warps: Einstein's Outrageous Legacy.
Nikolaas Tinbergen (1907–1988): Dutch ethologist and ornithologist who shared the 1973 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with Karl von Frisch and Konrad Lorenz for their discoveries concerning organization and elicitation of individual and social behaviour patterns in animals.
Linus Torvalds (1969–): Finnish software engineer, creator of the Linux kernel.
Alan Turing (1912–1954): English mathematician, computer scientist, and theoretical biologist who provided a formalization of the concepts of algorithm and computation with the Turing machine, which can be considered a model of a general-purpose computer.
Matthew Turner (died ca. 1789): chemist, surgeon, teacher and radical theologian, author of the first published work of avowed atheism in Britain (1782).
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Harold Urey (1893–1981): American physical chemist whose pioneering work on isotopes earned him the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1934. He played a significant role in the development of the atom bomb, but may be most prominent for his contribution to the study of the development of organic life from non-living matter.
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Nikolai Vavilov (1887–1943): Russian and Soviet botanist and geneticist best known for having identified the centres of origin of cultivated plants. He devoted his life to the study and improvement of wheat, corn, and other cereal crops that sustain the global population.
J. Craig Venter (1946–): American biologist and entrepreneur, one of the first researchers to sequence the human genome, and in 2010 the first to create a cell with a synthetic genome.
Vladimir Vernadsky (1863–1945): Russian and Soviet mineralogist and geochemist who is considered one of the founders of geochemistry, biogeochemistry, and of radiogeology. His ideas of noosphere were an important contribution to Russian cosmism.
Carl Vogt (1817–1895): German scientist, philosopher and politician who emigrated to Switzerland. Vogt published a number of notable works on zoology, geology and physiology.
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W. Grey Walter (1910–1977): American neurophysiologist famous for his work on brain waves, and robotician.
James D. Watson (1928–): Molecular biologist, physiologist, zoologist, geneticist, Nobel-laureate, and co-discover of the structure of DNA.
John B. Watson (1878–1958): American psychologist who established the psychological school of behaviorism.
Steven Weinberg (1933–2021): American theoretical physicist. He won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1979 for the unification of electromagnetism and the weak force into the electroweak force.
Victor Weisskopf (1908–2002): Austrian-American theoretical physicist, co-founder and board member of the Union of Concerned Scientists.
Frank Whittle (1907–1996): English aerospace engineer, inventor, aviator and Royal Air Force officer. He is credited with independently inventing the turbojet engine (some years earlier than Germany's Dr. Hans von Ohain) and is regarded by many as the father of jet propulsion.
Eugene Wigner (1902–1995): Hungarian-American theoretical physicist, engineer and mathematician. He received half of the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1963 "for his contributions to the theory of the atomic nucleus and the elementary particles, particularly through the discovery and application of fundamental symmetry principles".
Arnold Wolfendale (1927–2020): British astronomer who served as Astronomer Royal from 1991 to 1995, and was Emeritus Professor in the Department of Physics at Durham University.
Lewis Wolpert CBE FRS British FRSL (1929–2021): developmental biologist, author, and broadcaster.
Steve Wozniak (1950–): co-founder of Apple Computer and inventor of the Apple I and Apple II.
Elizur Wright (1804–1885): American mathematician and abolitionist, sometimes described as the "father of life insurance" for his pioneering work on actuarial tables.
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Oscar Zariski (1899–1986): American mathematician and one of the most influential algebraic geometers of the 20th century.
Yakov Borisovich Zel'dovich (1914–1987): Soviet physicist born in Belarus. He played an important role in the development of Soviet nuclear and thermonuclear weapons, and made important contributions to the fields of adsorption and catalysis, shock waves, nuclear physics, particle physics, astrophysics, physical cosmology, and general relativity.
Emile Zuckerkandl (1922–2013): Austrian-born biologist who is considered one of the founders of the field of molecular evolution, who co-introduced the concept of the "molecular clock", which enabled the neutral theory of molecular evolution.
Konrad Zuse (1910–1995): German civil engineer, inventor and computer pioneer. His greatest achievement was the world's first programmable computer; the functional program-controlled Turing-complete Z3 became operational in May 1941. He is regarded as one of the inventors of the modern computer.
Fritz Zwicky (1898–1974): Swiss astronomer and astrophysicist.
See also
List of nonreligious Nobel laureates
Lists about skepticism
Notes and references
External links
Twentieth Century Atheists on University of Cambridge's investigating atheism website
Science and technology
Lists of scientists by religion |
37984574 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alex%20Hacker | Alex Hacker | Alex Hacker may refer to:
Alex Hacker, character in List of Sanford and Son episodes
Alex Hacker, character in The Ambassador (1984 American film) |
69290716 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faculty%20of%20Mathematics%20and%20Physics%2C%20Charles%20University | Faculty of Mathematics and Physics, Charles University | The Faculty of Mathematics and Physics of Charles University (Czech: Matematicko-fyzikální fakulta Univerzity Karlovy or Matfyz) was established on September 1, 1952, in Prague, Czech Republic. Since that time, the faculty has been represented by its students and professors both at home and abroad.
Activities and Achievements
Among the recent collaborations belongs a participation in the development of the Solar Wind Analyser/Proton and Alpha Sensor (SWA-PAS) onboard the Solar Orbiter spacecraft, launching an educational game project based on comics simulations called Czechoslovakia 38-89 in cooperation with The Faculty of Arts and subsequent developing of a PC game Attentat 1942, making an AI translator called CUBBITT, which can compare to professional English human translators, establishing of the Malach Center for Visual History or the collaborating on a project dealing with AI system called DeepStack, which defeated professional poker players in 2016.
Moreover, The Faculty of Mathematics and Physics is a birthplace of Bird Internet routing daemon, IP routing daemon running mainly on Linux/UNIX-like operating systems etc., which began as a school project. Additionally, Matfyz also stood by a student project called Xelfi, which evolved in JAVA integrated development environment known as NetBeans. The Faculty of Mathematics and Physics has been also among teams of The CERN Experimental Programme for a long time and the participation in the programme is guaranteed for both the academic employees and the students. In 2021, the cooperative team of Matfyz, Švandovo divadlo and DAMU worked on the first theatre play written by AI, which had its premiere on the February 26, 2021.
The faculty produces approximately 25 % of all research outputs of Charles University.
Alumni/Graduates
Notable graduates of Matfyz are for example astronomer Jiří Grygar or scientist Jiří Bičák, who was awarded by the Neuron Fund for his contribution to global science in 2014. In 2007, a minor planet 55844 Bičák was named after him. Further, Martin Klíma, a co-founder of a video-game developer Warhorse Studios known for a game Kingdom Come: Deliverance. Alice Valkárová, a former student and current professor of physics at Matfyz, was appointed as a member of the European Research Council (ERC) in 2021. Miloslav Feistauer, who is currently teaching at Matfyz as well, is a member of Learned Society of the Czech Republic uniting significant Czech scientists.
Departments
School of Physics
Astronomical Institute of Charles University
Institute of Physics of Charles University
Laboratory of General Physics Education
Department of Physics Education
Department of Surface and Plasma Science
Department of Physics of Materials
Department of Low Temperature Physics
Department of Condensed Matter Physics
Department of Macromolecular Physics
Department of Geophysics
Department of Chemical Physics and Optics
Institute of Particle and Nuclear Physics
Department of Atmospheric Physics
Institute of Theoretical Physics
School of Computer Science
Department of Software and Computer Science Education
Department of Applied Mathematics
Department of Distributed and Dependable Systems
Department of Software Engineering
Department of Theoretical Computer Science and Mathematical Logic
Network and Labs Management Center
Institute of Formal and Applied Linguistics
Computer Science Institute of Charles University
School of Mathematics
Department of Algebra
Department of Mathematics Education
Department of Mathematical Analysis
Department of Numerical Mathematics
Department of Probability and Mathematical Statistics
Mathematical Institute of Charles University
Photos
References
External Links
Official Website
Charles University
Educational institutions in Prague
Educational institutions established in 1952 |
313216 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autodesk%203ds%20Max | Autodesk 3ds Max | Autodesk 3ds Max, formerly 3D Studio and 3D Studio Max, is a professional 3D computer graphics program for making 3D animations, models, games and images. It is developed and produced by Autodesk Media and Entertainment. It has modeling capabilities and a flexible plugin architecture and must be used on the Microsoft Windows platform. It is frequently used by video game developers, many TV commercial studios, and architectural visualization studios. It is also used for movie effects and movie pre-visualization. For its modeling and animation tools, the latest version of 3ds Max also features shaders (such as ambient occlusion and subsurface scattering), dynamic simulation, particle systems, radiosity, normal map creation and rendering, global illumination, a customizable user interface, new icons, and its own scripting language.
History
The original 3D Studio product was created for the DOS platform by the Yost Group, and published by Autodesk. The release of 3D Studio made Autodesk's previous 3D rendering package AutoShade obsolete. After 3D Studio DOS Release 4, the product was rewritten for the Windows NT platform, and renamed "3D Studio MAX". This version was also originally created by the Yost Group. It was released by Kinetix, which was at that time Autodesk's division of media and entertainment.
Autodesk purchased the product at the second release update of the 3D Studio MAX version and internalized development entirely over the next two releases. Later, the product name was changed to "3ds max" (all lower case) to better comply with the naming conventions of Discreet, a Montreal-based software company which Autodesk had purchased.
When it was re-released (release 7), the product was again branded with the Autodesk logo, and the short name was again changed to "3ds Max" (upper and lower case), while the formal product name became the current "Autodesk 3ds Max".
Version history
Features
MAXScript
MAXScript is a built-in scripting language that can be used to automate repetitive tasks, combine existing functionality in new ways, develop new tools and user interfaces, and much more. Plugin modules can be created entirely within MAXScript.
Character Studio
Character Studio was a plugin which since version 4 of Max is now integrated in 3ds Max; it helps users to animate virtual characters. The system works using a character rig or "Biped" skeleton which has stock settings that can be modified and customized to fit the character meshes and animation needs. This tool also includes robust editing tools for IK/FK switching, Pose manipulation, Layers and Keyframing workflows, and sharing of animation data across different Biped skeletons. These "Biped" objects have other useful features that help accelerate the production of walk cycles and movement paths, as well as secondary motion.
Scene Explorer
Scene Explorer, a tool that provides a hierarchical view of scene data and analysis, facilitates working with more complex scenes. Scene Explorer has the ability to sort, filter, and search a scene by any object type or property (including metadata). Added in 3ds Max 2008, it was the first component to facilitate .NET managed code in 3ds Max outside of MAXScript.
DWG import
3ds Max supports both import and linking of .dwg files. Improved memory management in 3ds Max 2008 enables larger scenes to be imported with multiple objects.
Texture assignment/editing
3ds Max offers operations for creative texture and planar mapping, including tiling, mirroring, decals, angle, rotate, blur, UV stretching, and relaxation; Remove Distortion; Preserve UV; and UV template image export. The texture workflow includes the ability to combine an unlimited number of textures, a material/map browser with support for drag-and-drop assignment, and hierarchies with thumbnails. UV workflow features include Pelt mapping, which defines custom seams and enables users to unfold UVs according to those seams; copy/paste materials, maps and colors; and access to quick mapping types (box, cylindrical, spherical).
General keyframing
Two keying modes — set key and auto key — offer support for different keyframing workflows.
Fast and intuitive controls for keyframing — including cut, copy, and paste — let the user create animations with ease. Animation trajectories may be viewed and edited directly in the viewport.
Constrained animation
Objects can be animated along curves with controls for alignment, banking, velocity, smoothness, and looping, and along surfaces with controls for alignment. Weight path-controlled animation between multiple curves, and animate the weight. Objects can be constrained to animate with other objects in many ways — including look at, orientation in different coordinate spaces, and linking at different points in time. These constraints also support animated weighting between more than one target.
All resulting constrained animation can be collapsed into standard keyframes for further editing.
Skinning
Either the Skin or Physique modifier may be used to achieve precise control of skeletal deformation, so the character deforms smoothly as joints are moved, even in the most challenging areas, such as shoulders. Skin deformation can be controlled using direct vertex weights, volumes of vertices defined by envelopes, or both. Capabilities such as weight tables, paintable weights, and saving and loading of weights offer easy editing and proximity-based transfer between models, providing the accuracy and flexibility needed for complicated characters.
The rigid bind skinning option is useful for animating low-polygon models or as a diagnostic tool for regular skeleton animation.
Additional modifiers, such as Skin Wrap and Skin Morph, can be used to drive meshes with other meshes and make targeted weighting adjustments in tricky areas.
Skeletons and inverse kinematics (IK)
Characters can be rigged with custom skeletons using 3ds Max bones, IK solvers, and rigging tools powered by Motion Capture Data.
All animation tools — including expressions, scripts, list controllers, and wiring — can be used along with a set of utilities specific to bones to build rigs of any structure and with custom controls, so animators see only the UI necessary to get their characters animated. Four plug-in IK solvers ship with 3ds Max: history-independent solver, history-dependent solver, limb solver, and spline IK solver. These powerful solvers reduce the time it takes to create high-quality character animation. The history-independent solver delivers smooth blending between IK and FK animation and uses preferred angles to give animators more control over the positioning of affected bones. The history-dependent solver can solve within joint limits and is used for machine-like animation. IK limb is a lightweight two-bone solver, optimized for real-time interactivity, ideal for working with a character arm or leg. Spline IK solver provides a flexible animation system with nodes that can be moved anywhere in 3D space. It allows for efficient animation of skeletal chains, such as a character's spine or tail, and includes easy-to-use twist and roll controls.
Integrated Cloth solver
In addition to reactor's cloth modifier, 3ds Max software has an integrated cloth-simulation engine that enables the user to turn almost any 3D object into clothing and even build garments from scratch. Collision solving is fast and accurate even in complex simulations. Local simulation lets artists drape cloth in real time to set up an initial clothing state before setting animation keys.
Cloth simulations can be used in conjunction with other 3ds Max dynamic forces, such as Space Warps. Multiple independent cloth systems can be animated with their own objects and forces. Cloth deformation data can be cached to the hard drive to allow for nondestructive iterations and to improve playback performance.
Integration with Autodesk Vault
Autodesk Vault plug-in, which ships with 3ds Max, consolidates users' 3ds Max assets in a single location, enabling them to automatically track files and manage work in progress. Users can easily and safely find, share, and reuse 3ds Max (and design) assets in a large-scale production or visualization environment.
Data Channel Modifier
The Data Channel modifier is a versatile tool for automating complex modelling operations. By piping mesh data through a series of controls, you can achieve a huge variety of effects that dynamically update as you make changes.
Max Creation Graph
Introduced with Max 2016, Max Creation Graph (MCG) enables users to create modifiers, geometry, and utility plug-ins using a visual node-based workflow.
With MCG the user can create a new plug-in for 3ds Max in minutes by simply wiring together parameter nodes, computation nodes, and output nodes. The resulting graph can then be saved in an XML file (.maxtool) or be packaged with any compounds (.maxcompound) it depends on in a ZIP file (.mcg) which can be shared easily with 3ds Max users.
Open Shading Language (OSL)
Open shading language (OSL) lets you use a new OSL Map, an entire category of various OSL maps, and you can create your own OSL maps using development tools for use with any renderer.
Open shading language (OSL) is an open source shading language that is fairly simple to understand. It can be used in several different ways. You can use the OSL Map, which is an execution environment for OSL shaders inside of 3ds Max, and it works like any regular built-in 3ds Max map. There is also a category of pre-loaded OSL maps that you can easily use. In addition, you can use any OSL maps you download from the internet. Finally, you can creating a shader or map in OSL using our development tools. This is a much simpler method to create custom maps than developing the equivalent functionality as a 3ds Max C++ map.
Advanced Wood
the Advanced Wood map to generate realistic 3D wood textures.
Adoption
Many films have made use of 3ds Max, or previous versions of the program under previous names, in CGI animation, such as Avatar and 2012, which contain computer generated graphics from 3ds Max alongside live-action acting. Mudbox was also used in the final texturing of the set and characters in Avatar, with 3ds Max and Mudbox being closely related.
3ds Max has been used in the development of 3D computer graphics for a number of video games.
Architectural and engineering design firms use 3ds Max for developing concept art and previsualization.
Educational programs at secondary and tertiary level use 3ds Max in their courses on 3D computer graphics and computer animation. Students in the FIRST competition for 3d animation are known to use 3ds Max.
Modeling techniques
Polygon modeling
Polygon modeling is more common with game design than any other modeling technique as the very specific control over individual polygons allows for extreme optimization. Usually, the modeler begins with one of the 3ds max primitives, and using such tools as bevel and extrude, adds detail to and refines the model. Versions 4 and up feature the Editable Polygon object, which simplifies most mesh editing operations, and provides subdivision smoothing at customizable levels (see NURMS).
Version 7 introduced the edit poly modifier, which allows the use of the tools available in the editable polygon object to be used higher in the modifier stack (i.e., on top of other modifications).
NURBS in 3ds Max is a legacy feature. None of the features have been updated since version 4 and have been ignored by the development teams over the past decade. For example, the updated path deform and the updated normalize spline modifiers in version 2018 do not work on NURBS curves anymore as they did in previous versions.
NURBS (Non-Uniform Rational Based-Splines)
An alternative to polygons, it gives a smoothed out surface that eliminates the straight edges of a polygon model. NURBS is a mathematically exact representation of freeform surfaces like those used for car bodies and ship hulls, which can be exactly reproduced at any resolution whenever needed. With NURBS, a smooth sphere can be created with only one face.
The non-uniform property of NURBS brings up an important point. Because they are generated mathematically, NURBS objects have a parameter space in addition to the 3D geometric space in which they are displayed. Specifically, an array of values called knots specifies the extent of influence of each control vertex (CV) on the curve or surface. Knots are invisible in 3D space and can't be manipulated directly, but occasionally their behavior affects the visible appearance of the NURBS object. Parameter space is one-dimensional for curves, which have only a single U dimension topologically, even though they exist geometrically in 3D space. Surfaces have two dimensions in parameter space, called U and V.
NURBS curves and surfaces have the important properties of not changing under the standard geometric affine transformations (Transforms), or under perspective projections. The CVs have local control of the object: moving a CV or changing its weight does not affect any part of the object beyond the neighboring CVs. (This property can be overridden by using the Soft Selection controls). Also, the control lattice that connects CVs surrounds the surface. This is known as the convex hull property.
Surface tool/editable patch object
Surface tool was originally a 3rd party plugin, but Kinetix acquired and included this feature since version 3.0. The surface tool is for creating common 3ds Max splines, and then applying a modifier called "surface." This modifier makes a surface from every three or four vertices in a grid. It is often seen as an alternative to "mesh" or "nurbs" modeling, as it enables a user to interpolate curved sections with straight geometry (for example a hole through a box shape). Although the surface tool is a useful way to generate parametrically accurate geometry, it lacks the "surface properties" found in the similar Edit Patch modifier, which enables a user to maintain the original parametric geometry whilst being able to adjust "smoothing groups" between faces.
Predefined primitives
This is a basic method, in which one models something using only boxes, spheres, cones, cylinders and other predefined objects from the list of Predefined Standard Primitives or a list of Predefined Extended Primitives. One may also apply boolean operations, including subtract, cut and connect. For example, one can make two spheres which will work as blobs that will connect with each other. These are called metaballs.
Standard primitives
Extended primitives
Rendering
Scanline rendering
The default rendering method in 3ds Max is scanline rendering. Several advanced features have been added to the scanliner over the years, such as global illumination, radiosity, and ray tracing.
ART Renderer
Autodesk Raytracer Renderer (ART) is a CPU-only, physically based renderer for architectural, product, and industrial design renderings and animations. It is integrated into 3ds Max as of version 2017.
Redshift
A third-party GPU-accelerated, biased renderer with plugins for 3ds Max, Cinema 4D, Houdini, Katana and Maya.
Mental Ray
Mental ray is a third-party renderer using bucket rendering, a technique that allows distributing the rendering task for a single image between several computers. Since 3ds Max 2018, mental ray is no longer shipped with 3ds Max and needs to be obtained directly from NVIDIA.
RenderMan
A third party connection tool to RenderMan pipelines is also available for those that need to integrate Max into Renderman render farms. Used by Pixar for rendering several of their CGI animated films.
V-Ray
A third-party render engine plug-in for 3ds Max.
Brazil R/S
A third-party photorealistic rendering system. It is capable of fast ray tracing and global illumination.
Arion
A third party hybrid GPU+CPU interactive, unbiased ray tracer, based on Nvidia CUDA.
Indigo Renderer
A third-party photorealistic renderer with plugins for 3ds Max.
Maxwell Render
A third-party photorealistic rendering system providing materials and unbiased rendering.
Octane Render
A third party unbiased GPU ray tracer with plugins for 3ds Max, based on Nvidia CUDA.
Luxrender
An open-source ray tracer supporting 3ds Max, Cinema 4D, Softimage, and Blender. Focuses on photorealism by simulating real light physics as much as possible.
Arnold
Arnold is an unbiased, physically based, unidirectional path-tracing renderer.
Corona Renderer
Corona Renderer is a modern high-performance (un)biased photorealistic renderer.
Licensing
Earlier versions (up to and including 3D Studio Max R3.1) required a special copy protection device (called a dongle) to be plugged into the parallel port while the program was run, but later versions incorporated software based copy prevention methods instead. Current versions require online registration.
Due to the high price of the commercial version of the program, Autodesk also offers a free student version, which explicitly states that it is to be used for "educational purposes only". The student version has identical features to the full version, but is only for single use and cannot be installed on a network. The student license expires after three years, at which time the user, if they are still a student, may download the latest version, thus renewing the license for another three years.
See also
Comparison of 3D computer graphics software
.3ds
Autodesk Maya
Blender
Cinema 4D
Electric Image Animation System
Element 3D
Lightwave 3D
Modo
Cyber Studio
References
External links
3D Max Studio Course Benefits
Autodesk products
3D graphics software
3D animation software
Proprietary software that uses Qt
Software that uses Qt
1990 software |
37045297 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dolibarr | Dolibarr | Dolibarr ERP CRM is an open source, free software package for companies of any size, foundations or freelancers. It includes different features for enterprise resource planning (ERP) and customer relationship management (CRM) but also other features for different activities.
Features
There are several feature modules that can be enabled or disabled, as needed.
This software is free under GNU General Public License 3.0. It is a web-based application, and can therefore be used wherever an internet service is available.
Dolibarr aims to offer free open source ERP and CRM features for people with no technical knowledge, by providing a simple solution.
Dolibarr includes all the important features of an ERP CRM suite. It is modular and is thus characterized by its ease of installation and use, despite the large number of features.
Main Dolibarr features include:
Main modules
Sales Management
Purchase Management
Commercial proposals management
Customer Relationship Management
Products and services catalog
Stock Management
Event Management
Bank account management
Address book
Calendar
Foundation-members management
Payments management
Donations management
Contracts management
Standing orders management
Shipping management
Point of sale
Electronic document management
Project Management
Manufacturing resource planning
Human resource management
Surveys
PDF and OpenDocument generation
Reporting
Wizard to help to export/import data
LDAP connectivity
Miscellaneous
Multi-user, with several permissions levels for each feature.
Multi-language
Multi-currency
User-friendly
Assorted skins
Code is highly customizable (modular).
Works with MySQL 5.1 or higher, PostgreSQL 9.1.0 or higher
Works with PHP 5.6 or higher, (Max 7.4.*)
Missing features
These features are not available in the most recent version of Dolibarr:
Manages (by default) only one company/foundation (mono-company). This means you need to install the software twice if you want to manage two different companies, or install an external addons.
No Webmail (not to be confused with a mailing-list).
Architecture
Dolibarr is written in PHP. It uses MySQL, MariaDB or PostgreSQL databases.
It works with a wide choice of hosting services or servers. Dolibarr works with all PHP configurations and does not require any additional PHP modules.
Dolibarr can also be installed from an auto-installer file that is available for Windows, Mac and Linux. This is aimed at enabling users with no technical knowledge to install Dolibarr and its prerequisites (such as Apache, MySQL and PHP). This version is called DoliWamp for Windows users, DoliDeb for Debian or Ubuntu users, DoliRpm for Fedora, Redhat, Mandriva or OpenSuse users.
History
Dolibarr was started by Rodolphe Quiedeville in April 2002. At this time, Jean-Louis Bergamo began writing the foundation management module. Version 1.0 was released in September 2003.
In July 2008, Laurent Destailleur - the main contributor and author of AWStats - took over from Rodolphe Quideville as the main developer. A foundation and several user groups have been created in several countries. The first was set up in France, the country where Dolibarr is most well-known. Dolibarr's popularity in France increased after it was freely distributed by a number of government agencies to people starting up new businesses. The software is now also used in many other countries and translated into more than 50 languages.
Awards
2003
1st in the category "Management Company" at the Les Trophées du Libre contest.
2014, 2015, 2016
Several times project of the week (March 2014, September 2015, September 2016 ...)
2020
Trophy Naos d'Or
Project of the month December 2020
ERP Research Regarding Dolibarr
Dolibarr ERP also pique by some researcher for ERP studies like future of ERP, Multi Branch ERP Solution, integration with several e-commerce, ERP Evolution, reporting analysis
See also
Comparison of accounting software
Other ERP/CRM software: Odoo, Compiere, Openbravo
List of free and open source software packages
List of applications with iCalendar support
References
External links
Free ERP software
ERP software
Customer relationship management software
2003 software
Free customer relationship management software
Free accounting software
Enterprise resource planning software for Linux |
1571009 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meanings%20of%20minor%20planet%20names%3A%2025001%E2%80%9326000 | Meanings of minor planet names: 25001–26000 |
25001–25100
|-
| 25001 Pacheco || || Rafael Pacheco (born 1954), a Spanish amateur astronomer, astrometrist and co-discoverer of minor planets ||
|-id=014
| 25014 Christinepalau || 1998 QT || Christine Palau (born 1964), a computer specialist who worked on an artificial-intelligence industrial project. ||
|-id=015
| 25015 Lairdclose || || Laird M. Close (born 1967), Professor of Astronomy at the University of Arizona, is an expert in adaptive optics, particularly as applied to the study of brown dwarfs, exoplanets and asteroids. He was a co-discoverer of the satellite of (45) Eugenia, the first asteroid satellite imaged from Earth, as well as (90) Antiope, and others. ||
|-id=018
| 25018 Valbousquet || || Franck Valbousquet (born 1959), a French optician and amateur astronomer. ||
|-id=019
| 25019 Walentosky || || Matthew James Walentosky, American 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner, for his physics and astronomy project. ||
|-id=020
| 25020 Tinyacheng || || Tinya Cheng, American 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner, for her physics and astronomy team project. ||
|-id=021
| 25021 Nischaykumar || || Nischay Kumar, American 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner, for his physics and astronomy team project. ||
|-id=022
| 25022 Hemalibatra || || Hemali Chandramohan Batra, American 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner, for her plant sciences project. ||
|-id=023
| 25023 Sundaresh || || Sushant Sundaresh, American 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner, for his plant sciences project. ||
|-id=024
| 25024 Calebmcgraw || || Caleb John McGraw, American 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner, for his plant sciences team project. ||
|-id=025
| 25025 Joshuavo || || Joshua Tristan Vo, American 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner, for his plant sciences team project. ||
|-id=029
| 25029 Ludwighesse || || Ludwig Otto Hesse (1811–1874), German mathematician known for his work in analytic geometry ||
|-id=032
| 25032 Randallray || || Randall Scott Ray, American 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner, for his plant sciences team project. ||
|-id=034
| 25034 Lesliemarie || || Leslie Marie Young, American 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner, for her plant sciences team project. ||
|-id=035
| 25035 Scalesse || || Carlie Alexandra Scalesse, Canadian 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner, for her animal sciences project. ||
|-id=036
| 25036 Elizabethof || || Elizabeth Olson Ferreira, Canadian 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner, for her animal sciences project. ||
|-id=038
| 25038 Matebezdek || || Mate Jozsef Bezdek, Canadian 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner, for his mathematical sciences project. ||
|-id=039
| 25039 Chensun || || Chen Sun, Canadian 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner, for his microbiology project. ||
|-id=042
| 25042 Qiujun || || Qiu Jun, Chinese 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner, for his electrical and mechanical engineering project. ||
|-id=043
| 25043 Fangxing || || Fang Xing, Chinese 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner, for his materials and bioengineering project. ||
|-id=045
| 25045 Baixuefei || || Bai Xuefei, Chinese 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner, for her plant sciences project. ||
|-id=046
| 25046 Suyihan || || Su Yi-Han, Chinese (Taiwanese) 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner for her chemistry project and the recipient of the Intel Foundation Young Scientist Award. ||
|-id=047
| 25047 Tsuitehsin || || Tsui Te Hsin, Chinese (Taiwanese) 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner, for her physics and astronomy project. ||
|-id=049
| 25049 Christofnorn || || Christoffer Norn, Danish 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner, for his energy and transportation project. ||
|-id=050
| 25050 Michmadsen || || Michael Kaergaard Madsen, Danish 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner, for his environmental sciences team project. ||
|-id=051
| 25051 Vass || || Gheorghe Vass (born 1944), an astronomer at the Astronomical Institute of the Romanian Academy. ||
|-id=052
| 25052 Rudawska || || Regina Rudawska (born 1979), a postdoctoral fellow at Comenius University in Bratislava. ||
|-id=053
| 25053 Matthewknight || || Matthew M. Knight (born 1978), an astronomer at Lowell Observatory in Flagstaff, Arizona. ||
|-id=058
| 25058 Shanegould || || Shane Gould (born 1956), Australian olympic swimmer ||
|-id=062
| 25062 Rasmussen || || Jesper Lykke Rasmussen, Danish 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner, for his environmental sciences team project. ||
|-id=065
| 25065 Lautakkin || || Lau Tak Kin, Chinese 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner, for his electrical and mechanical engineering team project. ||
|-id=073
| 25073 Lautakshing || || Lau Tak Shing, Chinese 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner, for his electrical and mechanical engineering team project. ||
|-id=074
| 25074 Honami || || Sakaguchi Honami, Japanese 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner, for her animal sciences project. ||
|-id=075
| 25075 Kiyomoto || || Kiyomoto Daisuke, Japanese 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner, for his energy and transportation team project. ||
|-id=082
| 25082 Williamhodge || || William Hodge (1903–1975) studied at Edinburgh and Cambridge and in 1936 was elected to the Lowndean chair of astronomy and geometry at Cambridge. His mathematical work was in algebraic geometry, specifically the theory of harmonic integrals and their applications to analysis. ||
|-id=084
| 25084 Jutzi || || Martin Jutzi (born 1979), a researcher at the University of Bern. ||
|-id=085
| 25085 Melena || || Robin Melena (born 1959) is secretary-treasurer of Lowell Observatory. She manages all the observatory's business functions, including accounting, auditing and human resources ||
|-id=087
| 25087 Kaztaniguchi || || Taniguchi Kazushige, Japanese 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner, for his energy and transportation team project. ||
|-id=088
| 25088 Yoshimura || || Yoshimura Fumiya, Japanese 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner, for his energy and transportation team project. ||
|-id=089
| 25089 Sanabria-Rivera || || Betsaira Sanabria-Rivera, American (Puerto Rican) 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner, for her biochemistry team project. ||
|-id=091
| 25091 Sanchez-Claudio || || Alex Antonio Sanchez-Claudio, American (Puerto Rican) 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner, for his biochemistry team project. ||
|-id=093
| 25093 Andmikhaylov || || Andrey A. Mikhaylov, Russian 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner, for his chemistry team project. ||
|-id=094
| 25094 Zemtsov || || Artem A. Zemtsov, Russian 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner, for his chemistry team project. ||
|-id=095
| 25095 Churinov || || Andrey Anatolievich Churinov, Russian 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner, for his computer science team project. ||
|-id=098
| 25098 Gridnev || || Maxim Gennadievich Gridnev, Russian 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner, for his computer science team project. ||
|-id=099
| 25099 Mashinskiy || || Leonid Andreevich Mashinskiy, Russian 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner, for his computer science team project. ||
|-id=100
| 25100 Zhaiweichao || || Zhai Weichao, Singaporean 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner, for her materials and bioengineering team project. ||
|}
25101–25200
|-id=102
| 25102 Zhaoye || || Zhao Ye, Singaporean 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner, for her materials and bioengineering team project. ||
|-id=103
| 25103 Kimdongyoung || || Kim Dongyoung, South-Korean 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner for his computer science project and recipient of a Seaborg Stockholm International Youth Science Seminar (SIYSS) award ||
|-id=104
| 25104 Chohyunghoon || || Cho Hyunghoon, South-Korean 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner, for his microbiology team project. ||
|-id=105
| 25105 Kimnayeon || || Kim Na Yeon, South-Korean 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner, for her microbiology team project. ||
|-id=106
| 25106 Ryoojungmin || || Ryoo Jung Min, South-Korean 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner, for her microbiology team project. ||
|-id=108
| 25108 Boström || || Johan Ingemar Boström, Swedish 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner, for his animal sciences team project. ||
|-id=109
| 25109 Hofving || || Tobias Olof Hofving, Swedish 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner, for his animal sciences team project. ||
|-id=111
| 25111 Klokun || || Vitaliy Mykhaylovych Klokun, Ukrainian 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner, for his chemistry team project. ||
|-id=112
| 25112 Mymeshkovych || || Maryna Yuriivna Meshkovych, Ukrainian 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner, for her chemistry team project. ||
|-id=113
| 25113 Benwasserman || || Benjamin David Wasserman, American 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner, for his behavioral and social sciences project. ||
|-id=115
| 25115 Drago || || Claire Elizabeth Drago, American 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner, for her behavioral and social sciences team project. ||
|-id=116
| 25116 Jonathanwang || || Jonathan Wang, American 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner for his medicine and health sciences team project and recipient of the European Union Contest for Young Scientists (EUCYS) Award ||
|-id=118
| 25118 Kevlin || || Kevin Huang Lin, American 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner, for his microbiology project. ||
|-id=119
| 25119 Kakani || || Pragya Kakani, American 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner, for her physics and astronomy team project. ||
|-id=120
| 25120 Yvetteleung || || Yvette Leung, American 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner, for her physics and astronomy team project. ||
|-id=122
| 25122 Kaitlingus || || Kaitlyn Jeanne Lingus, American 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner, for her plant sciences project. ||
|-id=124
| 25124 Zahramaarouf || || Zahra Moein Maarouf, Lebanese 2007 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner for her computer science team project. ||
|-id=125
| 25125 Brodallan || || Broderick David Allan (born 1995) is a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition, for his engineering project. He attends the Saginaw Arts and Sciences Academy, Saginaw, Michigan ||
|-id=127
| 25127 Laurentbrunetto || 1998 SZ || Laurent Brunetto (born 1972), a physics professor in Antibes, France. ||
|-id=129
| 25129 Uranoscope || || Uranoscope, a French amateur observatory, created in 1983 by Christian Bourdeille (see ) in Gretz Armainvilliers, near Paris. ||
|-id=131
| 25131 Katiemelua || || Katie Melua (born 1984), a Georgian-born British singer, songwriter and musician whose songs have included astronomical culture. ||
|-id=133
| 25133 Douglin || || Douglas N. C. Lin (born 1949), a theoretical astrophysicist at the University of California, Santa Cruz. ||
|-id=137
| 25137 Seansolomon || || Sean Solomon (born 1945), director of the Carnegie Institution of Washington's Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, is a geophysicist and planetary scientist who has studied the Earth's mid-ocean ridges and the surfaces of Venus, Mars and the Moon. He is the Principal Investigator for NASA's MESSENGER mission ||
|-id=138
| 25138 Jaumann || || Ralf Jaumann (born 1954), a research scientist at the German Aerospace Center (DLR) and a member of the geology working group for the Dawn mission to Vesta. ||
|-id=139
| 25139 Roatsch || || Thomas Roatsch (born 1958), a cartographer of planetary satellite and asteroid surfaces. ||
|-id=140
| 25140 Schmedemann || || Nico Schmedemann (born 1978), a researcher at the Institute of Geological Sciences, Freie Universität in Berlin. ||
|-id=142
| 25142 Hopf || || Heinz Hopf (1894–1971), a professor of mathematics at ETH Zurich in Switzerland ||
|-id=143
| 25143 Itokawa || || Hideo Itokawa (1912–1999), Japanese rocket scientist. He is regarded as the Father of Japanese rocketry. ||
|-id=146
| 25146 Xiada || || Established in 1921, Xiamendaxue (Xiamen University, XMU, known by the abbreviation Xiada) is one of the leading universities in China, and has been listed on China's "211 Project", "985 Project", and "Double First-class Initiative", which have been launched by the Chinese government to support selected universities. ||
|-id=151
| 25151 Stefanschröder || || Stefan E. Schröder (born 1970), a planetary imaging specialist at the German Aerospace Center (DLR) in Berlin ||
|-id=152
| 25152 Toplis || || Michael J. Toplis (born 1969), a geochemist at the University of Toulouse. ||
|-id=153
| 25153 Tomhockey || || Thomas Arnold Hockey (born 1959) is a professor of astronomy at the University of Northern Iowa. ||
|-id=154
| 25154 Ayers || || Robert Martin Ayers (born 1941) is a long-time supporter of Lowell Observatory, currently serving as secretary of the Executive Committee and a multi-year member of the Advisory Board. He spent the summer at Lowell as an undergraduate in 1961. He retired as principal scientist from Adobe in 2005 ||
|-id=155
| 25155 van Belle || || Gerard van Belle (born 1968), an American astronomer at the Lowell Observatory ||
|-id=156
| 25156 Shkolnik || || Evgenya Shkolnik (born 1976), a Canadian astronomer at the Lowell Observatory ||
|-id=157
| 25157 Fabian || || Andrew Fabian (born 1948), a British astronomer and astrophysicist at the University of Cambridge. He has worked with a number of orbiting X-ray observatories to advance our knowledge of such X-ray sources as black holes, their accretion disks, and gas in active galactic nuclei and clusters of galaxies. ||
|-id=158
| 25158 Berman || || Alan Berman (born 1925) is a physicist who played a seminal role in developing modern electronic communications systems. In 15 years as Director of Research at the US Naval Research Laboratory, he oversaw development of the Global Positioning System (GPS) and advanced satellite communications. ||
|-id=159
| 25159 Michaelwest || || Michael West (born 1959) is the Deputy Director for Science at Lowell Observatory. His research focuses on star clusters and galaxies. He was PI for six Hubble Space Telescope projects and has authored two books, including A Sky Wonderful with Stars. ||
|-id=160
| 25160 Joellama || || Joseph "Joe" Llama (born 1988) is a tenure track astronomer at Lowell Observatory. He started at Lowell as a postdoc working with Evgenia Shkolnik. His research is broadly focused on stars and extrasolar planets. Joe is also an amateur photographer. ||
|-id=161
| 25161 Strosahl || || Susan Strosahl (born 1960) has been an employee of Lowell Observatory since 2003. She has a degree in computer engineering. She started working in the public program and is currently working as an observer at Lowell's Navy Precision Optical Interferometer. ||
|-id=162
| 25162 Beckage || || Michael (Mike) Beckage (born 1959) is a long-time supporter of Lowell Observatory, currently serving as Chair of Lowell Observatory's Executive Committee and the Lowell Observatory Foundation. He shares his love of astronomy through outreach programs to the community and amateur astronomy clubs ||
|-id=163
| 25163 Williammcdonald || || William "Bill" McDonald (born 1935) is an avid amateur astronomer. He has volunteered in Lowell Observatory's evening outreach programs since 2012, spearheading the reintroduction of the public program's video observing system (Mallincam) and assisting staff with its upgrade and maintenance. ||
|-id=164
| 25164 Sonomastate || || Sonoma State University, located in Rohnert Park, California, has been educating students in the liberal arts and sciences since 1961. It has a nationally recognized Education and Public Outreach program for space missions and STEM teacher education, and its physics students have built a successful CubeSat. ||
|-id=165
| 25165 Leget || || Robert Leget (born 1935) is an American educator who taught high school earth science, chemistry and math for 30 years, mostly at Buckeye High in Medina, Ohio. Named Outstanding Secondary Earth Science Teacher for Ohio by the National Assoc. of Geology Teachers, he inspired generations of students. ||
|-id=166
| 25166 Thompson || || Samantha Thompson (born 1985) is the curator of exhibits at Lowell Observatory in Flagstaff, AZ. She has degrees in history and in physics & astronomy. In 2016 she designed Lowell's Spaceguard Academy exhibit that highlighted the science and exploration of asteroids ||
|-id=175
| 25175 Lukeandraka || || Luke Steven Andraka (born 1995) is a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition, for his environmental sciences project. He attends the Chesapeake Science Point Public Charter School, Hanover, Maryland ||
|-id=176
| 25176 Thomasaunins || || Thomas Rudolf Aunins (born 1994) is a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition, for his physical sciences project. He attends the Lenape Middle School, Doylestown, Pennsylvania ||
|-id=178
| 25178 Shreebose || || Shree Bose (born 1994) is a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition, for her environmental sciences project. She attends the Trinity Valley School, Fort Worth, Texas ||
|-id=180
| 25180 Kenyonconlin || || Kenyon Rex Conlin (born 1996) is a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition, for his physical sciences project. He attends the Rocky Mountain Middle School, Heber City, Utah ||
|-id=182
| 25182 Siddhawan || || Sidharth Dhawan (born 1994) is a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition, for his engineering project. He attends the Meadow Park Middle School, Beaverton, Oregon ||
|-id=183
| 25183 Grantfisher || || Grant Garrett Fisher (born 1994) is a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition, for his animal and plant sciences project. He attends the Pi Beta Phi Elementary School, Gatlinburg, Tennessee ||
|-id=184
| 25184 Taylorgaines || || Taylor Diahann Gaines (born 1995) is a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition, for her animal and plant sciences project. She attends the Iva E. Wells Middle School, Seneca, Missouri ||
|-id=189
| 25189 Glockner || || Katherine Whittemore Glockner (born 1994) is a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition, for her biochemistry, medicine, health science and microbiology project. She attends the Rhoades School, Encinitas, California ||
|-id=190
| 25190 Thomasgoodin || || Thomas J. T. Goodin (born 1994) is a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition, for his engineering project. He attends the Mid-Pacific Institute, Honolulu, Hawaii ||
|-id=191
| 25191 Rachelouise || || Rachel Louise Graham (born 1995) is a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition, for her engineering project. She attends the Riverton Middle School, Riverton, Wyoming ||
|-id=193
| 25193 Taliagreene || || Talia Kate Greene (born 1994) is a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition, for her mathematics and computer science project. She attends the Cocoa Beach Junior Senior High School, Cocoa Beach, Florida ||
|-id=198
| 25198 Kylienicole || || Kylie Nicole Grissom (born 1993) is a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition, for her earth and space sciences project. She attends the North Ogden Junior High School, North Ogden, Utah ||
|-id=199
| 25199 Jiahegu || || Jiahe Gu (born 1994) is a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition, for his animal and plant sciences project. He attends the Martin Luther King Jr., Magnet High School, Nashville, Tennessee ||
|}
25201–25300
|-id=212
| 25212 Ayushgupta || || Ayush Gupta (born 1993) is a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition, for his physical sciences project. He attends the Oregon Episcopal School, Portland, Oregon ||
|-id=216
| 25216 Enricobernardi || || Enrico Bernardi (1841–1919), an Italian engineer and professor of mechanics. ||
|-id=225
| 25225 Patrickbenson || || Patrick "Pat" Benson (born 1951) has volunteered in Lowell Observatory's evening outreach programs since 2012 as a portable telescope operator. He also participates in community astronomy outreach activities. His decades of experience in amateur astronomy make him a highly valued member of the volunteer team. ||
|-id=226
| 25226 Brasch || || Klaus Brasch (born 1940) began volunteering at Lowell Observatory in 2008 as a portable telescope operator in our evening outreach programs. He is also an astrophotographer and writer; many of his images as well as Lowell-related articles have been published in Sky & Telescope and Astronomy magazines, among others. ||
|-id=227
| 25227 Genehill || || Gene Hill (born 1933) began volunteering at Lowell Observatory in 2009, and has since shared his passion for teaching and astronomy, giving daytime tours of the Observatory's historic campus and operating our solar telescopes. He always brings in the latest astronomy news to include on his tours. ||
|-id=228
| 25228 Mikekitt || || Michael Kitt (born 1941) is an amateur astronomer who has written numerous articles about lunar observing and is author of The Moon: an Observing Guide for Backyard Telescopes. He is a long-standing Lowell Observatory Advisory Board member and a supporter of preservation activities there. ||
|-id=229
| 25229 Karenkitt || || Karen Kitt (born 1949) has been a volunteer in the Lowell Observatory Archives since 2013. She has organized and cataloged the Pluto Collection, the Comet Halley Collection, and the correspondence of former Lowell astronomer C.O. Lampland. She is currently digitizing Lampland's letters for the observatory's digital archives. ||
|-id=230
| 25230 Borgis || || Steven Borgis (born 1953) is an American educator and coach, who taught language arts for three decades at Buckeye Junior High School in Medina, Ohio. He coached both girls and boys basketball, as well as football, cross country, golf, volleyball, and softball, and inspired students with both his words and his actions. ||
|-id=231
| 25231 Naylor || || Kris Naylor (born 1966) has been utilizing her amateur astronomy skills since 2005 as a Lowell Observatory volunteer, operating portable telescopes during our evening outreach programs. Kris has helped to mentor new volunteers, and been involved in astronomy outreach activities throughout the Flagstaff community. ||
|-id=232
| 25232 Schatz || || Dennis Schatz (born 1947) is an American astronomer and educator who was Vice-President of the Pacific Science Center, President & workshop leader for the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, author of 23 children's books on science, and co-developer of educational programs like Project ASTRO & Portal to the Public. ||
|-id=233
| 25233 Tallman || || Gary Tallman (born 1943) has volunteered in Lowell Observatory's daytime outreach programs since 2012, leading tours of the historic campus and hosting Putnam Collection Center open houses. He also operates the solar telescopes, explaining visible features of the Sun to visitors. ||
|-id=234
| 25234 Odell || || Andy Odell (born 1949) is a professional astronomer. He's been involved with Lowell's evening outreach programs since 2002, operating portable telescopes and sharing his knowledge of the night sky with visitors. He is Lowell's longest-tenured volunteer. ||
|-id=237
| 25237 Hurwitz || || Adolf Hurwitz (1859–1919), German mathematician ||
|-id=240
| 25240 Qiansanqiang || || Sanqiang Qiang (1913–1992), a Chinese nuclear scientist and member of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, and one of the founders of China's atomic energy program ||
|-id=250
| 25250 Jonnapeterson || || Jonna Peterson (born 1945) has been familiar with the night sky since childhood, and a dedicated volunteer in Lowell Observatory's evening outreach programs since 2012. She enjoys using binoculars to teach visitors about the night sky. ||
|-id=256
| 25256 Imbrie-Moore || || Annabel Imbrie-Moore (born 1994) is a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition, for her mathematics & computer science project. She attends the Peabody School, Charlottesville, Virginia ||
|-id=257
| 25257 Elizmakarron || || Elizabeth Marie Karron (born 1996) is a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition, for her animal and plant sciences project. She attends the Whitefish Bay Middle School, Whitefish Bay, Wisconsin ||
|-id=258
| 25258 Nathaniel || 1998 VU || Nathaniel Brian Marsden (born 1997), second grandson of Minor Planet Center director Brian G. Marsden (the asteroid was discovered on his first birthday) ||
|-id=259
| 25259 Lucarnold || || Luc Arnold (born 1965) is an astronomer working at the Observatoire de Haute Provence. His research fields are exobiology and optics, but he observes comets with his homemade telescope ||
|-id=264
| 25264 Erickeen || || Eric C. Keen (born 1994) is a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition, for his environmental sciences project. He is homeschooled in Bethesda, Maryland ||
|-id=266
| 25266 Taylorkinyon || || Taylor Frances Kinyon (born 1994) is a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition, for her engineering project. She attends the Plankinton School District, Plankinton, South Dakota ||
|-id=273
| 25273 Barrycarole || || Barry Paul Keith Griffin (born 1943) and Carole Anne Griffin (born 1944), the parents of British astronomer Ian P. Griffin who discovered this minor planet ||
|-id=275
| 25275 Jocelynbell || || Jocelyn Bell Burnell (born 1943), British astrophysicist from Northern Ireland, who co-discovered the first radio pulsar in 1967 ||
|-id=276
| 25276 Dimai || || Alessandro Dimai (born 1962), Italian amateur astronomer and discoverer of supernovae. He is an active observer at the Cortina Observatory and a friend of the discoverer. ||
|-id=290
| 25290 Vibhuti || || Vibhuti Krishna (born 1994) is a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition, for her biochemistry, medicine, health science and microbiology project. She attends the Solon Middle School, Solon, Ohio ||
|-id=294
| 25294 Johnlaberee || || John Alfred Laberee (born 1994) is a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition, for his environmental sciences project. He is homeschooled in Medford, New Jersey ||
|-id=298
| 25298 Fionapaine || || Fiona Ann Paine (born 1995) is a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition, for her environmental sciences project. She attends the Barrington Middle School, Barrington, Rhode Island ||
|-id=300
| 25300 Andyromine || || Andrew Romine, 2008 SSP/MSP national science fair finalist ||
|}
25301–25400
|-
| 25301 Ambrofogar || || Ambrogio Fogar, Italian sailor (yachtsman), explorer and author ‡ ||
|-id=302
| 25302 Niim || || Yoshihiro Niim, Japanese space engineer ||
|-id=309
| 25309 Chrisauer || || Christopher Peterson Sauer (born 1995) is a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition, for his engineering project. He attends the Corte Madera School, Portola Valley, California ||
|-id=312
| 25312 Asiapossenti || || Asia Possenti (born 2008) is a nephew of the discoverer ||
|-id=316
| 25316 Comnick || || Richard "Rich" Comnick (born 1940) has been a volunteer in the Lowell Observatory archives since 2007. He has digitized and catalogued historic observation logbooks, photographs and manuscript material for the Archives website and the Arizona Memory Project. ||
|-id=321
| 25321 Rohitsingh || || Rohit Kumar Singh (born 1994) is a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition, for his engineering project. He attends the Lincoln Middle School, Gainesville, Florida ||
|-id=322
| 25322 Rebeccajean || || Rebecca Jean Smouse (born 1995) is a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition, for her animal and plant sciences project. She attends the Kyrene Middle School, Tempe, Arizona ||
|-id=326
| 25326 Lawrencesun || || Lawrence Sun (born 1996) is a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition, for his mathematics and computer science project. He attends the Highland Park Middle School, Beaverton, Oregon ||
|-id=331
| 25331 Berrevoets || || Cor Berrevoets, Dutch developer of Registax, astronomical image-processing freeware ||
|-id=333
| 25333 Britwenger || || Brittany Michelle Wenger (born 1994) is a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition, for her mathematics and computer science project. She attends the R. Dan Nolan Middle School, Bradenton, Florida ||
|-id=340
| 25340 Segoves || || Segovesus, Central European Celtic prince † ||
|-id=348
| 25348 Wisniowiecki || || Anna Marie Wisniowiecki (born 1993) is a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition, for her earth and space sciences project. She attends the McCullough Junior High School, The Woodlands, Texas ||
|-id=354
| 25354 Zdasiuk || || Jonathan Andrew Zdasiuk (born 1995) is a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition, for his engineering project. He attends the Corte Madera School, Portola Valley, California ||
|-id=358
| 25358 Boskovice || || Boskovice a town in Middle Moravia, was settled in prehistoric times. A gothic castle from the 13th century and a Jewish quarter are among its many tourist attractions ||
|-id=364
| 25364 Allisonbaas || || Allison Baas mentored a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition. She teaches at the Plankinton School District, Plankinton, South Dakota ||
|-id=365
| 25365 Bernreuter || || John Bernreuter mentored a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition. She teaches at the R. Dan Nolan Middle School, Bradenton, Florida ||
|-id=366
| 25366 Maureenbobo || || Maureen Bobo mentored a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition. She teaches at the Rocky Mountain Middle School, Heber City, Utah ||
|-id=367
| 25367 Cicek || || Kazim Cicek mentored a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition. He teaches at the Chesapeake Science Point Public Charter School, Hanover, Maryland ||
|-id=368
| 25368 Gailcolwell || || Gail Colwell mentored a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition. She teaches at the McCullough Junior High School, The Woodlands, Texas ||
|-id=369
| 25369 Dawndonovan || || Dawn Donovan mentored a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition. She teaches at the Martin Luther King Jr., Magnet High School, Nashville, Tennessee ||
|-id=370
| 25370 Karenfletch || || Karen Fletcher mentored a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition. She teaches at the Barrington Middle School, Barrington, Rhode Island ||
|-id=371
| 25371 Frangaley || || Fran Galey mentored a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition. She teaches at the Riverton Middle School, Riverton, Wyoming ||
|-id=372
| 25372 Shanagarza || || Shana Garza mentored a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition. She teaches at the Pi Beta Phi Elementary School, Gatlinburg, Tennessee ||
|-id=373
| 25373 Gorsch || || Lisa Gorsch mentored a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition. She teaches at the Peabody School, Charlottesville, Virginia ||
|-id=374
| 25374 Harbrucker || || Roberta Harbrucker mentored a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition. She teaches at the Lincoln Middle School, Gainesville, Florida ||
|-id=375
| 25375 Treenajoi || || Treena Joi mentored a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition. She teaches at the Corte Madera School, Portola Valley, California ||
|-id=376
| 25376 Christikeen || || Christine Keen mentored a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition. She teaches at a homeschool, Bethesda, Maryland ||
|-id=377
| 25377 Rolaberee || || Rosemary Laberee mentored a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition. She teaches at a homeschool, Medford, New Jersey ||
|-id=378
| 25378 Erinlambert || || Erin Lambert mentored a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition. She teaches at the Kyrene Middle School, Tempe, Arizona ||
|-id=381
| 25381 Jerrynelson || || Jerry Nelson mentored a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition. He teaches at the North Ogden Junior High School, North Ogden, Utah ||
|-id=383
| 25383 Lindacker || || Jan Tadeáš Lindacker (1768–1816) was a Czech geologist and botanist. He worked in Osek, near Rokycany, in iron ore mines, where he assembled a unique collection of Carboniferous fossil plants and minerals and joined it with that of Kaspar Maria von Sternberg. The collection was donated to the National Museum in Prague. ||
|-id=384
| 25384 Partizánske || || Partizánske, western Slovakia (originally Symoni), home to a public observatory ||
|-id=399
| 25399 Vonnegut || || Kurt Vonnegut (born 1922), a revolutionary U.S. science-fiction writer who crossed over into mainstream literature and is often referred to as the "Mark Twain of the second half of the twentieth century". ||
|}
25401–25500
|-id=402
| 25402 Angelanorse || || Angela Norse mentored a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition. She teaches at the Highland Park Middle School, Beaverton, Oregon ||
|-id=403
| 25403 Carlapiazza || || Carla Piazza mentored a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition. She teaches at the Saginaw Arts and Sciences Academy, Saginaw, Michigan ||
|-id=404
| 25404 Shansample || || Shannon Sample mentored a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition. She teaches at the Iva E. Wells Middle School, Seneca, Missouri ||
|-id=405
| 25405 Jeffwidder || || Jeff Widder mentored a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition. He teaches at the Whitefish Bay Middle School, Whitefish Bay, Wisconsin ||
|-id=406
| 25406 Debwysocki || || Deborah Wysocki mentored a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition. She teaches at the Lenape Middle School, Doylestown, Pennsylvania ||
|-id=410
| 25410 Abejar || || Patrick Jeffrey Abejar (born 1991) is a finalist in the 2009 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors, for his earth and planetary science project. He attends the Smithtown High School West, Smithtown, New York ||
|-id=412
| 25412 Arbesfeld || || Noah Maxwell Arbesfeld (born 1991) is a finalist in the 2009 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors, for his mathematics project. He attends the Lexington High School, Lexington, Massachusetts ||
|-id=413
