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2542499
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silencer%20%28video%20game%29
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Silencer (video game)
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Silencer was a multiplayer-only video game released by Mind Control Software for online play using World Opponent Network technology.
History
Silencer was developed by independent video game developer Mind Control Software and released as beta beta software in 1998 for Windows. It was the second game by Mind Control software, founded by industry veteran Andrew Leker in 1994.
In May 2001, the beta game was pulled from online play when won.net went offline and development ended.
On September 17, 2007, Arsia Mons, a veteran group who reversed engineered the software, released an installer that allowed easy playability. The server binaries were unstable and required bug fixing. The lobby servers were completely taken offline shortly after.
In 2013, zSILENCER was created as a replacement for the defunct Silencer beta using the existing asset files. It is now a "99% accurate" clone. The lobby server is open and remains active (verified October 2014). The development happens now with the source code open on GitHub without a specified license. In addition to Windows, the game was ported on Mac, Linux, Ouya console, and the OpenPandora.
Story
It is the near future on Mars, and the government is up to no good. As a result, there are powers that are trying to overthrow the government, known as Silencers. They are hackers and brokers of secrets, and they are not friendly to each other. The game takes place at a base called Arsia Mons.
Gameplay
Silcencer combines elements of sidescroller games with other Sci-Fi action games such as Crusader: No Remorse. In the game, there are multiple competing agencies that send agents into the field to hack public computer terminals, with the goal of exposing the Martian government's secrets. Agents in the same agency could work as a team, and agents could buy a variety of items and weapons to help their team excel or to hinder an opponent.
When you begin, you'll join one of five rebel agencies, fighting with other members of your agency team to collect three top secrets. The first team to do so wins the scenario.
Each team's leader creates a door to a base, which has resources for healing, purchases and storing secrets. Silencers travel throughout the playfield in search of green-lit computer devices, which can be hacked by pressing the space bar. Silencers are rewarded for any hacked information they carry back to their base. Money can then be spent with the use of the computer display to the right. In addition to any regular data, they also gain information that helps them track down a top secret. Once all nine categories of the top secret have been discovered, the Silencer will learn the location of a computer terminal in the playfield that will be storing the top secret for a short time. The Silencer must then be moved to that location, gain the top-secret (which is automatic), and then make it back to the base and deposit the top secret to the far right computer memory bank.
Agencies
There are several agencies in the game with specializations which give them advantages and disadvantages: Noxis, high in endurance; Static, excellent radar technology; Caliber, best purchases available and secret info; Lazarus, high-tech cult that worships rebirth; Black Rose, an elite agency that always works alone.
Technology
The number next to each technology represents the amount of slots they use. Some technologies are agency specific, among them Laser, Rocket, Flamer Ammo, Poison, Security Pass, Health Pack, Virus, Lazarus Tract, E. M. P. Bomb, Shaped Bomb, Plasma Bomb, Plasma Detonator, Fixed Cannon, Flare, Camera, Base Door, Base Defense, Insider Info, Neutron Bomb.
Disguise is an important feature as it will allow the Silencer to pass unnoticed in areas with guards, robots and defense lasers. Note that firing any weapon or being shot will immediately end a Silencer's disguise.
The jet pack can be used for about five seconds at a time before needing to be recharged. The duration of the jetpack can be upgraded for increased air time.
Reception
See also
Oasis another IGF-awarded game by Mind Control Software
References
External links
(archived at Internet Archive)
zSILENCER Home Page
ArsiaMons.io
Ouya game page
1998 video games
Multiplayer online games
Science fiction video games
Video games developed in the United States
Windows games
Windows-only games
Open-source video games
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21715090
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juniper%20T%20series
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Juniper T series
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The Juniper T series is a line of core routers designed and manufactured by Juniper Networks. The T-series core router family comprises the T320, T640, T1600, T4000, TX Matrix, and TX Matrix Plus, designed for high-end and core networks with throughput from 320 Gbit/s to 25.6 Tbit/s with a maximum forwarding rate of 30.7 billion pps. The JCS1200, the industry’s only independent control plane scaling system, brings virtualization to the core of the network. The TX Matrix Plus provides transport scale up to 25 Tbit/s. The T-series routers run Junos OS.
In 2015 Juniper Networks announced the 2016 end-of-life for all T-series routers other than T4000. The other models in the series are superseded by the PTX-series core routers and MX-series edge routers, except for applications that require legacy protocols like SONET or ATM.
Models and platforms
The Juniper T-series routers which consists of T320, T640, T1600, T4000, TX Matrix and TX Matrix Plus has thousands of units deployed by the major telecom and ISP networks around the world.
T320
The T320 has a total throughput of 320G bit/s (bits per second, 160G bit/s full duplex), compared with the bigger version T640's 640G bit/s (320 Gbit/s full duplex). T320 Core Router is designed for use where rack space is at a premium and a wide range of interface speeds are needed. Each T320 router can support up to sixteen 10-Gbit/s ports (OC-192c/ STM-64 or 10-Gigabit Ethernet) while allowing lower speed connectivity down to channelized increments within the same chassis. Befitting its edge aggregation role, the T320 also can accommodate smaller interfaces. Those include ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) and SONet (Synchronous Optical Network) interfaces at OC-3 (155M bit/s) and OC-12 (622M bit/s), as well as Gigabit Ethernet. For those connections, carriers can reuse interfaces from the M series and install them in the T-series blades.
T640
The T640 supports up to 8 OC-768c/STM-256 ports, 32 10-Gbit/s ports (10-Gigabit Ethernet or OC-192/STM-64), 128 OC-48c/STM-16 ports, or 320 Gigabit Ethernet ports. It delivers up to 640 Gbit/s of capacity (320G bit/s full duplex) with the ability to forward up to 770 million packets per second (Mpps).
T1600
The T1600 delivers up to 1.6 Tbit/s of capacity (800 Gbit/s full-duplex, or 8 slots at 100 Gbit/s per slot) with the ability to forward up to 1.92 billion pps. The packet forwarding and switching complex of a T1600 supports 100 Gbit/s per slot. Current interface configurations include up to 16 OC-768c/STM-256 ports or 64 10-Gbit/s ports (10-Gigabit Ethernet or OC-192/STM-64).
T4000
The T4000 delivers 4Tbit/s switching capacity (1920 Gbit/s full-duplex) over the backplane in a half-shelf router with a per-slot capacity of 240Gbit/s, up from 100Gbit/s in the existing T1600 models and 50Gbit/s in T640 models. It is possible to upgrade these two existing models to the T4000 line
TX Matrix
Interconnects up to four T640 chassis into a single routing entity. It has 32 slots and a sustainable throughput rate of 2.5 Tbit/s (up to 3 billion pps).
TX Matrix Plus
Juniper's TX Matrix Plus is the central switching and routing element that can interconnect up to 16 T1600 chassis into a single routing entity with 128 slots and a sustainable throughput rate of up to 25 Tbit/s (30.7 billion pps). With TX Matrix Plus, operators can build systems containing up to 16 line card chassis for a total of up to 1024 10-Gigabit Ethernet ports or 256 40 Gbit/s ports. Using the virtualization capabilities of JCS1200, this available resource can be partitioned into aggregation or edge routing, or into the support of virtual service networks for advanced partitioned services such as video, mobile, and all corporate traffic.
JCS1200
The Juniper Networks JCS1200 Control System is the industry’s first purpose-built, control plane scaling platform, providing high-power processing with a multi-CPU, multi-core server-class computing environment. With scalable memory and storage media, JCS1200 provides up to 12 routing engines in a compact one-quarter rack chassis.
Features
The T-series features include MPLS Differentiated Services (DiffServ-TE), point-to-multipoint label-switched paths, nonstop routing and in-service software upgrades (ISSUs), hierarchical MPLS, and service delivery coupling with the Juniper Networks JCS1200 and the Partner Solution Development Platform (PSDP).
References
External links
Juniper Networks
Routers (computing)
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51465628
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HealthifyMe
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HealthifyMe
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HealthifyMe is an Indian digital health and wellness platform that provides services such as calorie tracking, one-on-one nutrition and fitness coaching, and diet and workout plans. Developed for both Android and iOS platforms, the app takes a holistic lifestyle tracking approach to keep users engaged and motivated.
Users with premium subscriptions get to choose from a team of in-house certified nutritionists, fitness trainers and yoga coaches. Alternatively, the users can access the AI-driven nutritionist Ria for assistance. HealthifyMe also combines these services with wearable technology as the app syncs with activity trackers.
The company, founded by Tushar Vashisht (University of Pennsylvania alumnus), Mathew Cherian (MIT graduate) and Sachin Shenoy (former Google engineer), is based out of Bangalore, India.
History
Early years
HealthifyMe was founded in 2012; founder and CEO Tushar Vashisht cites his personal weight loss after working for Unique Identification Authority of India (UID) in 2010 that spurred him to start the company. Vashisht, along with co-founder Mathew Cherian, initially began putting together an Excel sheet of foods and their calorie values and then decided to build a software for it. The first version of the software was released in 2012. A year into establishing the company, Sachin Shenoy joined the team as co-founder and head of engineering.
The company launched its Android app in 2013, with an iOS app releasing soon after. The Android app earned Google Play Store's "Top Developer" badge in 2015, while also being named among "Best Apps of 2015".
Funding and recognition
In May 2015, the company launched a campaign, HealthifyIndia, in collaboration with Godrej Nature's Basket, Manipal Hospitals, Medanta and Apollo Centre, to promote healthy living amongst Indians and create awareness of lifestyle disorders. It was reported that HelathifyMe's website had become the most visited health website in India, with 40 lakh visitors.
In May 2015, electronics manufacturer Micromax invested an undisclosed amount in HealthifyMe. On 17 June 2015, it was announced that HealthifyMe closed its pre-Series A round with an undisclosed amount from a group of individual investors. It then raised $6 million as a part of their Series-A round in April 2016 from IDG Ventures, Inventus Capital Partners & Blume Ventures.
The app continued to be named among "Best Apps - Made in India" in 2016 and 2017. In December 2017, the company received the Google Play "Editor's Choice" award in the Health & Fitness category.
Launch of AI nutritionist 'Ria'
In late-2017, HealthifyMe launched "Ria", a AI nutritionist which learned from 10 million messages and over 200 million food and workout logs. Ria was announced as the world's first AI-powered virtual nutritionist.
By early-2018, the company had more than one million monthly active users. In February 2018, HealthifyMe raised a Series B funding round of US$12 million led by Sistema Asia Fund and Samsung's AI focussed fund - NEXT (their first investment in India). Atlas Asset Management (Singapore), Dream Incubator (Japan) and existing investors (IDG Ventures, Inventus Capital Partners & Blume Ventures, NB Ventures) also participated in the funding round.
Foray into overseas markets
In November 2018, HealthifyMe announced that it has raised US$6 million from Innoven Capital and existing investors. It also expanded its operations to Malaysia, having mapped over 900 South East Asian foods, and obtained more than 15,000 subscribers within the first month. The company also announced its plans of expanding to Singapore, Indonesia and the Middle East over the next two quarters. The company expanded its operations to Singapore and Brunei in the fourth quarter.
Growth and feature launches
In February 2019, it was reported that HealthifyMe had more than 8 million users across all markets. Later in 2019, the company launched "Ria 2.0", including the feature, "Snap", using which users can take a picture of their food and the AI can identify the dish and log the calories, provided the dish is among the 10,000 dishes tracked by it. It also launched "Smart Plans" in which users get a customised diet plan recommendation from Ria.
In January 2020, the company partnered with Swiggy enabling users to order healthy foods from nearby restaurants picked by its nutritionists. In February 2020, the company reported that its revenue had reached 100 crore and active user base doubled to 16 million in a year. The company announced its entry into mental wellness segment, with the introduction of "HealthifySense", allowing users the access to counselling. It also announced a pilot with Fitternity to provide access to gyms and fitness studios as well a grocery ordering feature in partnership with Milkbasket in select locations.
Product
HealthifyMe operates on a freemium model, providing nutritional and fitness advice from certified nutritionists and fitness coaches to users with premium subscription. The company claims to have access to the world's first and largest Indian food database. It has developed a calorie counter for regional foods and an exercise tracker for logging in physical activities. It also shows the count of proteins, carbohydrates, fats and fibre. The AI-driven digital nutritionist Ria can create personalised diet plans and workout routines. Ria reportedly handles 80% of user queries, and was integrated as an Alexa skill for Amazon Echo speakers and Alexa built-in devices in 2019.
Partnerships
HealthifyMe also works in partnership with various medical institutions such as Medanta, Apollo Hospitals and Manipal Hospitals, with the aim to treat and prevent clinical obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular problems and other lifestyle diseases.
The company has also made its presence in the "corporate wellness space", serving clients like Philips, Cognizant, Unilever, PMC and General Electric.
See also
Google Fit
Apple Health
References
External links
Health software
Activity trackers
IOS software
Android (operating system) software
Cross-platform mobile software
Application software
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16948951
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vidyalankar%20Institute%20of%20Technology
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Vidyalankar Institute of Technology
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Vidyalankar Institute of Technology (VIT) is an engineering degree college approved by the All India Council For Technical Education (AICTE) and affiliated to University of Mumbai, India. It has been accredited by National assessment and accreditation with A+ grade in 2019.
Vidyalankar Institute of Technology was started in the year 1999 after having secured permission from the AICTE and University of Mumbai. It has slowly gained popularity and today attracts top talent. It caters to students who have passed the Maharashtra State Board's HSC and CET examinations and desire to take up engineering as their profession. It secured an A grade rating from the Mumbai University in 2005.
History
VIT is different from other institutes in Mumbai in the sense that it was established by an organization that was already well known in the field of education viz. Vidyalankar Dyanapeeth Trust. The trust was founded by Prof. C.S. Deshpande. He started coaching students in 1960, in a single classroom in Dadar. Vidyalankar classes shifted to their present location in 'Pearl Center', Dadar in 1974. After 39 years of coaching students, the trust decided to expand by establishing the Vidyalankar Institute of technology. The institute had humble beginnings in Pearl Center, the very same building where Vidyalankar Classes is situated; and moved to the current campus in 2001.
Programs offered
Currently, the Institute offeres both graduate and postgraduate programs. Following are the details of the programs as of 2015. The college has gone through various phases of expansions over the last few years, and further expansions are also expected.
Undergraduate programs
Following are the branches in which Bachelor of Engineering (B.E.) degree of University of Mumbai is offered at VIT:
Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering: 120 Seats
Electronics Engineering 120 Seats
Computer Engineering: 120 Seats
Information Technology: 120 Seats
Bio-Medical Engineering: 60 Seats
Accreditation : Electronics, Electronics & Telecommunication and Bio-Medical programs are accredited by National Board of Accreditation for 6 years w.e.f 01.07.2016
Accreditation :Accredited A+ by NAAC in First Cycle with score of 3.41
Post-graduate programs
The college offers a postgraduate course in MMS (Master of Management Studies), where the degree is conferred by the University of Mumbai. Admission is based on Maharashtra CET (Common Entrance Test) score. The college also offers a Masters program in computer engineering, where the degree is conferred by the University of Mumbai.
Masters in Management Studies: 120 Seats
M.E (Computer Engineering): 18 Seats
M.E (Information Technology): 18 Seats
M.E (Electronics and Telecommunication): 18 Seats
Doctoral programs
The college offers a Doctoral program in computer engineering, where the degree is conferred by the University of Mumbai.
Ph.D.(Computer Engineering): 10 Seats
Campus
The campus is located in Wadala (East), a central suburb of Mumbai, and stretches over 11 acres (45,000 m2 or 480,000 sq ft) of land. It is close to some residential complexes like Dosti Acres and Lloyd's Estate.
The campus comprises 3 buildings, 2 gardens, a football field, a Multipurpose court where volleyball, basketball, throwball, handball is played and also a cricket pitch. A canteen and a cafe both offer a wide range of food and beverages. Also, separate parking lots are available for students and faculty members, for both 2-wheelers and 4-wheelers (only for faculties).
Library
The library provides a wide-ranging collection of books which include university prescribed text books and reference material. The library also subscribes to all major international journals and magazines. Some major non-technical magazines are also subscribed to. The library also has a reading hall which is open 6 days a week and on Sundays when exams are approaching.
Apart from books, the college also provides students with the facility of using the IEEE/IET electronic library (IEL); an online database, which holds more than 3,796,274 full text documents.
Laboratories
An entire floor of the main building is reserved for laboratories. They include labs maintained by the 5 departments as well as other core departments such as Applied Sciences and Mechanics departments.
In addition to 12 computer laboratories, the Institute has set up a state of the art 'Central Computing Centre'. An area of 300 sq m is dedicated for the Computer Centre. Apart from IBM compatible P4 desktops, the centre has Apple Mac desktops and Sun Blade Workstations. All these computers are networked and backed up with various legal operating systems & application software along with printing & scanning devices.
Hostel
The Vidyalankar Gurkul, a hostel for boys and girls at Nerul, has been run by the Vidyalankar Dyanapeeth Trust since June 1996. A total of 131 students (both boys and girls) reside here. A few of the students are from the western suburbs of Mumbai, while others come from different states of India. The hostel is located near Nerul railway station, in Sector 17.
Amongst other facilities, the hostel also provides computers with internet facilities, a library consisting of academic and general books, and also carrom and chess boards for recreation.
Achievements and awards
Vidyalankar has won the award for the "Top Institutional Theater Design in the world" at the Interior Design Best of the Year Awards held on the 4 December 2014 at the IAC Building, Manhattan, New York City.
Vidyalankar has won the Honour Award from Designshare, New York, USA for its innovative design. The structure boasts of gateless campus, a man-size chess board, an amphitheatre and a multi purpose zone for students to chill.
Infosys has selected Vidyalankar as a partner for its Campus-Connect Program, wherein they train pre-final year Vidyalankar students to make them industry ready.
VIT has also spread its wings by a tie up with Penn State University, USA. In this program, students finish the first two years of the B.S. program in VIT and upon achieving the required GPA, finish the later two years of the course at Penn State University.
Recently, VITians joined hands with the Indian Development Foundation (Formerly the Indian Leprosy Foundation) to spread awareness of Tuberculosis to the masses.
Vidyalankar Group of Educational Institutes' Friday Paathshala earned recognition nationally by winning a silver in the ‘college contact programme of the year’ category at the 1st WOW Event and Experiential Awards.
Student life
The college has student chapters of various international organizations. It has also set up various development and interaction cells to help students to decide on the path they want to take in the future. The college's annual festivals organised in the Summer semester while smaller events are conducted throughout the year by the student organizations.
Student chapters
Association for Computing Machinery, ACM
CSI
ISTE
IEI
BMESI-VIT Chapter
Vidyalankar Institute of Technology's Computer Society of India (CSI-VIT) Student Chapter was conferred with the prestigious "Best Accredited Student Branch" Award for 2015-16 at the CSI Annual Convention 2016. The Institute's CSI Chapter won the "Best Accredited Student Branch" Award for 2013-14, in the past.
IEEE
IETE
Student cells
Research and Development Cell
Entrepreneurship Development Cell
Industry Institute Interaction Cell
Student organisations
Academic:
SC - Student Council
EESA - Electronics Students' Association
ETSA - Electronics and Telecommunications Students' Association
ITSA - Information Technology Students' Association
BMSA - Bio-Medical Students' Association
CESA - Computer Education Students' Association
Non-academic:
Hobby Club Committee
Sports Council
Women Development Committee
Vidyalankar Service Scheme
Personality Enrichment Committee
VIT Volunteering Committee
Administrative Committees
Anti Ragging Committee
Admission Committee
Alumni Committee
Career Counselling Committee
Laboratory Development Committee
Library Committee
Parent Interaction Committee (PIC)
Placement Committee
Value Added Services
Corporate Communication
Final Year Projects Quality Assurance Committee
Food and Beverages Committee
Staff Development Committee
Staff Welfare Committee
Annual festivals
An inter-collegiate technical festival called Tantravihar is held in April/May every year. Registrations for various events open in mid-March. Events include Robotics, Technical Paper Presentations, Debates, Quizzes, Open Software competitions, Stock Market Simulation competitions etc.
An intra-collegiate cultural festival called VERVE is held in February/March every year. Some events like Dance Competitions, Fashion Show and War of the DJs are held on an inter-collegiate level. It also includes events like Antakshri, Ad-Mad show, Press Conference etc.
Every February, an inter-collegiate sports festival is held in the college campus, including both indoor and outdoor sports. The highlight of the festival is the S6 (Six a side - Six overs) cricket tournament in which more than 15 colleges participate. It also includes intra-collegiate competitions in volleyball, box-cricket, throwball, carrom, chess etc.
V-Express
V-Express is the official annual magazine published by the college. The issue usually comes out in the month of April. The magazine is created by the Student Council of VIT while the editing staff consists of the Literary Council team.
Friday Paath-shala
Friday Paath-shala is a platform created for students to indulge in their non academic passions & pursuits. This ranges from dance workshops to screening thought provoking movies and debates to musical jams where students bring their favourite musical instruments. The allotted time is every Friday between 4.30 pm to 6.30pm and the venue is the amphitheatre.
Vidyalankar Group of Educational Institute’s ‘Friday Paathshala’ earned recognition nationally by winning a silver in the ‘college contact programme of the year’ category at the 1st WOW Event and Experiential Awards.
‘Friday Paathshala’ from being a single college activity has now extended out to all engineering colleges in Mumbai and have involved them in an annual S6 cricket tournament (6 a side, 6 over each). The S6 cricket carnival is now 2 editions old and is becoming a landmark sports event in the annual sports calendar of engineering colleges.
Location
The Vidyalankar campus is situated in Wadala (E) in Central Mumbai, 1 kilometer away from Wadala Road Station. It is located on Vidyalankar College Marg next to residential complexes, Dosti Acres and Lloyd's Estate. The campus is also bordered by the Antop Hill Warehouse company.
See also
University of Mumbai
List of Mumbai Colleges
Wadala
References
External links
Official site of VIT
Engineering colleges in Mumbai
Affiliates of the University of Mumbai
Educational institutions established in 1999
1999 establishments in Maharashtra
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27254903
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrier-grade%20NAT
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Carrier-grade NAT
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Carrier-grade NAT (CGN or CGNAT), also known as large-scale NAT (LSN), is a type of Network address translation (NAT) for use in IPv4 network design. With CGNAT, end sites, in particular residential networks, are configured with private network addresses that are translated to public IPv4 addresses by middlebox network address translator devices embedded in the network operator's network, permitting the sharing of small pools of public addresses among many end sites. This shifts the NAT function and configuration thereof from the customer premises to the Internet service provider network (though "conventional" NAT on the customer premises will often be used additionally).
Carrier-grade NAT is often used for mitigating IPv4 address exhaustion.
One use scenario of CGN has been labeled as NAT444, because some customer connections to Internet services on the public Internet would pass through three different IPv4 addressing domains: the customer's own private network, the carrier's private network and the public Internet.
Another CGN scenario is Dual-Stack Lite, in which the carrier's network uses IPv6 and thus only two IPv4 addressing domains are needed.
CGNAT techniques were first used in 2000 to accommodate the immediate need for large numbers of IPv4 addresses in General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) deployments of mobile networks. Estimated CGNAT deployments increased from 1200 in 2014 to 3400 in 2016, with 28.85% of the studied deployments appearing to be in mobile operator networks.
Shared address space
If an ISP deploys a CGN, and uses address space to number customer gateways, the risk of address collision, and therefore routing failures, arises when the customer network already uses an address space.
This prompted some ISPs to develop a policy within the American Registry for Internet Numbers (ARIN) to allocate new private address space for CGNs, but ARIN deferred to the IETF before implementing the policy indicating that the matter was not a typical allocation issue but a reservation of addresses for technical purposes (per RFC 2860).
IETF published , detailing a shared address space for use in ISP CGN deployments that can handle the same network prefixes occurring both on inbound and outbound interfaces. ARIN returned address space to the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) for this allocation. The allocated address block is 100.64.0.0/10, i.e. IP addresses from 100.64.0.0 to 100.127.255.255.
Devices evaluating whether an IPv4 address is public must be updated to recognize the new address space. Allocating more private IPv4 address space for NAT devices might prolong the transition to IPv6.
Disadvantages
Critics of carrier-grade NAT argue the following aspects:
Like any form of NAT, it breaks the end-to-end principle.
It has significant security, scalability, and reliability problems, by virtue of being stateful.
It does not solve the IPv4 address exhaustion problem when a public IP address is needed, such as in web hosting.
Carrier-grade NAT usually prevents the ISP customers from using port forwarding, because the network address translation (NAT) is usually implemented by mapping ports of the NAT devices in the network to other ports in the external interface. This is done so the router will be able to map the responses to the correct device; in carrier-grade NAT networks, even though the router at the consumer end might be configured for port forwarding, the "master router" of the ISP, which runs the CGN, will block this port forwarding because the actual port would not be the port configured by the consumer. In order to overcome the former disadvantage, the Port Control Protocol (PCP) has been standardized in the RFC 6887.
In cases of banning traffic based on IP addresses, the system might block the traffic of a spamming user by banning the user's IP address. If that user happens to be behind carrier-grade NAT, other users sharing the same public address with the spammer will be mistakenly blocked. This can create serious problems for forum and wiki administrators attempting to address disruptive actions from a single user sharing an IP address with legitimate users.
See also
NAT64
DNS64
464XLAT
References
External links
Understanding Carrier Grade NAT
IETF Internet-Draft: Common requirements for Carrier Grade NAT (CGN)
CGN :: Observations & Recommendations
A Multi-perspective Analysis of Carrier-Grade NAT Deployment (sept. 2016)
IPv4
Network address translation
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1678795
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boundary%20element%20method
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Boundary element method
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The boundary element method (BEM) is a numerical computational method of solving linear partial differential equations which have been formulated as integral equations (i.e. in boundary integral form), including fluid mechanics, acoustics, electromagnetics (where the technique is known as method of moments or abbreviated as MoM), fracture mechanics, and contact mechanics.
Mathematical basis
The integral equation may be regarded as an exact solution of the governing partial differential equation. The boundary element method attempts to use the given boundary conditions to fit boundary values into the integral equation, rather than values throughout the space defined by a partial differential equation. Once this is done, in the post-processing stage, the integral equation can then be used again to calculate numerically the solution directly at any desired point in the interior of the solution domain.
BEM is applicable to problems for which Green's functions can be calculated. These usually involve fields in linear homogeneous media. This places considerable restrictions on the range and generality of problems to which boundary elements can usefully be applied. Nonlinearities can be included in the formulation, although they will generally introduce volume integrals which then require the volume to be discretised before solution can be attempted, removing one of the most often cited advantages of BEM. A useful technique for treating the volume integral without discretising the volume is the dual-reciprocity method. The technique approximates part of the integrand using radial basis functions (local interpolating functions) and converts the volume integral into boundary integral after collocating at selected points distributed throughout the volume domain (including the boundary). In the dual-reciprocity BEM, although there is no need to discretize the volume into meshes, unknowns at chosen points inside the solution domain are involved in the linear algebraic equations approximating the problem being considered.
The Green's function elements connecting pairs of source and field patches defined by the mesh form a matrix, which is solved numerically. Unless the Green's function is well behaved, at least for pairs of patches near each other, the Green's function must be integrated over either or both the source patch and the field patch. The form of the method in which the integrals over the source and field patches are the same is called "Galerkin's method". Galerkin's method is the obvious approach for problems which are symmetrical with respect to exchanging the source and field points. In frequency domain electromagnetics, this is assured by electromagnetic reciprocity. The cost of computation involved in naive Galerkin implementations is typically quite severe. One must loop over each pair of elements (so we get n2 interactions) and for each pair of elements we loop through Gauss points in the elements producing a multiplicative factor proportional to the number of Gauss-points squared. Also, the function evaluations required are typically quite expensive, involving trigonometric/hyperbolic function calls. Nonetheless, the principal source of the computational cost is this double-loop over elements producing a fully populated matrix.
The Green's functions, or fundamental solutions, are often problematic to integrate as they are based on a solution of the system equations subject to a singularity load (e.g. the electrical field arising from a point charge). Integrating such singular fields is not easy. For simple element geometries (e.g. planar triangles) analytical integration can be used. For more general elements, it is possible to design purely numerical schemes that adapt to the singularity, but at great computational cost. Of course, when source point and target element (where the integration is done) are far-apart, the local gradient surrounding the point need not be quantified exactly and it becomes possible to integrate easily due to the smooth decay of the fundamental solution. It is this feature that is typically employed in schemes designed to accelerate boundary element problem calculations.
Derivation of closed-form Green's functions is of particular interest in boundary element method, especially in electromagnetics. Specifically in the analysis of layered media, derivation of spatial-domain Green's function necessitates the inversion of analytically-derivable spectral-domain Green's function through Sommerfeld path integral. This integral can not be evaluated analytically and its numerical integration is costly due to its oscillatory and slowly-converging behaviour. For a robust analysis, spatial Green's functions are approximated as complex exponentials with methods such as Prony's method or generalized pencil of function, and the integral is evaluated with Sommerfeld identity. This method is known as discrete complex image method.
Comparison to other methods
The boundary element method is often more efficient than other methods, including finite elements, in terms of computational resources for problems where there is a small surface/volume ratio. Conceptually, it works by constructing a "mesh" over the modelled surface. However, for many problems boundary element methods are significantly less efficient than volume-discretisation methods (finite element method, finite difference method, finite volume method). A good example of application of the boundary element method is efficient calculation of natural frequencies of liquid sloshing in tanks. Boundary element method is one of the most effective methods for numerical simulation of contact problems, in particular for simulation of adhesive contacts.
Boundary element formulations typically give rise to fully populated matrices. This means that the storage requirements and computational time will tend to grow according to the square of the problem size. By contrast, finite element matrices are typically banded (elements are only locally connected) and the storage requirements for the system matrices typically grow quite linearly with the problem size. Compression techniques (e.g. multipole expansions or adaptive cross approximation/hierarchical matrices) can be used to ameliorate these problems, though at the cost of added complexity and with a success-rate that depends heavily on the nature of the problem being solved and the geometry involved.
See also
Analytic element method
Computational electromagnetics
Meshfree methods
Immersed boundary method
Stretched grid method
References
Bibliography
.
.
.
, available also here.
.
.
(in two volumes).
Further reading
External links
An Online Resource for Boundary Elements
What lies beneath the surface? A guide to the Boundary Element Method and Green's functions for the students and professionals
An introductory BEM course (with a chapter on Green's functions)
Boundary elements for plane crack problems
Electromagnetic Modeling web site at Clemson University (includes list of currently available software)
Concept Analyst Boundary Element Analysis software
Klimpke, Bruce A Hybrid Magnetic Field Solver Using a Combined Finite Element/Boundary Element Field Solver, U.K. Magnetics Society Conference, 2003 which compares FEM and BEM methods as well as hybrid approaches
Free software
Bembel A 3D, isogeometric, higher-order, open-source BEM software for Laplace, Helmholtz and Maxwell problems utilizing a fast multipole method for compression and reduction of computational cost
boundary-element-method.com An open-source BEM software for solving acoustics / Helmholtz and Laplace problems
Puma-EM An open-source and high-performance Method of Moments / Multilevel Fast Multipole Method parallel program
AcouSTO Acoustics Simulation TOol, a free and open-source parallel BEM solver for the Kirchhoff-Helmholtz Integral Equation (KHIE)
FastBEM Free fast multipole boundary element programs for solving 2D/3D potential, elasticity, Stokes flow and acoustic problems
ParaFEM Includes the free and open-source parallel BEM solver for elasticity problems described in Gernot Beer, Ian Smith, Christian Duenser, The Boundary Element Method with Programming: For Engineers and Scientists, Springer, (2008)
Boundary Element Template Library (BETL) A general purpose C++ software library for the discretisation of boundary integral operators
Nemoh An open source hydrodynamics BEM software dedicated to the computation of first-order wave loads on offshore structures (added mass, radiation damping, diffraction forces)
Bempp, An open-source BEM software for 3D Laplace, Helmholtz and Maxwell problems
MNPBEM, An open-source Matlab toolbox to solve Maxwell's equations for arbitrarily shaped nanostructures
Contact Mechanics and Tribology Simulator, Free, BEM based software
Numerical differential equations
Computational fluid dynamics
Computational electromagnetics
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism%20of%20desktop%20Linux
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Criticism of desktop Linux
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Criticism of desktop Linux is a history of comment on the perceived shortcomings of the Linux operating system when installed on desktop computers. These criticisms have been aimed at the plethora of issues and lack of consistency between Linux distributions, their usefulness and ease of use as desktop systems for general end users, driver support and issues with multi-media playback and audio development.
While smartphones running the Linux-based Android mobile operating system dominate the smartphone market, and Linux is used on most servers, as of 2021 exclusively run on the world's 500 fastest supercomputers, and is used on the New York Stock Exchange, Linux-based operating systems have failed to achieve widespread adoption on personal computers.
Viability of Linux as a desktop system
Linus Torvalds has expressed that he intended the Linux kernel to be used in desktop operating systems. He argues that Android is widely used because it comes pre-installed on new phones, and that Linux distributions would need to be bundled on new computers to gain market share.
Linux has been criticized for a number of reasons, including lack of user-friendliness and having a steep learning curve, being inadequate for desktop use, lacking support for some hardware, having a relatively small games library, lacking native versions of widely used applications.
Some critics do not believe Linux will ever gain a large share in the desktop market. In May 2009 Preston Gralla, contributing editor to Computerworld.com, believed that Linux would never be important to desktop/notebook users, even though he felt it was simple and straightforward to use, but that its low usage was indicative of its low importance in the desktop market.
In his essay Luxury of Ignorance: An Open-Source Horror Story, Eric S. Raymond stated that the lack of usability in many open-source and Linux tools is not from lack of manuals but from a lack of thought about the users' experience.
James Donald from Princeton University analyzed shared library concepts of several operating systems. In his 2003 paper titled Improved Portability of Shared Libraries, he worried about the lack of a Windows Application Compatibility Group equivalent.
Missed opportunities
Desktop Linux was criticized in late 2010 for having missed its opportunity to become a significant force in desktop computing. PC World executive editor Robert Strohmeyer commented that although Linux has exceptional security and stability, as well as great performance and usability, the time for desktop Linux to succeed has been missed. Nick Farrell, writing for TechEye, felt that the release of the poorly-received Windows Vista was a missed opportunity to grab significant market share.
Both critics indicated that Linux did not fail on the desktop due to being "too geeky," "too hard to use," or "too obscure". Both had praise for distributions, Strohmeyer saying "the best-known distribution, Ubuntu, has received high marks for usability from every major player in the technology press". Both laid the blame for this failure on the open-source community. Strohmeyer named the "fierce ideology of the open-source community at large" as being responsible, while Farrell stated "The biggest killer of putting penguin software on the desktop was the Linux community. If you think the Apple fanboys are completely barking, they are role models of sanity to the loudmouthed Open Sauce religious loonies who are out there. Like many fundamentalists they are totally inflexible — waving a GNU as if it were handed down by God to Richard Stallman".
The accusation of over-zealous advocacy has been dealt with previously; in 2006 Dominic Humphries stated that the aims of the Linux
community are not desktop market-share or popularity, but in Linux being the best operating system that can be made for the community.
Criticisms
Choice and fragmentation
A criticism often leveled against Linux is the abundance of distributions available. As of January 2022, DistroWatch lists 239 active distributions. Critics cite the large number as cause for confusion to prospective users and argue it is a factor preventing the widespread adoption of Linux on consumer desktops. Alexander Wolfe wrote in InformationWeek:
Along with the argument that forking and the resulting fragmentation divides and wastes development efforts and resources, it is asserted that with the lack of standardization between distributions for software libraries, package managers, configurations, as well as the varied desktop environments, the resulting incompatibilities also make it more difficult for application developers and software maintainers since applications have to be adapted to run on each distribution or family of distributions. This fragmentation also complicates software installation, forcing non-technical users who cannot build applications from source and resolve dependency issues by themselves to rely on precompiled packages from distribution-specific software repositories, which have a more or less limited selection of applications and typically lag behind the latest releases as the software has to be picked up by the software maintainer and packaged to run on the specific distribution and release. Caitlyn Martin from LinuxDevCenter wrote critically on the lack of standardization and compatibility between distributions:
However, Linux advocates have defended the large number of distributions as promoting of freedom of choice and describe the diversity as a key strength. Jim Lynch from InfoWorld wrote:
Attempts have been made to standardize Linux distributions through the Linux Standard Base in order to make software more compatible across distributions; however, it had very limited adoption. Projects such as AppImage, Flatpak, and Snappy are seeking to remedy the issue of software fragmentation by instead packaging applications with all the required dependencies to enable them to run as portable applications independent of the libraries, configuration and idiosyncrasies of a particular distribution, but even this approach has been criticized of fragmentation.
Third-party application development
Linux desktop operating systems are criticized for the difficulty of developing third-party applications for the platforms, with distribution fragmentation, insistence on using shared libraries instead of including the libraries with the application, and lack of concern given to keeping APIs consistent and backwards compatible being cited as factors. This particularly causes difficulties for closed-source applications, which are distributed exclusively as binaries, since the burden of ensuring compatibility with the myriad of Linux distributions and release versions is borne solely by the developer. Dirk Hohndel, VMware's Chief Open Source Officer, criticized the lack of standardization across distributions for creating an unfriendly environment for application development, writing that it "basically tells app developers ‘go away, focus on platforms that care about applications. Miguel de Icaza, founder of the GNOME desktop environment, regards the disregard of backwards compatibility as a cultural issue with the Linux development community:
Tony Mobily, editor of Free Software Magazine, identified problems in the server roots of Linux in his article 2009: software installation in GNU/Linux is still broken – and a path to fixing it:
In August 2014 on the DebConf in Portland Linus Torvalds also voiced his unhappiness with the binary application packaging for the Linux distro ecosystem:
Audio development
The lack of strong API standards for multimedia has been criticised. For example, the Adobe Systems development blog penguin.SWF discusses the complicated Linux audio infrastructure in the analysis Welcome to the jungle. The nearly one dozen actively supported systems are called an audio jungle.
PulseAudio main developer Lennart Poettering stated that it is very difficult for programmers to know which audio API to use for which purpose.
Driver support
Linux has in the past been criticized for a lack of driver support; however, this was largely due to manufacturers not supporting the Linux system. It wasn't until 2004 that ATI started development of Linux drivers. Major adoption of Linux in servers and Android has encouraged driver development for Linux.
Wireless support
Wireless driver support has been a problem area for Linux. At one time many drivers were missing and users were required to use solutions such as ndiswrapper, which utilizes drivers made for the Windows operating system. Broadcom was particularly criticized for not releasing drivers. This issue was also worked around by extracting proprietary firmware for use on Linux. Broadcom has since released free and open-source drivers for the Linux kernel, eliminating the issues for modern Broadcom chipsets.
The problem has been largely fixed in recent years and there are now a fairly large number of drivers, adding support to most wireless cards available today. However, many features are still missing from these drivers, mostly due to manufacturers not providing specifications and documentation, and thus forcing developers to reverse engineer cards.
Directory structure
The traditional directory structure, which is a heritage from Linux's Unix roots in the 1970s, has been criticized as inappropriate for desktop end users. In particular, the Linux directory structure is criticized for scattering application-specific components in different system directories instead of keeping them in a common application-specific directory. Some Linux distributions like GoboLinux and moonOS have proposed alternative hierarchies that were argued to be easier for end users, though such proposals have achieved little acceptance.
See also
Criticism of Linux
Linux on the desktop
References
Linux Desktop
Linux
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51127790
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry%20of%20Communications%20%28India%29
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Ministry of Communications (India)
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Ministry of Communications is a union ministerial agency under the Government of India responsible for telecommunications and postal service. It was carved out of Ministry of Communications and Information Technology on 19 July 2016. It consists of two departments viz. Department of Telecommunications and the Department of Posts.
Formation
Ministry of Communication and Information Technology was bifurcated into Ministry of Communications and Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology.
Department of Telecommunications
Also known as the Door Sanchar Vibhag, this department concerns itself with policy, licensing and coordination matters relating to telegraphs, telephones, wireless, data, facsimile and telematic services and other like forms of communications. It also looks into the administration of laws with respect to any of the matters specified, namely:
The Indian Telegraph Act, 1885 (13 of 1885)
The Indian Wireless Telegraphy Act, 1940 (17 of 1933)
The Telecom Regulatory Authority of India Act, 1997 (24 of 1997)
Central Public Sector Units
Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited
Indian Telephone Industries Limited
Bharat Broadband Network
Telecommunications Consultants India Limited
R&D unit
Centre for Development of Telematics
Specialised units
Wireless Planning and Coordination Wing
Telecom Engineering Center
Controller of Communication Accounts
Telecom Enforcement Resource and Monitoring (TERM) cells, formerly known as Vigilance & Telecom Monitoring (VTM) cells
A need was felt in the year 2007 to distinctly address the issues of Communication Network Security at DOT (HQ) level, consequent to enhancement of FDI limit in Telecom sector from 49% to 74% and therefore a new wing, named Security was created in DOT (HQ).
Objectives
e-Government: Providing e-infrastructure for delivery of e-services
e-Industry: Promotion of electronics hardware manufacturing and IT-ITeS industry
e-Innovation / R&D: Implementation of R&D Framework - Enabling creation of Innovation/ R&D Infrastructure in emerging areas of ICT&E/Establishment of mechanism for R&D translation
e-Learning: Providing support for development of e-Skills and Knowledge network
e-Security: Securing India’s cyber space
e-Inclusion: Promoting the use of ICT for more inclusive growth
Internet Governance: Enhancing India’s role in Global Platforms of Internet Governance.
Telephone Advisory Committees
Telephone Advisory Committees
MTNL Website list of TAC members
National Institute of Electronics and Information Technology
National Institute of Communication Finance
National Agriculture Education Institute of Research & Resources India
Department of Posts
The Department of Post (DoP) which wholly owns the India Post operates one of the oldest and most extensive mail services in the world. , the Indian Postal Service has 154,965 post offices, of which 139,067 (89.74%) are in rural areas and 15,898 (10.26%) are in urban areas. It has 25,585 departmental PO s and 129,380 ED BPOs. At the time of independence, there were 23,344 post offices, which were primarily in urban areas. Thus the network has registered a sevenfold growth since independence, with the focus of the expansion primarily in rural areas. On average, a post office serves an area of 21.56 sq; km and a population of 7,753 people. This is the most widely distributed post office system in the world. The large numbers are a result of a long tradition of many disparate postal systems which were unified in the Indian Union post-Independence. Owing to this far-flung reach and its presence in remote areas, the Indian postal service is also involved in other services such as small savings banking and financial services., with about 25,464 full-time and 139,040 part-time post offices. It offers a whole range of products under posts, remittance, savings, insurance, and philately. While the Director-General is the head of operations, the Secretary is an adviser to the Minister. Both responsibilities are undertaken by one officer.