| 25413 Dorischen || || Doris Chen (born 1991) is a finalist in the 2009 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors, for her medicine and health project. She attends the Tenafly High School, Tenafly, New Jersey ||
|-id=414
| 25414 Cherkassky || || Michael Sheng Cherkassky (born 1991) is a finalist in the 2009 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors, for his computer science project. He attends the Edina High School, Edina, Minnesota ||
|-id=415
| 25415 Jocelyn || || Jocelyn Chuang (born 1991) is a finalist in the 2009 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors, for her behavioral and social sciences project. She attends the Bronx High School of Science, Bronx, New York ||
|-id=416
| 25416 Chyanwen || || Wen Chyan (born 1991) is a finalist in the 2009 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors, for his chemistry project. He attends the Texas Academy of Mathematics & Science, Denton, Texas ||
|-id=417
| 25417 Coquillette || || Elizabeth Charlotte Coquillette (born 1991) is a finalist in the 2009 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors, for her engineering project. She attends the Hathaway Brown School, Shaker Heights, Ohio ||
|-id=418
| 25418 Deshmukh || || Aniruddha Sandeep Deshmukh (born 1991) is a finalist in the 2009 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors, for his botany project. He attends the Bellarmine College Preparatory School, San Jose, California ||
|-id=421
| 25421 Gafaran || || Gabriela Aylin Faran (born 1990) is a finalist in the 2009 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors, for her earth and planetary science project. She attends the West High School, Madison, Wisconsin ||
|-id=422
| 25422 Abigreene || || Abigail Sara Greene (born 1991) is a finalist in the 2009 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors, for her behavioral and social sciences project. She attends the John Jay High School, Cross River, New York ||
|-id=424
| 25424 Gunasekaran || || Suvai Gunasekaran (born 1991) is a finalist in the 2009 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors, for her materials science project. She attends the James Madison Memorial High School, Madison, Wisconsin ||
|-id=425
| 25425 Chelsealynn || || Chelsea Lynn Jurman (born 1991) is a finalist in the 2009 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors, for her behavioral and social sciences project. She attends the Roslyn High School, Roslyn Heights, New York ||
|-id=426
| 25426 Alexanderkim || || Alexander Mee-Woong Kim (born 1991) is a finalist in the 2009 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors, for his zoology project. He attends the Thomas Jefferson High School for Science nce and Technology, Alexandria, Virginia ||
|-id=427
| 25427 Kratchmarov || || Radomir Kratchmarov (born 1991) is a finalist in the 2009 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors, for his microbiology project. He attends the Livingston High School, Livingston, New Jersey ||
|-id=428
| 25428 Lakhanpal || || Nitish Lakhanpal (born 1991) is a finalist in the 2009 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors, for his bioinformatics and genomics project. He attends the University High School, Irvine, California ||
|-id=430
| 25430 Ericlarson || || Eric Kerner Larson (born 1991) is a finalist in the 2009 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors, for his mathematics project. He attends the South Eugene High School, Eugene, Oregon ||
|-id=432
| 25432 Josepherli || || Josepher Li (born 1991) is a finalist in the 2009 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors, for his biochemistry project. He attends the Bronx High School of Science, Bronx, New York ||
|-id=434
| 25434 Westonia || || Elizabeth Jane Weston (1581–1612), known as "Westonia", was an English-Czech poet, known mostly for her Neo-Latin poetry. Her Parthenicon was published in 1608. She is considered the first female Czech poet. ||
|-id=455
| 25455 Anissamak || || Anissa Yuenming Mak (born 1991) is a finalist in the 2009 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors, for her mathematics project. She attends the Stuyvesant High School, New York, New York ||
|-id=456
| 25456 Caitlinmann || || Caitlin Maureen Mann (born 1991) is a finalist in the 2009 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors, for her engineering project. She attends the Hathaway Brown School, Shaker Heights, Ohio ||
|-id=457
| 25457 Mariannamao || || Marianna Yuling Mao (born 1991) is a finalist in the 2009 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors, for her physics project. She attends the Mission San Jose High School, Fremont, California ||
|-id=462
| 25462 Haydenmetsky || || Hayden Craig Metsky (born 1991) is a finalist in the 2009 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors, for his computer science project. He attends the Millburn High School, Millburn, New Jersey ||
|-id=464
| 25464 Maxrabinovich || || Maxim Rabinovich (born 1991) is a finalist in the 2009 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors, for his mathematics project. He attends the Shorecrest Preparatory School, St. Petersburg, Florida ||
|-id=465
| 25465 Rajagopalan || || Aditya Rajagopalan (born 1991) is a finalist in the 2009 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors, for his biochemistry project. He attends the Choate Rosemary Hall, Wallingford, Connecticut ||
|-id=468
| 25468 Ramakrishna || || Smitha Ramakrishna (born 1991) is a finalist in the 2009 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors, for her environmental science project. She attends the Corona del Sol High School, Tempe, Arizona ||
|-id=469
| 25469 Ransohoff || || Julia Dory Ransohoff (born 1991) is a finalist in the 2009 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors, for her medicine and health project. She attends the Menlo-Atherton High School, Atherton, California ||
|-id=472
| 25472 Joanoro || || Joan Oro, Spanish (Catalan)-American biologist and public science advocate ||
|-id=475
| 25475 Lizrao || || Elizabeth Jie Rao (born 1991) is a finalist in the 2009 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors, for her medicine and health project. She attends the Lincoln Park High School, Chicago, Illinois ||
|-id=476
| 25476 Sealfon || || Adam Benjamin Sealfon (born 1991) is a finalist in the 2009 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors, for his computer science project. He attends the Stuyvesant High School, New York, New York ||
|-id=477
| 25477 Preyashah || || Preya Shah (born 1991) is a finalist in the 2009 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors, for her chemistry project. She attends the Ward Melville High School, East Setauket, New York ||
|-id=478
| 25478 Shrock || || Christine Lee Shrock (born 1991) is a finalist in the 2009 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors, for her bioinformatics and genomics project. She attends the Ward Melville High School, East Setauket, New York ||
|-id=479
| 25479 Ericshyu || || Eric Shyu (born 1991) is a finalist in the 2009 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors, for his chemistry project. He attends the Illinois Mathematics & Science Academy, Aurora, Illinois ||
|-id=481
| 25481 Willjaysun || || William Jayang Sun (born 1991) is a finalist in the 2009 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors, for his biochemistry project. He attends the Parkway Central High School, Chesterfield, Missouri ||
|-id=482
| 25482 Tallapragada || || Narendra Pundarik Tallapragada (born 1991) is a finalist in the 2009 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors, for his physics project. He attends the Thomas Jefferson High School for Science and Technology, Alexandria, Virginia ||
|-id=483
| 25483 Trusheim || || Stephen Walter Trusheim (born 1990) is a finalist in the 2009 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors, for his bioinformatics and genomics project. He attends the Breck School, Minneapolis, Minnesota ||
|-id=486
| 25486 Michaelwham || || Michael Tyler Wham (born 1990) is a finalist in the 2009 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors, for his zoology project. He attends the Sterling Ridge Home School, Woodlands, Texas ||
|-id=488
| 25488 Figueiredo || || Joanne Figueiredo mentored a finalist in the 2009 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors. She teaches at the Smithtown High School West, Smithtown, New York ||
|-id=490
| 25490 Kevinkelly || || Kevin Kelly mentored a finalist in the 2009 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors. He teaches at the Lexington High School, Lexington, Massachusetts ||
|-id=491
| 25491 Meador || || Granger Meador mentored a finalist in the 2009 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors. He teaches at the Bartlesville High School, Bartlesville, Oklahoma ||
|-id=492
| 25492 Firnberg || || Anat Firnberg mentored a finalist in the 2009 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors. She teaches at the Tenafly High School, Tenafly, New Jersey ||
|-id=495
| 25495 Michaelroddy || || Michael Roddy mentored a finalist in the 2009 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors. He teaches at the Edina High School, Edina, Minnesota ||
|-id=497
| 25497 Brauerman || || Susan Brauerman mentored a finalist in the 2009 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors. She teaches at the Bronx High School of Science, Bronx, New York ||
|}
25501–25600
|-id=509
| 25509 Rodwong || || Rod Wong mentored a finalist in the 2009 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors. He teaches at the Bellarmine College Preparatory School, San Jose, California ||
|-id=510
| 25510 Donvincent || || Don Vincent mentored a finalist in the 2009 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors. He teaches at the West High School, Madison, Wisconsin ||
|-id=511
| 25511 Annlipinsky || || Ann Lipinsky mentored a finalist in the 2009 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors. She teaches at the John Jay High School, Cross River, New York ||
|-id=512
| 25512 Anncomins || || Ann Comins mentored a finalist in the 2009 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors. She teaches at the James Madison Memorial High School, Madison, Wisconsin ||
|-id=513
| 25513 Weseley || || Allyson Weseley mentored a finalist in the 2009 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors. She teaches at the Roslyn High School, Roslyn Heights, New York ||
|-id=514
| 25514 Lisawu || || Lisa Wu mentored a finalist in the 2009 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors. She teaches at the Thomas Jefferson High School for Science and Technology, Alexandria, Virginia ||
|-id=515
| 25515 Briancarey || || Brian Carey mentored a finalist in the 2009 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors. He teaches at the Livingston High School, Livingston, New Jersey ||
|-id=516
| 25516 Davidknight || || David Knight mentored a finalist in the 2009 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors. He teaches at the University High School, Irvine, California ||
|-id=517
| 25517 Davidlau || || David Lau mentored a finalist in the 2009 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors. He teaches at the Mission San Jose High School, Fremont, California ||
|-id=518
| 25518 Paulcitrin || || Paul Citrin mentored a finalist in the 2009 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors. He teaches at the Millburn High School, Millburn, New Jersey ||
|-id=519
| 25519 Bartolomeo || || Michael Bartolomeo mentored a finalist in the 2009 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors. He teaches at the Shorecrest Preparatory School, St Petersburg, Florida ||
|-id=520
| 25520 Deronchang || || Deron Chang mentored a finalist in the 2009 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors. He teaches at the Choate Rosemary Hall, Wallingford, Connecticut ||
|-id=521
| 25521 Stevemorgan || || Steve Morgan mentored a finalist in the 2009 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors. He teaches at the Corona del Sol High School, Tempe, Arizona ||
|-id=522
| 25522 Roisen || || Patrick Roisen mentored a finalist in the 2009 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors. He teaches at the Menlo-Atherton High School, Atherton, California ||
|-id=531
| 25531 Lessek || || Justin Lessek mentored a finalist in the 2009 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors. He teaches at the Lincoln Park High School, Chicago, Illinois ||
|-id=538
| 25538 Markcarlson || || Mark Carlson mentored a finalist in the 2009 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors. He teaches at the Illinois Mathematics & Science Academy, Aurora, Illinois ||
|-id=539
| 25539 Roberthelm || || Robert Helm mentored a finalist in the 2009 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors. He teaches at the Methacton High School, Norristown, Pennsylvania ||
|-id=541
| 25541 Greathouse || || Kenneth Greathouse mentored a finalist in the 2009 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors. He teaches at the Parkway Central High School, Chesterfield, Missouri ||
|-id=542
| 25542 Garabedian || || Wayne Garabedian mentored a finalist in the 2009 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors. He teaches at the Clovis West High School, Fresno, California ||
|-id=543
| 25543 Fruen || || Lois Fruen mentored a finalist in the 2009 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors. She teaches at the Breck School, Minneapolis, Minnesota ||
|-id=544
| 25544 Renerogers || || Rene Rogers mentored a finalist in the 2009 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors. She teaches at the Sterling Ridge Home School, Woodlands, Texas ||
|-id=549
| 25549 Jonsauer || || Jonothon Sauer mentored a finalist in the 2009 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors. He teaches at the William Mason High School, Mason, Ohio ||
|-id=551
| 25551 Drewhall || || Drew Hall (born 1982), together with Richard Gaster, a fellow student at Stanford University, won the "Change the World" competition, arranged by the IEEE presidents in conjunction with the organization's 125th anniversary in 2009. Their winning project was entitled "Nanolab: A Handheld Diagnostic Laboratory" ||
|-id=552
| 25552 Gaster || || Richard Gaster (born 1984), with Drew Hall, won the 2009 Student Humanitarian Supreme Prize of the IEEE "Change the World" competition. Their "Nanolab" project applies engineering and leadership skills to benefit humanity by solving the problem of limited availability of medical laboratories in third-world countries ||
|-id=553
| 25553 Ivanlafer || || Ivan Lavander Candido Ferreira (born 1991) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his microbiology project. He attends the Colégio Guilherme Dumont Villares, São Paulo, SP, Brasil ||
|-id=554
| 25554 Jayaranjan || || Nirusan Jayaranjan (born 1993) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his electrical and mechanical engineering project. He attends the College Sturgeon Heights Collegiate, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada ||
|-id=555
| 25555 Ratnavarma || || Ratna Varma (born 1992) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her medicine and health sciences project. She attends the A. B. Lucas Secondary School, London, Ontario, Canada ||
|-id=560
| 25560 Chaihaoxi || || Chai Haoxi (born 1991) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his plant sciences team project. He attends the No.1 High School Attached to Central China Normal University, Wuhan, Hubei, China ||
|-id=561
| 25561 Leehyunki || || Lee Hyun Ki (born 1992) was awarded first place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his computer science team project. He attends the Chengdu International School, Chengdu, Sichuan, China ||
|-id=562
| 25562 Limdarren || || Lim Darren (born 1993) was awarded first place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his computer science team project. He attends the Chengdu International School, Chengdu, Sichuan, China ||
|-id=565
| 25565 Lusiyang || || Lu Siyang (born 1991) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her plant sciences team project. She attends the No. 1 Middle School Attached To Central China Normal University, Wuhan, Hubei, China ||
|-id=566
| 25566 Panying || || Pan Ying (born 1989) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her materials and bioengineering project. She attends the Affiliated High School of South China Normal University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China ||
|-id=570
| 25570 Kesun || || Sun Ke (born 1991) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her plant sciences team project. She attends the No.1 Middle School Attached To Central China Normal University, Wuhan, Hubei, China ||
|-id=573
| 25573 Wanghaoyu || || Wang Haoyu (born 1992) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his plant sciences team project. He attends the Beijing 101 Middle School, Beijing, China ||
|-id=577
| 25577 Wangmanqiang || || Wang Manqiang (born 1992) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his plant sciences team project. He attends the No.80 High School of Beijing, Beijing, China ||
|-id=580
| 25580 Xuelai || || Xue Lai (born 1992) was awarded first place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his computer science team project. He attends the Chengdu International School, Chengdu, Sichuan, China ||
|-id=584
| 25584 Zhangnelson || || Zhang Nelson (born 1993) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his computer science project. He attends the Shanghai American School, Shanghai, China ||
|-id=593
| 25593 Camillejordan || || Camille Jordan (1838–1921), a French mathematician. ||
|-id=594
| 25594 Kessler || || Marvin Kessler, American member of the Northeast Kansas Amateur Astronomer's League ||
|-id=597
| 25597 Glendahill || || Glenda Hill (born 1948) has volunteered in the Lowell Observatory Archives since 2010. She has catalogued the correspondence of V.M. Slipher, Percival Lowell and Wrexie Louise Leonard. Glenda has become quite adept at deciphering poor handwriting. She is married to outreach volunteer Gene Hill. ||
|}
25601–25700
|-
| 25601 Francopacini || || Franco Pacini, Italian astrophysicist † ||
|-id=602
| 25602 Ucaronia || || Umberto Caronia, father of co-discoverer Alfredo Caronia † ||
|-id=604
| 25604 Karlin || || Samuel Karlin, American statistician and mathematician, member of the National Academy of Sciences and recipient of the National Medal of Science ||
|-id=606
| 25606 Chiangshenghao || || Chiang Sheng-Hao (born 1991) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his mathematical sciences project. He attends the National Experimental High School at Hsinchu Science Park, Hsinchu City, Chinese Taipei ||
|-id=607
| 25607 Tsengiching || || Tseng I-Ching (born 1993) was awarded first place and Best in Category in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her microbiology project. She attends the National Taichung Girl's Senior High School, Taichung, Taiwan, Chinese Taipei ||
|-id=608
| 25608 Hincapie || || Melisa Hincapie (born 1991) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her energy and transportation project. She attends the Colegio La Compania de Maria La Ensenanza, Medellin, Antioquia, Colombia ||
|-id=609
| 25609 Bogantes || || Fabiola Bogantes Jimenez (born 1991) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her electrical and mechanical engineering team project. She attends the Colegio Tecnico Profesional de San Sebastian, San Jose, Costa Rica ||
|-id=611
| 25611 Mabellin || || Mabellin Fallas Quesada (born 1990) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her electrical and mechanical engineering team project. She attends the Colegio Tecnico Profesional de San Sebastian, San Jose, Costa Rica ||
|-id=612
| 25612 Yaoskalucia || || Yaoska Lucia Hernandez Duarte (born 1992) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her electrical and mechanical engineering team project. She attends the Colegio Tecnico Profesional de San Sebastian, San Jose, Costa Rica ||
|-id=613
| 25613 Bubenicek || || Petr Bubeníček (born 1990) was awarded first place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his electrical and mechanical engineering team project. He attends the Gymnazium Aloise Jiraska, Litomyšl, Czech Republic ||
|-id=614
| 25614 Jankral || || Jan Král (born 1989) was awarded first place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his electrical and mechanical engineering team project. He attends the Gymnazium Aloise Jiraska, Litomyšl, Czech Republic ||
|-id=615
| 25615 Votroubek || || Marek Votroubek (born 1990) was awarded first place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his electrical and mechanical engineering team project. He attends the Gymnazium Aloise Jiraska, Litomyšl, Czech Republic ||
|-id=616
| 25616 Riinuots || || Riinu Ots (born 1989) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her environmental science project. She attends the Hugo Treffner Gymnasium, Tartu, Estonia ||
|-id=617
| 25617 Thomasnesch || || Thomas Nesch (born 1989) was awarded first place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his electrical and mechanical engineering project. He attends the Technische Oberschule Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany ||
|-id=619
| 25619 Martonspohn || || Marton Spohn (born 1989) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his cellular and molecular biology project. He attends the Fazekas Mihaly Secondary Grammar School, Budapest, Hungary ||
|-id=620
| 25620 Jayaprakash || || Vishnu Jayaprakash (born 1993) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his energy and transportation project. He attends the Chettinad Vidyashram, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India ||
|-id=624
| 25624 Kronecker || || Leopold Kronecker, German mathematician. ||
|-id=625
| 25625 Verdenet || || Michel Verdenet, French amateur astronomer, chairman of the Association française des observateurs d'étoiles variables (AFOÉV, French Association of Variable Star Observers) † ‡ + ||
|-id=628
| 25628 Kummer || || Ernst Eduard Kummer, 19th-century German mathematician ||
|-id=629
| 25629 Mukherjee || || Anish Mukherjee (born 1992) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his electrical and mechanical engineering team project. He attends the South Point High School, Kolkata, West Bengal, India ||
|-id=630
| 25630 Sarkar || || Debarghya Sarkar (born 1991) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his electrical and mechanical engineering team project. He attends the South Point High School, Kolkata, West Bengal, India ||
|-id=636
| 25636 Vaishnav || || Hetal Kanjibhai Vaishnav (born 1992) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her environmental management project. She attends the Late Shree S.G Dholakiya Memorial High School, Rajkot, Gujarat, India ||
|-id=638
| 25638 Ahissar || || Shira Ahissar (born 1991) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her behavioral and social sciences project. She attends the Aharon Katzir High School, Rehovot, Israel ||
|-id=639
| 25639 Fedina || || Ksenia G. Fedina (born 1992) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her chemistry project. She attends the Moscow Chemical Lyceum # 1303, Moscow, Russia ||
|-id=640
| 25640 Klintefelt || || Philippe Klintefelt Collet (born 1990) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his behavioral and social sciences project. He attends the Goteborgs Hogre Samskola, Goteborg, Sweden ||
|-id=642
| 25642 Adiseshan || || Tara Anjali Adiseshan (born 1994) was awarded first place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her animal sciences project. She also received the Intel Young Scientist Award. She attends the Ramana Academy, Charlottesville, Virginia, U.S.A ||
|-id=645
| 25645 Alexanderyan || || Ryan Cherian Alexander (born 1993) was awarded first place and Best in Category in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his energy and transportation project. He attends the R. C. Clark High School, Plano, Texas, U.S.A ||
|-id=646
| 25646 Noniearora || || Shubhangi Arora (born 1993) was awarded first place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her microbiology project. She attends the Novi High School, Novi, Michigan, U.S.A ||
|-id=648
| 25648 Baghel || || Prateek Singh Baghel (born 1991) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his cellular and molecular biology project. He attends the Shaker High School, Latham, New York, U.S.A ||
|-id=650
| 25650 Shaubakshi || || Shaunak Krishan Bakshi (born 1993) was awarded first place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his behavioral and social sciences team project. He also received the European Union Contest for Young Scientists Award. He attends the Manhasset High School, Manhasset, New York, U.S.A ||
|-id=652
| 25652 Maddieball || || Madeleine Amanda Ball (born 1992) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her animal sciences project. She attends the Ursuline Academy of Dallas, Dallas, Texas, U.S.A ||
|-id=653
| 25653 Baskaran || || Akshai Baskaran (born 1992) was awarded first place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his energy and transportation project. He attends the Kennewick High School, Kennewick, Washington, U.S.A ||
|-id=655
| 25655 Baupeter || || Peter Bau (born 1992) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his animal sciences project. He attends the Chamblee Charter High School, Chamblee, Georgia, U.S.A ||
|-id=656
| 25656 Bejnood || || Alborz Bejnood (born 1992) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his microbiology team project. He attends the Oak Ridge High School, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, U.S.A ||
|-id=657
| 25657 Berkowitz || || Hannah M Berkowitz (born 1993) was awarded first place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her environmental management team project. She attends the Long Beach High School, Lido Beach, New York, U.S.A ||
|-id=658
| 25658 Bokor || || Jacqueline B Bokor (born 1993) was awarded first place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her environmental management team project. She attends the Long Beach High School, Lido Beach, New York, U.S.A ||
|-id=659
| 25659 Liboynton || || Li Sallou Boynton (born 1991) was awarded first place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her environmental science project. She also received the Intel Young Scientist Award. She attends the Bellaire High School, Bellaire, Texas, U.S.A ||
|-id=662
| 25662 Chonofsky || || Mark Adrian Chonofsky (born 1992) was awarded first place and Best in Category in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his plant sciences project. He attends the Lexington High School, Lexington, Massachusetts, U.S.A ||
|-id=663
| 25663 Nickmycroft || || Nicholas Mycroft Christensen (born 1991) is a finalist in the 2010 Intel Science Talent Search (STS) for his physics project. He was also awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair. He attends the Wetumpka High School, Wetumpka, Alabama, U.S.A ||
|-id=669
| 25669 Kristinrose || || Kristin Rose Cordwell (born 1990) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her mathematical sciences project. She attends the Manzano High School, Albuquerque, New Mexico, U.S.A ||
|-id=670
| 25670 Densley || || Riley Taylor Densley (born 1991) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his physics team project. He attends the Bingham High School, South Jordan, Utah, U.S.A ||
|-id=673
| 25673 Di Mascio || || Michael Vincent Di Mascio (born 1992) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his physics project. He attends the Waynesville High School, Waynesville, Ohio, U.S.A ||
|-id=674
| 25674 Kevinellis || || Kevin Michael Ellis (born 1991) was awarded first place and Best in Category in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his computer science project. He attends the Catlin Gabel School, Beaverton, Oregon, U.S.A ||
|-id=676
| 25676 Jesseellison || || Jesse Kane Ellison (born 1991) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his electrical and mechanical engineering project. He attends the Bayfield High School, Bayfield, Colorado, U.S.A ||
|-id=677
| 25677 Aaronenten || || Aaron Christopher Enten (born 1991) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his materials and bioengineering project. He attends the American Heritage School Plantation, Plantation, Florida, U.S.A ||
|-id=678
| 25678 Ericfoss || || Eric A. Foss (born 1991) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his physics project. He attends the Kentwood High School, Covington, Washington, U.S.A ||
|-id=679
| 25679 Andrewguo || || Andrew Yi Guo (born 1991) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his medicine and health science s team project. He attends the North Carolina School of Science and Mathematics, Durham, North Carolina, U.S.A ||
|-id=680
| 25680 Walterhansen || || Walter Preston Hansen (born 1992) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his physics team project. He attends the Bingham High School, South Jordan, Utah, U.S.A ||
|-id=683
| 25683 Haochenhong || || Haochen Hong (born 1992) was awarded first place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his physics team project. He attends the La Cueva High School, Albuquerque, New Mexico, U.S.A ||
|-id=685
| 25685 Katlinhornig || || Katlin Jayne Hornig (born 1991) was awarded first place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her behavioral and social sciences project. She attends the Sargent High School, Monte Vista, Colorado, U.S.A ||
|-id=686
| 25686 Stephoskins || || Stephanie Page Hoskins (born 1992) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her microbiology project. She attends the Lincoln Park Academy, Fort Pierce, Florida, U.S.A ||
|-id=688
| 25688 Hritzo || || Bernadette Ann Hritzo (born 1993) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her animal sciences project. She attends the Villa Joseph Marie High School, Holland, Pennsylvania, U.S.A ||
|-id=689
| 25689 Duannihuang || || Duanni Huang (born 1990) was awarded first place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his physics team project. He attends the La Cueva High School, Albuquerque, New Mexico, U.S.A ||
|-id=690
| 25690 Iredale || || Marley Elizabeth Iredale (born 1992) was awarded first place and Best in Category in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her earth and planetary science project. She attends the Sequim High School, Sequim, Washington, U.S.A ||
|-id=693
| 25693 Ishitani || || Catherine Elizabeth Ishitani (born 1992) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her medicine and health sciences project. She attends the Mayo High School, Rochester, Minnesota, U.S.A ||
|-id=695
| 25695 Eileenjang || || Eileen Kao Jang (born 1991) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her environmental science project. She attends the North Carolina School of Science and Mathematics, Durham, North Carolina, U.S.A ||
|-id=696
| 25696 Kylejones || || Kyle Jones (born 1990) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his cellular and molecular biology project. He attends the Villages High School, The Villages, Florida, U.S.A ||
|-id=697
| 25697 Kadiyala || || Vishnu Kiran Kadiyala (born 1992) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his medicine and health sciences team project. He attends the duPont Manual Magnet High School, Louisville, Kentucky, U.S.A ||
|-id=698
| 25698 Snehakannan || || Sneha Trichy Kannan (born 1992) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her medicine and health sciences project. She attends the Montgomery Blair High School, Silver Spring, Maryland, U.S.A ||
|}
25701–25800
|-
| 25701 Alexkeeler || || Alex Keeler (born 1994) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his biochemistry team project. He attends the Villages High School, The Villages, Florida, U.S.A ||
|-id=704
| 25704 Kendrick || || Alexander Kent Kendrick (born 1993) was awarded first place and Best in Category in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his electrical and mechanical engineering project. He attends the Los Alamos High School, Los Alamos, New Mexico, U.S.A ||
|-id=706
| 25706 Cekoscielski || || Caitlyn Elizabeth Koscielski (born 1991) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her chemistry team project. She attends the Marian High School, Mishawaka, Indiana, U.S.A ||
|-id=708
| 25708 Vedantkumar || || Vedant Subramaniam Kumar (born 1993) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his computer science project. He attends the duPont Manual Magnet High School, Louisville, Kentucky, U.S.A ||
|-id=710
| 25710 Petelandgren || || Peter Chal Landgren (born 1990) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his environmental management team project. He attends the Westview High School, Portland, Oregon, U.S.A ||
|-id=711
| 25711 Lebovits || || Elias Lebovits (born 1991) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his materials and bioengineering team project. He attends the Ramaz Upper School, New York, New York, U.S.A ||
|-id=714
| 25714 Aprillee || || April S. Lee (born 1991) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her plant sciences project. She attends the Stuyvesant High School, New York, New York, U.S.A ||
|-id=715
| 25715 Lizmariemako || || Elizabeth Marie Mako (born 1991) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her electrical and mechanical engineering project. She attends the W.T. Woodson High School, Fairfax, Virginia, U.S.A ||
|-id=717
| 25717 Ritikmal || || Ritik Malhotra (born 1992) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his electrical and mechanical engineering project. He attends the Lynbrook High School, San Jose, California, U.S.A ||
|-id=720
| 25720 Mallidi || || Sandeep Mallidi (born 1991) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his earth and planetary science team project. He attends the Westview High School, Portland, Oregon, U.S.A ||
|-id=721
| 25721 Anartya || || Anartya Mandal (born 1990) was awarded first place and Best in Category in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his biochemistry project. He attends the Boston Latin School, Boston, Massachusetts, U.S.A ||
|-id=722
| 25722 Evanmarshall || || Evan George Marshall (born 1992) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his earth and planetary science team project. He attends the Westview High School, Portland, Oregon, U.S.A ||
|-id=723
| 25723 Shamascharak || || Shamik Mascharak (born 1993) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his chemistry project. He attends the Santa Cruz High School, Santa Cruz, California, U.S.A ||
|-id=725
| 25725 McCormick || || Lydia L McCormick (born 1992) was awarded first place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her animal sciences project. She attends the Jefferson County International Baccalaureate, Birmingham, Alabama, U.S.A ||
|-id=727
| 25727 Karsonmiller || || Karson M. Miller (born 1991) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his electrical and mechanical engineering project. He attends the John L. Miller-Great Neck North High School, Great Neck, New York, U.S.A ||
|-id=742
| 25742 Amandablanco || || Amanda Blanco (born 1933) is a photographer who has volunteered at Lowell since 2011. Her projects have included photographing Lowell children's summer camps and Observatory special events. Her current project is photographing flowers and trees on the Observatory campus to be used in future outdoor signage. ||
|-id=743
| 25743 Serrato || || Roger Serrato (born 1954) has volunteered at Lowell Observatory since 2012. He has recently been involved in special projects, among them creating a comprehensive file about the Discovery Channel Telescope and indexing/digitizing all of the Observatory's newsletters dating back to 1988. ||
|-id=744
| 25744 Surajmishra || || Suraj K. Mishra (born 1991) was awarded first place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his cellular and molecular biology project. He attends the Mills E. Godwin High School, Richmond, Virginia, U.S.A ||
|-id=745
| 25745 Schimmelpenninck || || Marie Schimmelpenninck (born 1952) has been a Lowell Observatory volunteer since 2002. She was a daytime tour guide and solar telescope operator for 13 years. She is presently working on identifying the Observatory's flowers and trees for future Lowell campus signage. ||
|-id=746
| 25746 Nickscoville || || Nicholas Z. Scoville (born 1945) is an astronomer at the California Institute of Technology. ||
|-id=747
| 25747 Nicerasmus || || Nicolas Erasmus (born 1985) is an instrument scientist at the South African Astronomical Observatory (Cape Town, South Africa). His early research was in experimental laser physics, and he transitioned into working on photometric observations of asteroids and astronomical instrumentation. ||
|-id=750
| 25750 Miwnay || || Miwnay was the name of a Sogdian abandoned wife from Samarkand. ||
|-id=751
| 25751 Mokshagundam || || Shilpa Mokshagundam (born 1992) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her medicine and health sciences team project. She attends the duPont Manual High School, Prospect, Kentucky, U.S.A ||
|-id=760
| 25760 Annaspitz || || Anna Spitz (born 1954) is Education and Public Outreach Lead for the NASA OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample return mission ||
|-id=763
| 25763 Naveenmurali || || Naveen Murali (born 1992) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his materials and bioengineering team project. He attends the Staples High School, Westport, Connecticut, U.S.A ||
|-id=764
| 25764 Divyanag || || Divya Nag (born 1991) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her earth and planetary science project. She attends the Mira Loma High School, Sacramento, California, U.S.A ||
|-id=765
| 25765 Heatherlynne || || Heather Lynne Nielsen (born 1992) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her biochemistry team project. She attends the Villages High School, The Villages, Florida, U.S.A ||
|-id=766
| 25766 Nosarzewski || || Benjamin Lee Nosarzewski (born 1991) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his physics project. He attends the Paul Laurence Dunbar High School, Lexington, Kentucky, U.S.A ||
|-id=767
| 25767 Stevennoyce || || Steven Gary Noyce (born 1991) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his materials and bioengineering project. He attended the American Fork High School, American Fork, Utah, U.S.A ||
|-id=768
| 25768 Nussbaum || || Trisha Paige Nussbaum (born 1991) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her behavioral and social sciences project. She attends the Roslyn High School, Roslyn Heights, New York, U.S.A ||
|-id=769
| 25769 Munaoli || || Muna Oli (born 1992) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her medicine and health sciences project. She attends the Eastside High School, Gainesville, Florida, U.S.A ||
|-id=772
| 25772 Ashpatra || || Ashutosh Patra (born 1991) was awarded first place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his energy and transportation team project. He attends the Sunset High School, Portland, Oregon, U.S.A ||
|-id=775
| 25775 Danielpeng || || Daniel Y. Peng (born 1991) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his materials and bioengineering team project. He attends the Monta Vista High School, Cupertino, California, U.S.A ||
|-id=778
| 25778 Csere || || Elemír Csere, 20th-century Slovak amateur astronomer, founder of the public observatory in Hlohovec and its first director ||
|-id=781
| 25781 Rajendra || || Ashoka Sanjaya Rajendra (born 1991) was awarded first place and Best in Category in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his medicine and health sciences project. He attends the Loudoun County Academy of Science, Sterling, Virginia, U.S.A ||
|-id=783
| 25783 Brandontyler || || Brandon Tyler Ramirez (born 1991) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his physics team project. ||
|-id=793
| 25793 Chrisanchez || || Christopher Allen Sanchez (born 1992) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his plant sciences project. ||
|-id=798
| 25798 Reneeschaaf || || Renee Louise Schaaf (born 1991) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her energy and transportation project. ||
|-id=799
| 25799 Anmaschlegel || || Angela Marie Schlegel (born 1991) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her plant sciences project. ||
|-id=800
| 25800 Glukhovsky || || Lisa Doreen Glukhovsky (born 1986), a 2004 Talent finalist, was awarded first place and Best in Category in the 2003 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her earth and space sciences project. She is also Recipient of the Young Scientist Award. ||
|}
25801–25900
|-
| 25801 Oliviaschwob || || Olivia Catherine Schwob (born 1992) was awarded first place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her behavioral and social sciences project. She also received the Intel Young Scientist Award. She attends the Boston Latin School, Boston, Massachusetts, U.S.A ||
|-id=807
| 25807 Baharshah || || Bahar Bipin Shah (born 1991) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her medicine and health sciences project. She attends the Canterbury School, Fort Myers, Florida, U.S.A ||
|-id=811
| 25811 Richardteo || || Richard Teo Keng Siang (1972–2012), a Singapore cosmetic surgeon. ||
|-id=813
| 25813 Savannahshaw || || Savannah Shaw (born 1992) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her biochemistry team project. She attends the Villages Charter High School, The Villages, Florida, U.S.A ||
|-id=814
| 25814 Preesinghal || || Preeti Singhal (born 1993) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her biochemistry project. She attends the Arlington High School, Arlington, Texas, U.S.A ||
|-id=815
| 25815 Scottskirlo || || Scott Alexander Skirlo (born 1990) was awarded first place and Best in Category in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his materials and bioengineering project. He attends the Thomas Jefferson High School for Science and Technology, Alexandria, Virginia, U.S.A ||
|-id=817
| 25817 Tahilramani || || Mayank Tahilramani (born 1991) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his microbiology project. He attends the Peachtree Ridge High School, Suwanee, Georgia, U.S.A ||
|-id=819
| 25819 Tripathi || || Maanas Tripathi (born 1992) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his environmental management team project. He attends the Westview High School, Portland, Oregon, U.S.A ||
|-id=822
| 25822 Carolinejune || || Caroline June Trippel (born 1991) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her chemistry team project. She attends the Marian High School, Mishawaka, Indiana, U.S.A ||
|-id=823
| 25823 Dentrujillo || || Dennis Paul Trujillo (born 1992) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his physics team project. He attends the McCurdy High School, Espanola, New Mexico, U.S.A ||
|-id=824
| 25824 Viviantsang || || Vivian Connie Tsang (born 1991) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her environmental management project. She attends the Sunset High School, Portland, Oregon, U.S.A ||
|-id=832
| 25832 Van Scoyoc || || Amy Elizabeth Van Scoyoc (born 1991) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her environmental science project. She attends the East Hampton High School, East Hampton, New York, U.S.A ||
|-id=834
| 25834 Vechinski || || Ashley Kate Vechinski (born 1994) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her computer science team project. She attends the Life Christian Academy, Harvest, Alabama, U.S.A ||
|-id=835
| 25835 Tomzega || || Tom Zega (born 1973), a scientist at the University of Arizona's Lunar and Planetary Laboratory. ||
|-id=836
| 25836 Harishvemuri || || Harish Srikar Vemuri (born 1991) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his environmental management team project. He attends the Westview High School, Portland, Oregon, U.S.A ||
|-id=851
| 25851 Browning || || Joyce R. Browning, (1943–2019) was a long time member of Lowell Observatory's Advisory Board. She volunteered her time and talent helping Lowell Observatory during special events, including the 2017 solar eclipse. Joyce was dedicated to volunteering and sharing her knowledge. ||
|-id=858
| 25858 Donherbert || || Don Herbert (a.k.a. "Mr. Wizard", 1917–2007) was the creator and host of Watch Mr. Wizard and Mr. Wizard's World, programs that brought science to millions of children from 1950 to 1990 and that inspired generations of budding scientists. ||
|-id=864
| 25864 Banič || || Štefan Banič, 19th–20th-century Slovak-American inventor of the parachute ||
|-id=867
| 25867 DeMuth || || Mary DeMuth (born 1954) has worked at Lowell Observatory since 2001, starting as the Observatory's front office receptionist, then in Public Programs as an educator, then in scheduling and now as Volunteer Coordinator. ||
|-id=869
| 25869 Jacoby || || George Jacoby (born 1948) is currently Deputy Director for Technology at Lowell Observatory, responsible for the oversight of Lowell's observing facilities as well as the instrument, engineering, and IT groups. Previously he was director of WIYN and program head of the NOAO Office of Science. ||
|-id=870
| 25870 Panchovigil || || Francisco ("Pancho") Martin Vigil (born 1990) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his physics team project. He attends the McCurdy High School, Espanola, New Mexico, U.S.A ||
|-id=875
| 25875 Wickramasekara || || Sajith M. Wickramasekara (born 1991) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his medicine and health sciences team project. He attends the North Carolina School of Science and Mathematics, Durham, North Carolina, U.S.A ||
|-id=877
| 25877 Katherinexue || || Katherine Shaohua Xue (born 1991) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her microbiology team project. She attends the Oak Ridge High School, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, U.S.A ||
|-id=878
| 25878 Sihengyou || || Siheng S. You (born 1991) was awarded first place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his energy and transportation team project. He attends the Sunset High School, Portland, Oregon, U.S.A ||
|-id=884
| 25884 Asai || || Yoshihiko Asai (born 1957), a professor at Higashi Nippon International University. ||
|-id=885
| 25885 Wiesinger || || Christoph Wiesinger (born 1989) was awarded second place in the 2009 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his materials and bioengineering project. He attends the HTL Braunau School, Braunau am Inn, Austria ||
|-id=890
| 25890 Louisburg || || Louisburg, Kansas, home of the Powell Observatory ||
|-id=892
| 25892 Funabashi || || The Japanese city of Funabashi located near Tokyo. There is good fishing offshore, and during the Edo era fish caught there were donated to the Shogun. Sports are popular in the city now, and it is the home town of several sports teams. ||
|-id=893
| 25893 Sugihara || || Chiune Sugihara, Japanese diplomat in Lithuania, who defied orders and assisted asylum-seekers fleeing Nazi persecution in Europe during World War II † ||
|-id=898
| 25898 Alpoge || || Levent Alpoge (born 1992) is a finalist in the 2010 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors, for his computer science project. He attends the Half Hollow Hills High School West, Dix Hills, New York ||
|-id=899
| 25899 Namratanand || || Namrata Anand (born 1992) is a finalist in the 2010 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors, for her physics project. She attends the Harker School, San Jose, California ||
|}
25901–26000
|-
| 25901 Ericbrooks || || Eric David Brooks (born 1993) is a finalist in the 2010 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors, for his bioinformatics and genomics project. He attends the George W. Hewlett High School, Hewlett, New York ||
|-id=903
| 25903 Yuvalcalev || || Yuval Yaacov Calev (born 1992) is a finalist in the 2010 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors, for his behavioral and social sciences project. He attends the Ward Melville High School, East Setauket, New York ||
|-id=905
| 25905 Clerico || || Domenico Clerico (1950–2017), from the Langhe region of Piemonte, was a world-famous Italian winemaker. Name suggested by E. Bowell, A. W. Harris (JPL) and V. Zappalà. ||
|-id=906
| 25906 Morrell || || Nidia I. Morrell (born 1953) is an astronomer at Las Campanas Observatory known for her work on O-type and Wolf-Rayet stars as well as massive binaries. As a member of the Carnegie Supernova Project, she also studies the spectacular explosions these stars make at the end of their lives. ||
|-id=907
| 25907 Capodilupo || || John Vincenzo Capodilupo (born 1991) is a finalist in the 2010 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors, for his physics project. He attends the Catholic Central High School, Grand Rapids, Michigan ||
|-id=912
| 25912 Recawkwell || || Rachel Elizabeth Cawkwell (born 1992) is a finalist in the 2010 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors, for her medicine and health sciences project. She attends the Byram Hills High School, Armonk, New York ||
|-id=913
| 25913 Jamesgreen || || James L. Green (born 1951) is an American space physicist who has published widely on the Earth's and Jupiter's magnetospheres, as well as data systems and networks. As director of NASA's Planetary Science Division, he has overseen missions that explored Pluto, Mercury, Jupiter, Mars, the Moon and asteroids. ||
|-id=914
| 25914 Bair || || Allison Bair (born 1977) works at Lowell Observatory as a research assistant performing studies of the chemical composition and physical properties of comets. ||
|-id=915
| 25915 Charlesmcguire || || Charles J. McGuire (born 1932) is a retired aerospace engineer from the Mercury, Gemini and Apollo era, and is the grandfather of planetary scientist Elisabeth R. Adams. ||
|-id=919
| 25919 Comuniello || || Michael John Comuniello (born 1992) is a finalist in the 2010 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors, for his behavioral and social sciences project. He attends the Division Avenue High School, Levittown, New York ||
|-id=920
| 25920 Templeanne || || Temple Anne Douglas (born 1991) is a finalist in the 2010 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors, for her medicine and health sciences project. She attends the Thomas Jefferson High School for Science & Technology, Alexandria, Virginia ||
|-id=924
| 25924 Douglasadams || || Douglas Adams, 20th-century British author; the provisional designation for this asteroid references the year of his death, his initials, and the Answer to the Ultimate Question of Life, the Universe, and Everything (42), as given in his novel serial The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy ||
|-id=925
| 25925 Jamesfenska || || James Evan Fenska (born 1992) is a finalist in the 2010 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors, for his microbiology project. He attends the Miami High School, Miami, Oklahoma ||
|-id=927
| 25927 Jagandelman || || Jason A. Gandelman (born 1992) is a finalist in the 2010 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors, for his biochemistry project. He attends the Staples High School, Westport, Connecticut ||
|-id=930
| 25930 Spielberg || || Steven Spielberg (born 1946), an American film director ||
|-id=931
| 25931 Peterhu || || Peter Danming Hu (born 1991) is a finalist in the 2010 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors, for his materials science project. He attends the Texas Academy of Mathematics & Science, Denton, Texas ||
|-id=933
| 25933 Ruoyijiang || || Ruoyi Jiang (born 1992) is a finalist in the 2010 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors, for his biochemistry project. He attends the Ward Melville High School, East Setauket, New York ||
|-id=937
| 25937 Malysz || || Adam Małysz (born 1977) is a Polish ski jumper who won several medals at the Winter Olympic Games in 2002 and 2010. He is also a four-time winner of the World Ski Championship and the World Cup. ||
|-id=938
| 25938 Stoch || || Kamil Stoch (born 1987), is a Polish ski jumper, who won three gold medals at the Winter Olympic Games in 2014 and 2018, and who won the Four Hills Tournament (Vierschanzentournee) several times as well as the World Ski Championship in 2013, 2017 and 2019. ||
|-id=940
| 25940 Mikeschottland || || Michael R. Schottland (1889–1962), was an American industrialist and founder of the Virginia Mirror Company. As a philanthropist and amateur astronomer, he donated the original astrograph for the LONEOS telescope, with which a large number of minor planets were discovered. ||
|-id=941
| 25941 Susanahearn || || Susan Ahearn (born 1949) first visited Lowell Observatory as a child, with her family, on vacation. She became enthralled with the dark night skies of Arizona at that time and has supported astronomy research and education with her husband, Bill, for twenty-six years. ||
|-id=942
| 25942 Walborn || || Nolan R. Walborn (born 1945) is a stellar spectroscopist specializing in the optical and ultraviolet morphology of hot, massive stars, such as O and B, Wolf-Rayet, and Luminous Blue Variables. His studies have included star forming regions in the Milky Way and the Magellanic Clouds. ||
|-id=943
| 25943 Billahearn || || William "Bill" Ahearn (born 1946) first visited Lowell Observatory as a teenager. He has been a supporter of astronomy and astronomy education ever since. He and his wife, Susan, have supported Lowell Observatory's research and education for twenty-six years. ||
|-id=944
| 25944 Charlesross || || Charles "Charlie" Ross (born 1934) is a long-time admirer of astronomy and STEM education at Lowell Observatory. He and his wife, Pam, have been engaged with the observatory for over 25 years. ||
|-id=945
| 25945 Moreadalleore || || Cristina Morea Dalle Ore (born 1958) is an Italian-American astronomer, who has published papers on stellar atmospheres and planetary science. As a team associate on NASA's New Horizons mission to Pluto and the Kuiper Belt, she developed complex techniques for the spectral analysis of planetary surfaces. ||
|-id=951
| 25951 Pamross || || Pam Ross (born 1949) is a long time supporter of Lowell Observatory. She has served on the Lowell Observatory Advisory Board for over 25 years. ||
|-id=953
| 25953 Lanairlett || || Lanair Amaad Lett (born 1991) is a finalist in the 2010 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors, for his medicine and health sciences project. He attends the North Carolina School of Science & Mathematics, Durham, North Carolina ||
|-id=954
| 25954 Trantow || || Donald "Don" Trantow (born 1942) is a long-time supporter of Lowell Observatory, currently serving on the Lowell Advisory Board. He operates a private observatory on Bainbridge Island, Washington. Don shares his love of astronomy with friends, neighbors, school groups and amateur astronomy clubs. ||
|-id=955
| 25955 Radway || || John Radway (born 1936) is a long-time supporter of Lowell Observatory, currently serving on the Advisory Board and the Lowell Observatory Foundation Board. In retirement, John has focused on learning about astronomy and physics. He writes and distributes philosophical essays about the cosmos. ||
|-id=956
| 25956 Spanierbeckage || || Bridget Spanier-Beckage (born 1950) is a long-time supporter of Lowell Observatory. As a former teacher, Bridget encourages Lowell's STEM education programs for children. ||
|-id=957
| 25957 Davidconnell || || W. David Connell (born 1954) is an avid supporter of dark skies in Northern Arizona. He is a long-time member of the Lowell Observatory Advisory Board. In 2014, he assisted in the creation of the Lowell Observatory Foundation and has served as chair of the Foundation board since its founding. ||
|-id=958
| 25958 Battams || || Karl Battams (born 1979) is an astrophysicist and computational scientist at the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory in Washington, D.C. He has been in charge of the Sungrazer Project since 2003, overseeing most of the project's 3400+ sungrazing comet discoveries, and has contributed to the study of numerous near-Sun comets. ||
|-id=959
| 25959 Gingergiovale || || Virginia "Ginger" Gore Giovale (born 1943) is a long-time supporter of math and science education. She and her husband, John, have been engaged with astronomy research and education since 1988. She serves as a trustee of the Lowell Observatory Foundation. ||
|-id=960
| 25960 Timheckman || || Timothy Martin Heckman (born 1951), an astrophysicist at Johns Hopkins University, is a highly cited researcher who has concentrated on the evolution of galaxies and supermassive black holes. A multi-wavelength observer, he was involved in development of the Sloan Digital Sky Survey and the Galaxy Evolution Explorer. ||
|-id=961
| 25961 Conti || || Peter S. Conti (born 1934) is an astronomer known for his studies of hot luminous stars and the evolutionary connection between them. Specifically, he has studied O-type, Wolf-Rayet and Luminous Blue Variables. ||
|-id=962
| 25962 Yifanli || || Yifan Li (born 1991) is a finalist in the 2010 Intel Science Talent Sear ch (STS), a science competition for high school seniors, for his medicine and health sciences project. He attends the Montgomery Blair High School, Silver Spring, Maryland ||
|-id=963
| 25963 Elisalin || || Elisa Bisi Lin (born 1992) is a finalist in the 2010 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors, for her environmental science project. She attends the Plano West Senior High School, Plano, Texas ||
|-id=964
| 25964 Liudavid || || David Chienyun Liu (born 1992) is a finalist in the 2010 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors, for his computer science project. He attends the Lynbrook High School, San Jose, California ||
|-id=965
| 25965 Masihdas || || Paul Masih Das (born 1992) is a finalist in the 2010 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors, for his chemistry project. He attends the Lawrence High School, Cedarhurst, New York ||
|-id=966
| 25966 Akhilmathew || || Akhil Mathew (born 1992) is a finalist in the 2010 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors, for his mathematical sciences project. He attends the Madison High School, Madison, New Jersey ||
|-id=970
| 25970 Nelakanti || || Raman Venkat Nelakanti (born 1992) is a finalist in the 2010 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors, for his plant sciences project. He attends the Lynbrook High School, San Jose, California ||
|-id=972
| 25972 Pfefferjosh || || Joshua William Pfeffer (born 1992) is a finalist in the 2010 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors, for his mathematical sciences project. He attends the North Shore Hebrew Academy High School, Great Neck, New York ||
|-id=973
| 25973 Puranik || || Arjun Ranganath Puranik (born 1992) is a finalist in the 2010 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors, for his mathematical sciences project. He attends the William Fremd High School, Palatine, Illinois ||
|-id=978
| 25978 Katerudolph || || Katherine Rebecca Rudolph (born 1991) is a finalist in the 2010 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors, for her mathematical sciences project. She attends the Naperville Central High School, Naperville, Illinois ||
|-id=979
| 25979 Alansage || || Alan Robert Sage (born 1992) is a finalist in the 2010 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors, for his plant sciences project. He attends the Stuyvesant High School, New York, New York ||
|-id=981
| 25981 Shahmirian || || Sarine Gayaneh Shahmirian (born 1992) is a finalist in the 2010 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors, for her chemistry project. She attends the Chaminade College Preparatory, West Hills, California ||
|-id=986
| 25986 Sunanda || || Sunanda Sharma (born 1992) is a finalist in the 2010 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors, for her behavioral and social sciences project. She attends the Shrewsbury High School, Shrewsbury, Massachusetts ||
|-id=987
| 25987 Katherynshi || || Katheryn Cheng Shi (born 1993) is a finalist in the 2010 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors, for her chemistry project. She attends the Texas Academy of Mathematics & Science, Denton, Texas ||
|-id=988
| 25988 Janesuh || || Jane Yoonhae Suh (born 1991) is a finalist in the 2010 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors, for her medicine and health sciences project. She attends the Palos Verdes Peninsula High School, Rolling Hills Estates, California ||
|-id=992
| 25992 Benjamensun || || Benjamen Chang Sun (born 1992) is a finalist in the 2010 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors, for his environmental science project. He attends the Red River High School, Grand Forks, North Dakota ||
|-id=993
| 25993 Kevinxu || || Kevin Young Xu (born 1992) is a finalist in the 2010 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors, for his behavioral and social sciences project. He attends the Roslyn High School, Roslyn Heights, New York ||
|-id=994
| 25994 Lynnelleye || || Lynnelle Lin Ye (born 1992) is a finalist in the 2010 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors, for her mathematical sciences project. She attends the Palo Alto Senior High School, Palo Alto, California ||
|}
References
025001-026000 |
40380035 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toggl%20Track | Toggl Track | Toggl Track (formerly Toggl) is a time tracking software operated by Toggl OÜ, headquartered in Tallinn, Estonia, that offers online time tracking and reporting services through their website along with mobile and desktop applications.
Toggl Track tracks time blocks optionally labeled with a task, a project, and tags. Time can be tracked through a start/stop button, manual entry, or dragging and resizing time blocks in a calendar view. With the browser extension, Toggl Track has time tracking integrations with over 100 websites.
Details
Toggl was created in 2006 by Alari Aho and Krister Haav in Tallinn, Estonia. The service was initially developed for internal use and is targeted at small groups, developers, and independent consultants. It is designed for several different operating systems including iPhone, Android, Windows, Mac and Linux. Toggl employs more than 80 employees.
Time entries and active timers are synchronized in real-time via a cloud service to the website and various applications. Reporting features allow users to track the time spent on various projects and analyze productivity.
According to Alari Aho, Toggl's CEO and founder, the application has been fully self-funded from the start. The name was created using a random name generator.
In 2014, the company made the transition from a company based in Tallinn to an entirely remote business.
As of August 2016, Toggl had more than 1.6 million registered users.
Besides the official mobile apps, client apps by third-party developers have also been created using the public Toggl API, such as Timery for iOS.
On 7 September 2020, Toggl rebranded to Toggl Track, as the Toggl company merged with Teamweek (now Toggl Plan) and Hundred5 (now Toggl Hire).
Technology
From the beginning, Toggl was based on Ruby on Rails. Starting in 2013, Toggl's began to operate on Google's programming language Go on the back-end. The frontend works on JavaScript (Backbone.js, Coffeescript). It also uses some HTML5 features (offline storage) and websockets to synchronize separate devices in real-time. The database operates on PostgreSQL and Redis. Phonegap is used for mobile devices, and Chromium for desktop.
See also
Comparison of time tracking software
Project management software
References
Further reading
External links
Software companies of Estonia
Time-tracking software
Web applications
Proprietary software
Project management software
Companies based in Tallinn
Remote companies |
59361089 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unified%20access%20management | Unified access management | Unified access management (UAM) refers to an identity management solution. It is used by enterprises to manage digital identities and provide secure access to users across multiple devices and applications, both cloud and on-premise. Unified access management solutions provide a single platform from which IT can manage access across a diverse set of users, devices, and applications, whether on-premise or in the cloud.
Unified access management (UAM) is an evolution of identity and access management (IAM) systems. The goal of unified access management is similar to that of identity and access management: manage the identities of individual entities (people, devices, and so on) and their authentication and authorization (roles and privileges) within and across enterprise systems in a secure manner that bolsters productivity.
Identity and access management
Traditional identity and access management tools work well in addressing specific portions of the enterprise (specific app environments, as in on-premises or cloud; or for specific users, as in employees vs. external partners) on their own. However, many businesses must harness multiple IAM solutions. For example, they may use Microsoft Active Directory and a Web access management tool to manage access to on-premise applications, but require Identity-as-a-Service (IDaaS) solutions to manage access for cloud Software as a Service (SaaS) apps.
Managing multiple identities and access management systems is a burden for Information Technology (IT) departments. It adds to cost by requiring maintenance of multiple solutions and often requires that users are provisioned and de-provisioned in multiple systems. This is because a given IAM system may only manage access from specific devices and for specific systems.
With fragmented identity management, the enterprise may not be able to provide true single sign on, multi-factor authentication, or effective user lifecycle management, slowing down digital transformation. This has a significant, financial impact.
Forrester found a $4.47 million annual loss of productivity due to poor access management per every 10,000 employees. Hybrid IT environments complicate access management, but many organizations are not able to dispense with on-premises systems. For example, in 2018 47% of IT decision makers surveyed reported that the majority of their organization’s custom applications still run on-premises.
The extensive cost of moving legacy systems means organizations are likely to remain hybrid for some time.
History
UAM was introduced by OneLogin.
Unified access management versus identity access management
UAM differs from IAM by providing an umbrella solution. A central, cloud directory is the single source of truth for identities and access. The cloud directory integrates with on-premise identity providers or cloud identity providers. It requests information from the identity providers and updates them, so that IT can do all user lifecycle management work in one place (the cloud directory) and let the UAM update appropriate identity providers.
UAM provides other functionality needed to secure access across users and devices. Typically, this includes:
Single sign-on
Multi-factor authentication and advanced adaptive authentication
Provisioning and de-provisioning of users
Role-based access control and flexible security policies with enforcement
An SSO portal that supports a broad range of cloud applications, typically using protocols such as Security Assertion Markup Language (SAML)
Tools to integrate on-premises software into the unified access management system
Support for laptops and desktops to provide single sign-on access by logging into the machine
Full mobile support
Rich reporting and intelligence about access and events
References
Identity management systems
Computer security procedures
Password authentication |
1114532 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Registration%20authority | Registration authority | Registration authorities exist for many standards organizations, such as ANNA (Association of National Numbering Agencies for ISIN), the Object Management Group, W3C, IEEE and others. In general, registration authorities all perform a similar function, in promoting the use of a particular standard through facilitating its use. This may be by applying the standard, where appropriate, or by verifying that a particular application satisfies the standard's tenants. Maintenance agencies, in contrast, may change an element in a standard based on set rules – such as the creation or change of a currency code when a currency is created or revalued (i.e. TRL to TRY for Turkish lira). The Object Management Group has an additional concept of certified provider, which is deemed an entity permitted to perform some functions on behalf of the registration authority, under specific processes and procedures documented within the standard for such a role.
An ISO registration authority (RAs) is not authorized to update standards but provides a registration function to facilitate implementation of an International Standard (e.g. ISBN number for books). Frequently, facilitating the implementation of an ISO standard’s requirements is best suited, by its nature, to one entity, an RA. This, de facto, creates a monopoly situation and this is why care needs to be taken with respect to the functions carried out and the fees charged to avoid an abuse of such a situation. In most cases, there is a formal legal contract in place between the standards body, such as the ISO General Secretariat, and the selected registration authority.
ISO registration authorities differ from a maintenance agency. Maintenance agencies are authorized to update particular elements in an International Standard and as a matter of policy, the secretariats of MAs are assigned to bodies forming part of the ISO system (member bodies or organizations to which a member body delegates certain tasks in its country). The membership of MAs and their operating procedures are subject to approval by the Technical Management Board.
While registration authorities for a particular standard typically do not change, the position is not formally guaranteed and is subject to review and reassignment to a different firm or organization. In some cases, the concept of a registration authority may not exist for a standard at all.
By further example, the equivalent registration authority organization for Internet standards is the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority.
ISO standards
ISO standards having registration authorities are:
ISO 4—defines a uniform system for the abbreviation of journal titles
ISO 639—lists short codes for language names
ISO 2108—International Standard Book Numbers (ISBNs)
ISO/IEC 2375—Procedure for registration of escape sequences and coded character sets, which governs registrations for ISO/IEC 646 (7-bit character codes) and ISO/IEC 2022 (extended character codes)
ISO 3166—codes for the representation of names of countries and their subdivisions
ISO 3297—used to identify a print or electronic periodical publication (ISSN)
ISO 3779—used to uniquely identify motor vehicles
ISO 3780—used to uniquely identify motor vehicles
ISO 3901—code for uniquely identifying sound recordings and music video recordings
ISO 4100—code used to uniquely identify manufacturers of vehicle parts
ISO 4217—describing three-letter codes to define the names of currencies
ISO 4343—numerical control of machines
ISO 6166—uniquely identifies a fungible security
ISO 6346—unique codes to freight containers
ISO 6523—uniquely identifying organizations in computer data interchange
ISO 7350—text communication – (see also ISO 10367 – 8-bit character codes)
ISO 7372—lists international standard data elements
ISO/IEC 7812—governing identification cards
ISO/IEC 7816—electronic identification cards
ISO 7942—standard for low-level computer graphics
ISO 8583—standard for systems that exchange electronic transactions made by cardholders
ISO 8632—metafile for the storage and transfer of picture description information
ISO 8651—standard for low-level computer graphics
ISO 8802—Information processing systems
ISO 8805—standard for low-level computer graphics
ISO 8806—standard for low-level computer graphics
ISO 8824—formal notation used for describing data transmitted by telecommunications protocols
ISO/IEC 9070—Information technology – SGML support facilities – Registration procedures for public text owner identifiers. Describes the procedures whereby assignments of owner prefixes to owners of public text are made.
ISO 9141—vehicle's self-diagnostic and reporting capability
ISO 9281—information technology – picture coding methods
ISO 9362—standard format of Bank Identifier Codes
ISO 9592—API standard for rendering 3D computer graphics
ISO 9593—API standard for rendering 3D computer graphics
ISO 9636—information technology – computer graphics
ISO 9834—information technology – open systems interconnection
ISO 9897—freight containers – general communication codes
ISO 9973—information technology – computer graphics
ISO 9979—register of cryptographic algorithms
ISO 10036—describes how to add glyphs to an international standard for glyphs
ISO 10160—defines the terminology that is used for interlibrary loan transactions
ISO 10161—defines the interlibrary loan application protocol
ISO 10383—defines codes for stock markets
ISO 10444—information and documentation – international standard technical report number
ISO 10486—Car radio identification number
ISO 10641—information technology – computer graphics and image processing
ISO 10957—ten-character alphanumeric identifier for printed music
ISO 10962—classification of financial instruments
ISO 11076—aerospace—aircraft de-icing/anti-icing methods with fluids
ISO 11576—IT – registration of algorithms for lossless compression
ISO 13499—describes the exchange of multimedia vehicle safety test data
ISO 13522—IT – coding of multimedia and hypermedia information
ISO 13764—space data and information transfer systems
ISO 13800—IT – registration of identifiers and attributes for volume and file structure
ISO 13818—generic coding of moving pictures and associated audio
ISO 14496—MPEG-4
ISO 15022—securities messaging standard
ISO 15292—registration of procedures used in computer security evaluation
ISO 15511—assigns a unique number to every library in the world
ISO 15706—unique identifier for audiovisual works and related versions
ISO 15707—unique identifier for musical works
ISO/IEC 15897—registration of new POSIX locales and POSIX charmaps
ISO 15924—codes for the representation of names of writing systems
ISO 18245—the assignment of Merchant Category Codes
ISO 21000—MPEG-21
ISO 23950—protocol for searching and retrieving information from remote computer databases
ISO/IEC 24727—Identification cards – integrated circuit card programming interfaces
ISO 17316—an international identifier system for identifying links between entities in the field of information and documentation
See also
Authority control
IEEE registration authority
International Cultivar Registration Authority
Internet Assigned Numbers Authority
National Internet registry
Public-key infrastructure
References
External links
(OMG) Object Management Group
(ISO) International Organization for Standardization
OMG RDF Document describing Registration Authorities
Standards
Public records |
13655271 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Everson%20Griffen | Everson Griffen | Everson Griffen (born December 22, 1987) is an American football defensive end for the Minnesota Vikings of the National Football League (NFL). A graduate of Agua Fria High School, Griffen attended and played college football at USC. He was selected by the Vikings in the fourth round of the 2010 NFL Draft and played for them for 10 seasons before signing with the Dallas Cowboys in 2020. He was traded to the Lions later that year, then re-signed with the Vikings in August 2021.
Early years
Griffen attended Agua Fria High School in Avondale, Arizona, the same high school as Vikings Hall of Famer Randall McDaniel. At Agua Fria, Griffen played as a defensive lineman and running back for the Owls high school football team.
As a junior, he rushed for 794 yards on 142 carries for eight touchdowns, and had 12 receptions for 168 yards and one 71-yard reception where he outraced everybody for a score. On defense, he was double and triple-teamed but still managed 47 tackles, five sacks and three fumble recoveries.
As a senior, Griffen recorded 77 tackles, 16 sacks and a fumble recovery as a defensive end and ran for 1,251 yards on 159 carries (7.9 avg.) with 20 touchdowns and had 6 receptions with 2 touchdowns as a running back. His 2006 senior season honors included Super Prep Player of the Year, Scout.com Player of the Year, Parade All-American, EA Sports All-American first team, Super Prep All-American, Prep Star All-American, Scout.com All-American, Lemming All-American, Super Prep Elite 50, Prep Star 100, Rivals.com 100, Super Prep All-Farwest, Prep Star All-West, Scout.com All-West, Long Beach Press-Telegram Best in the West first team, Orange County Register Fab 15 first team, Arizona Republic All Arizona, West Valley View First Team, Tacoma News-Tribune Western 100 and Gatorade Arizona Player of the Year.
Also a standout track & field athlete, Griffen was one of the state's top performers in the throwing events. At the 2007 4A I State Meet, he won both the shot put and discus events. He recorded top throws of 17.67 meters (58 feet) in the shot put and 55.11 meters (180 feet, 8 inches) in the discus. Following his junior season, he attended the 2005 Arizona summer camp, where he ran a 4.46-second 40-yard dash at 6-foot-4 and about 260 pounds, which earned him the nickname "The Freak" and led to comparisons to All-Pro defensive end Jevon Kearse. Griffen also earned first-team all-region honors in basketball.
Recruiting
Following his high school career, Griffen was selected to play in the 2007 U.S. Army All-American Bowl along with fellow USC recruits Marc Tyler, Kristofer O'Dowd, Joe McKnight, and Chris Galippo. During the recruiting process, he took official visits to USC, Michigan, Notre Dame, Oregon, UCLA, and Florida before committing to the Trojans on November 24, 2006.
College career
Freshman season (2007)
Griffen had an impressive showing as a first-year true freshman backup defensive end in 2007, playing primarily in pass rushing situations. Overall, in 2007, while appearing in all 13 games (2 starts), he totaled 21 tackles, including 5.5 for losses of 30 yards (all were sacks), two forced fumbles, one fumble recovery and two pass deflections. He became the first USC true freshman to start an opener on the defensive line in 21 seasons since Tim Ryan in 1986 against Illinois and the first true freshman to start on the defensive line since Shaun Cody did so in 2001 against Utah.
In the Trojans' 24–3 victory over Oregon State on November 3, Griffen posted six tackles and a career-high 3.5 of USC's nine total sacks to earn Rivals.com National Freshman of the Week honors. On November 22, he had six tackles, one sack, and one fumble recovery that set up a USC touchdown at Arizona State. For his season efforts in 2007, he was named to the Sporting News Freshman All-American first team, Football Writers Association of America Freshman All-American first team, Rivals.com Freshman All-American first team, Scout.com Freshman All-American first team and Collegefootballnews.com Freshman All-American second team, plus was the Sporting News Pac-10 Defensive Freshman of the Year and was an All-Pac-10 honorable mention pick.
Sophomore season (2008)
In the fall practice before his freshman season, Griffen and veteran defensive end Kyle Moore got into heated competition that culminated with a fight during practice; the two reconciled and are now friends. During spring practices, former USC coach Pete Carroll staged a prank by having the Los Angeles Police Department enter a team meeting and arrest Griffen for “physically abusing a freshman” (Trojans offensive guard Matt Meyer); Griffen was previously aware of the prank.
In his sophomore year in 2008, Griffen was USC's pass rush specialist as a backup defensive end. He appeared in all 12 games (all but Washington State, missed due to illness) and started the first three games (Virginia, Ohio State and Oregon State) for the Trojans, compiling 18 tackles, including 6 for losses of 43 yards (with 4.5 sacks for minus 39 yards). He had three tackles against Oregon State and California and two tackles against Virginia, Ohio State, Oregon and Stanford (1.5 for losses).
Junior season (2009)
On July 4, 2009, at a Fourth of July party on Nantucket Island, Griffen and a teammate, linebacker Jordan Campbell, were cited by the Nantucket Police Department for a noise violation; no charges were filed and the two agreed to write a letter of apology. Overall, he finished the 2009 season with 45 total tackles, eight sacks, one pass defensed, and one forced fumble.
In 2009, Griffen was second team All Pac-10.
College statistics
Professional career
After USC's 24–13 victory over Boston College in the 2009 Emerald Bowl, Griffen announced he would forgo his final year of eligibility and enter the 2010 NFL Draft. At the 2010 NFL Scouting Combine, Griffen (who measured at 6'4", 278-lb) put on a show, running an electronic-timed 4.66 in the 40-yard dash and bench-pressing 225 lbs 32 times. His 40 time was second among defensive lineman, while his 32 reps were tied for sixth-best. Entering his Pro Day workout as one of the most scrutinized prospects in the NFL Draft, Griffen lived up to his nickname as "The Freak," posting a 34-inch vertical jump, 9-foot-7 broad jump and 40-yard dash time of 4.59 seconds, though some scouts had his second run as low as 4.46.
Minnesota Vikings
2010 season
Griffen was selected by the Minnesota Vikings with the second pick in the fourth round of the 2010 NFL Draft, becoming the 100th player selected overall. After being inactive for the opening five games of the season, he played in the final 11 games, finishing his rookie year with 11 tackles, all of them solo. On January 28, 2011, Griffen was arrested in Los Angeles for public intoxication. Three days later, he was arrested again after he was found driving with an invalid drivers license. He then tried to flee on foot only to be tased.
2011 season
In his second season, Griffen played in all 16 games for the Vikings, mostly on special teams as a gunner on punt coverage at times as well as serving as a regular on return units, helping the Vikings special teams unit set a team record with a 26.9 kickoff return average for the season and tied for first in the NFL with four kickoff returns of +50 yards. His 4 sacks on the year ranked fourth on the team and contributed to the Vikings 50 total sacks on the season, tied for first in the NFL. His 18 special teams tackles ranked second on the team behind team-leader Eric Frampton, who posted four more. In Week 2 against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers, he notched his first career sack when he brought down quarterback Josh Freeman.
2012 season
After a quiet performance early in the 2012 season, he came on strong late in the season, posting five sacks, one interception returned for a touchdown, and 16 quarterback hurries in the final seven games. His first sack of the year came in Week 2 as he brought down Andrew Luck for a 22-yard loss against the Indianapolis Colts. It was the third-longest sack in team history. On October 11, 2012, Griffen was given an indefinite leave from the team after his mother died.
In week 15 against the St. Louis Rams, Griffen scored his first career touchdown on his first career interception, taking to the house a Sam Bradford pass 29 yards for the score in a key victory for the Vikings' playoff chances. His 29-yard interception return touchdown ranks as the fourth-longest in Vikings history by a defensive lineman. The following week, he earned his first career start in a road game against the Houston Texans, finishing the game with a solo tackle. On December 30, he posted a career-best 3 sacks against the Green Bay in the regular season finale win over the Packers that gave the Vikings a playoff berth. He had a tackle and a sack in his playoff debut at Green Bay in the Wild Card Round.
2013 season
In 2013, Griffen was used all over the defensive line, playing in all 16 games with no starts. He finished the 2013 season with 5.5 sacks, including 2.5 in the final two games of the regular season. On September 29, he recorded the game-winning strip-sack on Ben Roethlisberger against the Pittsburgh Steelers in the NFL International Series game at London.
In Week 2 in a road game against the Chicago Bears, he tipped a Jay Cutler pass that led to a Kevin Williams interception in the endzone for a touchback. He recorded a season-best six tackles and tied a career-high with 3 tackles for loss in a loss against the Cincinnati Bengals. He ended the season with 27 tackles (18 solo), 5.5 sacks and a forced fumble.
2014 season
On March 9, 2014, Griffen re-signed with the Vikings on a five-year contract worth $42.5 million, including $20 million guaranteed. He enjoyed a breakout season in his first year as a full-time starter, helping the Vikings revamped defense have the most improved defense in the NFL. He started all 16 games after entering the season with one start in his first four seasons with the Vikings. On October 19, Griffen had a career day against the Buffalo Bills in Week 7 when he recorded a career-high nine tackles and tied a career-high with 3 sacks.
He was named NFC Defensive Player of the Month in October after recording six sacks and a forced fumble in just four games. In Week 13 against the Carolina Panthers, Griffen returned a Jasper Brinkley blocked punt for 43 yards for a touchdown, making it the longest blocked punt returned by a Vikings player in franchise history. Griffen ended his breakout season with 57 combined tackles (41 solo), one forced fumble, one blocked punt for a touchdown, three passes defensed, and a career-best 12 sacks, which led the team and tied for ninth-best in the league.
2015 season
On October 18, 2015, Griffen missed the game against the Kansas City Chiefs due to an illness. Griffen was selected as the NFC Defensive Player of the Week for Week 17, becoming the third Vikings player to win the NFC Defensive Player of the Week award in 2015, joining nose tackle Linval Joseph and cornerback Terence Newman. In the game against the Green Bay Packers, Griffen registered two sacks on Aaron Rodgers, including a strip-sack that was recovered by cornerback Captain Munnerlyn, who returned it for a 55-yard touchdown in the Vikings' 20-13 win; in addition, he also added four quarterback hits and six tackles, three of which were for a loss.
Griffen ended his second year as a starter tied for fourth in the NFC and twelfth in the league with 10.5 sacks, becoming the first player in a Mike Zimmer defense ever to record double-digit sacks in back-to-back seasons (he had 12 in 2014). On January 14, Griffen was picked to take the place of Houston's defensive end J. J. Watt in the 2016 NFL Pro Bowl, marking his first career invitation to the annual showcase game in Hawaii.
2016 season
On September 18, Minnesota opened their new stadium with a win against division rival Green Bay Packers and Griffen contributed with a sack and a forced fumble. In the Vikings' upset of the 1-1 Carolina Panthers in Week 3, Griffen tied a career-high with 3 sacks for losses of a combined 37 yards as the Vikings sacked Cam Newton a total of eight times, which tied the team's third-highest total in a road game and was the most since 2003. On September 28, Griffen was named NFC Defensive Player of the Week, joining John Randle and Chris Doleman as the only Vikings defensive linemans to win a Defensive Player of the Week Award in consecutive seasons.
In the Vikings' 31-13 win over the Houston Texans in Week 5, Griffen sacked Brock Osweiler two times, but both sacks were negated due to penalties. Griffin recorded a strip sack of Dak Prescott but the Vikings lost to the Dallas Cowboys. Griffen had a strong performance in the Vikings' 25-16 win over the Jacksonville Jaguars in Week 14; on the Jaguars second possession of the game, Griffen was able to get around the edge and sacked Blake Bortles for a loss of six yards. His second sack of the game came after halftime when he cut back in to the middle and got to Bortles for a six-yard loss. On that same drive, he batted down a ball intended for Jaguars running back Corey Grant. He finished the season with 48 total tackles, 22 quarterback hits, eight sacks, one pass defensed, and two forced fumbles. Griffen was ranked 92nd by his peers on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2017.
2017 season
On July 26, 2017, Griffen signed a four-year, $58 million contract extension ($34 million guaranteed) with the Vikings through the 2022 season. He was named NFC Defensive Player of the Month in October. Griffen recorded at least one sack in each of the Vikings first eight games and is on pace to break his own record of 12 sacks, a mark he got in the 2014 season. Only Jim Marshall and Jared Allen hold the Vikings record for a sack in at least eight straight games; Marshall achieved it in 1969, Allen in 2011.
On December 19, 2017, Griffen was named to his third straight Pro Bowl. In the Vikings' Divisional Playoff game against the New Orleans Saints, Griffen tipped a Drew Brees pass that ended up being intercepted by teammate Anthony Barr. The Vikings went on to win 29-24 and advance to the NFC Championship, where their season ended against the Philadelphia Eagles. He was ranked #19 by his fellow players on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2018.
2018 season
Griffen played in 11 games in the 2018 season. After playing in the first two games, he missed five games due to a personal matter. He finished with 5.5 sacks, 33 total tackles, five quarterback hits, and one pass defensed.
2019 season
Griffen made his return to football in week 1 against the Atlanta Falcons. In the game, Griffen sacked Matt Ryan once in the 28-12 win.
In week 3 against the Oakland Raiders, Griffen recorded a sack on Derek Carr in the 34-14 win. In Week 6 against the Philadelphia Eagles, Griffen recorded his second career interception off a pass thrown by Eagles kicker Jake Elliott on a fake field-goal attempt.
On January 21, 2020, Griffen was named to the 2020 Pro Bowl to replace Nick Bosa since the latter's team (San Francisco 49ers) made it to Super Bowl LIV. It was the 4th time Griffen had been selected to the Pro Bowl in his career.
On February 20, 2020, Griffen opted out of his contract, making him a free agent at the start of the new league year on March 18.
Dallas Cowboys
On August 16, 2020, Griffen signed a one-year contract with the Dallas Cowboys. Days after signing with Dallas, Griffen said the reason that he chose them was because he grew up a Cowboys fan and was named after legendary Cowboys defensive back Everson Walls. His arrival generated a great expectation that he could be part of a formidable pass-rushing unit along with defensive ends DeMarcus Lawrence, Aldon Smith and Randy Gregory.
In Week 2 against the Atlanta Falcons, Griffen recorded his first sack with the Cowboys on Matt Ryan late in the fourth quarter to help the team rally from a nine-point deficit and win 40–39. On October 27, because of the struggles experienced by the defense as a unit, he was moved as part of a roster purge that included free agency acquisitions Dontari Poe and Daryl Worley. He made seven appearances (no starts), 20 tackles (at the time tied for ninth on the team), 2.5 sacks (at the time second on the team), one tackle for loss and 12 quarterback pressures (at the time third on the team).
Detroit Lions
On October 27, 2020, the Cowboys traded Griffen to the Lions in exchange for a conditional sixth-round pick (#192-Quinton Bohanna) in the 2021 NFL Draft. In Week 10 against the Washington Football Team, Griffen recorded his first quarterback hurry with the Lions on Alex Smith during the 30–27 win. Griffen was placed on the reserve/COVID-19 list by the team on December 12, 2020, and activated on December 23, 2020. He registered 2 starts in 7 games, 13 tackles (4 for loss), 3.5 sacks, 8 quarterback hits and 3 passes defensed.
Minnesota Vikings (second stint)
On August 23, 2021, Griffen signed a deal with the Minnesota Vikings. He was a part of initial roster cuts on August 31, 2021 but re-signed with the team on September 2, 2021. Griffen suffered a concussion on September 18, 2021, after crashing his car while swerving to avoid a deer in the road. He was subsequently ruled out for week 2. On November 26, 2021, Griffen was placed on the non-football illness list under dealing with a personal mental health issue earlier in the week.
NFL career statistics
Regular season
Postseason
Personal life
Griffen and his wife, Tiffany, have three sons. Their oldest son, Greyson, was born in 2013 and their second son, Ellis, was born in 2015. Their third and youngest son, Sebastian Gregory, was born on November 23, 2017.
On Thursday, September 20, 2018, Griffen and his agent were sent a letter from the Minnesota Vikings, stating that he would not be allowed back with the team until he underwent a mental health evaluation. Two days later, on Saturday, September 22, Griffen was involved in an incident at Hotel Ivy where he had allegedly threatened to shoot someone because he was not allowed in his room. On September 25, 2018, it was revealed that Griffen was taken to the hospital for a mental health evaluation.
Early on the morning of November 24, 2021, Griffen called 911, claiming that intruders were attempting to enter his home. He posted several videos on Instagram, in which he showed a pistol that he claimed his teammate Dalvin Cook had helped him purchase. Police were unable to find any intruders in the vicinity of Griffen's residence, but Griffen initially refused to leave his home; after several hours of contact with both law enforcement and team psychologists from the Vikings, he finally left his home around 2:30 PM CST (20:30 UTC), and was transported to a health care facility. On December 3, 2021, Griffen revealed that he had been diagnosed with bipolar disorder.
References
External links
USC Trojans bio
1987 births
Living people
People from Avondale, Arizona
Sportspeople from the Phoenix metropolitan area
Players of American football from Arizona
American football defensive ends
USC Trojans football players
Minnesota Vikings players
Dallas Cowboys players
Detroit Lions players
National Conference Pro Bowl players
Unconferenced Pro Bowl players
African-American players of American football
21st-century African-American sportspeople
20th-century African-American people |
2472154 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash%20Video | Flash Video | Flash Video is a container file format used to deliver digital video content (e.g., TV shows, movies, etc.) over the Internet using Adobe Flash Player version 6 and newer. Flash Video content may also be embedded within SWF files. There are two different Flash Video file formats: FLV and F4V. The audio and video data within FLV files are encoded in the same way as SWF files. The F4V file format is based on the ISO base media file format, starting with Flash Player 9 update 3. Both formats are supported in Adobe Flash Player and developed by Adobe Systems. FLV was originally developed by Macromedia.
In the early 2000s, Flash Video was the de facto standard for web-based streaming video (over RTMP). Users include Hulu, VEVO, Yahoo! Video, metacafe, Reuters.com, and many other news providers.
Flash Video FLV files usually contain material encoded with codecs following the Sorenson Spark or VP6 video compression formats. public releases of Flash Player (collaboration between Adobe Systems and MainConcept) also support H.264 video and HE-AAC audio. All of these compression formats are restricted by patents. Flash Video is viewable on most operating systems via the Adobe Flash Player and web browser plugin or one of several third-party programs. Apple's iOS devices, along with almost all other mobile devices, do not support the Flash Player plugin and so require other delivery methods such as provided by the Adobe Flash Media Server.
History
The 2002 release of Flash Player 6 added support for video in the SWF file format. The 2003 release of Flash Player 7 added direct support for the FLV file format. Because of restrictions in the FLV file format, Adobe Systems created new file formats in 2007, based on the ISO base media file format (MPEG-4 Part 12). In this way, the F4V format shares a common base with the MP4 format, which is why F4V is sometimes informally called "Flash MP4". Flash Player does not check the filename extension but instead examines the file to determine the format of the thing created.
The new file formats are very different from the older FLV file format. For example, F4V does not support Screen video, Sorenson Spark, VP6 video compression formats and ADPCM, or Nellymoser audio compression formats. Authors of Flash Player strongly encourage use of the new standard file format F4V (ISO base media file format) because it overcomes functional limits with the FLV structure when streaming H.264 or AAC, which is one reason Adobe Systems is moving away from the older FLV file structure. Since 2002, the initial format is Flash Video and the file suffix is .flv with a MIME derived Internet media type of video/x-flv.
The Adobe-branded file suffix .f4v was extended from 2007 to support the ISO base media file format using the same MIME derived Internet media type of video/mp4 as the Apple file suffix of .m4v and the general file suffix of .mp4. Adobe-branded file suffixes exist for .f4p which relates to media encrypted with their Adobe Access DRM scheme; .f4a and .f4b relate respectively to .m4a and .m4b with the same MIME derived Internet media type of audio/mp4.
SWF files published for Flash Player 6 and later versions are able to exchange audio, video, and data over RTMP connections with the Adobe Flash Media Server. One way to feed data to Flash Media Server is from files in the FLV file format. Flash Player can play SWF files created for Flash Player 7 and later versions in FLV format directly (MIME type video/x-flv). Flash Player can also play the new F4V file format, beginning with SWF files created for Flash Player 9 Update 3.
Use of the H.264 compression format in the FLV file format has some limitations so authors of Flash Player strongly encourage use of the new standard F4V file format.
Encoding
Commonly, Flash Video FLV files contain video bit streams which are a proprietary variant of the H.263 video standard, under the name of Sorenson Spark (FourCC FLV1). Sorenson Spark is an older codec for FLV files but it is also a widely available and compatible one, because it was the first video codec supported in Flash Player. It is the required video compression format for Flash Player 6 and 7. Flash Player 8 and newer revisions also support the playback of On2 TrueMotion VP6 video bit streams (FourCC VP6F or FLV4). On2 VP6 is the preferred video compression format for use with Flash Player 8 and higher. On2 VP6 can provide a higher visual quality than Sorenson Spark, especially when using lower bit rates. On the other hand, it is computationally more complex and therefore will not run as well on certain older system configurations.
The Flash Video FLV file format supports two versions of a so-called 'screenshare' (Screen video) codec which is an encoding format designed for screencasts. Both these formats are bitmap tile based, can be lossy by reducing color depths and are compressed using zlib. The second version is only playable in Flash Player 8 and newer. Audio in Flash Video files is usually encoded as MP3. However, audio in Flash Video FLV files recorded from the user's microphone use the proprietary Nellymoser Asao Codec. (Flash Player 10 released in 2008 also supports the open source Speex codec.) FLV files also support uncompressed audio or ADPCM format audio. Recent versions of Flash Player 9 support AAC (HE-AAC/AAC SBR, AAC Main Profile, and AAC-LC). Support for encoding Flash Video files is provided by an encoding tool included with Adobe's Flash Professional and Creative Suite products, On2's Flix encoding tools, Sorenson Squeeze, FFmpeg and other third-party tools.
Media type support
Supported media types in both the Flash Video and ISO base media file formats:
Video
H.264 (added to MP4 and FLV)
unofficial Google GPL FLV implementations for Android
MPEG-4 ASP (native to MP4)
ITU H.263 (native to 3GPP MP4)
Audio
MPEG layer 3 (native to Flash Video)
MPEG AAC (added to Flash Video)
Supported media types in just the Flash Video file format:
General video
RGB (supported by same type code SWF uses)
run-length (supported by same type code SWF uses)
Sorenson's H.263 (native to Flash Video)
On2 TrueMotion VP6 with and without alpha channel (added to Flash Video)
Animated video are the zlib based Screen 1 and 2 (native to SWF).
General audio are PCM and ADPCM (native to SWF).
Vocal audio
Nellymoser's Asao @ 16 or 8 or 5 kHz (native to SWF)
a-law and μ-law (native to SWF)
Speex (added to FLV)
Timed text requires ActionScript specific commands for loading captioning, which is only supported by external text files in either JSON or W3C XML formats.
Supported media types in just the ISO base media file format:
Animated video are QuickTime types for GIF, PNG and JPEG, which replace the Screen 1 and 2 encodings.
Timed text requires ActionScript specific commands for loading captions embedded as either EIA-608 or QuickTime mac based styled text with the 3GPP derived version that supports Unicode.
FLV converters
An FLV converter is a type of video conversion software that is used for turning videos from different formats into FLV. Below is a list of popular free video converters which support conversion to FLV.
SUPER (freeware)
Free Studio (freeware)
Freemake Video Converter (freeware)
Format Factory (freeware)
HandBrake Video Converter (GPL-licensed free software)
VLC Video Player (GPL-licensed free software)
Any Video Converter (freeware and commercial)
FFmpeg (GPL-licensed free software)
Easy 7-Zip (7z)-Via Extraction of Audios (MP3) and Videos (no audio)
These programs run under Microsoft Windows. HandBrake, FFmpeg and VLC also run under Mac OS X and Linux.
Flash Video Structure
Header
FLV files start with a standard header which is shown below:
Packets
After the header, the file is split into packets called "FLV tags", which have 15-byte packet headers. The first four bytes denote the size of the previous packet/tag (including the header without the first field), and aid in seeking backward.
The Packet Type byte of a packet/tag header is based on the RTMP message ID byte with the AMF metadata value of 18 (0x12), video payload value of 9 (0x09) and audio payload value of 8 (0x08) being the only valid types used. The third bit indicates the payload is encrypted using the same mechanism as RTMP uses, however this is rarely used due to encrypted transports such as RTMP being used instead. The FLV packet encryption is generally inherited from a MP4 file that is stored on an Adobe Flash Media Server.
Packet types enumerated as 1 is a RTMP set packet size.
Packet types enumerated from 3 are RTMP bytes read report, RTMP ping, RTMP server bandwidth, RTMP client bandwidth.
Packet types enumerated from 8 are Audio payload, Video payload.
Packet types enumerated from 15 are RTMP flex stream send, RTMP flex shared object, RTMP flex message, AMF metadata, shared object, RTMP invoke.
Packet type enumerated as 24 is an encapsulated flash video.
Following that, there are three bytes for the Payload Size denoting length of the Payload Data, then four bytes for the Timestamp in milliseconds (with the last byte used to extend the first three bytes), the next 3 bytes for the Stream ID (incremented for multiple streams of the same type), and finally followed by the actual payload data. There is a direct relation between the fields encountered in an FLV Tag and those found in a RTMP packet, as for example the FLV Packet Type field uses the same numeric values as the RTMP Chunk Type field (ex. 0x08 for audio and 0x09 for video). FLV tags are thus converted into RTMP packets when the file is streamed through a Flash Media Server or equivalent RTMP Server.
The first packet encountered is usually a metadata packet which contains information such as:
"duration" - 64-bit IEEE floating point value in seconds
"width" and "height" – 64-bit IEEE floating point value in pixels
"framerate" – 64-bit IEEE floating point value in frames per second
"keyframes" – an array with the positions of p-frames, needed when random access is sought.
"|AdditionalHeader" - an array of required stream decoding informational pairs
"Encryption" - an array of required encryption informational pairs
"Metadata" - Base64 encoded string of a signed X.509 certificate containing the Adobe Access AES decryption key required
When streamed using an Actionscript built player, the metadata values above are passed as arguments on the onMetaData callback function. Audio packets have the first byte of the payload defining the decoding details with the first four bits for the encoding used and the last four bits for the parameters required to process the encoding. Video packets have this order reversed.
Video encodings enumerated from 0 are:
Video processing parameters enumerated from 1 are:
MPEG-4 encodings such as H.264, MPEG-4 ASP and AAC add a one byte value with a NULL value indicating that the payload contains MPEG-4 configuration details. MPEG-4 video encodings also add three bytes for composition timestamp offset which is required for encodings that use B-frames.
Audio encodings enumerated from 0 are:
Audio encodings enumerated from 10 are:
Audio encodings enumerated from 14 are MPEG layer 3 8 kHz, Device specific such as MIDI.
Audio processing parameters with the first two bits for the sampling rate, next bit flags 16-bit sample size on with off indicating 8-bit sample size, and the final bit flags stereophonic channels on with off indicating monaural only. Sampling rates enumerated from 0 are 5.5 kHz, 11.025 kHz quarter, 22.05 kHz half, 44.1 kHz full.
Encrypted packets have an additional 31 or 24 byte header before the AES-CBC encrypted payload as follows:
FLV players
An FLV player is a type of media player that is used for playing Flash video from PC as well as from Internet websites. An FLV player can be used standalone, without the need of the Adobe Flash authoring or developmental tools. It can also be embedded in the website using Flash component or embeddable version of FLV player.
Adobe Flash Player is a multimedia and application player originally developed by Macromedia and acquired by Adobe Systems. It plays SWF files, which can be created by Adobe Flash Professional, Apache Flex, or a number of other Adobe Systems and 3rd party tools. It has support for a scripting language called ActionScript, which can be used to display Flash Video from an SWF file. Because the Flash Player runs as a browser plug-in, it is possible to embed Flash Video in web pages and view the video within a web browser. Flash Player supported display of Flash Video files since version 6, with the Sorenson Spark and On VP6 video codecs. Support was recently added for H.264 video content as well.
H.264
Flash Player 9 Update 3, released on 3 December 2007, also includes support for the new Flash Video file format F4V and H.264 video standard (also known as MPEG-4 part 10, or AVC) which is even more computationally demanding, but offers significantly better quality/bitrate ratio. Specifically, Flash Player now supports video compressed in H.264 (MPEG-4 Part 10), audio compressed using AAC (MPEG-4 Part 3), the F4V, MP4 (MPEG-4 Part 14), M4V, M4A, 3GP and MOV multimedia container formats, 3GPP Timed Text specification (MPEG-4 Part 17) which is a standardized subtitle format and partial parsing support for the 'ilst' atom which is the ID3 equivalent iTunes uses to store metadata. MPEG-4 Part 2 video (e.g. created with DivX or Xvid) is not supported. In an interview with BBC News, the main programmer of Flash Jonathan Gay said that the company had wanted to use H.264 when video support was originally added to Flash, but had been deterred by the patent licensing fees of around $5 million (£3.5 million) per year.
Playback
Flash Player supports two distinct modes of video playback:
Software Rendered Video : Flash Player supports software rendered video since version 6. Such video supports vector animations displayed above the video content. Such content is typically rendered using software decoding.
Hardware Accelerated Video : Flash Player supports hardware accelerated video playback since version 10.2, for H.264, F4V, and FLV video formats. Such video is displayed above all Flash content, and takes advantage of video codec chipsets installed on the user's device. Developers must specifically use the "StageVideo" technology within Flash Player in order for hardware decoding to be enabled. Flash Player internally uses technologies such as DirectX Video Acceleration and OpenGL to do so.
Desktop-based
Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X, Unix-based
Adobe Media Player (freeware) (no longer published or supported by Adobe)
Media Player Classic (free software)
MPlayer (free software)
RealPlayer (freeware)
VLC media player (free software)
Winamp (freeware)
Mac OS devices can play flash videos in QuickTime with the help of additional software (such as the open source Perian component.)
PDA-based and smartphone-based
Windows Mobile, Palm OS–based
The Core Pocket Media Player (open source software)
The iPhone and Android devices can play flash videos with the help of additional software (such as the Skyfire web browser application.) Apple iOS has never supported Flash. Android versions above 2.1 through 4.0 supported Flash; Adobe has discontinued Flash Player for Android. On 29 June 2012, Adobe announced that, as they were discontinuing development of the mobile version of Flash, they would prevent the Flash player from installing from the Google Play Store on any Android devices that do not already have the Flash player installed, and that they would not be releasing a version of Flash certified for use with Android version 4.1, codenamed Jelly Bean.
Delivery options
Flash Video files can be delivered in several different ways:
As a standalone .FLV file. Although Flash Video files are normally delivered using a Flash player for control, the .FLV file itself is only playable with an FLV player. There are several third party players available.
Embedded in an SWF file using the Flash authoring tool (supported in Flash Player 6 and later). The entire file must be transferred before playback can begin. Changing the video requires rebuilding the SWF file.
Progressive download via HTTP (supported in Flash Player 7 and later). This method uses ActionScript to include an externally hosted Flash Video file client-side for playback. Progressive download has several advantages, including buffering, use of generic HTTP servers, and the ability to reuse a single SWF player for multiple Flash Video sources. Flash Player 8 includes support for random access within video files using the partial download functionality of HTTP, sometimes this is referred to as streaming. However, unlike streaming using RTMP, HTTP "streaming" does not support real-time broadcasting. Streaming via HTTP requires a custom player and the injection of specific Flash Video metadata containing the exact starting position in bytes and timecode of each keyframe. Using this specific information, a custom Flash Video player can request any part of the Flash Video file starting at a specified keyframe. For example, Google Video, YouTube, and Bitgravity support progressive downloading and can seek to any part of the video before buffering is complete.
Streamed via RTMP to the Flash Player using the Flash Media Server (formerly called Flash Communication Server), free C++ RTMP Server, VCS, ElectroServer, Helix Universal Server, Wowza Media Server, Unified Streaming Platform WebORB for .NET, WebORB for Java, erlyvideo (in erlang), or the open source Red5 server. As of April 2008, there are stream recorders available for this protocol, re-encoding screencast software excluded.
Flash Media Server 4.5 allows Flash video streaming to iPhones and iPads. It achieves this by delivering the content in an MPEG-2 stream using the HTTP Live Streaming format.
Flash video recording
It is possible to record online flash videos using stream recorders and screen video capture software. The former gives lossless results, while the latter allows recording any video even when anti-leeching measures are used.
See also
Local Shared Object
SWFObject
References
External links
Flash Developer Center – Flash Video Articles
Flash Video (FLV) File Format Specification (adobe.com)
List of codecs supported by Adobe Flash Player versions from 6 to 9 (adobe.com)
Macromedia Flash FLV Video File Format (Library of Congress)
Adobe Flash
Digital container formats |
158682 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ls | Ls | In computing, ls is a command to list computer files in Unix and Unix-like operating systems. ls is specified by POSIX and the Single UNIX Specification. When invoked without any arguments, ls lists the files in the current working directory. The command is also available in the EFI shell. In other environments, such as DOS, OS/2, and Microsoft Windows, similar functionality is provided by the dir command. The numerical computing environments MATLAB and GNU Octave include an ls
function with similar functionality.
History
An ls utility appeared in the first version of AT&T UNIX, the name inherited from a similar command in Multics also named 'ls', short for the word "list". is part of the X/Open Portability Guide since issue 2 of 1987. It was inherited into the first version of POSIX.1 and the Single Unix Specification.
An ls command is also part of ASCII's MSX-DOS2 Tools for MSX-DOS version 2.
Today, the two popular versions of ls are the one provided with the GNU coreutils package, and that released by various BSD variants. Both are free software and open source, and have only minor syntax differences. The version of ls bundled in GNU coreutils was written by Richard Stallman and David MacKenzie.
The command is available as a separate package for Microsoft Windows as part of the UnxUtils collection of native Win32 ports of common GNU Unix-like utilities.
Behavior
Unix and Unix-like operating systems maintain the idea of a current working directory, that is, where one is currently positioned in the hierarchy of directories. When invoked without any arguments, ls lists the files in the current working directory. If another directory is specified, then ls will list the files there, and in fact the user may specify any list of files and directories to be listed.
Files names starting with "." are not listed unless -a (show all) is specified, -A (show all except "." and "..") is specified, or the files are specified explicitly.
Without options, ls displays files names only. The most common options to display additional information are:
-l long format, displaying Unix file types, permissions, number of hard links, owner, group, size, last-modified date and filename
-F append a "/" to directory names and a "*" to executable files.
-g display group but not owner
-o display owner but not group (when combined with -g both group and owner are suppressed)
-d shows information about a symbolic link or directory, rather than about the link's target or listing the contents of a directory.
-h output sizes in human readable format. (e.g., 1K, 234M, 2G, etc.) This option is not part of the POSIX standard, although implemented in several systems, e.g., GNU coreutils in 1997, FreeBSD 4.5 in 2002, and Solaris 9 in 2002.
Additional options controlling how files are displayed include:
-f do not sort. Useful for directories containing large numbers of files.
-t sort the list of files by modification time. (default is alphabetically)
-1 (one) force output to be one entry per line.
-R recursively list files in subdirectories and their subdirectories …
--full-time to show times with seconds and milliseconds instead of down to the minute.
It is frequently possible to highlight different types of files with different colors, instead of with characters as -F would. This is an area where the two main ls versions differ:
GNU ls uses the --color option; checks the Unix file type, the file permissions and the file extension and uses its own database to control colors maintained using dircolors.
FreeBSD ls uses the -G option; checks only the Unix file type and file permissions. and uses the termcap database
When the option to use color to indicate file types is selected, the output might look like:
-rw-r--r-- 1 tsmitt nregion 26650 Dec 20 11:16 audio.ogg
brw-r--r-- 1 tsmitt nregion 64 Jan 27 05:52 bd-block-device
crw-r--r-- 1 tsmitt nregion 255 Jan 26 13:57 cd-character-device
-rw-r--r-- 1 tsmitt nregion 290 Jan 26 14:08 image.png
drwxrwxr-x 2 tsmitt nregion 48 Jan 26 11:28 di-directory
-rwxrwxr-x 1 tsmitt nregion 29 Jan 26 14:03 ex-executable
-rw-r--r-- 1 tsmitt nregion 0 Dec 20 09:39 fi-regular-file
lrwxrwxrwx 1 tsmitt nregion 3 Jan 26 11:44 ln-soft-link -> dir
lrwxrwxrwx 1 tsmitt nregion 15 Dec 20 10:57 or-orphan-link -> mi-missing-link
drwxr-xrwx 2 tsmitt nregion 4096 Dec 20 10:58 ow-other-writeable-dir
prw-r--r-- 1 tsmitt nregion 0 Jan 26 11:50 pi-pipe
-rwxr-sr-x 1 tsmitt nregion 0 Dec 20 11:05 sg-setgid
srw-rw-rw- 1 tsmitt nregion 0 Jan 26 12:00 so-socket
drwxr-xr-t 2 tsmitt nregion 4096 Dec 20 10:58 st-sticky-dir
-rwsr-xr-x 1 tsmitt nregion 0 Dec 20 11:09 su-setuid
-rw-r--r-- 1 tsmitt nregion 10240 Dec 20 11:12 compressed.gz
drwxrwxrwt 2 tsmitt nregion 4096 Dec 20 11:10 tw-sticky-other-writeable-dir
Sample usage
The following example demonstrates the output of the ls command given two different arguments:
$ ls -l
drwxr--r-- 1 fjones editors 4096 drafts
-rw-r--r-- 1 fjones editors 30405 edition-32
-r-xr-xr-x 1 fjones bookeepers 8460 edit.sh
$ ls -F
drafts/
edition-32
edit.sh*
In the above example, the user fjones has a directory named drafts, a regular file named edition-32, and an executable named edit.sh in his home directory. ls uses Unix file permission notation to define the access for the user(i.e. himself), group members for various groups and other users.
drwxr--r-- 1 fred editors 4096 Mar 1 2007 drafts
In this example, drafts is a directory (denoted by the file descriptor d), and the characters after this indicate the permissions:
rwx: the owner (fjones) has the right to read (r), write (w) and execute (x)
r--: users who are members of the editors group have read-only permissions; write and execute are not permitted, as denoted by the hyphen characters (-)
r--: others (users aside from the owner or members of editors) have read-only permissions; write and execute are not permitted
See also
chown
chgrp
du (Unix)
mdls
User identifier (Unix)
Group identifier (Unix)
List of Unix commands
Unix directory structure
References
External links
GNU ls source code (as part of coreutils)
ls at the LinuxQuestions.org wiki
Multics commands
Standard Unix programs
Unix SUS2008 utilities
Plan 9 commands
Inferno (operating system) commands |
54360932 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Football%20Manager%202018 | Football Manager 2018 | Football Manager 2018 is a 2017 football management simulation video game developed by Sports Interactive and published by Sega which was released worldwide on 10 November 2017 for Microsoft Windows, macOS and Linux. The Nintendo Switch version by Lab42 was released later, on 13 April 2018. For the first time in the series, all three versions of the game, FM 18 for PC, Mac and Linux, FM Touch 2018 for PC, Mac, Linux, iOS and Android, and Football Manager Mobile 2018 for iOS and Android were all released on the same day.
Gameplay
FM18 features similar gameplay to that of the Football Manager series. Gameplay consists of taking charge of a professional association football team, as the team manager. Players can sign football players to contracts, manage finances for the club, and give team talks to players. FM18 is a simulation of real world management, with the player being judged on various factors by the club's AI owners and board.
Development
FM 18 was developed by Sports Interactive and published by Sega. The first details of new features and upgrades in Football Manager 2018 would not be announced until late September, with FM Touch additions following in October via the game's official website and social media channels. New editions of the football game included updated squads and kits, and improvements to the match engine, among other features.
Players who pre-purchased Football Manager 2018 through a SEGA approved digital retailer will be able to start pre-season at least two weeks prior to the official street date through a fully playable beta version. Single-player careers started in the Beta can be also continued in the full game.
A screenshot from the beta-build of the game confirmed that the possibility for players to come out as homosexual was added for FM 18. Only computer-generated players can possibly come out, not already existing ones. Such an occurrence results in a small news report and a boost in revenue.
Featured leagues
Football Manager 2018 contained the same playable leagues as Football Manager 2017 during release but Indonesian League is reduced from 3 playable levels to 2 playable levels. English League has the most playable levels (up to 6) while Swedish League has the most playable divisions (up to 10). The total number of playable divisions is 147 (116 levels, 52 countries), with over 2,500 clubs available.
Release
The management simulation video game was launched for PC, Mac, and Linux on 10 November. For the first time, the mobile and tablet versions Football Manager Mobile 2018 and Football Manager Touch 2018 were all launched simultaneously with the desktop version, as they also arrived on 10 November. Players who had previous versions of the series (Football Manager 2017, Football Manager 2016 etc.) could get up to a 25% discount on the game on pre-ordering. Football Manager Touch 2018 was later released for the Nintendo Switch on 13 April 2018.
Reception
Football Manager 2018 for PC and Football Manager 2018 Touch for Switch received "generally favorable" reviews according to review aggregator Metacritic.
PC Gamer gave the game a score of 89/100, saying the game is the most ambitious instalment yet from the previous versions. GameSpot gave the game a 9/10, talking about how the dynamics broadens with the ways you interact with your team, more information about how and why your players are injured allows you to adjust, the increased scouting makes unearthing hidden gems more rewarding and also a slew of new player animations and increased intelligence improves the 3D match engine. Eurogamer wrote positively about the game's day one polish and the small iterations made to it from last year's entry, stating, "In the end it's a combination of doing a handful of new things well and avoiding a long list of prior release day issues that earns Football Manager 2018 the privilege of a veteran player's time all over again." PCGamesN awarded the game a nine out of ten, writing, "In general, what all of this adds up to is a more sensitive game. All of the depth is there as before, but the humanity of football is represented in a greater way..." GamesRadar+ praised the improvements made to the 3D Match Engine and criticized the user interface and dynamics system.
Notes
References
External links
2018
Brexit in fiction
Sega video games
Windows games
MacOS games
Linux games
Video games developed in the United Kingdom
2017 video games
Nintendo Switch games |
45554839 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony%20Morgan%20%28computer%20scientist%29 | Tony Morgan (computer scientist) | Antony J. (Tony) Morgan (born c. 1944) is a British computer scientist, data modeling consultant, and Professor in computer science at INTI International University. He is known for his work on (2002) "Business rules and information systems," and the 2010 "Information modeling and relational databases," co-authored with Terry Halpin.
Life and work
Morgan obtained his BA in Earth Sciences from The Open University, his BSc in Computer Systems Engineering from Coventry University, where in 1984 he also obtained his MSc in Control Engineering. In 1988 he obtained his PhD, Computer Science from University of Cambridge with a thesis on automated decision-making using qualitative reasoning.
Morgan started his career in industry and worked on "projects in Europe and the US with companies such as Unisys and EDS (now part of Hewlett-Packard) across diverse industries such as Government, Transportation, Aerospace and Financial Services." In the late 1990s he worked for SD-Scicon PLC, which was affiliated with the National Computing Centre in Manchester. In 1988 he co-edited "Blackboard Systems. The Insight Series in Artificial Intelligence" with Robert S. Engelmore (1935-2003), and in the early 1990s he published several articles on artificial intelligence and simulation. From 1997 to 2002 he was Senior Consultant at Unisys.
In 2003 he was appointed Professor in computer science and vice president of Enterprise Informatics at Neumont University, and in 2010 he moved to the INTI International University in Malaysia, where he is appointed Professor of computer science.
Morgans research interests focus on "business rules and business processes and the rapid development of high-quality information systems."
Work
Business Rules and Information Systems, 2002
In the 2002 "Business Rules and Information Systems," Morgan argued that "Information systems often fail because their requirements are poorly defined." The work is intended to show "IT professionals how to specify more precisely and more effectively what their systems need to do. The key lies in the discovery and application of what are called business rules."
A business rule is defined by Morgan as a "compact and simple statement that represents some important aspect of a business. By capturing the rules for your business--the logic that governs its operation--you will gain the ability to create systems fully aligned with your business needs."
Business architecture
In "Business Rules and Information Systems," Morgan (2002) described business architecture as "a way of describing businesses and what they do or intend to do in the future. The building blocks available represent various aspects of the business. No single aspect is the most important; all are necessary to give a balanced picture of what a business is all about. We can use the business architecture to produce business models: descriptions of specific businesses, couched in a consistent and well-defined vocabulary. The business architecture corresponds reasonably to the Conceptual viewpoint in the Zachman Framework."
Selected publications
Engelmore, Robert, and Tony Morgan eds.. Blackboard systems. Addison Wesley Publishing Company, 1988.
Morgan, Tony. Business rules and information systems: aligning IT with business goals. Addison-Wesley Professional, 2002.
Halpin, Terry, and Tony Morgan. Information modeling and relational databases. Morgan Kaufmann, 2010.
Articles, a selection:
Balsters, H., Carver, A., Halpin, T., & Morgan, T. (2006, January). "Modeling dynamic rules in ORM. In On the Move to Meaningful Internet Systems 2006," OTM 2006 Workshops (pp. 1201-1210). Springer Berlin Heidelberg.
References
1940s births
Living people
British computer scientists
Alumni of Coventry University
Alumni of the University of Cambridge
Alumni of the Open University |
31383296 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MathMagic | MathMagic | MathMagic is a mathematical WYSIWYG equation editor, available for Windows, macOS, Android and iOS since its debut in 1998. MathMagic is known for its DTP quality equations and widely used by Adobe InDesign and QuarkXPress users. MathMagic is a stand-alone multi-purpose equation editor application so its equation can be used by most software, such as word processors, presentation software, DTP layout software, and graphic software, via Copy and Paste, Drag and Drop, or by exporting to one of its supported formats.
Product line
MathMagic product line includes "MathMagic Personal Edition", "MathMagic Pro for Adobe InDesign", "MathMagic Pro for QuarkXPress", and "MathMagic Prime Edition", depending on the configuration and their target market.
In June 2012, "MathMagic Lite Edition", their complimentary version, was introduced for Mac OS X and Android platforms, with some limited features according to their Feature Comparison Table. In September 2014, "MathMagic Lite for Windows" was released. Now, their Lite Edition is available on all Android OS, iOS, macOS, and Windows platforms.
Adobe bundled a custom version of MathMagic to Adobe Captivate 7 in 2013 for both macOS and Windows. MathMagic was integrated with Adobe Captivate since Captivate 7 and installed by the Captivate installer.
Features
MathMagic supports MathML, LaTeX, Plain TeX, SVG, ASCIIMath, EPS, PDF, PICT, WMF, JPEG, GIF, BMP, PNG, TIFF, MathType equations, MS Equation Editor equations, MS Word 2007 equation, Google Docs equation, Zoho Writer equation, Math-To-Speech, and others. Some formats are platform specific. Although it is a WYSIWYG equation editor, MathMagic allows you type or paste LaTeX expressions directly into the editor window. MathML, ASCIIMathML, and other formats can also be pasted in or copied out. It also supports Text To Speech to read out mathematical expressions via the OS built-in TTS engine or a few internet based remote TTS services.
MathMagic understands a certain level of natural English expressions to convert spoken language based Math reading into equation. For example, pasting "y equals 3x plus 2a minus 2.5 squareroot b" will form
MathMagic Pro comes with all the features of Personal Edition, plus extra features and fonts for high-end users, and Plug-ins or XTensions to work directly with Adobe InDesign or QuarkXPress. MathMagic Pro for Adobe InDesign works with InDesign CS ~ CS6 and CC ~ CC2022. MathMagic Pro for QuarkXPress works with QuarkXPress 6.x ~ 9.x.
MathMagic equation can be pasted into MS Word 2007 or newer's document in MathML format because MS Word's new built-in Equation editor can display and edit MathML.
MathMagic does not support computation.
Competing software
MathType
Microsoft Word 2007 equation editor
See also
Formula editor
MathML
LaTeX
ASCIIMathML
References
External links
Mathematical software
Formula editors
Science software
Desktop publishing software |
3188361 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gobe%20Software | Gobe Software | Gobe Software, Inc was a software company founded in 1997 by members of the ClarisWorks development team that developed published an integrated desktop software suite for BeOS. In later years, it was the distributor of BeOS itself.
History
Gobe was founded in 1997 by members of the ClarisWorks development team and some of the authors of the original Styleware application for the Apple II. After leaving StyleWare and creating the product later known as ClarisWorks and AppleWorks, Bob Hearn, Scott Holdaway joined Tom Hoke, Scott Lindsey, Bruce Q. Hammond, and Carl Grice who also worked at Apple Computer's Claris subsidiary and formed Gobe Software, Inc with the notion to create a next-generation integrated office suite similar to ClarisWorks, but for the BeOS platform. It released Gobe Productive in 1998.
When Be Inc. outsourced publication of BeOS in 2000, Gobe became the publisher of BeOS in North America, Australia, and sections of Asia. Only weeks after signing up other publishers around the globe, Be, Inc. halted development for the BeOS platform and publicly announced that all of its corporate focus would be on "Internet Appliances" and made public announcements that hampered forward momentum of the BeOS platform. In addition, the publishers in general and Gobe in particular did not have source code access to the BeOS and were not able to continue its development or add drivers that the platform needed to be a viable alternative to Windows or Linux. Gobe also published Hicom Entertainment/Next Generation Entertainments "Corum III" role-playing game for BeOS during this period.