The DG is assisted by the Postal Services Board with six members: The six members of the Board hold portfolios of Personnel, Operations, Technology, Postal Life Insurance, Banking, Planning respectively. Shri Ananta Narayan Nanda is the Secretary (Posts) also the Chairman of the Postal Services Board and Ms.Meera Handa is Director General (DG) Posts. Shri.Vineet Pandey(Additional Charge) Additional Director General(Coordination) (ADG), Ms. Arundhaty Ghosh, Member (Operations), Shri. Biswanath Tripathy, Member (Planning), Shri Pradipta Kumar Bisoi, Member (Personnel), Shri Udai Krishna, Member (Banking), Shri Salim Haque, Member (Technology) and Shri. Vineet Pandey, Member (PLI) & Chairman, Investment Board. The national headquarters are at Delhi and functions from Dak Bhavan located at the junction of Parliament Street and Ashoka Road.
The total revenue earned including remuneration for Savings Bank & Savings Certificate work during the year 2016-17 was 11,511.00 crores and the amount received from other Ministries/ Departments as Agency charges (recoveries) was 730.90 crores and expenditure is 24,211.85 crores during 2016-2017 against the previous year expenditure of 19,654.67 crores. The increase was mainly due to payment of increased pay & allowances consequent upon implementation of 7th pay commission recommendations, leave encashment during LTC, cost of materials, oil, diesel, revision of service tax on govt. buildings etc.
Lack of proper investment in infrastructure and technology is the reason for such low revenue. The present top management has already started investing in the latest technology to improve the infrastructure. Quality of service is being improved and new products are being offered to meet the competition.
The field services are managed by Postal Circles—generally conforming to each State—except for the North Eastern States, India has been divided into 22 postal circles, each circle headed by a Chief Postmaster General. Each Circle is further divided into Regions comprising field units, called Divisions, headed by a Postmaster General. Further divided into divisions headed by SSPOs & SPOs. further divisions are divided into Sub Divisions Headed by ASPs & IPS. Other functional units like Circle Stamp Depots, Postal Stores Depots, and Mail Motor Service may exist in the Circles and Regions.
Besides the 23 circles, there is a special Circle called the Base Circle to cater to the postal services of the Armed Forces of India. Army Postal Services (APS) is a unique arrangement to take care of the postal requirement of soldiers posted across the country. Department of Posts personnel is commissioned into the army to take care of APS. The Base Circle is headed by an Additional Director General, Army Postal Service, holding a Major general.<ref> Cheap Eggs Over Animal Welfare
The DoP is governed by the Indian Post Office Acts, 1898.
Other than the traditional postage service to keep up with the age, many new services have been introduced by the department:
e-Post - Delivery of email through postman where email service is not available
e-BillPost - Convenient way to pay bills under one roof
Postal Life insurance
International money transfers
Mutual funds
Banking
List Of Ministers
List of Ministers of State
References
Communications and Information Technology
India
National Informatics Centre
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Girlfriends%20%282018%20TV%20series%29
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Girlfriends (2018 TV series)
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Girlfriends is a British comedy-drama television series, first broadcast on ITV on 3 January 2018. It follows the lives of three middle-aged women who have been friends since their teenage years. The series was written, created and directed by Kay Mellor. The drama was not renewed for a second series.
Cast
Main
Phyllis Logan as Linda Hutchinson
Miranda Richardson as Sue Thackery
Zoë Wanamaker as Gail Stanley
Philip Cumbus as Andrew Thackery, Sue's son
Daisy Head as Ruby Hutchinson, Linda's daughter
Matthew Lewis as Tom Drayton, Gail's son
Recurring
Emmett J. Scanlan as DI Chris Donoghue
Rochenda Sandall as DS Anne Thurston
Kobe Jerome as Ben, Tom and Corinne's son
Steve Evets as Micky Hutchinson
Chris Fountain as Ryan Hutchinson, Linda's son
Paula Wilcox as Carole Hardcastle
Valerie Lilley as Edna, Gail's mother
Adrian Rawlins as Dave, Gail's ex-husband
Anthony Head as John, Sue's married lover and Andrew's father
Wendy Craig as Barbara Thackery, Sue's mother
Dave Hill as Frank, Barbara's boyfriend
Matthew Marsh as Alan Forbes, Micky's insurance agent
Rhea Bailey as Corinne Anderson, Tom's ex-girlfriend and Ben's mother
Episodes
References
External links
2018 British television series debuts
2018 British television series endings
2010s British drama television series
2010s British television miniseries
Adultery in television
English-language television shows
ITV television dramas
Television series about families
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1179063
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fagan%20inspection
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Fagan inspection
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A Fagan inspection is a process of trying to find defects in documents (such as source code or formal specifications) during various phases of the software development process. It is named after Michael Fagan, who is credited as being the inventor of formal software inspections.
Fagan inspection defines a process as a certain activity with pre-specified entry and exit criteria. In every process for which entry and exit criteria are specified, Fagan inspections can be used to validate if the output of the process complies with the exit criteria specified for the process. Fagan inspection uses a group review method to evaluate the output of a given process.
Examples
Examples of activities for which Fagan inspection can be used are:
Requirement specification
Software/Information System architecture (for example DYA)
Programming (for example for iterations in XP or DSDM)
Software testing (for example when creating test scripts)
Usage
The software development process is a typical application of Fagan inspection. As the costs to remedy a defect are up to 10 to 100 times less in the early operations compared to fixing a defect in the maintenance phase, it is essential to find defects as close to the point of insertion as possible. This is done by inspecting the output of each operation and comparing that to the output requirements, or exit criteria, of that operation.
Criteria
Entry criteria are the criteria or requirements which must be met to enter a specific process. For example, for Fagan inspections the high- and low-level documents must comply with specific entry criteria before they can be used for a formal inspection process.
Exit criteria are the criteria or requirements which must be met to complete a specific process. For example, for Fagan inspections the low-level document must comply with specific exit criteria (as specified in the high-level document) before the development process can be taken to the next phase.
The exit criteria are specified in a high-level document, which is then used as the standard to which the operation result (low-level document) is compared during the inspection. Any failure of the low-level document to satisfy the high-level requirements specified in the high-level document are called defects (and can be further categorized as major or minor defects). Minor defects do not threaten the correct functioning of the software, but may be small errors such as spelling mistakes or unaesthetic positioning of controls in a graphical user interface.
Typical operations
A typical Fagan inspection consists of the following operations:
Planning
Preparation of materials
Arranging of participants
Arranging of meeting place
Overview
Group education of participants on the materials under review
Assignment of roles
Preparation
The participants review the item to be inspected and supporting material to prepare for the meeting noting any questions or possible defects
The participants prepare their roles
Inspection meeting
Actual finding of defect
Rework
Rework is the step in software inspection in which the defects found during the inspection meeting are resolved by the author, designer or programmer. On the basis of the list of defects the low-level document is corrected until the requirements in the high-level document are met.
Follow-up
In the follow-up phase of software inspections all defects found in the inspection meeting should be corrected (as they have been fixed in the rework phase). The moderator is responsible for verifying that this is indeed the case. They should verify that all defects are fixed and no new defects are inserted while trying to fix the initial defects. It is crucial that all defects be corrected, as the costs of fixing them in a later phase of the project can be 10 to 100 times higher compared to the current costs.
Follow-up
In the follow-up phase of a Fagan inspection, defects fixed in the rework phase should be verified. The moderator is usually responsible for verifying rework. Sometimes fixed work can be accepted without being verified, such as when the defect was trivial. In non-trivial cases, a full re-inspection is performed by the inspection team (not only the moderator).
If verification fails, go back to the rework process.
Roles
The inspection process is normally performed by members of the same team that is implementing the project. The participants fulfill different roles within the inspection process:
Author/Designer/Coder: the person who wrote the low-level document
Reader: paraphrases the low-level document
Reviewers: reviews the low-level document from a testing standpoint
Moderator: responsible for the inspection session, functions as a coach
Benefits and results
By using inspections the number of errors in the final product can significantly decrease, creating a higher quality product. In the future the team will even be able to avoid errors as the inspection sessions give them insight into the most frequently made errors in both design and coding providing avoidance of error at the root of their occurrence. By continuously improving the inspection process these insights can even further be used.
Together with the qualitative benefits mentioned above major "cost improvements" can be reached as the avoidance and earlier detection of errors will reduce the amount of resources needed for debugging in later phases of the project.
In practice very positive results have been reported by large corporations such as IBM, indicating that 80% to 90% of defects can be found and savings in resources up to 25% can be reached.
Improvements
Although the Fagan inspection method has been proved to be very effective, improvements have been suggested by multiple researchers. M. Genuchten for example has been researching the usage of an Electronic Meeting System (EMS) to improve the productivity of the meetings with positive results
Other researchers propose the usage of software that keeps a database of detected errors and automatically scans program code for these common errors. This again should result in improved productivity.
References
Ron Radice, High Quality, Low Cost Software Inspections,
Paradoxicon Publishing (September 21, 2001)
Method engineering
Quality
Software testing
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21193777
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opsi
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Opsi
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Opsi (open PC server integration) is a software distribution and management system for Microsoft Windows clients, based on Linux servers. Opsi is developed and maintained by uib GmbH from Mainz, Germany. The main parts of Opsi are open-source licensed under the GNU Affero General Public License.
Features
The key features of opsi are:
Automated operating system installation (OS deployment)
Software distribution
Patch management
Inventory (hardware and software)
License Management / Software Asset Management
Support of multiple locations
A tool for automated installations is important and necessary for standardization, maintainability and cost saving of larger PC networks.
Opsi supports the client operating systems MS Windows XP, Server 2003, Windows Vista, Server 2008, Windows 7, Server 2008R2, Server 2012, Windows 8.1, Server 2012 R12 and Windows 10. The 32- and the 64-bit versions are supported. For the installation of an opsi-server there are packages available for the Linux distributions Debian, Ubuntu, SLES, Univention Corporate Server, CentOS, RHEL and OpenSuse.
Automated operating system installation
Via management interface a client may be selected for OS-Installation. If the client boots via PXE it loads a boot image from the opsi-depotserver. This bootimage prepares the hard disk, copies the required installation files, drivers and the opsi client agent and starts finally an unattended OS-Installation. Opsi uses the automatic detection of the necessary drivers for PCI-, HD-Audio- and USB-Devices. OS-installation via Disk image is also supported.
Software distribution
For the automatic software distribution some software, the opsi-client-agent, has to be installed on each client. Every time the client boots the opsi-client-agent connects to the opsi-server and asks if there is anything to install (default). If this shall be done a script driven installation program (opsi-winst) starts and installs the required software on the client. During the installation process the user login can be blocked for integrity reasons. To integrate a new software packet into the software deployment system, a script must be written to specify the installation process. This script provides all the information on how this software packet has to be installed silent or unattended or by using tools like AutoIt or Autohotkey. With the opsi-winst steps like copy files or edit the registry can be done. The opsi-client-agent can also be triggered by other events or via push-installation from the opsi-server.
Patch-Management
The mechanism of the software deployment can also be used to deploy software patches and hotfixes.
Inventory (hardware and software)
The hardware and software inventory also uses the opsi-client-agent. The hardware information is collected via calls to WMI while the software information is gathered from the registry. The inventory data are sent back to the opsi-server by a web service. The inventory data may imported via a web service to a CMDB e.g. in OTRS.
License management / Software Asset Management
The opsi License Management module supports the administration of different kinds of licenses like Retail, OEM and Volume licenses. It counts the licenses that are used with the software deployment. Using the combination of the License Management and the software inventory, Software Asset Management reports on the number of free and installed licenses can be generated. The License Management module is part of a Co-funding Project and not released as open source yet.
Support of multiple locations
The software to be installed can be deposited bandwidth saving on several depot server. The configuration data can be stored and edited on one single server.
opsi-server
The opsi-server provides the following services:
The configuration-server stores the configuration data of the clients and provides the methods to manage these data via a web service or the command-line. The data can be stored in files, in OpenLDAP or in a MySQL Database.
The depot-server stores software packages that may be installed on the clients. To provide support for multiple locations, multiple depot-servers may be controlled by one configuration-server.
A TFTP-Server provides the boot images for the OS-Installations.
A DHCP-Server may be integrated in the opsi-server.
Management interface
For managing opsi a graphical user interface is available as an application or as a browser Applet. Management is also possible with a command line tool or via web service.
License
The opsi core features are open-source according to the GNU General Public License Version 3 and are free of charge. The core features are software distribution (or software deployment), OS deployment and hard- and software-inventory. These free components can be supplemented with closed source add-ons that require the payment of a fee. They are called Co-funding Projects.
Co-funding projects
Even though opsi is open source, there are some components which are not for free at the moment. These components are developed in a co-funding project. This means, that these parts are only available for those customers who paid a contribution to the cost of development. As soon as the development of a co-funding project is refinanced, the component will be part of the free opsi-version and can be used free of charge. It will be open source (as long as not prevented caused by technical reasons). The first of these co-funding Projects was the opsi support for Windows Vista/Windows 7. It was completed on 1 February 2008 and is free of charge since 1 March 2010. The source code was divided from the not yet paid parts and is open source since 30 November 2010. At the moment (January 2011) there are three co-funding projects: Treeview builds hierarchical groups of clients to manage; MySQL as backend for all data; and the license management module. The main focus of co-funding projects is to create software once for a pool of purchasers who share the cost and make it open source as soon as it paid in full.
References and sources
External links
System administration
Software distribution
Network management
Free network management software
Configuration management
Free software
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33790148
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intrexx
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Intrexx
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Intrexx is a cross-platform integrated development environment for the creation and operation of multilingual web-based applications, intranets, social intranets, enterprise portals and customer portals (extranets) as well as Industry 4.0 solutions as of 2018. A portal is created based on the drag and drop principle. Intrexx is a low-code development platform. Most applications can be created via drag & drop but manual coding can be added where necessary.
History
The first version of the software was released by the German software vendor, United Planet, under the name "Intrazone" in 1999. In 2000, the software was renamed to "Intrexx Xtreme". With the release of Intrexx 5.0 in March 2010, the product line was divided into two editions: Intrexx Professional and Intrexx Compact. Intrexx Professional were the continuation of the Xtreme series and were still intended for SMEs and public administrations. Intrexx Compact contained a complete company portal with more than 50 ready-made web-applications and templates and is tailor-made for smaller companies with up to 10 PC workstations. United Planet stopped dividing the product line into two editions with the release of Intrexx 8.0. From this point on, it was simply called Intrexx. According to the manufacturer, there have been implemented more than 5,000 Intrexx portals to date (cited date: 2019). Between 2012 and 2014, the US IT research and advisory company Gartner Inc. placed United Planet with Intrexx in its market overview "Magic Quadrant for Horizontal Portals".
Milestones
Intrexx 2.0 (2004): Enhanced tools to integrate existing data from third-party systems
Intrexx 3.0 (2006): Integration of a so-called "Process Manager", allowing companies to model business processes graphically and automate them
Intrexx 4.0 (2007): Option to consume and provide web services
Intrexx 4.5 (2008): Integration of the dynamic programming language "Groovy"
Intrexx 5.0 (2010):
Ability to convert web-based applications during their creation so that they can be accessed from mobile devices
Improved accessibility according to the W3C standards
Intrexx 6.0 (2012):
New module "Relationship Designer" allows data to be interconnected (until Intrexx Version 18.09)
Business Adapters for SAP NetWeaver Gateway and all OData data sources
Technological basis for the new social business software, Intrexx Share
Intrexx Share (2013): The social collaboration application Intrexx Share expands the software Intrexx with features known from social networks (Facebook, Twitter etc.). It also integrates software solutions (e.g. Intranet, CRM, ERP, BI, Exchange etc.) from the IT landscape and allows them to create feeds.
Intrexx 7.0 (2014):
Further improvements to Intrexx's ability to integrate thanks to the OData Adapter and M-Files Adapter.
Intrexx formula editor enables users to create computational calculations in the Portal Manager.
Introduction of the new Calendar and Resource controls.
User-friendlier file handling with multiple file uploads.
Intrexx 8.0 (2016):
Intrexx now supports responsive design
Apache Solr is implemented as a search engine in the context of the portal process
The search function has been expanded with new filtering options and the ability to search in multiple languages
Translation support: Language constants and a translation aid
Element templates and guidelines in the Application Designer
Intrexx 18.03 (2018):
New version name
Connector for Microsoft Office 365; Possible to open and save Office 365 documents directly from Intrexx
Intrexx Mobile App: Access to key information - including push notifications - on mobile devices
Intrexx Share updated to 2.2: Social collaboration tools with chat, groups, filebox (file storage system) and news feed
Intrexx 18.09 (2018):
Connector API: Ready-made connectors for leading software systems such as SAP, Microsoft, IBM and many other systems
Intrexx Industrial: Complete Industry 4.0 solution
Intrexx 19.03 (2019):
New business logic: New logic for reading, writing, validating and filtering data
Java 11:Both the Portal Manager and Server are now based on Java Runtime version 11. Users can choose to use existing Java licenses or switch to the open source option OpenJDK.
REST API: Communication between the Portal Manager and other servers has been switched to the REST API
Multi-tenancy capability
Horizontal scaling: Support for the platforms Amazon - AWS, Azure and Open Telekom Cloud
Versioning: Semantic versioning and versioning with GIT
New responsive portlet framework
Intrexx 19.09 (2019):
Portal Manager as a live version: Start the Intrexx Portal Manager with ease from any directory - even without administrator permissions
New version of the TinyMCE Editor
Internationalization: Country-dependent languages and currency formats for an internationally operating company
Improved security
Support of 'diverse' as a gender
Intrexx cluster support included in setup
Responsive view image control
Intrexx 20.03 (2020):
Subselects/Subqueries in filters
Global workflow user
Improved style options
Filter multiple selection elements via dependencies
Bindings in filters
New gallery
WebSockets: Developers can send messages directly from the server to the browser (push).
Intrexx 20.09 (2020):
Extended jump options to create new data records from view tables, research tables, charts and free layout tables.
Improved web server configuration
New bindings: The new additions are the bindings uniqueID and unique GUID.
Preset for title fields
Intrexx 21.03 (2021):
Short links
Online application templates: Updated application templates in an online repository
Support for the SVG format
Authentication via proxy
Transition to Rolling Releases (2021)
In the fall of 2021, Intrexx has moved away from the old release structure with annual version updates. Instead, new features and functions will now appear in the form of rolling releases. Users of Intrexx can choose between two different release tracks: On the Silent Track, new features will continue to appear in an annual rhythm. On the Steady Track, new features will be implemented directly after their completion in the course of regular software updates.
New features in the Steady Track (fall 2021)
New installer
Customizable and update-proof login
New style classes for the tile view of view pages in free layout tables
Support for international emails using Regular Expression
Architecture
Intrexx basically consists of two parts:
Intrexx Portal Manager
It is installed on any client or on the server and possesses all the components for developing and managing layout, menu or applications. Furthermore, users can be configured and provided with permissions for the respective portal applications in the Portal Manager.
Intrexx Portal Server
It is installed on a server and controls all transactions of the created web-based applications and portals. It monitors the permissions of the users within the transactions, controls the entire business logic operations and governs access to the data sources.
Functions
Intrexx provides companies with the ability to create and manage multilingual web-based applications, intranets, social intranets, enterprise portals and customer portals (extranets) as well as Industry 4.0 solutions as of 2018. In doing so, the software sees itself as an alternative to Microsoft SharePoint. Design and usability of the portal are provided by the integrated portal designer based on CSS and XML, enabling the adoption to the corporate identity of the company via XSLT transformations. Single sign-on guarantees a secure authentication and role-based authorization. The synchronization with existing LDAP-servers is possible.
References
Content management systems
Portal software
Web portals
Service-oriented architecture-related products
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10858151
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thackeray%20Hall
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Thackeray Hall
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Thackeray Hall is an academic building of the University of Pittsburgh and a contributing property to the Schenley Farms National Historic District[] at 139 University Place on the campus of the University of Pittsburgh in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States.
Thackeray Hall houses Pitt's Department of Mathematics. Previously, it housed the Mathematics Library in room 430, whose collection is now located in the Bevier Engineering Library of Benedum Hall. On the ground floor are many university student services: class registration, tuition billing, and transcripts, as well as housing the Advising Center of the School of Arts and Sciences on the second floor.
The building is the former National Union Fire Insurance Company building built circa 1923–1925 in the Early Classical style. The building was purchased by the university in 1968 for $1.875 million ($ in dollars), and was originally purposed for faculty offices. It was known as the Social Sciences Building until 1972 when it was renamed Mervis Hall and designated as the home of the Graduate School of Business. In 1983, when the Graduate School of Business moved into a new building also named Mervis Hall, it was renamed Thackeray Hall.
References
External links
Thackeray Hall on Pitt's virtual Campus Tour
Department of Mathematics
School of Arts & Sciences Advising
University of Pittsburgh academic buildings
Historic district contributing properties in Pennsylvania
National Register of Historic Places in Pittsburgh
University and college buildings on the National Register of Historic Places in Pennsylvania
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7818598
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20films%3A%20T
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List of films: T
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T
T2 (2009)
T2 Trainspotting (2017)
T-34 (2019)
T-Force (1994)
T-Men (1947)
T-Rex: Back to the Cretaceous (1998)
Ta
Ta chvíle, ten okamžik (1981)
Ta Khar Ta Yan Nite A Chit The Ei Tho Phit Tat The (2004)
Ta kitrina gantia (1960)
Ta Kyawt Hna Kyawt Tay Ko Thi (1971)
Ta Ra Rum Pum (2007)
Taa-Tam
Taal (1999)
Taan (2014)
Taana (2020)
Taaqat (1995)
Taaqatwar (1989)
Taare Zameen Par (2007)
Taarkata (2014)
Taarzan: The Wonder Car (2004)
Taawdo the Sunlight (2017)
Tab Hunter Confidential (2015)
Tabaahi-The Destroyer (1999)
Tabaluga (2018)
Tabarana Kathe (1987)
Tabarin (1958)
Tabasco Road (1957)
Tabataba (1988)
Tabbaliyu Neenade Magane (1977)
Tabi no Omosa (1972)
Tabi wa Kimagure Kaze Makase (1958)
The Table (1973)
Table 19 (2017)
Table No. 21 (2013)
Tabloid (2010)
Taboo: (1980, 1999 & 2002)
Tabu (2012)
Tabu, a Story of the South Seas (1931)
Tackle Happy (2000)
Tacones lejanos (1991)
Tad, The Lost Explorer (2012)
Tad's Swimming Hole (1918)
Tada (2003)
Tada's Do-It-All House (2011)
Tadakha (2013)
Tadap (2021)
Tadka (2021)
Tadoussac (2017)
Tadpole (2002)
Tadpole and the Whale (1988)
Taegukgi: The Brotherhood of War (2004)
Taffy and the Jungle Hunter (1965)
Tag (2015)
Tag der Freiheit: Unsere Wehrmacht (1935)
Taggart (1964)
Tahader Katha (1992)
Tahmina (1993)
Tahrir 2011: The Good, the Bad, and the Politician (2011)
Tahsildar Gari Ammayi (1971)
Tai Chi 0 (2012)
Tai Chi Boxer (1996)
Tai Chi Hero (2012)
Tai Chi Master (1993)
Tai-Pan (1986)
Taiga: (1958 & 1992)
Taiikukan Baby (2008)
Tail Gunner Joe (1977 TV)
Tail Lights Fade (1999)
Tail Spin (1939)
Tail of a Tiger (1984)
Tailcoat for Scapegrace (1979)
The Tailor of Panama (2001)
Tainá: An Adventure in the Amazon (2000)
Tainá 2: A New Amazon Adventure (2004)
Tainá 3: The Origin (2011)
Tainted (1987)
Tainted Money (1924)
Taintlight (2009)
Taivas tiellä (2000)
Taiyō o Nusunda Otoko (1979)
Taj Mahal: (1941, 1963, 1995, 1999, 2008 & 2015)
Taj Mahal: An Eternal Love Story (2005)
The Take: (1974, 2004 & 2007)
Take All of Me (1976)
Take the Lead (2006)
Take Me Home: (1928 & 2011)
Take Me Home Tonight (2011)
Take Me Out to the Ball Game (1949)
Take Me to the River: (2014 & 2015)
Take the Money and Run (1969)
Take My Eyes (2003)
Take Shelter (2011)
Take This Job and Shove It (1981)
Take This Waltz (2011)
Taken series:
Taken (2008)
Taken 2 (2012)
Taken 3 (2014)
Takers (2010)
Taking Care of Business (1990)
Taking Chances (2009)
The Taking of Deborah Logan (2014)
Taking Father Home (2005)
Taking Lives (2004)
Taking Off (1971)
The Taking of Pelham 123 (2009)
The Taking of Pelham One Two Three: (1974 & 1998 TV)
The Taking of Power by Louis XIV (1966 TV)
Taking Sides (2002)
Taking Tiger Mountain (1983)
The Taking of Tiger Mountain (2014)
Taking Tiger Mountain by Strategy (1970)
Taking Woodstock (2009)
The Tale of Despereaux (2008)
The Tale of the Fox (1937)
Tale of the Mummy (1998)
The Tale of the Priest and of His Workman Balda (1933-1936)
The Tale of the Princess Kaguya (2013)
Tale of the Rally (2014)
A Tale of Springtime (1990)
Tale of Tales: (1979 & 2015)
The Tale of Tsar Saltan: (1966 & 1984)
A Tale of Two Cities: (1911, 1922, 1935, 1958 & 1980 TV)
A Tale of Two Kitties (1942)
A Tale of Two Sisters: (1989 & 2003)
A Tale of Winter (1992)
The Tale of Zatoichi (1962)
The Talented Mr. Ripley (1999)
Tales From the Crypt (1972)
Tales from the Dark 1 (2013)
Tales from the Dark 2 (2013)
Tales From the Darkside: The Movie (1990)
Tales From Earthsea (2006)
Tales from the Gimli Hospital (1988)
The Tales of Hoffmann: (1923 & 1951)
Tales from the Hood (1995)
Tales from the Hood 2 (2018)
Tales from the Hood 3 (2020)
Tales of Manhattan (1942)
Tales of Mystery (2015)
Tales of Ordinary Madness (1981)
Tales of Terror (1963)
Tales That Witness Madness (1973)
Talk (1994)
Talk to Her (2002)
Talk to Me (2007)
Talk Radio (1988)
Talk Straight: The World of Rural Queers (2003)
The Talk of the Town (1942)
Talkin' Dirty After Dark (1991)
A Talking Picture (2003)
The Tall Blond Man with One Black Shoe (1972)
Tall Girl (2019)
Tall Girl 2 (2022)
The Tall Guy (1989)
The Tall Man: (2011 & 2012)
The Tall Men (1955)
Tall in the Saddle (1944)
The Tall T (1957)
Tall Tale (1995)
Talladega Nights: The Ballad of Ricky Bobby (2006)
Los tallos amargos (1956)
Tam-Lin (1970)
Tamala 2010: A Punk Cat in Space (2002)
Tamara: (2005, 2016 French & 2016 Venezuelan)
Tamara Drewe (2010)
The Taming of the Shrew: (1908, 1929, 1942, 1962 TV, 1967 & 1973 TV)
Tammy (2014)
Tammy and the Bachelor (1957)
Tammy and the T-Rex (1994)
Tampopo (1985)
Tan-Taz
Tanga - Deu no New York Times? (1987)
Tangerine (2015)
Tangerines (2013)
Tangled: (2001 & 2010)
Tango & Cash (1989)
The Tango Lesson (1997)
Tango, no me dejes nunca (1998)
Tangra Blues (2021)
Tanguy (2001)
Tank Girl (1995)
Tanner on Tanner (2004)
The Tao of Steve (2000)
Tap (1989)
Tape (2001)
Tapeheads (1988)
Taps (1981)
Tara (2001)
Tarantula (1955)
Taras Bulba (1962)
Target: (1952, 1979, 1985, 2004, 2010 & 2014)
Target Number One (2020)
Targets (1968)
Taris, roi de l'eau (1931)
Tarka the Otter (1979)
Tarnation (2003)
Tart (2001)
Tartarin de Tarascon (1908)
Tartuffe: (1926 & 1965 TV)
Tarzan: (1999 & 2013)
Tarzoon: Shame of the Jungle (1979)
Tashan (2008)
Task Force (1949)
Taste the Blood of Dracula (1970)
Taste of Cherry (1997)
Taste of China (2015)
A Taste of Honey (1961)
The Taste of Others (2000)
The Taste of Tea (2004)
Tata Birla (1996)
Tata Birla Madhyalo Laila (2006)
Tatamma Kala (1974)
Tatanka (2011)
Tatar Ka Chor (1940)
Tate's Voyage (1998)
Tater Tot & Patton (2017)
Tati (1973)
Tatie Danielle (1990)
Tatjana (1923)
Tatsu (1994)
Tatsumi (2011)
Tattooed Life (1965)
Tatu (2017)
Tatuagem (2013)
Tatyana's Day (1967)
Tau (2015)
Tauba Tauba (2004)
Tauba Tera Jalwa (TBD)
Taur Mittran Di (2012)
Taurus (2001)
Taw Kyi Kan (2017)
Tawaif (1985)
Tawny Pipit (1944)
Tax Collector (1997)
The Tax Collector (2020)
Taxa K 1640 efterlyses (1956)
Taxandria (1994)
Taxi: (1953, 1996, 2004 & 2015)
Taxi series:
Taxi (1998)
Taxi 2 (2000)
Taxi 3 (2003)
Taxi 4 (2007)
Taxi 5 (2018)
Taxi! (1932)
Taxi! Taxi!: (1927 & 2013)
Taxi!!! (1978 TV)
Taxi 13 (1928)
Taxi Ballad (2011)
Taxi Beirut (2011)
Taxi Blues (1990)
Taxi Car (1972)
Taxi Chor (1980)
Taxi to the Dark Side (2007)
Taxi Driver: (1954, 1976, 1977 & 1978)
Taxi Driver: Oko Ashewo (2015)
Taxi Girl (1977)
Taxi to Heaven (1943)
Taxi nach Kairo (1987)
Taxi zum Klo (1981)
Taxi Lovers (2005)
Taxi at Midnight (1929)
Taxi, Mister (1943)
Taxi No. 9211 (2006)
Taxi to Paradise (1933)
Taxi Ramudu (1961)
Taxi, Roulotte et Corrida (1958)
Taxi for Two (1929)
Taxi-Kitty (1950)
Taxidermia (2006)
A Taxing Woman (1987)
Taxman (1999)
Tayaramma Bangarayya (1979)
Taylor's Wall (2001)
Tazza: One Eyed Jack (2019)
Tazza: The Hidden Card (2014)
Tazza: The High Rollers (2006)
Tc
TC 2000 (1993)
Tchaikovsky (1970)
Tchin-Chao, the Chinese Conjurer (1904)
Te
Tea-Tem
Tea with the Dames (2018)
Tea in the Harem (1985)
Tea Kadai Raja (2016)
Tea Leaves in the Wind (1938)
Tea with Mussolini (1999)
Tea and Sympathy (1956)
Tea for Three (1927)
Tea Time in the Ackerstrasse (1926)
Tea for Two (1950)
Tea for Two Hundred (1948)
Teacher of the Year: (2014 & 2019)
Teacher's Beau (1935)
Teacher's Pests (1932)
Teacher's Pet: (1930, 1958 & 2004)
Teacheramma (1968)
Teachers (1984)
Teaching Mrs. Tingle (1999)
The Teahouse of the August Moon (1956)
Team America: World Police (2004)
Team Batista no Eikō (2008)
Team Foxcatcher (2016)
Team Spirit (2016)
Teamster Boss: The Jackie Presser Story (1992 TV)
Tear This Heart Out (2008)
Tearin' Into Trouble (1927)
Tearing Through (1925)
Tears (2000)
Tears of the Black Tiger (2000)
Tears in the Fabric (2014)
Tears for Sale (2008)
Tears and Smiles (1917)
Tears of the Sun (2003)
Tears Were Falling (1982)
Ted (2012)
Ted 2 (2015)
Ted Bundy (2002)
Teen Beach Movie (2013)
Teen Beach 2 (2015)
Teen Kanya (1961)
Teen Titans movies:
Teen Titans: Trouble in Tokyo (2006 TV)
Teen Titans: The Judas Contract (2017)
Teen Titans Go! to the Movies (2018)
Teen Witch (1989)
Teen Wolf (1985)
Teen Wolf Too (1987)
Teenage (2013)
Teenage Caveman: (1958 & 2002)
Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles series:
Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles: (1990 & 2014)
Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles II: The Secret of the Ooze (1991)
Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles III (1993)
Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles: Out of the Shadows (2016)
Teenage Zombies (1959)
Teenagers from Outer Space (1959)
Tees Maar Khan (2010)
Teeth (2008)
Teheran 43 (1981)
Tekken: (1990 & 2009)
Tekken 2: Kazuya's Revenge (2014)
Tekken: Blood Vengeance (2011)
Tel Aviv on Fire (2018)
Telefon (1977)
Tell Me Something (1999)
Tell No One (2006)
Tell Them Willie Boy Is Here (1969)
The Tell-Tale Heart: (1934, 1941, 1953 American, 1953 British, 1960, 1961 TV & 2014)
Telokhranitel (1979)
Temmink: The Ultimate Fight (1998)
Temno (1950)
The Temp (1993)
The Tempest: (1908, 1911, 1960 TV, 1963, 1979 & 2010)
Tempest: (1928, 1958, 1982 & 2015)
Temporada de patos (2004)
Temporary Family (2014)
Le Temps qui reste (2006)
Temptation: (1915, 1923, 1929, 1934, 1935, 1946, 1959 & 2007)
The Temptation of St. Tony (2009)
Temptation: Confessions of a Marriage Counselor (2013)
The Temptations (1998 TV)
Tempting Heart (1999)
The Temptress (1926)
Temptress Moon (1996)
Ten-Teq
The Ten (2008)
Ten 'til Noon (2007)
Ten Canoes (2006)
The Ten Commandments: (1923 & 1956)
Ten Little Indians (1965)
Ten Minutes to Live (1932)
Ten Minutes Older (2002)
Ten Nights in a Bar Room: (1910 & 1921)
Ten Nights in a Bar-Room (1931)
Ten Nights in a Barroom (1926)
Ten North Frederick (1958)
Ten Seconds to Hell (1959)
Ten Zan: The Ultimate Mission (1988)
Tenacious D in The Pick of Destiny (2006)
The Tenant (1976)
Tender (2020)
The Tender Bar (2021)
Tender Fictions (1996)
Tender Mercies (1983)
Tender Is the Night (1962)
Tenderness: (2009 & 2017)
The Tenderness of Wolves (1973)
Tenebrae (1982)
Tenet (2020)
Tengoku no honya (2004)
Tennessee's Partner (1955)
Tenshi ni I'm Fine (2016)
Tension (1950)
Tentacles (1977)
Tenure (2009)
Teorema (1968)
Tepee for Two (1963)
Tequila Sunrise (1988)
Ter
Tera Intezaar (2017)
Tera Jadoo Chal Gayaa (2000)
Tera Kya Hoga Johnny (2008)
Tera Mera Ki Rishta (2009)
Tera Mera Saath Rahen (2001)
Tera Mera Tedha Medha (2015)
Tera Mera Vaada (2012)
Tera Naam Mera Naam (1988)
Teraa Surroor (2016)
Tere Pyar Mein (2000)
Tere Bin Laden (2010)
Tere Bin Laden: Dead or Alive (2016)
Tere Bina Jiya Nahin Jaye (unreleased)
Tere Ghar Ke Samne (1963)
Tere Jism Se Jaan Tak (2015)
Tere Mere Phere (2011)
Tere Mere Sapne: (1971 & 1996)
Tere Naal Love Ho Gaya (2012)
Tere Naam (2003)
Tere Pyar Mein: (1979 & 2000)
Teree Sang (2009)
Teresa: (1951, 1987 & 2010)
Teresa the Thief (1973)
Teresa's Tattoo (1994)
Teri Baahon Mein (1984)
Teri Bhabhi Hai Pagle (2018)
Teri Kasam (1982)
Teri Meherbaniyan (1985)
Teri Meri Ik Jindri (1975)
Teri Meri Kahaani (2012)
Teri Meri Love Story (2016)
Teri Payal Mere Geet (1993)
Term Life (2016)
Terminal (2018)
The Terminal (2004)
Terminal Bar (2003)
Terminal Bliss (1992)
Terminal Entry (1987)
Terminal Error (2002)
Terminal Exposure (1987)
Terminal Invasion (2002)
Terminal Island (1973)
Terminal Station (1953)
Terminal Velocity (1994)
Terminal Virus (1995)
Terminal Voyage (1994)
Terminator series:
The Terminator (1984)
Terminator 2: Judgment Day (1991)
Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines (2003)
Terminator Salvation (2009)
Terminator Genisys (2015)
Terminator: Dark Fate (2019)
Termini Station (1989)
Terms of Endearment (1983)
La Terra Trema (1957)
A Terra-Cotta Warrior (1990)
Terrace House: Closing Door (2015)
A Terrible Beauty (1960)
A Terrible Night (1896)
Terrified (2017)
Terrifier (2016)
Terrifier 2 (2022)
The Terror: (1917, 1920, 1926, 1928, 1938 & 1963)
Terror in the Aisles (1984)
Terror Firmer (1999)
Terror of Mechagodzilla (1975)
Terror by Night (1946)
Terror Tract (2000)
Terror Train (1980)
Terrorama! (2001)
The Terrorist (1998)
Terrorists, Killers and Middle-East Wackos (2005)
TerrorVision (1986)
Tes-Tez
Tesis (1996)
Tesis sobre un homicidio (2013)