The failure of Be, Inc and BeOS meant ports had to be undertaken, and Windows and Linux variants were developed. Although the company shipped a Windows version of its software in December 2001, it was unable to obtain sufficient operating capital after the 2000 stock market crash and suspended operations 2002. In 2008 Gobe management began to work with distribution and development teams in Greater Asia and had plans to ship a new version of the product for the India market early 2010. Later in August 2010, Gobe Productive's website was disabled and then sold to an Indian movie producer called ErosNow.
Gobe Productive
The main product, Gobe Productive, was by far the most polished of the word processors, spreadsheet and vector graphics applications for BeOS, but as an integrated package a la ClarisWorks and Microsoft Works.
Gobe Productive v1.0 for BeOS was released in August 1998 and v2.0 in August 1999.
After the failure of Be, Inc a Windows and Linux variants were developed. The company shipped a Windows version of Gobe Productive 3 in December 2001.
Other Gobe employees
Dave Johnson
Ben Chang
Joël Spaltenstein
Kurt von Finck
Daniel Maia Alves
Cheyenne Tuller
Tomy Hudson
See also
Comparison of office suites
References
External links
Be, Inc. article (archived)
BeOS
Discontinued software |
37690280 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FastSpring | FastSpring | Bright Market, LLC, dba FastSpring, is a software as a service (SaaS) company that offers a full service e-commerce platform for companies that sell software and other online digital products.
History
Founded in 2005 by Dan Engel, Ken White, Jason Foodman and Ryan Dewell, the company is based in Santa Barbara, California. The four founders put in a combined $30,000 to launch the company. FastSpring initially focused on companies selling desktop software and downloadable games, before moving into SaaS in 2011. In March 2011, FastSpring launched its subscription e-commerce platform for subscription-based businesses to manage online subscription payments. The company received its first outside investment in April 2013 for an estimated $12 million from Pylon Capital. The company's revenue would grow from less than $1 million in 2007 to over $100 million by 2013. In 2018, Accel-KKR purchased a majority stake in FastSpring.
FastSpring was recognized for a Silver Stevie Award for Customer Service Department of the Year in 2013 and again in 2014 and 2015. It is a five-time Inc. 5000 honoree, having been ranked as high as #41 in 2010.
In July 2018, Sian Wang was named CFO of the company. In March 2019, David Nachman was named CEO, succeeding Chris Lueck. Nachman was formerly CEO of government technology company Vision, and chief business officer of Velocify, a SaaS CRM business.
Products and services
FastSpring's platform offers digital commerce products for software, cloud-based, and as-a-service businesses, supporting a variety of digital products and distribution models. It enables purchases and subscriptions for desktop, mobile, and apps.
Global Online Payments
Subscription Management + Billing
Branded Checkout
Global Taxes + Financial Services
Risk Management + Compliance
Integrations
References
External links
Official website
See also
Electronic commerce
Software as a service
Companies based in Santa Barbara, California
Software companies based in California
Software companies established in 2005
Online payments
Subscription services
As a service
Software companies of the United States
2005 establishments in California
Companies established in 2005 |
1784952 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralink | Ralink | Ralink Technology, Corp. was a Wi-Fi chipset manufacturer mainly known for their IEEE 802.11 (Wireless LAN) chipsets. Ralink was founded in 2001 in Cupertino, California, then moved its headquarters to Hsinchu, Taiwan.
Some of Ralink's 802.11n RT2800 chipsets have been accepted into the Wi-Fi Alliance 802.11n draft 2.0 core technology testbed. They have also been selected in the Wi-Fi Protected Setup (WPS) and Wireless Multimedia Extensions Power Save (WMM-PS) testbeds. Ralink was a participant in the Wi-Fi Alliance and the IEEE 802.11 standards committees.
Ralink chipsets are used in various consumer-grade routers made by Gigabyte Technology, Linksys, D-Link, Asus and Belkin, as well as Wi-Fi adaptors for USB, PCI, ExpressCard, PC Card, and PCI Express interfaces. An example of an adapter is the Nintendo Wi-Fi USB Connector which uses the Ralink RT2570 chipset to allow a Nintendo DS or Wii to be internetworked via a home computer.
On 5 May 2011, Ralink was acquired by MediaTek.
Operating systems support
Ralink provides some documentation without a non-disclosure agreement. This includes datasheets of their PCI and PCIe chipsets, but for now does not include documentation of their system on a chip used in Wireless routers.
Linux
Drivers for MediaTek Ralink wireless network interface controllers were mainlined into the Linux kernel version 2.6.24. (See Comparison of open-source wireless drivers.) Ralink provides GNU General Public License-licensed (GPL) drivers for the Linux kernel. While Linux drivers for the older RT2500 chipsets are no longer updated by Ralink, these are now being maintained by Serialmonkey's rt2x00 project. Current Ralink chipsets require a firmware to be loaded. Ralink allows the use and redistribution of firmware, but does not allow its modification.
In February 2011 Greg Kroah-Hartman praised Ralink for their change in attitude towards the Linux kernel developer community:
See also
List of companies of Taiwan
References
External links
MediaTek / RaLink RT3070 Driver Win, OSX, Linux https://www.mediatek.com/products/broadbandWifi/rt3070
List of Wi-Fi products using Ralink chipsets
rt2x00 project: Linux drivers.
ral, ural manual pages for OpenBSD
MediaTek
Companies established in 2001
Networking hardware companies
Electronics companies of Taiwan |
52077829 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geeks%20%26%20Greeks | Geeks & Greeks | Geeks & Greeks is a semi-autobiographical graphic novel written by humorist Steve Altes, illustrated by Andy Fish, and colored by Veronica Fish. It includes a foreword by novelist Matthew Pearl and is dedicated to Sean Collier. Geeks & Greeks is set at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and locations in Boston, Cambridge, and the Quincy Quarries. The story was inspired by MIT's hacking culture and the writer's experiences with fraternity hazing. At MIT a hack is a clever, benign prank or unsanctioned public display or installation that requires technical sophistication to execute and often incorporates an offbeat sense of humor. Geeks & Greeks has been described as Good Will Hunting meets Animal House.
Plot
Geeks & Greeks is the story of Jim Walden, a brilliant and charming young man who wants desperately to become an astronaut. Unfortunately he gets kicked out of high school for a prank. After a viral video catches the attention of MIT's admission office he is offered a scholarship to MIT.
At MIT Jim pledges Alpha Zeta Omicron (AZO), a raucous fraternity, and gets indoctrinated into MIT's hacking culture. Jim and his pledge brothers endure all manner of high-tech hazing at the hands of Luke Bardolf, a gruff AZO senior who is obsessed with pulling off the greatest hack at MIT.
Jim befriends Dexter Garfinkel (the ultimate nerd and AZO's live-in problem set slave) and begins a romance with Natalie Taylor (the Shakespeare-loving receptionist at a fertility clinic). Other characters include Professor Neustadt (who mentors Jim and helps him understand the significance and meaning of hacks) and the Bridge Troll (a homeless man who Jim aids).
When an elaborate prank goes wrong, MIT's Discipline Committee sanctions Jim and forces him to make restitution, leading Jim to Natalie's fertility clinic as a way to make money quickly. Meanwhile Jim and Luke engage in an escalating back-and-forth prank battle, which leads to a climactic showdown at the Quincy Quarries after Luke nearly kills Dexter with his recklessness.
In the end Jim draws on his hacking prowess in a frantic race against time to prove to MIT that he deserves to be there, save his scholarship, make restitution with a bold gamble, exact revenge against Luke, win back Natalie, and inspire Dexter to revolt against his indentured servitude.
Autobiographical and historical content
Elements of Geeks & Greeks were inspired by hazing incidents Altes witnessed as an MIT student as well as actual hacks, such as:
hackers constructing a replica of a campus police car on top of MIT's Great Dome,
hackers creating a dorm room on top of the Great Dome,
hackers making the MIT President's office appear to vanish,
MIT's Alpha Tau Omega fraternity commandeering the Boston Sheraton's rooftop sign to make it spell "ATO" (their initials), and
MIT's Lambda Chi Alpha fraternity painting the smoot markers on the Harvard Bridge.
The book contains 120 endnotes citing the real-life events that influenced the graphic novel.
Reception
Critical reception has been generally favorable. The Miami Herald called Geeks & Greeks a "funny, human story of struggle and redemption with believable characters in outrageous but plausible situations." Library Journal called it an "amusing romp" and said its "inventive dialog effectively juxtaposes outrageousness with hyperacademic geekery, like the 'milliHelen' measure of beauty, the insult 'nanophallus,' and a football cheer based on pi." The Post-Standard cited the "vast pool of knowledge" Altes drew on in creating a graphic novel that "sets out to entertain while also showing what the modern nerd is really like." MIT's student newspaper The Tech called it "a compelling read, filled with jokes that will please anyone with nerdier sensibilities and stories that are sure to inspire young readers to apply to the Institute," although they criticized the book for "racial and gender under-representation" among the characters. Geeks & Greeks has received positive reviews on the geek/comic culture websites FanboyNation.com, ForcesOfGeek.com, ForeverGeek.com, and ComicCrusaders.com.
See also
Campus of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Hacker (term)
Hacks at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Nightwork: A History of Hacks and Pranks at MIT
Roof and tunnel hacking
References
External links
Geeks & Greeks official website
2016 graphic novels
American graphic novels
Humor graphic novels
Autobiographical graphic novels
Novels set in Boston
Student culture in the United States
Massachusetts Institute of Technology student life |
73209 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guadalajara | Guadalajara | Guadalajara ( , ) is a metropolis in western Mexico and the capital of the state of Jalisco. According to the 2020 census, the city has a population of 1,385,629, while the Guadalajara metropolitan area has a population of 5,268,642, making it the third-largest metropolitan area in the country. Guadalajara has the second-highest population density in Mexico, with over 10,361 people per square kilometer. Guadalajara is an international center of business, finance, arts, and culture, as well as the economic center of the Bajío region, one of the most productive and developed regions in Latin America.
Guadalajara is the twentieth largest metropolitan area in Latin America and a major Latin American tech hub and financial center. It is one of the most productive and globally competitive cities in the world. The city is an important center for science, technology, finance, culture, innovation, education, business, and tourism in Mexico. It is home to numerous landmarks, including Guadalajara Cathedral, the Teatro Degollado, the Templo Expiatorio, the Hospicio Cabañas, and the San Juan de Dios Market—the largest indoor market in Latin America.
Guadalajara was founded on 14 February 1542 by Cristóbal de Oñate, a Basque conquistador, as the capital of the Kingdom of Nueva Galicia, part of the Viceroyalty of New Spain. After 1572, the Royal Audiencia of Guadalajara, previously subordinate to Mexico City, became the only authority in New Spain with autonomy over Nueva Galicia, owing to rapidly growing wealth in the kingdom following the discovery of silver. By the 18th century, Guadalajara had taken its place as Mexico's second largest city, following mass colonial migrations in the 1720s and 1760s. During the Mexican War of Independence, independence leader Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla established Mexico's first revolutionary government in Guadalajara in 1810. The city flourished during the Porfiriato, with the advent of the industrial revolution, but its growth was hampered significantly during the Mexican Revolution. In 1929, the Cristero War ended within the confines of the city, when President Plutarco Elías Calles proclaimed the Grito de Guadalajara. The city saw continuous growth throughout the rest of the 20th century, attaining a metro population of 1 million in the 1960s and surpassing 3 million in the 1990s.
Guadalajara is a global city and one of Mexico's most important cultural centers. It is home to numerous mainstays of Mexican culture, including Mariachi, Tequila, and Birria and hosts numerous notable events, including the Guadalajara International Film Festival, the most important film festival in Latin America, and the Guadalajara International Book Fair, the largest book fair in the Americas. The city was the American Capital of Culture in 2005 and has hosted numerous global events, including the 1970 FIFA World Cup, the 1986 FIFA World Cup, the 1st Ibero-American Summit in 1991, and the 2011 Pan American Games. The city is home to numerous universities and research institutions, including the University of Guadalajara and the Universidad Autónoma de Guadalajara, two of the highest-ranked universities in Mexico and Latin America.
Etymology
The conquistador named the city in honor of the conqueror of western Mexico, , who was born in , Spain. The name comes from the Arabic (), which means 'Valley of the Stone', or 'Fortress Valley'.
History
Pre-Hispanic era
Unlike the surrounding areas, the central Atemajac Valley, where Guadalajara is located, contained no human settlements. To the east of the Atemajac Valley were the Tonallan and Tetlán peoples. At the extremes were the Zapopan, Atemajac, Zoquipan, Tesistan, Coyula, and Huentitán.
The historic city center encompasses what was once four population centers, as the villages of the Mezquitán, Analco, and Mexicaltzingo were annexed to the Atemajac site in 1669.
Foundation
Guadalajara was originally founded at three other sites before moving to its current location. The first colonial settlement in 1532 was in Mesa del Cerro, now known as Nochistlán, Zacatecas. This site was colonized by Cristóbal de Oñate as commissioned by Nuño de Guzmán, with the purpose of securing recent conquests and "defending" them from the "still-hostile natives". This colonized settlement did not last long due to its lack of usable water sources. In 1533 it was moved to a site near Tonalá. Four years later, Guzmán ordered that the village be moved to Tlacotán. During this time, the Spanish king Charles I granted the city the coat of arms which it retains to this day.
During the Mixtón War, the Caxcan, Portecuex, and Zacateco peoples, fought back against colonizers under the command of Tenamaxtli. The war was initiated in response to the heinous treatment of indigenous peoples by Nuño de Guzmán, in particular the enslavement of captured natives. After multiple defeats, Viceroy Antonio de Mendoza took control of the Spanish campaign to suppress the revolt. The conflict ended after Mendoza made concessions such as freeing enslaved indigenous peoples and granting amnesty. The village of Guadalajara barely survived the war, and the villagers attributed their survival to the Archangel Michael, who remains the patron of the city to this day.
After the war, the city was moved once again—this time to a more defensible location. This final relocation would prove permanent. In 1542, records indicate that 126 people were living in Guadalajara. That same year, it was granted cityhood by the king of Spain. Guadalajara was officially founded on February 14, 1542, in the Atemajac Valley. The colonized settlement was named for Nuño de Guzmán's Spanish hometown.
In 1559, royal and bishopric offices for the province of Nueva Galicia were moved from Compostela to Guadalajara and, in 1560, Guadalajara became the province's new capital. Construction of the cathedral began in 1563. In 1575, religious orders such as the Augustinians and Dominicans arrived, eventually making the city a center for evangelization efforts.
While capital of the Kingdom of Nueva Galicia, the city's inhabitants achieved a high standard of living, due to flourishing industry, agriculture, commerce, mining, and trade.
The Guadalajara of the sixteenth century was a rather small and often overlooked community. It was mainly frequented by traveling merchants. Several epidemics drastically reduced the city's indigenous population, leading to the construction of its first hospital in 1557.
In 1791, the University of Guadalajara was established. The dedication was held in 1792 at the site of the old Santo Tomas College. While the institution was founded during the 18th century, it would not be fully developed until the 20th century, starting in 1925. In 1794, the Hospital Real de San Miguel de Belén, or simply the Hospital de Belén, was opened.
Guadalajara's economy during the 18th century was based on agriculture and the production of non-durable goods such as textiles, shoes and food products.
Despite epidemics, plagues, and earthquakes, Guadalajara would become one of the most important population centers in New Spain.
The city's heyday attracted numerous architects, philosophers, lawyers, scientists, poets, writers, and speakers; Francisco Xavier Clavijero and Matías de la Mota Padilla were among the most prominent. 1771 saw the arrival of one of the most notable characters in the history of Guadalajara: Bishop Fray Antonio Alcalde, who founded the Civil Hospital and the University of Guadalajara.
In 1793 Mariano Valdés Téllez ran the city's first printing press, whose first publication was a funeral eulogy for Fray Antonio Alcalde.
Independence
Guadalajara remained the capital of Nueva Galicia with some modifications until the Mexican War of Independence. Miguel Hidalgo entered San Pedro (now Tlaquepaque) on November 25, 1810, and the next day he was greeted effusively in Guadalajara. The city's workers had experienced poor living conditions and were swayed by promises of lower taxes and the abolition of slavery. Despite a soured welcome, due to the rebel army's violence toward city residents, especially royalists, Hidalgo kept his promise and, on December 6, 1810, slavery was abolished in Guadalajara, a proclamation which has been honored since the end of the war. During this time, he founded the newspaper El Despertador Americano, dedicated to the insurgent cause.
Royalist forces marched to Guadalajara, arriving in January 1811 with nearly 6,000 men. Insurgents Ignacio Allende and Mariano Abasolo wanted to concentrate their forces in the city and plan an escape route should they be defeated, but Hidalgo rejected this idea. Their second choice was to make a stand at the Puente de Calderon just outside the city. Hidalgo had between 80,000 and 100,000 men and 95 cannons, but the better-trained royalists won, decimating the insurgent army and forcing Hidalgo to flee toward Aguascalientes. Guadalajara remained in royalist hands until near the end of the war.'
On January 17, 1817, the insurgent army was again defeated on the outskirts of Guadalajara in the Battle of Calderón Bridge.
New Galicia, now Jalisco, adhered to the Plan de Iguala on June 13, 1821.
In 1823, Guadalajara became the capital of the newly founded state of Jalisco. In 1844, General Mariano Paredes y Arrillaga initiated a revolt against the government of President Antonio López de Santa Anna. Santa Anna personally ensured that the revolt was quelled. However, while Santa Anna was in Guadalajara, a revolt called the Three Hour Revolution brought José Joaquín Herrera to the presidency and put Santa Anna into exile.
President Benito Juárez made Guadalajara the seat of his government in 1856, during the Reform War. French troops entered the city during the French Intervention in 1864, and it was retaken by Mexican troops in 1866.
Despite the violence, the 19th century was a period of economic, technological and social growth for the city. After Independence, small-scale industries developed, many of which were owned by European immigrants. Rail lines connecting the city to the Pacific coast and north to the United States intensified trade and allowed the shipment of products from rural areas of Jalisco. Ranch Culture became a very important aspect of Jalisco and Guadalajara's identities during this time. From 1884 to 1890, electrical and railroad services, as well as the Guadalajara Observatory were established.
20th century
Throughout the twentieth century, seeing growth in its industrial, tourist, and service industries, Guadalajara began a period of rapid transformation into the metropolis it is today. The city would gain the second largest economy in Mexico, following only by Mexico City. After the Mexican Revolution of 1910, Guadalajara became the second most populous city in the country. However, the decades that followed brought a number of regional wars in the states of Jalisco, Michoacán, and Guanajuato. The aftermath of the Great Depression took a further toll on the city. Fortunately, by the 1940s the city would experience industrial, demographic, and trade growth.
In 1910, the Mexican Revolution began, bringing an end to the Porfiriato. With conflict concentrated in the capital, Guadalajara experienced relative calm. After the Cristero Conflict, peace returned to Guadalajara and the city flourished, outgrowing its colonial roots. This period saw the birth of new schools of architecture that would decorate the city from the 1920s to the 1980s.
Guadalajara again experienced substantial growth after the 1930s, and the first industrial park was established in 1947. Its population surpassed one million in 1964, and by the 1970s it was Mexico's second-largest city and the largest in western Mexico. Most of the modern city's urbanization took place between the 1940s and the 1980s, with the population doubling every ten years until it stood at 2.5 million in 1980. The population of the municipality has stagnated, and even declined, slowly but steadily, since the early 1990s.
The increase in population brought with it an increase in the size of what is now called Greater Guadalajara, rather than an increase in the population density of the city. Migrants coming into Guadalajara from the 1940s to the 1980s were mostly from rural areas and lived in the city center until they had enough money to buy property. This property was generally bought in the edges of the city, which were urbanizing into fraccionamientos, or residential areas. In the 1980s, it was described as a "divided city" east to west based on socioeconomic class. Since then, the city has evolved into four sectors, which are still more or less class-centered. The upper classes tend to live in Hidalgo and Juárez in the northwest and southwest, while the lower classes tend to live in the city center, Libertad in the northeast, and southeast in Reforma. However, lower class development has expanded on the city's periphery and upper and middle classes are migrating toward Zapopan, making the situation less neatly divided.
Since 1996, the activity of multinational corporations has had a significant effect on the economic and social development of the city. The presence of companies such as Kodak, Hewlett-Packard, Motorola and IBM has been based on production facilities built outside the city proper, bringing in foreign labor and capital. This was made possible in the 1980s by surplus labor, infrastructure improvements, and government incentives. These companies focus on electrical and electronic items, which is now one of Guadalajara's two main products (the other being beer). This has internationalized the economy, steering it away from manufacturing and toward services, dependent on technology and foreign investment. This has not been favorable for the unskilled working class and traditional labor sectors.
The 1992 Guadalajara explosions occurred on April 22, 1992, when gasoline explosions in the sewer system over four hours destroyed of streets in the downtown district of Analco. Gante Street was the most damaged. Officially, 206 people were killed, nearly 500 injured and 15,000 were left homeless. The estimated monetary damage ranges between $300 million and $1 billion. The affected areas can be recognized by their more modern architecture.
Three days before the explosion, residents started complaining of a strong gasoline-like smell coming from the sewers. City workers were dispatched to check the sewers and found dangerously high levels of gasoline fumes. However, no evacuations were ordered. An investigation into the disaster found that there were two precipitating causes. The first was new water pipes that were built too close to an existing gasoline pipeline. Chemical reactions between the pipes caused erosion. The second was a flaw in the sewer design that did not allow accumulated gases to escape.
Arrests were made to indict those responsible for the blasts. Four officials of Pemex (the state oil company) were indicted and charged on the basis of negligence. Ultimately, however, these people were cleared of all charges. Calls for the restructuring of PEMEX were made but they were successfully resisted.
The 1990s were marked by events such as the explosions of April 22, 1992, the Mexican peso crisis of 1994, and the murder of the Cardinal Juan Jesús Posadas Ocampo in 1993. The 1992 explosions caused massive infrastructure damage to hundreds of houses, avenues, streets, and businesses in the Analco colony, "without a clear delineator of information and responsibilities to date," in one of the most tragic events in the history of Guadalajara. The investigation of the facts lasted more than 11 years in which insufficient evidence was found to appoint a manager, investigations are now closed attributing the events to an accident. This event, in addition to Mexico's 1994 economic crisis, resulted in the loss of Guadalajara's industrial power.
Modern era
The city has hosted numerous important international events, such as the first Cumbre Iberoamericana in 1991; the Third Summit of Heads of State and Governments of Latin America, the Caribbean, and the European Union in 2004; the Encuentro Internacional de Promotores y Gestores Culturales in 2005; and the 2011 Pan American Games. It was named the American Capital of Culture in 2005 and the Ciudad Educadora (Educator City). in 2006. It was recognized as Mexico's first Smart City due to its use of developing technology.
During each government period, the city went through structural plans with which new areas and commercial hubs were born and with which transnational corporations and international industries arrived in the city. The city housed the first shopping malls in Mexico.
The city expanded rapidly before merging with the Zapopan municipality. Among the developments created during this period were the Guadalajara Expo, the light rail, shopping centers, the expansion of streets and avenues, and the birth and development of road infrastructure, services, tourism, industrial, etc. The first shopping center in Latin America emerged in the city, the first urban electric-train system in Latin America, and the first private university in Mexico.
A 2007 survey entitled "Cities of the Future," FDi magazine ranked Guadalajara first among major Mexican cities and second among major North American cities in terms of economic potential, behind Chicago. The magazine also rated it as the most business-friendly Latin American city in 2007.
Geography
Climate
Under the Köppen climate classification, Guadalajara has a humid subtropical climate (Cwa) that is quite close to a tropical climate, featuring dry, warm winters and hot, wet summers. Guadalajara's climate is influenced by its high altitude and the general seasonality of precipitation patterns in western North America.
Although the temperature is warm year-round, Guadalajara has strong seasonal variation in precipitation. The northward movement of the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone brings a great deal of rain in the summer months, whereas, for the rest of the year, the climate is rather dry. The extra moisture during the wet months moderates the temperatures, resulting in cooler days and nights during this period. The highest temperatures are usually reached in May averaging , but can reach up to just before the onset of monsoon season. March tends to be the driest month and July the wettest, with an average of of rain, over a quarter of the annual average of about .
During the summer, afternoon storms are very common and can sometimes bring hail flurries to the city, especially toward late August or September. Winters are relatively warm despite the city's altitude, with January daytime temperatures reaching about and nighttime temperatures about . However, the outskirts of the city (generally those close to the Primavera Forest) experience on average cooler temperatures than the city itself. There, temperatures around can be recorded during the coldest nights. Frost may also occur during the coldest nights, but temperatures rarely fall below in the city, making it an uncommon phenomenon. Cold fronts in winter can sometimes bring light rain to the city for several days in a row. Snowfall is extraordinarily rare, with the last recorded one occurring in December 1997, which was the first time in 116 years, as it had previously last fallen in 1881.
Topography
Guadalajara's natural wealth is represented by the La Primavera Forest, Los Colomos, and the Barranca de Huentitán. The flora in these areas includes michoacan pines, several species of oak, sweetgum, ash, willow, and introduced trees such as poincianas, jacarandas, and ficus. It also includes orchids, roses, and various species of fungi. The fauna includes typical urban fauna in addition to 106 species of mammals, 19 species of reptiles, and six species of fish.
La Barranca de Huentitán (the Huentitán Forest) (also known as Barranca de Oblatos and Barranca de Oblatos-Huentitán) is a National Park located just north of the municipality of Guadalajara. The barranca (canyon) borders two colonias (neighborhoods) of the city, Oblatos and Huentitan.
It covers approximately , and varies in altitude. The funicular railway in the park starts at above sea level and rises to above sea level. In the 16th century, during the Spanish Conquest, the Huentitán area including the canyon was the site of battles between local Indian populations and the Spanish. Later, it was the site of battles between different factions during the Mexican Revolution and the Cristero Rebellion.
The canyon is a biogeographic corridor that is home to four types of vegetation: deciduous tropical forest, gallery forest, heath vegetation, and secondary vegetation. In addition to introduced species, there are many native species of flora and fauna. The canyon is studied by national and international researchers as it contains great biological diversity due to its geographical location.
On June 5, 1997, it was declared a Protected Natural Area, as an Area Subject to Ecological Conservation (Zona Sujeta a Conservación Ecológica).
La Cascada Cola de Caballo (The Horse Tail Waterfall) is located on the Guadalajara to Zacatecas road (Highway 54, km 15) a few kilometers from the Northern Peripheral, just after passing the village of San Esteban. The waterfall is fed by a stream from the Atemajac Valley. It is close to Guadalajara and a town with very little development, and as a result of poor ecological practices, it is very polluted.
El Bosque los Colomos, the Colomos Forest, is located in the northwestern part of Guadalajara along the Rio Atemajac. It is in a wealthy part of the metropolitan area, and has been developed for recreation rather than being preserved in its wild state. The river was once one of the main sources of water supply to the city, and today continues to provide water to some surrounding colonias (neighborhoods). Currently, this forest covers an area of in which pine trees, eucalyptus trees, and cedars predominate. The park has jogging tracks, gardens (including a Japanese garden), ponds, a bird lake, instructional areas for school field days, playgrounds, camping areas, and horses to ride.
Other places of interest around Guadalajara include Camachos Aquatic Natural Park, a commercial water park, and Barranca Colimilla, a beautiful canyon with hiking trails near Tonala, east of Guadalajara.
Urbanism
Guadalajara's street plan has evolved over time into a radial urban plan, with five major routes into and out of the city. It is surrounded by ring roads.
The original city of Guadalajara was planned on a grid, with north-south and east-west intersecting streets.
Over time, villages surrounding Guadalajara were incorporated into the city - first Analco to the southeast, then Mexicaltzingo to the south, Mezquitan to the north, and San Juan de Dios to the east, all of which introduced more variety to the plan. As it grew towards the west, it kept the original north-south orientation. As it grew towards the east, this grid was tilted towards the south-east to match up with the grids of the former towns Analco and San Juan de Dios, across the river from central Guadalajara on the eastern side of Rio San Juan de Dios (Rio San Juan de Dios is now underground; it runs beneath Calzada Independencia).
When the railway was introduced to Guadalajara in 1888, the southern part of the city began development, and its streets aligned with the grid to the east of the old Rio San Juan de Dios. Additional 20th-century expansion of the city introduced even more variety, as developers introduced different kinds of non-grid street plans in new areas. During the government of José de Jesús González Gallo, between 1947 and 1953, major public works changed the urban landscape of the historic center of the city.
Major controversial projects included the widening of Avenida 16 de Septiembre and Avenida Juárez, which were no longer adequate to handle car traffic in the center of the city. In the process, many buildings of architectural and historical value were demolished. Historical buildings around Guadalajara Cathedral were also demolished to leave large open spaces on the four sides of the Cathedral in the form of a large Latin cross, in which the Cathedral is now centered. There were other, somewhat less controversial, projects to improve the flow of traffic and increase commerce in other parts of the city.
Districts
Guadalajara is made up of more than 2,300 colonias (neighborhoods) in the Metropolitan Area. The oldest parts of the city include Centro (the oldest in the city), Santuario, Mexicaltzingo, Mezquitan, Analco, and San Juan de Dios. Private houses in the oldest sector of the city are mostly made up of one- and two-level houses, with architectural styles ranging from simple colonial architecture to the Churrigueresco, Baroque, and early nineteenth century European styles.
Just west of the oldest part of the city are upper-class colonias built in the nineteenth and early twentieth century, containing the neoclassical structures and houses of the Porfiriato. In the 1920s, 1930s, 1940s and 1950s well-to-do Tapatios expanded into colonias Lafayette, Americana, Moderna, and Arcos Vallarta. New architectural trends of the 1960s and 1970s also left their mark in colonias such as Colonia Americana, Vallarta Poniente, Moderna, Providencia, Vallarta San Jorge, Forest Gardens, and Chapalita.
The Metropolitan Area has more wealthy neighborhoods than any other part of western Mexico. These colonias are located both inside and outside the municipality of Guadalajara, including some in its neighboring municipalities of Zapopan and Tlajomulco, in the west and south. Some of these colonias are: Colinas de San Javier, Puerta de Hierro, Providencia, Chapalita, Jardines de San Ignacio, Ciudad del Sol, Valle Real, Lomas del Valle, Santa Rita, Monraz, Santa Anita Golf Club, El Cielo, Santa Isabel, Virreyes, Ciudad Bugambilias, Las Cañadas, and The Stay.
In general, residents in the west of the city are the wealthiest, while residents in the east are the poorest.
New development to accommodate the growing population is made up of a mix of middle-class colonias and housing complexes developed as part of government plans, and colonias developed less formally for working-class people. The Metropolitan Area extends to the west in colonias such as Pinar de la Calma, Las Fuentes, Paseos del Sol, El Colli Urbano, and La Estancia and extends to the east in colonias such as St. John Bosco, St. Andrew, Oblates, St. Onofre, Insurgents, Gardens of Peace, and Garden of Poets.
The expansion of the population creates a constant demand for more colonias and more government infrastructure services.
Parks
Parks and forests are important in Guadalajara; while many of the oldest neighborhoods of the municipality of Guadalajara do not have sufficient green spaces, of the three most important metropolitan areas in Mexico, the Guadalajara Metropolitan Area (ZMG) has the greenest areas and plants.
The most important parks are:
Gardens (Jardínes)
Jardín Dr. Atl
Jardín Francisco Zarco
El Jardín Botánico (Botanical Garden)
Jardín del Santuario
Glorieta Chapalita Zapopan
Jardín de San Francisco de Asís
Jardín de San Sebastián de Analco
Jardín del Carmen
Jardín del Museo Arqueológico (Garden of the Archaeological Museum)
Jardín José Clemente Orozco
Parks (Parques)
Parque Ávila Camacho
Parque de la Revolución (Parque Rojo to locals)
Parque Mirador Independencia o Barranca de Huentitán
Parque Mirador Dr. Atl Zapopan
Parque Oblatos
Parque Amarillo (Colonia Jardines Alcalde)
Parque Talpita
Parque Tucson (Colonia Jardines Alcalde)
Parque Los Colomos
Parque Morelos
Parque de la Jabonera
Parque Metropolitano Zapopan
Parque Alcalde
Parque Agua Azul
Parque González Gallo
Parque de la Solidaridad Tonalá
Parque de la Liberación
Parque de la Expenal (Explanada 18 de Marz)
Parque Roberto Montenegro El Salto
Parque San Rafael
Parque San Jacinto
Forests (Bosques)
Bosque del Centinela – Zapopan
Bosque de la Primavera – Zapopan, Tlajomulco de Zúñiga y Tala
Zoos (Zoológicos)
Zoológico Villa Fantasía Zapopan
Zoológico Guadalajara
Demographics
The most current figures by the National Institute of Statistics and Geography (INEGI), confirmed in 2010, the municipality of Guadalajara has a population of approximately 1,495,189, with a population in the metropolitan area of 4,334,878, the most populous city in the state of Jalisco, the most conurbation-highest-population within the province of Jalisco of the Guadalajara metropolitan area, and the second-most populous city in Mexico; the first being Mexico City.
In 2007, the United Nations listed the world's 100 most populous urban agglomerations. Mexico excelled with three cities on the list: Mexico City, Guadalajara, and Monterrey. Guadalajara ranked 66th in these cities, followed by Sydney and Washington, D.C. On the Latin American list, Guadalajara ranked 10th.
The municipality of Guadalajara is located in the center of the State, a little to the east, at coordinates 20-&36' 40" to 20- 45' 00" north latitude and 103- 16' 00" to 103- 24' 00" west-latitude and 103-&16' 00" to 103- 24' 00" west-west longitude, at a height of 1700 meters above sea level.
The municipality of Guadalajara is bounded to the north by Zapopan and Ixtlahuacán del Río, to the east by Tonalá (Jalisco)' Tonalá and Zapotlanejo, to the south with Tlaquepaque and to the west with Zapopan.
Guadalajara Metropolitan Area
The Guadalajara metropolitan area is the second most populous metropolitan area in the country and has six central and three exterior municipalities. The central municipalities are Guadalajara, Zapopan, Tlaquepaque, Tonalá, Tlajomulco de Zúñiga, and El Salto, Jalisco. The exterior municipalities are Ixtlahuacán de los Membrillos, Juanacatlán, and Zapotlanejo.
The growth of the city is due to Guadalajara absorbing the closest communities. This was the case with the former communities Atemajac, Huentitán, Tetlán, Analco, Mexicaltzingo, Mezquitan, and San Andrés, among others.
Some of the closest communities to Guadalajara:
Ixtlahuacán del Río (21.7 km from the municipal seat of Guadalajara,).
Santa Anita (19.6 km from Guadalajara's municipal seat, ).
Santa Cruz de las Flores (27.9 km from the municipal seat of Guadalajara,).
Nuevo México (14 km from municipal seat of Guadalajara, ).
Tesistán (20,8 km from the municipal seat of Guadalajara, ).
La Primavera (24.4 km from the municipal seat of Guadalajara,).
Economy
Guadalajara has the third-largest economy and industrial infrastructure in Mexico and contributes 37% of the state of Jalisco's total gross production. Its economic base is strong and well-diversified, mainly based on commerce and services, although the manufacturing sector plays a defining role. It is ranked in the top ten in Latin America in gross domestic product and the third-highest ranking in Mexico.
In its 2007 survey entitled "Cities of the Future," FDi magazine ranked Guadalajara highest among major Mexican cities and designated Guadalajara as having the second strongest economic potential of any major North American city behind Chicago. FDI ranked it as the most business-friendly Latin American city in 2007. The same research noted Guadalajara as a "city of the future" due to its youthful population, low unemployment and large number of recent foreign investment deals; it was found to be the third most business-friendly city in North America.
In 2009 Moody's Investors Service assigned ratings of Ba1 (Global Scale, local currency) and A1.mx (Mexican national scale). During the prior five years, the municipality's financial performance had been mixed but had begun to stabilize in the latter two years. Guadalajara manages one of the largest budgets among Mexican municipalities and its revenue per capita indicator (Ps. $2,265) places it above the average for Moody's-rated municipalities in Mexico.
The city's economy has two main sectors. Commerce and tourism employ most: about 60% of the population. The other is industry, which has been the engine of economic growth and the basis of Guadalajara's economic importance nationally even though it employs only about a third of the population. Industries here produce products such as food and beverages, toys, textiles, auto parts, electronic equipment, pharmaceuticals, footwear, furniture and steel products.
Two of the major industries have been textiles and shoes, which are still dynamic and growing. Sixty percent of manufactured products are sold domestically, while forty percent are exported, mostly to the United States. This makes Guadalajara's economic fortunes dependent on those of the U.S., both as a source of investment and as a market for its goods.
The city has to compete with China, especially for electronics industries which rely on high volume and low wages. This has caused it to move toward high-mix, mid-volume, and value-added services, such as automotive. However, its traditional advantage of proximity to the U.S. market is one reason Guadalajara stays competitive. Mexico ranked third in 2009 in Latin America for the export of information technology services, behind Brazil and Argentina. This kind of service is mostly related to online and telephone technical support. The major challenge this sector has is the lack of university graduates who speak English.
Technology
The electronics and information technology sectors that have nicknamed the city the "Silicon Valley of Mexico." Guadalajara is the main producer of software, electronic and digital components in Mexico. Telecom and computer equipment from Guadalajara accounts for about a quarter of Mexico's electronics exports. Companies such as General Electric, IBM, SANMINA, Intel Corporation, Freescale Semiconductor, Hitachi Ltd., Hewlett Packard Enterprise, HP Inc, Siemens, Flextronics, Oracle, Wipro, TCS, Cognizant Technology Solutions, and Jabil Circuit have facilities in the city or its suburbs. This phenomenon began after the passage of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). International firms started building facilities in Mexico, especially Guadalajara, displacing Mexican firms, especially in information technology. One of the problems this has created is that when there are economic downturns, these international firms scale back.
Guadalajara was selected as "Smart City" in 2013 by IEEE, the world's largest professional association for the advancement of technology.
Several cities invest in the areas of research to design pilot projects and as an example, in early March in 2013 was the first "Cluster Smart Cities" in the world, composed of Dublin, Ireland; San Jose, California; Cardiff, Wales, and Guadalajara, Jalisco, whose objective is the exchange of information and experiences that can be applied in principle to issues of agribusiness and health sciences.
The Secretariat of Communications and Transportation also reported that Guadalajara, Jalisco was chosen as the official venue for the first "Digital Creative City of Mexico and Latin America," which will be the spearhead for Mexico to consolidate the potential in this area.
The "Cluster Smart Cities" unprecedented in the world, will focus on what each of these cities is making in innovation and the creation of an alliance to attract technology. The Ministry of Innovation, Science, and Technology (SICyT ) of Jalisco, said the combination of talent development investments allows Jalisco to enter the "knowledge economy."
From 25 to 28 October 2015, the city was the venue for the first conference of the Smart Cities Initiative.
Industries
Most of the economy revolves around commerce, employing 60% of the population. This activity has mainly focused on the purchase and sale of the following products: food and beverages, textiles, electronic appliances, tobacco, cosmetics, sports articles, construction materials, and others. Guadalajara's commercial activity is second only to Mexico City.
The city is the national leader in the development and investment of shopping malls. Many shopping centers have been built, such as Plaza Galerias, one of the largest shopping centers in Latin America, and Andares. Galerías Guadalajara covers and has 220 stores. It contains the two largest movie theaters in Latin America, both with IMAX screens. It hosts art exhibits and fashion shows and has an area for cultural workshops. Anchor stores includes Liverpool and Sears and specialty stores such as Hugo Boss, Max Mara, Lacoste, Tesla Motors, Costco. Best Buy opened its first Guadalajara store here. It has an additional private entrance on the top floor of the adjacent parking lot. Another Best Buy store was inaugurated in Ciudadela Lifestyle Center mall, which was the chain's third-largest in the world, according to the company.
Andares is another important commercial center in Zapopan. This $530 million mixed-use complex opened in 2008, designed by renowned Mexican Sordo Madaleno architecture firm features luxury residences and a high-level mall anchored by two large department stores, Liverpool and El Palacio de Hierro. The 133,000 m2 (1,400,000+ sq ft) mall offers hundreds of stores, a big food court located on the second floor, and several restaurants at the Paseo Andares.
A large segment of the commercial sector caters to tourists and other visitors. Recreational tourism is mainly concentrated in the historic downtown. In addition to being a cultural and recreational attraction and thanks to its privileged geographical location, the city serves as an axis to nearby popular beach destinations such as Puerto Vallarta, Manzanillo and Mazatlán. Other types of visitors include those who travel to attend seminars, conventions and other events in fields such as academic, entertainment, sports, and business. The best-known venue for this purpose is the Expo Guadalajara, a large convention center surrounded by several hotels. It was built in 1987, and it is considered the most important convention center in Mexico.
Foreign trade
Most of Guadalajara's economic growth since 1990 has been tied with foreign investment. International firms have invested here to take advantage of the relatively cheap but educated and highly productive labor, establishing manufacturing plants that re-export their products to the United States, as well as provide goods for the domestic Mexican market.
A media report in early October 2013 stated that five major Indian IT (information technology) companies have established offices in Guadalajara, while several other Indian IT companies continue to explore the option of expanding to Mexico. Due to the competitiveness in the Indian IT sector, companies are expanding internationally and Mexico offers an affordable opportunity for Indian companies to better position themselves to enter the United States market. The trend emerged after 2006 and the Mexican government offers incentives to foreign companies.
Exports from the city went from US$3.92 billion in 1995 to 14.3 billion in 2003. From 1990 to 2000, socio-economic indicators show that quality of life improved overall; however, there is still a large gap between the rich and the poor, and the rich have benefited from the globalization and privatization of the economy more than the poor.
International investment has affected the labor market in the metro area and that of the rural towns and villages that surround it. Guadalajara is the distribution center for the region and its demands have led to a shifting of employment, from traditional agriculture and crafts to manufacturing and commerce in urban centers. This has led to mass migration from the rural areas to the metropolitan area.
Culture
Guadalajara has a lively cultural life. The city exhibits works by international artists and is a must-see for international cultural events whose radius of influence reaches most of the countries of Latin America, including the southwestern United States.
Its historic center houses colonial buildings of a religious and civil character, which stand out for their architectural and historical significance, and constitute a rich mixture of styles whose root is found in indigenous cultural contributions (mainly of incorporated into the Mozarabic and the castilian), and later in modern European influences (mainly French and Italian). The historic center also has museums, theaters, galleries, libraries, auditoriums, and concert halls. Some of these buildings date from the sixteenth and seventeenth century, such as the Cathedral of the Archdiocese of Guadalajara, among others.
The city has several radio stations focused on culture, one of them being Red Radio University of Guadalajara (XHUG-F), which is transmitted to the rest of the state and neighboring states and internationally through the Internet; it is also the first broadcaster via podcast in the country. The city produces a fully cultural television channel, XHGJG-TV; Guadalajara is the only city to produce a cultural cutting channel in the country in addition to the Mexico, D.F.A. in Mexico City.
This city has been the cradle and dwelling of distinguished poets, writers, painters, actors, film directors and representatives of the arts, etc., such as José Clemente Orozco, Dr. Atl, Roberto Montenegro, Alejandro Zohn, Luis Barragán, Carlos Orozco Romero, Federico Fabregat, Raul Anguiano, Juan Soriano, Javier Campos Cabello, Martha Pacheco, Alejandro Colunga, José Fors, Juan Kraeppellin, Davis Birks, Carlos Vargas Pons, Jis, Trino, Erandini, Enrique Oroz, Rubén Méndez, Mauricio Toussaint, Scott Neri, Paula Santiago, Edgar Cobian, L. Felipe Manzano, and (the artist formerly known as Mevna); the freeplay guitarist and music composer for the movies El Mariachi and The Legend of Zorro, Paco Rentería; important exponents of literature such as Juan Rulfo, Francisco Rojas, Agustín Yáñez, Elías Nandino, Idella Purnell, Jorge Souza, among others; classic repertoire composers such as Gonzalo Curiel, José Pablo Moncayo, Antonio Navarro, Ricardo Zohn, Carlos Sánchez-Gutiérrez and Gabriel Pareyon; film directors such as Felipe Cazals, Jaime Humberto Hermosillo, Erik Stahl, Guillermo del Toro; and actors such as Katy Jurado, Enrique Alvarez Felix, and Gael García Bernal.
Guadalajara was the first Mexican city to be accepted as a member of the International Association of Educational Cities due to its strong character and identity, potential for economic development through culture.
Despite the Guadalajara area historically being an ethnically Caxcan region, the Nahua peoples form the majority of Guadalajara's indigenous population. There are several thousand indigenous language speakers in Guadalajara although the majority of the indigenous population is integrated within the general population and can speak Spanish.
Museums
The museums in Guadalajara are an extension of the cultural infrastructure of this city. Many of them stand out for their architectural and historical significance. There are more than 189 forums of art exhibition among cultural centers, museums, private galleries, and cultural spaces of the town hall, several of them with centuries of existence and some others in the process of being built. The museums in Guadalajara belong to the cultural framework of the city, among which are in all its genres exhibiting history, paleontology, archeology, ethnography, paintings, crafts, plastic, photography, sculpture, works of circuits international art, etc.
Guadalajara has twenty two museums, which include the Regional Museum of Jalisco, the Wax Museum, the Trompo Mágico children's museum and the Museum of Anthropology. The Hospicio Cabañas in the historic center is a World Heritage Site. For these attributes and others, the city was named an American Capital of Culture in 2005.
Guadalajara and the surrounding metropolitan area have numerous public, private, and digital libraries for the search and consultation of information. The promotion of culture and the enrichment of reading have made it easier for the citizen to require several facilities in the city. Some of the libraries also have a physical enclosure—among them the historic Octavio Paz Ibero-American Library of the University of Guadalajara and the Public Library of the State of Jalisco located in the adjoining city of Zapopan—with options for querying digital information over the Internet.
The Jalisco Regional Museum (formerly the seminary of San José) was built at the beginning of the 18th century to be the Seminario Conciliar de San José. From 1861 to 1914, it housed a school called Liceo de Varones. In 1918, it became the Museum of Fine Arts. In 1976, it was completely remodeled for its present use. The museum displays its permanent collection in 16 halls, 15 of which are dedicated to Paleontology, Pre-History, and Archeology. One of the prized exhibits is a complete mammoth skeleton. The other two halls are dedicated to painting and history. The painting collection includes works by Juan Correa, Cristóbal de Villalpando and José de Ibarra.
Architecture
The style of architecture prevalent in Europe during the founding of Guadalajara is paralleled in the city's colonial buildings. The Metropolitan Cathedral and Teatro Degollado are the purest examples of neoclassical architecture. The historical center hosts religious and civil colonial buildings, which are noted for their architectural and historical significance and are a rich mix of styles that are rooted in indigenous cultural contributions (mainly from Ute origin), incorporated in the Mozarabic and castizo, and later in modern European influences (mainly French and Italian) and American (specifically, from the United States).
Guadalajara's historical center has an assortment of museums, theaters, galleries, libraries, auditoriums and concert halls, particular mention may be made to Hospicio Cabañas (which dates from the 18th century), the Teatro Degollado (considered the oldest opera house in Mexico), the Teatro Galerías and the Teatro Diana. The Hospicio Cabañas, which is home to some of the paintings (murals and easel) by José Clemente Orozco, was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1997. Among the many structures of beauty is the International Headquarters Temple of La Luz del Mundo in Colonia Hermosa Provincia, which is the largest in Latin America.
During the Porfiriato the French style invaded the city because of the passion of former president Porfirio Díaz in the trends of French style, also Italian architects were responsible for shaping the Gothic structures that were built in the city. The passage of time reflected different trends from the baroque to churrigueresque, Gothic and neoclassical pure.
The French-inspired "Lafayette" neighborhood has many fine examples of early 20th-century residences that were later converted into boutiques and restaurants.
Even the architectural lines typical of the decades of the 1940s, 1950s and 1960s the Art Deco and bold lines of postmodern architects of the time. Architectural styles found in the city include Baroque, Viceregal, Neoclassical, Modern, Eclectic, Art Deco and Neo-Gothic.
The modern architecture of Guadalajara has numerous figures of different architectural production from the neo-regionalism to the primitiveness of the 1960s. Some of these architects are: Rafael Urzua, Luis Barragán, Ignacio Díaz Morales, Pedro Castellanos, Eric Coufal, Julio de la Peña, Eduardo Ibáñez Valencia, Félix Aceves Ortega
Guadalajara's modern architecture has figures of diverse architectural output from neo-regionalism to the brutalism of the 1970s. One of these architects are: Rafael Urzua, Luis Barragán, Ignacio Díaz Morales, Pedro Castellano, Eric Coufal, July de la Peña, Eduardo Ibáñez Valencia
Festivals
Guadalajara is also known for several large cultural festivals. The International Film Festival of Guadalajara is a yearly event which happens in March. It mostly focuses on Mexican and Latin American films; however, films from all over the world are shown. The event is sponsored by the Universidad de Guadalajara, CONACULTA, the Instituto Mexicano de Cinematographía as well as the governments of the cities of Guadalajara and Zapopan. The 2009 festival had over 200 films shown in more than 16 theaters and open-air forums, such as the inflatable screens set up in places such as Chapultepec, La Rambla Cataluña, and La Minerva. In that year, the event gave out awards totaling US$500,000. The event attracts names such as Mexican director Guillermo del Toro, Greek director Constantin Costa-Gavras, Spanish actor Antonio Banderas and U.S. actor Edward James Olmos.
The Guadalajara International Book Fair is the largest Spanish-language book fair in the world, held each year over nine days at the Expo Guadalajara. Over 300 publishing firms from 35 countries regularly attend, demonstrating the most recent productions in books, videos and new communications technologies. The event awards prizes such as the Premio FIL for literature, the Premio de Literatura Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz, also for literature, and the Reconocimento al Mérito Editorial for publishing houses. There is an extensive exposition of books and other materials in Spanish, Portuguese and English, covering academia, culture, the arts and more for sale. More than 350,000 people attend from Mexico and abroad. In 2009, Nobel prize winner Orhan Pamuk, German children's author Cornelia Funke and Peruvian writer Mario Vargas Llosa participated with about 500 other authors present. Activities include book presentations, academic talks, forums, and events for children.
The Danza de los Tastoanes is an event hosted annually on July 25 at the Municipal President's building, where the folklore dancers perform one of the oldest traditional dances and combat battle performance to honor the combats against the Spanish.
The Festival Cultural de Mayo (May Cultural Festival) began in 1988. In 2009, the event celebrated the 400th anniversary of relations between Mexico and Japan, with many performances and exhibitions relation to Japanese culture. The 2009 festival featured 358 artists in 118 activities. Each year a different country is "invited." Past guests have been Germany (2008), Mexico (2007), Spain (2006) and Austria (2005). France is the 2013 guest.
The Expo Ganadera is an event hosted annually in the month of October where people from all over the country attend to display the best examples of the breed and their quality that is produced in Jalisco. The event also works to promote technological advances in agriculture. The event also has separate sections for the authentic Mexican cuisine, exhibitions of livestock, charreria, and other competitions that display the Jalisco traditions.
Notable festivals include:
May Cultural Festival
Guadalajara International Book Fair, this fair is held every year, thanks to the auspices of the University of Guadalajara, during the last week of November. It includes a large exhibition of consolidated, independent, university, national, international publishers; books and lectures are presented; it has a special area for children and young people; it is very significant for showing during the ten days of the fair to a guest country (or region, or community), to which a pavilion is dedicated to exposing the most representative of its culture. In the FIL, as it is popularly known, several awards are awarded, the most representative is the Juan Rulfo Award' Latin American and Caribbean Literature Award (formerly known as "Juan Rulfo," in honor of this author jalisciense).
The festivities of October: These are the traditional festivals of Guadalajara, have been held since 1965 being the first headquarters the Agua Azul Park and years later it would change headquarters to the Benito Juárez auditorium that is where this celebration is currently held. Its main attractions are the mechanical games, the palenque and the auditorium where various artists, especially Mexican music are performed every night during this celebration of the October festivities.
The Feast of the Dolls (Guadalajara International Puppet Festival).
The International Meeting of Mariachi and Charrería. As its name says, various mariachis from different parts of the world gather. As well as the charros that come from various parts to demonstrate the national sport of Mexico. It starts with a parade and over the days events are held in various scenarios throughout the city. It is held between the months of August and September.
Expo Ganadera.Es the largest and most important of its kind in the country. It is usually performed during the month of October.
The Guadalajara International Film Festival (known as Guadalajara Film Fest). With more than twenty years of experience, FICG is the most important event in Mexico in terms of film, which includes an exhibition of films, an encounter with filmmakers and actors (talent campus), and the contest of realizations that are awarded in several categories: Ibero-American and Mexican short film, Mexican and Latin American documentary, a fictional feature film, among which the "Mayahuel" in which a trajectory is awarded.
The International Festival of Contemporary Dance "Onésimo González." It was organized since 1999 organized by the Ministry of Culture of the Government of the State of Jalisco and the National Dance Coordination of INBA. Having in this choreographic examples of the most outstanding dance groups of the state of Jalisco, with some guest, national and international companies; promoting cultural exchange within Guadalajara, while offering open master classes to the public to enrich the dance language in this state. Performing every October at the Art and Culture Forum of this city.
Expo-International Friendship Fair. This city has been the cradle and shelter of distinguished [poet], writers, painters, actors, filmmakers and representatives of art internationally. One work that accounts for the richness of the poets of this city is the book Major Poetry in Guadalajara (Poetic Annotations and Criticisms).
Landmarks
The historic downtown of Guadalajara is the oldest section of the city, where it was founded and where the oldest buildings are. It centers on Paseo Morelos/Paseo Hospicio from the Plaza de Armas, where the seats of ecclesiastical and secular power are, east toward the Plaza de los Mariachis and the Hospicio Cabañas. The Plaza de Armas is a rectangular plaza with gardens, ironwork benches and an ironwork kiosk which was made in Paris in the 19th century.
Within Guadalajara's historic downtown, there are many squares and public parks: Parque Morelos, Plaza de los Mariachis, Plaza Fundadores, Plaza Tapatia, Plaza del Agave, Parque Revolucion, Jardin del Santuario, Plaza de Armas, Plaza de la Liberacion, Plaza Guadalajara and the Rotonda de los Jaliscienses Ilustres, the last four of which surround the cathedral to form a Latin Cross.
Construction began on the Metropolitan Cathedral in 1558 and the church was consecrated in 1616. Its two towers were built in the 19th century after an earthquake destroyed the originals. They are considered one of the city's symbols. The architecture is a mix of Gothic, Baroque, Moorish and Neoclassical. The interior has three naves and eleven side altars, covered by a roof supported by 30 Doric columns.
The Rotonda de los Hombres Ilustres (Rotunda of Illustrious Men) is a monument made of quarried stone, built in 1952 to honor the memory of distinguished people from Jalisco. A circular structure of 17 columns surrounds 98 urns containing the remains of those honored. Across the street is the municipal palace which was built in 1952. It has four façades of quarried stone. It is mostly of Neoclassical design with elements such as courtyards, entrances and columns that imitate the older structures of the city.
The Palace of the State Government is in Churrigueresque and Neoclassical styles and was begun in the 17th century and finished in 1774. The interior was completely remodeled after an explosion in 1859. This building contains murals by José Clemente Orozco, a native of Jalisco, including "Lucha Social," "Circo Político," "Las Fuerzas Ocultas," and "Hidalgo," which depicts Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla with his arm raised above his head in anger at the government and the church.
The Cathedral is bordered to the east by the Plaza de la Liberación, nicknamed the Plaza de las Dos Copas, referring to the two fountains on the east and west sides. Facing this plaza is the Teatro Degollado (Degollado Theater). It was built in the mid-nineteenth century in Neoclassical design. The main portal has a pediment with a scene in relief called "Apollo and the Muses" sculpted in marble by Benito Castañeda. The interior vaulted ceiling is painted with a fresco by Jacobo Gálvez and Gerardo Suárez which depicts a scene from the Divine Comedy. Behind the theater is another plaza with a fountain called the Fuente de los Fundadores (Fountain of the Founders). The plaza is in the exact spot where the city was founded and contains a sculpture depicting Cristobal de Oñate at the event (finsemana).
Between the Cathedral and the Hospicio is the large Plaza Tapatía, which covers . Its centerpiece is Inmolación de Quetzalcóatl. Southeast of this plaza is the Mercado Libertad, also called the Mercado de San Juan de Dios, one of the largest traditional markets in Mexico. The Temple of San Juan de Dios, a Baroque church built in the 17th century, is next to the market.
At the far east end is the Plaza de los Mariachis and the Ex-Hospicio Cabañas. The Plaza de los Mariachis is faced by restaurants where one can hear live mariachis play, especially at night. The Ex-Hospicio Cabañas extends along the entire east side of the Plaza. This building was constructed by Manuel Tolsá beginning in 1805 under orders of Carlos III. It was inaugurated and began its function as an orphanage in 1810, in spite of the fact that it would not be finished until 1845. It was named after Bishop Ruiz de Cabañas y Crespo. The façade is Neoclassical and its main entrance is topped by a triangular pediment. Today, it is the home of the Instituto Cultural Cabañas (Cabañas Cultural Institute) and its main attraction is the murals by José Clemente Orozco, which cover the main entrance hall. Among these murals is "Hombre del Fuego" (Man of Fire), considered to be one of Orozco's finest works.
Off this east–west axis are other significant constructions. The Legislative Place is Neoclassical and was originally built in the 18th century. It was reconstructed in 1982. The Palace of Justice was finished in 1897. The Old University Building was a Jesuit college named Santo Tomás de Aquino. It was founded in 1591. It became the second Mexican University in 1792. Its main portal is of yellow stone. The Casa de los Perros (House of the Dogs) was constructed in 1896 in Neoclassical design. On Avenida Juarez is the Sanctuary of Nuestra Señora del Carmen which was founded between 1687 and 1690 and remodeled completely in 1830. It retains its original coat of arms of the Carmelite Order as well as sculptures of the prophets Elijah and Elisha. Adjoining it is what is left of the Carmelite monastery, which was one of the richest in New Spain.
Music
Mariachi music is strongly associated with Guadalajara both in Mexico and abroad even though the musical style originated in the nearby town of Cocula, Jalisco. The connection between the city and mariachi began in 1907 when an eight-piece mariachi band and four dancers from the city performed on stage at the president's residence for both Porfirio Díaz and the Secretary of State of the United States. This made the music a symbol of west Mexico, and after the migration of many people from the Guadalajara area to Mexico City (mostly settling near Plaza Garibaldi), it then became a symbol of Mexican identity as well
Guadalajara hosts the Festival of Mariachi and Charreria, which began in 1994. It attracts people in the fields of art, culture and politics from Mexico and abroad. Regularly the best mariachis in Mexico participate, such as Mariachi Vargas, Mariachi de América and Mariachi los Camperos de Nati Cano. Mariachi bands from all over the world participate, coming from countries such as Venezuela, Cuba, Belgium, Chile, France, Australia, Slovak Republic, Canada and the United States.
The events of this festival take place in venues all over the metropolitan area, and include a parade with floats. In August 2009, 542 mariachi musicians played together for a little over ten minutes to break the world record for largest mariachi group. The musicians played various songs ending with two classic Mexican songs "Cielito Lindo" and "Guadalajara." The feat was performed during the XVI Encuentro Internacional del Mariachi y la Charreria. The prior record was 520 musicians in 2007 in San Antonio, Texas.
In the historic center of the city is the Plaza de los Mariachis, named such as many groups play here. The plaza was renovated for the 2011 Pan American Games in anticipation of the crowds visiting. Over 750 mariachi musicians play traditional melodies on the plaza, and along with the restaurants and other businesses, the plaza supports more than 830 families.
A recent innovation has been the fusion of mariachi melodies and instruments with rock and roll performed by rock musicians in the Guadalajara area. An album collecting a number of these melodies was produced called "Mariachi Rock-O." There are plans to take these bands on tour in Mexico, the United States and Europe.
The city is also host to several dance and ballet companies such as the Chamber Ballet of Jalisco, the Folkloric Ballet of the University of Guadalajara, and the University of Guadalajara Contemporary Ballet.
The city is home to a renowned symphony orchestra. The Orquesta Filarmónica de Jalisco (Jalisco Philharmonic Orchestra) was founded by José Rolón in 1915. It held concerts from that time until 1924, when state funding was lost. However, the musicians kept playing to keep the orchestra alive. This eventually caught the attention of authorities and funding was restated in 1939. Private funding started in the 1940s and in 1950, an organization called Conciertos Guadalajara A. C. was formed to continue fundraising for the orchestra. In 1971, the orchestra became affiliated with the Department of Fine Arts of the State of Jalisco. The current name was adopted in 1988/ International soloists such as Paul Badura-Skoda, Claudio Arrau, Jörg Demus, Henryck Szeryng, Nicanor Zabaleta, Plácido Domingo, Kurt Rydl and Alfred Brendel have performed with the organization. Today the orchestra is under the direction of Marco Parisotto.
Cuisine
As in the rest of Mexico, food in Guadalajara is a mix of pre-Hispanic and Spanish influences. Typical Mexican dishes, such as pozole, tamales, sopes, enchiladas, tacos, menudo (soup), carne en su jugo, and frijoles charros, are popular.
One dish specific to Guadalajara is the "torta ahogada." It consists of a salted bun or roll (typically tapatío) smeared with refried beans, with fried pork cut into pieces—also known as "carnitas"—all in tomato sauce seasoned with spices. It is eaten with onions deflated in lemon and hot sauce. Accompanying drinks can include tejuino, which is made with a base of sourdough corn accompanied by lemon ice cream, or tepache, which is made from the bark of fermented pineapple.
Another typical meal of Guadalajara and the entire state of Jalisco is the "birria," which is usually made with either pork, beef, or goat. Handcrafted birria is made in a special oven, which can be underground and covered with maguey leaves; the meat can be mixed with a tomato broth and spices, or consumed separately. The traditional way of preparing birria is to pit roast the meat and spices wrapped in maguey leaves. It is served in bowls with minced onion, limes and tortillas.
Another typical dish of the tapatía kitchen is the carne en su jugo This dish consists of a beef broth with beans from the pot and is accompanied by bacon, coriander, onion, and radish (sliced or whole). The dessert that is considered as a typical tapatío is the jericalla.
When the Spanish conquistadors arrived in the Aztec empire, a few religious ceremonies included eating pozole made with hominy and human flesh. This was the first type of pozole mentioned in Spanish writing, as a ritual dish eaten only by select priests and noblemen. The meat from the thighs of slain enemy warriors was used. The Franciscan missionaries ended this custom when they banned Aztec religious ceremonies. The pozole in the local common cuisine was related to the ritual dish, but prepared with turkey meat, and later pork, not with human flesh.
Other dishes that are popular here include pozole, a soup prepared with hominy, pork or chicken, topped with cabbage, radishes, minced onions, and other condiments; pipián, which is a sauce prepared with peanuts, squash and sesame seed, and biónico, a popular local dessert.
Jericallas are a typical Guadalajara dessert that is similar to flan, that was created to give children proper nutrients while being delicious. It is made with eggs, milk, sugar, vanilla, and cinnamon, and baked in the oven where it is broiled to the point that a burnt layer is produced. The burnt layer at the surface is what makes this dessert special and delicious.
One of the drinks that is popular in Guadalajara is Tejuino, a refreshing drink that contains a corn fermented base with sugarcane, lime, salt and chili powder.
The city hosts the Feria Internacional Gastronomía (International Gastronomy Fair) each year in September showcasing Mexican and international cuisines. Many restaurants, bars, bakeries and cafés participate as well as producers of beer, wine and tequila.
Sports
Guadalajara is home to four professional football teams; Guadalajara, also known as Chivas, Atlas, C.D. Oro and Universidad de Guadalajara. Guadalajara is the most successful and the most followed club in the country, They have won the Mexican Primera División a total of 12 times, and have won the Copa MX four times. In 2017 Chivas became the first team in Mexican football history to win a Double (a league and cup title) in a single season on two different occasions and their first since the since the 1969–70 season. Chivas went on to win the 2018 CONCACAF Champions League final against Major League Soccer side Toronto FC, the second time they have won the tournament. Chivas won the first ever CONCACAF Champions League and are the only Guadalajara-based football team to win the tournament. Atlas also plays in the Mexican Primera División. They are known in the country as 'The Academy', hence they have provided Mexico's finest football players, among them: Rafael Márquez, Oswaldo Sánchez, Pável Pardo, Andrés Guardado, and from "Chivas," Javier (Chicharito) Herandez, and Mexico national team's former top scorer Jared Borgetti from Atlas. Atlas also won several Championships on Amateur Tournaments, and first Football Championship of a Guadalajara Team back in 1951. They have not won any more first division championships since. Estudiantes was associated with the Universidad Autónoma de Guadalajara A.C. It played in the Primera División, with home games in the Estadio 3 de Marzo (March 3 Stadium, for the University's 1935 date of founding). They've won also a single Championship back in 1994 as they defeated Santos. The team moved to Zacatecas and became the Mineros de Zacatecas in May 2014.
Starting in October 2014, Guadalajara rejoined the Liga Mexicana del Pacífico baseball tournament with the Charros de Jalisco franchise in play at the Athletic Stadium. Charreada, the Mexican form of rodeo and closely tied to mariachi music, is popular here. The biggest place for Charreada competitions, the VFG Arena, is located near the Guadalajara Airport founded by singer Vicente Fernández. Every September 15, charros make a parade in the downtown streets to celebrate the Charro and Mariachi Day.
Guadalajara hosted the 2011 Pan American Games. Since winning the bid to host the Games, the city had been undergoing extensive renovations. The games brought in more than 5,000 athletes from approximately 42 countries from the Americas and the Caribbean. Sports included aquatics, football, racquetball, and 27 more, with six others being considered. COPAG (the Organizing Committee for the Pan American Games Guadalajara 2011) had a total budget of US$250 million with the aim of updating the city's sports and general infrastructure. The center of the city was repaved and new hotels were constructed for the approximately 22,000 rooms that were needed in 2011. The new bus rapid transit (BRT) system, Macrobús, was launched in March and runs along Avenida Independencia. The Pan-American village was built around the Bajio Zone. After the Games, the buildings will be used for housing. There are already 13 existing venues in Guadalajara that the games will use, including the Jalisco Stadium, UAG 3 de Marzo Stadium, and the UAG Gymnasium. Eleven new sporting facilities were created for the event. Other works included a second terminal in the airport, a highway to Puerto Vallarta and a bypass for the southern part of the city.
Lorena Ochoa, a retired and former #1 female golfer, Formula One driver Sergio Pérez who drives for Red Bull Racing F1 Team and Javier "Chicharito" Hernández, a forward who currently plays for LA Galaxy and the Mexico national team were also born in the city.
The city hosted the 2021 WTA Finals, the first time the tournament was played in Latin America.
Government
As the capital of the state, the city is the seat of the state's government. As a result, state politics have a heavy influence on local decision-making and vice versa. Historically, the mayorship of the city has been a common leaping platform for the state governorship. Additionally, because of the sheer size of the Guadalajara Metropolitan Area vis-à-vis the rest of the state, the city's urban agglomeration—largely dominated and coordinated by the Guadalajara city council—captures 12 of the 20 seats in the state legislature allocated by the district.
All three branches of the state government are concentrated around the historic city center, with the Palace of Government, the seat of the state executive, immediately southeast of the Cathedral. North, across the Plaza de la Liberación, is the State Legislature Building, and immediately east of the latter is the Supreme Tribunal of State Justice.
Like other municipalities in Mexico, Guadalajara is governed by a municipal president, who exercises executive power for three consecutive years. This office is currently occupied by Enrique Alfaro (Movimiento Ciudadano).
The legislature has the cabildo, formed by the form chosen by the candidate for mayor, made up of aldermen, who are not elected by the people by direct or indirect voting, but the return happens automatically if the mayor wins.
The municipality is divided into five electoral districts for the purpose of election of representatives of the city in the federal legislature. These districts are the VIII, IX, XI, XIII, and XIV of the state of Jalisco.
The city and the municipality of Guadalajara are essentially co extensive with over 99% of the municipality living within the city limits and nearly all of the municipality urbanized. Urbanization centered on the city spreads out over seven other municipalities; of Zapopan, Tlaquepaque, Tonalá, Tlajomulco de Zuñiga, El Salto, Ixtlahuacán de los Membrillos, and Juanacatlán.
These areas form the "Guadalajara Metropolitan Area" (Zona Metropolitana de Guadalajara in Spanish), which is the most populous in the state of Jalisco and the second most populous in the country after the Mexico City Metropolitan area. This metropolitan area had a population of 4,298,715 in 2008.
Municipal presidents of Guadalajara
Education
Guadalajara is an important hub for higher education in both Mexico and Latin America, as the home to numerous nationally and internationally ranked universities and research centers.
The most important is the University of Guadalajara, which was established on October 12, 1791, by royal decree. The entity underwent a number of reorganizations since then, but the modern university as it exists today was established in 1925, when the governor of Jalisco convened professors, students and others to re-establish the university. These precepts were organized into a law called the "Ley Organica." It was ranked fifth among the best Mexican universities in 2012.
Guadalajara is home to Universidad Autónoma de Guadalajara (UAG), which was founded in 1935 and is the oldest private university in Mexico, and Universidad del Valle de Atemajac (UNIVA), and the Western Institute of Technology and Higher Education.
The city hosts campuses of several private schools, including:
Universidad Panamericana
Universidad La Salle
ITESO, Jesuit University of Guadalajara
Monterrey Institute of Technology and Higher Education
Universidad del Valle de México
Universidad del Valle de Atemajac
In addition, the city hosts numerous international schools, including:
American School Foundation of Guadalajara (ASFG)
Lycée Français de Guadalajara
Colegio Alemán de Guadalajara
Transportation
Guadalajara is well connected by a number of modern highways. These include Fed 15D, which connects the city northwestward to Nogales, Sonora, via Tepic, Nayarit and eastwards to Mexico City via Morelia; Fed 80D which runs northwest toward Aguascalientes; and Fed 54D which runs southward to the coast via Colima. The city's well-connected transportation infrastructure allows easy access to Mexico City, to the southeast, and to the major beach resorts of Manzanillo, Mazatlán and Puerto Vallarta to the southwest, northwest, and west, respectively.
The Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla Guadalajara International Airport, also known as Guadalajara International Airport (ICAO code: MMGL) opened in 1966. It is located south of downtown Guadalajara, and it was built on the Tlajomulco de Zuñiga city, near Chapala. The airport is the third most active in the country (after Mexico City and Cancún) with direct flights to many Mexican and American cities.
Within the city itself, there are many forms of public transportation. The Guadalajara light rail system, named SITEUR (Sistema de Tren Eléctrico Urbano), Spanish for Urban Electrical Train System, provides rapid transit service within Guadalajara and the neighboring municipalities of Zapopan and Tlaquepaque. It consists of 3 lines: line 1, running from north to south, with 19 stations, line 2, running from downtown to the east, with 10 stations and line 3. The trains are electric and have a top speed of . The 48 articulated cars currently in service were built in Mexico by Concarril/Bombardier. Construction on a third line began in 2014. Line 3 will run from Zapopan, in the northwest, to Tlaquepaque and Tonalá, in the southeast, via the city center.
The Guadalajara Macrobús is a public transportation system based on the concept of bus rapid transit, where each bus has a single route and boarding station. Phase I of the Macrobús project opened in 2009 with a corridor following Calzada Independencia and serving 27 stations. The Guadalajara trolleybus system has been operating since the 1970s, along with many city buses run by private companies and a bustling network of pedestrianized streets.
Mi Bici Pública, PBSC Urban Solutions-based public bike share system, was launched in 2014. In 2016, the city implemented 242 docking stations and 2116 bikes. As of September 2018 Mi Bici has 19,664 annually subscribed users.
In Guadalajara, a person spends an average of 82 minutes per weekday commuting with public transportation. 23% of public transit riders, ride for more than 2 hours every day. The average amount of time people wait at a stop or station for public transit is 15 min, while 22% of riders wait for an average of over 20 minutes each day. The average distance people usually ride in a single trip with public transit is 8 km, and 16% travel for over 12 km in a single direction.
International relations
Diplomatic missions
Guadalajara hosts the presence of numerous diplomatic missions, as well as numerous honorary consulates:
Consulates
Consulate General of the United States
Consulate of Canada
Consulate of Spain
Consulate of South Korea
Consulate of France
Consulate of Germany
Consulate of Brazil
Consulate of Colombia
Consulate of Australia
Consulate General of Panama
Consulate of Iceland
Consulate of the Dominican Republic
Consulate of Peru
Consulate of El Salvador
Consulate of Malaysia
Consulate of the Philippines
Honorary missions
Honorary Consulate of Austria
Honorary Consulate of Belgium
Honorary Consulate of Chile
Honorary Consulate of Cyprus
Honorary Consulate of Costa Rica
Honorary Consulate of Denmark
Honorary Consulate of Ecuador
Honorary Consulate of Russia
Honorary Consulate of Finland
Honorary Consulate of Guatemala
Honorary Consulate of Haiti
Honorary Consulate of Hungary
Honorary Consulate of India
Honorary Consulate of Israel
Honorary Consulate of Italy
Honorary Consulate of Japan
Honorary Consulate of Lebanon
Honorary Consulate of Nicaragua
Honorary Consulate of Norway
Honorary Consulate of the Netherlands
Honorary Consulate of Pakistan
Honorary Consulate of Paraguay
Honorary Consulate of Poland
Honorary Consulate of Czech Republic
Honorary Consulate of the United Kingdom
Honorary Consulate of Romania
Honorary Consulate of South Africa
Honorary Consulate of Sweden
Honorary Consulate of Switzerland
Honorary Consulate of Uruguay
Twin towns – sister cities
Guadalajara is twinned with:
Alajuela, Costa Rica (1983)
Albuquerque, United States (1985)
Caracas, Venezuela (1976)
Cebu City, Philippines (1976)
Cigales, Spain (1992)
Changwon, South Korea (2013)
Curitiba, Brazil (1995)
Daejeon, South Korea (1997)
Downey, United States (1960)
Guadalajara, Spain (1982)
Guam, United States (1976)
Kansas City, United States (1993)
Kingston, Jamaica (1976)
Kyoto, Japan (1978)
Lansing, United States (1990)
Laredo, United States (2006)
Lima, Peru (1976)
Malabo, Equatorial Guinea (1976)
Oñati, Spain (2003)
Panama City, Panama (1976)
Portland, United States (1983)
Saint Petersburg, Russia (2011)
San Antonio, United States (1974)
San José, Costa Rica (1976)
San Jose, United States (2014)
San Salvador, El Salvador (1976)
Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic (1976)
Seville, Spain (1977)
Tegucigalpa, Honduras (1976)
Wrocław, Poland (1995)
Xiamen, China (2003)
Domestic cooperation
Cocula (2005)
Cozumel (2010)
Magdalena de Kino (1984)
Nochistlán (1997)
Oaxaca de Juárez (2007)
Quintana Roo
San Luis Potosí (2006)
Zacatecas
Agreements cooperation
Buenos Aires,
Santiago,
Ciudad de México,
See also
List of people from Guadalajara
List of companies based in Guadalajara
Culture of Guadalajara
Flag of Guadalajara
Coat of arms of Guadalajara
References
Bibliography
External links
H. City Council of Guadalajara
Official Travel Resource for English Speakers
Cities in Mexico
Capitals of states of Mexico
Populated places established in 1542
1542 establishments in New Spain
1540s establishments in Mexico |
5619694 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keepsake%20%28video%20game%29 | Keepsake (video game) | Keepsake is a third person point-and-click adventure game developed by Canadian company Wicked Studios for Linux, Mac OS X and Windows platforms. The player plays as the main character Lydia. The quest starts that Lydia investigates what happened to Dragonvale Academy as she was on her way to meet a friend there, as she arrived she noticed that the academy was deserted. Although the game was met with mixed reviews, the developers endeavour to improve the game by releasing patches.
Plot
Lydia, the main character, has just arrived at Dragonvale Academy, a school of magic. Her best friend, Celeste, agreed to meet her outside the school at a nearby fountain, but when Lydia arrives, the school is deserted and Celeste is nowhere to be found. With the help of a wolf (who claims to be both a dragon and a familiar to a powerful mage) named Zak, Lydia sets out to find out what happened at Dragonvale Academy that caused the disappearance of hundreds of people and to reunite with her best friend.
Gameplay
Keepsake is a third person point-and-click adventure game in which the user clicks areas on the screen to navigate and explore the world. The world is set up through fixed camera angles showing the portion of the area that the main character, Lydia, stands in. The user can click different locations and items to move, activate puzzles or cutscenes, and enter other areas. The game is played through exploring the world and solving puzzles to advance. The total gameplay length is estimated at 15 hours.
Development
The engine behind Keepsake is called Glyph. It is mostly built on open source projects. The developers stated that the main reason for that was the cross-platform issue. The game 3D engine is Crystal Space; it works on Linux, Mac OS X and Windows. The sound engine uses DirectSound3D, but it can also support OpenAL for cross-platform.
A patch was released for the European version which added a map of the Academy to be displayed from the game control console. The map was purely for display; the player could not use it for quick navigation to a room as in Simon the Sorcerer.
Reception
The game received mixed reviews. The game received a score of 5.2 out of 10 from GameSpot, who commented on the game's lackluster plot but interesting puzzles. IGN gave the game a 7.2 rating out of 10, noting the second half of the game "included impossibly difficult puzzles that didn't make sense most of the time". Currently the game has accumulated a 68% rating on Metacritic and 70% on GameRankings.
References
External links
Keepsake Official website (defunct)
2404.org Review
Point-and-click adventure games
2006 video games
Linux games
MacOS games
School-themed video games
Windows games
Video games developed in Canada
Video games featuring female protagonists
The Adventure Company games |
1841851 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stereopsis | Stereopsis | Stereopsis (from the Greek στερεο- stereo- meaning "solid", and ὄψις opsis, "appearance, sight") is a term that is most often used to refer to the perception of depth and three-dimensional structure obtained on the basis of visual information deriving from two eyes by individuals with normally developed binocular vision. Because the eyes of humans, and many animals, are located at different lateral positions on the head, binocular vision results in two slightly different images projected to the retinas of the eyes. The differences are mainly in the relative horizontal position of objects in the two images. These positional differences are referred to as "horizontal disparities" or, more generally, "binocular disparities". Disparities are processed in the visual cortex of the brain to yield depth perception. While binocular disparities are naturally present when viewing a real three-dimensional scene with two eyes, they can also be simulated by artificially presenting two different images separately to each eye using a method called stereoscopy. The perception of depth in such cases is also referred to as "stereoscopic depth".
The perception of depth and three-dimensional structure is, however, possible with information visible from one eye alone, such as differences in object size and motion parallax (differences in the image of an object over time with observer movement), though the impression of depth in these cases is often not as vivid as that obtained from binocular disparities.
Therefore, the term stereopsis (or stereoscopic depth) can also refer specifically to the unique impression of depth associated with binocular vision; what is colloquially referred to as seeing "in 3D".
It has been suggested that the impression of "real" separation in depth is linked to the precision with which depth is derived, and that a conscious awareness of this precision – perceived as an impression of interactability and realness – may help guide the planning of motor action.
Distinctions
Coarse and fine stereopsis
There are two distinct aspects to stereopsis: coarse stereopsis and fine stereopsis, and provide depth information of different degree of spatial and temporal precision.
Coarse stereopsis (also called gross stereopsis) appears to be used to judge stereoscopic motion in the periphery. It provides the sense of being immersed in one's surroundings and is therefore sometimes also referred to as qualitative stereopsis. Coarse stereopsis is important for orientation in space while moving, for example when descending a flight of stairs.
Fine stereopsis is mainly based on static differences. It allows the individual to determine the depth of objects in the central visual area (Panum's fusional area) and is therefore also called quantitative stereopsis. It is typically measured in random-dot tests; persons having coarse but no fine stereopsis are often unable to perform on random-dot tests, also due to visual crowding which is based on interaction effects from adjacent visual contours. Fine stereopsis is important for fine-motor tasks such as threading a needle.
The stereopsis which an individual can achieve is limited by the level of visual acuity of the poorer eye. In particular, patients who have comparatively lower visual acuity tend to need relatively larger spatial frequencies to be present in the input images, else they cannot achieve stereopsis. Fine stereopsis requires both eyes to have a good visual acuity in order to detect small spatial differences, and is easily disrupted by early visual deprivation. There are indications that in the course of the development of the visual system in infants, coarse stereopsis may develop before fine stereopsis and that coarse stereopsis guides the vergence movements which are needed in order for fine stereopsis to develop in a subsequent stage. Furthermore, there are indications that coarse stereopsis is the mechanism that keeps the two eyes aligned after strabismus surgery.
Static and dynamic stimuli
It has also been suggested to distinguish between two different types of stereoscopic depth perception: static depth perception (or static stereo perception) and motion-in-depth perception (or stereo motion perception). Some individuals who have strabismus and show no depth perception using static stereotests (in particular, using Titmus tests, see this article's section on contour stereotests) do perceive motion in depth when tested using dynamic random dot stereograms. One study found the combination of motion stereopsis and no static stereopsis to be present only in exotropes, not in esotropes.
Research on perception mechanisms
There are strong indications that the stereoscopic mechanism consists of at least two perceptual mechanisms, possibly three. Coarse and fine stereopsis are processed by two different physiological subsystems, with a coarse stereopsis being derived from diplopic stimuli (that is, stimuli with disparities well beyond the range of binocular fusion) and yielding only a vague impression of depth magnitude. Coarse stereopsis appears to be associated with the magno pathway which processes low spatial frequency disparities and motion, and fine stereopsis with the parvo pathway which processes high spatial frequency disparities. The coarse stereoscopic system seems to be able to provide residual binocular depth information in some individuals who lack fine stereopsis. Individuals have been found to integrate the various stimuli, for example stereoscopic cues and motion occlusion, in different ways.
How the brain combines the different cues – including stereo, motion, vergence angle and monocular cues – for sensing motion in depth and 3D object position is an area of active research in vision science and neighboring disciplines.
Prevalence and impact of stereopsis in humans
Not everyone has the same ability to see using stereopsis. One study shows that 97.3% are able to distinguish depth at horizontal disparities of 2.3 minutes of arc or smaller, and at least 80% could distinguish depth at horizontal differences of 30 seconds of arc.
Stereopsis has a positive impact on exercising practical tasks such as needle-threading, ball-catching (especially in fast ball games), pouring liquids, and others. Professional activity may involve operating stereoscopic instruments such as a binocular microscope. While some of these tasks may profit from compensation of the visual system by means of other depth cues, there are some roles for which stereopsis is imperative. Occupations requiring the precise judgment of distance sometimes include a requirement to demonstrate some level of stereopsis; in particular, there is such a requirement for aeroplane pilots (even if the first pilot to fly around the world alone, Wiley Post, accomplished his feat with monocular vision only.) Also surgeons normally demonstrate high stereo acuity. As to car driving, a study found a positive impact of stereopsis in specific situations at intermediate distances only; furthermore, a study on elderly persons found that glare, visual field loss, and useful field of view were significant predictors of crash involvement, whereas the elderly persons' values of visual acuity, contrast sensitivity, and stereoacuity were not associated with crashes.
Binocular vision has further advantages aside from stereopsis, in particular the enhancement of vision quality through binocular summation; persons with strabismus (even those who have no double vision) have lower scores of binocular summation, and this appears to incite persons with strabismus to close one eye in visually demanding situations.
It has long been recognized that full binocular vision, including stereopsis, is an important factor in the stabilization of post-surgical outcome of strabismus corrections. Many persons lacking stereopsis have (or have had) visible strabismus, which is known to have a potential socioeconomic impact on children and adults. In particular, both large-angle and small-angle strabismus can negatively affect self-esteem, as it interferes with normal eye contact, often causing embarrassment, anger, and feelings of awkwardness. For further details on this, see psychosocial effects of strabismus.
It has been noted that with the growing introduction of 3D display technology in entertainment and in medical and scientific imaging, high quality binocular vision including stereopsis may become a key capability for success in modern society.
Nonetheless, there are indications that the lack of stereo vision may lead persons to compensate by other means: in particular, stereo blindness may give people an advantage when depicting a scene using monocular depth cues of all kinds, and among artists there appear to be a disproportionately high number of persons lacking stereopsis. In particular, a case has been made that Rembrandt may have been stereoblind.
History of investigations into stereopsis
Stereopsis was first explained by Charles Wheatstone in 1838: “… the mind perceives an object of three dimensions by means of the two dissimilar pictures projected by it on the two retinæ …”. He recognized that because each eye views the visual world from slightly different horizontal positions, each eye's image differs from the other. Objects at different distances from the eyes project images in the two eyes that differ in their horizontal positions, giving the depth cue of horizontal disparity, also known as retinal disparity and as binocular disparity. Wheatstone showed that this was an effective depth cue by creating the illusion of depth from flat pictures that differed only in horizontal disparity. To display his pictures separately to the two eyes, Wheatstone invented the stereoscope.
Leonardo da Vinci had also realized that objects at different distances from the eyes project images in the two eyes that differ in their horizontal positions, but had concluded only that this made it impossible for a painter to portray a realistic depiction of the depth in a scene from a single canvas. Leonardo chose for his near object a column with a circular cross section and for his far object a flat wall. Had he chosen any other near object, he might have discovered horizontal disparity of its features. His column was one of the few objects that projects identical images of itself in the two eyes.
Stereoscopy became popular during Victorian times with the invention of the prism stereoscope by David Brewster. This, combined with photography, meant that tens of thousands of stereograms were produced.
Until about the 1960s, research into stereopsis was dedicated to exploring its limits and its relationship to singleness of vision. Researchers included Peter Ludvig Panum, Ewald Hering, Adelbert Ames Jr., and Kenneth N. Ogle.
In the 1960s, Bela Julesz invented random-dot stereograms. Unlike previous stereograms, in which each half image showed recognizable objects, each half image of the first random-dot stereograms showed a square matrix of about 10,000 small dots, with each dot having a 50% probability of being black or white. No recognizable objects could be seen in either half image. The two half images of a random-dot stereogram were essentially identical, except that one had a square area of dots shifted horizontally by one or two dot diameters, giving horizontal disparity. The gap left by the shifting was filled in with new random dots, hiding the shifted square. Nevertheless, when the two half images were viewed one to each eye, the square area was almost immediately visible by being closer or farther than the background. Julesz whimsically called the square a Cyclopean image after the mythical Cyclops who had only one eye. This was because it was as though we have a cyclopean eye inside our brains that can see cyclopean stimuli hidden to each of our actual eyes. Random-dot stereograms highlighted a problem for stereopsis, the correspondence problem. This is that any dot in one half image can realistically be paired with many same-coloured dots in the other half image. Our visual systems clearly solve the correspondence problem, in that we see the intended depth instead of a fog of false matches. Research began to understand how.
Also in the 1960s, Horace Barlow, Colin Blakemore, and Jack Pettigrew found neurons in the cat visual cortex that had their receptive fields in different horizontal positions in the two eyes. This established the neural basis for stereopsis. Their findings were disputed by David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel, although they eventually conceded when they found similar neurons in the monkey visual cortex. In the 1980s, Gian Poggio and others found neurons in V2 of the monkey brain that responded to the depth of random-dot stereograms.
In the 1970s, Christopher Tyler invented autostereograms, random-dot stereograms that can be viewed without a stereoscope. This led to the popular Magic Eye pictures.
In 1989 Antonio Medina Puerta demonstrated with photographs that retinal images with no parallax disparity but with different shadows are fused stereoscopically, imparting depth perception to the imaged scene. He named the phenomenon "shadow stereopsis". Shadows are therefore an important, stereoscopic cue for depth perception. He showed how effective the phenomenon is by taking two photographs of the Moon at different times, and therefore with different shadows, making the Moon to appear in 3D stereoscopically, despite the absence of any other stereoscopic cue.
Human stereopsis in popular culture
A stereoscope is a device by which each eye can be presented with different images, allowing stereopsis to be stimulated with two pictures, one for each eye. This has led to various crazes for stereopsis, usually prompted by new sorts of stereoscopes. In Victorian times it was the prism stereoscope (allowing stereo photographs to be viewed), while in the 1920s it was red-green glasses (allowing stereo movies to be viewed). In 1939 the concept of the prism stereoscope was reworked into the technologically more complex View-Master, which remains in production today. In the 1950s polarizing glasses allowed stereopsis of coloured movies. In the 1990s Magic Eye pictures (autostereograms) - which did not require a stereoscope, but relied on viewers using a form of free fusion so that each eye views different images - were introduced.
Geometrical basis
Stereopsis appears to be processed in the visual cortex of mammals in binocular cells having receptive fields in different horizontal positions in the two eyes. Such a cell is active only when its preferred stimulus is in the correct position in the left eye and in the correct position in the right eye, making it a disparity detector.
When a person stares at an object, the two eyes converge so that the object appears at the center of the retina in both eyes. Other objects around the main object appear shifted in relation to the main object. In the following example, whereas the main object (dolphin) remains in the center of the two images in the two eyes, the cube is shifted to the right in the left eye's image and is shifted to the left when in the right eye's image.
Because each eye is in a different horizontal position, each has a slightly different perspective on a scene yielding different retinal images. Normally two images are not observed, but rather a single view of the scene, a phenomenon known as singleness of vision. Nevertheless, stereopsis is possible with double vision. This form of stereopsis was called qualitative stereopsis by Kenneth Ogle.
If the images are very different (such as by going cross-eyed, or by presenting different images in a stereoscope) then one image at a time may be seen, a phenomenon known as binocular rivalry.
There is a hysteresis effect associated with stereopsis. Once fusion and stereopsis have stabilized, fusion and stereopsis can be maintained even if the two images are pulled apart slowly and symmetrically to a certain extent in the horizontal direction. In the vertical direction, there is a similar but smaller effect. This effect, first demonstrated on a random dot stereogram, was initially interpreted as an extension of Panum's fusional area. Later it was shown that the hysteresis effect reaches far beyond Panum's fusional area, and that stereoscopic depth can be perceived in random-line stereograms despite the presence of cyclodisparities of about 15 deg, and this has been interpreted as stereopsis with diplopia.
Interaction of stereopsis with other depth cues
Under normal circumstances, the depth specified by stereopsis agrees with other depth cues, such as motion parallax (when an observer moves while looking at one point in a scene, the fixation point, points nearer and farther than the fixation point appear to move against or with the movement, respectively, at velocities proportional to the distance from the fixation point), and pictorial cues such as superimposition (nearer objects cover up farther objects) and familiar size (nearer objects appear bigger than farther objects). However, by using a stereoscope, researchers have been able to oppose various depth cues including stereopsis. The most drastic version of this is pseudoscopy, in which the half-images of stereograms are swapped between the eyes, reversing the binocular disparity. Wheatstone (1838) found that observers could still appreciate the overall depth of a scene, consistent with the pictorial cues. The stereoscopic information went along with the overall depth.
Computer stereo vision
Computer stereo vision is a part of the field of computer vision. It is sometimes used in mobile robotics to detect obstacles. Example applications include the ExoMars Rover and surgical robotics.
Two cameras take pictures of the same scene, but they are separated by a distance – exactly like our eyes. A computer compares the images while shifting the two images together over top of each other to find the parts that match. The shifted amount is called the disparity. The disparity at which objects in the image best match is used by the computer to calculate their distance.
For a human, the eyes change their angle according to the distance to the observed object. To a computer this represents significant extra complexity in the geometrical calculations (epipolar geometry). In fact the simplest geometrical case is when the camera image planes are on the same plane. The images may alternatively be converted by reprojection through a linear transformation to be on the same image plane. This is called image rectification.
Computer stereo vision with many cameras under fixed lighting is called structure from motion. Techniques using a fixed camera and known lighting are called photometric stereo techniques, or "shape from shading".
Computer stereo display
Many attempts have been made to reproduce human stereo vision on rapidly changing computer displays, and toward this end numerous patents relating to 3D television and cinema have been filed in the USPTO. At least in the US, commercial activity involving those patents has been confined exclusively to the grantees and licensees of the patent holders, whose interests tend to last for twenty years from the time of filing.
Discounting 3D television and cinema (which generally require more than one digital projector whose moving images are mechanically coupled, in the case of IMAX 3D cinema), several stereoscopic LCDs are going to be offered by Sharp, which has already started shipping a notebook with a built in stereoscopic LCD. Although older technology required the user to don goggles or visors for viewing computer-generated images, or CGI, newer technology tends to employ Fresnel lenses or plates over the liquid crystal displays, freeing the user from the need to put on special glasses or goggles.
Tests
In stereopsis tests (short: stereotests), slightly different images are shown to each eye, such that a 3D image is perceived in case stereovision is present. This can be achieved by means of vectographs (visible with polarized glasses), anaglyphs (visible with red-green glasses), lenticular lenses (visible with the naked eye), or head-mounted display technology. The type of changes from one eye to the other may differ depending on which level of stereoacuity is to be detected. A series of stereotests for selected levels thus constitutes a test of stereoacuity.
There are two types of common clinical tests for stereopsis and stereoacuity: random dot stereotests and contour stereotests. Random-dot stereopsis tests use pictures of stereo figures that are embedded in a background of random dots. Contour stereotests use pictures in which the targets presented to each eye are separated horizontally.
Random dot stereotests
The ability of stereopsis can be tested by, for example, the Lang stereotest, which consists of a random-dot stereogram upon which a series of parallel strips of cylindrical lenses are imprinted in certain shapes, which separate the views seen by each eye in these areas, similarly to a hologram. Without stereopsis, the image looks only like a field of random dots, but the shapes become discernible with increasing stereopsis, and generally consists of a cat (indicating that there is ability of stereopsis of 1200 seconds of arc of retinal disparity), a star (600 seconds of arc) and a car (550 seconds of arc). To standardize the results, the image should be viewed at a distance from the eye of 40 cm and exactly in the frontoparallel plane. There is no need to use special spectacles for such tests, thereby facilitating use in young children.
Contour stereotests
Examples of contour stereotests are the Titmus stereotests, the most well-known example being the Titmus fly stereotest, where a picture of a fly is displayed with disparities on the edges. The patient uses a 3-D glasses to look at the picture and determine whether a 3-D figure can be seen. The amount of disparity in images vary, such as 400-100 sec of arc, and 800-40 sec arc.
Deficiency and treatment
Deficiency in stereopsis can be complete (then called stereoblindness) or more or less impaired. Causes include blindness in one eye, amblyopia and strabismus.
Vision therapy is one of the treatments for people lacking in stereopsis. Vision therapy will allow individuals to enhance their vision through several exercises such as by strengthening and improving eye movement. There is recent evidence that stereoacuity may be improved in persons with amblyopia by means of perceptual learning (see also: treatment of amblyopia).
In animals
There is good evidence for stereopsis throughout the animal kingdom. It occurs in many mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibia, fish, crustaceans, spiders, and insects. Stomatopods even have stereopsis with just one eye.
See also
Computer stereo vision
Epipolar geometry
Horopter
Orthoptics
Pupillary distance
Vectograph
References
Bibliography
Julesz, B. (1971). Foundations of cyclopean perception. Chicago: University of Chicago Press
Steinman, Scott B. & Steinman, Barbara A. & Garzia, Ralph Philip (2000). Foundations of Binocular Vision: A Clinical perspective. McGraw-Hill Medical. .
Howard, I. P., & Rogers, B. J. (2012). Perceiving in depth. Volume 2, Stereoscopic vision. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Cabani, I. (2007). Segmentation et mise en couleur – Application: étude et conception d'un système de stéréovision couleur pour l'aide à la conduite automobile.
External links
Middlebury Stereo Vision Page
VIP Laparoscopic / Endoscopic Video Dataset (stereo medical images)
What is Stereo Vision?
Learn about Stereograms then make your own Magic Eye
International Orthoptic Association
Stereoscopy
Vision
3D imaging |
488569 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simics | Simics | Simics is a full-system simulator or virtual platform used to run unchanged production binaries of the target hardware. Simics was originally developed by the Swedish Institute of Computer Science (SICS), and then spun off to Virtutech for commercial development in 1998. Virtutech was acquired by Intel in 2010. Currently, Simics is provided by Intel in a public release and sold commercially by Wind River Systems, which was in the past a subsidiary of Intel.
Simics contains both instruction set simulators and hardware models, and is or has been used to simulate systems such as Alpha, IA-64, ARM (32- and 64-bit), MIPS (32- and 64-bit), MSP430, PowerPC (32- and 64-bit), SPARC-V8 and V9, and x86 and x86-64 CPUs. Many operating systems have been run on various varieties of the simulated hardware, including MS-DOS, Windows, VxWorks, OSE, Solaris, FreeBSD, Linux, QNX, RTEMS, and UEFI.
The NetBSD AMD64 port was initially developed using Simics before the public release of the chip. The purpose of simulation in Simics is often to develop software for a particular type of hardware without requiring access to that precise hardware, using Simics as a virtual platform. This can applied both to pre-release and pre-silicon software development for future hardware, as well as for existing hardware. Intel uses Simics to provide its ecosystem with access to future platform months or years ahead of the hardware launch.
The current version of Simics is 6 which was released publicly in 2019. Simics runs on 64-bit Intel Architecture machines running Microsoft Windows and Linux (32-bit support was dropped with the release of Simics 5, since 64-bit provides significant performance advantages and is universally available on current hardware). The previous version, Simics 5, was released in 2015.
Simics has the ability to execute a system in forward and reverse direction. Reverse debugging can illuminate how an exceptional condition or bug occurred. When executing an OS such as Linux in reverse using Simics, previously deleted files reappear when the deletion point is passed in reverse and scrolling and other graphical display and console updates occur backwards as well.
Simics is built for high performance execution of full-system models, and uses both binary translation and hardware-assisted virtualization to increase simulation speed. It is natively multithreaded and can simulate multiple target (or guest) processors and boards using multiple host threads. It has been used to run simulations containing hundreds of target processors.
See also
ARM Fastsim, an instruction-set simulator and set of system models for ARM IP.
OVPsim, a full system simulation framework which is free for non-commercial use, and which comes with over 100 open source models and platforms that run Linux, Android, and many other operating systems.
Qemu, open-source program that can do full-system simulation in the same way as Simics, including using hardware virtualization to accelerate the execution of X86 or X86.
SPIM, MIPS processor simulator designed to run R2000, R3000 etc.
Instruction set simulator
References
External links
Simics public release from Intel
Simics product page at Wind River
Virtualization software
Virtual machines
Debuggers
Simulation software
Emulation software
Companies based in Silicon Valley |
13442065 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privacy-invasive%20software | Privacy-invasive software | Privacy-invasive software is computer software that ignores users’ privacy and that is distributed with a specific intent, often of a commercial nature. Three typical examples of privacy-invasive software are adware, spyware and browser hijacking programs.
Background
In a digital setting, such as the Internet, there are a wide variety of privacy threats. These vary from the tracking of user activity (sites visited, items purchased etc.), to mass marketing based on the retrieval of personal information (spam offers and telemarketing calls are more common than ever), to the distribution of information on lethal technologies used for, e.g., acts of terror.
Spyware and identity theft are two related topics whereby individuals could use spyware to change the identity or spy on a potential victim. Spyware allows the aggressor and hacker to extract the victim's personal information and behaviours, thus making it easier for him or her to steal the identity of a victim.
Today, software-based privacy-invasions occur in numerous aspects of Internet usage. Spyware programs set to collect and distribute user information secretly download and execute on users’ workstations. Adware displays advertisements and other commercial content often based on personal information retrieved by spyware programs. System monitors record various actions on computer systems. Keyloggers record users’ keystrokes in order to monitor user behaviour. Self-replicating malware downloads and spreads disorder in systems and networks. Data-harvesting software programmed to gather e-mail addresses have become conventional features of the Internet, which among other things results in spam e-mail messages filling networks and computers with unsolicited commercial content. With those threats in mind, privacy-invasive software may be defined as:
Definition
<blockquote>Privacy-invasive software is a category of software that ignores users’ right to be left alone and that is distributed with a specific intent, often of a commercial nature, which negatively affect[s] its users.</blockquote>
In this context, ignoring users’ right to be left alone means that the software is unsolicited and that it does not permit users to determine for themselves when, how and to what extent personally identifiable data is gathered, stored or processed by the software. Distributed means that it has entered the computer systems of users from (often unknown) servers placed on the Internet infrastructure. Often of a commercial nature means that the software (regardless of type or quality) is used as a tool in some sort of a commercial plan to gain revenues.
Problem with the spyware concept
In early 2000, Steve Gibson formulated the first description of spyware after realizing software that stole his personal information had been installed on his computer. His definition reads as follows:
This definition was valid in the beginning of the spyware evolution. However, as the spyware concept evolved over the years it attracted new kinds of behaviours. As these behaviours grew both in number and in diversity, the term spyware became hollowed out. This evolution resulted in that a great number of synonyms sprang up, e.g. thiefware, scumware, trackware, and badware. It is believed that the lack of a single standard definition of spyware depends on the diversity in all these different views on what really should be included, or as Aaron Weiss put it:
Despite this vague comprehension of the essence in spyware, all descriptions include two central aspects. The degree of associated user consent, and the level of negative impact they impair on the user and their computer system (further discussed in Section 2.3 and Section 2.5 in ). Because of the diffuse understanding in the spyware concept, recent attempts to define it have been forced into compromises. The Anti-Spyware Coalition (ASC) which is constituted by public interest groups, trade associations, and anti-spyware companies, have come to the conclusion that the term spyware should be used at two different abstraction levels. At the low level they use the following definition, which is similar to Steve Gibson's original one:
However, since this definition does not capture all the different types of spyware available they also provide a wider definition, which is more abstract in its appearance:
Difficulties in defining spyware, forced the ASC to define what they call Spyware (and Other Potentially Unwanted Technologies) instead. This includes any software that does not have the users’ appropriate consent for running on their computers. Another group that has tried to define spyware is a group called StopBadware.org, which consists of actors such as Harvard Law School, Oxford University, Google, Lenovo, and Sun Microsystems. Their result is that they do not use the term spyware at all, but instead introduce the term badware. Their definition thereof span over seven pages, but the essence looks as follows:
Both definitions from ASC and StopBadware.org show the difficulty with defining spyware. We therefore regard the term spyware at two different abstraction levels. On the lower level it can be defined according to Steve Gibsons original definition. However, in its broader and in a more abstract sense the term spyware is hard to properly define, as concluded above.
Introducing the term "privacy-invasive software"
A joint conclusion is that it is important, for both software vendors and users, that a clear separation between acceptable and unacceptable software behaviour is established. The reason for this is the subjective nature of many spyware programs included, which result in inconsistencies between different users beliefs, i.e. what one user regards as legitimate software could be regarded as a spyware by others. As the spyware concept came to include increasingly more types of programs, the term got hollowed out, resulting in several synonyms, such as trackware, evilware and badware, all negatively emotive. We therefore choose to introduce the term privacy-invasive software to encapsulate all such software. We believe this term to be more descriptive than other synonyms without having as negative connotation. Even if we use the word invasive to describe such software, we believe that an invasion of privacy can be both desired and beneficial for the user as long as it is fully transparent, e.g. when implementing specially user-tailored services or when including personalization features in software.
The work by Warkentins et al. (described in Section 7.3.1 in ) can be used as a starting point when developing a classification of privacy-invasive software, where we classify privacy-invasive software as a combination between user consent and direct negative consequences. User consent is specified as either low, medium or high, while the degree of direct negative consequences span between tolerable, moderate, and severe. This classification allows us to first make a distinction between legitimate software and spyware, and secondly between spyware and malicious software. All software that has a low user consent, or which impairs severe direct negative consequences should be regarded as malware. While, on the other hand, any software that has high user consent, and which results in tolerable direct negative consequences should be regarded as legitimate software. By this follows that spyware constitutes the remaining group of software, i.e. those that have medium user consent or which impair moderate direct negative consequences. This classification is described in further detail in Chapter 7 in .
In addition to the direct negative consequences, we also introduce indirect negative consequences''. By doing so our classification distinguishes between any negative behaviour a program has been designed to carry out (direct negative consequences) and security threats introduced by just having that software executing on the system (indirect negative consequences). One example of an indirect negative consequence is the exploitation risk of software vulnerabilities in programs that execute on users’ systems without their knowledge.
Comparison to malware
The term privacy-invasive software is motivated in that software types such as adware and spyware are essentially often defined according to their actions instead of their distribution mechanisms (as with most malware definitions, which also rarely correspond to motives of, e.g., business and commerce). The overall intention with the concept of privacy-invasive software is consequently to convey the commercial aspect of unwanted software contamination. The threats of privacy-invasive software consequently do not find their roots in totalitarianism, malice or political ideas, but rather in the free market, advanced technology and the unbridled exchange of electronic information. By the inclusion of purpose in its definition, the term privacy-invasive software is a contribution to the research community of privacy and security.
History
Internet goes commercial
In the mid-1990s, the development of the Internet increased rapidly due to the interest from the general public. One important factor behind this accelerating increase was the 1993 release of the first browser, called Mosaic. This marked the birth of the graphically visible part of the Internet known as the World Wide Web (WWW) that was introduced in 1990. Commercial interests became well aware of the potential offered by the WWW in terms of electronic commerce especially because the restrictions on the commercial use of the Internet were removed which opened the space for companies to use the web as a platform to advertise and sell their goods. Thus, shortly after, companies selling goods over the Internet emerged, i.e. pioneers such as book dealer Amazon.com and CD retailer CDNOW.com, which both were founded in 1994.
During the following years, personal computers and broadband connections to the Internet became more commonplace. Also, the increased use of the Internet resulted in that e-commerce transactions involved considerable amounts of money. As competition over customers intensified, some e-commerce companies turned to questionable methods in their battle to entice customers into completing transactions with them. This opened ways for illegitimate actors to gain revenues by stretching the limits used with methods for collecting personal information and for propagating commercial advertisements. Buying such services allowed for some e-commerce companies to get an advantage over their competitors, e.g. by using advertisements based on unsolicited commercial messages (also known as spam) .
Commercially motivated adverse software
The use of questionable techniques, such as Spam, were not as destructive as the more traditional malicious techniques, e.g. computer viruses or trojan horses. Compared to such malicious techniques the new ones differed in two fundamental ways. First, they were not necessarily illegal, and secondly, their main goal was gaining money instead of creating publicity for the creator by reaping digital havoc. Therefore, these techniques grouped as a “grey”area next to the already existing “dark” side of the Internet.
Behind this development stood advertisers that understood that Internet was a “merchant’s utopia”, offering huge potential in global advertising coverage at a relatively low cost. By using the Internet as a global notice board, e-commerce companies could market their products through advertising agencies that delivered online ads to the masses. In 2004, online advertisement yearly represented between $500 million and $2 billion markets, which in 2005 increased to well over $6 billion-a-year. The larger online advertising companies report annual revenues in excess of $50 million each. In the beginning of this development such companies distributed their ads in a broadcast-like manner, i.e. they were not streamlined towards individual users’ interests. Some of these ads were served directly on Web sites as banner ads, but dedicated programs, called adware, soon emerged. Adware were used to display ads through pop-up windows without depending on any Internet access or Web pages.
The birth of spyware
In the search for more effective advertising strategies, these companies soon discovered the potential in ads that were targeted towards user interests. Once targeted online ads started to appear, the development took an unfortunate turn. Now, some advertisers developed software that became known as spyware, collecting users’ personal interests, e.g. through their browsing habits. Over the coming years spyware would evolve into a significant new threat to Internet-connected computers, bringing along reduced system performance and security. The information gathered by spyware were used for constructing user profiles, including personal interests, detailing what users could be persuaded to buy. The introduction of online advertisements also opened a new way to fund software development by having the software display advertisements to its users. By doing so the software developer could offer their software “free of charge”, since they were paid by the advertising agency. Unfortunately, many users did not understand the difference between “free of charge” and a “free gift”, where difference is that a free gift is given without any expectations of future compensation, while something provided free of charge expects something in return. A dental examination that is provided free of charge at a dentist school is not a free gift. The school expects gained training value and as a consequence the customer suffers increased risks. As adware were combined with spyware, this became a problem for computer users. When downloading software described as “free of charge” the users had no reason to suspect that it would report on for instance their Internet usage, so that presented advertisements could be targeted towards their interests.
Some users probably would have accepted to communicate their browsing habits because of the positive feedback, e.g. “offers” relevant to their interests. However, the fundamental problem was that users were not properly informed about neither the occurrence nor the extent of such monitoring, and hence were not given a chance to decide on whether to participate or not. As advertisements became targeted, the borders between adware and spyware started to dissolve, combining both these programs into a single one, that both monitored users and delivered targeted ads. The fierce competition soon drove advertisers to further “enhance” the ways used for serving their ads, e.g. replacing user-requested content with sponsored messages instead, before showing it to the users.
The arms-race between spyware vendors
As the chase for faster financial gains intensified, several competing advertisers turned to use even more illegitimate methods in an attempt to stay ahead of their competitors. This targeted advertising accelerated the whole situation and created a “gray” between conventional adds that people chose to see, such as subscribing to an Internet site & adds pushed on users through "pop-up adds" or downloaded adds displayed in a program itself.
This practice pushed Internet advertising closer to the “dark” side of Spam & other types of invasive, privacy compromising advertising. During this development, users experienced infections from unsolicited software that crashed their computers by accident, change application settings, harvested personal information, and deteriorated their computer experience. Over time these problems led to the introduction of countermeasures in the form of anti-spyware tools.
These tools purported to clean computers from spyware, adware, and any other type of shady software located in that same “gray” area. This type of software can lead to false positives as some types of legitimate software came to be branded by some users as "Spyware" (i.e. Spybot: Search & Destroy identifies the ScanSpyware program as a Spybot.) These tools were designed similarly to anti-malware tools, such as antivirus software. Anti-spyware tools identify programs using signatures (semantics, program code, or other identifying attributes). The process only works on known programs, which can lead to the false positives mentioned earlier & leave previously unknown spyware undetected. To further aggravate the situation, a few especially illegitimate companies distributed fake anti-spyware tools in their search for a larger piece of the online advertising market. These fake tools claimed to remove spyware, but instead installed their own share of adware and spyware on unwitting users’ computers. Sometimes even accompanied by the functionality to remove adware and spyware from competing vendors. Anti-Spyware has become a new area of online vending with fierce competition.
New spyware programs are being added to the setting in what seems to be a never-ending stream, although the increase has levelled out somewhat over the last years. However, there still does not exist any consensus on a common spyware definition or classification, which negatively affects the accuracy of anti-spyware tools. As mentioned above, some spyware programs remain undetected on users' computers. Developers of anti-spyware programs officially state that the fight against spyware is more complicated than the fight against viruses, trojan horses, and worms.
Predicted future development
There are several trends integrating computers and software into people's daily lives. One example is traditional media-oriented products which are being integrated into a single device, called media centres. These media centres include the same functionality as conventional television, DVD-players, and stereo equipment, but combined with an Internet connected computer. In a foreseeable future these media centres are anticipated to reach vast consumer impact. In this setting, spyware could monitor and surveillance for instance what television channels are being watched, when/why users change channel or what DVD movies users have purchased and watch. This is information that is highly attractive for any advertising or media-oriented corporation to obtain. This presents us with a probable scenario where spyware is tailored towards these new platforms; the technology needed is to a large extent the same as is used in spyware today.
Another interesting area for spyware vendors is the increasing amount of mobile devices being shipped. Distributors of advertisements have already turned their eyes to these devices. So far this development have not utilized the geographic position data stored in these devices. However, during the time of this writing companies are working on GPS-guided ads and coupons destined for mobile phones and hand-held devices. In other words, development of location-based marketing that allow advertising companies to get access to personal geographical data so that they can serve geographically dependent ads and coupons to their customers. Once such geographic data is being harvested and correlated with already accumulated personal information, another privacy barrier has been crossed.