Tesla: (2016 TV & 2020)
Tess: (1979 & 2016)
Tess of the d'Urbervilles: (1913 & 1924)
Tess of the Storm Country: (1914, 1922, 1932 & 1960)
Test: (2013 & 2014)
Test Pack (2012)
Test Pattern (2019)
Test Pilot (1938)
Test Pilot Donald (1951)
Test Tube Babies (1948)
Testament: (1983 & 2004)
The Testament of Dr. Mabuse (1933)
Testament of Orpheus (1959)
Testament of Youth (2014)
Testimony: (1920 & 1988)
The Testimony: (1946 & 2015)
Testosterone: (2003, 2004 & 2007)
Tests for Real Men (1998)
Tetsujin 28: The Movie (2005)
Tetsujin Nijūhachi-gō: Hakuchū no Zangetsu (2007)
Tetsuo series:
Tetsuo: The Iron Man (1988)
Tetsuo II: Body Hammer (1992)
Tetsuo: The Bullet Man (2009)
Tevar (2015)
Tevya (1939)
Tex (1982)
Tex and the Lord of the Deep (1985)
Tex Rides with the Boy Scouts (1937)
Texans Never Cry (1951)
Texas: (1941 & 2005)
Texas Across the River (1966)
Texas, Adios (1966)
Texas Bad Man (1953)
Texas to Bataan (1942)
Texas, Brooklyn & Heaven (1948)
Texas Buddies (1932)
Texas Carnival (1951)
The Texas Chainsaw Massacre series:
The Texas Chain Saw Massacre (1974)
The Texas Chainsaw Massacre 2 (1986)
Leatherface: The Texas Chainsaw Massacre III (1990)
Texas Chainsaw Massacre: The Next Generation (1995)
The Texas Chainsaw Massacre (2003)
The Texas Chainsaw Massacre: The Beginning (2006)
Texas Chainsaw 3D (2013)
Leatherface (2017)
Texas Chainsaw Massacre (2022)
Texas City (1952)
Texas Cyclone (1932)
Texas Dynamo (1950)
Texas Gun Fighter (1932)
Texas Jack (1935)
Texas Killing Fields (2011)
Texas Lady (1955)
Texas Lawmen (1951)
Texas Lightning (1981)
Texas Manhunt (1949)
Texas Masquerade (1944)
Texas Panhandle (1945)
Texas Pioneers (1932)
Texas Rangers (2001)
The Texas Rangers (1936)
Texas Rangers Ride Again (1940)
Texas Renegades (1940)
Texas Terror (1935)
Texas Terrors (1940)
Texas Tommy (1928)
Texas Trail (1937)
Texasville (1990)
Text (2019)
Text Book (2010)
Text for You (TBD)
Textiles (2004)
Teyzem (1986)
Teza (2008)
Tezaab (1988)
Tezaab – The Acid of Love (2005)
Th
Tha
Tha (2010)
Thaai (1974)
Thaai Magalukku Kattiya Thaali (1959)
Thaai Manasu (1994)
Thaai Mookaambikai (1982)
Thaai Naadu (1989)
Thaai Nadu (1947)
Thaai Sollai Thattadhe (1961)
Thaaiku Oru Thaalaattu (1986)
Thaala (2019)
Thaalam Manasinte Thaalam (1981)
Thaalam Thettiya Tharattu (1983)
Thaalappoli (1977)
Thaali (1997)
Thaali Bhagyam (1966)
Thaali Kattiya Raasa (1992)
Thaali Pudhusu (1997)
Thaalikaatha Kaaliamman (2001)
Thaamarathoni (1975)
Thaamirabharani (2007)
Thaanaa Serndha Koottam (2018)
Thaandavam (2012)
Thaaraavu (1981)
Thaaye Unakkaga (1966)
Thaayi Saheba (1997)
Thaayillamal Naan Illai (1979)
Thaayin Madiyil (1964)
Thank God It's Friday (1978)
Thank You for Smoking (2006)
Thank You for Your Service: (2015 & 2017)
Thanks for Sharing (2012)
ThanksKilling (2008)
That Brennan Girl (1946)
That Certain Woman (1937)
That Cold Day in the Park (1969)
That Darn Cat: (1965 & 1997)
That Evening Sun (2009)
That Hamilton Woman (1941)
That Man from Rio (1964)
That Midnight Kiss (1949)
That Most Important Thing: Love (1975)
That Night in Varennes (1982)
That Obscure Object of Desire (1977)
That Old Feeling (1997)
That Thing You Do! (1996)
That Touch of Mink (1962)
That Uncertain Feeling (1941)
That's Carry On! (1977)
That's Entertainment! series:
That's Dancing! (1985)
That's Entertainment! (1974)
That's Entertainment, Part II (1976)
That's Entertainment! III (1994)
That's Life! (1986)
That's My Boy: (1932, 1951 & 2012)
That's My Wife: (1929 & 1933)
The Thaw (2010)
Thayagam (1996)
Thayai Katha Thanayan (1962)
Thayamma (1991)
Thaye Neeye Thunai (1987)
Thayi Devaru (1971)
Thayi Illada Thabbali (2003)
Thayi Karulu (1962)
Thazhampoo (1965)
Thazhuvatha Kaigal (1986)
Thazhvaram (1990)
The
The Theatre Bizarre (2011)
Theatre of Blood (1973)
Theeb (2014)
Theekkadal (1980)
Their Own Desire (1930)
Their Purple Moment (1928)
Theirs is the Glory (1946)
Thelma & Louise (1991)
Them (2006)
Them Thar Hills (1934)
Them! (1954)
Themroc (1942)
Then She Found Me (2008)
Theodora Goes Wild (1936)
Theodore Case Sound Test: Gus Visser and His Singing Duck (1925)
Theodore Rex (1995)
Theorem (1968)
The Theory of Everything: (2006 TV & 2014)
The Theory of Flight (1998)
There Be Dragons (2011)
There Is No Evil (2020)
There is a Secret in my Soup (2001)
There Was a Crooked Man (1960)
There Was a Crooked Man... (1970)
There Was a Father (1942)
There Will Be Blood (2007)
There Will Be No Leave Today (1959)
There's Always Vanilla (1971)
There's a Girl in My Soup (1970)
There's No Business Like Show Business (1954)
There's No Place Like This Place, Anyplace (2020)
There's Someone Inside Your House (2021)
There's Something About Mary (1998)
There's Something About a Soldier: (1934 & 1943)
There's Something About Susan (2013 TV)
There's Something in the Water (2019)
There's Something Wrong with Aunt Diane (2011 TV)
Theremin: An Electronic Odyssey (1993)
Theresienstadt (1944)
These Are the Damned (1963)
These Thousand Hills (1959)
These Three (1936)
They: (1993 TV, 2002 & 2017)
They All Laughed (1981)
They Call Me Bruce? (1982)
They Call Me Mister Tibbs! (1970)
They Call Me Trinity (1971)
They Came Back (2004)
They Came to Cordura (1959)
They Died with Their Boots On (1941)
They Don't Wear Black Tie (1981)
They Drive by Night (1940)
They Go Boom (1929)
They Knew What They Wanted (1940)
They Live (1988)
They Live by Night (1949)
They Look Like People (2015)
They Might Be Giants (1971)
They Saved Hitler's Brain (1968)
They Shall Not Grow Old (2018)
They Shoot Horses, Don't They? (1969)
They Still Call Me Bruce (1987)
They Were Expendable (1945)
They're Outside (2020)
They're a Weird Mob (1966)
Thi
Thick as Thieves (2009)
Thicker than Water: (1935, 1999, 2000, 2005 & 2006)
Thief (1981)
The Thief: (1952 & 1997)
The Thief of Baghdad: (1924, 1940 & 1961)
A Thief Catcher (1914)
The Thief and the Cobbler (1995)
The Thief Lord (2006)
The Thief Who Came to Dinner (1973)
Thieves Like Us (1974)
Thieves' Highway (1949)
The Thin Blue Line (1988)
Thin Ice: (1919, 1937, 2011 & 2013)
A Thin Line Between Love and Hate (1996)
The Thin Man (1934)
The Thin Man Goes Home (1945)
The Thin Red Line: (1964 & 1998)
The Thing: (1982 & 2011)
The Thing About My Folks (2005)
The Thing from Another World (1951)
The Thing with Two Heads (1972)
Things Are Tough All Over (1982)
Things Behind the Sun (2001)
Things Change (1988)
Things to Come (1936)
Things to Do in Denver When You're Dead (1995)
Things We Lost in the Fire (2007)
Things You Can Tell Just by Looking at Her (2000)
Think like a Man (2012)
Thinner (1996)
The Thinning (2016)
The Third Generation: (1979 & 2009)
The Third Lover (1962)
The Third Man (1949)
The Third Miracle (2000)
The Third Part of the Night (1971)
The Third Party (2016)
The Third Wheel (2002)
The Third Wife (2018)
Thirst (2009)
Thirteen (2003)
The Thirteen Chairs (1969)
Thirteen Conversations About One Thing (2001)
Thirteen Days (2000)
Thirteen Ghosts: (1960 & 2001)
Thirteen Lives (2022)
Thirteen Princess Trees (2006)
Thirteen Women (1932)
The Thirteenth Floor (1999)
The Thirteenth Warrior (1999)
The Thirteenth Year (1999) (TV)
The Thirty Nine Steps (1978)
Thirty Seconds Over Tokyo (1944)
This Angry Age (1957)
This Is 40 (2012)
This Is the Army (1943)
This Boy's Life (1993)
This Christmas (2007)
This Is Cinerama (1952)
This Is the End (2013)
This Is England (2006)
This Film Is Not Yet Rated (2006)
This Girl's Life (2003)
This Gun for Hire (1942)
This Happy Breed (1944)
This Happy Feeling (1959)
This Island Earth (1955)
This Land Is Mine (1943)
This Man Must Die (1969)
This Is Martin Bonner (2013)
This Is Me (2015)
This Means War (2012)
This Must Be the Place (2011)
This Is My Father (1999)
This Is the Night: (1932 & 2021)
This Is Not a Film (2011)
This Is Not a Love Song (2003)
This Is Not a Test: (1962 & 2008)
This Property Is Condemned (1966)
This Is Spinal Tap (1984)
This Sporting Life (1963)
This Is Where I Leave You (2014)
Tho
Thoda Lutf Thoda Ishq (2015)
Thoda Pyaar Thoda Magic (2008)
Thoda Tum Badlo Thoda Hum (2004)
Thodakkam (2008)
Thodallullu (1988)
Thodari (2016)
Thodarum (1999)
Thodasa Roomani Ho Jayen (1990)
Thodi Kodallu (1957)
Thodi Life Thoda Magic (2008)
Thodi Thodi Si Manmaaniyan (2017)
Thodisi Bewafaii (1980)
Thodraa (2018)
Thodu Dangalu (1954)
Thodu Needa (1965)
Thoicha (2010)
Thokkukal Kadha Parayunnu (1968)
Tholaipesi (2007)
Tholi Kodi Koosindi (1981)
Tholi Muddhu (1993)
Tholi Prema: (1998 & 2018)
Tholi Valapu (2001)
Tholireyi Gadichindi (1977)
Tholkan Enikku Manassilla (1977)
Tholu Bommalata (2019)
The Thomas Crown Affair: (1968 & 1999)
Thomas Jefferson (1997)
Thomas and the Magic Railroad (2000)
Thondan: (1995 & 2017)
Thondimuthalum Driksakshiyum (2017)
Thong Dee Fun Khao (2017)
Thoogudeepa (1966)
Thookku Thookki (1954)
Thooku Medai (1982)
Thoondil (2008)
Thoonga Nagaram (2011)
Thoongaa Vanam (2015)
Thoongathey Thambi Thoongathey (1983)
Thooral Ninnu Pochchu (1982)
Thoorpu Padamara (1976)
Thoothukudi (2006)
Thooval Kottaram (1996)
Thoovalkattu (2010)
Thoovalsparsham (1990)
Thoovanam (2007)
Thoovanathumbikal (1987)
Thoppil Joppan (2016)
Thoppul Kodi (2011)
Thor movies:
Thor (2011)
Thor: Tales of Asgard (2011)
Thor: The Dark World (2013)
Thor: Ragnarok (2017)
Thor: Love and Thunder (2022)
Thor and the Amazon Women (1963)
Thor the Conqueror (1983)
Thora Jee Le (2017)
Thoranai (2009)
Thoranam (1987)
The Thorn (1974)
Thoroughbred (1936)
The Thoroughbred: (1916 & 1928)
Thoroughbreds: (1944 & 2017)
Thoroughbreds Don't Cry (1937)
Thoroughly Modern Millie (1967)
Those Awful Hats (1909)
Those Blasted Kids (1947)
Those Boys! (1909)
Those Calloways (1965)
Those Country Kids (1914)
Those Dear Departed (1987)
Those Dirty Dogs (1973)
Those Endearing Young Charms (1945)
Those Glory Glory Days (1983 TV)
Those Happy Days: (1914 & 2006)
Those Happy Years (2013)
Those High Grey Walls (1939)
Those Kids from Town (1942)
Those Lips, Those Eyes (1980)
Those Love Pangs (1914)
Those Magnificent Men in their Flying Machines (1965)
Those Merry Souls (1985)
Those Old Love Letters (1992)
Those People (2015)
Those People Next Door (1953)
Those Redheads from Seattle (1953)
Those Were the Days: (1996, 1997, & 2000)
Those Were Wonderful Days (1934)
Thou Shalt Honor Thy Wife (1925)
Thou Wast Mild and Lovely (2014)
Those She Left Behind (1989 TV)
Those Terrible Twins (1925)
Those Three French Girls (1930)
Those Two (1935)
Those We Love (1932)
Those Were Wonderful Days (1934)
Those Who Dance: (1924 & 1930)
Those Who Dare (1924)
Those Who Judge (1924)
Those Who Love: (1926 & 1929)
Those Who Love Me Can Take the Train (1998)
Those Who Remain (2007)
Those Who Remained (2019)
Those Who Wish Me Dead (2021)
Thoughtcrimes (2003)
A Thousand Acres (1997)
A Thousand Billion Dollars (1982)
A Thousand Clouds of Peace (2003)
A Thousand Clowns (1965)
The Thousand Eyes of Dr. Mabuse (1960)
A Thousand Words (2012)
Thousands Cheer (1943)
Thr
Three: (1965, 1969, 2002, 2006, 2008, 2010 & 2016)
Three Ages (1923)
Three Amigos (1986)
Three Billboards Outside Ebbing, Missouri (2017)
Three Blind Mice: (1938, 2003 & 2008)
Three Body (2016)
The Three Burials of Melquiades Estrada (2005)
Three Businessmen (1998)
The Three Caballeros (1944)
Three Christs (2017)
Three Coins in the Fountain (1954)
Three Colors series:
Three Colors: Blue (1993)
Three Colors: Red (1994)
Three Colors: White (1994)
Three Comrades: (1935 & 1938)
Three on a Couch (1966)
Three Crowns of the Sailor (1983)
Three Daughters (1961)
Three Days in August (2016)
Three Days of the Condor (1975)
Three Dollars (2005)
Three Faces East: (1926 & 1930)
The Three Faces of Eve (1957)
Three Fugitives (1989)
Three Godfathers (1936)
The Three Godfathers (1916)
Three the Hard Way (1974)
Three Kings: (1999 & 2011)
Three Little Pigs (1933)
Three Little Words (1950)
The Three Lives of Thomasina (1963)
The Three Marias (2002)
Three on a Match (1932)
Three Men and a Baby (1987)
Three Men on a Horse (1936)
Three Men to Kill (1980)
Three Men and a Little Lady (1990)
Three Men in the Snow: (1936, 1955 & 1974)
The Three Million Trial (1926)
Three Modern Women (1932)
Three Monkeys (2008)
Three Mothers (2006)
The Three Musketeers: (1921, 1933 serial, 1973, 1992, 1993 & 2013)
Three O'Clock High (1987)
Three Outlaw Samurai (1964)
Three from Prostokvashino (1978)
Three Reservists (1971)
Three for the Road (1987)
Three Seasons (1999)
Three Sisters: (1970, 1994 & 2012)
The Three Sisters: (1930, 1966 & 1970 TV)
Three Smart Girls (1936)
The Three Smiles (1969)
Three Songs About Lenin (1934)
Three Steps to the Gallows (1953)
The Three Stooges series:
The Three Stooges (2000)
The Three Stooges (2012)
The Three Stooges Go Around the World in a Daze (1963)
The Three Stooges Meet Hercules (1962)
The Three Stooges in Orbit (1962)
Three Stories of Love (2015)
Three to Tango (1999)
Three Times (2005)
Three Tough Guys (1974)
Three Wise Fools: (1923 & 1946)
Three Wise Men: (2008 & 2016)
Three Wishes for Cinderella (1973)
Three Women: (1924, 1949 & 1952)
Three Young Texans (1954)
Three... Extremes (2004)
The Threepenny Opera (1931)
Threesome (1994)
The Thrill of It All (1963)
Thrill of a Lifetime (1937)
Thrill Ride (2017)
Thriller – A Cruel Picture (1973)
Throne of Blood (1957)
Throne of Elves (2016)
Through Black Spruce (2018)
Through the Fire: (1982, 2005 & 2018)
Through a Glass Darkly (1961)
Through the Looking Glass (1976)
Through the Night (2020)
Through the Olive Trees (1994)
Throw Down (2004)
Throw Momma from the Train (1987)
Throwback (2014)
Thru the Mirror (1936)
Thu-Thy
Thudakkam (2004)
Thudar Katha (1991)
Thudikkum Karangal (1983)
Thug Life (2001)
Thugs with Dirty Mugs (1939)
Thugs of Hindostan (2018)
Thukkaram (1938)
Thulabharam (1968)
Thulasi: (1976 & 1987)
Thulasi Jalandar (1947)
Thulasi Maadam (1963)
Thulavarsham (1976)
Thuli Visham (1954)
Thulladha Manamum Thullum (1999)
Thullal (2007)
Thulli Thirintha Kaalam (1998)
Thulli Vilayadu (2013)
Thullum Kaalam (2005)
Thullura Vayasu (2006)
Thulluvadho Ilamai (2002)
Thumb Fun (1952)
Thumb Tripping (1972)
Thumbaa (2019)
Thumbelina (1994)
Thumbida Koda (1964)
Thumbida Mane (1995)
Thumbolarcha (1974)
Thumboli Kadappuram (1995)
Thumbs Down (1927)
Thumbs Up (1943)
Thumbsucker (2005)
Thumper (2017)
Thun Man Handiya (1970)
Thunai (1982)
Thunai Mudhalvar (2015)
Thunaivan (1969)
Thundenek (TBD)
Thunder (1929)
Thunder Afloat (1939)
Thunder Alley: (1967 & 1985)
Thunder Among the Leaves (1958)
Thunder of Battle (1964)
Thunder Bay (1953)
Thunder Below (1932)
Thunder Birds (1942)
Thunder in Carolina (1960)
Thunder in the City (1937)
Thunder in the Desert (1938)
Thunder in the East: (1950 & 1951)
Thunder Force (2021)
Thunder in God's Country (1951)
Thunder in Guyana (2003)
Thunder on the Hill (1951)
Thunder Island (1963)
Thunder and Lightning: (1938 & 1977)
Thunder, Lightning and Sunshine (1936)
Thunder Mountain: (1925, 1935 & 1947)
Thunder in the Night (1935)
Thunder Over Arizona (1956)
Thunder Over Paris (1940)
Thunder Over the Plains (1953)
Thunder Over the Prairie (1941)
Thunder Over Texas (1934)
Thunder Pass (1954)
Thunder in the Pines (1948)
Thunder Riders (1928)
Thunder River Feud (1942)
Thunder Road: (1958, 2016 & 2018)
Thunder Rock (1942)
Thunder Run (1986)
Thunder in the Sun (1959)
Thunder Town (1946)
Thunder Trail (1937)
Thunder in the Valley (1947)
Thunder Warrior (1983)
Thunder Warrior II (1987)
Thunder Warrior III (1988)
Thunderball (1965)
Thunderbird 6 (1968)
Thunderbirds: (1952 & 2004)
Thunderbirds Are Go (1966)
Thunderbolt: (1910, 1929, 1947 & 1995)
The Thunderbolt (1912)
Thunderbolt Jack (1920)
Thunderbolt and Lightfoot (1974)
Thunderbolt's Tracks (1927)
Thunderbolts of Fate (1919)
Thundercrack! (1975)
Thundergate (1923)
Thundergod (1928)
Thunderground (1989)
Thunderhead, Son of Flicka (1945)
Thunderheart (1992)
Thunderhoof (1948)
Thundering Caravans (1952)
Thundering Dawn (1923)
Thundering Fleas (1926)
Thundering Frontier (1940)
Thundering Gun Slingers (1944)
Thundering Hoofs: (1924 & 1942)
Thundering Jets (1958)
Thundering Mountains (1963)
Thundering Thompson (1929)
Thundering Trails (1943)
Thunderpants (2002)
Thunderstorm (1956)
Thunderstruck: (2004 & 2012)
Thunichal (2010)
Thunive Thunai (1976)
Thuntata (2002)
Thunveni Yamaya (1983)
Thuppakki (2012)
Thuppakki Munai (2018)
Thursday (1998)
THX 1138 (1971)
Thy Kingdom Come (2018)
Thy Name Is Woman (1924)
Thy Neighbor's Wife: (1953 & 2001)
Thy Will Be Done (2015)
Thy Womb (2012)
Thyaga Bhoomi (1939)
Thyagaiah (1946)
Thyagam (1978)
Thyagi (1982)
Ti
Ti ho cercata in tutti i necrologi (2013)
Ti Oluwa Ni Ile (1993)
Ti presento un amico (2010)
Ti Saddhya Kay Karte (2107)
Tib-Tim
Tibi and His Mothers (2013)
Tic Tac (1997)
tick, tick... Boom! (2021)
...tick...tick...tick... (1970)
Tick Tock (2018)
Tick Tock Lullaby (2007)
Tick Tock Tuckered (1944)
Ticked-Off Trannies with Knives (2010)
Ticker (2001)
Ticket to Heaven (1981)
A Ticket to Tomahawk (1950)
Tickle Me (1965)
Ticks (1994)
Tideland (2005)
Tie Me Up! Tie Me Down! (1990)
Tiempos de dictadura (2012)
The Tied Up Balloon (1967)
Tieta do Agreste (1996)
Tiger: (1979, 2007, 2015, 2017 & 2018)
The Tiger (1978)
The Tiger: An Old Hunter's Tale (2015)
Tiger Bay (1959)
Tiger on Beat (1988)
The Tiger Brigades (2006)
Tiger Cruise (2004) (TV)
Tiger Eyes (2013)
The Tiger Hunter (2016)
The Tiger Murder Case (1930)
Tiger in the Smoke (1956)
The Tiger and the Snow (2005)
A Tiger Walks (1964)
Tigerland (2000)
Tigers (2014)
The Tigers (1991)
Tigers Are Not Afraid (2017)
Tigertail (2020)
The Tigger Movie (2000)
Tightrope (1984)
Tik Tok (2016)
Til Death (2007)
'Til There Was You (1997)
Tilaï (1990)
Till the Clouds Roll By (1946)
Till Human Voices Wake Us (2002)
Till There Was You: (1990 & 2003)
Tillamook Treasure (2006)
Tillie's Punctured Romance (1914)
Tim (1979)
Tim and Eric's Billion Dollar Movie (2012)
Tim Tyler's Luck (1937)
Tim's Vermeer (2013)
Timber Falls (2008)
Timbuktu: (1959 & 2014)
Time: (1999, 2006, 2007 & 2020)
Time After Time (1979)
Time Bandits (1981)
A Time for Burning (1966)
Time Changer (2002)
A Time for Drunken Horses (2000)
A Time for Dying (1969)
Time of Favor (2000)
Time Flies: (1944 & 2013)
Time of the Gypsies (1988)
A Time to Kill (1996)
Time to Leave (2006)
Time to Love: (1927 & 1965)
A Time to Love and a Time to Die (1958)
The Time Machine: (1960, 1978 TV & 2002)
A Time for Miracles (1980) (TV)
Time Out: (1984, 1998, 2001 & 2015)
Time Out of Mind: (1947 & 2014)
Time Raiders (2016)
Time Regained (1999)
Time Stands Still (1982)
The Time of Their Lives (1946)
The Time Traveler's Wife (2009)
Time Travelers (1976)
The Time Travelers (1964)
Time of the Wolf: (2002 & 2003)
Timecode (2000)
Timecop (1994)
Timecop 2: The Berlin Decision (2003)
Timecrimes (2008)
Timelapse of the Future (2019)
Timelapse of the Entire Universe (2018)
Timeline (2003)
Timequest (2002)
TiMER (2009)
Timerider: The Adventure of Lyle Swann (1982)
The Times of Harvey Milk (1984)
Times of Joy and Sorrow (1957)
Times Square: (1929 & 1980)
Timeslip (1955)
Timing (2014)
Timmy Failure: Mistakes Were Made (2020)
Tin-Tiz
Tin Can Man (2007)
Tin Cup (1996)
The Tin Drum (1979)
Tin Gods: (1926 & 1932)
Tin Hats (1926)
Tin Man (1983)
The Tin Man (1935)
Tin Men (1987)
The Tin Mine (2005)
Tin Pan Alley (1940)
Tin Pan Alley Cats (1943)
The Tin Star (1957)
Tin String (2019)
Tin Toy (1988)
Tina (2021)
The Tinder Box (1959)
The Tinder Swindler (2022)
Tine (1964)
Tingel Tangel (1927)
Tingel-Tangel (1930)
Tingeltangel (1922)
The Tingler (1959)
Tini: The Movie (2016)
Tinker Bell (2008)
Tinker Tailor Soldier Spy (2011)
Tinker Ticker (2013)
Tins (2007)
Tinsel (1918)
Tinta roja (1918)
Tintin series:
Tintin and I (2003)
Tintin and the Blue Oranges (1964)
Tintin and the Golden Fleece (1961)
Tintin and the Lake of Sharks (1972)
Tintin and the Temple of the Sun (1969)
Tintomara (1970)
Tintorettor Jishu (2008)
Tiny Furniture (2010)
Tiny Times series:
Tiny Times (2013)
Tiny Times 2 (2013)
Tiny Times 3 (2014)
Tiny Times 4 (2015)
Tiny Toon Adventures: How I Spent My Vacation (1992)
Tiong Bahru Social Club (2020)
Tiovivo c. 1950 (2004)
Tip on a Dead Jockey (1957)
Tip-Off Girls (1938)
Tiptoes (2003)
Tirad Pass: The Last Stand of Gen. Gregorio del Pilar (1996)
Tiragabadda Telugubidda (1988)
Tiramisu: (2002 & 2008)
Tirana Year Zero (2002)
Tirant lo Blanc (2006)
Tire Trouble (1924)
Tired of Kissing Frogs (2006)
Tired Theodore (1957)
Tish (1942)
Tit for Tat: (1904, 1921 & 1935)
Titan A.E. (2000)
Titane (2021)
Titanic: (1915, 1943, 1953, & 1997)
Titanic II (2010)
Titanic Kadhalum Kavundhu Pogum (TBD)
Titanic Love (2012)
Titanic: The Legend Goes On (2000)
Titanic Town (1998)
Titanic Waltz (1964)
Titanoboa: Monster Snake (2012)
Titans of the Deep (1938)
Titãs – A Vida Até Parece Uma Festa (2008)
Titash Ekti Nadir Naam (1973)
Titeuf (2011)
The Titfield Thunderbolt (1952)
Titicut Follies (1967)
Title to Murder (2001)
Title Shot (1979)
Titli: (2002 & 2014)
Tito: (2004 & 2019)
Tito and the Birds (2018)
Tito and Me (1992)
Titus (1999)
Tiwa's Baggage (2017)
Tiyaan (2017)
Tiyanak (1988)
Tiyasha (2013)
Tizoc (1957)
Tj–Tm
Tjenare kungen (2005)
Tjiraa (2012)
Tjitji: The Himba Girl (2015)
Tjitra (1949)
Tjoet Nja' Dhien (1988)
T.K.O. (2007)
Tlatelolco, verano del 68 (2013)
TMNT (2007)
To
To (1964)
To Age or Not to Age (2010)
To All the Boys series:
To All the Boys I've Loved Before (2018)
To All the Boys: P.S. I Still Love You (2020)
To All the Boys: Always and Forever (2021)
To All a Goodnight (1980)
To All My Friends on Shore (1972 TV)
To Award (Posthumously) (1986)
To B or Not to B (unreleased)
To Be (1990)
To Be Alive! (1964)
To Be Called For (1914)
To Be Continued (2018)
To Be Fat like Me (2007 TV)
To Be and to Have (2002)
To Be a Lady (1934)
To Be a Millionaire (1980)
To Be or Not to Be: (1942 & 1983)
To Be Number One (1991)
To Be Sixteen (1979)
To Be Someone (2021)
To Be Takei (2014)
To Be Without Worries (1953)
To Beat the Band (1935)
To Bed or Not to Bed (1963)
To Beep or Not to Beep (1963)
To Better Days (2012)
To Bina Bhala Lagena (2008)
To Bina Mo Kahani Adha (2007)
To Brave Alaska (1996 TV)
To Brighton with Gladys (1933)
To Build a Fire (2016)
To Catch a Dollar (2010)
To Catch a Thief (1955)
To-Day (1917)
To the Devil a Daughter (1976)
To Die For: (1989, 1994 & 1995)
The To Do List (2013)
To Each His Own (1946)
To End All Wars (2001)
To the Ends of the Earth: (1948 & 2019)
To Fly! (1976)
To Have and Have Not (1944)
To Have and to Hold: (1916, 1922, 1951 & 1996)
To Have or Not to Have (2001)
To Hell and Back (1955)
To the Hilt (2014)
To Joy (1950)
To Kill a King (2003)
To Kill a Mockingbird (1962)
To the Last Man (1923)
To Live (1994)
To Live and Die in L.A. (1985)
To Live in Peace (1947)
To Make a Killing (1988)
To Market To Market (1987)
To Marry a Captain (1985)
To Mary – with Love (1936)
To Matthieu (2000)
To Paint or Make Love (2005)
To Rome with Love (2012)
To Save a Life (2010)
To Shoot an Elephant (2009)
To Sir, with Love: (1967 & 2006)
To Sleep with Anger (1990)
To Spring (1936)
To the Wonder (2013)
To Wong Foo, Thanks for Everything! Julie Newmar (1995)
To Write Love on Her Arms (2012)
Toa-Tol
Toad Road (2012)
The Toast of New Orleans (1950)
Toba Tek Singh (2018)
Tobacco (1962)
Tobacco Road (1941)
Tobi (1978)
Tobor the Great (1954)
Tobruk: (1967 & 2008)
Toby the Showman (1930)
Tocar el cielo (2007)
Toccata for Toy Trains (1957)
Today (1930)
Today You Die (2005)
Together: (1956, 1971, 2000, 2002, 2009, 2010, 2018 & 2021 TV)
ToGetHer (2009)
Together Alone (1991)
Together? (1979)
Togo (2019)
Toi et moi (2006)
Toi, le venin (1958)
Toilers of the Sea: (1923 & 1936)
Toilet: Ek Prem Katha (2017)
Toire no Hanako-san (1995)
Tokhon Kuasa Chilo (2019)
Toki o Kakeru Shōjo: (1983 & 1997)
Toki no Tabibito: Time Stranger (1986)
Tokiori – Dobras do Tempo (2013)
Tokyo! (2008)
Tokyo After Dark (1959)
Tokyo Blackout (1987)
Tokyo Chorus (1931)
Tokyo Decadence (1992)
Tokyo Drifter (1966)
Tokyo Emmanuelle (1975)
Tokyo Eyes (1998)
Tokyo Family (2013)
Tokyo Fiancée (2014)
Tokyo File 212 (1951)
Tokyo Fist (1995)
Tokyo Friends: The Movie (2006)
Tokyo Ghoul (2017)
Tokyo Godfathers (2003)
Tokyo Gore Police (2008)
Tokyo Joe (1949)
Tōkyō Mukokuseki Shōjo (2015)
Tokyo Olympiad (1965)
Tokyo Raiders (2000)
Tokyo Story (1953)
Tokyo Tower: Mom and Me, and Sometimes Dad (2007)
The Tokyo Trial (2006)
Tokyo Twilight (1957)
Tokyo: The Last Megalopolis (1988)
Tokyo: The Last War (1989)
Tol'able David (1921)
Tolkien (2019)
The Toll (2020)
The Toll of the Sea (1922)
Tom
Tom (2002)
Tom in America (2014)
Tom Brown's School Days (1940)
Tom Brown's Schooldays: (1916, 1951 & 2005 TV)
Tom Clancy's Op Center (1995 TV)
Tom, Dick and Hairy (1993)
Tom, Dick and Harry (1941)
Tom, Dick, and Harry (2006)
Tom, Dick, and Harry: Rock Again... (2009)
Tom at the Farm (2013)
Tom of Finland (2017)
Tom and His Pals (1926)
Tom Horn (1980)
Tom & Huck (1995)
Tom and Jerry films:
Tom and Jerry (2021)
Tom and Jerry: Back to Oz (2016)
Tom and Jerry: Blast Off to Mars (2005)
Tom and Jerry: The Fast and the Furry (2005)
Tom and Jerry: The Lost Dragon (2014)
Tom and Jerry: The Magic Ring (2002)
Tom and Jerry Meet Sherlock Holmes (2010)
Tom and Jerry: The Movie (1992)
Tom and Jerry: A Nutcracker Tale (2007)
Tom and Jerry: Robin Hood and His Merry Mouse (2012)
Tom and Jerry: Shiver Me Whiskers (2006)
Tom and Jerry: Spy Quest (2015)
Tom and Jerry: Willy Wonka and the Chocolate Factory (2017)
Tom and Jerry and the Wizard of Oz (2011)
Tom and Jerry's Giant Adventure (2013)
Tom Jones (1963)
Tom on Mars (2005)
Tom Meets Zizou (2011)
Tom Sawyer: (1907, 1917, 1930, 1938, 1973 & 2000)
Tom Sawyer & Huckleberry Finn (2014)
Tom Sawyer, Detective (1938)
Tom & Thomas (2002)
Tom Thumb (1958)
Tom Thumb and Little Red Riding Hood (1962)
Tom Tom Tomcat (1953)
Tom, Tom, the Piper's Son (1969)
Tom Toms of Mayumba (1955)
Tom Turk and Daffy (1944)
Tom & Viv (1994)
Tom White (2004)
Tom-Yum-Goong (2005)
Tom Yum Goong 2 (2013)
Tom's Gang (1927)
Tom's Little Star (1919)
Tom's Midnight Garden (1999)
Tomahawk (1951)
Tomahawk Trail (1957)
Tomake Chai (2017)
Toman (2018)
Tomb of the Angels (1937)
The Tomb of Ligeia (1964)
Tomb of the Pistolero (1964)
Tomb Raider (2018)
Tomb Robber (2014)
Tomb of the Werewolf (2004)
Tombiruo: Penunggu Rimba (2017)
Tomboy: (1940, 1985, 2008 & 2011)
Tomboy and the Champ (1961)
Tombs of the Blind Dead (1972)
Tombstone (1993)
Tombstone Canyon (1932)
Tombstone Rashomon (2017)
Tombstone Terror (1935)
Tombstone, the Town Too Tough to Die (1942)
Tomcat (2016)
Tomcat Combat (1959)
Tomcats: (1977 & 2001)
Tome of the Unknown (2013)
Tomfoolery (1936)
Tomiris (2019)
Tomka and His Friends (1977)
Tommaso: (2016 & 2019)
Tommy: (1931, 1975 & 2015)
Tommy Atkins: (1915 & 1928)
Tommy Atkins in the Park (1898)
Tommy Boy (1995)
Tommy Cooper: Not Like That, Like This (2014 TV)
Tommy the Toreador (1959)
Tommy Tricker and the Stamp Traveller (1988)
Tommy Tucker's Tooth (1922)
Tommy's Atonement (1913)
Tommy's Honour (2016)
Tomorrow: (1972, 1988 & 2001)
Tomorrow Ever After (2017)
Tomorrow I'll Kill Myself (1942)
Tomorrow I'll Wake Up and Scald Myself with Tea (1977)
Tomorrow Is Another Day: (1951 American, 1951 Italian & 2017)
Tomorrow at Dawn (2009)
Tomorrow Is Forever (1946)
Tomorrow Is My Turn (1960)
Tomorrow Is Too Late (1950)
Tomorrow It Will Be Better (1939)
Tomorrow La Scala! (2002)
Tomorrow Morning (2006)
Tomorrow My Love (1971)
Tomorrow Never Comes (1978)
Tomorrow Never Dies (1997)
Tomorrow Night (1998)
Tomorrow at Seven (1933)
Tomorrow at Ten (1962)
Tomorrow and Tomorrow (1932)
The Tomorrow War (2021)
Tomorrow Was the War (1987)
Tomorrow We Dance (1982)
Tomorrow We Fly (1943)
Tomorrow We Live: (1936, 1942 & 1943)
Tomorrow We Move (2004)
Tomorrow, When the War Began (2012)
Tomorrow You're Gone (2012)
Tomorrow's Another Day: (2000 & 2011)
Tomorrow's Children (1934)
Tomorrow's Love (1925)
Tomorrow's Memoir (2004)
Tomorrow's World (1943)
Tomorrowland (2015)
Tomte Tummetott and the Fox (2007)
Tomy's Secret (1963)
Ton
À ton image (2004)
A Ton of Luck (2006)
Tone-Deaf (2019)
Tonelli (1943)
The Tong Man (1919)
Tongpan (1977)
The Tongues of Men (1916)
Tongues Untied (1989)
Tongzhi in Love (2008)
Toni (1928)
Toni (1935)
Toni Erdmann (2016)
Toni Morrison: The Pieces I Am (2019)
Tonic (2021)
Tonio (2016)
Tonio Kröger (1964)
Tonight a City Will Die (1961)
Tonight at Eleven (1938)
Tonight and Every Night (1945)
Tonight Is Ours (1933)
Tonight or Never: (1931, 1941 & 1961)
Tonight Nobody Goes Home (1996)
Tonight for Sure (1962)
Tonight at Twelve (1929)
Tonight We Raid Calais (1943)
Tonight We Sing (1953)
Tonight We'll Dance at Home (1972)
Tonight's the Night (1932)
Tonite Lets All Make Love in London (1967)
Tonka (1958)
Tonka of the Gallows (1930)
Tonnerre (2013)
Tons of Money: (1924 & 1930)
Tons of Trouble (1956)
Tonta, tonta, pero no tanto (1972)
The Tonto Kid (1935)
Tony: (1982, 2009, 2013 & 2019)
Tony: Another Double Game (1980)
Tony Hawk in Boom Boom Sabotage (2006)
Tony Robbins: I Am Not Your Guru (2016)
Tony Rome (1967)
Tony Takitani (2004)
Tonya and Nancy: The Inside Story (1994 TV)
Too
Too Bad She's Bad (1955)
Too Beautiful to Lie (2004)
Too Beautiful for You (1989)
Too Big to Fail (2011)
Too Busy to Work: (1932 & 1939)
Too Close for Comfort (1990)
Too Colourful for the League (2001 TV)
Too Cool to Kill (2022)
Too Dangerous to Live (1939)
Too Early/Too Late (1981)
Too Fat Too Furious (2005)
Too Funny to Fail (2017)
Too Good to Be True (1988 TV)
Too Hard to Handle (2016)
Too Hot to Die (2018)
Too Hot to Handle: (1938, 1960 & 1977)
Too Late: (1996, 2000 & 2015)
Too Late Blues (1961)
Too Late to Die Young (2018)
Too Late for Love (1967)
Too Late to Love (1959)
Too Late the Hero (1970)
Too Late to Say Goodbye (2009 TV)
Too Late for Tears (1949)
Too Many Blondes (1941)
Too Many Coincidences (2016)
Too Many Cooks (1931)
Too Many Crooks: (1927, 1930 & 1959)
Too Many Girls (1940)
Too Many Kisses (1925)
Too Many Husbands (1940)
Too Many Millions: (1918 & 1934)
Too Many Parents (1936)
Too Many Thieves (1967)
Too Many Ways to Be No. 1 (1997)
Too Many Winners (1947)
Too Many Wives: (1933 & 1937)
Too Many Women (1942)
Too Much Beef (1936)
Too Much Harmony (1933)
Too Much Is Enough (1995)
Too Much Johnson: (1919 & 1938)
Too Much Money (1926)
Too Much Pussy! (2010)
Too Much Sex (2000)
Too Much Speed (1921)
Too Much Sun (1990)
Too Much Wife (1922)
Too Outrageous! (1987)
Too Romantic (1992)
Too Soon to Love (1960)
Too Tired to Die (1998)
Too Tough to Care (1964)
Too Tough to Kill (1935)
Too Wise Wives (1921)
Too Young to Die? (1990 TV)
Too Young to Die! Wakakushite Shinu (2016)
Too Young the Hero (1988)
Too Young to Kiss (1951)
Too Young to Know (1945)
Too Young for Love: (1953 & 1966)
Too Young to Love (1959)
Too Young to Marry: (1931 & 2017 TV)
Toofaan (2021)
Toofan: (1989 & 2002)
Toofan Aur Bijlee (1975)
Toofan Aur Deeya (1956)
Toofan Singh (2017)
Toofani Tarzan (1937)
Tooken (2015)
Toolbox Murders (2004)
The Toolbox Murders (1978)
Toomelah (2011)
Toomorrow (1970)
Toonpur Ka Superrhero (2010)
Toot, Whistle, Plunk and Boom (1953)
Tooth Fairy (2010)
Tooth Fairy 2 (2012)
The Tooth Fairy (2006)
The Tooth and the Nail (2017)
The Tooth Will Out (1951)
Toothless (1997 TV)
A Toothy Smile (1957)
Toots (2006)
Tootsie (1982)
Tooty's Wedding (2010)
Top-Tov
Top Banana (1954)
Top Five (2014)
Top Gun (1986)
Top Gun: Maverick (2022)
Top Hat (1935)
Top Secret! (1984)
Top of the World (1997)
Topaz: (1945 & 1969)
Topkapi (1964)
El Topo (1970)
Topper (1937)
Topper Returns (1941)
Topsy-Turvy (1999)
Tora! Tora! Tora! (1970)
Torch Singer (1933)
Torch Song: (1953 & 1993 TV)
Torch Song Trilogy (1988)
Torment: (1924, 1944, 1950 British, 1950 Italian, 1986 & 2013)
Tormented: (1960, 2009 British, 2009 Salvadorean & 2011)
Torn Curtain (1966)
Torque (2004)
Torremolinos 73 (2003)
The Torrent: (1924 & 2012)
Torrente series:
Torrente, el brazo tonto de la ley (1998)
Torrente 2: Misión en Marbella (2001)
Torrente 3: El protector (2005)
Torrente 4: Lethal Crisis (2011)
Torso (1973)
Tortilla Flaps (1958)
Tortilla Soup (2002)
The Tortoise and the Hare: (1935 & 2008)
Torture Garden (1967)
Tosun Pasa (1976)
Total Balalaika Show (1994)
Total Eclipse (1995)
Total Recall: (1990 & 2012)
Toto the Hero (1991)
Toto the Sheik (1950)
Toto the Third Man (1951)
Touch (1997)
The Touch: (1971 & 2002)
A Touch of Class (1973)
Touch of Evil (1958)
A Touch of Fever (1993)
Touch of Pink (2004)
A Touch of Zen (1971)
Touchez pas au grisbi (1954)
Touching the Void (2003)
Tough Guys: (1960, 1986 & 2017)
Tough Guys Don't Dance (1987)
The Tourist: (1921, 1925 & 2010)
Tourist Trap (1979)
The Tournament (2009)
Tous les Matins du Monde (1991)
Tout Va Bien (1972)
Tovarich (1937)
Tow-Toz
Toward Independence (1948)
Towards the Sun (1955)
Toward the Unknown (1956)
Towards Evening (1990)
Towards Glory (1949)
Towards the Light: (1918 & 1919)
Towards the Sun (1955)
Towards Zero (2007)
Towed in a Hole (1932)
Towelhead (2008)
Tower: (1987, 2012 & 2016)
Tower Bawher (2005)
Towel Block (2012)
Tower of Evil (1972)
Tower of the Firstborn (1999)
Tower Heist (2011)
Tower House (1962)
Tower of London: (1939 & 1962)
Tower of Love (1974)
Tower of Lust (1955)
Tower to the People (2015)
Tower of Terror: (1913, 1941 & 1997)
The Towering Inferno (1974)
Towers of Silence (1952)
Towheads (2013)
The Town: (1945 & 2010)
Town Bus (1955)
Town & Country (2001)
A Town Called Panic (2009)
Town of the Dragon (2014)
A Town Like Alice (1956)
Town Tamer (1965)
The Town That Dreaded Sundown: (1976 & 2014)
Town on Trial (1957)
Town Without Pity (1961)
Towncraft (2007)
Toxic (2010)
The Toxic Avenger series:
The Toxic Avenger (1984)
The Toxic Avenger Part II (1989)
The Toxic Avenger Part III: The Last Temptation of Toxie (1989)
Toxic Beauty (2019)
Toxic Clouds of 9/11 (2006)
Toxic Legacy (2006)
Toxic Love (1983)
Toxic Man (2018)
Toxic Zombies (1980)
The Toy (1982)
Toy Love (2002)
Toy Soldiers: (1984, 1991 & 2010)
Toy Story series:
Toy Story (1995)
Toy Story 2 (1999)
Toy Story 3 (2010)
Toy Story 4 (2019)
Toy Tinkers (1949)
Toyland (2007)
Toys (1992)
Toys in the Attic: (1963 & 2009)
Toz (2005)
Tr
Tra
Trabbi Goes to Hollywood (1991)
Trace of a Girl (1967)
Trace of Stones (1966)
Tracer (2016)
Traceroute (2016)
Tracers (2015)
Traces of an Amorous Life (1990)
Traces of Death (1993)
Traces of a Dragon (2003)
Traces of Light (1943)
Traces of Love (2006)
Traces of Red (1992)
Traces of Sandalwood (2014)
Tracey (2018)
Track Down (2000)
Trackdown (1976)
Traffic: (2000, 2011 & 2016)
The Traffickers (2012)
Traffik (2018)
Trafic: (1971 & 2004)
Tragedy Girls (2017)
The Tragedy of Macbeth (2021)
The Trail Beyond (1934)
The Trail of the Lonesome Pine: (1916, 1923 & 1936)
Trailer Park Boys: The Movie (2006)
Trailer Park of Terror (2008)
Train (2009)
The Train: (1964, 1970, 1973, 2007 & 2011)
Train to Busan (2016)
Train of Life (1998)
Train Ride (2005)
The Train Robbers (1973)
Training Day (2001)
Trainspotting (1996)
Trainwreck (2015)
Traitor (2008)
The Traitor: (1936 American, 1936 German, 1957 & 2019)
Traitor or Patriot (2000)
Traitor's Gate (1964)
The Traitors (1962)
The Tramp (1915)
Trance (2013)
Trance and Dance in Bali (1952)
Trancers (1985)
Trances (1981)
Transamerica (2005)
Transcendence (2014)
Transfer (1966)
Transfer (2010)
The Transfiguration (2016)
Transformers film series:
Transformers (2007)
Transformers: Age of Extinction (2014)
Transformers: Dark of the Moon (2011)
Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen (2009)
Transformers: The Last Knight (2017)
The Transformers: The Movie (1986)
Transit: (1980, 2005 TV, 2006, 2012, 2013 & 2018)
Transmorphers (2007)
Transmorphers: Fall of Man (2009)
The Transporter film series:
The Transporter (2002)
Transporter 2 (2005)
Transporter 3 (2008)
The Transporter Refueled (2015)
Transsiberian (2008)
Transylvania 6-5000: (1963 & 1985)
Trap for Cinderella: (1965 & 2013)
A Trap for Lonely Man (1990)
A Trap for Santa Claus (1909)
Trapeze (1956)
Trapped: (1949 & 2002)
Trapped in Paradise (1994)
Tras el cristal (1986)
Trash (1970)
Trauma: (1962, 1993 & 2004)
Traumschiff Surprise - Periode 1 (2004)
Travellers and Magicians (2003)
Travels with My Aunt (1972)
Tre
Treachery (2013)
Treachery on the High Seas (1936)
Treachery Rides the Range (1936)
Treacle Jr. (2010)
Tread (2019)
Tread Softly: (1952 & 1965)
Tread Softly Stranger (1958)
Treading Water (2001)
Treason: (1917, 1918, 1933, 1959 & 1964)
Treasure of the Aztecs (1921)
Treasure of the Four Crowns (1983)
Treasure Hunt: (1952, 1994 & 2003)
Treasure Hunters (1981)
Treasure Inn (2011)
Treasure Island: (1918, 1920, 1934, 1938, 1950, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1982, 1985, 1988, 1990 TV, 1995 & 1999)
Treasure of Matecumbe (1976)
Treasure of Monte Cristo (1949)
Treasure Planet (2002)
Treasure Raiders (2007)
Treasure of Ruby Hills (1955)
Treasure of San Gennaro (1966)
The Treasure of the Sierra Madre (1948)
The Treatment (2001)
A Tree Grows in Brooklyn: (1945 & 1974 TV)
The Tree of Life (2011)
The Tree of Might (1990)
A Tree of Palme (2002)
The Tree of Wooden Clogs (1978)
Trees Lounge (1996)
Treevenge (2008)
Trekkies (1997)
Trekkies 2 (2004)
Tremors series:
Tremors (1990)
Tremors 2: Aftershocks (1996)
Tremors 3: Back to Perfection (2001)
Tremors 4: The Legend Begins (2004)
Tremors 5: Bloodlines (2015)
Tremors: A Cold Day in Hell (2018)
Tremors: Shrieker Island (2020)
Trench 11 (2017)
Trenchcoat (1983)
Trenchcoat in Paradise (1989 TV)
Trenck (1932)
Tres muchachas de Jalisco (1964)
Tres mujeres en la hoguera (1976)
Trespass: (1992 & 2011)
Trespass Against Us (2016)
The Trespasser: (1929 & 1947)
Tressette: A Story of an Island (2006)
Trevor (1994)
Tri
The Trial: (1948, 1962, 1993, 2006, 2009, 2010 & 2014)
The Trial of Billy Jack (1974)
The Trial of the Chicago 7 (2020)
Trial and Error (1997)
The Trial of Joan of Arc (1962)
Triangle: (2007, 2009 British & 2009 South Korean)
The Triangle (2001) (TV)
The Tribe: (1998 TV, 2005, 2014 & 2018)
Tribes (1970) (TV)
The Tribes of Palos Verdes (2017)
Tribhanga (2021)
Tribute: (1980 & 2009)
Trick: (1999 & 2019)
Trick Baby (1972)
Trick or Treat: (1952, 1986 & unreleased)
Trick 'r Treat (2007)
Tricks (2007)
Tricky Brains (1990)
The Tricky Master (1999)
The Trigger Effect (1996)
Trigun: Badlands Rumble (2010)
Trilogy of Terror (1975) (TV)
Trilogy of Terror II (1996) (TV)
Trinity (2003)
Trinity (2016)
Trinity Is Still My Name (1972)
Trip (2021)
The Trip: (1967, 2002 & 2010)
The Trip to Bountiful (1985)
The Trip to Greece (2020)
The Trip to Italy (2014)
A Trip to the Moon (1902)
The Trip to Spain (2017)
Tripfall (2000)
The Triple Echo (1972)
Triple Threat: (1948 & 2019)
Triple Trouble: (1918 & 1950)
The Triplets of Belleville (2003)
Triplex (1991)
Trishna: (1978, 2009 & 2011)
Tristan & Isolde (2006)
Tristana (1970)
Tristram Shandy: A Cock and Bull Story (2006)
The Triumph of Love: (1922 & 2001)
The Triumph of the Nerds: The Rise of Accidental Empires (1996) (TV)
The Triumph of the Weak (1918)
Triumph of the Will (1935)
Triumphs of a Man Called Horse (1983)
Trixie (2000)
Tro-Try
Trog (1970)
Trois hommes et un couffin (1985)
The Trojan Horse (1961)
Trojan War (1997)
Trojan Warrior (2002)
Troll series:
Troll (1986)
Troll 2 (1990)
Troll 3 (1990)
A Troll in Central Park (1994)
The Troll Hunter (2010)
The Trollenberg Terror (1958)
Trolley Troubles (1927)
Trolls (2016)
Trolls World Tour (2020)
Tromeo and Juliet (1996)
Tron (1982)
Tron: Legacy (2010)
Troop Beverly Hills (1989)
Troops (1997)
Trop belle pour toi (1989)
Tropic of Ice (1987)
Tropic Thunder (2008)
Tropical Malady (2004)
Le Trou (1960)
The Trouble with Angels (1966)
Trouble Backstairs: (1935 & 1949)
Trouble with the Curve (2012)
Trouble Every Day (2001)
The Trouble with Girls (1969)
The Trouble with Harry (1955)
Trouble Makers: (1948 & 2006)
Trouble Man (1972)
The Trouble with Men and Women (2003)
Trouble in Paradise (1932)
Troubled Laughter (1979)
Troy (2004)
Tru Confessions (2002) (TV)
The Truants (1922)
The Truce (1997)
Truck Turner (1974)
Trucks (1997) (TV)
Trudell (2005)
The True Adventures of Wolfboy (2019)
True Believer (1989)
True Confessions (1981)
True Crime: (1996 & 1999)
True Grit: (1969 & 2010)
True Heart Susie (1919)
True History of the Kelly Gang (2019)
True Lies (1994)
True Love: (1989 & 2012)
True Romance (1993)
True Stories (1986)
True Story (2015)
The True Story of Ah Q (1981)
The True Story of the Civil War (1956)
The True Story of Jesse James (1957)
The Truffle Hunters (2020)