References
Citations
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Privacy
Spyware |
5303606 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microchip%20%28comics%29 | Microchip (comics) | David Linus "Microchip" Lieberman (often known as Micro) is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. He was an ally of The Punisher for many years and assisted the Punisher by building weapons, supplying technology and providing friendship. Microchip gradually evolved from the Punisher's friend to a bitter enemy.
Micro was portrayed by Wayne Knight in 2008's Punisher: War Zone and by Ebon Moss-Bachrach in the television adaption of the first season set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe.
Publication history
Microchip first appeared in The Punisher vol. 2 #4 (Nov. 1987) and was created by Mike Baron and Klaus Janson.
The character was inspired by Q from the James Bond series of novels and films.
Fictional character biography
David Linus "Microchip" Lieberman was a legendary computer hacker in the early days of the Internet, performing numerous scams and hacks still held in awe by his peers, until one scam brought him too close to real-world criminals and he was forced into "retirement", rebuilding his life as a quiet, unassuming businessman. This ended when his nephew, attempting to follow in his favorite uncle's footsteps, was caught and killed after accidentally hacking into the private computers of the Kingpin. While personally investigating his nephew's murder, Lieberman met and started collaborating with the Punisher. Microchip's help proved invaluable to Castle: he served not just as a hacker and cyber-investigator, but provided him with invaluable services, such as managing and laundering his finances (i.e., the money Castle takes from the criminals he kills), establishing and maintaining Castle's safehouses, helping Castle train in more "specialized" skills for his war on crime, and obtaining hard-to-get ammunition and equipment. Less obsessed with Castle's personal war, Microchip also acts as a de facto counselor to Castle (e.g., encouraging Castle to take occasional vacations and breaks, to avoid burn-out or losing his mind).
Over time, more of his past history is revealed. His father had been forced to create weapons against his will years before Micro was born; in the same issue he mentions his sister is a happy housewife in Ft. Lauderdale. Micro has an illegitimate son named Louis Frohike, who winds up getting killed while trying to assist the Punisher in a hostage exchange.
Micro is capable of fighting on his own such as when he took on an assassination ring threatening his godson's family. He also takes on less violent crime, such as when he discovered his new neighbor was being scammed by a "charity". He takes down the scammers from within, not by violence but by stealing incriminating records and sending them to fans of yodeling music so they can be publicized while keeping his involvement secret.
Outside of crime, some plots have revolved around Leiberman's weight. In one instance, he attempted to take a break and better control his health by enrolling in a rural camp for overweight people, which claimed to offer a revolutionary weight-loss drug to participants. However, he is once again drawn back into crime-fighting and seeking Castle's aid when he realizes the camp is a front for an amphetamines ring, and that the "weight-loss" drug was in fact intended to turn the camp's attendees into addicts.
One issue that dealt primarily with Micro was when Castle massacres a street gang running drugs, but a dealer named Jamal Jones survives. Micro warns Frank that Jones is hospitalized under heavy police protection and takes it upon himself to infiltrate the hospital through different disguises, first dressing as a telephone lineman and then a reporter under the pseudonym Linus Schultz (a likely reference to Charles M. Schulz and his famous character Linus van Pelt), so he could contact Jones with a message that the Punisher wants the name of his drug connection or he'll come back to finish the job. A slight insight to his wish to have a life outside of crime-fighting occurs when Micro thinks to himself about a brief meeting with a nurse and how even a casual encounter with a woman causes him to recognize that he spends "too much time with Frank and his 'war'".
Micro loses his left pinky finger when the Kingpin sends it to Castle after kidnapping his partner and threatening to use his knowledge of the Punisher's crimes to expose him. He is released from the Kingpin's custody when the Punisher agrees to kill one of the boss's rivals.
The Punisher's 1992 spin-off entitled The Punisher War Zone, written by Chuck Dixon and penciled by John Romita, Jr., provided further development for Micro. The first issues describe his growing disillusionment with the Punisher's crusade, with Micro going so far as to see a psychiatrist and take up acting in an attempt to deal with his frustration. After Castle discovers this, the two have a disagreement and Micro goes into hiding, working as a barman.
Micro develops a friendship with Mickey Fondozzi, a repentant Mafia soldier whom Frank recruits to his side. The two work on operations together, such as infiltrating the Secret Empire, a multi-faceted criminal organization. After the Punisher is seemingly killed in a failed ambush of an underworld meeting, the two find themselves literally on the street, their vehicle surrounded by police. When Micro refuses to help Mickey blast his way through the cops to escape, the latter abandons him.
Ultimately, Castle and Micro have one final fallout just before the cancellation of all three major Punisher titles in 1995. This fight comes to an end in the closing issues of The Punisher War Journal. Micro disagrees with Castle's increasingly violent methods, feeling that Castle has lost sight of their original goals and has gone too far for even him to tolerate. He decides to recruit a new "Punisher" to replace Castle, former Navy SEAL Carlos Cruz. Micro and Castle come face to face in one of Micro's safehouses in what appears to be a final confrontation. A gun battle ensues between the two former partners. This battle is interrupted by rogue S.H.I.E.L.D. agent Derek "Stone Cold" Smalls, who had been part of a program to take down vigilantes like Castle before becoming a vigilante himself. Smalls fires a rocket into the safe house, killing Micro. Castle moves on, unsure if he would have really slain his old friend himself.
During the 2008 - 09 "Dark Reign" storyline, Hood brings Microchip back from the dead and offers to bring his son back to life if he helps in dealing with the Punisher. Microchip sends Megatak to attack the Punisher's new hacker ally, Henry. To start off Hood's revival ritual of Castle's and Microchip's family, Microchip shoots G.W. Bridge in the head. Unfortunately, the Punisher refuses to help and threatens to use Firebrand to burn them alive. The death of Bridge succeeds in reanimating the corpses, but the Punisher, believing that his family is not actually present, forces Firebrand to destroy the bodies, then kills the villain.
In the Punisher: In the Blood mini-series, the Punisher returns to New York City and vows to find Micro and make him pay for murdering G.W. Bridge. Micro is shown being knocked unconscious by Jigsaw. While being held captive in Jigsaw's warehouse hideout, he is visited by Stuart Clarke, an old ally of the Punisher. Stuart explains that his girlfriend died at the Punisher's hand and that he swore to make him pay, only to see his revenge failed. Stuart walks away, warning Micro that the Punisher is coming. When the Punisher is captured, Jigsaw allows him to kill Micro by slashing his throat. Jigsaw's son, Henry Russo, learns his father was manipulating the Punisher and helps him to escape.
Other versions
Crossovers
Microchip accompanies the Punisher to Riverdale in Archie Meets the Punisher, and to Gotham City in Punisher and Batman; in the latter, he is narrowly bested by Robin in a "hacking duel".
Marvel MAX
In the Punisher: MAX universe, Microchip has been presumed dead for some time. However he returns to attempt to pressure Castle into working for the CIA's black ops unit to participate in the hunt for terrorists. The Punisher declines, as he prefers his autonomy to indentured service to an institution such as the government. Microchip confesses to Castle that the source of funding for the operation came from the CIA funneling arms and heroin out of Afghanistan. Castle gives Micro a chance he has not given his victims since before he officially assumed the role of the Punisher: the chance to run. Microchip declines, obligated to help Castle in a CIA/Mafia firefight. Taking a possibly mortal injury in the fight, Micro attempts to humanize Castle again, only to be met with a point-blank shotgun round to the head.
Punisher Kills the Marvel Universe
Microchip, here a former member of the United States Air Force who was "kicked out" after Doctor Octopus ripped his legs off, is partnered with the Punisher by Kesselring, a superhuman-hating multi-millionaire who has convinced the Punisher to kill all the world's heroes and villains. Before going after his last target, Daredevil, the Punisher tells Microchip, "Last kill, Micro. You get some distance. Don't look back. You've got any sense, you'll find something else to do with that brain of yours. Something worth a damn." Microchip's response is a deadpan, "Are you telling me to get a life?"
Space: Punisher
Microchip's equivalent is Chip, a robot the Punisher built to aid him in his vendetta against the Six-Fingered Hand. When the Punisher confronts a group of renegade Watchers, the true leaders of the Six-Fingered Hand, the entities destroy Chip, though the Punisher is able to escape with his companion's severed head, the face of which he is revealed to have modeled after his murdered son's.
What If? Age of Ultron
The events of What If?: Age of Ultron caused one universe's Thor to drop dead while fighting the Midgard Serpent, which slaughtered the rest of that world's superpowered humans with the assistance of other Asgardian monsters. Microchip appears as a member of Nick Fury's Defenders, a group consisting of Earth's remaining non-powered heroes who are holed up in Latveria's Castle Doom. After filling a Quinjet with everything from the late Doctor Doom's armory, Microchip and the other Defenders, sans Fury and Black Widow, sacrifice themselves in a kamikaze attack against the Midgard Serpent, giving Black Widow the opportunity to acquire Mjolnir, become the new Thor, and kill the Serpent. Microchip and the others who died in this battle are later honored with individualized statues.
In other media
Television
Microchip appears in Spider-Man, voiced by Robert Axelrod. His nickname is Chip rather than Micro. In his appearances, alongside the Punisher, he acts as Frank's conscience, urging him to use non-lethal weaponry.
Micro is featured in TV series set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe, portrayed by Ebon Moss-Bachrach.
Micro is first referred to in the Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. episode "The Writing on the Wall", as a contact of Daisy Johnson.
Micro is again mentioned in the Daredevil episode "A Cold Day in Hell's Kitchen", as Frank is shown recovering a CD with the word "MICRO" written on it, before finally setting his house on fire.
Micro makes his onscreen debut in The Punisher. He is a former NSA analyst and family man. After sending evidence of illegal activities being committed in Afghanistan by government agents to the Department of Homeland Security, corrupt DHS agent Carson Wolf attempts to kill Micro. Micro then goes underground and sends the Punisher video evidence of his own questionable activities in Afghanistan that leads to a confrontation between the two.
Film
Microchip was included in one of Michael France's early drafts of The Punisher. The character was excised from the film at the insistence of director and co-writer Jonathan Hensleigh, who noted, "There are a couple of years where I didn't want to go; Microchip, the battle van, all that stuff where it got really high-tech; we're not going there at all. I deemed that too complicated, too lacking of the spirit of the sort of urban vigilante".
Microchip appears in Punisher: War Zone, portrayed by Wayne Knight. He is shown to be an ally of Punisher, offering him awkward support when Castle kills undercover NYPD agent Nicky Donatelli. When Jigsaw and Loony Bin Jim hear about Microchip, they murder his disabled mother, kidnap him, and give the Punisher the choice to either kill Microchip or Angela Donatelli and her daughter Grace (who they also abducted) or they will kill all three. Microchip offers his own life, but the Punisher instead uses his one bullet on Loony Bin Jim, who was threatening the Donatelli family. An outraged Jigsaw then shoots Microchip in the head. The Punisher, now enraged, frees Angela and Grace before dispatching Jigsaw.
Video games
Microchip provides the mission briefings in The Punisher.
Microchip appears on the Continue Screen of The Punisher, giving the Punisher CPR.
Microchip is featured in Spider-Man, voiced by Christopher Corey Smith. He can be heard conversing with the Punisher through a radio at the time when Punisher sees Spider-Man at the docks and tries to snipe him.
Microchip appears as a playable character in The Punisher: No Mercy.
Microchip appears in Marvel: Avengers Alliance. He is the driver of the Punisher's Battle Van.
References
External links
Microchip at Marvel Wikia
Microchip at Comic Vine
Comics characters introduced in 1987
Fictional engineers
Fictional inventors
Fictional characters from New York City
Punisher characters
Fictional hackers
Fictional murdered people
Crime film characters
Comic book sidekicks
Marvel Comics television characters
Characters created by Mike Baron
Vigilante characters in comics |
299592 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical%20disc%20drive | Optical disc drive | In computing, an optical disc drive (ODD) is a disc drive that uses laser light or electromagnetic waves within or near the visible light spectrum as part of the process of reading or writing data to or from optical discs. Some drives can only read from certain discs, but recent drives can both read and record, also called burners or writers (since they physically burn the organic dye on write-once CD-R, DVD-R and BD-R LTH discs). Compact discs, DVDs, and Blu-ray discs are common types of optical media which can be read and recorded by such drives.
Drive types
, most of the optical disc drives on the market are DVD-ROM drives and BD-ROM drives which read and record from those formats, along with having backward compatibility with CD, CD-R and CD-ROM discs; compact disc drives are no longer manufactured outside of audio devices. Read-only DVD and Blu-ray drives are also manufactured, but are less commonly found in the consumer market and mainly limited to media devices such as game consoles and disc media players. Over the last ten years, laptop computers no longer come with optical disc drives in order to reduce costs and make devices lighter, requiring consumers to purchase external optical drives.
Appliances and functionality
Optical disc drives are an integral part of standalone appliances such as CD players, DVD players, Blu-ray Disc players, DVD recorders, certain desktop video game consoles, such as Sony PlayStation 4, Microsoft Xbox One, Nintendo Wii U, Sony PlayStation 5 and Xbox Series X and also in older consoles, such as the Sony PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360, and certain portable video game consoles, such as Sony PlayStation Portable (using proprietary now discontinued UMDs). They are also very commonly used in computers to read software and media distributed on disc and to record discs for archival and data exchange purposes. Floppy disk drives, with capacity of 1.44 MB, have been made obsolete: optical media are cheap and have vastly higher capacity to handle the large files used since the days of floppy discs, and the vast majority of computers and much consumer entertainment hardware have optical writers. USB flash drives, high-capacity, small, and inexpensive, are suitable where read/write capability is required.
Disc recording is restricted to storing files playable on consumer appliances (films, music, etc.), relatively small volumes of data (e.g. a standard DVD holds 4.7 gigabytes, however, higher-capacity formats such as multi-layer Blu-ray Discs exist) for local use, and data for distribution, but only on a small scale; mass-producing large numbers of identical discs by pressing (replication) is cheaper and faster than individual recording (duplication).
Optical discs are used to back up relatively small volumes of data, but backing up of entire hard drives, which typically contain many hundreds of gigabytes or even multiple terabytes, is less practical. Large backups are often instead made on external hard drives, as their price has dropped to a level making this viable; in professional environments magnetic tape drives are also used.
Some optical drives also allow predictively scanning the surface of discs for errors and detecting poor recording quality.<ref name=QPx-Supported>QPxTool - check the quality List of supported devices by dosc quality scanning software QPxTool']</ref>
With an option in the optical disc authoring software, optical disc writers are able to simulate the writing process on CD-R, CD-RW, DVD-R and DVD-RW, which allows for testing such as observing the writing speeds and patterns (e.g. constant angular velocity, constant linear velocity and P-CAV and Z-CLV variants) with different writing speed settings and testing the highest capacity of an individual disc that would be achievable using overburning, without writing any data to the disc.
Few optical drives allow simulating a FAT32 flash drive from optical discs containing ISO9660/Joliet and UDF file systems or audio tracks (simulated as .wav files), for compatibility with most USB multimedia appliances.
Key components
Form factors
Optical drives for computers come in two main form factors: half-height (also known as desktop drive) and slim type (used in laptop computers and compact desktop computers). They exist as both internal and external variants.Half-height optical drives are around 4 centimetres tall, while slim type optical drives are around 1 cm tall.Half-height optical drives operate upwards of twice the speeds as slim type optical drives, because speeds on slim type optical drives are constrained to the physical limitations of the drive motor's rotation speed (around 5000rpm) rather than the performance of the optical pickup system.
Because half-height demand much more electrical power and a voltage of 12 V DC, while slim optical drives run on 5 volts, external half height optical drives require separate external power input, while external slim type are usually able to operate entirely on power delivered through a computer's USB port. Half height drives are also faster than Slim drives due to this, since more power is required to spin the disc at higher speeds.Half-height optical drives hold discs in place from both sides while slim type optical drives fasten the disc from the bottom.
Half height drives fasten the disc using 2 spindles containing a magnet each, one under and one above the disc tray. The spindles may be lined with flocking or a texturized silicone material to exert friction on the disc, to keep it from slipping. The upper spindle is left slightly loose and is attracted to the lower spindle because of the magnets they have. When the tray is opened, a mechanism driven by the movement of the tray pulls the lower spindle away from the upper spindle and vice versa when the tray is closed. When the tray is closed, the lower spindle touches the inner circumference of the disc, and slightly raises the disc from the tray to the upper spindle, which is attracted to the magnet on the lower disc, clamping the disc in place. Only the lower spindle is motorized. Trays in half height drives often fully open and close using a motorized mechanism that can be pushed to close, controlled by the computer, or controlled using a button on the drive. Trays on half height and slim drives can also be locked by whatever program is using it, however it can still be ejected by inserting the end of a paper clip into an emergency eject hole on the front of the drive. Early CD players such as the Sony CDP-101 used a separate motorized mechanism to clamp the disc to the motorized spindle.
Slim drives use a special spindle with spring loaded specially shaped studs that radiate outwards, pressing against the inner edge of the disc. The user has to put uniform pressure onto the inner circumference of the disc to clamp it to the spindle and pull from the outer circumference while placing the thumb on the spindle to remove the disc, flexing it slightly in the process and returning to its normal shape after removal. The outer rim of the spindle may have a texturized silicone surface to exert friction keeping the disc from slipping. In slim drives most if not all components are on the disc tray, which pops out using a spring mechanism that can be controlled by the computer. These trays cannot close on their own; they have to be pushed until the tray reaches a stop.
Laser and optics
Optical pickup system
The most important part of an optical disc drive is an optical path, which is inside a pickup head (PUH). The PUH is also known as a laser pickup, optical pickup, pickup, pickup assembly, laser assembly, laser optical assembly, optical pickup head/unit or optical assembly. It usually consists of a semiconductor laser diode, a lens for focusing the laser beam, and photodiodes for detecting the light reflected from the disc's surface.
Initially, CD-type lasers with a wavelength of 780 nm (within the infrared) were used. For DVDs, the wavelength was reduced to 650 nm (red color), and for Blu-ray Disc this was reduced even further to 405 nm (violet color).
Two main servomechanisms are used, the first to maintain the proper distance between lens and disc, to ensure the laser beam is focused as a small laser spot on the disc. The second servo moves the pickup head along the disc's radius, keeping the beam on the track, a continuous spiral data path. Optical disc media are 'read' beginning at the inner radius to the outer edge.
Near the laser lens, optical drives are usually equipped with one to three tiny potentiometers (usually separate ones for CDs, DVDs, and usually a third one for Blu-ray Discs if supported by the drive) that can be turned using a fine screwdriver. The potentiometer is in a series circuit with the laser lens and can be used to manually increase and decrease the laser power for repair purposes.
The laser diode used in DVD writers can have powers of up to 100 milliwatts, such high powers are used during writing. Some CD players have automatic gain control (AGC) to vary the power of the laser to ensure reliable playback of CD-RW discs.
Readability (the ability to read physically damaged or soiled discs) may vary among optical drives due to differences in optical pickup systems, firmwares, and damage patterns.
Read-only media
On factory-pressed read only media (ROM), during the manufacturing process the tracks are formed by pressing a thermoplastic resin into a nickel stamper that was made by plating a glass 'master' with raised 'bumps' on a flat surface, thus creating pits and lands in the plastic disk. Because the depth of the pits is approximately one-quarter to one-sixth of the laser's wavelength, the reflected beam's phase is shifted in relation to the incoming beam, causing mutual destructive interference and reducing the reflected beam's intensity. This is detected by photodiodes that create corresponding electrical signals.
Recordable media
An optical disk recorder encodes (also known as burning, since the dye layer is permanently burned) data onto a recordable CD-R, DVD-R, DVD+R, or BD-R disc (called a blank) by selectively heating (burning) parts of an organic dye layer with a laser.
This changes the reflectivity of the dye, thereby creating marks that can be read like the pits and lands on pressed discs. For recordable discs, the process is permanent and the media can be written to only once. While the reading laser is usually not stronger than 5 mW, the writing laser is considerably more powerful. DVD lasers operate at voltages of around 2.5 volts.
The higher the writing speed, the less time a laser has to heat a point on the media, thus its power has to increase proportionally. DVD burners' lasers often peak at about 200 mW, either in continuous wave and pulses, although some have been driven up to 400 mW before the diode fails.
Rewriteable media
For rewritable CD-RW, DVD-RW, DVD+RW, DVD-RAM, or BD-RE media, the laser is used to melt a crystalline metal alloy in the recording layer of the disc. Depending on the amount of power applied, the substance may be allowed to melt back (change the phase back) into crystalline form or left in an amorphous form, enabling marks of varying reflectivity to be created.
Double-sided media Double-sided media may be used, but they are not easily accessed with a standard drive, as they must be physically turned over to access the data on the other side.
Dual layer media Double layer or dual layer (DL) media have two independent data layers separated by a semi-reflective layer. Both layers are accessible from the same side, but require the optics to change the laser's focus. Traditional single layer (SL) writable media are produced with a spiral groove molded in the protective polycarbonate layer (not in the data recording layer), to lead and synchronize the speed of recording head. Double-layered writable media have: a first polycarbonate layer with a (shallow) groove, a first data layer, a semi-reflective layer, a second (spacer) polycarbonate layer with another (deep) groove, and a second data layer. The first groove spiral usually starts on the inner edge and extends outwards, while the second groove start on the outer edge and extends inwards.
Photothermal printing
Some drives support Hewlett-Packard's LightScribe, or the alternative LabelFlash photothermal printing technology for labeling specially coated discs.
Multi beam drives
Zen Technology and Sony have developed drives that use several laser beams simultaneously to read discs and write to them at higher speeds than what would be possible with a single laser beam. The limitation with a single laser beam comes from wobbling of the disc that may occur at high rotational speeds; at 25,000 RPMs CDs become unreadable while Blu-rays cannot be written to beyond 5,000 RPMs. With a single laser beam, the only way to increase read and write speeds without reducing the pit length of the disc (which would allow for more pits and thus bits of data per revolution, but may require smaller wavelength light) is by increasing the rotational speed of the disc which reads more pits in less time, increasing data rate; hence why faster drives spin the disc at higher speeds. In addition, CDs at 27,500 RPMs (such as to read the inside of a CD at 52x) may explode causing extensive damage to the disc's surroundings, and poor quality or damaged discs may explode at lower speeds.
In Zen's system (developed in conjunction with Sanyo and licensed by Kenwood), a diffraction grating is used to split a laser beam into 7 beams, which are then focused into the disc; a central beam is used for focusing and tracking the groove of the disc leaving 6 remaining beams (3 on either side) that are spaced evenly to read 6 separate portions of the groove of the disc in parallel, effectively increasing read speeds at lower RPMs, reducing drive noise and
stress on the disc. The beams then reflect back from the disc, and are collimated and projected into a special photodiode array to be read. The first drives using the technology could read at 40x, later increasing to 52x and finally 72x. It uses a single optical pickup.
In Sony's system (used on their proprietary Optical Disc Archive system which is based on Archival Disc, itself based on Blu-ray) the drive has 4 optical pickups, two on each side of the disc, with each pickup having two lenses for a total of 8 lenses and laser beams. This allows for both sides of the disc to be read and written to at the same time, and for the contents of the disc to be verified during writing.
Rotational mechanism
The rotational mechanism in an optical drive differs considerably from that of a hard disk drive's, in that the latter keeps a constant angular velocity (CAV), in other words a constant number of revolutions per minute (RPM). With CAV, a higher throughput is generally achievable at the outer disc compared to the inner.
On the other hand, optical drives were developed with an assumption of achieving a constant throughput, in CD drives initially equal to 150 KiB/s. It was a feature important for streaming audio data that always tend to require a constant bit rate. But to ensure no disc capacity was wasted, a head had to transfer data at a maximum linear rate at all times too, without slowing on the outer rim of the disc. This led to optical drives—until recently—operating with a constant linear velocity (CLV). The spiral groove of the disc passed under its head at a constant speed. The implication of CLV, as opposed to CAV, is that disc angular velocity is no longer constant, and the spindle motor needed to be designed to vary its speed from between 200 RPM on the outer rim and 500 RPM on the inner, keeping the data rate constant.
Later CD drives kept the CLV paradigm, but evolved to achieve higher rotational speeds, popularly described in multiples of a base speed. As a result, a 4× CLV drive, for instance, would rotate at 800-2000 RPM, while transferring data steadily at 600 KiB/s, which is equal to 4 × 150 KiB/s.
For DVDs, base or 1× speed is 1.385 MB/s, equal to 1.32 MiB/s, approximately nine times faster than the CD base speed. For Blu-ray drives, base speed is 6.74 MB/s, equal to 6.43 MiB/s.
Because keeping a constant transfer rate for the whole disc is not so important in most contemporary CD uses, a pure CLV approach had to be abandoned to keep the rotational speed of the disc safely low while maximizing data rate. Some drives work in a partial CLV (PCLV) scheme, by switching from CLV to CAV only when a rotational limit is reached. But switching to CAV requires considerable changes in hardware design, so instead most drives use the zoned constant linear velocity (Z-CLV) scheme. This divides the disc into several zones, each having its own constant linear velocity. A Z-CLV recorder rated at "52×", for example, would write at 20× on the innermost zone and then progressively increase the speed in several discrete steps up to 52× at the outer rim. Without higher rotational speeds, increased read performance may be attainable by simultaneously reading more than one point of a data groove, also known as multi-beam, but drives with such mechanisms are more expensive, less compatible, and very uncommon.
Limit
Both DVDs and CDs have been known to explode when damaged or spun at excessive speeds. This imposes a constraint on the maximum safe speeds (56× CAV for CDs or around 18×CAV in the case of DVDs) at which drives can operate.
The reading speeds of most half-height optical disc drives released since circa 2007 are limited to ×48 for CDs, ×16 for DVDs and ×12 (angular velocities) for Blu-ray Discs. Writing speeds on selected write-once media are higher.
Some optical drives additionally throttle the reading speed based on the contents of optical discs, such as max. 40× CAV (constant angular velocity) for the Digital Audio Extraction (“DAE”) of Audio CD tracks, 16× CAV for Video CD contents and even lower limitations on earlier models such as 4× CLV (constant linear velocity) for Video CDs.Pioneer DVR-A06 brochure (2003)
Loading mechanisms
Tray and slot loading
Current optical drives use either a tray-loading mechanism, where the disc is loaded onto a motorized (as utilized by half-height, "desktop" drives) tray, a manually operated tray (as utilized in laptop computers, also called slim type), or a slot-loading mechanism, where the disc is slid into a slot and drawn in by motorized rollers. Slot-loading optical drives exist in both half-height (desktop) and slim type (laptop) form factors.
With both types of mechanisms, if a CD or DVD is left in the drive after the computer is turned off, the disc cannot be ejected using the normal eject mechanism of the drive. However, tray-loading drives account for this situation by providing a small hole where one can insert a paperclip to manually open the drive tray to retrieve the disc.
Slot-loading optical disc drives are prominently used in game consoles and vehicle audio units. Although allowing more convenient insertion, those have the disadvantages that they cannot usually accept the smaller 80 mm diameter discs (unless 80 mm optical disc adapter is used) or any non-standard sizes, usually have no emergency eject hole or eject button, and therefore have to be disassembled if the optical disc cannot be ejected normally. However, some slot-loading optical drives have been engineered to support miniature discs. The Nintendo Wii, because of backward compatibility with Nintendo GameCube games, and PlayStation 3 video game consoles are able to load both standard size DVDs and 80 mm discs in the same slot-loading drive. Its successor's slot drive however, the Wii U, lacks miniature disc compatibility.
There were also some early CD-ROM drives for desktop PCs in which its tray-loading mechanism will eject slightly and user has to pull out the tray manually to load a CD, similar to the tray ejecting method used in internal optical disc drives of modern laptops and modern external slim portable optical disc drives. Like the top-loading mechanism, they have spring-loaded ball bearings on the spindle.
Top-load
A small number of drive models, mostly compact portable units, have a top-loading mechanism where the drive lid is manually opened upwards and the disc is placed directly onto the spindleLiteOn eTAU108 - DVD±RW (±R DL) / DVD-RAM drive - Hi-Speed USB Series Specification sheet and picture - CNet.com, 2009; accessed July 11th 2020. (for example, all PlayStation One consoles, PlayStation 2 Slim, PlayStation 3 Super Slim, Nintendo GameCube consoles, most portable CD players, and some standalone CD recorders feature top-loading drives). These sometimes have the advantage of using spring-loaded ball bearings to hold the disc in place, minimizing damage to the disc if the drive is moved while it is spun up.
Unlike tray and slot loading mechanisms by default, top-load optical drives can be opened without being connected to power.
Cartridge load
Some early CD-ROM drives used a mechanism where CDs had to be inserted into special cartridges or caddies, somewhat similar in appearance to a 3.5 inch micro floppy diskette. This was intended to protect the disc from accidental damage by enclosing it in a tougher plastic casing, but did not gain wide acceptance due to the additional cost and compatibility concerns—such drives would also inconveniently require "bare" discs to be manually inserted into an openable caddy before use. Ultra Density Optical (UDO), Magneto-optical drives, Universal Media Disc (UMD), DataPlay, Professional Disc, MiniDisc, Optical Disc Archive as well as early DVD-RAM and Blu-ray discs use optical disc cartridges.
Computer interfaces
All optical disc-drives use the SCSI-protocol on a command bus level, and initial systems used either a fully featured SCSI bus or as these were some what cost-prohibitive to sell to consumer applications, a proprietary cost-reduced version of the bus. This is because conventional ATA-standards at the time did not support, or have any provisions for any sort of removable media or hot-plugging of disk drives. Most modern internal drives for personal computers, servers, and workstations are designed to fit in a standard -inch (also written as 5.25 inch) drive bay and connect to their host via an ATA or SATA bus interface, but communicate using the SCSI protocol commands on software level as per the ATA Package Interface standard developed for making Parallel ATA/IDE interfaces compatible with removable media. Some devices may support vendor-specific commands such as recording density ("GigaRec"), laser power setting ("VariRec"), ability to manually hard-limit rotation speed in a way that overrides the universal speed setting (separately for reading and writing), and adjusting the lens and tray movement speeds where a lower setting reduces noise, as implmenented on some Plextor drives, as well as the ability to force overspeed burning, meaning beyond speed recommended for the media type, for testing purposes, as implemented on some Lite-ON drives. Additionally, there may be digital and analog outputs for audio. The outputs may be connected via a header cable to the sound card or the motherboard or to headphones or an external speaker with a 3.5mm AUX plug cable that many early optical drives are equipped with. At one time, computer software resembling CD players controlled playback of the CD. Today the information is extracted from the disc as digital data, to be played back or converted to other file formats.
Some early optical drives have dedicated buttons for CD playback controls on their front panel, allowing them to act as a standalone compact disc player.
External drives were popular in the beginning, because the drives often required complex electronics to institute, rivaling in complexity the Host computer system itself. External drives using SCSI, Parallel port, USB and FireWire interfaces exist, most modern drives being USB. Some portable versions for laptops power themselves from batteries or directly from their interface bus.
Drives with a SCSI interface were originally the only system interface available, but they never became popular in the price sensitive low-end consumer market which constituted majority of the demand. They were less common and tended to be more expensive, because of the cost of their interface chipsets, more complex SCSI connectors, and small volume of sales in comparison to proprietary cost-reduced applications, but most importantly because most consumer market computer systems did not have any sort of SCSI interface in them the market for them was small. However, support for multitude of various cost-reduced proprietary optical drive bus standards were usually embedded with sound cards which were often bundled with the optical drives themselves in the early years. Some sound card and optical drive bundles even featured a full SCSI bus. Modern IDE/ATAPI compliant Parallel ATA and Serial ATA drive control chipsets and their interface technology is more complex to manufacture than a traditional 8bit 50Mhz SCSI drive interface, because they feature properties of both the SCSI and ATA bus, but are cheaper to make overall due to economies of scale.
When the optical disc drive was first developed, it was not easy to add to computer systems. Some computers such as the IBM PS/2 were standardizing on the -inch floppy and -inch hard disk and did not include a place for a large internal device. Also IBM PCs and clones at first only included a single (parallel) ATA drive interface, which by the time the CD-ROM was introduced, was already being used to support two hard drives and were completely incapable of supporting removable media, a drive falling off or being removed from the bus while the system was live, would cause an unrecoverable error and crash the entire system. Early consumer grade laptops simply had no built-in high-speed interface for supporting an external storage device. High-end workstation systems and laptops featured a SCSI interface which had a standard for externally connected devices.
This was solved through several techniques:
Early sound cards could include a CD-ROM drive interface. Initially, such interfaces were proprietary to each CD-ROM manufacturer. A sound card could often have two or three different interfaces which are able to communicate with the CD-ROM drive.
A method for using the parallel port to use with external drives was developed at some point. This interface was traditionally used to connect a printer, but despite popular myth it is not its only use and various different external auxiliary devices exist for the IEEE-1278 bus, including but not limited to tape backup drives etc. This was slow but an option for low-to-midrange laptops with out integrated or PCMCIA extension bus connected SCSI.
A PCMCIA optical drive interface was also developed for laptops.
A SCSI card could be installed in desktop PCs to cater for an external SCSI drive enclosure or to run internally mounted SCSI Hard disk drives and optical drives, though SCSI was typically somewhat more expensive than other options, with some OEMs charging a premium for it.
Due to lack of asynchrony in existing implementations, an optical drive encountering damaged sectors may cause computer programs trying to access the drives, such as Windows Explorer, to lock up.
Internal mechanism of a drive
The optical drives in the photos are shown right side up; the disc would sit on top of them. The laser and optical system scans the underside of the disc.
With reference to the top photo, just to the right of image center is the disc motor, a metal cylinder, with a gray centering hub and black rubber drive ring on top. There is a disc-shaped round clamp, loosely held inside the cover and free to rotate; it's not in the photo. After the disc tray stops moving inward, as the motor and its attached parts rise, a magnet near the top of the rotating assembly contacts and strongly attracts the clamp to hold and center the disc. This motor is an "outrunner"-style brushless DC motor which has an external rotor – every visible part of it spins.
Two parallel guide rods that run between upper left and lower right in the photo carry the "sled", the moving optical read-write head. As shown, this "sled" is close to, or at the position where it reads or writes at the edge of the disc. To move the "sled" during continuous read or write operations, a stepper motor rotates a leadscrew to move the "sled" throughout its total travel range. The motor, itself, is the short gray cylinder just to the left of the most-distant shock mount; its shaft is parallel to the support rods. The leadscrew is the rod with evenly-spaced darker details; these are the helical grooves that engage a pin on the "sled".
In contrast, the mechanism shown in the second photo, which comes from a cheaply made DVD player, uses less accurate and less efficient brushed DC motors to both move the sled and spin the disc. Some older drives use a DC motor to move the sled, but also have a magnetic rotary encoder to keep track of the position. Most drives in computers use stepper motors.
The gray metal chassis is shock-mounted at its four corners to reduce sensitivity to external shocks, and to reduce drive noise from residual imbalance when running fast. The soft shock mount grommets are just below the brass-colored screws at the four corners (the left one is obscured).
In the third photo, the components under the cover of the lens mechanism are visible. The two permanent magnets on either side of the lens holder as well as the coils that move the lens can be seen. This allows the lens to be moved up, down, forwards, and backwards to stabilize the focus of the beam.
In the fourth photo, the inside of the optics package can be seen. Note that since this is a CD-ROM drive, there is only one laser, which is the black component mounted to the bottom left of the assembly. Just above the laser are the first focusing lens and prism that direct the beam at the disc. The tall, thin object in the center is a half-silvered mirror that splits the laser beam in multiple directions. To the bottom right of the mirror is the main photodiode that senses the beam reflected off the disc. Above the main photodiode is a second photodiode that is used to sense and regulate the power of the laser.
The irregular orange material is flexible etched copper foil supported by thin sheet plastic; these are "flexible circuits" that connect everything to the electronics (which is not shown).
History
The first laser disc, demonstrated in 1972, was the Laservision 12-inch video disc. The video signal was stored as an analog format like a video cassette. The first digitally recorded optical disc was a 5-inch audio compact disc (CD) in a read-only format created by Sony and Philips in 1975.
The first erasable optical disc drives were announced in 1983, by Matsushita (Panasonic), Sony, and Kokusai Denshin Denwa (KDDI). Sony eventually released the first commercial erasable and rewritable -inch optical disc drive in 1987, with dual-sided discs capable of holding 325 MB per side.
The CD-ROM format was developed by Sony and Denon, introduced in 1984, as an extension of Compact Disc Digital Audio and adapted to hold any form of digital data. The CD-ROM format has a storage capacity of 650 MB. Also in 1984, Sony introduced a LaserDisc data storage format, with a larger data capacity of 3.28 GB.
In September 1992, Sony announced the MiniDisc format, which was supposed to combine the audio clarity of CD's and the convenience of a cassette size. The standard capacity holds 80 minutes of audio. In January 2004, Sony revealed an upgraded Hi-MD format, which increased the capacity to 1 GB (48 hours of audio).
The DVD format, developed by Panasonic, Sony, and Toshiba, was released in 1995, and was capable of holding 4.7 GB per layer; with the first DVD players shipping on November 1, 1996, by Panasonic and Toshiba in Japan and the first DVD-ROM compatible computers being shipped on November 6 of that year by Fujitsu. Sales of DVD-ROM drives for computers in the U.S. began on March 24, 1997, when Creative Labs released their PC-DVD kit to the market.
In 1999, Kenwood released a multi-beam optical drive that achieved burning speeds as high as 72×, which would require dangerous spinning speeds to attain with single-beam burning. However, it suffered from reliability issues.
The first Blu-ray prototype was unveiled by Sony in October 2000, and the first commercial recording device was released to market on April 10, 2003. In January 2005, TDK announced that they had developed an ultra-hard yet very thin polymer coating ("Durabis") for Blu-ray Discs; this was a significant technical advance because better protection was desired for the consumer market to protect bare discs against scratching and damage compared to DVD. Technically Blu-ray Disc also required a thinner layer for the narrower beam and shorter wavelength 'blue' laser. The first BD-ROM players (Samsung BD-P1000) were shipped in mid-June 2006. The first Blu-ray Disc titles were released by Sony and MGM on June 20, 2006. The first mass-market Blu-ray Disc rewritable drive for the PC was the BWU-100A, released by Sony on July 18, 2006.
Starting in the mid 2010s, computer manufacturers began to stop including built-in optical disc drives on their products, with the advent of cheap, rugged (scratches can not cause corrupted data, inaccessible files or skipping audio/video), fast and high capacity USB drives and video on demand over the internet. Excluding an optical drive allows for circuit boards in laptops to be larger and less dense, requiring less layers, reducing production costs while also reducing weight and thickness, or for batteries to be larger. Computer case manufacturers also began to stop including -inch bays for installing optical disc drives. However, new optical disc drives are still (as of 2020) available for purchase. Notable optical disc drive OEMs include Hitachi, LG Electronics (merged into Hitachi-LG Data Storage), Toshiba, Samsung Electronics (merged into Toshiba Samsung Storage Technology), Sony, NEC (merged into Optiarc), Lite-On, Philips (merged into Philips & Lite-On Digital Solutions), Pioneer Corporation, Plextor, Panasonic, Yamaha Corporation and Kenwood.
Compatibility
Most optical drives are backward compatible with their ancestors up to CD, although this is not required by standards.
Compared to a CD's 1.2 mm layer of polycarbonate, a DVD's laser beam only has to penetrate 0.6 mm in order to reach the recording surface. This allows a DVD drive to focus the beam on a smaller spot size and to read smaller pits. DVD lens supports a different focus for CD or DVD media with same laser. With the newer Blu-ray Disc drives, the laser only has to penetrate 0.1 mm of material. Thus the optical assembly would normally have to have an even greater focus range. In practice, the Blu-ray optical system is separate from the DVD/CD system.
Some types of CD-R media with less-reflective dyes may cause problems.
May not work in non MultiRead-compliant drives.
May not work in some early-model DVD-ROM drives. CD-R would not work in any drive that did not have a 780 nm laser. CD-RW compatibility varied.
DVD+RW discs did not work in early video players that played DVD-RW discs. This was not due to any incompatibility with the format but was a deliberate feature built into the firmware by one drive manufacturer.
Read compatibility with existing DVD drives may vary greatly with the brand of DVD+R DL media used. Also drives that predated the media did not have the book code for DVD+R DL media in their firmware (this was not an issue for DVD-R DL though some drives could only read the first layer).
Early DVD+RW and DVD+R recorders could not write to DVD-R(W) media (and vice versa).
Will work in all drives that read DVD-R as compatibility ID byte is the same.
Recorder firmware may blacklist or otherwise refuse to record to some brands of DVD-RW media.
DVD+RW format was released before DVD+R. All DVD+RW only drives could be upgraded to write DVD+R discs by a firmware upgrade.
As of April 2005, all DVD+R DL recorders on the market are Super Multi-capable.
As of October 2006, recently released BD drives are able to read and write CD media.
Older CD player models might struggle with the low reflectivity of CD-RW media.
Also known as "DVD Multi Recorder" Recording performance
During the times of CD writer drives, they are often marked with three different speed ratings. In these cases, the first speed is for write-once (R) operations, the second speed for re-write (RW) operations, and the last speed for read-only (ROM) operations. For example, a 40×/16×/48× CD writer drive is capable of writing to CD-R media at speed of 40× (6,000 kbit/s), writing to CD-RW media at speed of 16× (2,400 kbit/s), and reading from a CD-ROM media at speed of 48× (7,200 kbit/s).
During the times of combo (CD-RW/DVD-ROM) drives, an additional speed rating (e.g. the 16× in 52×/32×/52×/16×) is designated for DVD-ROM media reading operations.
For DVD writer drives, Blu-ray Disc combo drives, and Blu-ray Disc writer drives, the writing and reading speed of their respective optical media are specified in its retail box, user's manual, or bundled brochures or pamphlets.
In the late 1990s, buffer underruns became a very common problem as high-speed CD recorders began to appear in home and office computers, which—for a variety of reasons—often could not muster the I/O performance to keep the data stream to the recorder steadily fed. The recorder, should it run short, would be forced to halt the recording process, leaving a truncated track that usually renders the disc useless.
In response, manufacturers of CD recorders began shipping drives with "buffer underrun protection" (under various trade names, such as Sanyo's "BURN-Proof", Ricoh's "JustLink" and Yamaha's "Lossless Link"). These can suspend and resume the recording process in such a way that the gap the stoppage produces can be dealt with by the error-correcting logic built into CD players and CD-ROM drives. The first of these drives were rated at 12× and 16×.
The first optical drive to support recording DVDs at 16× speed was the Pioneer DVR-108, released in the second half of 2004. At that time however, no recordable DVD media supported that high recording speed yet."16fach-DVD-Brenner Pioneer DVR-108 Der schnellste DVD-Brenner" − CHIP.DE (2004-10-16) (German)
While drives are burning DVD+R, DVD+RW and all Blu-ray formats, they do not require any such error correcting recovery as the recorder is able to place the new data exactly on the end of the suspended write effectively producing a continuous track (this is what the DVD+ technology achieved). Although later interfaces were able to stream data at the required speed, many drives now write in a 'zoned constant linear velocity' ("Z-CLV"). This means that the drive has to temporarily suspend the write operation while it changes speed and then recommence it once the new speed is attained. This is handled in the same manner as a buffer underrun.
The internal buffer of optical disc writer drives is: 8 MiB or 4 MiB when recording BD-R, BD-R DL, BD-RE, or BD-RE DL media; 2 MiB when recording DVD-R, DVD-RW, DVD-R DL, DVD+R, DVD+RW, DVD+RW DL, DVD-RAM, CD-R, or CD-RW media.
Recording schemes
CD recording on personal computers was originally a batch-oriented task in that it required specialised authoring software to create an "image" of the data to record and to record it to disc in the one session. This was acceptable for archival purposes, but limited the general convenience of CD-R and CD-RW discs as a removable storage medium.
Packet writing is a scheme in which the recorder writes incrementally to disc in short bursts, or packets. Sequential packet writing fills the disc with packets from bottom up. To make it readable in CD-ROM and DVD-ROM drives, the disc can be closed at any time by writing a final table-of-contents to the start of the disc; thereafter, the disc cannot be packet-written any further. Packet writing, together with support from the operating system and a file system like UDF, can be used to mimic random write-access as in media like flash memory and magnetic disks.
Fixed-length packet writing (on CD-RW and DVD-RW media) divides up the disc into padded, fixed-size packets. The padding reduces the capacity of the disc, but allows the recorder to start and stop recording on an individual packet without affecting its neighbours. These resemble the block-writable access offered by magnetic media closely enough that many conventional file systems will work as-is. Such discs, however, are not readable in most CD-ROM and DVD-ROM drives or on most operating systems without additional third-party drivers. The division into packets is not as reliable as it may seem as CD-R(W) and DVD-R(W) drives can only locate data to within a data block. Although generous gaps (the padding referred to above) are left between blocks, the drive nevertheless can occasionally miss and either destroy some existing data or even render the disc unreadable.
The DVD+RW disc format eliminates this unreliability by embedding more accurate timing hints in the data groove of the disc and allowing individual data blocks (or even bytes) to be replaced without affecting backward compatibility (a feature dubbed "lossless linking"). The format itself was designed to deal with discontinuous recording because it was expected to be widely used in digital video recorders. Many such DVRs use variable-rate video compression schemes which require them to record in short bursts; some allow simultaneous playback and recording by alternating quickly between recording to the tail of the disc whilst reading from elsewhere. The Blu-ray Disc system also encompasses this technology.
Mount Rainier aims to make packet-written CD-RW and DVD+RW discs as convenient to use as that of removable magnetic media by having the firmware format new discs in the background and manage media defects (by automatically mapping parts of the disc which have been worn out by erase cycles to reserve space elsewhere on the disc). As of February 2007, support for Mount Rainier is natively supported in Windows Vista. All previous versions of Windows require a third-party solution, as does Mac OS X.
Recorder Unique Identifier
Owing to pressure from the music industry, as represented by the IFPI and RIAA, Philips developed the Recorder Identification Code'' (RID) to allow media to be uniquely associated with the recorder that has written it. This standard is contained in the Rainbow Books. The RID-Code consists of a supplier code (e.g. "PHI" for Philips), a model number and the unique ID of the recorder. Quoting Philips, the RID "enables a trace for each disc back to the exact machine on which it was made using coded information in the recording itself. The use of the RID code is mandatory."
Although the RID was introduced for music and video industry purposes, the RID is included on every disc written by every drive, including data and backup discs. The value of the RID is questionable as it is (currently) impossible to locate any individual recorder due to there being no database.
Source Identification Code
The Source Identification Code (SID) is an eight character supplier code that is placed on optical discs by the manufacturer. The SID identifies not only manufacturer, but also the individual factory and machine that produced the disc.
According to Phillips, the administrator of the SID codes, the SID code provides an optical disc production facility with the means to identify all discs mastered or replicated in its plant, including the specific Laser Beam Recorder (LBR) signal processor or mould that produced a particular stamper or disc.
Use of RID and SID together in forensics
The standard use of RID and SID mean that each disc written contains a record of the machine that produced a disc (the SID), and which drive wrote it (the RID). This combined knowledge may be very useful to law enforcement, to investigative agencies, and to private or corporate investigators.
See also
Computer hardware
Cue sheet (music software)
Floptical
ISO image
List of optical disc authoring software
MultiLevel Recording
Optical disc authoring
Optical disc recording technologies
Optical jukebox
Phase-change Dual
Receiver (radio)
Ripping
Notes
References
External links
Understanding CD-R & CD-RW
American inventions
Audio storage
Optical computer storage
Disc drive
Japanese inventions
Video storage |
4543143 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NC%20Graphics | NC Graphics | NC Graphics was founded by Arthur Flutter in Waterbeach, Cambridge, England, in 1977 after completing a PhD in Computer Aided Design at CADCentre. This work became the basis of Toolmaker, a product that has been sold by the company since then.
In the mid-1980s the company collaborated with C&J Clark to write shoe design software until a dispute about the intellectual property rights over the product caused a falling-out. C&J Clark sued NC Graphics and won the case and NC Graphics was no longer able to develop or sell the shoe design software that they had been contracted to develop for C&J Clark.
NC Graphics focused on developing a surface modelling software product that used polynomial mathematics and was driven by human-readable input commands based on the APT language. The initial product was called Polyapt and was sold initially to manufacturing companies that specialised in producing lost wax dies for aerofoil and turbine engine blades.
In the late 1980s NC Graphics collaborated with Hurco whereby NC Graphics developed the software and Hurco marketed it worldwide. The product was marketed by Hurco as TDM3000 on a global exclusive basis. At the same time, the same fundamental source code was sold through a company in Aylesbury called VanDix and the product was marketed by them as the "VanDix" CADCAM system. Around 1990 NC Graphics and Hurco parted company after Hurco discovered that their global exclusivity agreement had been breached. Hurco obtained joint copyright to the software source code and continued to develop it before abandoning CADCAM development in the mid-1990s.
NC Graphics picked up the UK customer base from Hurco and sold what was to become "Toolmaker" until they were finally bought out by PTC some years later.
In 1993 the company formed a partnership with DEPO GmbH and began development of machining STRATEGIST, a graphical based system limited solely to generating 3-axis Cnc instructions. This product was resold by DEPO in Germany and sometimes the rest of the world under the brand name Depocam. machining STRATEGIST, was sold in the UK and some of the rest of the world, but Depocam and machining STRATEGIST were one and the same product marketed with a different brand name.
In late 2001 NC Graphics licensed Vero International Software to use their software as a Computer-aided manufacturing Geometric modeling kernel within their system. In June 2002 they bought the machining STRATEGIST product and development team for £1.25million, leaving NC Graphics with rights to its own copy of the source code and the Depocam product.
NC Graphics' business was in decline, and this was largely due to the Toolmaker product reaching the end of its product lifecycle. Sales of Toolmaker dwindled to virtually nothing and the DepoCAM product was not sufficient itself to generate sufficient revenues to keep the company going. CNC Software licensed the DepoCAM technology for $1,000,000 and this revenue kept NC Graphics going until the acquisition by PTC.
On 16 May 2007 Parametric Technology Corporation acquired NC Graphics from Arthur Flutter for $7.2million, stating that it had 15 employees at the time. In its press briefing PTC confirmed that NC Graphics technology was licensed to 5 of the top 10 CAM vendors, including CNC Software (sellers of MasterCAM). The Depocam product is to be released as Pro/TOOLMAKER 8.1 in August 2007.
On 1 June 2009 the German reseller of the software and Arthur Flutter bought back a source code license of Depocam with full global exploitation rights from PTC and rehired some of the original employees to continue development and support of the product.
Products
Toolmaker
machining STRATEGIST (until June 2002)
Depocam
References
External links
NC Graphics web site
Software companies of the United Kingdom
Computer-aided manufacturing software
Engineering companies of the United Kingdom
Software companies established in 1977
1977 establishments in England |
64278388 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20Bidzos | James Bidzos | Jim Bidzos is the Founder of Verisign, Inc. He currently serves as the company's President and CEO. He assumed this position on August 1, 2011 after the resignation of Mark McLaughlin on July 27. Bidzos has been serving the company as Chairman of the Board of Directors since 2007. Since August 2009, he has also been serving as executive chairman.
Career
On February 1, 1986, Bidzos joined RSA Data Security Inc., an Internet identity and access management solutions provider. According to Bidzos, the company was a complete failure: it had no products, no customers, and no revenue. He led the company in developing the RSA encryption toolkit by partnering with Iris Associates, a small company in Massachusetts that was writing a program called Lotus Notes for Corporation. The partnership with Iris Associates saved RSA Data Security. Bidzos was able to demonstrate the power of public-key encryption and how it worked with personal computers quickly and effectively. He was able to close contracts to provide RSA encryption to companies such as Motorola and Novell. By 1993, approximately 100 companies were using the RSA tool kit. In 1994, he led the company in developing cryptographic toolkits, as well as other security products over the years. Bidzos worked as President and CEO of RSA Data Security from 1986 to 1999, after which he served as Vice-Chairman until 2002.
In 1989, Bidzos co-founded the RSA Laboratories, a research organization. He also created the RSA Conference in 1991 and served as its Chairman until 2004.
In 1995, Mr. Bidzos established Verisign. He was the first President, CEO, and Chairman of the Board, serving in this capacity until 2001, after which he became Vice-Chairman until 2007. In 2008, the Board of Directors appointed him as Interim CEO and Chairman after the resignation of William Roper. During this period, Bidzos also served as Director of Verisign Japan K.K, which lasted until August 2010.
Awards
CRN Industry Hall of Fame - November 13, 2000
Time Magazine's "Digital 50"
RSA Conference Lifetime Achievement (Information Security) - 2004
References
In compliance with the Creative Commons License, this, the initial version of this article, is copied from ICANNWiki.
American chief executives
American company founders
Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people |
51528677 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meizu%20M3%20Max | Meizu M3 Max | The Meizu M3 Max is a smartphone designed and produced by the Chinese manufacturer Meizu, which runs on Flyme OS, Meizu's modified Android operating system. It is a current phablet model of the M series. It was unveiled on September 5, 2016 in Beijing.
History
In August, rumors about a new phablet Meizu device appeared after the company released some teasers for a new device mentioning that it will be a device containing “Max” in the product name. At the same point, invitations containing a Nokia device for a Meizu launch event on September 5, 2016 had been sent out.
On August 26, 2016, several leaked photos of the upcoming phablet device had been released.
Release
As announced, the M3 Max was released in Beijing on August 10, 2016.
Pre-orders for the M3 Max began after the launch event on August 10, 2016.
Features
Flyme
The Meizu M3 Max was released with an updated version of Flyme OS, a modified operating system based on Android Marshmallow. It features an alternative, flat design and improved one-handed usability.
Hardware and design
The Meizu M3 Max features a MediaTek Helio P10 system-on-a-chip with an array of eight ARM Cortex-A53 CPU cores, an ARM Mali-T860 MP2 GPU and 3 GB of RAM.
The M3 Max is available in four different colors (grey, silver, champagne gold and rose gold) and comes with 3 GB of RAM and 32 GB of internal storage.
The Meizu M3 Max has a full-metal body, which measures x x and weighs . It has a slate form factor, being rectangular with rounded corners and has only one central physical button at the front.
Unlike most other Android smartphones, the M3 Max doesn't have capacitive buttons nor on-screen buttons. The functionality of these keys is implemented using a technology called mBack, which makes use of gestures with the physical button. The M3 Max further extends this button by a fingerprint sensor called mTouch.
The M3 Max features a fully laminated 6-inch IPS multi-touch capacitive touchscreen display with a FHD resolution of 1080 by 1920 pixels. The pixel density of the display is 296 ppi.
In addition to the touchscreen input and the front key, the device has volume/zoom control buttons and the power/lock button on the right side, a 3.5mm TRS audio jack on the top and a microUSB (Micro-B type) port on the bottom for charging and connectivity.
The Meizu M3 Max has two cameras. The rear camera has a resolution of 13 MP, a ƒ/2.2 aperture, a 5-element lens, phase-detection autofocus and an LED flash.
The front camera has a resolution of 5 MP, a ƒ/2.0 aperture and a 4-element lens.
See also
Comparison of smartphones
References
External links
Official product page Meizu
Android (operating system) devices
Mobile phones introduced in 2016
Meizu smartphones
Discontinued smartphones |
10038486 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri%20Bal | Henri Bal | Henri Elle Bal (born 16 April 1958) is a professor of computer science at the Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam in the Netherlands. He is a well-known researcher in computer systems with a specialization in parallel computer systems, languages, and applications.
Education
Bal received his engineer's degree from the Delft University of Technology in mathematics cum laude in 1982. Shortly after graduating, he moved to the Vrije Universiteit where he began doing research on optimizing compilers in the Computer Systems group under the direction of Prof. Andrew Tanenbaum. This work was so promising that Tanenbaum encouraged Bal to become a PhD student in his group. Bal's PhD research led to the development of the Orca programming language, one of the first programming languages intended for large-scale cluster computers. Unlike most other parallel programming languages, Orca is based on the shared-data object model, which allows a group of computers to have the illusion that they share data objects in a common memory. Programs can operate on these objects as though they were local, even though the only copy may be stored on a different machine. The run-time system maintains this illusion by replicating data automatically as needed and maintaining consistency between the copies.
His PhD thesis, under Tanenbaum's supervision, was sufficiently influential that it was later published by Prentice-Hall as a book entitled Programming Distributed Systems.
Career
After getting his PhD degree, Bal was a postdoctoral fellow at MIT in Cambridge, Massachusetts, at the University of Arizona in Tucson, Arizona, and at Imperial College in London. He then came back to the Vrije Universiteit as an assistant professor. Shortly thereafter he was awarded a 'Pionier' grant from the Dutch National Science Foundation, the most prestigious award then available to young researchers. He used the grant of 1.6 million guilders (about $1 million) to start a research group on parallel programming. In 1994 he became an associate professor and in 1998 he became a full professor. His work has continued to focus on cluster computers, parallel programming languages, and parallel applications.
Together with one of his students, John Romein, he solved the game of awari, a 3500-year-old game by cleverly enumerating all the possible positions reachable from the current position and choosing the best move, usually leading to a forced win. A paper about this research, entitled "Solving the Game of Awari using Parallel Retrograde Analysis" was published in IEEE Computer, Oct. 2003 and received worldwide publicity.
Bal has had about a dozen PhD students and has written nearly 100 scientific papers in leading computer science conferences and journals. He was also the driving force behind the acquisition and use of three large distributed cluster computers called the Distributed ASCI Supercomputer. Bal has also been a member of over 30 program committees, and as such has had a major impact on the field of parallel computing. He is currently adjunct director of the $50 million VL-e research project as well as being a professor.
Honors
Numerous invited lectures and keynote addresses at conferences (e.g., IEEE Cluster 2000; CANPC '00; Global Grid Forum, 2001)
Member of the IEEE CS European Distinguished Visitor's Program
Best Paper Award at Int'l Conf. on Parallel Processing, 1998
Elected member of Academia Europaea (2013)
Books
Bal is the author or coauthor of three influential books:
Programming Distributed Systems, Prentice-Hall, 1991
Programming Language Essentials (with Dick Grune), Addison-Wesley, 1994
Modern Compiler Design (with Dick Grune, Ceriel Jacobs, and Koen Langendoen), Wiley, 2000
References
External links
Professor Henri E. Bal at the Dept. of Computer Systems at VU
1958 births
Living people
Delft University of Technology alumni
Dutch computer programmers
Free software programmers
Members of Academia Europaea
Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam faculty |
927017 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attribute%20clash | Attribute clash | Attribute clash (also known as colour clash or bleeding) is a display artifact caused by limits in the graphics circuitry of some colour 8-bit home computers, most notably the Sinclair ZX Spectrum, where it meant that only two colours could be used in any 8×8 tile of pixels. The effect was also noticeable on MSX software and in some Commodore 64 titles. Workarounds to prevent this limit from becoming apparent have since been considered an element of Spectrum programmer culture.
This problem also happens with the "semigraphic modes" (text modes with graphics features) of the Color Computer and Dragon, but those computers also have non-attributed graphics and with better resolution. Several video game consoles of the era had such video modes that caused such limitations, but usually allowed more than two colours per tile: the NES (Famicom) had only one mode, which was also "semigraphic", and allowed four colours per 16×16 "block" (group of four 8×8 tile) but 16 per screen. The Super NES allowed 16 colours per tile but 256 per screen (among other improvements), and this made the artefact much harder to notice, if at all (except for those who had to program the device).
Causes
Attribute clash on the ZX Spectrum was caused by its idiosyncratic display memory layout, designed in such a way as to minimise memory use of the frame buffer, and optimise for text display instead of graphics. Rather than limit the colour palette to conserve memory, Sinclair's design stored pixel bitmap and colour information in separate areas of memory. While the bitmap specified the state of individual pixels (either on or off), the colour information (or "attributes") corresponded to the text character matrix—24 rows of 32 columns—with one byte per 8x8 pixel character cell. This byte encoded two 3-bit values, known as INK (foreground colour) and PAPER (background colour) after the BASIC instructions used to define the colour values. Two other binary values were included in an attribute; a BRIGHT bit indicating one of two brightness levels for the two colours, and a FLASH bit, which, when set, caused the two colours to be swapped at regular intervals. This scheme provided 15 different colours: the eight combinations of red, green and blue at two brightness levels (except for black, which appeared the same at both brightness). Thus, each 8x8 pixel block could only contain 2 colours from the 15 available, which must both be from either the BRIGHT or non-BRIGHT halves of the palette. Trying to add a third colour in an 8x8 pixel area would overwrite one of the previous colours.
The ZX Spectrum used 6144 bytes for the bitmap, with one byte representing eight pixels, and used 768 bytes for the colour attributes. This gives a total of 6912 bytes for the entire graphics display, a relatively small total for a computer of the Spectrum's era with "colour" capabilities. This graphics architecture was retained right through to Sinclair and Amstrad's later redesigns of the Spectrum, up until Amstrad's final model, the ZX Spectrum +3, despite subsequent models having contained 128 KiB of RAM, reducing the need to save memory in this manner. The architecture was retained to prevent loss of backward compatibility.
Attributes were used by a variety of other computers and consoles, including the Commodore 64, the MSX and NES, although the size of the attribute blocks and the number of colours per block varied. However, with the use of hardware sprites, attribute clash could be avoided.
The Thomson MO5 and TO7 microcomputers, the Oric 1, the MSX 1 architecture, and other systems based on the Texas Instruments TMS9918 video display controller display a very similar constraint: for each group of eight pixels horizontally, only two colours out of 16 are available. giving a similar but less severe effect than with the Spectrum. The MSX 1 did not have just one single colour attribute byte available for a whole 8x8 pixel area, as was the case with the Sinclair Spectrum, but eight, with one attribute byte for each 8×1 pixel group. Thus, while the Spectrum was limited to one colour pair for a square area of 8x8 pixels, the MSX 1 was only limited to one colour pair for a "line" of eight adjacent pixels. In addition MSX1 could use sprites which were not bound to any attribute clash problems (although MSX 1 sprites did have their own limitations, such as being monochrome).
In practice this technical advantage often did not help MSX 1 systems to produce better pictures. The problem for the MSX 1 was that many European software companies who converted Spectrum games to MSX 1 ignored all the improvements the MSX 1 had over the Spectrum, and thus the resulting MSX 1 versions had the same amount of attribute clash as the original Spectrum games (Jack the Nipper II: In Coconut Capers is one example of this). To ease conversion, the software developers simply copied the single attribute byte value of the Spectrum to all eight corresponding attribute bytes of the MSX 1. For the same reason, the software companies also ignored the sprite capabilities of the MSX 1, and because the video display capabilities were otherwise quite similar (256×192 resolution, 16 colours), both systems produced virtually identical displays for the same game. In contrast, Japanese MSX 1 games did use all the capabilities of MSX 1, often resulting in better looking games.
Effects
To avoid attribute clash, static graphic displays had to be constructed with care. Finely-detailed colour graphics were impossible, as colour could only be applied in 8×8 pixel blocks. Careful design could achieve impressive results, as could synchronising colour changes to the refresh rate of the display—usually a television set.
However, animated displays were more difficult—a distinct drawback in a machine whose primary use was playing video games. If just one pixel in an 8×8 block was recoloured because a moving part of the display touched it, the entire block would change colour. Thus detailed moving graphics caused large ugly fringes of rapidly changing colours to follow them around.
Workarounds
Early software simply ignored the problem. Later, the standard workaround was to use colour for static display elements—such as a decorative border around the edges of the screen, which might include score displays and so on, or some form of instrumentation—with a smaller central monochrome area containing all the animated graphics. This also made graphics faster, as less of the screen had to be updated—both a smaller region, plus only changing pixel information and leaving the colour area untouched.
Some Spectrum software, such as FTL's Light Force, used extremely careful graphics design to achieve full-colour moving graphics, essentially by limiting both the design of the onscreen elements and their paths of motion to 8×8 colour resolution boundaries. The moving elements were thus relatively large and rather blocky or squarish, and their movement was constrained, but this was not visually obvious and the sight of moving full-colour graphics was hugely impressive to Spectrum owners.
No mainstream developers were able to find a suitable all-round fix for the attribute clash problem, instead preferring to use the monochrome graphics method when fast, clear graphics were needed, and full-colour graphics when the situation permitted.
It was possible by paying careful attention to timing to modify the attribute area of RAM at certain specific times as the display was drawn - let the display hardware draw one line of the display, then change the attribute RAM before the next line is drawn to give the effect of different attributes for each individual line. These changes had to be done in software and were time-consuming to program, meaning that this technique was usually limited to special effects. This technique was also very popular in the demoscene.
The problem and solutions
Most games before 1987 ignored attribute clash. Some later games, such as Knight Tyme and Three Weeks in Paradise allowed players to select between two modes of attribute clash: one which ignored main character attributes, blending the character into the background and vice versa, prioritising the characters colour scheme over the background imagery.
Another workaround was to simply render the graphics in two colours, otherwise known as monochrome, as done with the Spectrum version of Knight Lore in 1984.
Many games used full-colour backgrounds and "character scrolling" (where the environment was scrolled eight pixels at a time), but monochrome sprites that were effectively transparent, as in Double Dragon, were drawn in such a way so they stand out, avoiding dependence on colour. Many games used this method with smooth pixel-by-pixel scrolling, but the attribute clash as elements of one character block were "passed" to the next were clearly visible.
A prominent (and less successful) example of the use of full-colour graphics was the Spectrum conversion of Altered Beast. The game suffers from considerable attribute clash.
Programmer Don Priestley developed a distinctive style for several of his games by using large, cartoon-like sprites which were carefully designed to span whole character blocks without appearing unduly square. A disadvantage of this technique was that the gameplay had to be designed around the graphics, and so it was not useful for ports from other platforms. Games that used this technique included Popeye, The Trap Door, Through the Trapdoor, and Flunky. Other developers who used a similar technique included Mike Singleton, with Dark Sceptre, and Gang of Five, with Dan Dare: Pilot of the Future.
In 1994, programmer Igor Maznitsa developed a multi-CPU concept platform "ZX-Poly" based on ZX-Spectrum-128; the platform allows for avoidance of attribute clash, and can even colourise many old games without changes in executable code.
References
Sources of the ZX-Poly emulator and description of the platform
Computer graphic artifacts
ZX Spectrum |
22033605 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack%20Cole%20%28scientist%29 | Jack Cole (scientist) | Alfred Jack Cole (1925 – May 30, 1997) was a professor at the School of Computer Science, University of St. Andrews in Scotland. He is credited with building on the establishing of Computer Science at St Andrews.
Career
Cole studied mathematics at University College London, completing his PhD on the theory of numbers in 1952. He then worked as a lecturer at Heriot-Watt College in Edinburgh until 1956, when he moved to Queen’s College, Dundee. His interest in the potential of computer technology resulted in a move to University of Leicester in 1962, as Director of the Computing Laboratory. In 1965 he returned to Scotland and St Andrews, as Director of the Computing Laboratory and Reader in Computational Science.
From 1965 Cole devoted his next twenty years to establishing computer science at St Andrews. His innovative approach included pioneering the teaching of Information Technology to Arts students. He developed techniques for space-filling curves to be used in video compression, leading to his invention of murray polygons. One applied use of murray polygons is the halftoning of rectangular images without using dithering or edge enhancement methods.
He initiated the Distinguished Lecture Series in 1969. This series kept costs lower than similar conferences, with the intention of exposing students and others to leading edge topics. Costs were reduced through industry sponsorship and support from the university's School of Computer Science.
Jack Cole Building
To recognize his service, the school moved to the new Jack Cole Building in 2004. This was formally opened on .
Personal life
Cole's interests included cats, hill walking, home brewing, folk music (and concertina playing), golf, gardening and football. He was a supporter of East Fife F.C.
Published works
"The preparation of examination time-tables using a small-store computer", 1964
"Plane and Stereographic Projections of Convex Polyhedra from Minimal Information", 1966
"A note on peano polygons and gray codes", 1985
"Direct transformations between sets of integers and hilbert polygons", 1986
"Compaction Techniques for Raster Scan Graphics using Space-filling Curves", 1987
References
Alumni of University College London
Academics of the University of St Andrews
1997 deaths
1925 births |
449031 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aviion | Aviion | Aviion (styled AViiON) was a series of computers from Data General that were the company's main product from the late 1980s until the company's server products were discontinued in 2001. Earlier Aviion models used the Motorola 88000 CPU, but later models moved to an all-Intel solution when Motorola stopped work on the 88000 in the early 1990s. Some versions of these later Intel-based machines ran Windows NT, while higher-end machines ran the company's flavor of Unix, DG/UX.
History
Data General had, for most of its history, essentially mirrored the strategy of DEC with a competitive (but, in the spirit of the time, incompatible) minicomputer with a better price/performance ratio. However, by the 1980s, Data General was clearly in a downward spiral relative to DEC. With the performance of custom-designed minicomputer CPU's dropping relative to commodity microprocessors, the cost of developing a custom solution no longer paid for itself. A better solution was to use these same commodity processors, but put them together in such a way to offer better performance than a commodity machine could offer.
With Aviion, DG shifted its sight from a purely proprietary minicomputer line to the burgeoning Unix server market. The new line was based around the Motorola 88000, a high performance RISC processor with some support for multiprocessing and a particularly clean architecture. The machines ran a System V Unix variant known as DG/UX, largely developed at the company's Research Triangle Park facility. DG/UX had previously run on the company's family of Eclipse MV 32-bit minicomputers (the successors to Nova and the 16-bit Eclipse minis) but only in a very secondary role to the Eclipse MV mainstay AOS/VS and AOS/VS II operating systems. Also, some Aviion servers from this era ran the proprietary MEDITECH MAGIC operating system.
From February 1988 to October 1990, Robert E. Cousins was the Department Manager for workstation development. During this time they produced the Maverick project and several follow-ons including the 300, 310 and 400 series workstations along with the 4000 series servers.
Aviion were released in a variety of sizes beginning in the summer of 1989. They debuted as a pizza box workstation (codenamed "Maverick") and a server in both roller-mounted and rackmount flavors ("Topgun"). Speed-bumped and scaled-up versions followed, culminating in, first, the 16-CPU AV/9500 server and then the up to 32-way AV 10000 server in 1995, DG's first implementation of a Non-Uniform Memory Access (NUMA) design. Workstations remained part of the line for a time, but the emphasis increasingly shifted towards servers.
In 1992, Motorola joined the AIM alliance to develop "cut down" versions of the IBM POWER CPU design into a single-chip CPU for desktop machines, and eventually stopped further development of the 88000. Because of this, DG gave up working with Motorola, and decided instead to align its efforts with what was soon to become the clear winner in volume microprocessors, and used i386 architecture CPUs from Intel instead.
This resulted in a second series of Aviion machines based first on the Pentium, and later on faster Pentium Pro, Pentium II and Pentium III Xeon CPUs. This more commoditized hardware approach also led DG to develop NUMA servers that added a memory-coherent interconnect (Scalable Coherent Interconnect (SCI)) to "standard high-volume" x86 motherboards sourced from Intel. Sequent Computer Systems, now part of IBM, was following a similar strategy at the time. A system codenamed "Manx" was an earlier NUMA effort based on the original Pentium and Zenith hardware, but it was never brought to market. The AV 20000 ("Audubon") connected to 32 Pentium Pro processors (on up to eight quad-processor building blocks) in this manner; the later AV 25000 ("Audubon 2") upgrade expanded this to 64 Pentium II (later Pentium III) Xeons.
Based on the burgeoning popularity of Windows NT, Intel-based Aviion servers also added Windows to their OS roster across the Aviion x86 line. It ended up contributing a significant percentage of revenues at the low-end, especially among existing DG customers who had made a decision to switch to NT. However, at the high-end, although Windows NT could run efficiently on single-block (i.e. quad-processor) building blocks in NUMA servers, it did not at the time have the processor and memory affinity optimizations that are required to achieve high performance on larger systems. As a result, Windows on DG NUMA servers was always more of a marketing story than a technical reality.
Around the same time, DG was also aggressively working towards an "industry standard" Unix operating system with the Santa Cruz Operation and others. However, first with SCO's Data Center Acceleration Program (DCAP), and then Project Monterey, this never came to pass. Ultimately, DG's NUMA servers ended up as just another large-scale proprietary Unix server at a time when the industry was coalescing around the Unix platform variants of just a few large vendors — Compaq (later acquired by HP), HP, IBM, and Sun Microsystems.
In 1999, EMC purchased Data General for 1.2 billion dollars primarily to gain access to its CLARiiON line of disk array storage products and associated software. Under the terms of the "pooling of interests merger," EMC maintained the server line for two years, but discontinued it as soon as the terms of the deal allowed, at which point Aviion disappeared.
Notes
The name "AViiON" has often been claimed to be an anagram of "Nova II", the Nova being one of DG's most successful products. An employee competition was held to choose a name for the new line, but none of the suggestions was found to be acceptable for trademarking purposes. Given that early codenames for Eclipse systems included The Bird and The Big Bird, a reference to flight seemed appropriate. "Avion" had been suggested, but lacked the ability to be trademarked. At that time, two European companies had created a naming trend using repeated vowels - Baan and BiiN. Avion was modified by repeating the 'i' and making the rest of the word uppercase as AViiON. (Avion (or avión) is the word for "aircraft" in French and Spanish.)
The use of the "ii" was carried through to the CLARiiON and THiiN Line product lines.
References
External links
The m88k Resource: Data General AViiON
Allen Briggs' Data General AViiON information
Aviion at m88k.org
Unorganized collection of 88k AViiON technical information
Computer workstations
Data General computers
32-bit computers |
436008 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mills%20College | Mills College | Mills College is a private women's liberal arts college in Oakland, California. Mills is an undergraduate women's college for women and gender non-binary students with graduate programs for students of all genders. Mills was founded as the Young Ladies Seminary in 1852 in Benicia, California; it was relocated to Oakland in 1871, and became the first women's college west of the Rockies. In 2014, Mills became the first single-sex college in the U.S. to adopt an admission policy explicitly welcoming transgender students.
Mills College offers more than 45 undergraduate majors and minors and over 30 graduate degrees, certificates, and credentials. It is home to the Mills College School of Education and the Lorry I. Lokey School of Business & Public Policy.
In March 2021, citing financial concerns that were augmented by the pandemic, President Elizabeth L. Hillman announced that Mills College would begin transitioning away from being a degree-granting college in the fall of 2021, instead becoming Mills Institute. The announcement was made to the Mills College alumnae in a letter posted online.
In June 2021, following interest in merging with UC Berkeley by some Mills College alumnae, the college instead announced that it intended to merge with Northeastern University (a once all-male college that admitted its first female students in 1943) to become Mills College at Northeastern University.
Despite a campaign by Mills College alumnae to stop the controversial merger with Northeastern University and a temporary stay imposed by a judge, the merger was confirmed by the Mills College Board of Trustees on September 14, 2021. President Hillman's role in the new Institution has not yet been announced.
Mills College alumnae, who have donated a considerable portion of the college's endowment, continue to pursue legal options for halting the merger with Northeastern while they fight for financial transparency and a financial rationale for the immediacy of the merger, given the college's billions of dollars in assets, including Bay Area real estate, rare books, and a valuable art collection that is housed by the Mills College Art Museum. Uncertainty remains regarding institutional control of Mills College's considerable financial assets. No financial details regarding the impending merger have been made public to date.
History
Mills College was initially founded as the Young Ladies Seminary in the city of Benicia in 1852 under the leadership of Mary Atkins, a graduate of Oberlin College. In 1865, Susan Tolman Mills, a graduate of Mount Holyoke College (then Mount Holyoke Female Seminary), and her husband, Cyrus Mills, bought the Young Ladies Seminary renaming it Mills Seminary. In 1871, the school was moved to its current location in Oakland, California. The school was incorporated in 1877 and was officially renamed Mills College in 1885. In 1890, after serving for decades as principal (under two presidents as well), Susan Mills became the president of the college and held the position for 19 years. Beginning in 1906 the seminary classes were progressively eliminated. In 1920, Mills added graduate programs for women and men, granting its first master's degrees the following year.
Other notable milestones in the college's history include the presidency of renowned educator and activist Aurelia Henry Reinhardt during World War I and II, the establishment of the first laboratory school west of the Mississippi for aspiring teachers (currently known as the Mills College Children's School) in 1926, and becoming the first women's college to offer a computer science major (1974).
In 1990, Mills became the first and only women's college in the US to reverse a decision to go coed. On May 3, 1990, Mills Trustees announced that they had voted to admit male undergraduate students to Mills. This decision led to a two-week student and staff strike, accompanied by numerous displays of non-violent protests by the students. At one point, nearly 300 students blockaded the administrative offices and boycotted classes. On May 18, the Trustees met again to reconsider the decision, leading to a reversal of the vote to go coed on the undergraduate level.
In 2014, Mills became the first single-sex college in the U.S. to adopt an admission policy explicitly welcoming transgender students. The policy states that undergraduate students who were not assigned to the female sex at birth, but who self-identify as women, are welcome to apply for admission. Undergraduates who were assigned to the female sex at birth, but identify as transgender or gender fluid, are also welcome to apply for admission. The policy further clarifies that undergraduate students assigned to the female sex at birth who have legally become male prior to applying are not eligible for admission to Mills. The policy ends with a statement that "once admitted, any student who completes the College's graduate requirements shall be awarded a degree," indicating that once admitted to Mills, an undergraduate female student who changes sex or gender to male will be allowed to complete their degree at the college.
In 2017, Mills declared a financial emergency because of declining enrollment and revenues, and laid off some tenured faculty. That September, it became the first private college in California to implement a tuition reset, announcing a 36% reduction in its undergraduate tuition beginning in fall 2018, with a goal of making a Mills education more affordable. Undergraduate tuition in the 2018–2019 academic year was $28,765 (reduced from $44,765); room and board costs were $13,448. Students are still able to receive merit scholarships and need-based financial aid in addition to the tuition reduction. For the 2019–2020 academic year, undergraduate tuition was $29,340; room and board costs were $13,883.
On March 17, 2021, Mills announced that starting in fall 2021 it would transition away from being a degree-granting college. It expects to graduate its last students in 2023 and plans on becoming a research institute called the Mills Institute. In June, the college announced a plan to merge with Northeastern University and become a coeducational institute on the Mills campus. Following protests by many alumnae and in response to a lawsuit by two Mills College trustees, one of them president of the alumnae association, on August 17, 2021, an Alameda County Superior Court judge ruled that the merger must be postponed at minimum until September 3, 2021 and Mills must provide access to its financial statements to substantiate the need for the college to close. The stay was lifted on September 13, and the following day the trustees voted to confirm the merger.
Academics
Undergraduate academics
Admissions
Admission to Mills is selective insofar as it does not admit every applicant but in recent years its acceptance rate hovered around 75%. It characterizes its process as holistic: the Mills admission application process is designed to allow students to share a complete picture of their experiences, passions, activities, and what they hope to achieve, in addition to their academic accomplishments.
Admission to Mills is selective insofar as it does not admit every applicant but in recent years its acceptance rate hovered around 75%. It characterizes its process as holistic: the Mills admission application process is designed to allow students to share a complete picture of their experiences, passions, activities, and what they hope to achieve, in addition to their academic accomplishments.
Most first-year students admitted to Mills have a B+ average and have followed a full college-preparatory course in their secondary school, including 4 years of English, 3 to 4 years of mathematics, 2 to 4 years of foreign languages, 2 to 4 years of social sciences, and 2 to 4 years of a laboratory science. Additional course work in fine arts is given positive consideration, as are special talents or interests. Course credit may be awarded for the College Board Advanced Placement tests and the International Baccalaureate program's higher-level examinations. Mills is one of nearly 200 top-tier colleges in the U.S. that have made standardized test scores (SAT or ACT) optional in the admissions process.
Mills accepts applications from transfer students and women who have delayed their entrance to college or who wish to continue work on their bachelor's degrees. The high school transcript requirement is waived if 24 or more transferable semester units have been completed. For international students, TOEFL, IELTS, or ELS are required to satisfy English language proficiency requirements. Applications should be accompanied by transcripts, a letter of recommendation, and, for international students, language test scores.
An interview, either on campus or online through Skype or FaceTime, is strongly recommended for all applicants.
In 2018–19, Mills enrolled students from 41 U.S. states and 15 countries. Of the 766 undergraduate students:
57% identified themselves as students of color
51% identified themselves as LGBTQ+
32% were first-generation college students
15% were resumer students (23 years of age or older)
Majors, minors, and accelerated degree programs
Mills offers more than 60 undergraduate majors and minors across the arts and sciences. As of the 2017–2018 academic year, the college's top 5 majors were: English, psychology, sociology, economics, and biology. To earn a Mills bachelor's degree, students complete 120 semester credits (usually 15 credits each semester). Grading is traditional, and a pass-fail option is available outside the major. Mills also offers ten bachelor's-to-master's accelerated degree programs that allow students to earn a bachelor's and a master's degree in less time with the goal of increasing their career options.
Core curriculum
The core curriculum at Mills is designed to develop students' analytical, communication, and critical thinking skills; encourage thoughtful creativity and innovation; and create a deep-seated respect for diversity, inclusion, and social justice. The core curriculum consists of 10 specific knowledge and skill areas organized into three outcome categories:
Foundational Skills — critical analysis, information literacy, written and oral communication, and quantitative literacy
Modes of Inquiry — race, gender, and power; scientific inquiry; language other than English; and international perspectives
Contributions to knowledge and society — community engaged learning and creativity, innovation, and experimentation
Students are able to tailor their completion of the core curriculum requirements to their interests by choosing from a wide range of courses that fulfill the 10 knowledge and skill areas.
Accreditation
Mills is accredited by the Western Association of Schools and Colleges (WASC). The college runs on a semester system, with optional winter and summer sessions.
Graduate academics
Mills College offers 34 degrees, credentials, and certifications through their graduate programs, including the Mills College School of Education and the Lorry I. Lokey School of Business and Public Policy. As of the 2018–2019 academic year, the college's top 5 graduate programs are: education, pre-medical, MBA, English, and music.
Master's degrees
Master's degree options at Mills include an MBA; MFAs in studio art, book art, creative writing, and music; MAs in dance, education, English language and literatures, infant mental health, interdisciplinary computer science, and music; a master of applied economics; a master of management; and a master of public policy (MPP).
Joint degrees, doctorate degrees and credentials
Mills also offers a joint MPP/MBA degree and a joint MBA/MA in educational leadership degree. The joint MPP/MBA provides graduates with the training to handle the evolving demand of professionals with cross-sector competencies who are trained in the logic of government agencies, nonprofit organizations, and social or business enterprises, as well as the intersection of these sectors. The joint MBA/MA in educational leadership is specifically designed to prepare educational leaders and managers for success by giving them knowledge of the educational process and dynamics, and strategic business and management skills, to help them confront the complex challenges of the rapidly changing educational landscape.
The Mills College School of Education offers a doctorate program in educational leadership and preparation for multiple- and single-subject teaching credentials, administrative services credentials, and other state-issued credentials in the field of education.
Post-baccalaureate certificates
The college also offers post-baccalaureate certificate programs in pre-med, biochemistry, and computer science. These programs are designed for students who previously have earned a bachelor's degree, but are now interested in pursuing degrees or careers in fields not covered by their undergraduate degree. Graduates of Mills' Post-Baccalaureate Pre-Medical Program have an 80%+ acceptance rate to medical schools (compared to the national average of 50%). Students who complete the Post-Bac Pre-Med Program and are interested in pursuing laboratory science instead of medical school can complete the biochemistry and molecular biology certificate with one additional year of course work. The Post-Baccalaureate Computer Science Certificate Program has no programming or math prerequisites, allowing students to continue on to the MA in interdisciplinary computer science with an undergraduate background in a non-computer science related field.
Mills graduate students have access to on-campus housing and the same campus facilities as undergraduate students, including the Betty Irene Moore Natural Sciences Building, Center for Contemporary Music, the Heller Rare Books Room, Lorry I. Lokey School of Business & Public Policy building, and the Mills College Children's School.
Faculty
Notable Mills faculty include renowned book artists Kathy Walkup and Julie Chen; choreographer and performer Molissa Fenley; experimental musicians/composers/performers Maggi Payne, Chris Brown, Fred Frith, Roscoe Mitchell; Y.A. author Kathryn Reiss; poet and editor Juliana Spahr; computer scientist Ellen Spertus; and artist/photographer Catherine Wagner. Nearly 75% of Mills faculty hold the highest degrees in their field; approximately 70% are women, and over one-third are faculty of color. Mills faculty from all areas of study work closely with undergraduate and graduate students, collaborating on scientific research, art preservation, academic papers, and journal articles.
Financial aid
In the 2018–2019 academic year, more than 80 percent of incoming Mills students received some form of financial aid. For undergraduates, the college offers a variety of merit- and need-based scholarships that can total up to $10,000 for first-year students and transfer students. Additional aid is available through federal and state grants, private scholarships, loans, and work-study opportunities. For graduate students, Mills offers scholarships, assistantships, and fellowships customized to each graduate program. The college also offers access to low-interest graduate student loans from the federal government.
To be considered for government aid and need-based Mills scholarships, students must file the Free Application for Federal Student Aid (FAFSA) by the appropriate deadline. California residents must also file the Cal Grant GPA Verification Form to be considered for a Cal Grant.
Tuition reduction for undergraduate students
In September 2017, Mills became the first private college in California to implement a tuition reset, substantially reducing the cost of its undergraduate education. The college reduced its undergraduate tuition by 36% (beginning in fall 2018) with a goal of making a Mills education more affordable for more students. Undergraduate tuition in the 2018–2019 academic year was $28,765 (reduced from $44,765); room and board costs were $13,448. Students are still able to receive merit scholarships and need-based financial aid in addition to the tuition reduction. For the 2019–2020 academic year, undergraduate tuition was $29,340; room and board costs were $13,883.
Rankings
For 2021, U.S. News & World Report ranked Mills in the following "Best Regional Universities West" categories:
No. 1 in Best Value Schools
No. 1 in Best Undergraduate Teaching
No. 8 in Most Innovative Schools (tied)
No. 12 in Regional Universities West
No. 13 in Top Performers on Social Mobility (tied)
For 2021, The Princeton Review included Mills in the following lists and ranked Mills in the following categories:
The Best 386 Colleges
Best Western (regional colleges)
Green Colleges
No. 9 for Administrators Get Low Marks
No. 13 Most Liberal Students
No. 14 LGBTQ-Friendly
No. 15 for Stone-Cold Sober Students
No. 20 for Least Religious Students
In 2020, Washington Monthly ranked Mills sixth out of 614 schools on its Master's Universities list, based on its contribution to the public good as measured by social mobility, research, and promoting public service.
In 2019, Forbes included Mills as one of the 650 best schools in the United States out of a possible 4,300 degree-granting postsecondary institutions. Forbes ranked Mills as follows:
No. 343 in Top Colleges 2019
No. 227 in Private Colleges
No. 70 in the West
Student life
Student body demographics
For the 2018–19 academic year, Mills student body included 1,255 students, with 766 undergraduate women and 489 graduate students of all genders. Forty-one states are represented in the student body, and international students from 15 different countries attend the college. The average class size at Mills is 16 students, with a student:faculty ratio of 11:1. The average class size at Mills is small, with 76% of Mills classes having 20 students or less.
Fifty-six percent of the undergraduate students self-identify as students of color or multi-racial. Sixteen percent of the undergraduate population are "Resumer" students who are 23 years or older and returning to college. Over half of Mills Undergraduates live on-campus in any of the twelve housing options offered by the college.
Forty-one percent of the graduate students self-identify as students of color or multi-racial. Of the graduate student body, eighty-six percent are full-time students. Over three-quarters of Graduate students commute to campus with only thirteen percent opting to live on-campus.
Athletics
Mills College teams participate as a member of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division III. The Cyclones are a member of the Coast to Coast Athletic Conference (C2C). Women's sports include: Cross country, Rowing, Soccer, Swimming, Tennis, and Volleyball. All students are welcome to join the sports teams. The Mills swim team was awarded the Scholar All-America Team award for swimming and diving teams who have achieved a cumulative grade point average of 3.0 or higher. The athletics, physical education, and recreation facilities are housed within Haas Pavilion.
The Trefethan Aquatics Center features an Olympic-size outdoor swimming pool. Trefethen is accessible to students, faculty, staff, and immediate family free of charge, and is also open for public use at a small fee.
Mills' Tennis Center features six lighted courts and is used for recreation, events, and competitions. The tennis team also hosts a Family Day every year to promote interaction with the community.
The campus houses a Fitness Center, inside Haas Pavilion, for student, faculty and staff use. Athletics also maintains the Hellman Soccer Field and track, as well as Pine Top Trail which runs the circumference of campus.
Student clubs and organizations
There are more than 50 student organizations at Mills run by both undergraduate and graduate students. These groups host campus-wide art exhibitions, dance performances, concerts, and lectures, as well as annual events such as Black & White Ball, Earth Day Fair, and Spring Fling.
Students also participate in the Associated Students of Mills College (ASMC), an executive board of elected and appointed positions. Under the governance of a student-drafted Constitution, the board manages and disburses an annual budget that supports more than 50 student organizations, student publications, campus-wide events, and various student initiatives. ASMC is the voice of the student body to the college administration.
Mills' undergraduate student publications include the Campanil, an award-winning campus newspaper and the voice of Mills students. It has won the top journalism award in its division for general newspaper excellence from the California College Media Association and has also been honored in editorial, news, entertainment and photography categories. The Crest is the Mills College yearbook which has run for 95 years. In 2010 Mills published the first annual Mills Academic Research Journal (MARJ) which focuses on research on the Mills College campus. The college also supports The Walrus Literary Journal an annual publication which includes "wonderful, whacky, weird, witty, and whimsical poetry, prose, and art from the Bay Area and beyond. Another annual literary journal on-campus is the Womanist, A Women of Color Journal which features prose, poetry, and artwork by students, alumnae, faculty, and staff of color. The publication is compiled and edited by a group of Mills students.
Graduate students also create the 580 Split, an annual journal of arts and literature, publishes innovative and experimental prose, poetry, and art and was founded specifically for graduate students to participate and hone skills in editing, publishing, and creative writing. The journal has expanded its presence in the Bay Area and can be found in such well-known bookstores as City Lights. It is also one of the few literary journals carried by the Oakland Public Library.
Campus
The Mills College campus is located in the foothills of Oakland, California, on the eastern shore of the San Francisco Bay.
Campus facilities
Betty Irene Moore Natural Sciences Building
Completed in 2007, the Natural Sciences Building was the first Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) "green" building at Mills. The facility met the most rigorous standards for materials selection, energy consumption, and water usage and was awarded platinum certification. Specifically designed to bring together the fields of biology, chemistry, physics, and psychology, Moore Natural Sciences Building encourages collaboration and research across disciplines. The building features state of the art equipment including: the Scheffler Bio-Imaging Center which contains a transilluminating fluorescence microscope with digital camera and imaging software, walk-in warm and cold rooms, and a marine culture system. The building's instrumentation includes: an atomic absorption spectrophotometer, a Fourier transform infrared spectrometer, a Fourier transform nuclear magnetic resonance spectrometer, ultraviolet-visible spectrophotometers, an electrochemistry apparatus, high-performance liquid chromatographs, gas-liquid chromatographs, and standard low-speed and high-speed ultracentrifuges as well as numerous smaller instruments
The science facility offers a wide variety of classroom, laboratory, and research space equipped with up-to-date instrumentation, special outdoor teaching courtyards, and is located adjacent to the William Joseph McInnes Botanic Garden for hands-on research and study.
Center for Contemporary Music
The San Francisco Tape Music Center moved to Mills Campus in 1966, became the Mills Tape Music Center, and was later renamed the Center for Contemporary Music (CCM). The CCM's archives contains over 50 years of collected recordings made at the San Francisco Tape Music Center and at Mills. CCM internationally renowned as a leading center for innovation in music, and functions as an important resource center for Bay Area composers and artists. Its facilities feature a 24-track recording studio, hybrid computer music studio, electronic music studio, dubbing and editing studio, technical and project development lab, Studio V, and the musicianship lab.
Housed within the Mills Music Building since 1966, CCM has emphasized experimental methods in contemporary music and its allied arts and sciences. CCM maintains a variety of electronic equipment, instruments and studios, provides instruction and technical assistance, and archives audio recordings. The center also performs a wide variety of community services in the arts, including public concerts and lecture series, informational and technical assistance, and artist residencies. Maggi Payne and Chris Brown are presently co-directors of CCM. Payne is a composer, performer, interdisciplinary artist, and recording engineer. Brown is an instrument builder, a pianist, and a composer.
The music program at Mills is noted for being at the forefront of experimental music study and composition. Well-known composer Luciano Berio was on the music faculty of Mills in 1962–1964, and in 1966 Pauline Oliveros became the first director of the Tape Music Center (later the Center for Contemporary Music), where she composed her electronic works "Alien Bog" and "Beautiful Soop". Morton Subotnick, later a member of the faculty, received his master's degree from Mills, studying composition with Leon Kirchner and Darius Milhaud. Laurie Anderson, Dave Brubeck, Joanna Newsom, Phil Lesh, Noah Georgeson, Holly Herndon, and Steve Reich attended the program, as well as the famous synthesizer designer Don Buchla. Terry Riley taught at Mills starting in the early 1970s. Avant-garde jazz pioneer Anthony Braxton has taught at Mills on an intermittent basis since the 1970s. Lou Harrison, Pandit Pran Nath, Iannis Xenakis, Alvin Curran, Gordon Mumma, Maggi Payne, Pauline Oliveros, Frederic Rzewski, Zeena Parkins, Fred Frith, and many others have all taught music at Mills.
F.W. Olin Library
The F.W. Olin Library houses a collection of over 240,000 volumes and other media, with special emphasis on literature, history, women's studies, art and music. It also offers access to more than 60 online databases including: Academic Search, LexisNexis, PsycINFO, Sociological Abstracts, MEDLINE, ERIC, MLA Bibliography, Contemporary Women's Issues, Britannica Online, Biography Resource Center, and Science Direct, and many more. The library includes 280 study and workstations, a listening-viewing room with fully equipped audio-visual stations, and a seminar room. Open 88.5 hours a week, the library's online catalog, MINERVA, is accessible throughout the library and via the internet.
The Special Collections is housed within the library in the Heller Rare Book Room and includes printed books from the 15th century to the present, as well as the Mills College Collection. Containing 12,000 volumes and 10,000 manuscripts, Special Collections features a leaf from a Gutenberg Bible and a Florentine edition of Dante's La divina commedia. It is also home to the Mills Center for the Book, a forum for cultural, literary, and aesthetic heritage of the book. In October 2020 the college sold its copy of Shakespeare's First Folio from 1623 for $9.9 million to make up for revenue shortfalls.
Mills is also home to the Center for the Book which was established in 1989 to promote the cultural, literary, and aesthetic heritage of the book. Programs and projects encompass contemporary and historical concerns, and include the book arts, literacy, and local history. The Center for the Book involves both Mills College and the local communities, acknowledging the extraordinarily rich resources of the Bay Area.
Lorry I. Lokey Graduate of Business and Public Policy Building
Completed in 2010, the Graduate School of Business building is a Gold LEED certified building. The Lokey School's focus on social responsibility leads to the cultivation of an integrative perspective across disciplines and functional areas of business and to build partnerships with organizations that share similar values.
The school's first student-run policy journal, The Policy Forum at Mills, was successfully launched in 2013, and provides a forum for policy solutions and analysis to its students, as well as allowing for discourse on published issues.
Mills College Art Museum
Open to the public, the Mills College Art Museum is home to a collection of more than 8,000 works of art—the largest permanent collection of any liberal arts college on the West Coast. The collection includes old masters and modern American and European prints and drawings; Asian textiles; Japanese, Ancient American, and modern ceramics; and California regionalist paintings.
Works from the permanent collection—including pieces by Pablo Picasso, Diego Rivera, Winslow Homer, Rembrandt van Rijn, Henri Matisse, and Auguste Renoir—are displayed with an ever-changing series of special exhibitions that are designed to provoke, inspire, and even amuse. Mills students have an opportunity to get involved in every aspect of the museum's work, including archival research, editing, photography, design, and installations. Undergraduates train to become curators, putting together exhibitions with art from the collection. Every year art students also take on the management of the Senior and MFA exhibitions.
Mills College Children's School
Founded in 1926 on the Mills campus, the Children's School is the oldest laboratory school west of the Mississippi River. From its inception, the Children's School has had the dual mission of providing quality education for both children and adults. A member of the East Bay Independent Schools Association, the Children's School is open to the children of Mills students, faculty, and staff as well as the general public.
Since 2000 the Children's School has been housed in the Education Complex on campus. The facility includes generous spaces for an infant/toddler program, two preschool programs, and a kindergarten through fifth grade elementary school, each with age-appropriate playgrounds and structures.
Undergraduate students majoring or minoring in child development, as well as graduate education students, have the unique opportunity of using the classroom for research and study under the guidance of master teachers with graduate degrees, professional credentials, and years of experience.
Mills College School of Education
The School of Education houses the Mills College Children's School which opened in 1926 to provide students with opportunities to learn about child behavior and cognitive development. It was the first laboratory school on the West Coast. Today, the school offers programs for infants through fifth graders, and provides Mills students with the opportunity to study progressive educational practices that focus on the whole child. In the Children's School classrooms, Mills students observe developmentally, culturally, and linguistically responsive teaching, as well as a constructivist model of classroom learning and the integration of theory and practice. The Children's School has a dual mission of providing high-quality education to the approximately 135 students in its infant, preschool, and K–5 programs, as well as offering a collaborative research setting for undergraduate and graduate education students.
Programs in early childhood education, educational leadership, and teacher education are housed in the School of Education and utilize the Children's School.
Campus housing
Ten on-campus living options are available at Mills, including traditional residence halls, a housing cooperative, family housing, and apartment living. Traditional-age, first-year students are introduced to the Mills community through a Themed Housing Community that is organized around a shared interest. Over the course of the fall term, faculty, students, and a specially assigned member of the Division of Student Life may attend lectures, films, museum exhibitions, or other extracurricular activities related to the central theme of their community. Transfer, resumer, graduate, and continuing Mills students reside in one of the six historic Mediterranean-inspired Residence Halls or three Craftsman-style apartment complexes.
Warren Olney Hall
Named for Oakland Mayor and Mills College Trustee (1886–1921) Warren Olney, Warren Olney Hall houses students of all academic levels. Built by Bakewell and Brown, a well-known architectural firm in the early 1900s, they designed the structure in a Beaux Arts Mediterranean style. The building is three-stories, wood frame, stucco exterior with a Spanish tile roof. All of the rooms are either Single or Double rooms with hardwood floors and a sink, some of which feature California sleeping porches. The residence hall contains multiple common rooms, a computer lab, and full disability access.
Orchard Meadow Hall
Built at the turn of the century, Orchard Meadow residence hall houses mostly first-year students and consists of two separate wings, all students are housed in either Single or Double rooms with hardwood floors or carpets and a sink. Connected by a large living room with paneled oak walls and tile floors, the wings share a meeting room and a computer lab. Orchard Meadow also features multiple rooms with sleeping porches. This building also features two libraries with antique furniture and disability access. The residence hall shares a courtyard with a small reflecting pond and brick barbeque with Warren Olney.
Ethel Moore Hall
Designed in a Mediterranean-style with red tile roof and blue trim, Ethel Moore Hall—which houses juniors, seniors, and graduate students. Located atop Prospect Hill, Ethel Moore was built in the late-1920s/early-1930s by Walter H Ratcliffe Jr. The flagstone entrance to Ethel Moore Hall connects to a downhill path into the center of campus. Ethel Moore also opens onto the Rhododendron Courtyard which is shared with Mary Morse and accessed through the building or through a garden gate. The newly renovated Olive Courtyard is accessed through the lobby. The building contains Single and Double rooms with hardwood floors and a sink, a computer lab, and antique furnishings in the common spaces.
Mary Morse Hall
Also built by Walter H Ratcliffe Jr. in 1935, Mary Morse offers housing to both undergraduate and graduate students. From its location atop Prospect Hill, students look out upon the Rhododendron Courtyard shared with Ethel Moore. The building is seporated into two wings and features single or double rooms with hardwood or carpeted floors and a sink, a large stone fireplace in the living room, a community sun room, antique furnishings in the common areas, and a computer lab.
Lynn Townsend White Hall
Named for former Mills College President Lynn T. White, Jr., this residence hall offers housing to both undergraduate and graduate students. The building has three wings, with an open design with modern-style furnishings and a spacious recreation room. Students have the option of living in single or double rooms (some in suites featuring one double and two single rooms) or two-bedroom suites with private bathrooms and shared kitchenette, living room, and bathroom. Each wing has its own common space in addition to the recreation room, and a computer lab is also located in the building.
Campus history
Mills Hall
Designed in 1869 by S. C. Bugbee & Son, Mills Hall became the college's new home when it moved from Benicia to Oakland in 1871. Mills Hall is "a long, four-story building with a high central observatory. The mansarded structure, which provided homes for faculty and students as well as classrooms and dining halls, long was considered the most beautiful educational building in the state". Mills Hall is a California Historical Landmark and is listed in the National Register of Historic Places.
Julia Morgan Buildings
In 1904, Mills president Susan Mills became interested in architect Julia Morgan because she wished to further the career of a female architect, and because Morgan, just beginning her career, charged less than her male counterparts. Morgan designed six buildings for the Mills campus, including El Campanil, believed to be the first freestanding bell tower on a United States college campus. El Campanil consists of 72 feet of reinforced concrete in a Spanish Mission-style and resides in front of Seminary Hall. The bell tower has a low pitched red tile roof and seven arched openings for the ten bells. The nails and lock of the large wooden door to El Campanil come from an old Spanish church in Mexico. Morgan's reputation grew when the tower was unscathed by the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. The bells in the tower "were cast for the World's Columbian Exposition (Chicago-1893), and given to Mills by a trustee". The ten bells were name after the graces of the spirit to emphasize the school's commitment to the Christian mission; Faith, Hope, Peace, Joy, Love, Meekness, Gentleness, Self Control, Longing, Suffering. Surrounding the structure are southern California flora adorn earthenware jars that Morgan designed in the style of those at the Alhambra.
The Margaret Carnegie Library (1906), which was named after Andrew Carnegie's daughter. The Ming Quong Home for Chinese girls, built in 1924 and purchased by Mills in 1936, which was renamed Alderwood Hall and now houses the Julia Morgan School for Girls (independent of the college). She designed the Student Union in 1916. Kapiolani Cottage, which has served as an infirmary, faculty housing, and administration offices. And finally, Mills's original gymnasium and pool, which have been replaced by the Tea Shop and Suzanne Adams Plaza.
Art museum
Open to the public, the Mills College Art Museum is home to a collection of more than 8,000 works of art—the largest permanent collection of any liberal arts college on the West Coast. The collection includes old masters and modern American and European prints and drawings; Asian textiles; Japanese, Ancient American, and modern ceramics; and California regionalist paintings. In 2005, Dr. William K. Ehrenfeld donated a collection of more than 800 pieces of African art, primarily from West Africa with an emphasis on art of the Yoruba.
Works from the permanent collection—including pieces by Pablo Picasso, Diego Rivera, Winslow Homer, Rembrandt van Rijn, Henri Matisse, and Auguste Renoir—are displayed with an ever-changing series of special exhibitions that are designed to provoke, inspire, and even amuse. Students have an opportunity to get involved in every aspect of the museum's work: archival research, editing, photography, design, and installations. Undergraduates train to become curators and put together over six exhibitions with art from the collection. Every year art students also take on the management of the Senior and MFA exhibitions.
Natural Sciences Building
In spring 2007, Mills will open its new Natural Sciences Building. The facility features four new teaching laboratories, five new classrooms, a computer room for students, and centralized science faculty offices. Up-to-date instrumentation and leading-edge computing resources will support the academic programs. The addition will become the first building on the Mills campus to meet rigorous national standards as a Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) "green building."
Children's School
Founded in 1926 on the Mills College campus, the Children's School is the oldest laboratory school west of the Mississippi River. From its inception, the School has had the dual mission of providing quality education for both children and adults. A member of the East Bay Independent Schools Association, the Children's School is open to the children of Mills students, faculty, and staff as well as the general public.
Since 2000 the Children's School has been housed in the Education Complex of the campus. The state-of-the-art facility includes an infant/toddler program, two preschool programs offering several scheduling options, and a kindergarten through fifth grade elementary school, each with age-appropriate playgrounds and structures.
Undergraduate students majoring or minoring in child development, as well as graduate education students, have the unique opportunity of using the classroom for research and study under the guidance of master teachers with graduate degrees, professional credentials, and years of experience.
Also housed on campus are the English First International Language School, a Greek theatre, and many other attractions. Its main route of entry, Richards Road, is included in The 100 Most Beautiful Streets of America.
Notable people
See also
List of Mills College honorary degree recipients
William Joseph McInnes Botanic Garden and Campus Arboretum
Women's colleges in the United States#20th-century history
References
Horowitz, Helen Lefkowitz. Alma Mater: Design and Experience in the Women's Colleges from Their Nineteenth-Century Beginnings to the 1930s. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1993 (2nd edition).
Footnotes
External links
Photographs of Mills College, ca. 1940, The Bancroft Library
Benicia, California
Educational institutions established in 1885
Education in Oakland, California
Universities and colleges in Alameda County, California
Women's universities and colleges in the United States
Liberal arts colleges in California
School buildings on the National Register of Historic Places in California
National Register of Historic Places in Oakland, California
Schools accredited by the Western Association of Schools and Colleges
Julia Morgan buildings
Mediterranean Revival architecture in California
American Craftsman architecture in California
Women in California
Private universities and colleges in California
1885 establishments in California
Northeastern University |
20370997 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sbrk | Sbrk | and are basic memory management system calls used in Unix and Unix-like operating systems to control the amount of memory allocated to the data segment of the process. These functions are typically called from a higher-level memory management library function such as . In the original Unix system, and were the only ways in which applications could acquire additional data space; later versions allowed this to also be done using the call.
Description
The brk and sbrk calls dynamically change the amount of space allocated for the data segment of the calling process. The change is made by resetting the program break of the process, which determines the maximum space that can be allocated. The program break is the address of the first location beyond the current end of the data region. The amount of available space increases as the break value increases. The available space is initialized to a value of zero, unless the break is lowered and then increased, as it may reuse the same pages in some unspecified way. The break value can be automatically rounded up to a size appropriate for the memory management architecture.
and were considered legacy even by 1997 standards (Single UNIX Specification v2 or POSIX.1-1998). They were removed in POSIX.1-2001.
Function signatures and behavior
#include <unistd.h>
int brk(void* end_data_segment);
void *sbrk(intptr_t increment);
is used to adjust the program break value by adding a possibly negative size, while is used to set the break value to the value of a pointer. Set parameter to zero to fetch the current value of the program break.
Upon successful completion, the subroutine returns a value of 0, and the subroutine returns the prior value of the program break (if the available space is increased then this prior value also points to the start of the new area). If either subroutine is unsuccessful, a value of is returned and the global variable is set to indicate the error.
Not every Unix-like system entertains the concept of having the user control the data segment. The Mac OS X implementation of is an emulation and has a maximum allocation of 4 megabytes. On first call an area of exactly this large is allocated to hold the simulated segment. When this limit is reached, −1 is returned and the is set to . always errors.
Error codes
The error is set and the allocated space remains unchanged if one or more of the following are true:
The requested change allocates more space than is allowed by a system-imposed maximum.
The requested change sets the break value to a value greater than or equal to the start address of any attached shared memory segment.
See also
Exec (computing)
Memory address#Address space in application programming
References
Memory management
Operating system APIs |
1278771 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palladium%20%28classical%20antiquity%29 | Palladium (classical antiquity) | In Greek and Roman mythology, the Palladium or Palladion (Greek Παλλάδιον (Palladion), Latin Palladium) was a cult image of great antiquity on which the safety of Troy and later Rome was said to depend, the wooden statue (xoanon) of Pallas Athena that Odysseus and Diomedes stole from the citadel of Troy and which was later taken to the future site of Rome by Aeneas. The Roman story is related in Virgil's Aeneid and other works. Rome possessed an object regarded as the actual Palladium for several centuries; it was in the care of the Vestal Virgins for nearly all this time.
Since around 1600, the word palladium has been used figuratively to mean anything believed to provide protection or safety, and in particular in Christian contexts a sacred relic or icon believed to have a protective role in military contexts for a whole city, people or nation. Such beliefs first become prominent in the Eastern church in the period after the reign of the Byzantine Emperor Justinian I, and later spread to the Western church. Palladia were carried in procession around the walls of besieged cities and sometimes carried into battle.
The Trojan Palladium
Origins
The Trojan Palladium was said to be a wooden image of Pallas (whom the Greeks identified with Athena and the Romans with Minerva) and to have fallen from heaven in answer to the prayer of Ilus, the founder of Troy.
"The most ancient talismanic effigies of Athena", Ruck and Staples report, "were magical found objects, faceless pillars of Earth in the old manner, before the Goddess was anthropomorphized and given form through the intervention of human intellectual meddling."
Arrival at Troy
The arrival at Troy of the Palladium, fashioned by Athena in remorse for the death of Pallas, as part of the city's founding myth, was variously referred to by Greeks, from the seventh century BC onwards. The Palladium was linked to the Samothrace mysteries through the pre-Olympian figure of Elektra, mother of Dardanus, progenitor of the Trojan royal line, and of Iasion, founder of the Samothrace mysteries. Whether Elektra had come to Athena's shrine of the Palladium as a pregnant suppliant and a god cast it into the territory of Ilium, because it had been profaned by the hands of a woman who was not a virgin, or whether Elektra carried it herself or whether it was given directly to Dardanus vary in sources and scholia. In Ilion, King Ilus was blinded for touching the image to preserve it from a burning temple.
Theft
During the Trojan War, the importance of the Palladium to Troy was said to have been revealed to the Greeks by Helenus, the prophetic son of Priam. After Paris' death, Helenus left the city but was captured by Odysseus. The Greeks somehow managed to persuade the warrior seer to reveal the weakness of Troy: the city would not fall while the Palladium remained within its walls. The perilous task of stealing this sacred statue again fell upon the shoulders of Odysseus and Diomedes. The two stole into the citadel in Troy by a secret passage and carried it off, leaving the desecrated city open to the deceit of the Trojan Horse.
Odysseus, according to the epitome of the Little Iliad (one of the books of the Epic Cycle) preserved in Proclus's Chrestomathia, went by night to Troy disguised as a beggar. There he was recognized by Helen, who told him where to find the Palladium. After some stealthy killing, he won back to the ships. He and Diomedes then re-entered the city and stole the sacred statue. Diomedes is sometimes depicted as the one carrying the Palladium to the ships. There are several statues and many ancient drawings of him with the Palladium.
According to the Narratives of the Augustan period mythographer Conon as summarised by Photius, while the two heroes were on their way to the ships, Odysseus plotted to kill Diomedes and claim the Palladium (or perhaps the credit for gaining it) for himself. He raised his sword to stab Diomedes in the back. Diomedes was alerted to the danger by glimpsing the gleam of the sword in the moonlight. He disarmed Odysseus, tied his hands, and drove him along in front, beating his back with the flat of his sword. From this action was said to have arisen the Greek proverbial expression "Diomedes' necessity", applied to those who act under compulsion. Because Odysseus was essential for the destruction of Troy, Diomedes refrained from injuring him. Diomedes took the Palladium with him when he left Troy. According to some stories, he brought it to Italy; others say that it was stolen from him on the way.
Arrival at Rome
According to various versions of this legend the Trojan Palladium found its way to Athens, Argos, Sparta (all in Greece) or Rome in Italy. To this last city it was either brought by Aeneas, the exiled Trojan (Diomedes, in this version, having only succeeded in stealing an imitation of the statue) or surrendered by Diomedes himself.
An actual object regarded as the Palladium was undoubtedly kept in the Temple of Vesta in the Roman Forum for several centuries. It was regarded as one of the pignora imperii, sacred tokens or pledges of Roman rule (imperium).
Pliny the Elder said that Lucius Caecilius Metellus had been blinded by fire when he rescued the Palladium from the Temple of Vesta in 241 BC, an episode alluded to in Ovid and Valerius Maximus. When the controversial emperor Elagabalus (reigned 218–222 AD) transferred the most sacred relics of Roman religion from their respective shrines to the Elagabalium, the Palladium was among them.