Truly, Madly, Deeply (1990)
The Truman Show (1998)
Trumbo: (2007 & 2015)
Trump Card: (2009 & 2020)
The Trump Prophecy (2018)
Trump: The Kremlin Candidate? (2017) (TV)
Trump: What's the Deal? (1991)
Trumped: (2009 & 2017)
The Trumpet of the Swan (2001)
Trunk to Cairo (1966)
Trust: (1976, 1990, 1999 TV, 2010 & 2021)
The Trust: (1915, 1993 & 2016)
Trust the Man (2006)
Trust Me: (1989, 2007, 2010 & 2013)
The Truth About Cats & Dogs (1996)
The Truth About Charlie (2002)
The Truth About Love (2004)
The Truth About Mother Goose (1957)
Truth or Consequences, N.M. (1997)
Truth or Dare (1991)
Truth in Numbers? (2010)
Try and Get It (1924)
Try Not to Breathe (2006)
Try to Remember (2004)
Try This One for Size (1989)
Ts-Tt
Tsar (2009)
Tsar Ivan the Terrible (1991)
Tsar to Lenin (1937)
Tsarevich Alexei (1997)
Tsarevich Prosha (1974)
Tsatsiki, morsan och polisen (1999)
Tsatsiki – vänner för alltid (2001)
Tsotsi (2005)
Tsubasa no gaika (1942)
Tsubasa Reservoir Chronicle the Movie: The Princess in the Birdcage Kingdom (2005)
Tsuchi (1939)
Tsugaru Folk Song (1973)
Tsukue no Nakami (2007)
Tsukuroi Tatsu Hito (2015)
Tsunami (2020)
Tsure ga Utsu ni Narimashite (2011)
TT3D: Closer to the Edge (2011)
Tu
Tu as crié: Let me go (1997)
Tu Hai Mera Sunday (2017)
Tu Hi Re (2015)
Tu ten kámen (1923)
Tu Maza Jeev (2009)
Tu Mera 22 Main Tera 22 (2013)
Tu mi turbi (1983)
Tu Mo Hero (2017)
Tu Mo Love Story (2017)
Tu Nahin Aur Sahi (1960)
Tu ne tueras point (1961)
Tu Tithe Mee (1998)
Tua-Tuy
Tuareg – The Desert Warrior (1984)
Tub Girls (1967)
Tuba Atlantic (2010)
A Tuba to Cuba (2018)
Tubby the Tuba: (1947 & 1975)
Tube (2003)
Tube Tales (1999)
Tubelight: (2017 Hindi & 2017 Tamil)
Tuck Everlasting: (1981 & 2002)
Tucker & Dale vs. Evil (2010)
Tucker: The Man and His Dream (1988)
Tucson (1949)
Tudo Bem (1978)
Tudor Rose (1936)
Tuesday (2008)
Tuesday, After Christmas (2010)
Tuesday in November (1945)
Tuesday's Guest (1950)
Tuesdays with Morrie (1999)
Tuff Turf (1985)
Tug of War (2006)
Tugboat Annie (1933)
Tugboat Annie Sails Again (1940)
Tugboat Granny (1956)
Tugboat M 17 (1933)
Tugboat Princess (1936)
Tui Amar Rani (2019)
Tujhe Meri Kasam (2003)
Tujhe Nahin Chhodunga (1989)
Tujhse He Raabta (2015 TV)
Tukaram (2012)
Tula: The Revolt (2013)
Tula Kalnnaar Nahi (2017)
Tulad ng Dati (2006)
Tulips Shall Grow (1942)
Tulip Fever (2017)
Tully (2018)
Tulsa (1949)
The Tulsa Kid (1940)
Tumbbad (2018)
Tumbleweeds: (1925 & 1999)
Tumko Na Bhool Paayenge (2002)
The Tune (1992)
The Tuner (2004)
Tunes of Glory (1960)
The Tunnel: (1915, 1933 French-language, 1933 German-language, 1935, 1962, 2001, 2009, 2011, 2014 & 2019)
The Tunnel of Love (1958)
The Tunnel Under the World (1969)
Tunnel Vision: (1976 & 1995)
Tupac: Resurrection (2003)
Turbo (2013)
Turbo Kid (2015)
Turbo: A Power Rangers Movie (1997)
Turbo Time (1983)
Turbulence: (2000 & 2011)
Turbulence series:
Turbulence (1997)
Turbulence 2: Fear of Flying (1999)
Turbulence 3: Heavy Metal (2001)
A Turf Conspiracy (1918)
The Turin Horse (2011)
Turistas (2006)
Turk 182 (1985)
The Turkey (1951)
The Turkey Bowl (2019)
Turkey Hollow (2015)
Turkey Shoot: (1982 & 2014)
Turkey Time: (1933 & 1970 TV)
The Turkish Cucumbers (1962)
Turkish Delight: (1927 & 1973)
The Turkish Gambit (2005)
The Turkish Passion (1994)
Turkish Passport (2011)
Turks & Caicos (2014 TV)
Turksib (1929)
The Turmoil: (1916 & 1924)
The Turn (2012)
The Turn of a Card (1918)
A Turn of the Cards (1914)
The Turn of the Century (2001)
Turn It Up (2000)
Turn Left, Turn Right (2003)
Turn Me On, Dammit! (2011)
The Turn in the Road (1919)
The Turn of the Screw: (1974 & 2009)
The Turn of the Wheel (1918)
Turner & Hooch (1989)
The Turners of Prospect Road (1947)
The Turning: (1992, 2013 & 2020)
The Turning Point: (1920, 1945, 1952, 1952, 1977, 1978 & 1983)
Turning Red (2022)
Turok: Son of Stone (2008)
Turtle Beach (1992)
A Turtle's Tale: Sammy's Adventures (2010)
A Turtle's Tale 2: Sammy's Escape from Paradise (2012)
Turtles Can Fly (2004)
Turtles Forever (2009) (TV)
Tuscaloosa (2019)
Tuscan Wedding (2014)
Tusk: (1980 & 2014)
The Tuskegee Airmen (1995 TV)
Tutta colpa di Freud (2014)
Tutta la città canta (1945)
Tutti defunti... tranne i morti (1977)
The Tuttles of Tahiti (1942)
Tutto il mondo ride (1952)
Tutto l'amore che c'è (2000)
Tutto molto bello (2014)
Tutto tutto niente niente (2012)
Tuvalu (1999)
The Tuxedo (2002)
Tuxedo Junction (1941)
Tuya en cuerpo y alma (1944)
Tuya's Marriage (2006)
Tv-Ty
The TV Set (2006)
Tweek City (2005)
Tween Academy: Class of 2012 (2011)
Tweet and Lovely (1959)
Tweet and Sour (1956)
Tweet Tweet Tweety (1951)
Tweet Zoo (1957)
Tweet's Ladies of Pasadena (1970)
Tweetie Pie (1947)
Tweety and the Beanstalk (1957)
Tweety's Circus (1955)
Tweety's High-Flying Adventure (2000)
Tweety's S.O.S. (1951)
The Twelfth Juror (1913)
Twelfth Night: (1910, 1933, 1955, 1966 TV, 1970 TV, 1980, 1986 & 1996)
Twelve (2010)
The Twelve Chairs: (1970, 1971 & 1976)
Twelve Disciples of Nelson Mandela (2005)
Twelve Monkeys (1995)
The Twelve Months: (1956 & 1972)
Twelve Months (1980)
Twelve O'Clock High (1949)
The Twelve Tasks of Asterix (1976)
Twentieth Century (1934)
The Twentieth Century (2019)
Twenty Bucks (1993)
Twenty Four Seven (1997)
Twenty Minutes of Love (1914)
Twenty-Four Eyes (1954)
Twentynine Palms (2003)
Twice Round the Daffodils (1962)
Twice Upon a Time: (1953 & 1983)
Twice Upon a Yesterday (1998)
Twice-Told Tales (1963)
Twilight (1998)
Twilight of Honor (1963)
Twilight of the Ice Nymphs (1997)
Twilight Online (2014)
The Twilight Saga series:
Twilight (2008)
The Twilight Saga: New Moon (2009)
The Twilight Saga: Eclipse (2010)
The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 1 (2011)
The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 2 (2012)
The Twilight Samurai (2002)
Twilight Syndrome: Dead Go Round (2008)
Twilight Zone: The Movie (1983)
Twilight's Last Gleaming (1977)
Twin Dragons (1992)
Twin Falls Idaho (1999)
Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me (1992)
Twin Sisters: (1934 & 2002)
Twin Town (1997)
Twinkle, Twinkle Lucky Stars (1995)
Twins: (1925 & 1988)
The Twins: (1923 & 2005)
The Twins Effect (2003)
The Twins Effect II (2004)
Twins of Evil (1971)
Twist (2003)
The Twist (1976)
Twisted: (1986, 1996 & 2004)
Twisted Desire (1996) (TV)
Twisted Justice (2016)
Twisted Nerve (1968)
Twisted Obsession (1990)
Twisted Pair (2018)
Twister: (1989 & 1996)
Twitch of the Death Nerve (1971)
Twixt (2011)
Two Arabian Knights (1927)
Two Brothers: (1929 & 2004)
The Two Brothers (1910)
Two Can Play That Game (2001)
Two Cops (1993)
Two Daughters (1961)
Two English Girls (1971)
Two Evil Eyes (1990)
The Two Faces of Dr. Jekyll (1960)
Two Girls and a Guy (1997)
Two Great Sheep (2004)
Two on a Guillotine (1965)
Two Hands (1999)
Two Hands: The Leon Fleisher Story (2006)
Two If by Sea (1996)
The Two Jakes (1974)
Two of a Kind: (1951 & 1983)
Two Knights from Brooklyn (1949)
Two Lottery Tickets (2016)
Two Lovers: (1928 & 2008)
Two Lovers and a Bear (2016)
Two Men and a Wardrobe (1958)
Two for the Money (2005)
Two Moon Junction (1988)
The Two Mrs. Carrolls (1947)
Two Much (1995)
Two Mules for Sister Sara (1970)
Two Night Stand (2014)
Two Plus Fours (1930)
The Two Popes (2019)
Two for the Road (1967)
Two Rode Together (1961)
Two for the Seesaw (1962)
Two Solitudes (1978)
Two Stage Sisters (1964)
Two Tars (1928)
Two Thousand Maniacs! (1964)
Two or Three Things I Know About Her (1967)
Two of Us: (1987 TV, 2000 TV & 2019)
The Two of Us: (1967 & 2014)
Two Weeks: (1920 & 2006)
Two Weeks Notice (2002)
Two Women: (1960, 1947 & 1999)
The Two Worlds of Jennie Logan (1979) (TV)
Two-Fisted Tales (1992) (TV)
Two-Lane Blacktop (1971)
Two-Minute Warning (1976)
Two-Way Stretch (1960)
The Twonky (1953)
TxT (2006)
Tyagayya (1981)
Tyagg: (1977 & 2004)
Tyagi (1992)
Tycoon: (1947 & 2002)
Tyger Tyger (2021)
Tyler (1978 TV)
Typeface (2009)
Typhoon: (1933, 1940 & 2005)
The Typhoon (1914)
Typhoon Noruda (2015)
The Typist (1931)
The Typist Gets Married (1934)
Tyrannosaur (2011)
The Tyrant Father (1941)
The Tyrant of Padua (1946)
The Tyrant's Heart (1981)
Tyrel (2018)
Tyrus (2015)
Tyson: (1995 & 2008)
Previous: List of films: S Next: List of films: U–W
See also
Lists of films
Lists of actors
List of film and television directors
List of documentary films
List of film production companies
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows%20RT
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Windows RT
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Windows RT is a {{#ifexpr:<2023|deprecated|discontinued}} mobile operating system developed by Microsoft. It is a version of Windows 8 built for the 32-bit ARM architecture (ARMv7). First unveiled in January 2011 at Consumer Electronics Show, the Windows RT 8 operating system was officially launched alongside Windows 8 on October 26, 2012, with the release of three Windows RT-based devices, including Microsoft's original Surface tablet. Unlike Windows 8, Windows RT is only available as preloaded software on devices specifically designed for the operating system by original equipment manufacturers (OEMs).
Microsoft intended for devices with Windows RT to take advantage of the architecture's power efficiency to allow for longer battery life, to use system-on-chip (SoC) designs to allow for thinner devices and to provide a "reliable" experience over time. In comparison to other mobile operating systems, Windows RT also supports a relatively large number of existing USB peripherals and accessories and includes a version of Microsoft Office 2013 optimized for ARM devices as pre-loaded software. However, while Windows RT inherits the appearance and functionality of Windows 8, it has a number of limitations; it can only execute software that is digitally signed by Microsoft (which includes pre-loaded software and Windows Store apps), and it lacks certain developer-oriented features. It also lacks support for running applications designed for x86 processors, which were the main platform for Windows at the time. This would later be corrected with the release of Windows 10 version 1709 for ARM64 devices.
Windows RT was released to mixed reviews from various outlets and critics. Some felt that Windows RT devices had advantages over other mobile platforms (such as iOS or Android) because of its bundled software and the ability to use a wider variety of USB peripherals and accessories, but the platform was criticized for its poor software ecosystem, citing the early stage of Windows Store and its incompatibility with existing Windows software, and other limitations over Windows 8.
Critics and analysts deemed Windows RT to be commercially unsuccessful, citing these limitations, its unclear, uncompetitive position of sitting as an underpowered system between Windows Phone and Windows 8, and the introduction of Windows 8 devices with battery life and functionality that met or exceeded that of Windows RT devices. Improvements to Intel's mobile processors, along with a decision by Microsoft to remove OEM license fees for Windows on devices with screens smaller than 9 inches, spurred a market for low-end Wintel tablets running the full Windows 8 platform. These devices largely cannibalized Windows RT; vendors began phasing out their Windows RT devices due to poor sales, and less than a year after its release, Microsoft suffered a US$900 million loss that was largely blamed on poor sales of the ARM-based Surface tablet and unsold stock.
Only two more Windows RT devices, Microsoft's Surface 2 and the Nokia Lumia 2520 in late 2013, were released beyond the five original launch devices, and no Windows RT counterpart to the Surface Pro 3 was released due to a re-positioning of the Surface line into the high-end market, and a switch to Intel architecture for the Surface 3. These developments left Microsoft's future support of the platform in doubt. With the end of production for both Surface 2 and Lumia 2520, Microsoft and its subsidiaries no longer manufacture any Windows RT devices.
History
At the 2011 Consumer Electronics Show, it was officially announced that the next version of Windows would provide support for system-on-chip (SoC) implementations based on the ARM architecture. Steven Sinofsky, then Windows division president, demonstrated an early version of a Windows port for the architecture, codenamed Windows on ARM (WoA), running on prototypes with Qualcomm Snapdragon, Texas Instruments OMAP, and Nvidia Tegra 2 chips. The prototypes featured working versions of Internet Explorer 9 (with DirectX support via the Tegra 2's GPU), PowerPoint and Word, along with the use of class drivers to allow printing to an Epson printer. Sinofsky felt that the shift towards SoC designs were "a natural evolution of hardware that's applicable to a wide range of form factors, not just to slates", while Microsoft CEO Steve Ballmer emphasized the importance of supporting SoCs on Windows by proclaiming that the operating system would "be everywhere on every kind of device without compromise."
Initial development on WoA took place by porting code from Windows 7; Windows Mobile smartphones were used to test early builds of WoA because of lack of readily available ARM-based tablets. Later testing was performed using a custom-designed array of rack-mounted ARM-based systems. Changes to the Windows codebase were made to optimize the OS for the internal hardware of ARM devices, but a number of technical standards traditionally used by x86 systems are also used. WoA devices would use UEFI firmware and have a software-based Trusted Platform Module to support device encryption and UEFI Secure Boot. ACPI is also used to detect and control plug and play devices and provide power management outside the SoC. To enable wider hardware support, peripherals such as human interface devices, storage and other components that use USB and I²C connections use class drivers and standardized protocols. Windows Update serves as the mechanism for updating all system drivers, software, and firmware.
Microsoft showcased other aspects of the new operating system, to be known as Windows 8, during subsequent presentations. Among these changes (which also included an overhauled interface optimized for use on touch-based devices built around Metro design language) was the introduction of Windows Runtime (WinRT). Software developed using this new architecture could be processor-independent (allowing compatibility with both x86- and ARM-based systems), would emphasize the use of touch input, would run within a sandboxed environment to provide additional security, and be distributed through Windows Store—a store similar to services such as the App Store and Google Play. WinRT was also optimized to provide a more "reliable" experience on ARM-based devices; as such, backward compatibility for Win32 software otherwise compatible with older versions of Windows was intentionally excluded from Windows on ARM. Windows developers indicated that existing Windows applications were not specifically optimized for reliability and energy efficiency on the ARM architecture and that WinRT was sufficient for providing "full expressive power" for applications, "while avoiding the traps and pitfalls that can potentially reduce the overall experience for consumers." Consequentially, this lack of backward compatibility would also prevent existing malware from running on the operating system.
On April 16, 2012, Microsoft announced that Windows on ARM would be officially branded as Windows RT. Microsoft did not explicitly indicate what the "RT" in the operating system's name referred to, but it was believed to refer to the WinRT architecture. Steven Sinofsky stated that Microsoft would ensure the differences between Windows RT and 8 were adequately addressed in advertising. However, reports found that promotional web pages for the Microsoft Surface tablet had contained confusing wording alluding to the compatibility differences and that Microsoft Store representatives were providing inconsistent and sometimes incorrect information about Windows RT. In response, Microsoft stated that Microsoft Store staff members would be given an average of 15 hours of training prior to the launch of Windows 8 and Windows RT to ensure that consumers were able to make the correct choice for their needs. The first Windows RT devices were officially released alongside Windows 8 on October 26, 2012.
Windows 8.1, an upgrade for Windows 8 and RT, was released in Windows Store on October 17, 2013, containing a number of improvements to the operating system's interface and functionality. For Windows RT devices, the update also adds Outlook to the included Office RT suite. The update was temporarily recalled by Microsoft shortly after its release, following reports that some Surface users had encountered a rare bug which corrupted their device's Boot Configuration Data during installation, resulting in an error on startup. On October 21, 2013, Microsoft released recovery media and instructions which could be used to repair the device and restored access to Windows 8.1 the next day.
Differences from Windows 8
While Windows RT functions similarly to Windows 8, there are still some notable differences, primarily involving software and hardware compatibility. Julie Larson-Green, then executive vice president of the Devices and Studios group at Microsoft, explained that Windows RT was ultimately designed to provide a "closed, turnkey" user experience, "where it doesn't have all the flexibility of Windows, but it has the power of Office and then all the new style applications. So you could give it to your kid and he's not going to load it up with a bunch of toolbars accidentally out of Internet Explorer and then come to you later and say, 'why am I getting all these pop-ups?' It just isn't capable of doing that by design."
Included software
Windows RT does not include Windows Media Player, in favor of other multimedia apps found on Windows Store; devices are pre-loaded with the in-house Xbox Music and Xbox Video apps.
All Windows RT devices include Office 2013 Home & Student RT—a version of Microsoft Office that is optimized for ARM systems. As the version of Office RT included on Windows RT devices is based on the Home & Student version, it cannot be used for "commercial, nonprofit, or revenue-generating activities" unless the organization has a volume license for Office 2013, or the user has an Office 365 subscription with commercial use rights. For compatibility and security reasons, certain advanced features, such as Visual Basic macros, are not available in Office RT.
Windows RT also includes a BitLocker-based device encryption system, which passively encrypts a user's data once they sign in with a Microsoft account.
Software compatibility
Due to the different architecture of ARM-based devices compared to x86 devices, Windows RT has software compatibility limitations. Although the operating system still provides the traditional Windows desktop environment alongside Windows 8's touch-oriented user interface, the only desktop applications officially supported by Windows RT are those that come with the operating system itself; such as File Explorer, Internet Explorer, and Office RT. Only Windows Store apps can be installed by users on Windows RT devices; they must be obtained from Windows Store or sideloaded in enterprise environments. Developers cannot port desktop applications to run on Windows RT since Microsoft developers felt that they would not be properly optimized for the platform. As a consequence, Windows RT also does not support "new-experience enabled" web browsers: a special class of app used on Windows 8 that allows web browsers to bundle variants that can run in the Windows RT "modern-style user interface" and integrate with other apps but still use Win32 code like desktop programs.
Hardware compatibility
In a presentation at Windows 8's launch event in New York City, Steven Sinofsky claimed that Windows RT would support 420 million existing hardware devices and peripherals. However, in comparison to Windows 8, full functionality will not be available for all devices, and some devices will not be supported at all. Microsoft provides a "Compatibility Center" portal where users can search for compatibility information on devices with Windows RT; on launch, the site listed just over 30,000 devices that were compatible with the operating system.
Networking and device management
While Windows RT devices can join a HomeGroup and access files stored within shared folders and libraries on other devices within the group, files cannot be shared from the Windows RT device itself.
Windows RT does not support connecting to a domain for network logins, nor does it support using Group Policy for device management. However, Exchange ActiveSync, the Windows Intune service, or System Center Configuration Manager 2012 SP1 can be used to provide some control over Windows RT devices in enterprise environments, such as the ability to apply security policies and provide a portal which can be used to sideload apps from outside Windows Store.
User interface
After installation of the KB3033055 update for Windows RT 8.1, a desktop Start menu becomes available as an alternative to the Start screen. It is divided into two columns, with one devoted to recent and pinned applications, and one devoted to live tiles. It is similar to, but not identical to, Windows 10's version.
Support lifecycle
Windows RT follows the lifecycle policy of Windows 8 and Windows 8.1. The original Surface tablet fell under Microsoft's support policies for consumer hardware and received mainstream support until April 11, 2017.
Mainstream support for Windows RT ended on January 12, 2016. Users must update to Windows RT 8.1 to continue to receive support.
Mainstream support for Windows RT 8.1 ended January 9, 2018, and extended support for Windows RT 8.1 will end on January 10, 2023.
Devices
Microsoft imposed tight control on the development and production of Windows RT devices: they were designed in cooperation with the company, and built to strict design and hardware specifications, including requirements to only use "approved" models of certain components. To ensure hardware quality and control the number of devices released upon launch, the three participating ARM chip makers were only allowed to partner with up to two PC manufacturers to develop the first "wave" of Windows RT devices in Microsoft's development program. Qualcomm partnered with Samsung and HP, Nvidia with Asus and Lenovo, and Texas Instruments with Toshiba. Additionally, Microsoft partnered with Nvidia to produce Surface (retroactively renamed "Surface RT") – the first Windows-based computing device to be manufactured and marketed directly by Microsoft. Windows RT was designed to support chips meeting the ARMv7 architecture, a 32-bit processor platform. Shortly after the original release of Windows RT, ARM Holdings disclosed that it was working with Microsoft and other software partners on supporting the new ARMv8-A architecture, which includes a new 64-bit variant, in preparation for future devices.
Multiple hardware partners pulled out of the program during the development of Windows RT, the first being Toshiba and Texas Instruments. TI later announced that it was pulling out of the consumer market for ARM system-on-chips to focus on embedded systems. HP also pulled out of the program, believing that Intel-based tablets were more appropriate for business use than ARM. HP was replaced by Dell as an alternate Qualcomm partner. Acer also intended to release a Windows RT device alongside its Windows 8-based products, but initially decided to delay it until the second quarter of 2013 in response to the mixed reaction to Surface. The unveiling of the Microsoft-developed tablet caught Acer by surprise, leading to concerns that Surface could leave "a huge negative impact for the [Windows] ecosystem and other brands."
First-generation devices
The first wave of Windows RT devices included:
Microsoft Surface (released October 26, 2012, concurrently with general availability of Windows 8)
Asus VivoTab RT (released October 26, 2012)
Dell XPS 10 (released December 2012; discontinued on September 25, 2013)
Lenovo IdeaPad Yoga 11 (released December 2012)
Samsung Ativ Tab (Released in United Kingdom on December 14, 2012; American and German releases cancelled)
After having planned to produce a Windows RT device close to its launch, Acer's president Jim Wong later indicated that there was "no value" in the current version of the operating system, and would reconsider its plans for future Windows RT products when the Windows 8.1 update was released. On August 9, 2013, Asus announced that it would no longer produce any Windows RT products; chairman Johnny Shih expressed displeasure at the market performance of Windows RT, considering it to be "not very promising". During the introduction of its Android and Windows 8-based Venue tablets in October 2013, Dell's vice president Neil Hand stated that the company had no plans to produce an updated version of the XPS 10.
Second-generation devices
In September 2013, Nvidia CEO Jen-Hsun Huang stated that the company was "working really hard" with Microsoft on developing a second revision of Surface. The Microsoft Surface 2 tablet, which is powered by Nvidia's quad-core Tegra 4 platform and features the same full HD display as the Surface Pro 2, was officially unveiled on September 23, 2013, and released on October 22, 2013, following Windows 8.1 general availability the previous week. On the same day as the Surface 2's release, Nokia (the acquisition of their mobile business by Microsoft had just been announced, but not yet been completed) unveiled the Lumia 2520, a Windows RT tablet with a Qualcomm Snapdragon 800 processor, 4G LTE, and a design similar to its line of Windows Phone products. An LTE-capable version of the Surface 2 was made available the following year.
In January 2015, after its stock sold out on Microsoft Store online, Microsoft confirmed that it had discontinued further production of the Surface 2 to focus on Surface Pro products. Microsoft ended production of the Lumia 2520 the following month, ending active production of Windows RT devices after just over two years of general availability. With the end of production for both Surface 2 and Lumia 2520, Microsoft and its subsidiaries no longer manufacture any Windows RT devices.
Cancelled devices
Microsoft originally developed a "mini" version of its Surface tablet later known as Surface Mini and had planned to unveil it alongside the Surface Pro 3 in May 2014; it was reportedly cancelled at the last minute. Images of the product were leaked in June 2017, revealing specifications such as a Qualcomm Snapdragon 800, an 8-inch display, and support for the Surface Pen instead of a keyboard attachment.
In July 2016, an image depicting a number of cancelled Nokia-branded Lumia devices was released, depicting a prototype for a second Nokia tablet known as the Lumia 2020. Details revealed in September 2017 showed the product to have an 8.3-inch display and the same Snapdragon 800 chip as that of the Surface "mini" tablet.
Reception
Windows RT's launch devices received mixed reviews upon their release. In a review of the Asus VivoTab RT by PC Advisor, Windows RT was praised for being a mobile operating system that still offered some PC amenities such as a full-featured file manager, but noted its lack of compatibility with existing Windows software, and that it had no proper media player aside from a "shameless, in-your-face conduit to Xbox Music." AnandTech believed Windows RT was the first "legitimately useful" mobile operating system, owing in part to its multitasking system, bundled Office programs, smooth interface performance, and "decent" support for a wider variety of USB devices in comparison to other operating systems on the ARM architecture. However, the OS was panned for its slow application launch times in comparison to a recent iPad, and spotty driver support for printers. The small number of "quality" apps available on launch was also noted—but considered to be a non-issue, assuming that the app ecosystem would "expand significantly unless somehow everyone stops buying Windows-based systems on October 26th."
Reception of the preview release of RT 8.1 was mixed; both ExtremeTech and TechRadar praised the improvements to the operating system's tablet-oriented interface, along with the addition of Outlook; TechRadars Dan Grabham believed that the inclusion of Outlook was important because "nobody in their right mind would try and handle work email inside the standard Mail app—it's just not up to the task." However, both experienced performance issues running the beta on the Tegra 3-based Surface; ExtremeTech concluded that "as it stands, we’re still not sure why you would ever opt to buy a Windows RT tablet when there are similarly priced Atom-powered x86 devices that run the full version of Windows 8."
Market relevance and response
The need to market an ARM-compatible version of Windows was questioned by analysts because of recent developments in the PC industry; both Intel and AMD introduced x86-based system-on-chip designs for Windows 8, Atom "Clover Trail" and "Temash" respectively, in response to the growing competition from ARM licensees. In particular, Intel claimed that Clover Trail-based tablets could provide battery life rivaling that of ARM devices; in a test by PC World, Samsung's Clover Trail-based Ativ Smart PC was shown to have battery life exceeding that of the ARM-based Surface. Peter Bright of Ars Technica argued that Windows RT had no clear purpose, since the power advantage of ARM-based devices was "nowhere near as clear-cut as it was two years ago", and that users would be better off purchasing Office 2013 themselves because of the removed features and licensing restrictions of Office RT.
Windows RT was also met with lukewarm reaction from manufacturers; in June 2012, Hewlett-Packard canceled its plans to release a Windows RT tablet, stating that its customers felt Intel-based tablets were more appropriate for use in business environments. In January 2013, Samsung cancelled the American release of its Windows RT tablet, the Ativ Tab, citing the unclear positioning of the operating system, "modest" demand for Windows RT devices, plus the effort and investment required to educate consumers on the differences between Windows 8 and RT as reasons for the move. Mike Abary, senior vice president of Samsung's U.S. PC and tablet businesses, also stated that the company was unable to build the Ativ Tab to meet its target price point—considering that lower cost was intended to be a selling point for Windows RT devices. Nvidia CEO Jen-Hsun Huang expressed disappointment over the market performance of Windows RT, but called on Microsoft to continue increasing its concentration on the ARM platform. Huang also commented on the exclusion of Outlook from the Office 2013 suite included on the device and suggested that Microsoft port the software for RT as well (in response to public demand, Microsoft announced the inclusion of Outlook with future versions of Windows RT in June 2013). In May 2013, reports surfaced that HTC had scrapped plans to produce a 12-inch Windows RT tablet as it would cost too much to produce, and that there would be greater demand for smaller devices.
The poor demand resulted in price cuts for various Windows RT products; in April 2013 the price of Dell's XPS 10 fell from US$450 US to $300, and Microsoft began offering free covers for its Surface tablet in some territories as a limited-time promotion—itself a US$130 value for the Type Cover alone. Microsoft also reportedly reduced the cost of Windows RT licenses for devices with smaller screens, hoping that this could spur interest in the platform. In July 2013, Microsoft cut the price of the first-generation Surface worldwide by 30%, with its U.S. price falling to $350. Concurrently, Microsoft reported a loss of US$900 million due to the lackluster sales of the device. In August 2013, Dell silently pulled the option to purchase the XPS 10 from its online store without a keyboard dock (raising its price back up to US$479), and pulled the device entirely in September 2013. Microsoft's discount on the Surface tablet did result in a slight increase of market share for the device; in late-August 2013, usage data from the advertising network AdDuplex (which provides advertising services within Windows Store apps) revealed that Surface usage had increased from 6.2 to 9.8%.
Restrictions and compatibility limitations
In contrast to Windows 8 (where the feature had to be enabled by default on OEM devices, but remain user-configurable), Microsoft requires all Windows RT devices to have UEFI Secure Boot permanently enabled, preventing the ability to run alternative operating systems on them. Tom Warren of The Verge stated that he would have preferred Microsoft to "keep a consistent approach across ARM and x86, though, not least because of the number of users who'd love to run Android alongside Windows 8 on their future tablets", but noted that the decision to impose such restrictions was in line with similar measures imposed by other mobile operating systems, including recent Android devices and Microsoft's own Windows Phone mobile platform.
The requirement to obtain most software on Windows RT through Windows Store was considered to be similar in nature to the application stores on other "closed" mobile platforms; where only software certified under guidelines issued by the vendor (i.e. Microsoft) can be distributed in the store. Microsoft was also criticized by the developers of the Firefox web browser for effectively preventing the development of third-party web browsers for Windows RT (and thus forcing use of its own Internet Explorer browser) by restricting the development of desktop applications and by not providing the same APIs and exceptions available on Windows 8 to code web browsers that can run as apps. However, the European Union, in response to a complaint about the restrictions in relation to an antitrust case involving Microsoft, ruled that "so far, there are no grounds to pursue further investigation on this particular issue." As mandated by the EU, the BrowserChoice.eu service is still included in Windows 8.
"Jailbreak" exploit
In January 2013, a privilege escalation exploit was discovered in the Windows kernel that can allow unsigned code to run under Windows RT; the exploit involved the use of a remote debugging tool (provided by Microsoft to debug WinRT apps on Windows RT devices) to execute code which changes the signing level stored in RAM to allow unsigned code to execute (by default, it is set to a level that only allows code signed by Microsoft to execute). Alongside his explanation of the exploit, the developer also included a personal appeal to Microsoft urging them to remove the restrictions on Windows RT devices, contending that their decision was not for technical reasons, and that the devices would be more valuable if this functionality were available. In a statement, a Microsoft spokesperson applauded the effort, indicating that the exploit does not pose a security threat because it requires administrative access to the device, advanced techniques, and would still require programs to be re-compiled for ARM. However, Microsoft has still indicated that the exploit would be patched in a future update.
A batch file-based tool soon surfaced on XDA Developers to assist users in the process of performing the exploit, and a variety of ported desktop applications began to emerge, such as the emulator Bochs, PuTTY and TightVNC. Afterwards, an emulator known as "Win86emu" surfaced, allowing users to run x86 software on a jailbroken Windows RT device. However, it does not support all Windows APIs, and runs programs slower than they would on a native system.
Demise
In November 2013, speaking about Windows RT at the UBS Global Technology Conference, Julie Larson-Green made comments discussing the future of Microsoft's mobile strategy surrounding the Windows platform. Larson-Green stated that in the future (accounting for Windows, Windows RT, and Windows Phone), Microsoft was "[not] going to have three [mobile operating systems]." The fate of Windows RT was left unclear by her remarks; industry analysts interpreted them as signs that Microsoft was preparing to discontinue Windows RT due to its poor adoption, while others suggested that Microsoft was planning to unify Windows with Windows Phone. Microsoft ultimately announced its "Universal Windows Apps" platform at Build 2014, which would allow developers to create WinRT apps for Windows, Windows Phone, and Xbox One that share common codebases. These initiatives were compounded by a goal for Windows 10 to unify the core Windows operating system across all devices.
Critics interpreted Microsoft's move to cancel the launch of a smaller Surface model in May 2014 as a further sign that Microsoft, under new CEO Satya Nadella, and new device head Stephen Elop (who joined Microsoft upon the purchase of Nokia's mobile phone business in September 2013, only to depart the company the following year), was planning to further downplay Windows RT, given that the company had shifted its attention towards a higher-end, productivity-oriented market with the Pro 3—one which would be inappropriate for Windows RT given its positioning and limitations. Analysts believed that Microsoft was planning to leverage its acquisition of Nokia's device business for future Windows RT devices, possibly under the Lumia brand; this ultimately turned out to be a failure, and Microsoft would eventually leave the consumer mobile phone market, selling its assets to Foxconn and HMD Global in May 2016.
Newer Intel processors for mobile devices were more competitive in comparison to ARM equivalents in regards to performance and battery life; this factor and other changes made by Microsoft, such as the removal of Windows OEM license fees on devices with screens less than 9 inches in size, spurred the creation of a market for lower-end tablets running the full Windows 8 operating system on Intel-compatible platforms, leaving further uncertainty over Microsoft's support of ARM outside of smartphones—where they remain ubiquitous. Such a device came in March 2015, when Microsoft unveiled a new low-end Surface model, the Intel Atom-based Surface 3; unlike previous low-end Surface models, Surface 3 did not use ARM and Windows RT. In June 2016, Microsoft announced that production of this device would end by December 2016, with sales ending the following month. No follow-up device was planned in this segment, signalling the company's departure from the low-end Windows consumer tablet market, where experts have been continually debating whether a future exists. In 2021, Microsoft said it will stop distributing and updating Windows RT after January 10, 2023 (EOL Date).
Successors
Windows 10 influence
On January 21, 2015, Microsoft unveiled Windows 10 Mobile, an edition of Windows 10 for smartphones and sub-8-inch tablets running on ARM architecture; unlike RT, which was based upon the user experience of the PC version, Windows 10 on these devices is a continuation of the Windows Phone user experience that emphasizes the ability for developers to create "universal" Windows apps that can run across PCs, tablets, and phones, and only supports the modern-style interface and Windows apps (although on compatible devices, a limited desktop experience will be available when connected to an external display). Following the event, a Microsoft spokesperson stated that the company was working on a Windows RT update that would provide "some of the functionality of Windows 10", but declined to offer any further details. As such, Microsoft does not officially consider Windows RT to be a supported upgrade path to Windows 10. Shortly afterwards, Microsoft ended production of both the Surface 2 and Lumia 2520.
The "Update for Windows RT 8.1 feature improvement" (KB3033055), also referred to by Microsoft as "Windows 8.1 RT Update 3", was released on September 16, 2015; it adds a version of the updated Start menu seen in early preview versions of Windows 10 (which combines an application list with a sidebar of tiles), but otherwise does not contain any other significant changes to the operating system or its functionality, nor any support for Windows 10's application ecosystem. The Verge characterized this update as being similar to Windows Phone 7.8—which similarly backported user interface changes from its successor, without making any other significant upgrades to the platform.
Return of ARM and app limitations
On December 7, 2016, Microsoft announced that as part of a partnership with Qualcomm, it planned to launch an ARM version of Windows 10 for Snapdragon-based devices, initially focusing on laptops. Unlike Windows RT, the ARM version of Windows 10 will allow use of an x86 processor emulator to run Win32 desktop software, rather than only allowing apps from Windows Store. The following year, Microsoft announced the Always Connected PC brand, covering Windows 10 devices with cellular connectivity; the launch featured two Snapdragon 835-powered 2-in-1 laptops from Asus and HP, and an integration of Qualcomm's Snapdragon X16 gigabit LTE modem with AMD's Ryzen Mobile platform.
On May 2, 2017, Microsoft unveiled Windows 10 S, an edition of Windows 10 designed primarily for low-end mobile devices targeting the education market (competing primarily with Google's Linux-based Chrome OS). Similarly to Windows RT, it restricted software installation to applications obtained via Windows Store. Windows 10 S was replaced by S Mode, a mode in which manufacturers can ship Windows 10 computers with the same restrictions, but they can be turned off by the user.
References
External links
Windows RT 8.1: FAQ
Windows 8 vs Windows RT 8: what's the difference?
2012 software
ARM operating systems
Mobile operating systems
Tablet operating systems
Windows 8
Discontinued versions of Microsoft Windows
no:Windows 8#RT
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62493048
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNU%20All-permissive%20License
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GNU All-permissive License
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The GNU All-permissive License is a lax, permissive (non-copyleft) free software license, compatible with the GNU General Public License, recommended by the Free Software Foundation for README and other small supporting files (under 300 lines long).
It is a minimal license, composed of only two paragraphs, that normally covers single files rather than entire projects (although it is possible to replace the word "file" with "project" or "software" in the text). Its main purpose is to license minor files that do not need to be covered by the GNU General Public License in GPL-licensed projects.
The SPDX identifier for this license is FSFAP.
License Terms
The full text of the license is the following:
Copyright <YEAR>, <AUTHORS>
Copying and distribution of this file, with or without modification, are permitted in any medium without royalty, provided the copyright notice and this notice are preserved. This file is offered as-is, without any warranty.
Older versions of this license did not have the second sentence with the express warranty disclaimer.
See also
Permissive software license
Copyleft
GNU General Public License
References
Software licenses
Free and open-source software licenses
Permissive software licenses
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28119
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scheme%20%28programming%20language%29
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Scheme (programming language)
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Scheme is a minimalist dialect of the Lisp family of programming languages. Scheme consists of a small standard core with several tools for language extension.
Scheme was created during the 1970s at the MIT AI Lab and released by its developers, Guy L. Steele and Gerald Jay Sussman, via a series of memos now known as the Lambda Papers. It was the first dialect of Lisp to choose lexical scope and the first to require implementations to perform tail-call optimization, giving stronger support for functional programming and associated techniques such as recursive algorithms. It was also one of the first programming languages to support first-class continuations. It had a significant influence on the effort that led to the development of Common Lisp.
The Scheme language is standardized in the official IEEE standard and a de facto standard called the Revised Report on the Algorithmic Language Scheme (RnRS). The most widely implemented standard is R5RS (1998). The most recent standard, R7RS, provides "small" and "large" versions of the Scheme language; the "small" language standard was ratified in 2013. Scheme has a diverse user base due to its compactness and elegance, but its minimalist philosophy has also caused wide divergence between practical implementations, so much that the Scheme Steering Committee calls it "the world's most unportable programming language" and "a family of dialects" rather than a single language.
History
Origins
Scheme started in the 1970s as an attempt to understand Carl Hewitt's Actor model, for which purpose Steele and Sussman wrote a "tiny Lisp interpreter" using Maclisp and then "added mechanisms for creating actors and sending messages". Scheme was originally called "Schemer", in the tradition of other Lisp-derived languages such as Planner or Conniver. The current name resulted from the authors' use of the ITS operating system, which limited filenames to two components of at most six characters each. Currently, "Schemer" is commonly used to refer to a Scheme programmer.
R6RS
A new language standardization process began at the 2003 Scheme workshop, with the goal of producing an R6RS standard in 2006. This process broke with the earlier RnRS approach of unanimity.
R6RS features a standard module system, allowing a split between the core language and libraries. A number of drafts of the R6RS specification were released, the final version being R5.97RS. A successful vote resulted in the ratification of the new standard, announced on August 28, 2007.
Currently the newest releases of various Scheme implementations support the R6RS standard. There is a portable reference implementation of the proposed implicitly phased libraries for R6RS, called psyntax, which loads and bootstraps itself properly on various older Scheme implementations.
A feature of R6RS is the record-type descriptor (RTD). When an RTD is created and used, the record type representation can show the memory layout. It also calculated object field bit mask and mutable Scheme object field bit masks, and helped the garbage collector know what to do with the fields without traversing the whole fields list that are saved in the RTD. RTD allows users to expand the basic RTD to create a new record system.
R6RS introduces numerous significant changes to the language. The source code is now specified in Unicode, and a large subset of Unicode characters may now appear in Scheme symbols and identifiers, and there are other minor changes to the lexical rules. Character data is also now specified in Unicode. Many standard procedures have been moved to the new standard libraries, which themselves form a large expansion of the standard, containing procedures and syntactic forms that were formerly not part of the standard. A new module system has been introduced, and systems for exception handling are now standardized. Syntax-rules has been replaced with a more expressive syntactic abstraction facility (syntax-case) which allows the use of all of Scheme at macro expansion time. Compliant implementations are now required to support Scheme's full numeric tower, and the semantics of numbers have been expanded, mainly in the direction of support for the IEEE 754 standard for floating point numerical representation.
R7RS
The R6RS standard has caused controversy because it is seen to have departed from the minimalist philosophy. In August 2009, the Scheme Steering Committee, which oversees the standardization process, announced its intention to recommend splitting Scheme into two languages: a large modern programming language for programmers; and a small version, a subset of the large version retaining the minimalism praised by educators and casual implementors. Two working groups were created to work on these two new versions of Scheme. The Scheme Reports Process site has links to the working groups' charters, public discussions and issue tracking system.
The ninth draft of R7RS (small language) was made available on April 15, 2013. A vote ratifying this draft closed on May 20, 2013, and the final report has been available since August 6, 2013, describing "the 'small' language of that effort: therefore it cannot be considered in isolation as the successor to R6RS".
Distinguishing features
Scheme is primarily a functional programming language. It shares many characteristics with other members of the Lisp programming language family. Scheme's very simple syntax is based on s-expressions, parenthesized lists in which a prefix operator is followed by its arguments. Scheme programs thus consist of sequences of nested lists. Lists are also the main data structure in Scheme, leading to a close equivalence between source code and data formats (homoiconicity). Scheme programs can easily create and evaluate pieces of Scheme code dynamically.
The reliance on lists as data structures is shared by all Lisp dialects. Scheme inherits a rich set of list-processing primitives such as cons, car and cdr from its Lisp progenitors. Scheme uses strictly but dynamically typed variables and supports first class procedures. Thus, procedures can be assigned as values to variables or passed as arguments to procedures.
This section concentrates mainly on innovative features of the language, including those features that distinguish Scheme from other Lisps. Unless stated otherwise, descriptions of features relate to the R5RS standard. In examples provided in this section, the notation "===> result" is used to indicate the result of evaluating the expression on the immediately preceding line. This is the same convention used in R5RS.
Minimalism
Scheme is a very simple language, much easier to implement than many other languages of comparable expressive power. This ease is attributable to the use of lambda calculus to derive much of the syntax of the language from more primitive forms. For instance of the 23 s-expression-based syntactic constructs defined in the R5RS Scheme standard, 14 are classed as derived or library forms, which can be written as macros involving more fundamental forms, principally lambda. As R5RS (§3.1) says: "The most fundamental of the variable binding constructs is the lambda expression, because all other variable binding constructs can be explained in terms of lambda expressions."
Fundamental forms: define, lambda, quote, if, define-syntax, let-syntax, letrec-syntax, syntax-rules, set!
Derived forms: do, let, let*, letrec, cond, case, and, or, begin, named let, delay, unquote, unquote-splicing, quasiquote
Example: a macro to implement let as an expression using lambda to perform the variable bindings.
(define-syntax let
(syntax-rules ()
((let ((var expr) ...) body ...)
((lambda (var ...) body ...) expr ...))))
Thus using let as defined above a Scheme implementation would rewrite "(let ((a 1)(b 2)) (+ b a))" as "((lambda (a b) (+ b a)) 1 2)", which reduces implementation's task to that of coding procedure instantiations.
In 1998, Sussman and Steele remarked that the minimalism of Scheme was not a conscious design goal, but rather the unintended outcome of the design process. "We were actually trying to build something complicated and discovered, serendipitously, that we had accidentally designed something that met all our goals but was much simpler than we had intended....we realized that the lambda calculus—a small, simple formalism—could serve as the core of a powerful and expressive programming language."
Lexical scope
Like most modern programming languages and unlike earlier Lisps such as Maclisp, Scheme is lexically scoped: all possible variable bindings in a program unit can be analyzed by reading the text of the program unit without consideration of the contexts in which it may be called. This contrasts with dynamic scoping which was characteristic of early Lisp dialects, because of the processing costs associated with the primitive textual substitution methods used to implement lexical scoping algorithms in compilers and interpreters of the day. In those Lisps, it was perfectly possible for a reference to a free variable inside a procedure to refer to quite distinct bindings external to the procedure, depending on the context of the call.
The impetus to incorporate lexical scoping, which was an unusual scoping model in the early 1970s, into their new version of Lisp, came from Sussman's studies of ALGOL. He suggested that ALGOL-like lexical scoping mechanisms would help to realize their initial goal of implementing Hewitt's Actor model in Lisp.
The key insights on how to introduce lexical scoping into a Lisp dialect were popularized in Sussman and Steele's 1975 Lambda Paper, "Scheme: An Interpreter for Extended Lambda Calculus", where they adopted the concept of the lexical closure (on page 21), which had been described in an AI Memo in 1970 by Joel Moses, who attributed the idea to Peter J. Landin.
Lambda calculus
Alonzo Church's mathematical notation, the lambda calculus, has inspired Lisp's use of "lambda" as a keyword for introducing a procedure, as well as influencing the development of functional programming techniques involving the use of higher-order functions in Lisp. But early Lisps were not suitable expressions of the lambda calculus because of their treatment of free variables.
A formal lambda system has axioms and a complete calculation rule. It is helpful for the analysis using mathematical logic and tools. In this system, calculation can be seen as a directional deduction. The syntax of lambda calculus follows the recursive expressions from x, y, z, ...,parentheses, spaces, the period and the symbol λ. The function of lambda calculation includes: First, serve as a starting point of powerful mathematical logic. Second, it can reduce the requirement of programmers to consider the implementation details, because it can be used to imitate machine evaluation. Finally, the lambda calculation created a substantial meta-theory.
The introduction of lexical scope resolved the problem by making an equivalence between some forms of lambda notation and their practical expression in a working programming language. Sussman and Steele showed that the new language could be used to elegantly derive all the imperative and declarative semantics of other programming languages including ALGOL and Fortran, and the dynamic scope of other Lisps, by using lambda expressions not as simple procedure instantiations but as "control structures and environment modifiers". They introduced continuation-passing style along with their first description of Scheme in the first of the Lambda Papers, and in subsequent papers, they proceeded to demonstrate the raw power of this practical use of lambda calculus.
Block structure
Scheme inherits its block structure from earlier block structured languages, particularly ALGOL. In Scheme, blocks are implemented by three binding constructs: let, let* and letrec. For instance, the following construct creates a block in which a symbol called var is bound to the number 10:
(define var "goose")
;; Any reference to var here will be bound to "goose"
(let ((var 10))
;; statements go here. Any reference to var here will be bound to 10.
)
;; Any reference to var here will be bound to "goose"
Blocks can be nested to create arbitrarily complex block structures according to the need of the programmer. The use of block structuring to create local bindings alleviates the risk of namespace collision that can otherwise occur.
One variant of let, let*, permits bindings to refer to variables defined earlier in the same construct, thus:
(let* ((var1 10)
(var2 (+ var1 12)))
;; But the definition of var1 could not refer to var2
)
The other variant, letrec, is designed to enable mutually recursive procedures to be bound to one another.
;; Calculation of Hofstadter's male and female sequences as a list of pairs
(define (hofstadter-male-female n)
(letrec ((female (lambda (n)
(if (= n 0)
1
(- n (male (female (- n 1)))))))
(male (lambda (n)
(if (= n 0)
0
(- n (female (male (- n 1))))))))
(let loop ((i 0))
(if (> i n)
'()
(cons (cons (female i)
(male i))
(loop (+ i 1)))))))
(hofstadter-male-female 8)
===> ((1 . 0) (1 . 0) (2 . 1) (2 . 2) (3 . 2) (3 . 3) (4 . 4) (5 . 4) (5 . 5))
(See Hofstadter's male and female sequences for the definitions used in this example.)
All procedures bound in a single letrec may refer to one another by name, as well as to values of variables defined earlier in the same letrec, but they may not refer to values defined later in the same letrec.
A variant of let, the "named let" form, has an identifier after the let keyword. This binds the let variables to the argument of a procedure whose name is the given identifier and whose body is the body of the let form. The body may be repeated as desired by calling the procedure. The named let is widely used to implement iteration.
Example: a simple counter
(let loop ((n 1))
(if (> n 10)
'()
(cons n
(loop (+ n 1)))))
===> (1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10)
Like any procedure in Scheme, the procedure created in the named let is a first-class object.
Proper tail recursion
Scheme has an iteration construct, do, but it is more idiomatic in Scheme to use tail recursion to express iteration. Standard-conforming Scheme implementations are required to optimize tail calls so as to support an unbounded number of active tail calls (R5RS sec. 3.5)—a property the Scheme report describes as proper tail recursion—making it safe for Scheme programmers to write iterative algorithms using recursive structures, which are sometimes more intuitive. Tail recursive procedures and the named let form provide support for iteration using tail recursion.
;; Building a list of squares from 0 to 9:
;; Note: loop is simply an arbitrary symbol used as a label. Any symbol will do.
(define (list-of-squares n)
(let loop ((i n) (res '()))
(if (< i 0)
res
(loop (- i 1) (cons (* i i) res)))))
(list-of-squares 9)
===> (0 1 4 9 16 25 36 49 64 81)
First-class continuations
Continuations in Scheme are first-class objects. Scheme provides the procedure call-with-current-continuation (also known as call/cc) to capture the current continuation by packing it up as an escape procedure bound to a formal argument in a procedure provided by the programmer. (R5RS sec. 6.4) First-class continuations enable the programmer to create non-local control constructs such as iterators, coroutines, and backtracking.
Continuations can be used to emulate the behavior of return statements in imperative programming languages. The following function find-first, given function func and list lst, returns the first element x in lst such that (func x) returns true.
(define (find-first func lst)
(call-with-current-continuation
(lambda (return-immediately)
(for-each (lambda (x)
(if (func x)
(return-immediately x)))
lst)
#f)))
(find-first integer? '(1/2 3/4 5.6 7 8/9 10 11))
===> 7
(find-first zero? '(1 2 3 4))
===> #f
The following example, a traditional programmer's puzzle, shows that Scheme can handle continuations as first-class objects, binding them to variables and passing them as arguments to procedures.
(let* ((yin
((lambda (cc) (display "@") cc) (call-with-current-continuation (lambda (c) c))))
(yang
((lambda (cc) (display "*") cc) (call-with-current-continuation (lambda (c) c)))))
(yin yang))
When executed this code displays a counting sequence: @*@**@***@****@*****@******@*******@********...
Shared namespace for procedures and variables
In contrast to Common Lisp, all data and procedures in Scheme share a common namespace, whereas in Common Lisp functions and data have separate namespaces making it possible for a function and a variable to have the same name, and requiring special notation for referring to a function as a value. This is sometimes known as the "Lisp-1 vs. Lisp-2" distinction, referring to the unified namespace of Scheme and the separate namespaces of Common Lisp.
In Scheme, the same primitives that are used to manipulate and bind data can be used to bind procedures. There is no equivalent of Common Lisp's defun and #' primitives.
;; Variable bound to a number:
(define f 10)
f
===> 10
;; Mutation (altering the bound value)
(set! f (+ f f 6))
f
===> 26
;; Assigning a procedure to the same variable:
(set! f (lambda (n) (+ n 12)))
(f 6)
===> 18
;; Assigning the result of an expression to the same variable:
(set! f (f 1))
f
===> 13
;; functional programming:
(apply + '(1 2 3 4 5 6))
===> 21
(set! f (lambda (n) (+ n 100)))
(map f '(1 2 3))
===> (101 102 103)
Implementation standards
This subsection documents design decisions that have been taken over the years which have given Scheme a particular character, but are not the direct outcomes of the original design.
Numerical tower
Scheme specifies a comparatively full set of numerical datatypes including complex and rational types, which is known in Scheme as the numerical tower (R5RS sec. 6.2). The standard treats these as abstractions, and does not commit the implementor to any particular internal representations.
Numbers may have the quality of exactness. An exact number can only be produced by a sequence of exact operations involving other exact numbers—inexactness is thus contagious. The standard specifies that any two implementations must produce equivalent results for all operations resulting in exact numbers.
The R5RS standard specifies procedures exact->inexact and inexact->exact which can be used to change the exactness of a number. inexact->exact produces "the exact number that is numerically closest to the argument". exact->inexact produces "the inexact number that is numerically closest to the argument". The R6RS standard omits these procedures from the main report, but specifies them as R5RS compatibility procedures in the standard library (rnrs r5rs (6)).
In the R5RS standard, Scheme implementations are not required to implement the whole numerical tower, but they must implement "a coherent subset consistent with both the purposes of the implementation and the spirit of the Scheme language" (R5RS sec. 6.2.3). The new R6RS standard does require implementation of the whole tower, and "exact integer objects and exact rational number objects of practically unlimited size and precision, and to implement certain procedures...so they always return exact results when given exact arguments" (R6RS sec. 3.4, sec. 11.7.1).
Example 1: exact arithmetic in an implementation that supports exact
rational complex numbers.
;; Sum of three rational real numbers and two rational complex numbers
(define x (+ 1/3 1/4 -1/5 -1/3i 405/50+2/3i))
x
===> 509/60+1/3i
;; Check for exactness.
(exact? x)
===> #t
Example 2: Same arithmetic in an implementation that supports neither exact
rational numbers nor complex numbers but does accept real numbers in rational notation.
;; Sum of four rational real numbers
(define xr (+ 1/3 1/4 -1/5 405/50))
;; Sum of two rational real numbers
(define xi (+ -1/3 2/3))
xr
===> 8.48333333333333
xi
===> 0.333333333333333
;; Check for exactness.
(exact? xr)
===> #f
(exact? xi)
===> #f
Both implementations conform to the R5RS standard but the second does not conform to R6RS because it does not implement the full numerical tower.
Delayed evaluation
Scheme supports delayed evaluation through the delay form and the procedure force.
(define a 10)
(define eval-aplus2 (delay (+ a 2)))
(set! a 20)
(force eval-aplus2)
===> 22
(define eval-aplus50 (delay (+ a 50)))
(let ((a 8))
(force eval-aplus50))
===> 70
(set! a 100)
(force eval-aplus2)
===> 22
The lexical context of the original definition of the promise is preserved, and its value is also preserved after the first use of force. The promise is only ever evaluated once.
These primitives, which produce or handle values known as promises, can be used to implement advanced lazy evaluation constructs such as streams.
In the R6RS standard, these are no longer primitives, but instead, are provided as part of the R5RS compatibility library (rnrs r5rs (6)).
In R5RS, a suggested implementation of delay and force is given, implementing the promise as a procedure with no arguments (a thunk) and using memoization to ensure that it is only ever evaluated once, irrespective of the number of times force is called (R5RS sec. 6.4).
SRFI 41 enables the expression of both finite and infinite sequences with extraordinary economy. For example, this is a definition of the fibonacci sequence using the functions defined in SRFI 41:
;; Define the Fibonacci sequence:
(define fibs
(stream-cons 0
(stream-cons 1
(stream-map +
fibs
(stream-cdr fibs)))))
;; Compute the hundredth number in the sequence:
(stream-ref fibs 99)
===> 218922995834555169026
Order of evaluation of procedure arguments
Most Lisps specify an order of evaluation for procedure arguments. Scheme does not. Order of evaluation—including the order in which the expression in the operator position is evaluated—may be chosen by an implementation on a call-by-call basis, and the only constraint is that "the effect of any concurrent evaluation of the operator and operand expressions is constrained to be consistent with some sequential order of evaluation." (R5RS sec. 4.1.3)
(let ((ev (lambda(n) (display "Evaluating ")
(display (if (procedure? n) "procedure" n))
(newline) n)))
((ev +) (ev 1) (ev 2)))
===> 3
ev is a procedure that describes the argument passed to it, then returns the value of the argument. In contrast with other Lisps, the appearance of an expression in the operator position (the first item) of a Scheme expression is quite legal, as long as the result of the expression in the operator position is a procedure.
In calling the procedure "+" to add 1 and 2, the expressions (ev +), (ev 1) and (ev 2) may be evaluated in any order, as long as the effect is not as if they were evaluated in parallel. Thus the following three lines may be displayed in any order by standard Scheme when the above example code is executed, although the text of one line may not be interleaved with another because that would violate the sequential evaluation constraint.
Evaluating 1
Evaluating 2
Evaluating procedure
Hygienic macros
In the R5RS standard and also in later reports, the syntax of Scheme can easily be extended via the macro system. The R5RS standard introduced a powerful hygienic macro system that allows the programmer to add new syntactic constructs to the language using a simple pattern matching sublanguage (R5RS sec 4.3). Prior to this, the hygienic macro system had been relegated to an appendix of the R4RS standard, as a "high level" system alongside a "low level" macro system, both of which were treated as extensions to Scheme rather than an essential part of the language.
Implementations of the hygienic macro system, also called syntax-rules, are required to respect the lexical scoping of the rest of the language. This is assured by special naming and scoping rules for macro expansion and avoids common programming errors that can occur in the macro systems of other programming languages. R6RS specifies a more sophisticated transformation system, syntax-case, which has been available as a language extension to R5RS Scheme for some time.
;; Define a macro to implement a variant of "if" with a multi-expression
;; true branch and no false branch.
(define-syntax when
(syntax-rules ()
((when pred exp exps ...)
(if pred (begin exp exps ...)))))
Invocations of macros and procedures bear a close resemblance—both are s-expressions—but they are treated differently. When the compiler encounters an s-expression in the program, it first checks to see if the symbol is defined as a syntactic keyword within the current lexical scope. If so, it then attempts to expand the macro, treating the items in the tail of the s-expression as arguments without compiling code to evaluate them, and this process is repeated recursively until no macro invocations remain. If it is not a syntactic keyword, the compiler compiles code to evaluate the arguments in the tail of the s-expression and then to evaluate the variable represented by the symbol at the head of the s-expression and call it as a procedure with the evaluated tail expressions passed as actual arguments to it.
Most Scheme implementations also provide additional macro systems. Among popular ones are syntactic closures, explicit renaming macros and define-macro, a non-hygienic macro system similar to defmacro system provided in Common Lisp.
The inability to specify whether or not a macro is hygienic is one of the shortcomings of the macro system. Alternative models for expansion such as scope sets provide a potential solution.
Environments and eval
Prior to R5RS, Scheme had no standard equivalent of the eval procedure which is ubiquitous in other Lisps, although the first Lambda Paper had described evaluate as "similar to the LISP function EVAL" and the first Revised Report in 1978 replaced this with enclose, which took two arguments. The second, third and fourth revised reports omitted any equivalent of eval.
The reason for this confusion is that in Scheme with its lexical scoping the result of evaluating an expression depends on where it is evaluated. For instance, it is not clear whether the result of evaluating the following expression should be 5 or 6:
(let ((name '+))
(let ((+ *))
(evaluate (list name 2 3))))
If it is evaluated in the outer environment, where name is defined, the result is the sum of the operands. If it is evaluated in the inner environment, where the symbol "+" has been bound to the value of the procedure "*", the result is the product of the two operands.
R5RS resolves this confusion by specifying three procedures that return environments and providing a procedure eval that takes an s-expression and an environment and evaluates the expression in the environment provided. (R5RS sec. 6.5) R6RS extends this by providing a procedure called environment by which the programmer can specify exactly which objects to import into the evaluation environment.
With modern scheme (usually compatible with R5RS) to evaluate this expression, one needs to define a function evaluate which can look like this:
(define (evaluate expr)
(eval expr (interaction-environment)))
interaction-environment is the interpreter's global environment.
Treatment of non-boolean values in boolean expressions
In most dialects of Lisp including Common Lisp, by convention the value NIL evaluates to the value false in a boolean expression. In Scheme, since the IEEE standard in 1991, all values except #f, including NIL's equivalent in Scheme which is written as '(), evaluate to the value true in a boolean expression. (R5RS sec. 6.3.1)
Where the constant representing the boolean value of true is T in most Lisps, in Scheme it is #t.
Disjointness of primitive datatypes
In Scheme the primitive datatypes are disjoint. Only one of the following predicates can be true of any Scheme object: boolean?, pair?, symbol?, number?, char?, string?, vector?, port?, procedure?. (R5RS sec 3.2)
Within the numerical datatype, by contrast, the numerical values overlap. For example, an integer value satisfies all of the integer?, rational?, real?, complex? and number? predicates at the same time. (R5RS sec 6.2)
Equivalence predicates
Scheme has three different types of equivalence between arbitrary objects denoted by three different equivalence predicates, relational operators for testing equality, eq?, eqv? and equal?:
eq? evaluates to #f unless its parameters represent the same data object in memory;
eqv? is generally the same as eq? but treats primitive objects (e.g. characters and numbers) specially so that numbers that represent the same value are eqv? even if they do not refer to the same object;
equal? compares data structures such as lists, vectors and strings to determine if they have congruent structure and eqv? contents.(R5RS sec. 6.1)
Type dependent equivalence operations also exist in Scheme: string=? and string-ci=? compare two strings (the latter performs a case-independent comparison); char=? and char-ci=? compare characters; = compares numbers.
Comments
Up to the R5RS standard, the standard comment in Scheme was a semicolon, which makes the rest of the line invisible to Scheme. Numerous implementations have supported alternative conventions permitting comments to extend for more than a single line, and the R6RS standard permits two of them: an entire s-expression may be turned into a comment (or "commented out") by preceding it with #; (introduced in SRFI 62) and a multiline comment or "block comment" may be produced by surrounding text with #| and |#.
Input/output
Scheme's input and output is based on the port datatype. (R5RS sec 6.6) R5RS defines two default ports, accessible with the procedures current-input-port and current-output-port, which correspond to the Unix notions of standard input and standard output. Most implementations also provide current-error-port. Redirection of input and standard output is supported in the standard, by standard procedures such as with-input-from-file and with-output-to-file. Most implementations provide string ports with similar redirection capabilities, enabling many normal input-output operations to be performed on string buffers instead of files, using procedures described in SRFI 6. The R6RS standard specifies much more sophisticated and capable port procedures and many new types of port.
The following examples are written in strict R5RS Scheme.
Example 1: With output defaulting to (current-output-port):
(let ((hello0 (lambda() (display "Hello world") (newline))))
(hello0))
Example 2: As 1, but using optional port argument to output procedures
(let ((hello1 (lambda (p) (display "Hello world" p) (newline p))))
(hello1 (current-output-port)))
Example 3: As 1, but output is redirected to a newly created file
;; NB: with-output-to-file is an optional procedure in R5RS
(let ((hello0 (lambda () (display "Hello world") (newline))))
(with-output-to-file "helloworldoutputfile" hello0))
Example 4: As 2, but with explicit file open and port close to send output to file
(let ((hello1 (lambda (p) (display "Hello world" p) (newline p)))
(output-port (open-output-file "helloworldoutputfile")))
(hello1 output-port)
(close-output-port output-port))
Example 5: As 2, but with using call-with-output-file to send output to a file.
(let ((hello1 (lambda (p) (display "Hello world" p) (newline p))))
(call-with-output-file "helloworldoutputfile" hello1))
Similar procedures are provided for input. R5RS Scheme provides the predicates input-port? and output-port?. For character input and output, write-char, read-char, peek-char and char-ready? are provided. For writing and reading Scheme expressions, Scheme provides read and write. On a read operation, the result returned is the end-of-file object if the input port has reached the end of the file, and this can be tested using the predicate eof-object?.
In addition to the standard, SRFI 28 defines a basic formatting procedure resembling Common Lisp's format function, after which it is named.
Redefinition of standard procedures
In Scheme, procedures are bound to variables. At R5RS the language standard formally mandated that programs may change the variable bindings of built-in procedures, effectively redefining them. (R5RS "Language changes") For example, one may extend + to accept strings as well as numbers by redefining it:
(set! +
(let ((original+ +))
(lambda args
(apply (if (or (null? args) (string? (car args)))
string-append
original+)
args))))
(+ 1 2 3)
===> 6
(+ "1" "2" "3")
===> "123"
In R6RS every binding, including the standard ones, belongs to some library, and all exported bindings are immutable. (R6RS sec 7.1) Because of this, redefinition of standard procedures by mutation is forbidden. Instead, it is possible to import a different procedure under the name of a standard one, which in effect is similar to redefinition.
Nomenclature and naming conventions
In Standard Scheme, procedures that convert from one datatype to another contain the character string "->" in their name, predicates end with a "?", and procedures that change the value of already-allocated data end with a "!". These conventions are often followed by Scheme programmers.
In formal contexts such as Scheme standards, the word "procedure" is used in preference to "function" to refer to a lambda expression or primitive procedure. In normal usage, the words "procedure" and "function" are used interchangeably. Procedure application is sometimes referred to formally as combination.
As in other Lisps, the term "thunk" is used in Scheme to refer to a procedure with no arguments. The term "proper tail recursion" refers to the property of all Scheme implementations, that they perform tail-call optimization so as to support an indefinite number of active tail calls.
The form of the titles of the standards documents since R3RS, "Revisedn Report on the Algorithmic Language Scheme", is a reference to the title of the ALGOL 60 standard document, "Revised Report on the Algorithmic Language Algol 60," The Summary page of R3RS is closely modeled on the Summary page of the ALGOL 60 Report.
Review of standard forms and procedures
The language is formally defined in the standards R5RS (1998) and R6RS (2007). They describe standard "forms": keywords and accompanying syntax, which provide the control structure of the language, and standard procedures which perform common tasks.
Standard forms
This table describes the standard forms in Scheme. Some forms appear in more than one row because they cannot easily be classified into a single function in the language.
Forms marked "L" in this table are classed as derived "library" forms in the standard and are often implemented as macros using more fundamental forms in practice, making the task of implementation much easier than in other languages.
Note that begin is defined as a library syntax in R5RS, but the expander needs to know about it to achieve the splicing functionality. In R6RS it is no longer a library syntax.
Standard procedures
The following two tables describe the standard procedures in R5RS Scheme. R6RS is far more extensive and a summary of this type would not be practical.
Some procedures appear in more than one row because they cannot easily be classified into a single function in the language.
String and character procedures that contain "-ci" in their names perform case-independent comparisons between their arguments: upper case and lower case versions of the same character are taken to be equal.
Implementations of - and / that take more than two arguments are defined but left optional at R5RS.
Scheme Requests for Implementation
Because of Scheme's minimalism, many common procedures and syntactic forms are not defined by the standard. In order to keep the core language small but facilitate standardization of extensions, the Scheme community has a "Scheme Request for Implementation" (SRFI) process by which extension libraries are defined through careful discussion of extension proposals. This promotes code portability. Many of the SRFIs are supported by all or most Scheme implementations.
SRFIs with fairly wide support in different implementations include:
0: feature-based conditional expansion construct
1: list library
4: homogeneous numeric vector datatypes
6: basic string ports
8: receive, binding to multiple values
9: defining record types
13: string library
14: character-set library
16: syntax for procedures of variable arity
17: generalized set!
18: Multithreading support
19: time data types and procedures
25: multi-dimensional array primitives
26: notation for specializing parameters without currying
27: sources of random bits
28: basic format strings
29: localization
30: nested multi-line comments
31: a special form for recursive evaluation
37: args-fold: a program argument processor
39: parameter objects
41: streams
42: eager comprehensions
43: vector library
45: primitives for expressing iterative lazy algorithms
60: integers as bits
61: a more general cond clause
66: octet vectors
67: compare procedures
Implementations
The elegant, minimalist design has made Scheme a popular target for language designers, hobbyists, and educators, and because of its small size, that of a typical interpreter, it is also a popular choice for embedded systems and scripting. This has resulted in scores of implementations, most of which differ from each other so much that porting programs from one implementation to another is quite difficult, and the small size of the standard language means that writing a useful program of any great complexity in standard, portable Scheme is almost impossible. The R6RS standard specifies a much broader language, in an attempt to broaden its appeal to programmers.
Almost all implementations provide a traditional Lisp-style read–eval–print loop for development and debugging. Many also compile Scheme programs to executable binary. Support for embedding Scheme code in programs written in other languages is also common, as the relative simplicity of Scheme implementations makes it a popular choice for adding scripting capabilities to larger systems developed in languages such as C. The Gambit, Chicken, and Bigloo Scheme interpreters compile Scheme to C, which makes embedding particularly easy. In addition, Bigloo's compiler can be configured to generate JVM bytecode, and it also features an experimental bytecode generator for .NET.
Some implementations support additional features. For example, Kawa and JScheme provide integration with Java classes, and the Scheme to C compilers often make it easy to use external libraries written in C, up to allowing the embedding of actual C code in the Scheme source. Another example is Pvts, which offers a set of visual tools for supporting the learning of Scheme.
Usage
Scheme is widely used by a number of schools; in particular, a number of introductory Computer Science courses use Scheme in conjunction with the textbook Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs (SICP). For the past 12 years, PLT has run the ProgramByDesign (formerly TeachScheme!) project, which has exposed close to 600 high school teachers and thousands of high school students to rudimentary Scheme programming. MIT's old introductory programming class 6.001 was taught in Scheme, Although 6.001 has been replaced by more modern courses, SICP continues to be taught at MIT. Likewise, the introductory class at UC Berkeley, CS 61A, was until 2011 taught entirely in Scheme, save minor diversions into Logo to demonstrate dynamic scope. Today, like MIT, Berkeley has replaced the syllabus with a more modern version that is primarily taught in Python 3, but the current syllabus is still based on the old curriculum, and parts of the class are still taught in Scheme.
The textbook How to Design Programs by Matthias Felleisen, currently at Northeastern University, is used by some institutes of higher education for their introductory computer science courses. Both Northeastern University and Worcester Polytechnic Institute use Scheme exclusively for their introductory courses Fundamentals of Computer Science (CS2500) and Introduction to Program Design (CS1101), respectively. Rose-Hulman uses Scheme in its more advanced Programming Language Concepts course. Brandeis University's core course, Structure and Interpretations of Computer Programs (COSI121b), is also taught exclusively in Scheme by theoretical computer scientist Harry Mairson. Indiana University's introductory class, C211, is taught entirely in Scheme. A self-paced version of the course, CS 61AS, continues to use Scheme. The introductory computer science courses at Yale and Grinnell College are also taught in Scheme. Programming Design Paradigms, a mandatory course for the Computer science Graduate Students at Northeastern University, also extensively uses Scheme.
The former introductory Computer Science course at the University of Minnesota - Twin Cities, CSCI 1901, also used Scheme as its primary language, followed by a course that introduced students to the Java programming language; however, following the example of MIT, the department replaced 1901 with the Python-based CSCI 1133, while functional programming is covered in detail in the third-semester course CSCI 2041. In the software industry, Tata Consultancy Services, Asia's largest software consultancy firm, uses Scheme in their month-long training program for fresh college graduates.
Scheme is/was also used for the following:
The Document Style Semantics and Specification Language (DSSSL), which provides a method of specifying SGML stylesheets, uses a Scheme subset.
The well-known open source raster graphics editor GIMP uses TinyScheme as a scripting language.
Guile has been adopted by GNU project as its official scripting language, and that implementation of Scheme is embedded in such applications as GNU LilyPond and GnuCash as a scripting language for extensions. Likewise, Guile used to be the scripting language for the desktop environment GNOME, and GNOME still has a project that provides Guile bindings to its library stack. There is a project to incorporate Guile into GNU Emacs, GNU's flagship program, replacing the current Emacs Lisp interpreter.
Elk Scheme is used by Synopsys as a scripting language for its technology CAD (TCAD) tools.
Shiro Kawai, senior programmer on the movie Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within, used Scheme as a scripting language for managing the real-time rendering engine.
Google App Inventor for Android uses Scheme, where Kawa is used to compile the Scheme code down to byte-codes for the Java Virtual Machine running on Android devices.
See also
Essentials of Programming Languages, textbook using Scheme as foundation
References
Further reading
An Introduction to Scheme and its Implementation (a mirror)
External links
Bookmarklet that add Interactive Scheme REPL to any website
Academic programming languages
Articles with example Scheme (programming language) code
Dynamically typed programming languages
Extensible syntax programming languages
Lisp programming language family
Multi-paradigm programming languages
Programming languages created in 1975
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29076225
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jordan%20Cameron
|
Jordan Cameron
|
Jordan Cravens Cameron (born August 7, 1988) is a former American football tight end. He played college football at USC and was drafted by the Cleveland Browns in the fourth round of the 2011 NFL Draft. Cameron also played for the Miami Dolphins.
Early years
Cameron was born on August 7, 1988 in Los Angeles, California, the son of Stan and Cathy Cameron (née Cravens), who works for a telecommunications company. He was raised Mormon (LDS). Cameron attended Newbury Park High School in Newbury Park, California. He made the All-Marmonte League first team in 2005 as a junior. As a senior in 2006, he made Prep Star All-West and once again made All-Marmonte League first team. He caught 73 passes for 1,022 yards and 12 touchdowns in his senior year. He was a teammate of former San Jose State' quarterback, Jordan LaSecla. He also starred in basketball and volleyball at Newbury Park High.
Collegiate career
After high school, Cameron decided to play basketball at Brigham Young University rather than football. After redshirting his freshman year (2006–07), he decided to give football another try. He transferred to USC in 2007 to play football as a wide receiver. However, when USC refused to accept some of Cameron's credits from Brigham Young, he was forced to withdraw and attend Ventura College. He missed the football season but was given the option to try to rejoin the team in 2008. Even if he had stayed at USC, due to NCAA transfer rules he would have been ineligible to play in 2007.
Cameron ended up enrolling at USC a year later and saw brief action for the Trojans at wide receiver in the 2008 and 2009 seasons, but did not make any catches. Prior to his senior year, he embraced a move from receiver to tight end. In his final season at USC, Cameron caught 16 passes for 126 yards and a touchdown.
Professional career
Pre-draft
After his senior season at USC, Cameron was invited to play in the East–West Shrine Game where he made a big impression on the coaches during the week of practice. Cameron helped his draft stock significantly during his workouts at the NFL Combine. He was in the top three of every drill he participated in and fifth in bench press reps. He was projected to be a mid to late round pick in the 2011 NFL Draft.
Cleveland Browns
Cameron was selected by the Cleveland Browns with the 102nd pick in the 2011 NFL Draft.
On December 27, 2013, Jordan Cameron was voted to the Pro Bowl.
Miami Dolphins
Cameron signed a two-year deal $15 million (with $5 million guaranteed) with the Miami Dolphins on March 12, 2015. He was placed on injured reserve on November 5, 2016 after suffering a season-ending concussion injury.
On March 10, 2017, after suffering four concussions in six seasons, Cameron announced his retirement from the NFL.
NFL statistics
Selected to the Pro Bowl
Personal life
Cameron’s sister Brynn played guard on the USC women's basketball team (she also has a child with Matt Leinart and shares custody of two children with NBA Star Blake Griffin). His younger brother Colby was an undrafted free agent quarterback for the Carolina Panthers, but was released before the 2013 NFL season. He is also the cousin of former Denver Broncos safety Su'a Cravens.
He has two sons: one named Tristan from a previous relationship, and one named Arthur with Elin Nordegren, the ex-wife of internationally famous golfer Tiger Woods; with whom she has two older children.
References
External links
Cleveland Browns bio
USC Trojans bio
NFL Combine bio
ESPN.com bio
Living people
1988 births
American football tight ends
American sportspeople of Samoan descent
USC Trojans football players
Cleveland Browns players
Miami Dolphins players
Players of American football from Los Angeles
People from Newbury Park, California
Unconferenced Pro Bowl players
Sportspeople from Ventura County, California
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5475569
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas%20Instruments%20DaVinci
|
Texas Instruments DaVinci
|
The Texas Instruments DaVinci is a family of system on a chip processors that are primarily used in embedded video and vision applications. Many of the processors in the family combine a DSP core based on the TMS320 C6000 VLIW DSP family and an ARM CPU core into a single system on chip. By using both a general-purpose processor and a DSP, the control and media portions can both be executed by processors that excel at their respective tasks.
Later chips in the family included DSP only and ARM only processors. All the later chips integrate several accelerators to offload commodity application specific processing from the processor cores to dedicated accelerators. Most notable among these are HDVICP, an H.264, SVC and MPEG-4 compression and decompression engine, ISP, an accelerator engine with sophisticated methods for enhancing video, primarily input from camera sensors and an OSD engine for display acceleration. Some of the newest processors also integrate a vision coprocessor in the SoC.
History
DaVinci processors were introduced at a time when embedded processors with homogeneous processor cores were widely used. These processors were based either on cores that could do signal processing optimally, like DSPs or GPUs or based on cores that could do general purpose processing optimally, like, powerPC, ARM, StrongARM and so on. By using both a general-purpose processor and a DSP on a single chip, the control and media portions can both be executed by processors that excel at their respective tasks. By providing a bundled offering with system and application software, evaluation modules and debug tools based on Code Composer Studio, TI DaVinci processors were intended to win over a broader set of customers looking to add video feature to their electronic products.