In Late Antiquity, it was rumored that the Palladium was transferred from Rome to Constantinople by Constantine the Great and buried under the Column of Constantine in his forum. Such a move would have undermined the primacy of Rome, and was naturally seen as a move by Constantine to legitimize his reign and his new capital.
The Athenian Palladium
The goddess Athena was worshipped on the Acropolis of Athens under many names and cults, the most illustrious of which was of the Athena Poliás, "protectress of the city". The cult image of the Poliás was a wooden effigy, often referred to as the "xóanon diipetés" (the "carving that fell from heaven"), made of olive wood and housed in the east-facing wing of the Erechtheum temple in the classical era. Considered not a man-made artefact but of divine provenance, it was the holiest image of the goddess and was accorded the highest respect. It was placed under a bronze likeness of a palm tree and a gold lamp burned in front of it.
The centerpiece of the grand feast of the Panathenaea was the replacement of this statue's woolen peplos (a garment) with a newly woven one. It was also carried to the sea by the priestesses and ceremonially washed once a year, in the feast called the Plynteria ("washings"). Its presence was last mentioned by the Church Father Tertullian who described it derisively as nothing but "a rough stake, a shapeless piece of wood". Earlier descriptions of the statue have not survived.
See also
Tutelary deity
Notes
References
Further reading
The Oxford Dictionary of Classical Myth and Religion. s.v. "Palladium".
External links
Diomedes with the Palladium
Roman mythology
Mythological objects
Sculptures of Athena
Aeneid
Greco-Roman relations in classical antiquity
Iliad
Cult images |
4201521 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20websites%20founded%20before%201995 | List of websites founded before 1995 | The first website was created in August 1991 by Tim Berners-Lee at CERN, a European nuclear research agency. Berners-Lee's WorldWideWeb browser was made publicly available that month. The World Wide Web began to enter everyday use in 1993–4, when websites for the general public started to become available. By the end of 1994, the total number of websites was still minute compared to present figures, but quite a number of notable websites were already active, many of which are the precursors or inspiring examples of today's most popular services. Of the thousands of websites founded prior to 1995, those appearing here are listed for one or more of the following reasons:
They still exist (albeit in some cases with different names).
They made contributions to the history of the World Wide Web.
They helped to shape certain modern Web content, such as webcomics and weblogs.
1991
CERN
Snapshot of the CERN site The World Wide Web project, the first website, as of November 1992. The Web was publicly announced (via a posting to the Usenet newsgroup alt.hypertext) on August 6, 1991.
World Wide Web Virtual Library Originally Tim Berners-Lee's web catalog at CERN. Snapshot from November 1992: Subject listing – Information by Subject. http://info.cern.ch/hypertext/WWW/TheProject.html
Stanford Linear Accelerator Center Paul Kunz from SLAC visited Tim Berners-Lee at CERN in September 1991. He was impressed by the WWW project and brought a copy of the software back to Stanford. SLAC launched the first web server in North America on December 12, 1991. SLAC first web page: SLACVM Information Service.
1992
Nikhef The Dutch National institute for subatomic physics, originally at http://nic.nikhef.nl. This site was the third website in the world to come online in February 1992, after CERN and SLAC.
National Center for Supercomputing Applications The National Center for Supercomputing Applications site was an early home to the NCSA Mosaic web browser, as well as documentation on the web and a "What's New?" list which many people used as an early web directory.
Fermilab Second web server in North America, following in the trend of high-energy physics laboratories.
SunSITE Early, comprehensive archiving project. Project as a whole started in 1992 and was quick to move to the web.
Ohio State University Department of Computer and Information Science Early development of gateway programs, and mass conversion of existing documents, including RFCs, TeXinfo, UNIX man pages, and the Usenet FAQs.
IN2P3 The French National institute for nuclear physics and particle physics, originally at http://info.in2p3.fr.
HUJI The Hebrew University of Jerusalem Information service – both in Hebrew and English. Was the first RTL website and the 10th to come online in April 1992, at http://www.huji.ac.il.
The Exploratorium One of the first science museums on-line.
youngmonkey (studios)
Initially hosted as a .nb.ca domain, showcasing music/writing projects and software products (DOS/Amiga). Also includes articles, technical information, and other resources for synthesizer enthusiasts, developers, and others. Home to likely the first online store (SalesSite) using dial-up credit card verification; and first web streaming, video distribution, and pay-per-view online video system (StreamSite). Came online at some point, still to be determined, in 1991–1992. Moved to its .ca domain (https://www.youngmonkey.ca) in April 1995.
simianpress (a manifestation of youngmonkey)
A showcase for graphic design and publishing projects, and likely offering the first professional website design. Came online at some point, still to be determined, in 1991–1992. Merged with youngmonkey's .ca domain in 1995.
CBSS (Consulting Firm)
Coming online in late 1992, CBSS Inc. of Houston, Texas quietly offered what was very likely the first commercial Website hosting service. CBSS pioneered Web access via mobile phone through Motorola's proprietary cellular data interface. No longer maintained, the Website is still visible today at http://www.cbss.com.
KEK The High Energy Accelerator Research Organization. The first web page in Japan was created by Dr. Yohei Morita at the suggestion of Dr. Tim Berners-Lee in September 1992. CERN's web site linked the KEK page in 30 September 1992. Still online at http://www.ibarakiken.gr.jp/www/first/kek.html.
1993
By the end of 1993, there were 623 websites, according to a study by MIT Researcher Matthew Gray.
ALIWEB (Archie Like Indexing for the WEB) is considered the first Web search engine, announced in November 1993 by developer Martijn Koster presented in May 1994 at the First International Conference at CERN in Geneva.
Bloomberg.com Financial portal with information on markets, currency conversion, news and events, and Bloomberg Terminal subscriptions.
Chabad.org The flagship website of the Chabad-Lubavitch Hasidic movement. It serves its own members and Jews worldwide.
Corpus of Electronic Texts (formerly CURIA) Peter Flynn from University College Cork saw Tim Berners-Lee demonstrate the WWW at a RARE WG3 meeting, and installed the software at UCC for the CURIA project.
Doctor Fun One of the first webcomics, noted by the NCSA as "a major breakthrough for the Web".
The LANL preprint archive Web access to thousands of papers in physics, mathematics, computer science, and biology; developed out of earlier gopher, ftp, and e-mail archives at Los Alamos. Now known as ArXiv.
Electricité de France One the first industrial Web sites in Europe started as the Web site of the R&D Division and was implemented by R&D Engineers Sylvain Langlois, Emmanuel Poiret and a few months later Daniel Glazman. They did not have approval for that and had to restart the server, connected to RENATER through a 155Mb link, every time IT was killing it for lack of approval. Electricité de France's R&D later submitted patches to CERN httpd and was active in Web Standardisation.
Global Network Navigator Example of an early web directory created by O'Reilly Media and one of the Web's first commercial sites; it was hosted at Bolt Beranek and Newman (BBN).
Haystack Observatory Haystack Observatory's web site explained its radio and radar remote sensing mission and provided data access for science users. Content was rolled out on December 13, 1993 by Dr. John Holt of Haystack. The web site is still active, and the original web page format is still available online.
The Internet Movie DatabaseFounded in 1990 by participants in the Usenet newsgroup rec.arts.movies, the IMDB was rolled out on the web in late 1993, hosted by the computer science department of Cardiff University in Wales.
Internet Underground Music Archive Created by students at the University of California, Santa Cruz to help promote unsigned musical artists. Music was shared using the MP2 format, presaging the later extreme popularity of MP3 sharing and Online music stores.
JumpStation
The world's first Web search engine, created by Jonathon Fletcher on December 12, 1993, and hosted at the University of Stirling in Scotland. In operation until 1994.
Kent Anthropology
One of the first social science sites (online May 1993). Originally at http://lucy.kent.ac.uk/. Still online at http://csac.anthropology.ac.uk/bin/EthnoGraphics+Gallery
SITOAfter a start as an anonymous ftp-based art gallery and collaborative collective, the OTIS project (later SITO) moved to the web thanks to SunSITE's hosting.
The TechThe MIT campus newspaper, The Tech, claims to be the first newspaper to deliver content over the Web, beginning in May 1993.
Nexorweb site set up for Nexor, by Martijn Koster, an early Internet software company.
MTVThe music television network's domain was registered in 1993 by VJ Adam Curry, who personally ran a small unofficial site.
PARC Map ServerArguably the earliest precursor of MapQuest and Google Maps. PARC Researcher Steve Putz tied an existing map viewing program to the web. Now defunct.
photo.net An online photography resource and community, designed and founded by Philip Greenspun. Greenspun released the software behind photo.net as a free open-source toolkit for building community websites, the ArsDigita Community System.
Principia CyberneticaProbably the first complex, collaborative knowledge system, sporting a hierarchical structure, index, map, annotations, search, plenty of hyperlinks, etc. Designed by Francis Heylighen, Cliff Joslyn and Valentin Turchin to develop a cybernetic philosophy.
ExPASyThe first life sciences web site. Still active
Trojan room coffee potThe first webcam.
Trincoll Journala multimedia magazine published by students at Trinity College in Hartford Connecticut.
Wired.comAn online presence for Wired magazine.
Nippon Telegraph and Telephone (a.k.a. NTT) NTT's was the most famous web page in Japan in the mid-1990s. The page was announced in December 1993.
1994
By mid-1994 there were 2,738 websites, according to Gray's statistics; by the end of the year, more than 10,000.
Allied Artists InternationalThe first corporate web site for Allied Artists Entertainment Group, predecessor to Allied Artists International, present day owner of Allied Artists Film Group & Allied Artists Music Group
American Marketing Association Professional Association. Created in 1994 by a group of Marketing professors. It offered general marketing news for marketers and professors of marketing. Approximately a year later, the site was moved to ama.org where it still remains.
Amnesty International Human Rights site. Created in 1994 by the organization's International Secretariat and the Computer Communications Working Group of Amnesty International Canada.
Art.Net"Art on the Net", created by Lile Elam in June 1994 to showcase the artwork of San Francisco Bay Area artists as well as other international artists. It offered free linkage and hosts extensive links to other artists' sites.
Art Crimes The first graffiti art site began to archive photos from around the world, creating an important academic resource as well as a thriving online community.
The Amazing FishCam A webcam pointed at a fishtank located at Netscape headquarters. According to a contemporaneous article by The Economist, "In its audacious uselessness—and that of thousands of ego trips like it—lie the seeds of the Internet revolution."
Automatic Complaint-Letter Generator Created by Scott Pakin in April 1994, the site allows users to specify the name of the individual or company that the complaint is directed toward, as well as the number of paragraphs the complaint will be. After submitting the data, the computer generates sentences that are composed of arbitrary verbs, nouns, and adjectives. Still active.
BBC Online Started in April with some regional information and Open University Production Centre (OUPC) content. By September, the first commercial service launched, a transcription service via ftp server. At its peak, it had 122 accounts, including FBI bureaus around the world, taking daily updates from 12 feeds. Still active.
Bianca's Smut Shack An early web-based chatroom and online community known for raucous free speech and deviant behavior.
Birmingham City Council Early local government site, initially hosted by the University of Birmingham.
Buzzweb.com The earliest website for alternative music artists and news. Created by A. Joi Brown and Matthew Brown in 1993–1994. Registered with Network Solutions 1993.
CDNAir.ca The first website for an airline, Canadian Airlines.
Chabad.org The first Ask the rabbi site. Launched by Rabbi Yosef Yitzchak Kazen as an outgrowth of earlier discussion groups on FidoNet dating back to 1988.
CitySites The first "City Site" web development company, advertising businesses and reviewing music and art events in the Bay Area. Started in 1994. CitySites was featured in Interactive Week Magazine in 1997 as numerous other City websites began competing for the business ad market including CitySearch and others. Founder, Darrow Boggiano, still operates CitySites.
Cool Site of the Day Glenn Davis' daily pick of 'cool' websites.
Cybersell The first commercial advertising service focused on using spam comes online as sell.com, set up by Laurence Canter and Martha Siegel, notorious for spamming Usenet newsgroups earlier that year.
CORDIS The COmmunity Research & Development Information Service, the European Commission's first permanent website, providing the repository of EU-funded research projects. Launched on ESPRIT day in November 1994 as www.cordis.lu.
The Economist The Economist "went live in early 1994" with a website "structured as a portal with various search tools of the day (e.g., Archie, Veronica, Jughead, WAIS and Gopher)"; it cost $120, paid for by one of the magazine's correspondents, and by the end of the year "America Online voted it one of the world's top-ten news sites, nosing out Time-Warner's celebrated Pathfinder site—which reputedly cost $120 million to build."
Einet Galaxy Claims to be the first searchable web catalog; originally created at the Einet division of the MCC Research Consortium at the University of Texas, Austin. It passed through several commercial owners and is now run by Logika Corporation.
Encyclopaedia Britannica Online
Enterzone First purely web-based (no gopher!) literary webzine (originally published at enterzone.berkeley.edu).
EPage Classifieds First Web classified ad site (was originally at ep.com).
First Virtual First "cyber-bank".
FolkBook / An Online Acoustic Music Establishment A fansite dedicated to documenting Folk Music and Folk Musicians. It operated at Ohio State at web.cgrg.ohio-state.edu/folkbook/ , from September 1, 1994 until it was taken off-line on March 7, 1998. After that it was redirected to a similar Folk Music site, http://folkmusic.org/ , which still exists, but which has not been updated since 2002.
FogCam! World's oldest still operating webcam. Located at San Francisco State University.
Flags of the World
GeneNetworkFirst web site in biomedical research (service initiated January 1994) and the earliest URL in PubMed. GeneNetwork was initially known as the Portable Dictionary of the Mouse Genome and then as WebQTL. This genetics site has been funded continuously by NIH and the University of Tennessee-Oak Ridge National Laboratory Governor's Chair to RW Williams.
HM TreasuryWebsite of HM Treasury, the United Kingdom government department.
Home Page Replica
A fansite dedicated to researching the history and music of Captain Beefheart & His Magic Band.
HotWiredWebsite of Wired magazine with its own unique and innovative online content. Home of the first banner ads, for Zima and AT&T.
IBMAn early corporate web site
Innerviews The first online music magazine set up by music journalist Anil Prasad, accessible at: http://www.innerviews.org
Institute of Social and Cultural Anthropology University of Oxford. The web version of a previous Gopher server. Set up in early 1994 by David Price at http://rsl.ox.ac.uk/isca/. No version has been archived but announcements giving the URL date from April 1994 on Humanist-l and anthro-l.
The Irish Times First newspaper in the United Kingdom or Ireland to have a website: irish-times.ie was founded in 1994. The newspaper moved to ireland.com in 1999 and irishtimes.com in 2008.
Justin Hall's Links from the Underground One of the earliest examples of personal weblogging.
LawinfoEarly legal website, provides public access to pre-qualified, pre-screened attorneys, and to free legal resources.
Literary KicksEarly literary website about Beat Generation, spoken word poetry and alternative literary scenes, launched by Levi Asher on July 23, 1994.
Lycos Early search engine, originally a university research project by Dr. Michael Mauldin.
Megadeth, ArizonaThe first website for a band, Megadeth.
MicrosoftAn early corporate site.
MIT IHTFP Hack GalleryWebsite dedicated to cataloging Hacks at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. In continuous operation since 1994, accessible at: http://hacks.mit.edu
Museum of Bad ArtWebsite of a museum "dedicated to the tongue-in-cheek display of poorly conceived or executed examples of Outsider Art in the form of paintings or sculpture."
The Nine Planets"A Multimedia Tour of the Solar System", created by Bill Arnett. One of the first extensively multimedia sites.
Nando.netOne of the first newspaper sites; the online presence of the Raleigh, North Carolina News & Observer.
NetBoyHighly popular early webcomic.
NetrekOne of the first sites dedicated to Internet, multi-user video-game programming; maintained at obsidian.math.Arizona.edu. Defunct.
Onlinetechex.com
Online Technology Exchange, Inc. created the largest worldwide searchable database of electronic components and semiconductor parts
Pathfinder.com
One of the first Internet portals, created by Time Warner.
Pizza Hut
The pizza chain restaurant started by allowing people in Santa Cruz, California to order pizza over the Web.
Powells.comThe website of Powell's Books. and started with two employees; the company's first online order was placed by an Apple employee. It pre-dates Amazon.com.
Purple.comThe first known single-serving site; consists of simply a purple background.
The Radcliffe Science LibraryThe first part of Oxford University to establish a web presence (on 7 Jan 1994) from http://rsl.ox.ac.uk/. The oldest known archive version is on the Wayback Machine from 19.10.1996. The URL is attested on email lists (e.g. Humanist-l) by April 1994.
Radio PragueThe official international broadcasting station of the Czech Republic was an early media entity on the web; they put transcripts of their news broadcasts and other current affairs content in 5 languages on the web starting in 1994 (and they still do).
Senator Edward Kennedy
The first website for a member of the U.S. Congress was officially announced on June 2, 1994. The site remained active throughout the remainder of the senator's service until his death in 2009.
Saccharomyces Genome DatabaseNIH funded research project on the Web. Still funded by NIH and online. SGD provide curation of all published results on budding yeast (aka. bakers, brewers, and wine yeast) genes and their products. Current URL is yeastgenome.org
Sex.comSubject of a twelve-year legal battle that established parameters of domain ownership.
Sighting.comSIGHTINGS began in 1994 as the website home for Jeff Rense's award-winning UFO & Paranormal radio program of the same name.
The Skeptic's DictionaryFeatures definitions, arguments, and essays on topics ranging from acupuncture to zombies, and provides a lively, commonsense trove of detailed information on things supernatural, paranormal, and pseudoscientific.
Steelforge.comCommercial website for open die forge facility.
The Simpsons ArchiveThe first fan site for The Simpsons television show.
Sirius ConnectionsThe first internet service provider in the San Francisco Bay Area. The owner – Arman Kahalili gave novice website creators a great deal of technical assistance to get the new wave of developers started on building sites and expanding code that was used in later versions of HTML and other web technology.
SpinnWebeEarly humor site, called "a window on the weird" by The New Yorker.
Stak Trading (staktrading.co.uk)Computer hardware resale in the UK. The site was created by Stuart Mackintosh who previously provided software and driver downloads through a Wildcat! BBS and price lists to the trade via Faxmaker faxback systems.
Telegraph.co.ukThe Electronic Telegraph, website of the Daily Telegraph.
Traditio.comThe First Traditional Roman Catholic Internet Site, founded September 29, 1994.
Transdat.comThe first site using the internet for a sales medium on a global scale for heavy machinery.
VeloNewsOne of the first sports news sites, initially providing Tour de France news.
Virginia's Legislative Information Systemleg1.state.va.us. The site remains active today as "LIS Classic".
VirtuMallCreated in 1994 by MIT dorm mates, pioneered shopping cart technology, pioneered credit card payments sent via fax to mail order catalogs, created the first pooled-traffic site, and helped foster standards for security. One of the first "tenants" was Hickory Farms.
The WWW Useless PagesPerhaps the first site which showcased bad or eccentric websites rather than 'cool' ones.
WebCrawler An early search engine for the Web, and the first with full text searching, by Brian Pinkerton at the University of Washington, announced in June 1994.
Whitehouse.govThe official website of the White House.
World-Wide Web WormThe World-Wide Web Worm (WWWW) was one of the first search engines for the World-Wide Web, by Oliver McBryan at the University of Colorado, announced in March 1994.
Yahoo!Originally started as "Jerry's Guide to the World Wide Web"; later Yahoo without the exclamation mark.
See also
History of the World Wide Web
Wayback Machine, a project of the Internet Archive which publicly offers partial archives of many now-defunct sites at various points in time
References
Websites founded before 1995
Websites founded before 1995
Websites founded before 1995
Websites founded before 1995
Web 1.0 |
1113258 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple%20Productivity%20Experience%20Group | Apple Productivity Experience Group | Apple Productivity Experience Group (known as APEX) is an operating unit of Microsoft that, as of 2009, is the largest software developer outside of Apple Inc. for the macOS and iOS operating systems. Formed as Macintosh Business Unit on January 7, 1997, it was initially composed of over 100 individuals from the existing cross platform Word, Excel, and PowerPoint teams in Microsoft's Office Division, and grew to 180 people the next year, with the addition of the Internet Explorer for Mac and Outlook Express for Mac teams. In 2000, it moved from the Office Division to the Specialized Devices and Applications Group inside the Entertainment and Devices Division, and is now back inside the Microsoft Office division.
History
Prior to the creation of the Mac BU, Microsoft had developed Macintosh software, starting in 1984 with Word 1.0 for Macintosh. During the early and mid 1990s, Microsoft's Word, Excel, and Powerpoint teams simultaneously developed Windows and Macintosh versions of these applications, but after releasing Office 97 for Windows, Microsoft decided, in January 1997, to form a separate Macintosh Business Unit to focus on creating applications optimized for the Macintosh platform. In August 1997, as part of a broader partnership agreement with Apple, Microsoft committed to continue developing and supporting Macintosh software for at least 5 more years, renewing this pledge on January 10, 2006 at the Macworld Conference & Expo. Ben Waldman was the Mac BU's founder and first General Manager (GM), serving from its inception in January 1997 through January 2000, when he was succeeded by Kevin Browne, who served through December 18, 2002, and Roz Ho, who served from December 18, 2002 to June 8, 2007; after that, Craig Eisler became the GM. In October 2008, Eisler was tapped by Robbie Bach to lead all Entertainment Client efforts, and Eric Wilfred became the GM of MacBU.
Software
APEX develops macOS and iOS versions of Microsoft Office and OneNote. Previously developed software by the Mac BU include Internet Explorer (development ceased in 2003), Virtual PC, and the MSN for Mac OS X browser (cancelled May 31, 2005).
References
External links
Microsoft divisions
Macintosh software companies
1997 establishments in Washington (state)
Companies based in Redmond, Washington
Software companies established in 1997 |
39515416 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PolyMorphic%20Systems | PolyMorphic Systems | PolyMorphic Systems was a manufacturer of microcomputer boards and systems based on the S-100 bus. Their products included the Poly-88 and the System 8813. The company was incorporated in California in 1976 as Interactive Products Corporation d/b/a PolyMorphic Systems. It was initially based in Goleta, then Santa Barbara, California.
S-100 boards
PolyMorphic Systems' first products were several interface boards based on the then-popular S-100 bus. These were compatible with other microcomputers such as the Altair 8800 and IMSAI 8080. The first was an A/D and D/A converter board. This was followed by a video terminal interface (VTI) card which became the primary display device for their systems. Later board-level products included CPU, RAM, and disk controller cards.
Poly-88
With the release of their CPU card, PolyMorphic began selling complete systems. Their first was the Poly-88, housed in a 5-slot S100 chassis, with additional side-mounted S-100 connectors for the purpose of joining chassis together. This unit earned the nickname "orange toaster" due to its orange metal cover, and the fact that the S-100 cards generated noticeable heat. The Poly-88 was available in kit form, or assembled. It was originally called the Micro-Altair, but after objections from MITS, manufacturers of the Altair, the name was changed.
Hardware
The Poly-88 board set consisted of the following:
Central Processing Unit (CPU) with an Intel 8080 chip, and an 8251 USART for serial communication to a modem, printer, or cassette tape interface. The cassette tape interface supported program storage and loading from consumer-grade cassette tape recorders, using either Kansas City standard or higher speed Manchester encoded signals. The board contained 512 bytes of RAM and one 1024-byte ROM.
Video Terminal Interface (VTI) which produced a 16-line display of 64 characters per line. The VTI was intended to drive a television using an RF modulator, or to be connected directly to a TV monitor's composite video input (not commonly available in the 1970s). The VTI also displayed low-resolution graphics (today called text semigraphics). Each character position was divided into a grid 2 dots wide and 3 high, giving a graphics resolution of 128 horizontal and 48 vertical pixels, the same as the original TRS-80. A TTL-level, parallel keyboard interface was also included on the VTI. Several keyboards were available, including the Keyboard III which included a numeric keypad.
Random Access Memory (RAM) cards were also available, with capacities ranging from 8,192 (8K) bytes up to 56K (the maximum supported in their system architecture). Since the systems were based on the S-100 bus, other manufacturers' memory card could be used in Poly systems as well.
Software
The Poly-88 ROM contained a boot loader program, capable of reading programs from the cassette tape interface. Available programs included games, utilities, a BASIC interpreter, and an 8080 assembler.
System 8813
PolyMorphic's disk-based system was the System 8813. It consisted of a larger chassis holding one, two, or three 5-inch minifloppy disk drives from Shugart Associates. The drives used single-sided, single-density storage on hard-sectored diskettes. Storage capacity was approximately 90K bytes per diskette.
Hardware
System 8813 hardware included the standard CPU and VTI cards; a RAM card, typically with at least 32K of memory; and a disk controller card, to interface with the minifloppy drives. Later, a Z80 based disk controller supported double sided, double-density minifloppy drives, and full-size (8-inch) floppy drives.
Software
The Poly disk operating system was called Exec. The three disk drives were distinguished by numbers enclosed in angle brackets such as <1>, rather than the drive letter convention (A:) used by CP/M and later MS-DOS. File names were case-sensitive and could contain up to 31 characters including a two-character extension. For example, a text file might be named Notes.TX.
Various file extensions had predefined meanings: .GO for executable files, .BS for BASIC programs, .OV for overlays. Overlays were used extensively to provide more code space for the operating system. If a file named INITIAL.TX was present when the system booted, commands listed in that file were executed automatically, similar to the AUTOEXEC.BAT file of an MS-DOS system.
Later versions of Exec supported subdirectories. The naming syntax continued to use angle brackets. For example, a file in a second-level subdirectory on drive 2 might be named <2<Projects<Dan<Accounts.TX. Unlike MS-DOS and Unix, no explicit "make directory" command was needed. When a program tried to create a file within a subdirectory, that subdirectory would be automatically created (if it didn't already exist).
System 8813 software included an 8080 macro assembler and a BASIC interpreter for program development. Poly BASIC used BCD arithmetic for high precision in financial applications. A word-processing system, named WordMaster, consisted of a text editor and separate formatter program. Stuart Woods wrote his second novel, Run Before the Wind, using WordMaster on a PolyMorphic 8813 system.
Other Products
System 8810
With the introduction of double-sided, double density minifloppy drives, the storage capacity of a single floppy became approximately 360K bytes (the same as the original IBM-PC floppy drive capacity). This made it feasible to store Exec, applications and data on a single floppy. The System 8810 was functionally identical to the 8813, but in a smaller chassis, with 5 slots and only one minifloppy drive.
Mass Storage
The 88/MS (Mass Storage) was a cabinet housing dual, 8-inch (full size) floppy drives. It was available with either single- or double-sided disk drives, both using double-density recording on hard-sectored media. The 88/MS could be added onto either an 8813 or 8810 system. The largest Poly configurations would contain three mini-floppy drives and four full-size drives, with drive numbers from 1 to 7.
The 88/HD was a subsystem with an 18 MB SASI hard drive, housed in an 8810 chassis. Software called Volume Manager partitioned the available space into several logical disk drives, similar to the FDISK partitioning command used by other operating systems.
TwinSystem
The TwinSystem was marketed as "Get more work done on a computer built for two." The System 8813 TwinSystem had an additional RAM card, video card, and keyboard. Bank switching between the RAM cards allowed the CPU to keep two applications in memory simultaneously. However, the TTL-level keyboard interface limited the distance between the two user stations to a few feet.
CP/M Compatibility
The dominant operating system for microcomputers in this era was CP/M. Unmodified Poly systems were unable to run CP/M, for several reasons:
Hard-sectored floppy disks. Nearly all CP/M systems used soft-sectored diskettes, so it was difficult to transport information between CP/M and Poly systems.
Memory map. CP/M required RAM from addresses 0000 to (ideally) FFFF hex. The Poly CPU and VTI cards mapped ROM and video memory into the area between 0000 and 1FFF.
Late in the system's lifetime, hardware modifications were introduced to solve the memory map issues, and a version of CP/M was released for the 8813.
References
External links
History of Polymorphic Systems computers (archived 12 Sep 2017).
Defunct computer hardware companies
Defunct computer companies of the United States
Defunct computer companies based in California
Companies based in Santa Barbara, California
Computer companies established in 1976
Electronics companies established in 1976
1976 establishments in California |
13774696 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System%20Architecture%20Evolution | System Architecture Evolution | System Architecture Evolution (SAE) is the core network architecture of mobile communications protocol group 3GPP's LTE wireless communication standard.
SAE is the evolution of the GPRS Core Network, but with a simplified architecture; an all-IP Network (AIPN); support for higher throughput and lower latency radio access networks (RANs); and support for, and mobility between, multiple heterogeneous access networks, including E-UTRA (LTE and LTE Advanced air interface), and 3GPP legacy systems (for example GERAN or UTRAN, air interfaces of GPRS and UMTS respectively), but also non-3GPP systems (for example Wi-Fi, WiMAX or CDMA2000).
SAE Architecture
The SAE has a flat, all-IP architecture with separation of control plane and user plane traffic.
The main component of the SAE architecture is the Evolved Packet Core (EPC), also known as SAE Core. The EPC will serve as the equivalent of GPRS networks (via the Mobility Management Entity, Serving Gateway and PDN Gateway subcomponents).
Evolved Packet Core (EPC)
The subcomponents of the EPC are:
MME (Mobility Management Entity)
The MME is the key control-node for the LTE access-network. It is responsible for idle mode User Equipment (UE) paging and tagging procedure including retransmissions. It is involved in the bearer activation/deactivation process and is also responsible for choosing the Serving Gateway for a UE at the initial attach and at time of intra-LTE handover involving Core Network (CN) node relocation. It is responsible for authenticating the user (by interacting with the Home Subscriber Server). The Non Access Stratum (NAS) signaling terminates at the MME and it is also responsible for generation and allocation of temporary identities to UEs. It checks the authorization of the UE to camp on the service provider's Public Land Mobile Network (PLMN) and enforces UE roaming restrictions. The MME is the termination point in the network for ciphering/integrity protection for NAS signaling and handles the security key management. Lawful interception of signaling is also supported by the MME. The MME also provides the control plane function for mobility between LTE and 2G/3G access networks with the S3 interface terminating at the MME from the SGSN. The MME also terminates the S6a interface towards the HSS for roaming UEs.
SGW (Serving Gateway)
The Serving Gateway routes and forwards user data packets, while also acting as the mobility anchor for the user plane during inter-eNodeB handovers and as the anchor for mobility between LTE and other 3GPP technologies (terminating S4 interface and relaying the traffic between 2G/3G systems and Packet Data Network Gateway). For idle state User Equipment, the Serving Gateway terminates the downlink data path and triggers paging when downlink data arrives for the User Equipment. It manages and stores UE contexts, e.g. parameters of the IP bearer service, network internal routing information. It also performs replication of the user traffic in case of lawful interception.
PGW (Packet Data Network Gateway)
The Packet Data Network Gateway (PDN Gateway, also PGW) provides connectivity from the User Equipment (UE) to external packet data networks (PDNs) by being its point of exit and entry of traffic. A piece of User Equipment may have simultaneous connectivity with more than one Packet Data Network Gateway for accessing multiple packet data networks. The PDN Gateway performs policy enforcement, packet filtering for each user, charging support, lawful interception and packet screening. Another key role of the Packet Data Network Gateway is to act as the anchor for mobility between 3GPP and non-3GPP technologies such as WiMAX and 3GPP2 (CDMA 1X and EvDO).
HSS (Home Subscriber Server)
The Home Subscriber Server is a central database that contains user-related and subscription-related information. The functions of the HSS include mobility management, call and session establishment support, user authentication and access authorization. The HSS is based on pre-Rel-4 Home Location Register (HLR) and Authentication Center (AuC).
ANDSF (Access Network Discovery and Selection Function)
The ANDSF provides information to the UE about connectivity to 3GPP and non-3GPP access networks (such as Wi-Fi). The purpose of the ANDSF is to assist the UE to discover the access networks in their vicinity and to provide rules (policies) to prioritize and manage connections to these networks.
ePDG (Evolved Packet Data Gateway)
The main function of the ePDG is to secure the data transmission with a UE connected to the EPC over untrusted non-3GPP access, e.g. VoWi-Fi. For this purpose, the ePDG acts as a termination node of IPsec tunnels established with the UE.
Non Access Stratum (NAS) protocols
The Non-Access Stratum (NAS) protocols form the highest stratum of the control plane between the user equipment (UE) and MME. NAS protocols support the mobility of the UE and the session management procedures to establish and maintain IP connectivity between the UE and a PDN GW. They define the rules for a mapping between parameters during inter-system mobility with 3G networks or non-3GPP access networks. They also provide the NAS security by integrity protection and ciphering of NAS signaling messages. EPS (Evolved Packet System) provides the subscriber with a "ready-to-use" IP connectivity and an "always-on" experience by linking between mobility management and session management procedures during the UE attach procedure.
Complete NAS transactions consist of specific sequences of elementary procedures with EPS Mobility Management (EMM) and EPS Session Management (ESM) protocols.
EMM (EPS Mobility Management)
The EPS (Evolved Packet System) Mobility Management (EMM) protocol provides procedures for the control of mobility when the User Equipment (UE) uses the Evolved UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network (E-UTRAN). It also provides control of security for the NAS protocols.
EMM involves different types of procedures such as:
EMM common procedures — can always be initiated while a NAS signalling connection exists. The procedures belonging to this type are initiated by the network. They include GUTI reallocation, authentication, security mode control, identification and EMM information.
EMM specific procedures — specific to the UE only. At any time only one UE-initiated EMM specific procedure can run. The procedures belonging to this type are attach and combined attach, detach or combined detach, normal tracking area update and combined tracking area update (S1 mode only) and periodic tracking area update (S1 mode only).
EMM connection management procedures — manage the connection of the UE with the network:
Service request: Initiated by the UE and used to establish a secure connection to the network or to request the resource reservation for sending data, or both.
Paging procedure: Initiated by the network and used to request the establishment of a NAS signalling connection or to prompt the UE to re-attach if necessary as a result of a network failure.
Transport of NAS messages: Initiated by the UE or the network and used to transport SMS messages.
Generic transport of NAS messages: Initiated by the UE or the network and used to transport protocol messages from other applications.
The UE and the network execute the attach procedure, the default EPS bearer context activation procedure in parallel. During the EPS attach procedure the network activates a default EPS bearer context. The EPS session management messages for the default EPS bearer context activation are transmitted in an information element in the EPS mobility management messages. The UE and network complete the combined default EPS bearer context activation procedure and the attach procedure before the dedicated EPS bearer context activation procedure is completed. The success of the attach procedure is dependent on the success of the default EPS bearer context activation procedure. If the attach procedure fails, then the ESM session management procedures also fails.
ESM (EPS Session Management)
The EPS Session Management (ESM) protocol provides procedures for the handling of EPS bearer contexts. Together with the bearer control provided by the Access Stratum, it provides the control of user plane bearers. The transmission of ESM messages is suspended during EMM procedures except for the attach procedure.
EPS Bearer:
Each EPS bearer context represents an EPS bearer between the UE and a PDN. EPS bearer contexts can remain activated even if the radio and S1 bearers constituting the corresponding EPS bearers between UE and MME are temporarily released. An EPS bearer context can be either a default bearer context or a dedicated bearer context. A default EPS bearer context is activated when the UE requests a connection to a PDN. The first default EPS bearer context, is activated during the EPS attach procedure. Additionally, the network can activate one or several dedicated EPS bearer contexts in parallel.
Generally, ESM procedures can be performed only if an EMM context has been established between the UE and the MME, and the secure exchange of NAS messages has been initiated by the MME by use of the EMM procedures. Once the UE is successfully attached, the UE can request the MME to set up connections to additional PDNs. For each additional connection, the MME activates a separate default EPS bearer context. A default EPS bearer context remains activated throughout the lifetime of the connection to the PDN.
Types of ESM procedures:
ESM involves different types of procedures such as:
EPS bearer contexts procedures — initiated by the network and are used for the manipulation of EPS bearer contexts, including Default EPS bearer context activation, Dedicated EPS bearer context activation, EPS bearer context modification, EPS bearer context deactivation.
Transaction related procedures — initiated by the UE to request for resources, i.e. a new PDN connection or dedicated bearer resources, or to release these resources. They include PDN connectivity procedure, PDN disconnect procedure, Bearer resource allocation procedure, Bearer resource modification procedure.
The MME maintains EMM context and EPS bearer context information for UEs in the ECM-IDLE, ECM CONNECTED and EMM-DEREGISTERED states.
EPC protocol stack
MME (Mobility Management Entity) protocols
The MME protocol stack consists of:
S1-MME stack to support S1-MME interface with eNodeB
S11 stack to support S11 interface with Serving Gateway
MME supports the S1 interface with eNodeB. The integrated S1 MME interface stack consists of IP, SCTP, S1AP.
SCTP (Stream Control Transmission Protocol) is a common transport protocol that uses the services of Internet Protocol (IP) to provide a reliable datagram delivery service to the adaptation modules, such as the S1AP. SCTP provides reliable and sequenced delivery on top of the existing IP framework. The main features provided by SCTP are:
Association setup: An association is a connection that is set up between two endpoints for data transfer, much like a TCP connection. A SCTP association can have multiple addresses at each end.
Reliable Data Delivery: Delivers sequenced data in a stream (Elimination of head-of-line blocking): SCTP ensures the sequenced delivery of data with multiple unidirectional streams, without blocking the chunks of data in other direction.
S1AP (S1 Application Part) is the signaling service between E-UTRAN and the Evolved Packet Core (EPC) that fulfills the S1 Interface functions such as SAE Bearer management functions, Initial context transfer function, Mobility functions for UE, Paging, Reset functionality, NAS signaling transport function, Error reporting, UE context release function, Status transfer.
MME supports S11 interface with Serving Gateway. The integrated S11 interface stack consists of IP, UDP, eGTP-C.
SGW (Serving Gateway) protocols
The SGW consists of
S11 control plane stack to support S11 interface with MME
S5/S8 control and data plane stacks to support S5/S8 interface with PGW
S1 data plane stack to support S1 user plane interface with eNodeB
S4 data plane stack to support S4 user plane interface between RNC of UMTS and SGW of eNodeB
Sxa: since 3GPP Rel.14, the Sx interface and the associated PFCP protocol was added to the SGW, allowing for the Control User Plane Separation between SGW-C and SGW-U.
SGW supports S11 interface with MME and S5/S8 interface with PGW. The integrated control plane stack for these interfaces consists of IP, UDP, eGTP-C.
SGW supports the S1-U interface with eNodeB and S5/S8 data plane interface with PGW. The integrated data plane stack for these interfaces consists of IP, UDP, eGTP-U.
PGW (Packet Data Network Gateway) protocols
Main interfaces supported by the P-GW are:
S5/S8: this interface is defined between S-GW and P-GW. It is named S5 when the S-GW and the P-GW are located in the same network (non-roaming scenario) and S8 when the S-GW is located in the visited network and the P-GW in the home network (roaming scenario). eGTP-C and GTP-U protocols are used in the S5/S8 interface.
Gz: this interface is used by the P-GW to communicate with the Offline Charging System (OFCS), mainly to send the Charging Data Records (CDRs) of the post-paid users via FTP.
Gy: this interface is used by the P-GW to communicate with the Online Charging System (OCS). The P-GW informs the charging system about pre-paid users payload in real time. Diameter protocol is used in the Gy interface.
Gx: this interface is used by the P-GW to communicate with the Policy and Charging Rules Function (PCRF) in order to handle Policy and Charging Rules (PCC) rules. These rules contain charging related information as well as quality of service (QoS) parameters that will be used in the bearer establishment. Diameter protocol is used in the Gx interface.
SGi: this interface is defined between the P-GW and external networks, for example, Internet access, corporate access, etc.
Sxb: since 3GPP Rel.14, the Sx interface and the associated PFCP protocol was added to the PGW, allowing for the Control User Plane Separation between PGW-C and PGW-U.
Support of voice services and SMS
The EPC is a packet-only core network. It does not have a circuit-switched domain, which is traditionally used for phone calls and SMS.
Support for Voice services in EPC
3GPP specified two solutions for voice:
IMS: A solution for IMS Voice over IP was specified in Rel-7.
Circuit-Switched fallback (CSFB): in order to make or receive calls, the UE changes its radio access technology from LTE to a 2G/3G technology that supports circuit-switched services. This feature requires 2G/3G coverage. A new interface (called SGs) between the MME and the MSC is required. This feature was developed in Rel-8.
Support for SMS services in EPC
3GPP specified three solutions for SMS:
IMS: A solution for SMS over IP was specified in Rel-7.
SMS over SGs: this solution requires the SGs interface introduced during the work on CSFB. SMS are delivered in the Non Access Stratum over LTE. There is no inter-system change for sending or receiving SMS. This feature was specified in Rel-8.
SMS over SGd: this solution requires the SGd Diameter interface at the MME and delivers SMS in the Non Access Stratum over LTE, without requiring the fully signaling neither the legacy MSC doing CSFB, nor the overhead associated with the IMS signaling and the associated EPC bearer management.
CSFB and SMS over SGs are seen as interim solutions, the long term being IMS.
Multiple access networks
The UE can connect to the EPC using several access technologies. These access technologies are composed of:
3GPP accesses: these access technologies are specified by the 3GPP. They include GPRS, UMTS, EDGE, HSPA, LTE and LTE Advanced.
non-3GPP accesses: these access technologies are not specified by the 3GPP. They include technologies such as cdma2000, WiFi or fixed networks. 3GPP specifies two classes of non-3GPP access technologies with different security mechanisms:
trusted accesses, that the network operator consider trustable from a security stand point (for example: a cdma2000 network). Trusted non-3GPP accesses interface directly with the network.
untrusted accesses, that the network operator doesn't consider trustable from a security stand point (for example, a connection over a public WiFi hotspot). Untrusted non-3GPP accesses are connected to the network via an ePDG, which provide additional security mechanisms (IPsec tunneling).
It is up to the network operator to decide whether a non-3GPP access technology is trusted or untrusted.
It is worth noting that these trusted/untrusted categories do not apply to 3GPP accesses.
3GPP releases
The 3GPP delivers standards in parallel releases, which compose consistent sets of specifications and features.
Further reading
3GPP page on SAE
3GPP TS 23.401: General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) enhancements for Evolved Universal Terrestrial Radio Access Network (E-UTRAN) access
3GPP TS 23.402: Architecture enhancements for non-3GPP accesses
See also
LTE
IP Multimedia Subsystem
References
LTE White Paper:
Strategic White Paper:
Technical White Paper:
3GPP TS 32.240: Telecommunication management; Charging management; Charging architecture and principles. portal.3gpp.org.
Internet Protocol
LTE (telecommunication)
Mobile technology
Telecommunications infrastructure |
21492980 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IMac | IMac | iMac is a family of all-in-one Macintosh desktop computers designed and built by Apple Inc. It has been the primary part of Apple's consumer desktop offerings since its debut in August 1998, and has evolved through seven distinct forms.
In its original form, the iMac G3 had a gumdrop or egg-shaped look, with a CRT monitor, mainly enclosed by a colored, translucent plastic case, which was refreshed early on with a sleeker design notable for its slot-loaded optical drive. The second major revision, the iMac G4, moved the design to a hemispherical base containing all the main components and an LCD monitor on a freely moving arm attached to it. The third and fourth major revisions, the iMac G5 and the Intel iMac respectively, placed all the components immediately behind the display, creating a slim unified design that tilts only up and down on a simple metal base.
The fifth major revision (mid 2007) shared the same form as the previous model, but was thinner and used anodized aluminum and a glass panel over the entire front. The sixth major revision (late 2012) uses a different display unit, omits the SuperDrive, and uses different production techniques from the older unibody versions. This allows it to be thinner at the edge than older models, with an edge thickness of 5.9 mm (but the same maximum depth). It also includes a dual microphone setup and includes solid-state drive (SSD) or hard disk storage, or an Apple Fusion Drive, a hybrid of solid-state and hard disk drives. This version of the iMac was announced in October 2012, with the version released in November and the version in December; these were refreshed in September 2013, with new Haswell processors, faster graphics, faster and larger SSD options and 802.11ac Wi-Fi cards.
In October 2014, the seventh major revision of the iMac was announced, whose main feature is a "Retina 5K" display at a resolution of 5120 × 2880 pixels. The new model also includes a new processor, graphics chip, and IO, along with several new storage options. The seventh major revision of the iMac was announced in October 2015. Its main feature is a "Retina 4K" display at a resolution of 4096 × 2304 pixels. It has the same new processor, graphics chip, and I/O as the 27-inch iMac, along with several new storage options.
On June 5, 2017, Apple announced a workstation-class version called the iMac Pro, which features Intel Xeon processors and standard SSD storage. It shares the design and screen of the 5K iMac, but is colored in Space Gray rather than silver. Apple began shipping the iMac Pro in December 2017. The iMac Pro was discontinued in 2021.
On April 20, 2021, Apple announced a 24" iMac (actual diagonal screen size is 23.5 in.) with an Apple M1 processor, its first as part of its transition to Apple silicon. It comes in 7 colors (Silver, Blue, Green, Orange, Yellow, Purple, and Pink) with a 4.5K Retina display. On the base configuration, the M1 iMacs come with two Thunderbolt 3/USB 4 ports, and two USB Type-C 3.1 Gen 2 ports on the higher configurations. The base configuration models are only available in Silver, Blue, Green, and Pink. Apple claims that the M1 iMac offers up to 85% faster CPU performance than the previous 21.5” iMac models. This iMac is the thinnest being only 11.5mm thin due to the entire logic board and speakers being housed in the bottom “chin” of the iMac.
History
The announcement of iMac in 1998 was a source of controversy and anticipation among commentators, Mac fans, and detractors. Opinions were divided over Apple's drastic changes to the Macintosh hardware. At the time, Apple had suffered a series of setbacks as consumers increasingly opted for Wintel (Windows PCs with Intel CPUs) machines instead of Apple's Performa models. Many in the industry thought that "beleaguered" Apple would soon be forced to start selling computers with a custom interface built on top of one or more potential operating system bases, such as Taligent, Solaris, or Windows 98.
The designer behind iMac's case was Jonathan Ive.
Ken Segall was an employee at an L.A. ad agency handling Apple's account who came up with the name "iMac" and pitched it to Steve Jobs. After Jobs' death, Segall claimed Jobs preferred "MacMan" for the name of the computer, but after Segall pitched "iMac" to him twice, the name was accepted. Segall says that the "i" stands for "Internet", but also represents the product as a personal and revolutionary device ('i' for "individuality" and "innovation"). Apple later adopted the 'i' prefix across its consumer hardware and software lines, such as iPod, iBook (later MacBook), iPhone, iPad and various pieces of software such as the iLife, iCloud suite and iWork and the company's media player/store, iTunes.
Attention was given to the out-of-box experience: the user needed to go through only two steps to set up and connect to the Internet. "There's no step 3!" was the catch-phrase in a popular iMac commercial narrated by actor Jeff Goldblum. Another commercial, dubbed "Simplicity Shootout", pitted seven-year-old Johann Thomas and his border collie Brodie, with an iMac, against Adam Taggart, a Stanford University MBA student, with an HP Pavilion 8250, in a race to set up their computers. Johann and Brodie finished in 8 minutes and 15 seconds, whereas Adam was still working on it by the end of the commercial.
Updates
By 2005, it had become more and more apparent that IBM's development for the desktop implementation of PowerPC was grinding to a halt. Apple announced at the Worldwide Developers Conference that it would be switching the Macintosh to the x86 architecture and Intel's line of Core processors. The first Intel-equipped Macs were unveiled on January 10, 2006: the Intel iMac and the introductory MacBook Pro. Within nine months, Apple had smoothly transitioned the entire Macintosh line to Intel. One of the highly touted side benefits of this switch was the ability to run Windows on Mac hardware.
On July 27, 2010, Apple updated its line of iMacs to feature the new Intel Core "i-series" processors across the line. The 21.5" models now feature the Core i3 processor, but these are upgradable to the Core i5. The high end 27" features a Quad-Core i5 processor, which is upgradable to a Quad-Core i7. On this date Apple also announced its new "Apple Magic Trackpad" peripheral, a trackpad similar to that of MacBook Pro for use with iMac or any other Apple computer. Apple also introduced a AA NiMH battery charger intended to simplify the use of batteries in these peripherals. Apple offers an option to use a solid state drive instead of a large mechanical drive.
On May 3, 2011, Apple updated its iMac line with the introduction of Intel Thunderbolt technology and Intel Core i5 and i7 Sandy Bridge processors as well as a 1 mega pixel high definition FaceTime camera, features which were first introduced in the MacBook Pro line in February 2011.
On October 23, 2012, a new iMac was announced (for a November/December release) with a substantially thinner edge, new Apple Fusion Drive, faster processors (Intel Core i5 and i7 Ivy Bridge) and graphics along with updates to the ports, but with the same overall depth (stand depth: 8 inches (20.3 cm)). To reduce the edge, the SuperDrive was removed on these iMacs.
On October 16, 2014, a new version of the 27-inch (69 cm) iMac was announced, whose main feature is a "Retina 5K" display at a resolution of 5120 × 2880 pixels. The new model also includes a new processor, graphics chip, and I/O, along with several new storage options. This computer was designed with professional photographers and video editors in mind, with the 5K resolution allowing 4K video to be played at its native resolution in Final Cut Pro, with room for toolbars on the side.
On June 6, 2017, Apple’s 21.5-inch iMac, which has a "Retina 4K" display at a resolution of 4096 × 2304 pixels, and the latest Intel 7th generation i5 processor, was announced. The iMac has Turbo Boost up to 3.6 GHz supported, and 1 TB hard drive. Apple’s iMac with 4K display has Intel Core i5 quad-core processor with 3 GHz or 3.4 GHz clock speed. The RAM on board is 8 GB, and it will support Turbo boost of up to 3.8 GHz. This iMac has options of 1 TB hard drive or 1 TB Fusion Drive. This 21.5-inch iMac also has the option of Radeon Pro 555 with 2 GB of video RAM for graphics or a Radeon Pro 560 with 4 GB of video RAM. Apple’s 27-inch iMac with the 5K display comes with the quad-core Intel Core i5 processor, which is clocked at 3.4 GHz, 3.5 GHz, or 3.8 GHz. This iMac supports Turbo boost of up to 4.2Ghz and comes with 8 GB RAM option.
In March 2019, Apple updated the iMac to feature 9th-generation Intel Core i9 processors and Radeon Vega graphics. Unlike most other Apple releases, Apple opted not to announce the iMac at an event, rather to update the specs and release a press statement. For the first time, the iMac can support 6-core or 8-core Intel processors. Apple claims the 21.5-inch model is up to 60% faster than the previous model, and the 27-inch is up to 2.4 times faster. The exterior of the machine remained the same as the previous model.
On August 4, 2020, Apple refreshed the iMac models. The smaller 21.5-inch model was updated with SSDs standard. The 27-inch model received 10th generation Intel chips, a T2 Security chip, a 1080p camera, studio-quality microphone, an option for nano-textured glass, as well as SSDs standard. The 27 inch model now has SSDs soldered to the motherboard, which means the storage is no longer replaceable, and in order to replace a hard drive the entire motherboard must be replaced and any data on the drive will be wiped.
On April 20, 2021, Apple announced redesigned iMacs with a 24-inch display, new colors (7), updated cameras, and the inclusion of the Apple M1 chip.
Influence
The original iMac was the first legacy-free PC. It was the first Macintosh computer to have a USB port but no floppy disk drive. Subsequently, all Macs have included USB. Via the USB port, hardware makers could make products compatible with both x86 PCs and Macs. Previously, Macintosh users had to seek out certain hardware, such as keyboards and mice specifically tailored for the "old world" Mac's unique ADB interface and printers and modems with MiniDIN-8 serial ports. Only a limited number of models from certain manufacturers were made with these interfaces, and often came at a premium price. USB, being cross-platform, has allowed Macintosh users to select from a large selection of devices marketed for the Wintel PC platform, such as hubs, scanners, storage devices, USB flash drives, and mice. After the iMac, Apple continued to remove older peripheral interfaces and floppy drives from the rest of its product line.
Borrowing from the 1997 Twentieth Anniversary Macintosh, the various LCD-based iMac designs continued the all-in-one concept first envisioned in Apple's original Macintosh computer. The successful iMac allowed Apple to continue targeting the Power Macintosh line at the high-end of the market. This foreshadowed a similar strategy in the notebook market when the iMac-like iBook was released in 1999. Since then, the company has continued this strategy of differentiating the consumer versus professional product lines. Apple's focus on design has allowed each of its subsequent products to create a distinctive identity. Apple avoided using the beige colors then pervading the PC industry. The company would later drift from the multicolored designs of the late 1990s and early 2000s. The latter part of the decade saw Apple using anodized aluminum; glass; and white, black, and clear polycarbonate plastics among their build materials. Today many PCs are more design-conscious than before the iMac's introduction, with multi-shaded design schemes being common, and some desktops and laptops available in colorful, decorative patterns.
Apple's use of translucent, candy-colored plastics inspired similar industrial designs in other consumer products. Apple's later introduction of the iPod, iBook G3 (Dual USB), and iMac G4 (all featuring snowy-white plastic), inspired similar designs in other companies' consumer electronics products. The color rollout also featured two distinctive ads: one called 'Life Savers' featured the Rolling Stones song, "She's a Rainbow" and an advertisement for the white version had the introduction of Cream's "White Room" as its backing track.
Reception
iMac has received considerable critical acclaim, including praise from technology columnist Walt Mossberg as the "Gold Standard of desktop computing"; Forbes magazine described the original candy-colored line of iMac computers as being an "industry-altering success". The first 24" Core 2 Duo iMac received CNET's "Must-have desktop" in their 2006 Top 10 Holiday Gift Picks.
Apple faced a class-action lawsuit filed in 2008 for allegedly deceiving the public by promising millions of colors from the LCD screens of all Mac models while its 20-inch model only held 262,144 colors. This issue arose due to the use of 6-bit per pixel Twisted nematic LCD screens. The case was dismissed on January 21, 2009.
While not a criticism of iMac per se, the integrated design has some inherent tradeoffs that have garnered criticism. In The Mythical Midrange Mac Minitower, Dan Frakes of Macworld suggests that with iMac occupying the midrange of Apple's product line, Apple has little to offer consumers who want some ability to expand or upgrade their computers, but do not need (or cannot afford) the Mac Pro. For example, iMac's integration of monitor and computer, while convenient, commits the owner to replace both at the same time. For a time before the Mac mini's introduction, there were rumors of a "headless iMac" but the G4 Mac mini as introduced had lower performance compared to the iMac, which at the time featured a G5 processor. Some third party suppliers such as Other World Computing provide upgrade kits that include specialized tools for working on iMacs.
Similarly, though the graphics chipset in some Intel models is on a removable MXM, neither Apple nor third parties have offered retail iMac GPU upgrades, with the exception of those for the original iMac G3's "mezzanine" PCI slot. Models after iMac G5 (excluding the August 7, 2007 iMac update) made it difficult for the end-user to replace the hard disk or optical drive, and Apple's warranty explicitly forbids upgrading the socketed CPU. While conceding the possibility of a mini-tower cannibalizing sales from the Mac Pro, Frakes argues there is enough frustration with iMac's limitations to make such a proposition worthwhile. This disparity has become more pronounced after the G4 era since the bottom-end Power Mac G5 (with one brief exception) and Mac Pro models have all been priced in the US$1999–2499 range, while base model Power Macs G4s and earlier were US$1299–1799. The current generation iMac has Intel 5th generation i5 and i7 processors, ranging from quad-core 2.7 GHz i5 to a quad-core 3.4 GHz i7 processor, however it is possible to upgrade the 2010 edition of the iMac quite easily.
Supported operating systems
Supported macOS releases
Includes 21.5" non-Retina models released in the same date (Late 2015 and Mid 2017)
Supported Windows versions
Timeline of iMac models
References
External links
– official site
Apple – Support – Specifications
Apple – Support – How to identify your iMac
Apple Developer Connection – Comprehensive technical details (Latest developer notes)
Macintosh all-in-ones
PowerPC Macintosh computers
Sealed computers
X86 Macintosh computers
Computer-related introductions in 1998 |
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