TI announced its first DaVinci branded video processors, the DM6443 and DM6446, on 5 December 2005. A year later, TI followed up with DSP only versions of the chips in the family, called DM643x (DM6431, DM6433, DM6435, DM6437). On January 15, 2007, TI announced DM6441 that is pin-pin compatible with DM6446, but a lower end version With increased investment and significant focus on the DaVinci product line, following products were announced:
May 21, 2007 — TMS320DM648 — Processor offering $40 reduction in BOM for security applications
Sep 4, 2007 — TMS320DM355 — Sub $10 ARM+co-processor chip for MPEG-4 encode/decode
Dec 30, 2007 — TMS320DM6467 — 10x performance improvement over DM6446
Jul 18, 2008 — TMS320DM335 — ISP only version of DM355
Nov 18, 2008 — TMS320DM357 — Low cost realtime D1 H.264 video encode
March 3, 2009 — TMS320DM365 — Sub $10 ARM+co-processor chip for 720p30 and 1080p H.264 encode/decode
March 18, 2010 — TMS320DM8168 — 36x channels of realtime D-1 H.264 encode/decode or 6x channels of realtime HD H.264 encode/decode
April 14, 2010 — TMS320DM368 — Pin-pin compatible processor with DM365 that can do 1080p30 H.264 encode/decode
May 10, 2010 — DMVA2 — Pin-pin compatible processor with DM365 and DM368 that can do analytics in addition to H.264 compression
Mar 1, 2011 — TMS320DM8148 — 12x channels of D-1 H.264 encode performance with DSP for analytics
Dec 3, 2012 — DM385 and DM8107 — ARM+co-processor chips that does 1080p60 encode/decode and high quality image processing. DM8107 was for multi-channel DVR/NVR market
Apr 10, 2013 — DM369 — ARM+co-processor chip pin-pin compatible with DM365, DM365 and DMVA2, with enhanced low-light performance
Oct 29, 2013 — DM388, DMVA3, DM383 — ARM+co-processor chip pin-pin compatible with DM385, adding enhanced video quality and analytics
Today DaVinci processors are used in a variety of video and vision applications, including IP Security cameras, DVR/NVR systems, car blackboxes (car dvr or cab cam), drones, and so on.
Processors
Many of these model numbers should, formally, be prefixed by TMS320; the prefix is usually omitted for brevity. So for example the full part number for the DM6446 begins with TMS320DM6446 and has a suffix indicating its packaging type (a BGA flavor) and temperature rating.
Peripherals
The DaVinci processor families include a number of on-chip peripherals. Depending on the particular device, these may include:
CCD Controller for digital camera/camcorder applications
BT.656 and MIPI CSI-2 video/camera input interface
Support for memory cards such as CompactFlash, SD Card and MMC
ATA interface
Connectivity, including USB 2.0 Host and Client modes, VLYNQ (interface for FPGA, Wireless LAN, PCI), EMAC (Ethernet MAC) with MDIO
GPIO
Enhanced DMA
Interrupt controller
Digital LCD controller
Serial interfaces, including SPI, I²C, and I²S, UART
Histogram, autofocus, autoexposure, and auto-white-balance (H3A) acceleration
Image resize acceleration
A/D and D/A converters for analog video input and output
Libraries
Most of the TMS320 DSPs include a TMS320 Chip Support Library (CSL) which is an API used to control the peripherals. However, since the philosophy for the DaVinci was to allow the ARM/Linux side to control the peripherals via Linux drivers, support for the CSL on the DM644x (dual core ARM/DSP) is not currently available for the DSP.
Operating systems
The DSP included in many DaVinci-based devices generally runs TI's TI-RTOS Kernel real-time operating system. When multiple, heterogeneous cores are included in the device (e.g. DM644x), DSP/BIOS Link drivers run on both the ARM processor and the DSP to provide communication between the two.
A number of operating systems for the DaVinci ARM and support DaVinci and the DSP/BIOS Link drivers:
FreeBSD
Linux kernel
Mentor Graphics Nucleus PLUS RTOS
Green Hills Software INTEGRITY RTOS
QNX Neutrino
Windows CE
LEOs (RTOS)
See also
Texas Instruments OMAP
Canon DIGIC Processors
References
External links
DaVinci Home Page
DaVinci Developers Wiki (hosted by TI)
Linux DaVinci information catalog
Texas Instruments IPCamera Reference Designs based on DaVinci processors
Texas Instruments DVR/NVR Reference Designs based on DaVinci processors
Texas Instruments Car black box Reference Designs based on DaVinci processors
DaVinci
Digital signal processors
|
15975685
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secure%20coding
|
Secure coding
|
Secure coding is the practice of developing computer software in such a way that guards against the accidental introduction of security vulnerabilities. Defects, bugs and logic flaws are consistently the primary cause of commonly exploited software vulnerabilities. Through the analysis of thousands of reported vulnerabilities, security professionals have discovered that most vulnerabilities stem from a relatively small number of common software programming errors. By identifying the insecure coding practices that lead to these errors and educating developers on secure alternatives, organizations can take proactive steps to help significantly reduce or eliminate vulnerabilities in software before deployment.
Buffer-overflow prevention
Buffer overflows, a common software security vulnerability, happen when a process tries to store data beyond a fixed-length buffer. For example, if there are 8 slots to store items in, there will be a problem if there is an attempt to store 9 items. In computer memory the overflowed data may overwrite data in the next location which can result in a security vulnerability (stack smashing) or program termination (segmentation fault).
An example of a C program prone to a buffer overflow isint vulnerable_function(char * large_user_input) {
char dst[SMALL];
strcpy(dst, large_user_input);
}If the user input is larger than the destination buffer, a buffer overflow will occur.
To fix this unsafe program, use strncpy to prevent a possible buffer overflow.int secure_function(char * user_input) {
char dst[BUF_SIZE];
// copy a maximum of BUF_SIZE bytes
strncpy(dst, user_input, BUF_SIZE);
}Another secure alternative is to dynamically allocate memory on the heap using malloc.char * secure_copy(char * src) {
size_t len = strlen(src);
char * dst = (char *) malloc(len + 1);
if (dst != NULL) {
strncpy(dst, src, len);
// append null terminator
dst[len] = '\0';
}
return dst;
}In the above code snippet, the program attempts to copy the contents of src into dst, while also checking the return value of malloc to ensure that enough memory was able to be allocated for the destination buffer.
Format-string attack prevention
A Format String Attack is when a malicious user supplies specific inputs that will eventually be entered as an argument to a function that performs formatting, such as printf(). The attack involves the adversary reading from or writing to the stack.
The C printf function writes output to stdout. If the parameter of the printf function is not properly formatted, several security bugs can be introduced. Below is a program that is vulnerable to a format string attack.int vulnerable_print(char * malicious_input) {
printf(malicious_input);
}A malicious argument passed to the program could be “%s%s%s%s%s%s%s”, which can crash the program from improper memory reads.
Integer-overflow prevention
Integer overflow occurs when an arithmetic operation results in an integer too large to be represented within the available space. A program which does not properly check for integer overflow introduces potential software bugs and exploits.
Below is a function in C++ which attempts to confirm that the sum of x and y is less than or equal to a defined value MAX:
bool sumIsValid_flawed(unsigned int x, unsigned int y) {
unsigned int sum = x + y;
return sum <= MAX;
}
The problem with the code is it does not check for integer overflow on the addition operation. If the sum of x and y is greater than the maximum possible value of an unsigned int, the addition operation will overflow and perhaps result in a value less than or equal to MAX, even though the sum of x and y is greater than MAX.
Below is a function which checks for overflow by confirming the sum is greater than or equal to both x and y. If the sum did overflow, the sum would be less than x or less than y.
bool sumIsValid_secure(unsigned int x, unsigned int y) {
unsigned int sum = x + y;
return sum >= x && sum >= y && sum <= MAX;
}
Path traversal prevention
Path traversal is a vulnerability whereby paths provided from an untrusted source are interpreted in such a way that unauthorised file access is possible.
For example, consider a script that fetches an article by taking a filename, which is then read by the script and parsed. Such a script might use the following hypothetical URL to retrieve an article about dog food:
https://www.example.net/cgi-bin/article.sh?name=dogfood.html
If the script has no input checking, instead trusting that the filename is always valid, a malicious user could forge a URL to retrieve configuration files from the web server:
https://www.example.net/cgi-bin/article.sh?name=../../../../../etc/passwd
Depending on the script, this may expose the /etc/passwd file, which on Unix-like systems contains (among others) user IDs, their login names, home directory paths and shells. (See SQL injection for a similar attack.)
See also
Defensive programming
Security bug
Notes
References
Computer security
|
6856307
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damg%C3%A5rd%E2%80%93Jurik%20cryptosystem
|
Damgård–Jurik cryptosystem
|
The Damgård–Jurik cryptosystem is a generalization of the Paillier cryptosystem. It uses computations modulo where is an RSA modulus and a (positive) natural number. Paillier's scheme is the special case with . The order (Euler's totient function) of can be divided by . Moreover, can be written as the direct product of . is cyclic and of order , while is isomorphic to . For encryption, the message is transformed into the corresponding coset of the factor group and the security of the scheme relies on the difficulty of distinguishing random elements in different cosets of . It is semantically secure if it is hard to decide if two given elements are in the same coset. Like Paillier, the security of Damgård–Jurik can be proven under the decisional composite residuosity assumption.
Key generation
Choose two large prime numbers p and q randomly and independently of each other.
Compute and .
Choose an element such that for a known relative prime to and .
Using the Chinese Remainder Theorem, choose such that and . For instance could be as in Paillier's original scheme.
The public (encryption) key is .
The private (decryption) key is .
Encryption
Let be a message to be encrypted where .
Select random where .
Compute ciphertext as: .
Decryption
Ciphertext
Compute . If c is a valid ciphertext then .
Apply a recursive version of the Paillier decryption mechanism to obtain . As is known, it is possible to compute .
Simplification
At the cost of no longer containing the classical Paillier cryptosystem as an instance, Damgård–Jurik can be simplified in the following way:
The base g is fixed as .
The decryption exponent d is computed such that and .
In this case decryption produces . Using recursive Paillier decryption this gives us directly the plaintext m.
See also
The Damgård–Jurik cryptosystem interactive simulator demonstrates a voting application.
References
Public-key encryption schemes
|
53360073
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo%20Switch%20system%20software
|
Nintendo Switch system software
|
The Nintendo Switch system software (also known by its codename Horizon) is an updatable firmware and operating system used by the Nintendo Switch video game console. Its main portion is the HOME screen, consisting of the top bar, the screenshot viewer ("Album"), and shortcuts to the Nintendo eShop, News, and Settings.
Technology
OS
Nintendo has released only limited information about the Switch's internals to the public. However, computer security researchers, homebrew software developers, and the authors of emulators have all analyzed the operating system in great depth.
Notable findings include that the Switch operating system is codenamed Horizon, that it is an evolution of the Nintendo 3DS system software, and that it implements a proprietary microkernel architecture. All drivers run in userspace, including the Nvidia driver which the security researchers described as "kind of similar to the Linux driver". The graphics driver features an undocumented thin API layer, called NVN, which is "kind of like Vulkan" but exposes most hardware features like OpenGL compatibility profile with Nvidia extensions. All userspace processes use Address Space Layout Randomization and are sandboxed. Address space layout randomization (ASLR) is a computer security technique involved (sandboxed) in preventing exploitation of memory corruption vulnerabilities.
Nintendo made efforts to design the system software to be as minimalist as possible, with the home menu's graphical assets using less than 200 kilobytes. This minimalism is meant to improve system performance and launch games faster.
As early as July 2018, Nintendo has been trying to counter Switch-homebrewing and piracy. Measures include an online ban, and on the hardware side, patching of the Tegra to prevent exploits. On 11 December 2018, Nintendo sued Mikel Euskaldunak for selling a Switch modification that can play pirated games. Since August 2019, the difficulty of homebrewing has gone up, as the new Mariko chip replaced the old Erista chip. After the release of the Lite, in late 2019, tools for hacking all Switch consoles were announced. Gary Bowser was arrested in September 2020 in the Dominican Republic. Afterwards, Bowser appeared in court in USA. The prosecution alleges that Bowser was a piracy group leader.
Open source components
Despite popular misconceptions to the contrary, Horizon is not largely derived from FreeBSD code, nor from Android, although the software licence and reverse engineering efforts have revealed that Nintendo does use some code from both in some system services and drivers. For example, the networking stack in the Switch OS is derived at least in part from FreeBSD code. Nintendo's use of FreeBSD networking code is legal as it is made available under the permissive BSD licence, and not even particularly unusual – notably, the Microsoft Windows TCP/IP stack was originally derived from BSD code in a similar fashion.
Components derived from Android code include the Stagefright multimedia framework, as well as components of the graphics stack including the display server (derived from SurfaceFlinger) and the graphics driver (which seems to be derived from Nvidia's proprietary Linux driver).
Although a full web browser intended for general browsing is not available on the console as of February 2022, several so-called 'applets' are included which utilise the WebKit rendering engine to display web content within a stripped back interface. A WebKit-powered applet is used to allow users to log in to captive portals when connecting to certain wireless networks, as well as for operating system features such as the Nintendo eShop, social media integrations, and digital manuals.
User interface
Home screen
The Nintendo Switch home screen has battery, internet and time information in the top right corner, and below it is a grid showing all software on the system, downloaded or physical. Underneath that it has shortcuts to OS functions such as Nintendo Switch Online, the News, eShop, Album, Controller settings, System Settings, and a Sleep Mode button. The Nintendo Switch home screen currently lacks an internet browser and a messaging system.
News
The News function of the Nintendo Switch software allows users to read gaming news and advertisements provided by Nintendo and third-party developers. News is also displayed when the system is locked.
The News interface was originally available in the 1.0.0 version of the software, however new headlines were not transmitted until the 2.0.0 update was released. The 3.0.0 update revamped the News system, adding multiple news "channels" for different games that users can subscribe to. The news headlines that appear depend on which channels are subscribed to. The 4.0.0 update further improved the News screen, updating its layout. The 9.0.0 update added search support to the News channel, allowing users to narrow the list via filters or free text. The 10.0.0 update added a "Bookmark" feature, allowing users to save their favorite News articles.
Nintendo eShop
The Nintendo eShop option on the Home menu opens a WebKit-based interface that allows games to be purchased and downloaded from the Nintendo eShop.
As well as games, the eShop offers select non-gaming apps. Niconico, a popular Japanese video service, launched for the Switch in Japan on 13 July 2017 and was the Switch's first third-party media app in any market. Hulu was the first video streaming application released for the Switch in the United States on 9 November 2017. In June 2018, Fils-Aimé said that conversations to bring Netflix to the Switch were "on-going". A YouTube application was released on 8 November 2018. On 4 November 2020, a trial version app of the Tencent Video streaming service was launched exclusively for Nintendo Switch consoles officially distributed by Tencent in mainland China. An official version app will be launched at a later date. Funimation launched their own streaming app for the Nintendo Switch, featuring a reworked layout and new functions. The app became available via eShop in the United States and Canada on 15 December 2020, and will launch in various other countries at a later date, such as the United Kingdom and Ireland on 22 March 2021. A version of the Twitch app launched for the Nintendo Switch on 11 November 2021 in most regions worldwide. The eShop version of the app allows users to watch or follow any live or recorded content on Twitch, but does not support any native ability for Switch players to contribute content.
Korg Gadget, a music production app, was released for the Nintendo Switch on 26 April 2018. InkyPen, a comics and manga subscription app, launched exclusively on the Switch worldwide in December 2018. Izneo, another comics and manga subscription service, was released for the Switch in February 2019. FUZE4, a text-based programming language app, was released in August 2019.
Album
The Album stores captured screenshots and videos. Pressing the "Capture" button on the controller, in supported software, will save a screenshot, either to the microSD card, or to the system memory. The Album allows users to view screenshots that have been taken. Screenshots can be edited by adding text, and they can be shared to Facebook or Twitter. In addition, in supported games, holding down the Capture button briefly will save the last 30 seconds of video to the Album. It can then be trimmed and posted online.
The 2.0.0 update added the ability to post screenshots to Facebook or Twitter from within the system UI, making it easier to share screenshots. The 4.0.0 update added support for saving 30 second videos, in compatible games. The 11.0.0 updated added the ability to download screenshots and videos to a PC via a USB cable or to a Mobile device via a webpage hosting the files generated by the Switch.
Controllers
The Controllers menu allows controllers to be paired, disconnected, or reconnected. The 3.0.0 update added the "Find Controllers" option, which allows any nearby controllers that have been paired to be remotely turned on and vibrated, to help find lost controllers.
Settings
The Settings option allows for system settings to be changed, and includes other functionality, such as creating Miis.
History of updates
The initial version of the system software for Nintendo Switch on the launch day consoles was updated as a "day one" patch on 3 March 2017, the console's launch date. The update added online features that were previously missing from the original software before its official launch date. Some notable features of this update are access to the Nintendo eShop as well as the ability to add friends to a friends list, similar to that of the Nintendo 3DS. On 7 June 2021, patch 12.0.3 was released, but was removed 12 hours later for problems with network connections as well as issues with MicroSDXC cards.
The April 2021 firmware update was found by dataminers to have added rudimentary support for Bluetooth audio. This support was expanded and made available to regular users on September 14, 2021, when patch 13.0 was released. Patch 13.0 also added the ability to apply software updates to the Switch Dock (only applicable for docks released with the Switch OLED Model, which have a built-in LAN port), and a new setting for Sleep Mode that allows the Switch to maintain an Internet connection when the Switch is asleep to download updates. When disabled, the console will only connect to the Internet occasionally when asleep, in order to save power. Additionally, Patch 13.0 changed the method to initiate a control stick calibration and allowed users to view their wireless internet frequency band (2.4 GHz or 5 GHz) on the Internet Connection Status page.
In November 2021, the 13.1.0 version update added support for Nintendo Switch Online + Expansion Pack.
References
2017 software
Game console operating systems
Nintendo Switch
Proprietary operating systems
Microkernel-based operating systems
Microkernels
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Section%20230
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Section 230
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Section 230 is a section of Title 47 of the United States Code enacted as part of the United States Communications Decency Act, that generally provides immunity for website platforms with respect to third-party content. At its core, Section 230(c)(1) provides immunity from liability for providers and users of an "interactive computer service" who publish information provided by third-party users:
No provider or user of an interactive computer service shall be treated as the publisher or speaker of any information provided by another information content provider.
Section 230(c)(2) further provides "Good Samaritan" protection from civil liability for operators of interactive computer services in the removal or moderation of third-party material they deem obscene or offensive, even of constitutionally protected speech.
Section 230 was developed in response to a pair of lawsuits against Internet service providers (ISPs) in the early 1990s that resulted in different interpretations of whether the service providers should be treated as publishers or, alternatively, as distributors of content created by its users. It was enacted as part of the Communications Decency Act (CDA) of 1996 (a common name for Title V of the Telecommunications Act of 1996), formally codified as part of the Communications Act of 1934 at . After passage of the Telecommunications Act, the CDA was challenged in courts and was ruled by the Supreme Court in Reno v. American Civil Liberties Union (1997) to be unconstitutional, though Section 230 was determined to be severable from the rest of the legislation and remained in place. Since then, several legal challenges have validated the constitutionality of Section 230.
Section 230 protections are not limitless, requiring providers to remove material illegal on a federal level, such as in copyright infringement cases. In 2018, Section 230 was amended by the Stop Enabling Sex Traffickers Act (FOSTA-SESTA) to require the removal of material violating federal and state sex trafficking laws. In the following years, protections from Section 230 have come under more scrutiny on issues related to hate speech and ideological biases in relation to the power technology companies can hold on political discussions, and became a major issue during the 2020 United States presidential election.
Passed at a time when Internet use was just starting to expand in both breadth of services and range of consumers in the United States, Section 230 has frequently been referred to as a key law that allowed the Internet to develop.
Application and limits
Section 230 has two primary parts both listed under §230(c) as the "Good Samaritan" portion of the law. Under section 230(c)(1), as identified above, an information service provider shall not be treated as a "publisher or speaker" of information from another provider. Section 230(c)(2) provides immunity from civil liabilities for information service providers that remove or restrict content from their services they deem "obscene, lewd, lascivious, filthy, excessively violent, harassing, or otherwise objectionable, whether or not such material is constitutionally protected", as long as they act "in good faith" in this action.
In analyzing the availability of the immunity offered by Section 230, courts generally apply a three-prong test. A defendant must satisfy each of the three prongs to gain the benefit of the immunity:
The defendant must be a "provider or user" of an "interactive computer service."
The cause of action asserted by the plaintiff must treat the defendant as the "publisher or speaker" of the harmful information at issue.
The information must be "provided by another information content provider," i.e., the defendant must not be the "information content provider" of the harmful information at issue.
Section 230 immunity is not unlimited. The statute specifically excepts federal criminal liability (§230(e)(1)), electronic privacy violations (§230(e)(4)) and intellectual property claims (§230(e)(2)). There is also no immunity from state laws that are consistent with though state criminal laws have been held preempted in cases such as Backpage.com, LLC v. McKenna and Voicenet Communications, Inc. v. Corbett (agreeing that "the plain language of the CDA provides ... immunity from inconsistent state criminal laws"). What constitutes "publishing" under the CDA is somewhat narrowly defined by the courts. The Ninth Circuit held that "Publication involves reviewing, editing, and deciding whether to publish or to withdraw from publication third-party content." Thus, the CDA does not provide immunity with respect to content that an interactive service provider creates or develops entirely by themselves. CDA immunity also does not bar an action based on promissory estoppel.
As of mid-2016, courts have issued conflicting decisions regarding the scope of the intellectual property exclusion set forth in §230(e)(2). For example, in Perfect 10, Inc. v. CCBill, LLC, the 9th Circuit Court of Appeals ruled that the exception for intellectual property law applies only to federal intellectual property claims such as copyright infringement, trademark infringement, and patents, reversing a district court ruling that the exception applies to state-law right of publicity claims. The 9th Circuit's decision in Perfect 10 conflicts with conclusions from other courts including Doe v. Friendfinder. The Friendfinder court specifically discussed and rejected the lower court's reading of "intellectual property law" in CCBill and held that the immunity does not reach state right of publicity claims.
Additionally, with the passage of the Digital Millennium Copyright Act in 1998, service providers must comply with additional requirements for copyright infringement to maintain safe harbor protections from liability, as defined in the DMCA's Title II, Online Copyright Infringement Liability Limitation Act.
Background and passage
Prior to the Internet, case law was clear that a liability line was drawn between publishers of content and distributors of content; a publisher would be expected to have awareness of material it was publishing and thus should be held liable for any illegal content it published, while a distributor would likely not be aware and thus would be immune. This was established in the 1959 case, Smith v. California, where the Supreme Court ruled that putting liability on the provider (a book store in this case) would have "a collateral effect of inhibiting the freedom of expression, by making the individual the more reluctant to exercise it."
In the early 1990s, the Internet became more widely adopted and created means for users to engage in forums and other user-generated content. While this helped to expand the use of the Internet, it also resulted in a number of legal cases putting service providers at fault for the content generated by its users. This concern was raised by legal challenges against CompuServe and Prodigy, which were early service providers at that time. CompuServe stated it would not attempt to regulate what users posted on its services, while Prodigy had employed a team of moderators to validate content. Both companies faced legal challenges related to content posted by their users. In Cubby, Inc. v. CompuServe Inc., CompuServe was found not be at fault as, by its stance as allowing all content to go unmoderated, it was a distributor and thus not liable for libelous content posted by users. However, in Stratton Oakmont, Inc. v. Prodigy Services Co., the court concluded that because Prodigy had taken an editorial role with regard to customer content, it was a publisher and was legally responsible for libel committed by its customers.
Service providers made their Congresspersons aware of these cases, believing that if followed by other courts across the nation, the cases would stifle the growth of the Internet. United States Representative Christopher Cox (R-CA) had read an article about the two cases and felt the decisions were backwards. "It struck me that if that rule was going to take hold then the internet would become the Wild West and nobody would have any incentive to keep the internet civil," Cox stated.
At the time, Congress was preparing the Communications Decency Act (CDA), part of the omnibus Telecommunications Act of 1996, which was designed to make knowingly sending indecent or obscene material to minors a criminal offense. A version of the CDA had passed through the Senate pushed by Senator J. James Exon (D-NE). People in a grassroots effort in the tech industry reacted to try to convince the House of Representatives to challenge Exon's bill. Based on the Stratton Oakmont decision, Congress recognized that requiring service providers to block indecent content would make them be treated as publishers in the context of the First Amendment, and thus would make them become liable for other content such as libel, not set out in the existing CDA. Cox and fellow Representative Ron Wyden (D-OR) wrote the House bill's section 509, titled the Internet Freedom and Family Empowerment Act, designed to override the decision from Stratton Oakmont, so that a service provider could moderate content as necessary and would not have to act as a wholly neutral conduit. The new provision was added to the text of the proposed statute while the CDA was in conference within the House.
The overall Telecommunications Act, with both Exon's CDA and Cox/Wyden's provision, passed both Houses by near-unanimous votes and was signed into law by President Bill Clinton by February 1996. Cox/Wyden's section became Section 509 of the Telecommunications Act of 1996 and became law as a new Section 230 of the Communications Act of 1934. The anti-indecency portion of the CDA was immediately challenged on passage, resulting in the Supreme Court 1997 case, Reno v. American Civil Liberties Union, that ruled all of the anti-indecency sections of the CDA were unconstitutional, but left Section 230 as law.
Impact
Section 230 has often been called "The 26 words that made the Internet". The passage and subsequent legal history supporting the constitutionality of Section 230 have been considered essential to the growth of the Internet through the early part of the 21st century. Coupled with the Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA) of 1998, Section 230 provides internet service providers safe harbors to operate as intermediaries of content without fear of being liable for that content as long as they take reasonable steps to delete or prevent access to that content. These protections allowed experimental and novel applications in the Internet area without fear of legal ramifications, creating the foundations of modern Internet services such as advanced search engines, social media, video streaming, and cloud computing. NERA Economic Consulting estimated in 2017 that Section 230 and the DMCA, combined, contributed about 425,000 jobs to the U.S. in 2017 and represented a total revenue of annually.
Subsequent history
Early challengesZeran v. AOL (1997–2008)
The first major challenge to Section 230 itself was Zeran v. AOL, a 1997 case decided at the Fourth Circuit. The case involved a person that sued America Online (AOL) for failing to remove, in a timely manner, libelous ads posted by AOL users that inappropriately connected his home phone number to the Oklahoma City bombing. The court found for AOL and upheld the constitutionality of Section 230, stating that Section 230 "creates a federal immunity to any cause of action that would make service providers liable for information originating with a third-party user of the service." The court asserted in its ruling Congress's rationale for Section 230 was to give Internet service providers broad immunity "to remove disincentives for the development and utilization of blocking and filtering technologies that empower parents to restrict their children's access to objectionable or inappropriate online material." In addition, Zeran notes "the amount of information communicated via interactive computer services is … staggering. The specter of tort liability in an area of such prolific speech would have an obviously chilling effect. It would be impossible for service providers to screen each of their millions of postings for possible problems. Faced with potential liability for each message republished by their services, interactive computer service providers might choose to severely restrict the number and type of messages posted. Congress considered the weight of the speech interests implicated and chose to immunize service providers to avoid any such restrictive effect."
This rule, cementing Section 230's liability protections, has been considered one of the most important case laws affecting the growth of the Internet, allowing websites to be able to incorporate user-generated content without fear of prosecution. However, at the same time, this has led to Section 230 being used as a shield for some website owners as courts have ruled Section 230 provides complete immunity for ISPs with regard to the torts committed by their users over their systems. Through the next decade, most cases involving Section 230 challenges generally fell in favor of service providers, ruling in favor of their immunity from third-party content on their sites.
Erosion of Section 230 immunityRoommates.com (2008–16)
While Section 230 had seemed to have given near complete immunity to service providers in its first decade, new case law around 2008 started to find cases where providers can be liable for user content due to being a "publisher or speaker" related to that content under §230(c)(1). One of the first such cases to make this challenge was Fair Housing Council of San Fernando Valley v. Roommates.com, LLC 521 F.3d 1157 (9th Cir. 2008), The case centered on the services of Roommates.com that helped to match renters based on profiles they created on their website; this profile was generated by a mandatory questionnaire and which included information about their gender and race and preferred roommates' race. The Fair Housing Council of San Fernando Valley stated this created discrimination and violated the Fair Housing Act, and asserted that Roommates.com was liable for this. In 2008, the Ninth Circuit in an en banc decision ruled against Roommates.com, agreeing that its required profile system made it an information content provider and thus ineligible to receive the protections of §230(c)(1).
The decision from Roommates.com was considered to be the most significant deviation from Zeran in how Section 230 was handled in case law. Eric Goldman of the Santa Clara University School of Law wrote that while the Ninth Circuit's decision in Roommates.com was tailored to apply to a limited number of websites, he was "fairly confident that lots of duck-biting plaintiffs will try to capitalize on this opinion and they will find some judges who ignore the philosophical statements and instead turn a decision on the opinion's myriad of ambiguities". Over the next several years, a number of cases cited the Ninth Circuit's decision in Roommates.com to limit some of the Section 230 immunity to websites. Law professor Jeff Kosseff of the United States Naval Academy reviewed 27 cases in the 2015–2016 year involving Section 230 immunity concerns, and found more than half of them had denied the service provider immunity, in contrast to a similar study he had performed in from 2001 to 2002 where a majority of cases granted the website immunity; Kosseff asserted that the Roommates.com decision was the key factor that led to this change.
Sex traffickingBackpage.com and FOSTA-SESTA (2012–17)
Around 2001, a University of Pennsylvania paper warned that "online sexual victimization of American children appears to have reached epidemic proportions" due to the allowances granted by Section 230. Over the next decade, advocates against such exploitation, such as the National Center for Missing and Exploited Children and Cook County Sheriff Tom Dart, pressured major websites to block or remove content related to sex trafficking, leading to sites like Facebook, MySpace, and Craigslist to pull such content. Because mainstream sites were blocking this content, those that engaged or profited from trafficking started to use more obscure sites, leading to the creation of sites like Backpage. In addition to removing these from the public eye, these new sites worked to obscure what trafficking was going on and who was behind it, limiting ability for law enforcement to take action. Backpage and similar sites quickly came under numerous lawsuits from victims of the sex traffickers and exploiters for enabling this crime, but the court continually found in favor of Backpage due to Section 230. Attempts to block Backpage from using credit card services as to deny them revenue was also defeated in the courts, as Section 230 allowed their actions to stand in January 2017.
Due to numerous complaints from constituents, Congress began an investigation into Backpage and similar sites in January 2017, finding Backpage complicit in aiding and profiting from illegal sex trafficking. Subsequently, Congress introduced the FOSTA-SESTA bills: the Allow States and Victims to Fight Online Sex Trafficking Act (FOSTA) in the House of Representatives by Ann Wagner (R-MO) in April 2017, and the Stop Enabling Sex Traffickers Act (SESTA) U.S. Senate bill introduced by Rob Portman (R-OH) in August 2017. Combined, the FOSTA-SESTA bills modified Section 230 to exempt service providers from Section 230 immunity when dealing with civil or criminal crimes related to sex trafficking, which removes section 230 immunity for services that knowingly facilitate or support sex trafficking. The bill passed both Houses and was signed into law by President Donald Trump on April 11, 2018.
The bills were criticized by pro-free speech and pro-Internet groups as a "disguised internet censorship bill" that weakens the section 230 immunity, places unnecessary burdens on Internet companies and intermediaries that handle user-generated content or communications with service providers required to proactively take action against sex trafficking activities, and requires a "team of lawyers" to evaluate all possible scenarios under state and federal law (which may be financially unfeasible for smaller companies). Critics also argued that FOSTA-SESTA did not distinguish between consensual, legal sex offerings from non-consensual ones, and argued it would cause websites otherwise engaged in legal offerings of sex work would be threatened with liability charges. Online sex workers argued that the bill would harm their safety, as the platforms they utilize for offering and discussing sexual services in a legal manner (as an alternative to street prostitution) had begun to reduce their services or shut down entirely due to the threat of liability under the bill.
Debate on protections for social media (2016–present)
Many social media sites, notably the Big Tech companies of Facebook, Google, and Apple, as well as Twitter, have come under scrutiny as a result of the alleged Russian interference in the 2016 United States elections, where it was alleged that Russian agents used the sites to spread propaganda and fake news to swing the election in favor of Donald Trump. These platforms also were criticized for not taking action against users that used the social media outlets for harassment and hate speech against others. Shortly after the passage of FOSTA-SESTA acts, some in Congress recognized that additional changes could be made to Section 230 to require service providers to deal with these bad actors, beyond what Section 230 already provided to them.
Numerous experts have suggested that changing 230 without repealing it entirely would be the optimal way to improve it. Google's former fraud czar Shuman Ghosemajumder proposed in 2021 that full protections should only apply to unmonetized content, to align platforms' content moderation efforts with their financial incentives, and to encourage the use of better technology to achieve that necessary scale. Researchers Marshall Van Alstyne and Michael D. Smith supported this idea of an additional duty-of-care requirement. However, journalist Martin Baron has argued that most of Section 230 is essential for social media companies to exist at all.
Platform neutrality
Some politicians, including Republican senators Ted Cruz (TX) and Josh Hawley (MO), have accused major social networks of displaying a bias against conservative perspectives when moderating content (such as Twitter suspensions). In a Fox News op-ed, Cruz argued that section 230 should only apply to providers that are politically "neutral", suggesting that a provider "should be considered to be a liable 'publisher or speaker' of user content if they pick and choose what gets published or spoke." Section 230 does not contain any requirements that moderation decisions be neutral. Hawley alleged that section 230 immunity was a "sweetheart deal between big tech and big government".
In December 2018, Republican representative Louie Gohmert introduced the Biased Algorithm Deterrence Act (H.R.492), which would remove all section 230 protections for any provider that used filters or any other type of algorithms to display user content when otherwise not directed by a user.
In June 2019, Hawley introduced the Ending Support for Internet Censorship Act (S. 1914), that would remove section 230 protections from companies whose services have more than 30 million active monthly users in the U.S. and more than 300 million worldwide, or have over $500 million in annual global revenue, unless they receive a certification from the majority of the Federal Trade Commission that they do not moderate against any political viewpoint, and have not done so in the past 2 years.
There has been criticism—and support—of the proposed bill from various points on the political spectrum. A poll of more than 1,000 voters gave Senator Hawley's bill a net favorability rating of 29 points among Republicans (53% favor, 24% oppose) and 26 points among Democrats (46% favor, 20% oppose). Some Republicans feared that by adding FTC oversight, the bill would continue to fuel fears of a big government with excessive oversight powers. Nancy Pelosi, the Democratic Speaker of the House, has indicated support for the same approach Hawley has taken. The chairman of the Senate Judiciary Committee, Senator Graham, has also indicated support for the same approach Hawley has taken, saying "he is considering legislation that would require companies to uphold 'best business practices' to maintain their liability shield, subject to periodic review by federal regulators."
Legal experts have criticized the Republicans' push to make Section 230 encompass platform neutrality. Wyden stated in response to potential law changes that "Section 230 is not about neutrality. Period. Full stop. 230 is all about letting private companies make their own decisions to leave up some content and take other content down." Kosseff has stated that the Republican intentions are based on a "fundamental misunderstanding" of Section 230's purpose, as platform neutrality was not one of the considerations made at the time of passage. Kosseff stated that political neutrality was not the intent of Section 230 according to the framers, but rather making sure providers had the ability to make content-removal judgement without fear of liability. There have been concerns that any attempt to weaken Section 230 could actually cause an increase in censorship when services lose their exemption from liability.
Attempts to bring damages to tech companies for apparent anti-conservative bias in courts, arguing against Section 230 protections, have generally failed. A lawsuit brought by the non-profit Freedom's Watch in 2018 against Google, Facebook, Twitter, and Apple on antitrust violations for using their positions to create anti-conservative censorship was dismissed by the D.C. Circuit Court of Appeals in May 2020, with the judges ruling that censorship can only apply to First Amendment rights blocked by the government and not by private entities.
Hate speech
In the wake of the 2019 shootings in Christchurch, New Zealand, El Paso, Texas, and Dayton, Ohio, the impact on Section 230 and liability towards online hate speech has been raised. In both the Christchurch and El Paso shootings, the perpetrator posted hate speech manifestos to 8chan, a moderated imageboard known to be favorable for the posting of extreme views. Concerned politicians and citizens raised calls at large tech companies for the need for hate speech to be removed from the Internet; however, hate speech is generally protected speech under the First Amendment, and Section 230 removes the liability for these tech companies to moderate such content as long as it is not illegal. This has given the appearance that tech companies do not need to be proactive against hateful content, thus allowing the hate content to proliferate online and lead to such incidents.
Notable articles on these concerns were published after the El Paso shooting by The New York Times, The Wall Street Journal, and Bloomberg Businessweek, among other outlets, but which were criticized by legal experts including Mike Godwin, Mark Lemley, and David Kaye, as the articles implied that hate speech was protected by Section 230, when it is in fact protected by the First Amendment. In the case of The New York Times, the paper issued a correction to affirm that the First Amendment protected hate speech, and not Section 230.
Members of Congress have indicated they may pass a law that changes how Section 230 would apply to hate speech as to make tech companies liable for this. Wyden, now a Senator, stated that he intended for Section 230 to be both "a sword and a shield" for Internet companies, the "sword" allowing them to remove content they deem inappropriate for their service, and the shield to help keep offensive content from their sites without liability. However, Wyden warned that because tech companies have not been willing to use the sword to remove content, they could be at risk of losing the shield. Some have compared Section 230 to the Protection of Lawful Commerce in Arms Act, a law that grants gun manufacturers immunity from certain types of lawsuits when their weapons are used in criminal acts. According to law professor Mary Anne Franks, "They have not only let a lot of bad stuff happen on their platforms, but they've actually decided to profit off of people's bad behavior."
Representative Beto O'Rourke stated his intent for his 2020 presidential campaign to introduce sweeping changes to Section 230 to make Internet companies liable for not being proactive in taking down hate speech. O'Rourke later dropped out of the race. Fellow candidate and former vice president Joe Biden has similarly called for Section 230 protections to be weakened or otherwise "revoked" for "big tech" companies—particularly Facebook—having stated in a January 2020 interview with The New York Times that "[Facebook] is not merely an internet company. It is propagating falsehoods they know to be false", and that the U.S. needed to "[set] standards" in the same way that the European Union's General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) set standards for online privacy.
Terrorism-related content
In the aftermath of the Backpage trial and subsequent passage of FOSTA-SESTA, others have found that Section 230 appears to protect tech companies from content that is otherwise illegal under United States law. Professor Danielle Citron and journalist Benjamin Wittes found that as late as 2018, several groups deemed as terrorist organizations by the United States had been able to maintain social media accounts on services run by American companies, despite federal laws that make providing material support to terrorist groups subject to civil and criminal charges. However, case law from the Second Circuit has ruled that under Section 230, technology companies are generally not liable for civil claims based on terrorism-related content.
2020 Department of Justice review
In February 2020, the United States Department of Justice held a workshop related to Section 230 as part of an ongoing antitrust probe into "big tech" companies. Attorney General William Barr said that while Section 230 was needed to protect the Internet's growth while most companies were not stable, "No longer are technology companies the underdog upstarts...They have become titans of U.S. industry" and questioned the need for Section 230's broad protections. Barr said that the workshop was not meant to make policy decisions on Section 230, but part of a "holistic review" related to Big Tech since "not all of the concerns raised about online platforms squarely fall within antitrust" and that the Department of Justice would want to see reform and better incentives to improve online content by tech companies within the scope of Section 230 rather than change the law directly. Observers to the sessions stated the focus of the talks only covered Big Tech and small sites that engaged in areas of revenge porn, harassment, and child sexual abuse, but did not consider much of the intermediate uses of the Internet.
The DOJ issued their four major recommendations to Congress in June 2020 to modify Section 230. These include:
Incentivizing platforms to deal with illicit content, including calling out "Bad Samaritans" that solicit illicit activity and remove their immunity, and carve out exemptions in the areas of child abuse, terrorism, and cyber-stalking, as well as when platforms have been notified by courts of illicit material;
Removing protections from civil lawsuits brought by the federal government;
Disallowing Section 230 protections in relationship to antitrust actions on the large Internet platforms; and
Promoting discourse and transparency by defining existing terms in the statute like "otherwise objectionable" and "good faith" with specific language, and requiring platforms to publicly document when they take moderation actions against content unless that may interfere with law enforcement or risk harm to an individual.
Legislation to alter Section 230
In 2020, several bills were introduced through Congress to limit the liability protections that Internet platforms had from Section 230 as a result of events in the preceding years.
EARN IT Act of 2020
In March 2020, a bi-partisan bill known as the Eliminating Abusive and Rampant Neglect of Interactive Technologies (EARN IT) Act () was introduced to the Senate, which called for the creation of a 15-member government commission (including administration officials and industry experts) to establish "best practices" for the detection and reporting of child exploitation materials. Internet services would be required to follow these practices; the commission would have the power to penalize those who are not in compliance, which can include removing their Section 230 protections.
While the bill had bi-partisan support from its sponsors (Lindsey Graham, Josh Hawley, Dianne Feinstein, and Richard Blumenthal) and backing from groups like National Center for Missing and Exploited Children and the National Center on Sexual Exploitation, the EARN IT Act was criticized by a coalition of 25 organizations, as well as by human rights groups including the Electronic Frontier Foundation, the American Civil Liberties Union, and Human Rights Watch. Opponents of the bill recognized that some of the "best practices" would most likely include a backdoor for law enforcement into any encryption used on the site, in addition to the dismantling of Section 230's approach, based on commentary made by members of the federal agencies that would be placed on this commission. For example, Attorney General Barr has extensively argued that the use of end-to-end encryption by online services can obstruct investigations by law enforcement, especially those involving child exploitation and has pushed for a governmental backdoor into encryption services. The Senators behind EARN IT have stated that there is no intent to bring any such encryption backdoors with this legislation.
Wyden also was critical of the bill, calling it "a transparent and deeply cynical effort by a few well-connected corporations and the Trump administration to use child sexual abuse to their political advantage, the impact to free speech and the security and privacy of every single American be damned." Graham stated that the goal of the bill was "to do this in a balanced way that doesn't overly inhibit innovation, but forcibly deals with child exploitation." As an implicit response to EARN IT, Wyden along with House Representative Anna G. Eshoo proposed a new bill, the Invest in Child Safety Act, in May 2020 that would give to the Department to Justice to give additional manpower and tools to enable them to address child exploitation directly rather than to rely on technology companies to rein in the problem.
The EARN IT Act advanced out of the senate judiciary committee by a unanimous 22-0 vote on July 2, 2020, following an amendment by Lindsey Graham. Graham's amendment removed the legal authority of the proposed federal commission, instead giving a similar authority to each individual state state government. The bill was introduced into the House on October 2, 2020.
Limiting Section 230 Immunity to Good Samaritans Act
In June 2020, Hawley and three Republican Senators, Marco Rubio, Kelly Loeffler and Kevin Cramer, called on the FCC to review the protections that the Big Tech companies had from Section 230, stating in their letter that "It is time to take a fresh look at Section 230 and to interpret the vague standard of 'good faith' with specific guidelines and direction" due to the "a lack of clear rules" and the "judicial expansion" around the statute. Hawley introduced the "Limiting Section 230 Immunity to Good Samaritans Act" bill in the Senate on June 17, 2020, with co-sponsors Rubio, Mike Braun and Tom Cotton, which would allow providers with over 30 million monthly U.S. users and over in global revenues to be liable to lawsuits from users who believed that the provider was not uniformly enforcing content; users would be able to seek damages up to and lawyers fees under the bill.
Platform Accountability and Consumer Transparency (PACT) Act
A bi-partisan bill introduced by Senators Brian Schatz and John Thune in June 2020, the "Platform Accountability and Consumer Technology Act" would require Internet platforms to issue public statements on their policies for how they moderate, demonetize, and remove user content from their platforms, and to publish public quarterly reports to summarize their actions and statistics for that quarter. The bill would also mandate that platforms conform with all court-ordered removal of content deemed illegal within 24 hours. Further, the bill would eliminate platforms' Section 230 protections from federal civil liability in cases brought against the platforms and would enable states' attorney generals to enforce actions against platforms. Schatz and Thune considered their approach more of "a scalpel, rather than a jackhammer" in contrast to other options that have been presented to date.
Behavioral Advertising Decisions Are Downgrading Services (BAD ADS) Act
Hawley introduced the Behavioral Advertising Decisions Are Downgrading Services Act in July 2020, which would remove Section 230 protections for larger service providers (30 million users in the U.S. or 300 million globally and with more than in annual revenue) if their sites used behavioral advertising, with ads tailored to the users of the sites based on how the users had engaged with the site or where they were located. Hawley had spoken out against such ad practices and had previously tried to add legislation to require service providers to add "do not track" functionality for Internet ads.
Online Freedom and Viewpoint Diversity Act
Senators Lindsey Graham, Roger Wicker and Marsha Blackburn introduced the Online Freedom and Viewpoint Diversity Act in September 2020. The bill, if passed, would strip away Section 230 liability protection for sites that fail to give reason for actions taken in moderating or restricting content, and require them to state that said content must have a "objectively reasonable belief" it violated their site's terms or the site could be penalized. The bill would also replace the vague "objectionable" term in Section 230(c)(2) with more specific categories, like "unlawful" material where a website would not become liable for taking steps to moderate content.
Safeguarding Against Fraud, Exploitation, Threats, Extremism, and Consumer Harms Act (SAFE TECH act)
Democratic Senators Mark Warner, Mazie Hirono and Amy Klobuchar introduced the SAFE TECH in February 2021. The bill has multiple parts. It would first alter 230(c)(1) to cover only "speech" and not "information" making providers liable for illegal speech. It would also remove the Good Samaritan immunity around federal and state laws with regards to civil rights laws, antitrust laws, cyberstalking laws, human rights laws or civil actions regarding a wrongful death. Further, it would eliminate the immunity for any speech that the provide was paid to carry, such as through advertising or marketplace listings. Finally, it would force providers to comply with court orders for removal of material related to the prior areas.
Executive Order on Preventing Online Censorship
President Donald Trump was a major proponent of limiting the protections of technology and media companies under Section 230 due to claims of an anti-conservative bias. In July 2019, Trump held a "Social Media Summit" that he used to criticize how Twitter, Facebook, and Google handled conservative voices on their platforms. During the summit, Trump warned that he would seek "all regulatory and legislative solutions to protect free speech".
In late May 2020, President Trump made statements that mail-in voting would lead to massive fraud, in a pushback against the use of mail-in voting due to the COVID-19 pandemic for the upcoming 2020 primary elections, in both his public speeches and his social media accounts. In a Twitter message on May 26, 2020, he stated that, "There is NO WAY (ZERO!) that Mail-In Ballots will be anything less than substantially fraudulent." Shortly after its posting, Twitter moderators marked the message with a "potentially misleading" warning (a process it had introduced a few weeks earlier that month primarily in response to misinformation about the COVID-19 pandemic) linking readers to a special page on its site that provided analysis and fact-checks of Trump's statement from media sources like CNN and The Washington Post, the first time it had used the process on Trump's messages. Jack Dorsey, Twitter's CEO, defended the moderation, stating that they were not acting as a "arbitrator of truth" but instead "Our intention is to connect the dots of conflicting statements and show the information in dispute so people can judge for themselves." Trump was angered by this, and shortly afterwards threatened that he would take action to "strongly regulate" technology companies, asserting these companies were suppressing conservative voices.
On May 28, 2020, Trump signed the "Executive Order on Preventing Online Censorship" (EO 13925), an executive order directing regulatory action at Section 230. Trump stated in a press conference before signing his rationale for it: "A small handful of social media monopolies controls a vast portion of all public and private communications in the United States. They've had unchecked power to censor, restrict, edit, shape, hide, alter, virtually any form of communication between private citizens and large public audiences." The EO asserts that media companies that edit content apart from restricting posts that are violent, obscene or harassing, as outlined in the "Good Samaritan" clause §230(c)(2), are then "engaged in editorial conduct" and may forfeit any safe-harbor protection granted in §230(c)(1). From that, the EO specifically targets the "Good Samaritan" clause for media companies in their decisions to remove offensive material "in good faith". Courts have interpreted the "in good faith" portion of the statute based on its plain language, the EO purports to establish conditions where that good faith may be revoked, such as if the media companies have shown bias in how they remove material from the platform. The goal of the EO is to remove the Section 230 protections from such platforms, and thus leaving them liable for content. Whether a media platform has bias would be determined by a rulemaking process to be set by the Federal Communication Commission in consultation with the Commerce Department, the National Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA), and the Attorney General, while the Justice Department and state attorney generals will handle disputes related to bias, gather these to report to the Federal Trade Commission, who would make determinations if a federal lawsuit should be filed. Additional provisions prevent government agencies from advertising on media company platforms that are demonstrated to have such bias.
The EO came under intense criticism and legal analysis after its announcement. Senator Wyden stated that the EO was a "mugging of the First Amendment", and that there does need to be a thoughtful debate about modern considerations for Section 230, though the political spat between Trump and Twitter is not a consideration. Professor Kate Klonick of St. John's University School of Law in New York considered the EO "political theater" without any weight of authority. The Electronic Frontier Foundation's Aaron Mackey stated that the EO starts with a flawed misconstruing of linking sections §230(c)(1) and §230(c)(2), which were not written to be linked and have been treated by case law as independent statements in the statute, and thus "has no legal merit".
By happenstance, the EO was signed on the same day that riots erupted in Minneapolis, Minnesota in the wake of the murder of George Floyd, an African-American from an incident involving four officers of the Minneapolis Police Department. Trump had tweeted on his conversation with Minnesota's governor Tim Walz about bringing National Guard to stop the riots, but concluded with the statement, "Any difficulty and we will assume control but, when the looting starts, the shooting starts", a phrase attached to Miami Police Chief Walter E. Headley to deal with violent riots in 1967. After internal review, Twitter marked the message with a "public interest notice" that deemed it "glorified violence", which they would normally remove for violating the site's terms, but stated to journalists that they "have kept the Tweet on Twitter because it is important that the public still be able to see the Tweet given its relevance to ongoing matters of public importance." Following Twitter's marking of his May 28 tweet, Trump said in another tweet that due to Twitter's actions, "Section 230 should be revoked by Congress. Until then, it will be regulated!"
By June 2, 2020, the Center for Democracy & Technology filed a lawsuit in the United States District Court for the District of Columbia seeking preliminary and permanent injunction from the EO from being enforced, asserting that the EO created a chilling effect on free speech since it puts all hosts of third-party content "on notice that content moderation decisions with which the government disagrees could produce penalties and retributive actions, including stripping them of Section 230s protections".
The Secretary of Commerce via the NTIA sent a petition with a proposed rule to the FCC on July 27, 2020, as the first stage of executing on the EO. FCC chair Ajit Pai stated in October 2020 that after the Commission reviewed what authority they have over Section 230 that the FCC will proceed with putting forth their proposed rules to clarify Section 230 on October 15, 2020. Pai's announcement, which came shortly after Trump again called for Section 230 revisions after asserting Big Tech was purposely hiding a reporting of leaked documents around Hunter Biden, Joe Biden's son, was criticized by the Democratic FCC commissioners Geoffrey Starks and Jessica Rosenworcel and the tech industry, with Rosenworcel stating "The FCC has no business being the president's speech police."
A second lawsuit against the EO was filed by activist groups including Rock the Vote and Free Press on August 27, 2020, after Twitter had flagged another of Trump's tweets for misinformation related to mail-in voting fraud. The lawsuit stated that should the EO be enforced, Twitter would not have been able to fact-check tweets like Trump's as misleading, thus allowing the President or other government officials to intentionally distribute misinformation to citizens.
President Biden rescinded the EO on May 14, 2021, along with several of Trump's other orders.
Subsequent events
Following the November election, Trump has made numerous claims on his social media accounts contesting the results, including claims of fraud. Twitter and other social media companies have marked these posts as potentially misleading, similar to previous posts Trump has made. As a result, Trump threatened to veto the defense spending bill for 2021 if it did not contain language to repeal Section 230. Trump made good on his promise, vetoing the spending bill on December 23, 2020, in part for not containing a repeal of Section 230. The House voted to overturn the veto on December 28, 322–87, sending the bill to the Senate to vote to overturn. The Senate similarly voted to override the veto on January 1, 2021 without adding any Section 230 provisions.
During this, Trump urged Congress to expand the COVID-19 relief payments in the Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2021 that he had signed into law on December 27, 2020, but also stated that they should address the Section 230 repeal and other matters that were not addressed in the defense bill. The Senate majority leader Mitch McConnell stated on December 28 that he would bring legislation later that week that would include the expanded COVID-19 relief along with legislation to deal with Section 230, as outlined by Trump. Ultimately, no additional legislation was introduced.
In the wake of the 2021 United States Capitol attack on January 6, 2021, Pai stated that he would not be seeking any Section 230 reform before his prior planned resignation from office on January 20, 2021. Pai stated that this was mostly due to the lack of time to implement such rule making before his resignation, but also said that he would not "second-guess those decisions" of social media networks under Section 230 to block some of Trump's messages from January 6 that contributed to the violence. In the days that followed, Twitter, Facebook, and other social media services blocked or banned Trump's accounts claiming his speech during and after the riot was inciting further violence. These actions were supported by politicians, but led to renewed calls by Democrat leaders to reconsider Section 230, as these politicians believed that Section 230 led the companies to fail to take any preemptive action against the people who had planned and executed the Capitol riots. Separately, Trump filed class-action lawsuits against Twitter, Facebook, and YouTube in July 2021 related to his bans from the January 2021 period, claiming their actions were unjustifable, and claiming that Section 230 was unconstitutional.
In March 2021, Facebook's Mark Zuckerberg, Alphabet's Sundar Pichai, and Twitter's Jack Dorsey were asked to testify to the House Committee on Energy and Commerce relating to the role of social media in promoting extremism and misinformation following the 2020 election; of which Section 230 was expected to be a topic. Prior to the event, Zuckerberg proposed an alternate change to Section 230 compared to previously proposed bills. Zuckerberg stated that it would be costly and impractical for social media companies to traffic all problematic material, and instead it would be better to tie Section 230 liability protection to companies that have demonstrated that they have mechanisms in place to remove this material once it is identified.
The state of Florida (predominately Republican after the 2020 election) passed its "deplatforming" Senate Bill 7072 in May 2021, which had been proposed in February 2021 after Trump had been banned from several social media sites. SB 7072 prevents social media companies from knowingly blocking or banning politicians, and grants the Florida Elections Commission the ability to fine these companies for knowing violations, with fines as high as per day for state-level politicians. The bill exempts companies that own theme parks or other large venues within the state, thus would exempt companies such as Disney whose parks provide a significant tax revenue to the state. The Computer & Communications Industry Association and NetChoice filed suit against the state to block enforcement of the law, asserting that the law violated the First Amendment rights of private companies. Judge Robert Lewis Hinkle of the United States District Court for the Northern District of Florida issued a preliminary injunction against the law on June 30, 2021, stating that "The legislation now at issue was an effort to rein in social-media providers deemed too large and too liberal. Balancing the exchange of ideas among private speakers is not a legitimate governmental interest", and further that the law "discriminates on its face among otherwise identical speakers". Texas enacted a similar bill in September 2021, intended to prevent large social media providers from banning or demonetizing their users based on the user's viewpoint, including for views expressed outside of the social media platform, as well as to increase transparency in how these providers moderate content. A federal district judge placed an injunction on this law in December 2021, stating that the law's "prohibitions on 'censorship' and constraints on how social media platforms disseminate content violate the First Amendment".
In July 2021, Democratic senators Amy Klobuchar and Ben Ray Luján introduced the Health Misinformation Act, which is intended primarily to combat COVID-19 misinformation. It would add a carveout to Section 230 to make companies liable for the publication of "health misinformation" during a "public health emergency" — as established by the Department of Health and Human Services — if the content is promoted to users via algorithmic decisions.
Following Frances Haugen's testimony to Congress that related to her whistleblowing on Facebook's internal handling of content, House Democrats Anna Eshoo, Frank Pallone Jr., Mike Doyle, and Jan Schakowsky introduced the "Justice Against Malicious Algorithms Act" in October 2021. The bill would remove Section 230 protections for service providers related to personalized recommendation algorithms that present content to users if those algorithms knowingly or recklessly deliver content that contributes to physical or severe emotional injury.
Case law
Numerous cases involving Section 230 have been heard in the judiciary system since its introduction, many which are rote applications of Section 230.
The following is a partial list of legal cases that have been established as case law that have influenced the interpretation of Section 230 in subsequent cases or have led to new legislation around Section 230.
Defamatory information
Zeran v. AOL, 129 F.3d 327 (4th Cir. 1997).
Immunity was upheld against claims that AOL unreasonably delayed in removing defamatory messages posted by third party, failed to post retractions, and failed to screen for similar postings.
Blumenthal v. Drudge, 992 F. Supp. 44, 49–53 (D.D.C. 1998).
The court upheld AOL's immunity from liability for defamation. AOL's agreement with the contractor allowing AOL to modify or remove such content did not make AOL the "information content provider" because the content was created by an independent contractor. The Court noted that Congress made a policy choice by "providing immunity even where the interactive service provider has an active, even aggressive role in making available content prepared by others."
Carafano v. Metrosplash.com, 339 F.3d 1119 (9th Cir. 2003).
The court upheld immunity for an Internet dating service provider from liability stemming from third party's submission of a false profile. The plaintiff, Carafano, claimed the false profile defamed her, but because the content was created by a third party, the website was immune, even though it had provided multiple choice selections to aid profile creation.
Batzel v. Smith, 333 F.3d 1018 (9th Cir. 2003).
Immunity was upheld for a website operator for distributing an email to a listserv where the plaintiff claimed the email was defamatory. Though there was a question as to whether the information provider intended to send the email to the listserv, the Court decided that for determining the liability of the service provider, "the focus should be not on the information provider's intentions or knowledge when transmitting content but, instead, on the service provider's or user's reasonable perception of those intentions or knowledge." The Court found immunity proper "under circumstances in which a reasonable person in the position of the service provider or user would conclude that the information was provided for publication on the Internet or other 'interactive computer service'."
Green v. AOL, 318 F.3d 465 (3rd Cir. 2003).
The court upheld immunity for AOL against allegations of negligence. Green claimed AOL failed to adequately police its services and allowed third parties to defame him and inflict intentional emotional distress. The court rejected these arguments because holding AOL negligent in promulgating harmful content would be equivalent to holding AOL "liable for decisions relating to the monitoring, screening, and deletion of content from its network -- actions quintessentially related to a publisher's role."
Barrett v. Rosenthal, 40 Cal. 4th 33 (2006).
Immunity was upheld for an individual internet user from liability for republication of defamatory statements on a listserv. The court found the defendant to be a "user of interactive computer services" and thus immune from liability for posting information passed to her by the author.
MCW, Inc. v. badbusinessbureau.com(RipOff Report/Ed Magedson/XCENTRIC Ventures LLC) 2004 WL 833595, No. Civ.A.302-CV-2727-G (N.D. Tex. April 19, 2004).
The court rejected the defendant's motion to dismiss on the grounds of Section 230 immunity, ruling that the plaintiff's allegations that the defendants wrote disparaging report titles and headings, and themselves wrote disparaging editorial messages about the plaintiff, rendered them information content providers. The Web site, www.badbusinessbureau.com, allows users to upload "reports" containing complaints about businesses they have dealt with.
Hy Cite Corp. v. badbusinessbureau.com (RipOff Report/Ed Magedson/XCENTRIC Ventures LLC), 418 F. Supp. 2d 1142 (D. Ariz. 2005).
The court rejected immunity and found the defendant was an "information content provider" under Section 230 using much of the same reasoning as the MCW case.
Barnes v. Yahoo!, Inc. 570 F.3d 1096 (9th Cir. 2009)
The court rejected immunity for the defendant when failing to uphold a promissory estoppel claim related to third-party content that they were otherwise immune from; in this case, Yahoo! had promised to remove nude photos of the plaintiff placed maliciously on the site by an ex-partner but had failed to do so. While the Ninth Circuit ultimately dismissed the case since Yahoo! would not have been liable for the photos under Section 230, their promissory estoppel makes them a "publisher or speaker" under Section 230.
False information
Gentry v. eBay, Inc., 99 Cal. App. 4th 816, 830 (2002).
eBay's immunity was upheld for claims based on forged autograph sports items purchased on the auction site.
Ben Ezra, Weinstein & Co. v. America Online, 206 F.3d 980, 984–985 (10th Cir. 2000), cert. denied, 531 U.S. 824 (2000).
Immunity for AOL was upheld against liability for a user's posting of incorrect stock information.
Goddard v. Google, Inc., C 08-2738 JF (PVT), 2008 WL 5245490, 2008 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 101890 (N.D. Cal. December 17, 2008).
Immunity was upheld against claims of fraud and money laundering. Google was not responsible for misleading advertising created by third parties who bought space on Google's pages. The court found the creative pleading of money laundering did not cause the case to fall into the crime exception to Section 230 immunity.
Milgram v. Orbitz Worldwide, LLC, ESX-C-142-09 (N.J. Super. Ct. August 26, 2010).
Immunity for Orbitz and CheapTickets was upheld for claims based on fraudulent ticket listings entered by third parties on ticket resale marketplaces.
Herrick v. Grindr, 765 F. App'x 586 (2nd Cir. 2019).
The Second Circuit upheld immunity for the Grindr dating app for LGBT persons under Section 230 in regards to the misuse of false profiles created in the names of a real person. The plaintiff had broken up with a boyfriend, who later went onto Grindr to create multiple false profiles that presented the real-life identity and address of the plaintiff and as being available for sexual encounters, as well as having illegal drugs for sale. The plaintiff reported that over a thousand men had come to his house for sex and drugs, based on the communications with the fake profile, and he began to fear for his safety. He sued Grindr for not taking actions to block the false profiles after multiple requests. Grindr asserted Section 230 did not make them liable for the actions of the ex-boyfriend. This was agreed by the district court and the Second Circuit.
Sexually explicit content and minors
Doe v. America Online, 783 So. 2d 1010, 1013–1017 (Fl. 2001), cert. denied, 122 S.Ct. 208 (2000).
The court upheld immunity against state claims of negligence based on "chat room marketing" of obscene photographs of minor by a third party.
Kathleen R. v. City of Livermore, 87 Cal. App. 4th 684, 692 (2001).
The California Court of Appeal upheld the immunity of a city from claims of waste of public funds, nuisance, premises liability, and denial of substantive due process. The plaintiff's child downloaded pornography from a public library's computers, which did not restrict access to minors. The court found the library was not responsible for the content of the internet and explicitly found that section 230(c)(1) immunity covers governmental entities and taxpayer causes of action.
Doe v. MySpace, 528 F.3d 413 (5th Cir. 2008).
The court upheld immunity for a social networking site from negligence and gross negligence liability for failing to institute safety measures to protect minors and failure to institute policies relating to age verification. The Does' daughter had lied about her age and communicated over MySpace with a man who later sexually assaulted her. In the court's view, the Does' allegations were "merely another way of claiming that MySpace was liable for publishing the communications."
Dart v. Craigslist, Inc., 665 F. Supp. 2d 961 (N.D. Ill. October 20, 2009).
The court upheld immunity for Craigslist against a county sheriff's claims that its "erotic services" section constituted a public nuisance because it caused or induced prostitution.
Backpage.com v. McKenna, et al., CASE NO. C12-954-RSM
Backpage.com LLC v Cooper, Case # 12-cv-00654[SS1]
Backpage.com LLC v Hoffman et al., Civil Action No. 13-cv-03952 (DMC) (JAD)
The court upheld immunity for Backpage in contesting a Washington state law (SB6251) that would have made providers of third-party content online liable for any crimes related to a minor in Washington state. The states of Tennessee and New Jersey later passed similar legislation. Backpage argued that the laws violated Section 230, the Commerce Clause of the United States Constitution, and the First and Fifth Amendments. In all three cases the courts granted Backpage permanent injunctive relief and awarded them attorney's fees.
Backpage.com v. Dart., CASE NO. 15-3047
The court ruled in favor of Backpage after Sheriff Tom Dart of Cook County IL, a frequent critic of Backpage and its adult postings section, sent a letter on his official stationery to Visa and MasterCard demanding that these firms "immediately cease and desist" allowing the use of their credit cards to purchase ads on Backpage. Within two days both companies withdrew their services from Backpage. Backpage filed a lawsuit asking for a temporary restraining order and preliminary injunction against Dart granting Backpage relief and return to the status quo prior to Dart sending the letter. Backpage alleged that Dart's actions were unconstitutional, violating the First and Fourteenth Amendments to the US Constitution as well as Section 230 of the CDA. Backpage asked for Dart to retract his "cease and desist" letters. After initially being denied the injunctive relief by a lower court, the Seventh Circuit U.S. Court of Appeals reversed that decision and directed that a permanent injunction be issued enjoining Dart and his office from taking any actions "to coerce or threaten credit card companies...with sanctions intended to ban credit card or other financial services from being provided to Backpage.com." The court cited Section 230 as part of its decision, and the Supreme Court declined to hear the petition to this case. However, this decision, in part, led to the passage of the FOSTA-SESTA Acts, and subsequently the dismissal of Backpage's case after federal enforcement agencies had seized Backpage's assets for violating FOSTA-SESTA.
Discriminatory housing ads
Chicago Lawyers' Committee For Civil Rights Under Law, Inc. v. Craigslist, Inc., 519 F.3d 666 (7th Cir. 2008).
The court upheld immunity for Craigslist against Fair Housing Act claims based on discriminatory statements in postings on the classifieds website by third party users.
Fair Housing Council of San Fernando Valley v. Roommates.com, LLC, 521 F.3d 1157 (9th Cir. 2008) (en banc).
The Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals rejected immunity for the Roommates.com roommate matching service for discrimination claims brought under the federal Fair Housing Act and California housing discrimination laws. The court concluded that the manner in which the service elicited required information from users concerning their roommate preferences (by having dropdowns specifying gender, presence of children, and sexual orientation), and the manner in which it utilized that information in generating roommate matches (by eliminating profiles that did not match user specifications), that the service was an "information content provider" and thus liable for the discrimination claims. The court upheld immunity for the descriptions posted by users in the "Additional Comments" section because these were entirely created by users.
Threats
Delfino v. Agilent Technologies, 145 Cal. App. 4th 790 (2006), cert denied, 128 S. Ct. 98 (2007).
A California Appellate Court unanimously upheld immunity from state tort claims arising from an employee's use of the employer's e-mail system to send threatening messages. The court concluded that an employer that provides Internet access to its employees qualifies as a "provider …. of an interactive service."
Failure to warn
Jane Doe No. 14 v. Internet Brands, Inc., No. 12-56638 (9th Cir. September 17, 2014).
The Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals rejected immunity for claims of negligence under California law.
Doe filed a complaint against Internet Brands which alleged a "failure to warn" her of a known rape scheme, despite her relationship to them as a ModelMayhem.com member. They also had requisite knowledge to avoid future victimization of ModelMayhem.com users by warning users of online sexual predators. The Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals concluded that the Communications Decency Act did not bar the claim and remanded the case to the district court for further proceedings.
In February 2015, the Ninth Circuit panel set aside its 2014 opinion and set the case for reargument. In May 2016, the panel again held that Doe's case could proceed.
Terrorism
Force v. Facebook, Inc., 934 F.3d 53 (2nd Cir. 2019).
The Second Circuit upheld immunity in civil claims for service providers for hosting terrorism-related content created by users. Families, friends, and associates of several killed in Hamas attacks filed suit against Facebook under the United States' Anti-Terrorism Act, asserting that since Hamas members used Facebook to coordinate activities, Facebook was liable for its content. While previous rules at federal District and Circuit level have generally ruled against such cases, this decision in the Second Circuit was first to assert that Section 230 does apply even to acts related to terrorism that may be posted by users of service providers, thus dismissing the suit against Facebook. The Second Circuit ruled that the various algorithms Facebook uses to recommend content remains as part of the role of the distributor of the content and not the publisher, since these automated tools were essentially neutral. The Supreme Court declined to hear the case.
Similar legislation in other countries
European Union
Directive 2000/31/EC, the e-Commerce Directive, establishes a safe harbor regime for hosting providers:
Article 14 establishes that hosting providers are not responsible for the content they host as long as (1) the acts in question are neutral intermediary acts of a mere technical, automatic and passive capacity; (2) they are not informed of its illegal character, and (3) they act promptly to remove or disable access to the material when informed of it.
Article 15 precludes member states from imposing general obligations to monitor hosted content for potential illegal activities.
The updated Directive on Copyright in the Digital Single Market (Directive 2019/790) Article 17 makes providers liable if they fail to take "effective and proportionate measures" to prevent users from uploading certain copyright violations and do not respond immediately to takedown requests.
Australia
In Dow Jones & Company Inc v Gutnick, the High Court of Australia treated defamatory material on a server outside Australia as having been published in Australia when it is downloaded or read by someone in Australia.
Gorton v Australian Broadcasting Commission & Anor (1973) 1 ACTR 6
Under the Defamation Act 2005 (NSW), s 32, a defence to defamation is that the defendant neither knew, nor ought reasonably to have known of the defamation, and the lack of knowledge was not due to the defendant's negligence.
Italy
The Electronic Commerce Directive 2000 (e-Commerce Directive) has been implemented in Italy by means of Legislative Decree no. 70 of 2003. The provisions provided by Italy are substantially in line with those provided at the EU level. However, at the beginning, the Italian case-law had drawn a line between so-called "active" hosting providers and "passive" Internet Service Providers, arguing that "active" Internet Service Providers would not benefit from the liability exception provided by Legislative Decree no. 70. According to that case-law, an ISP is deemed to be active whenever it carries out operations on the content provided by the user, such as in case it modifies the content or makes any enrichment of the content. Under certain cases, courts have held ISPs liable for the user's content for the mere facts that such content was somehow organised or enriched by the ISP (e.g. by organizing the contents in libraries or categories, etc. or monetised by showing ads).
New Zealand
Failing to investigate the material or to make inquiries of the user concerned may amount to negligence in this context: Jensen v Clark [1982] 2 NZLR 268.
France
Directive 2000/31/CE was transposed into the LCEN law. Article 6 of the law establishes safe haven for hosting provider as long as they follow certain rules.
In LICRA vs. Yahoo!, the High Court ordered Yahoo! to take affirmative steps to filter out Nazi memorabilia from its auction site. Yahoo!, Inc. and its then president Timothy Koogle were also criminally charged, but acquitted.
Germany
In 1997, Felix Somm, the former managing director for CompuServe Germany, was charged with violating German child pornography laws because of the material CompuServe's network was carrying into Germany. He was convicted and sentenced to two years probation on May 28, 1998. He was cleared on appeal on November 17, 1999.
The Oberlandesgericht (OLG) Cologne, an appellate court, found that an online auctioneer does not have an active duty to check for counterfeit goods (Az 6 U 12/01).
In one example, the first-instance district court of Hamburg issued a temporary restraining order requiring message board operator Universal Boards to review all comments before they can be posted to prevent the publication of messages inciting others to download harmful files. The court reasoned that "the publishing house must be held liable for spreading such material in the forum, regardless of whether it was aware of the content."
United Kingdom
Also see: Defamation Act 2013.
The laws of libel and defamation will treat a disseminator of information as having "published" material posted by a user, and the onus will then be on a defendant to prove that it did not know the publication was defamatory and was not negligent in failing to know: Goldsmith v Sperrings Ltd (1977) 2 All ER 566; Vizetelly v Mudie's Select Library Ltd (1900) 2 QB 170; Emmens v Pottle & Ors (1885) 16 QBD 354.
In an action against a website operator, on a statement posted on the website, it is a defence to show that it was not the operator who posted the statement on the website. The defence is defeated if it was not possible for the claimant to identify the person who posted the statement, or the claimant gave the operator a notice of complaint and the operator failed to respond in accordance with regulations.
See also
Collateral censorship
Notes
References
Bibliography
Margaret Jane Radin et al., Internet Commerce: The Emerging Legal Framework 1091-1136 (2nd ed. 2006)
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights - Article 12
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights - Article 17 (1), (2)
U.S. reservations, declarations, and understandings, International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 138 Cong. Rec. S4781-01 (daily ed., April 2, 1992). Section II (5)
Further reading
External links
Full text of the Telecommunications Act of 1996.
Citizen Media Law Project's primer on Section 230
Cybertelecom :: The Communications Decency Act
Electronic Frontier Foundation FAQ on Section 230
Full text of Executive Order 13925
Wikimania 2006: Section 230: At the Gates between Liability for Harmful Speech and Wikipedia audio lecture.
Acts of the 104th United States Congress
United States federal computing legislation
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25830686
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koingo%20Software
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Koingo Software
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Koingo Software, established in 1994, is a Canadian corporation that designs and distributes software for both Macintosh and Windows. Presently, the business develops a mix of 8 shareware and freeware applications, most of which are available for the Macintosh and Windows.
Except for a few games in the past, the majority of the titles have been geared towards personal time, data, security, and information management such as for home inventory, scheduling, password and data storage, and digital anti-theft monitoring and protection.
Early history
Koingo Software originally branded its productions under both the Koingo Games and Pain Games titles. These products included titles such as Rocket Launch, Sewer Trouble, and Valley of the Vampire which were black and white HyperCard adventure games.
In 1999, the business began also developing products in REALbasic. These new products, such as Alarm Clock Pro (a time management utility), Password Retriever (password database utility), and Contact Keeper (simple address book), not being games, the organization rebranded itself as Koingo Software.
Recent history
In December 2012, Koingo's founder took a leave of absence from the company for five years to pursue other business ventures such as starting his online travel blog on Instagram "adventurejosh.ca" and adventurejosh.com. Upon his return, Koingo gave away a new MacBook to one of the adventurejosh.ca followers on March 1, 2017. With his return, Koingo shortly thereafter released a massive overhaul of their flagship application MacPilot, bringing it to version 9, with promises of doing the same for MacCleanse.
Community involvement
Koingo Software has played an active role in the Macintosh community by regularly donating licenses to Macintosh User Groups, and participating in third-party giveaways and discounts with sites like MacZot and MacHeist.
In 2006 through part of 2007, Koingo Software gave away 10,881 copies of their MacPilot application to all users renewing or signing up for a VersionTracker membership.
The largest joint venture undertaken was the coupling of Koingo Software's Utility Package (the combination of all 12 of their software titles at the time) with MacUpdate's 2008 back-to-school bundle. Then later that year, the businesses offered Koingo Software's MacPilot in the 2008 Christmas Holiday Bundle.
Reviews
MacWorld's Editor's Choice: Alarm Clock Pro
MacWorld Editor's Review: MacPilot
MacWorld Editor's Review: AirRadar
MacAddict Magazine Feature for Alarm Clock Pro, April 2004 Issue
C|Net: Alarm Clock Pro Editor's Review
C|Net: MacPilot Editor's Review
The Spinning Beachball: MacPilot Review
Current software
Applications
AirRadar
Scan for wireless networks, and provides detailed information such as encryption type, signal, noise, ad-hoc status, pbcc flag, channel, MAC address, and beacon interval.
Alarm Clock Pro
Schedule tasks such as playing multimedia files (including via iTunes), running system scripts, composing and sending e-mails, pinging web URLs, sending text messages and taking web cam and screenshots on a schedule or by timer.
Data Guardian
The successor to Password Retriever. Allows the secure storage of data into a 448-bit blowfish encrypted database.
Display Maestro
Access all display resolutions and bit depths
Librarian Pro
Interacting with Amazon, automatically downloads product details based on UPC or ISBN to create a home inventory. Items can be marked out as "borrowed by" entered users.
MacCleanse
Erases caches, logs, recent file histories, and browser histories.
MacPilot
Presents a graphical front-end for many advanced UNIX commands; additionally, provides the same interface for tweaking hundreds of hidden preferences available in Mac OS X.
Discontinued software
As Koingo Software
The following applications have been discontinued:
Alarm Clock
Blaze
Contact Keeper
Digital Sentry
E-Mail Commander
File Sheriff
Font Pilot
Gallery Designer
MacPilot Lite
Magick 8 Ball
Mystery Island
Password Retriever
PTE
Robo Postman
Swift Share
Slideshow Magic
As Koingo Games
Murder Mystery
Rocket Launch
Rocket Launch II
Sewer Trouble
As Pain Games
Captain Comic
Character Creator
Crime City
Movie 2000
New York Blast Out
Slime House
Super Dice
Valley of the Vampire
References
External links
Software companies of Canada
Companies based in British Columbia
1994 establishments in British Columbia
Canadian companies established in 1994
Software companies established in 1994
Free software companies
Macintosh software companies
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23591010
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grigore%20Moisil%20National%20College%20of%20Computer%20Science%20%28Bra%C8%99ov%29
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Grigore Moisil National College of Computer Science (Brașov)
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Grigore Moisil National College of Computer Science is a high school in Brașov, Romania, that carries the name of academician Grigore Moisil, the "founder" of Romanian computer sciences.
History
The history of the high school dates to 1938.
Since the first part of the building was constructed in 1938, it has been the home of five institutions: Primary Schools 3 and 11, and later on, Secondary Schools 2, 6, and 4.
Along with the construction of the second building in 1960, the name was changed to "General Culture High School number 4".
The school year 1972 sees the introduction of a new profile, top notch at the time, and a new name for the school: "High School for Automatic Data Processing", which concerned computer science.
During 1973–1977 and 1990–2002, the institution's name was "Computer Science High School" (Romanian: "Liceul de Informatică"), while between 1977–1990 it was called "Mathematics – Physics High School number 1" (Romanian: "Liceul de Matematică – Fizică nr. 1").
In 2002, it took the name of "Grigore Moisil Computer Science National College".
Classes
Since 1990, the school has had, for each year
4 classes of intensive – computer science profile
1 class of intensive – English profile
There are a total of 20 classes (15 computer sciences + 5 English)
There are 28 students per class. That means 140 per year and a total of 700.
After admission, the top 28 that opt for the English class are sent to class 9A, and the rest are assigned, randomly and in equal proportions to classes 9B to 9E.
The high school only has day program.
Class hours are usually held Monday to Friday, from 8:00 AM to 3:00 PM.
Notable graduates
Notable graduates of the high school include:
Dumitru Prunariu (b. 1952) – first Romanian cosmonaut; currently, division general with 2 stars, in reserve
(b. 1956) – Romanian politician, member of PNL, former mayor of Brașov (1996–2004), currently deputy for PNL
Victor Socaciu (b. 1953) – Romanian folk musicians; in the jury of the Golden Stag
(b. 1943) – academician, director of the Romanian Institute of Geography
Daniel Capatos (b. 1973) – reality show host
Mihai Dobrovolski (b. 1974) – radio host, founder of Radio Guerilla
Raluca Arvat (b. 1975) – journalist, sport news section host for Pro TV
Ernest Takacs (b. 1980) – TV presenter
External links
Official site
References
Moisil
National Colleges in Romania
1938 establishments in Romania
Educational institutions established in 1938
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4872872
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lspci
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Lspci
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lspci is a command on Unix-like operating systems that prints ("lists") detailed information about all PCI buses and devices in the system. It is based on a common portable library libpci which offers access to the PCI configuration space on a variety of operating systems.
Example usage
Example output on a Linux system:
# lspci
00:00.0 Host bridge: Advanced Micro Devices, Inc. [AMD] Raven/Raven2 Root Complex
00:00.2 IOMMU: Advanced Micro Devices, Inc. [AMD] Raven/Raven2 IOMMU
00:01.0 Host bridge: Advanced Micro Devices, Inc. [AMD] Family 17h (Models 00h-1fh) PCIe Dummy Host Bridge
00:01.2 PCI bridge: Advanced Micro Devices, Inc. [AMD] Raven/Raven2 PCIe GPP Bridge [6:0]
00:01.7 PCI bridge: Advanced Micro Devices, Inc. [AMD] Raven/Raven2 PCIe GPP Bridge [6:0]
00:08.0 Host bridge: Advanced Micro Devices, Inc. [AMD] Family 17h (Models 00h-1fh) PCIe Dummy Host Bridge
00:08.1 PCI bridge: Advanced Micro Devices, Inc. [AMD] Raven/Raven2 Internal PCIe GPP Bridge 0 to Bus A
00:14.0 SMBus: Advanced Micro Devices, Inc. [AMD] FCH SMBus Controller (rev 61)
00:14.3 ISA bridge: Advanced Micro Devices, Inc. [AMD] FCH LPC Bridge (rev 51)
00:18.0 Host bridge: Advanced Micro Devices, Inc. [AMD] Raven/Raven2 Device 24: Function 0
00:18.1 Host bridge: Advanced Micro Devices, Inc. [AMD] Raven/Raven2 Device 24: Function 1
00:18.2 Host bridge: Advanced Micro Devices, Inc. [AMD] Raven/Raven2 Device 24: Function 2
00:18.3 Host bridge: Advanced Micro Devices, Inc. [AMD] Raven/Raven2 Device 24: Function 3
00:18.4 Host bridge: Advanced Micro Devices, Inc. [AMD] Raven/Raven2 Device 24: Function 4
00:18.5 Host bridge: Advanced Micro Devices, Inc. [AMD] Raven/Raven2 Device 24: Function 5
00:18.6 Host bridge: Advanced Micro Devices, Inc. [AMD] Raven/Raven2 Device 24: Function 6
00:18.7 Host bridge: Advanced Micro Devices, Inc. [AMD] Raven/Raven2 Device 24: Function 7
01:00.0 Network controller: Realtek Semiconductor Co., Ltd. RTL8822BE 802.11a/b/g/n/ac WiFi adapter
02:00.0 Non-Volatile memory controller: Sandisk Corp PC SN520 NVMe SSD (rev 01)
03:00.0 VGA compatible controller: Advanced Micro Devices, Inc. [AMD/ATI] Raven Ridge [Radeon Vega Series / Radeon Vega Mobile Series] (rev c3)
03:00.1 Audio device: Advanced Micro Devices, Inc. [AMD/ATI] Raven/Raven2/Fenghuang HDMI/DP Audio Controller
03:00.2 Encryption controller: Advanced Micro Devices, Inc. [AMD] Family 17h (Models 10h-1fh) Platform Security Processor
03:00.3 USB controller: Advanced Micro Devices, Inc. [AMD] Raven USB 3.1
03:00.4 USB controller: Advanced Micro Devices, Inc. [AMD] Raven USB 3.1
03:00.5 Multimedia controller: Advanced Micro Devices, Inc. [AMD] Raven/Raven2/FireFlight/Renoir Audio Processor
03:00.6 Audio device: Advanced Micro Devices, Inc. [AMD] Family 17h (Models 10h-1fh) HD Audio Controller
03:00.7 Non-VGA unclassified device: Advanced Micro Devices, Inc. [AMD] Raven/Raven2/Renoir Non-Sensor Fusion Hub KMDF driver
Using lspci -v, lspci -vv, or lspci -vvv will display increasingly verbose details for all devices. -d [<vendor>]:[<device>] option specifies the vendor and device ID of the devices to display. Note that ":" can not be omitted, while the omitted <vendor> or <device> indicates "any value".
If many devices are shown as unknown (e.g. "Unknown device 2830 (rev 02)"), issuing the command update-pciids will usually correct this.
lsusb
lsusb is a similar command for USB buses and devices. To make use of all the features of this program, a system needs to use Linux kernel which supports the /proc/bus/usb interface (e.g., Linux kernel 2.3.15 or newer).
Example output on a Linux system:
# lsusb
Bus 004 Device 001: ID 1d6b:0003 Linux Foundation 3.0 root hub
Bus 003 Device 004: ID 06cb:0081 Synaptics, Inc.
Bus 003 Device 003: ID 5986:2115 Acer, Inc Integrated Camera
Bus 003 Device 002: ID 05e3:0608 Genesys Logic, Inc. Hub
Bus 003 Device 001: ID 1d6b:0002 Linux Foundation 2.0 root hub
Bus 002 Device 001: ID 1d6b:0003 Linux Foundation 3.0 root hub
Bus 001 Device 003: ID 0bda:b023 Realtek Semiconductor Corp. RTL8822BE Bluetooth 4.2 Adapter
Bus 001 Device 002: ID 045e:07fd Microsoft Corp. Nano Transceiver 1.1
Bus 001 Device 001: ID 1d6b:0002 Linux Foundation 2.0 root hub
hwinfo
hwinfo is for all the hardware. Hwinfo output reports for various computer models are collected in a public GitHub repository.
lshw
lshw is a subset of what hwinfo presents.
Other platforms
The equivalent command for FreeBSD is pciconf -l. pciconf can also perform other functions such as reading and writing PCI registers. For more information, see the man page.
The HWiNFO tool, which is not related to the hwinfo tool mentioned above, can be downloaded in binary form at no cost. It is claimed to be a "system information and diagnostics comprehensive hardware analysis, monitoring and reporting for Windows and DOS".
Similar commands
dmesg — prints the message buffer of the kernel.
uname — prints the name, version and other details about the current machine and the operating system.
lsscsi — prints information about mass storage devices.
See also
util-linux
/sys
References
External links
The PCI utilities home.
The home of the pci.ids file, with its Online list of ID's.
Online device driver check page that maps PCI Ids to Linux drivers.
8 commands to check hardware information on Linux
Unix software
Hardware in Linux
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37615833
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2013%20in%20science
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2013 in science
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A number of significant scientific events occurred in 2013, including the discovery of numerous Earthlike exoplanets, the development of viable lab-grown ears, teeth, livers and blood vessels, and the atmospheric entry of the most destructive meteor since 1908. The year also saw successful new treatments for diseases such as HIV, Usher syndrome and leukodystrophy, and a major expansion in the use and capabilities of technologies such as 3D printing and autonomous cars.
The United Nations designated 2013 the International Year of Water Cooperation.
Events, discoveries and inventions
January
2 January
A study by Caltech astronomers reports that the Milky Way Galaxy contains at least one planet per star, resulting in approximately 100–400 billion exoplanets. The study, based on planets orbiting the star Kepler-32, suggests that planetary systems may be the norm around stars in our galaxy.
Astronomers report the discovery of giant "geysers" of charged particles emanating from the core of the Milky Way Galaxy. These outflows, which extend as far as 50,000 light-years from the galactic plane, are thought to be fuelled by intense star formation.
LG Electronics releases the first commercial OLED television. OLED screens are thinner, more efficient and capable of displaying images with greater definition than conventional LCD and plasma screens.
3 January
Physicists create a potassium-based quantum gas which can be manipulated by lasers and magnetic fields to reach negative temperatures. At such temperatures, matter begins to exhibit previously unknown qualities.
Scientists analyse a meteorite, NWA 7034, that was found in the Sahara Desert and purchased in Morocco in 2011, and report that it is a new type of Mars rock with an unusually high water content.
American researchers state that a gene associated with active personality traits is also linked to increased longevity.
4 January
Britain's first hand transplantation operation is successfully conducted.
Toyota demonstrates an autonomous car capable of sensing and reacting to its surroundings, monitoring its driver and communicating with other vehicles.
6 January
British researchers successfully cure blindness in mice using an injection of photosensitive cells. Following additional testing, the treatment could be used to heal human sufferers of retinitis pigmentosa.
China is reported to be experiencing a rapid growth in the use of industrial robots, with robot installations increasing at over 10 percent a year.
7 January
Australia experiences its hottest day on record, with nationwide average temperatures exceeding 40°C amid one of the most intense bushfire seasons in the country's history.
Remarkably well-preserved zinc pills are discovered aboard a 2,000-year-old Roman shipwreck, giving a rare insight into Roman medicine.
Astronomers at the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics (CfA) report that "at least 17 billion" Earth-sized exoplanets are estimated to reside in the Milky Way Galaxy.
8 January
The 2013 Consumer Electronics Show opens in Las Vegas, Nevada. Among the new technologies showcased are flexible tablet computers, autonomous cars, medical telepresence robots, ultra-definition TVs and high-efficiency microchips.
The German defence company Rheinmetall successfully demonstrates a high-powered military laser that can destroy drones in mid-flight and cut through steel from over away, even in adverse weather conditions. The company plans to mount the laser on a variety of vehicles for battlefield use.
American astronomers announce the discovery of seven new exocomets – more than double the previously known number of such objects. The exocomets were discovered using the McDonald Observatory in Texas, which imaged the chemical signatures of the comets' tails.
Astronomers affiliated with the Kepler space observatory announce the discovery of KOI-172.02, an Earth-like exoplanet candidate which orbits a star similar to the Sun in the habitable zone, and is possibly a "prime candidate to host alien life".
9 January
A gamma secretase inhibitor previously experimented for treating Alzheimer's disease is found to have regenerative effects on inner ear hair cells, potentially allowing for the effective treatment of deafness.
The most distant known supernova is discovered by the Hubble Space Telescope, at a distance of around 10 billion light-years.
Medical researchers state that sickle cells can be induced to attack treatment-resistant tumours by starving them of blood.
British and Canadian researchers create a tablet computer which is as thin as paper and also flexible.
10 January
Half of all food is wasted worldwide, according to a new report by the British Institution of Mechanical Engineers (IME).
The English general lighthouse authority activate a new backup navigation system that allows ships to navigate even if their GPS signals fail.
The first vessel of a new class of nuclear submarine goes into service with the Russian Navy, featuring a built-in escape pod to allow crew members to survive a critical hull breach.
An American company unveils a smart hunting rifle which uses a computerised scope, onboard aiming software and laser rangefinders to ensure great accuracy even in the hands of novice shooters. The rifle is also Wi-Fi-enabled, and its software can record its aiming and firing history, potentially allowing law enforcement agencies to track its use.
11 January
Manchester University chemists develop a functional molecular machine, only a few nanometers in size, that can assemble complex molecular structures in a fashion similar to DNA ribosomes. The invention could be used to precisely fashion new medicines or polymers.
Astronomers discover a distant cluster of supermassive quasars that is both the largest and brightest structure in the known universe, spanning approximately four billion light-years.
New high-precision observations of the asteroid 99942 Apophis reveal that it is almost certain that the asteroid will not strike the Earth in 2036, despite earlier scientific concern over its trajectory.
Scientists develop a Breathalyzer-like breath test that could be used to quickly and accurately diagnose lung infections.
12 January – Official sources state that Beijing's air is now hazardous to human health, after years of mounting air pollution. The city's air contains as much as 20 times the World Health Organization's recommended amount of toxic particles.
13 January – Massachusetts doctors invent a pill-sized medical scanner that can be safely swallowed by patients, allowing the esophagus to be more easily scanned for diseases.
15 January – The first museum of 3D-printed artifacts opens in China.
17 January – NASA announces that the Kepler space observatory has developed a reaction wheel issue and will discontinue operation for 10 days in the interest of solving the problem. Three functional reaction wheels are needed to accurately aim the telescope; one of Kepler's original four reaction wheels failed in July 2012. If this second wheel issue is not resolved, NASA may be forced to end the long-running Kepler mission altogether.
18 January – Japanese researchers create a "privacy visor" which uses near-infrared light to render its wearer unrecognizable to facial recognition software.
20 January – Scientists prove that quadruple-helix DNA is present in human cells.
21 January – Architects begin preparations for constructing the world's first 3D-printed building. The building will be constructed of a high-strength artificial marble laid down by an industrial-scale 3D printer, and is planned for completion in 2014.
22 January
French glaciologists release a report stating that the glaciers of the Andes are melting at an unprecedented rate.
NEC and Corning Inc. develop a multi-core fiber optic cable that can transfer a record-breaking petabit of data per second.
The private spaceflight venture Deep Space Industries announces plans to begin scanning and mining asteroids for precious metals. The company intends to launch its first prospecting spacecraft in 2015.
A resolution is introduced to the United States Congress to designate 12 February 2013 (Charles Darwin's 204th birthday) as "Darwin Day" in order to recognize "the importance of sciences in the betterment of humanity".
23 January
Scientists encode large amounts of digital information, including the complete sonnets of William Shakespeare, on a single strand of synthetic DNA. DNA has immense potential as a storage medium, and may become commercially available for this purpose in the near future.
Scientists resume controversial research into the H5N1 influenza subtype, which was previously halted due to fears of biological terrorism.
A British amputee becomes the first person in the UK to receive the Michelangelo Hand, an advanced new bionic hand, which uses electrodes to precisely mimic muscle movements and which can be used even for delicate engineering tasks.
Kenya begins the construction of the Konza Technology City, a planned city that is hoped to become a hub of African science and technology upon its completion in 2030.
24 January – Britain's Chief Medical Officer warns that antibiotic resistance could have "apocalyptic" consequences, with numerous common bacterial infections becoming increasingly resistant to treatment.
25 January
An international team of scientists develops a functional light-based "tractor beam", which allows individual cells to be selected and moved at will. The invention could have broad applications in medicine and microbiology.
Scientists design an evolution-inspired organic solar cell with a novel geometric pattern that increases its energy-harvesting efficiency.
New measurements performed by European scientists reveal that the radius of the proton is 4 percent smaller than previously estimated.
27 January – Asteroid 274301, a main belt asteroid, is officially renamed "Wikipedia" by the Committee for Small Body Nomenclature.
28 January
Bolivian scientists restore brain function to stroke-affected rats by injecting them with stem cells. This breakthrough may lead to more effective treatments for human stroke sufferers.
American medical researchers develop a painless polymer skin patch that can be used to inject DNA vaccines without a conventional needle, and also increases the initial effectiveness of the vaccine delivered.
An American research team uses the world's most powerful supercomputer at the time – the IBM Sequoia – to perform a record-breaking computation, modelling an experimental jet engine on over one million processor cores.
Iran successfully launches a live rhesus monkey into space and recovers the animal safely, in what is claimed to be a prelude to the country's future human spaceflight efforts.
American scientists finish drilling down to the subglacial Lake Whillans, which is buried around under the Antarctic ice.
29 January
NASA reports that the Kepler space observatory has successfully returned to "science data collection" mode, after suffering a reaction wheel malfunction earlier in the month.
ESA scientists report that the ionosphere of the planet Venus streams outwards in a manner similar to "the ion tail seen streaming from a comet under similar conditions."
30 January – South Korea conducts its first successful orbital launch, using the Naro-1 rocket to place a satellite into orbit.
31 January
British scientists achieve a breakthrough in synthetic biology, developing microscopic biological "factories" that can be assembled in hours and which could be used to deliver medicines, produce biofuels and mine underground minerals.
Scientists sequence the genome of the domestic pigeon, discovering that all modern pigeon breeds are descended from the wild rock dove.
The ESA, in collaboration with a group of architectural firms, designs and tests a 3D-printed structure that can be built out of lunar regolith to serve as a Moon base.
Japanese scientists genetically modify a transparent zebrafish specimen to produce a visible glow during periods of intense brain activity, allowing the fish's "thoughts" to be recorded as specific regions of its brain light up in response to external stimuli.
February
1 February
Stanford University physicists discover that atom-thin sheets of graphene are 100 times more chemically reactive than thicker sheets. This reactivity may be crucial to developing new practical applications for graphene, which is already widely known for its immense strength and conductivity.
Medical researchers develop a new method of efficiently detecting cancer using bioelectric signals. In addition, they were able to manipulate cellular electric charge levels to prevent certain cells from developing cancer.
2 February
Iran unveils the Qaher-313 which it claims is its first stealth fighter.
Californian researchers use genetic modification to rejuvenate ageing blood cells, strengthening the immune systems of elderly mice. If human trials prove successful, this treatment could allow older people to more effectively resist disease.
3 February
The Scottish Government announces plans for a national physics prize named in honour of Peter Higgs, who first theorized the Higgs boson in 1964.
The British Army begins using a miniature drone helicopter in Afghanistan. The aerial surveillance robot weighs just 16 grams, and can be remotely piloted into difficult terrain to detect hidden enemy positions.
4 February
American researchers develop a new molecular therapy which can cross the blood-brain barrier to deliver medicines to the brain, potentially helping to treat neurological diseases such as Parkinson's disease.
A much-vaunted experimental vaccine for tuberculosis proves to be largely ineffective against the disease in human trials.
After DNA testing, scientists confirm that a medieval skeleton unearthed in Leicester is that of the defeated Plantagenet king Richard III, who was killed in battle in 1485.
Australian engineers build a "quantum microscope" which offers unprecedented levels of precision in measuring live biological systems.
Sea urchins are discovered to be capable of efficiently converting carbon dioxide into raw material for their shells, potentially offering a new method of carbon capture for industrial purposes.
5 February
Scientists at Scotland's Heriot-Watt University develop a 3D printer that can produce clusters of living stem cells, potentially allowing complete organs to be printed on demand in future.
American researchers partially cure Usher syndrome in mice, a severe form of congenital deafness, using a precisely targeted gene therapy.
6 February
Halley VI, a new British Antarctic research station, begins operation. The station, which is mounted on hydraulic ski-legs to allow it to be towed across the ice, features an advanced modular design and is expected to endure the Antarctic climate until 2050.
In a series of separate developments, American and Japanese engineers create 3D printers that can produce edible meals with a range of flavours and textures on demand. These could both replace conventional ready meals and allow astronauts to enjoy a far more varied diet.
Astronomers report that 6% of all dwarf stars – the most common stars in the known universe – may host Earthlike planets. Additionally, some such exoplanets may exist only 13 light-years from Earth.
Scientists discover live bacteria in the subglacial Antarctic Lake Whillans.
8 February
Scientists use an extensive genetic and phenotypic database to determine the common ancestor of all modern placental mammals, including humans.
New York researchers successfully cure leukodystrophy in mice by using skin cells to repair damaged myelin sheaths. This treatment may also prove effective in curing human multiple sclerosis.
10 February
NASA's Curiosity Mars rover uses its onboard drill to obtain the first deep rock sample ever retrieved from the surface of another planet.
A genetically engineered strain of the vaccinia virus is found to triple the average survival time of patients suffering from a severe form of liver cancer.
12 February – North Korea conducts its third nuclear test despite international sanctions and condemnation.
13 February
The ESA's CryoSat detects a significant decline in Arctic ice cover.
Scientists successfully cure type 1 diabetes in dogs using a pioneering gene therapy.
14 February
University of Oxford engineers construct an autonomous car that can be easily switched between manual and self-driving modes.
The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) begins a planned two-year shutdown, during which it will undergo a major systems upgrade. Upon its reactivation in 2014, the LHC will operate at an energy of approximately 14 teraelectronvolts – double its current maximum energy.
Researchers develop a specialized neural implant which gives rats the ability to sense infrared light – a pioneering use of implant technology to grant living creatures new abilities, instead of simply replacing or augmenting existing ones.
The United States Food and Drug Administration approves the first functional commercial bionic eye, the Argus II, for the treatment of blindness. The device, which became available in Europe in 2011, uses a combination of ocular implants and camera-equipped glasses to restore vision to people blinded by retinitis pigmentosa.
15 February
A 10-ton meteoroid impacts in Chelyabinsk, Russia, producing a powerful shockwave and injuring over 1,000 people.
The asteroid 2012 DA14, which masses around 130,000 tons, makes the closest Earth flyby yet recorded for a large asteroid, passing within of the Earth's surface.
18 February – Studies of a recently discovered Higgs boson-like particle suggest that the universe may end in a false vacuum collapse billions of years from now.
19 February
The UK government pledges to provide advanced bionic limbs for all British soldiers who have lost limbs in combat.
A new species of bent-toed gecko is formally described, having been discovered in Vietnam.
20 February
NASA reports the discovery of Kepler-37b, the smallest exoplanet yet known, around the size of Earth's Moon.
Internet entrepreneurs Sergey Brin and Mark Zuckerberg announce a new global prize for excellence in the life sciences, offering US$3 million to each recipient.
The President of the United States, Barack Obama, announces the Brain Activity Map Project – a decade-long collaborative effort to map the structures and functions of the human brain, with the aim of yielding new treatments for a range of neural diseases.
21 February
Cornell University scientists use a 3D printer to create a living artificial ear from collagen and ear cell cultures. In future, such ears could be grown to order for patients suffering from ear trauma or amputation.
The deepest known hydrothermal vents are discovered in the Caribbean at a depth of almost .
A study finds that bumblebees can sense electric fields around flowers.
University of Pennsylvania researchers develop a "protein passport" able to bypass the body's immune system. This could aid the delivery of medicinal nanoparticles in future nanomedicine.
22 February – Data gathered from Siberian ice caves reveals that continued global warming may lead to widespread thawing of permafrost, potentially releasing massive volumes of trapped carbon dioxide and methane into the atmosphere.
23 February – A US inventor builds a "spider-sense" bodysuit, equipped with ultrasonic sensors and haptic feedback systems, which can alert its wearer of approaching threats and allow them to detect and respond to attackers even when blindfolded.
24 February
Oxford University researchers discover the mechanism by which certain brain cells are able to survive being starved of oxygen. In future, this research may yield more effective stroke treatments.
A study finds that chimpanzees solve puzzles for entertainment just as humans do.
Scientists announce that they have found fragments of Rodinia, an ancient "lost" supercontinent, in what is now the Indian Ocean.
25 February
Israel successfully tests its Arrow 3 missile defence system, designed to destroy enemy ballistic missiles while they are still high in the Earth's atmosphere.
26 February
American engineers develop a wirelessly charged flexible battery that can continue to function even if stretched to three times its usual size. With further development, the invention could be used to power flexible smartphones, tablets and medical electronics.
A study finds that sleep loss can alter the behavior of genes, which may explain why it often precedes more serious medical problems such as diabetes, obesity, and heart disease.
27 February
Astronomers use the NuSTAR satellite to accurately measure the spin of a supermassive black hole for the first time, reporting that its surface is spinning at almost the speed of light.
An American company constructs a lightweight, high-efficiency urban car with an entirely 3D-printed plastic body that is as damage-resistant as steel. The vehicle's construction is entirely automated, requiring no human input beyond the uploading of the car's design.
28 February
Duke University researchers successfully connect the brains of two rats with electronic interfaces that allow them to directly share information, in the first-ever direct brain-to-brain interface.
A study finds common genetic links between five major psychiatric disorders: autism, ADHD, bipolar disorder, depression, and schizophrenia.
Astronomers make the first direct observation of a protoplanet forming in a disk of gas and dust around a distant star.
A third radiation belt is discovered around the Earth.
Researchers identify adult stem cells in the bone marrow that could one day be used to treat inflammatory bowel disease (IBD).
March
1 March – Boston Dynamics demonstrates an updated version of its BigDog military robot, a mule-sized heavy-lifting robot able to navigate rough terrain and equipped with an arm powerful enough to easily lift and throw breeze blocks.
3 March – American scientists report that they have cured HIV in an infant by giving the child a course of antiretroviral drugs very early in its life. The previously HIV-positive child has reportedly exhibited no HIV symptoms since its treatment, despite having no further medication for a year.
4 March
Scientists announce that they have directly measured the polarization of light, overcoming aspects of the uncertainty principle.
DARPA begins efforts to develop a fleet of small naval vessels capable of launching and retrieving combat drones without the need for large and expensive aircraft carriers.
In a U.S. first, researchers replace a large part of an injured patient's skull with a precision 3D-printed polymer replacement implant.
5 March – The Human Connectome Project releases the most detailed scans of the human brain yet made, allowing neuroscientists to more accurately study the complexities of the brain's structure and identify the causes of neural disorders.
6 March
After studying the DNA of a modern African American, scientists estimate that the Y-chromosomal Adam – the most recent male common ancestor of human beings – lived much earlier than previously thought, over 338,000 years ago.
Chinese and Israeli scientists develop a Breathalyzer-style breath test that can quickly and easily diagnose stomach cancer by analyzing exhaled chemicals, without the need for an intrusive endoscopy.
7 March
After an eight-year project involving the use of a pioneering cloning technique, Japanese researchers create 25 generations of healthy cloned mice with normal lifespans, demonstrating that clones are not intrinsically shorter-lived than naturally born animals.
An international project known as Bedmap2 analyses 50 years of data to measure the volume of Antarctic ice, finding it to be , which would raise global sea levels by if it melted.
Scientists from Oregon State University reconstruct the global temperature record since the end of the last Ice Age. Their data, taken from 73 sites around the world, shows a clear and rapid warming trend in the 20th and early 21st centuries.
Tests on mice demonstrate conclusive proof that resveratrol, a compound found in red wine, improves health and longevity.
9 March
British dental researchers grow viable teeth from a combination of gingival cells and stem cells, potentially allowing future patients to receive living teeth to replace diseased or damaged ones.
Roboticists launch an online database and cloud computing platform which can be accessed by robots worldwide, allowing them to more easily recognise unfamiliar objects and perform intensive computing tasks.
11 March
Astronomers discover the binary brown dwarf Luhman 16 (WISE 1049-5319) at a distance of 6.5 light years from Earth – the closest star system to be discovered since 1916.
A study concludes that heart disease was common among ancient mummies.
Researchers develop smart self-healing circuits that can rapidly restore themselves to a fully functional state by detecting and neutralising electronic faults.
12 March
NASA's Curiosity rover finds evidence that conditions on Mars were once suitable for microbial life after analyzing the first drilled sample of Martian rock, "John Klein" rock at Yellowknife Bay in Gale Crater. The rover detected water, carbon dioxide, oxygen, sulfur dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, chloromethane and dichloromethane. Related tests found results consistent with the presence of smectite clay minerals.
Japan becomes the first country to successfully extract natural gas from offshore methane clathrate deposits.
13 March
The Atacama Large Millimeter Array, at the time the world's most powerful radio telescope, becomes fully operational in northern Chile.
Lockheed Martin develops a new method for desalination that is reportedly vastly cheaper and more efficient than conventional methods. The new technique uses carbon membranes with nanoscale pores to efficiently filter salt molecules from seawater to make drinkable water.
14 March
CERN scientists confirm, with a very high degree of certainty, that a new particle identified by the Large Hadron Collider in July 2012 is the long-sought Higgs boson.
Scientists induce monkey skin cells to become healthy brain cells which function normally when implanted into the donor monkey's brain. This breakthrough suggests that such personalized medicine approaches could be effective in human patients.
15 March – Scientists working on the Lazarus Project announce that they have successfully rejuvenated cells of Rheobatrachus silus, a species of frog extinct since 1983.
16 March – Japanese researchers unveil the "smelling screen", a digital display screen capable of emitting pinpointed smells.
17 March
New data suggests that the Mariana Trench, the deepest point on the Earth's surface, is home to a large amount of bacterial life forms. Other researchers reported related studies that microbes thrive inside rocks up to below the sea floor under of ocean off the coast of the northwestern United States.
Shams 1, the world's largest concentrated solar power plant, becomes operational in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates.
18 March
If global average temperatures rise by just 2 °C, the number of extreme storm surges like Hurricane Katrina will increase tenfold, according to new research.
US scientists successfully map 80% of the neurons in a vertebrate brain at cellular-level resolution in just 1.3 seconds.
NASA reports evidence from the Curiosity rover on Mars of mineral hydration, likely hydrated calcium sulfate, in several rock samples, including the broken fragments of "Tintina" rock and "Sutton Inlier" rock as well as in the veins and nodules in other rocks like "Knorr" rock and "Wernecke" rock. Analysis using the rover's DAN instrument provided evidence of subsurface water, amounting to as much as 4% water content, down to a depth of .
Pluto may have up to 10 moons, along with at least one ring system, according to a new study.
19 March
The Neanderthal genome is sequenced by German scientists from a toe bone found in southern Siberia.
Scientists announce they can now illuminate up to 100 biomarkers, ten times more than the previous standard. This breakthrough may make it much easier to spot proteins in cancer cells – a vital diagnostic technique.
NASA reports that a software computer problem on the Curiosity Mars rover is now repaired.
Researchers at the University of Cambridge demonstrate a virtual "talking head" with realistic emotions, which could lead to more naturalistic human-computer interactions.
Swiss scientists develop a medical scanner that can be implanted just under the skin and can monitor a range of blood-related conditions, providing instant results via mobile phone. They say it will be available to patients by 2017.
20 March – Gene therapy is used to cure leukaemia in three adult patients.
21 March
The European-led research team behind the Planck cosmology probe releases the mission's all-sky map of the cosmic microwave background. The map suggests the universe is slightly older than thought; according to the team, the universe is 13.798 ± 0.037 billion years old, and contains 4.9% ordinary matter, 26.8% dark matter and 68.3% dark energy. Also, the Hubble constant was measured to be 67.80 ± 0.77 (km/s)/Mpc.
Scientists develop a video screen that allows users to see 3D images without using special glasses.
Scientists develop genetically engineered T-lymphocytes that have been proven successful in treating cases of acute lymphoblastic leukaemia.
22 March – At the 44th annual Lunar and Planetary Science Conference, scientists announce the discovery of the first known meteorite to originate from Mercury. The green rock, known as NWA 7325, is thought to be 4.56 billion years old.
24 March
Supplementation of the protein SNX27 reverses the Down syndrome phenotype in mice, according to new research.
Scientists discover mutations in 26 genes that are believed to be responsible for oesophageal cancer, a breakthrough that could lead to new drug treatments for the disease.
27 March – A potential new weight loss method is discovered, after a 20% weight reduction was achieved in mice simply by having their gut microbes altered.
28 March
New research suggests that the cloth in the Turin Shroud, rather than being medieval in origin, likely dates from between 300 BC and 400 AD.
Stanford researchers announce the construction of a working transistor-like device, dubbed a transcriptor, out of DNA and RNA molecules.
29 March – Scientists create a robotic ant colony that behaves like a real one. The tiny machines can be programmed to avoid obstacles and find the quickest route through a network or maze.
April
3 April
A breakthrough is achieved in the production of hydrogen fuel, allowing large quantities to be extracted from any plant.
A new study suggests that common cholesterol-reducing drugs may also prevent macular degeneration.
NASA scientists report that hints of dark matter may have been detected by the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer on the International Space Station. According to the scientists, "the first results from the space-borne Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer confirm an unexplained excess of high-energy positrons in Earth-bound cosmic rays."
NASA states that complex organic chemicals could arise on Titan, a moon of Saturn, based on studies simulating the atmosphere of Titan.
4 April
The discovery of the most distant supernova yet found is announced.
Scientists construct a 3D printer which can create material very similar to human tissue.
A new species of giant tarantula, Poecilotheria rajaei, is formally described, having been discovered in Sri Lanka in 2009.
American scientists announce that they have identified a number of genetic markers that are associated with an increased risk of Alzheimer's disease.
A new camera system is developed that can generate high-resolution 3D images from up to a kilometre away.
7 April – A US startup company develops plant-derived proteins that can be used as a sustainable, environmentally friendly substitute for eggs in almost all food products.
9 April
At the 2013 Sea-Air-Space Exposition, American defense companies display prototypes of numerous advanced weapons technologies, including viable railguns, VTOL airships and grenade-sized reconnaissance robots.
British researchers discover that a mutation of the gene BRCA2 increases both the risk and severity of prostate cancer in men, as well as being linked to hereditary breast cancer in women.
Chinese scientists develop a carbon-based aerogel which they claim is the lightest material yet produced, with a density only slightly greater than that of air.
Scientists state that climate change may cause a significant increase in air turbulence over the North Atlantic by 2050, potentially endangering passenger aircraft.
10 April
Stanford University researchers develop "CLARITY", a method of making brain tissue transparent using acrylamide, allowing brain structures to be studied in unprecedented detail without requiring extensive biopsies.
Scientists develop the first objective method of measuring pain by directly studying the brains of patients.
Scientists find that, by inhibiting the SEC24A gene, cholesterol levels in mice can be reduced by 45%, offering hope for an alternative or complementary therapy to statins.
11 April
International researchers discover key similarities in the brains of arthropods and vertebrates, potentially aiding scientific understanding of the causes of human neural diseases.
Philips demonstrates a new type of LED lighting that is reportedly twice as energy-efficient as any previous electric lightbulb.
A study finds that carefully timed sounds played during sleep can enhance memory.
NASA reports the possible finding of the "debris field" of the 1971 Soviet Mars 3 lander on the planet Mars. Images taken by the HiRISE camera on the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter seem to show the possible remains of the parachute, retrorockets, heat shield and lander.
12 April
Animal trials are set to begin on a gene therapy for amyotrophic lateral sclerosis – a degenerative condition which counts Stephen Hawking among its sufferers.
Scientists reconstruct the skeleton of the ancient hominid Australopithecus sediba, discovering that it possessed a unique mixture of human- and ape-like traits.
The first building to be entirely powered by algae is constructed in Hamburg.
15 April
A functional lab-grown kidney is successfully transplanted into a live rat in Massachusetts General Hospital. This breakthrough is a major step forward for the nascent field of regenerative medicine.
The Cryogenic Dark Matter Search experiment reports the possible discovery of traces of dark matter, although further experimental confirmation is required.
16 April – American medical researchers develop a new type of bandage which uses microscopic needles to adhere to injured flesh. The bandage requires no adhesive chemicals, is significantly stronger than existing medical adhesives, and could offer a safer and more efficient means of securing skin grafts.
17 April
Scientists develop a new form of lithium-ion battery which is thousands of times more powerful than current battery technologies, while also charging much faster. The battery utilises a compact 3D design, intertwining its electrodes to maximize its surface area while reducing its volume.
MIT researchers determine the structure of bones down to the molecular level, using supercomputer simulations twinned with studies of real bone fibers. Their data grants new insights into the compounds that grant living bone its strength, and may permit the manufacture of versatile new biomimetic materials.
The genome of the coelacanth, an endangered deep-sea "living fossil", is sequenced.
18 April – NASA announces the discovery of three new Earthlike exoplanets – Kepler-62e, Kepler-62f, and Kepler-69c – in the habitable zones of their respective host stars, Kepler-62 and Kepler-69. The new exoplanets, which are considered prime candidates for possessing liquid water and thus potentially life, were identified using the Kepler spacecraft.
21 April
The Antares rocket, a commercial launch vehicle developed by Orbital Sciences Corporation, successfully conducts its maiden flight.
A study concludes that stress leads to faster growth in squirrels.
22 April
Biologists use antibodies to transform bone marrow stem cells directly into healthy brain cells. This breakthrough may allow neurological injuries and illnesses to be more effectively treated, and reduces the risk of immune rejection.
University of Exeter scientists report the creation of a genetically modified strain of E. coli bacteria which can convert sugar into diesel fuel.
A British engineer unveils a giant "mantis" robot, large enough to carry a human pilot, which is supported by multiple hydraulic legs. The robot has reportedly attracted the interest of mining and marine research companies.
24 April
IBM develops a robot which combines telepresence and augmented reality technologies to assist engineers working on complex projects in remote areas.
CERN releases new particle-collision data from the Large Hadron Collider which may help explain why matter became dominant over antimatter in the early universe.
25 April – A partial lunar eclipse occurs.
26 April
Following laboratory tests of molten iron, European scientists determine that the Earth's core has a temperature of 6,000 degrees Celsius, 1,000 degrees hotter than previously thought. This discovery may help explain why the planet has such a strong geomagnetic field.
US and Chinese scientists develop a sensor array which is as sensitive to touch and pressure as the human fingertip. The invention may pave the way for new robotic sensors, electronic interfaces and types of artificial skin.
27 April – Design approval is given for a crucial reactor component of the ITER nuclear fusion project, which is currently under construction in Cadarache, France, and is expected to begin generating fusion power in 2022.
29 April
After years of unpowered glide tests, Scaled Composites' SpaceShipTwo hybrid spaceplane successfully conducts its first rocket-powered flight.
The ESA's Herschel Space Observatory runs out of liquid helium coolant, marking the end of its highly productive four-year mission to observe the far infrared universe.
NASA's Cassini spacecraft photographs an enormous hurricane on Saturn, more than 20 times the size of the average terrestrial hurricane.
NASA-funded scientists in Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute claim that, during experiments on the International Space Station, microbes seem to adapt to the space environment in ways "not observed on Earth" and in ways that "can lead to increases in growth and virulence".
May
1 May
IBM scientists release A Boy and His Atom, the smallest stop-motion animation ever created, made by manipulating individual carbon monoxide molecules with a scanning tunnelling microscope.
Researchers discover that boron nitride – a nanomaterial also known as "white graphene" – is highly effective at removing harmful chemicals from polluted water, and could be used to clean up future oil spills.
American engineers create a multi-lens digital camera that mimics an insect's compound eye, providing immense depth of field without distorting the image.
2 May – Harvard scientists unveil RoboBee, a miniature robot with the smallest ever man-made wings capable of flight.
3 May
Scientists announce the discovery of a previously unknown meat-eating theropod dinosaur, Aorun zhaoi, dating from approximately 161 million years ago. It is the oldest coelurosaur yet discovered.
Researchers cure epilepsy in mice using transplanted brain cells.
6 May
It is shown that boosting a single gene can increase the maximum lifespan of fruit flies by over 25 percent.
European researchers announce a potential cure for grey hair.
American scientists transform skin cells into bone cells using induced pluripotent methods, in which the cells were grown on scaffolding, allowing them to gain a 3D structure. This is the first time a fully functioning three-dimensional bone structure has been created from cell lines.
A new study finds that children whose parents suck on their pacifiers have fewer allergies later in life.
Solar engineers discover a method of increasing the efficiency of standard commercial silicon solar cells from 19% to 23%.
7 May
A new study suggests that all Europeans are related to a small group of ancestors dating back only 1,000 years.
Researchers discover statistical but controversial evidence for the proposed Eurasiatic language superfamily, dating back 15,000 years.
Scientists identify what may be the earliest known pachycephalosaur, Acrotholus audeti.
The Alzheimer's drug Gammagard fails to produce results in a large-scale clinical trial.
8 May – Researchers achieve a significant breakthrough in understanding genital herpes, which could lead to the development of a vaccine to prevent and treat HSV-2.
9 May
In a breakthrough they describe as "huge", researchers have identified a protein that reduces heart size and thickness in mice. This could potentially offer a way of treating heart failure and aging in humans.
A congressional hearing by two U. S. House of Representatives subcommittees discusses exoplanet discoveries, prompted by the discovery of the exoplanet Kepler-62f, along with Kepler-62e and Kepler-62c. A related special issue of the journal Science, published earlier, described the discovery of the exoplanets.
10 May
An annular solar eclipse occurs.
The concentration of carbon dioxide () in Earth's atmosphere reaches a symbolic milestone, passing 400 ppm (parts per million) for the first time in human history.
Researchers create a form of magnetic graphene that could transform the electronics industry.
The Royal Canadian Mounted Police report the first known case of a life being saved by a search and rescue drone.
11 May – Researchers develop a thermal invisibility device, measuring 5 cm wide, able to "cloak" objects from heat.
12 May – It is discovered that Utricularia gibba, a carnivorous bladderwort plant, has the shortest known DNA sequence of any multicellular plant. It largely lacks "junk DNA", sequences of code that do not encode proteins.
13 May – Researchers at NYU school of Medicine identify a key protein mutation, called Ras, that is the mechanism through which pancreatic cancer cells acquire nutrients.
14 May – Iranian scientists create copper iodide nanostructures by applying pomegranate juice as a reducer.
15 May
Human embryonic stem cells are created by cloning for the first time, with major implications for treating a wide range of diseases.
NASA reports that a reaction wheel on the Kepler space observatory may be malfunctioning and may result in the premature termination of the observatory's search for Earth-like exoplanets.
Four genes implicated in "bad" cholesterol have been identified in baboons, a finding that could pave the way for new drugs to prevent human heart disease.
New fossils provide physical evidence that the evolutionary split between apes and monkeys may have occurred "25 to 30 million years ago", as long suggested by DNA findings.
New evidence suggests that Mount Everest's glaciers are melting.
Scientists release pictures of what they believe the lost city of La Ciudad Blanca in La Mosquitia, Honduras.
A new study finds that the white blood cell levels in men decrease faster during aging than in women, possibly providing one clue as to why women have longer average lifespans.
Fish have been migrating to the poles for decades, due to climate change, according to a new study.
A team of Iranian researchers studies nanotechnology applications in neuroscience, reporting new results regarding medicine and drug delivery for the brain and nerves.
16 May
Water dating back 2.6 billion years, by far the oldest ever found, is discovered in a Canadian mine.
A study suggests that marijuana may improve blood sugar levels by decreasing insulin resistance.
Mild electric shock is shown to provide a lasting improvement to mathematical ability.
A new world record has been achieved in wireless data transfer, with 40 Gbit/s transferred at 240 GHz over a distance of one kilometer.
21 May
Genetic samples from a museum specimen have revealed the pathogen that caused the 19th-century Great Famine of Ireland. The strain is now thought to be extinct.
By blocking a protein known as NF-kB that is secreted by the hypothalamus, researchers extend the lifespan of laboratory mice by 20 percent.
22 May
Plans are approved for the world's biggest wave farm in north-west Scotland, with an intended power-generation capacity of 40MW.
In a significant move to address climate change, China announces that it will impose a cap on carbon emissions by 2016.
Researchers at Purdue University in West Lafayette, Indiana, report that Earth is pushing the Moon away more quickly than it has done for most of the past 50 million years.
Researchers in France confirm that atypical activation of different genes distinct to other tissues occur in all kinds of cancer. Tumor cells in lung cancer, for example, express genes, which should be silent, particular to male sperm production. According to the researchers, "The methodical recognition of ectopic gene activations in cancer cells could serve as a basis for gene signature–guided tumor stratification".
23 May – Very early symptoms of Huntington's disease, such as depression and anxiety, can be prevented in mice by switching off a protein, according to a new study.
25 May – A penumbral lunar eclipse occurs.
26 May – Using new algorithms, researchers generate accurate images of sub-cellular structures in milliseconds rather than minutes.
27 May
Four-hundred-year-old bryophyte specimens left behind by retreating glaciers in Canada are brought back to life in the laboratory.
Archaeologists announce the discovery of nearly 5,000 cave paintings, some of which may date back as early as 6,000 BC, near Burgos, Mexico.
28 May – The first graphene-based circuits to break the gigahertz barrier are created by researchers in the US and Italy.
29 May
Aurornis xui is described as the most basal species of Avialae, potentially unseating Archaeopteryx as the oldest known bird.
Soyuz TMA-09M is launched from the Baikonur Cosmodrome, transporting a three-person crew to the International Space Station.
Russian scientists announce the discovery of mammoth blood and well-preserved muscle tissue from an adult female specimen in Siberia.
The Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE) discovers 28 asteroid families through the Jupiter-Mars chief asteroid belt. It also finds a large number of formerly concealed and unclassified asteroids through infrared snapshots for the first time.
A team of chemists and physicists from Japan's Yokohama National University produce a material that can be developed into mixed, conductive 3D formations, enabling scientists to create customized brain electrodes.
For the first time, astronomers observe a spinning neutron star suddenly slowing down.
Freescale Semiconductor introduces KL02, a millimeter-scale microchip that contains almost all the components of a tiny functioning computer.
30 May
New analysis suggests that turtles evolved a shell 40 million years earlier than previously thought.
Stanford University researchers unveil a zinc-air battery that is more energy-dense and cheaper than lithium-ion counterparts.
Researchers create the first-ever high-resolution images of a molecule as it breaks and reforms chemical bonds.
Biomedical researchers at SCRM in Edinburgh, Scotland, successfully synthesize human blood using stem cells.
Researchers at Nanyang Technological University invent a graphene-based sensor that is 1,000 times more sensitive to light than traditional CMOS or CCD sensors.
Within a century, climate change will threaten extinction for 82 percent of California's native fish, according to researchers at UC Davis.
31 May
NASA scientists report a possible human mission to Mars may involve a great radiation risk, based on the amount of energetic particle radiation detected by the RAD on the Mars Science Laboratory while traveling from the Earth to Mars in 2011–2012.
NASA astronomers report that the near-Earth asteroid 1998 QE2 is passing 3.6 million miles away from the Earth. 1998 QE2 reportedly has its own asteroid moon.
Researches find fragments of meteorites in pieces of ancient Egyptian jewellery, which were discovered in a cemetery dating back to roughly 3,300 BC near Cairo in 1911.
Researchers at the University of Birmingham develop an effective hearing aid based on the ear structure of a species of fly, Ormia ochracea.
June
1 June – The New York Times reports that "the United States is far and away the world leader in medical spending, even though numerous studies have concluded that Americans do not get better care."
4 June
A new treatment to "reset" the immune system of multiple sclerosis patients is reported to reduce their reactivity to myelin by 50 to 75 percent.
A newly discovered prehistoric lizard, Barbaturex morrisoni, is named after Doors singer Jim Morrison, who called himself "The Lizard King".
Microchip maker Intel launches its Haswell series of processors, offering better graphics performance and battery efficiency over the previous processor generation.
5 June
Urban environments have a profound effect on the circadian rhythms of humans and animals, according to a new study.
Scientists report fossil remains of Archicebus achilles, a primate considered to be the "earliest well-preserved fossil primate ever found," dating back an estimated 55 million years.
Researchers made a new discovery about tumors in hominids. They report the finding of the first known tumor in the rib of a Neanderthal man who lived more than 120,000 years ago.
The multi-year global surveillance disclosures are launched and indicate that nearly all major technical possibilities for mass surveillance that emerged in recent decades – such as in Internet infrastructure, software, smartphones and other IC technologies – are proactively exploited or attempted to be exploited by secret services with a public rationale of counter-terrorism.
6 June
For the first time in the United States, a bioengineered blood vessel is transplanted into a patient's arm. The patient, a man with end-stage kidney disease, is part of a clinical trial of laboratory-grown veins.
Scientists state that most male birds have no penis. They ejaculate sperm out of an exit opening named a cloaca, which is also used for excreting urine and feces.
Scientists at the IAA-CSIC report the detection of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the upper atmosphere of Titan, the largest moon of the planet Saturn.
7 June – Breastfeeding boosts brain development compared to formula-fed babies, according to a new study.
10 June
Scientists report that the earlier claims of an Earth-like exoplanet orbiting Alpha Centauri B, a star close to our Solar System, may not be supported by astronomical evidence.
A new skyscraper elevator is demonstrated using carbon fiber cables to reach heights of or higher in a single trip, without passengers needing to change lifts.
11 June
Scientists at the University of Nottingham discover a previously undetected layer in the human cornea, dubbed Dua's layer.
The world's first commercially available 5-GHz computer processor is unveiled by AMD.
12 June
A new study suggests that altitude plays a role in language evolution, explaining why ejective sounds are more popular in languages of high-altitude regions.
Taking the AIDS drug tenofovir greatly reduces the risk of HIV infection among intravenous drug users, according to a new study.
Scientists discover a method to use pressure to make a material expand instead of compress/contract. The pressure-treated material has half the density of the first state.
13 June
Sleep researchers state that natural sleep allows the brain to combine emotional memory, and also find that a popular sleeping drug heightens the recollection of and response to negative memories.
Association for Molecular Pathology v. Myriad Genetics, Inc.: The Supreme Court of the United States rules that naturally occurring genes may not be patented, with significant implications for future medical research.
14 June
American researchers identify a key embryonic protein that, though usually deactivated shortly after birth, is reactivated in patients with advanced cancer. This breakthrough may allow for better treatment of advanced cancer cases, which typically respond poorly to currently available therapies. As a result of this discovery, scientists may be able to determine from the structure of the protein the fundamental process through which cancer cells seek out new tumor sites and create secondary tumors after leaving the primary tumor site.
Scientists combine synchrotron X-rays with scanning tunneling microscopy to create highly detailed images of different materials at the atomic level. By combining the two methods, researchers are now able to not only see where individual atoms reside but also determine a material's chemical and magnetic properties. This discovery could have wide applications in accelerating discoveries in a number of fields, particularly in nanotechnology.
Sharp Corporation achieves the highest solar cell energy conversion efficiency to date, of approximately 44.4%, using a concentrator triple-junction compound solar cell.
17 June
TOP500 reports that China's Tianhe-2 supercomputer is the world's most powerful computer, capable of performing over 33 quadrillion floating point operations per second.
Physicists report the possible detection of a new subatomic particle, Zc(3900), a hadron which may be the first tetraquark to have been observed experimentally.
Two separate teams independently develop prototype flying bicycles. British engineers construct a hybrid bicycle-paraglider capable of flying to an altitude of , while a Czech team demonstrates a multi-rotor electric "hoverbike" that can hover like a helicopter at low altitudes.
Engineers demonstrate a small quadrupedal "cheetah-cub" robot, with speed and agility approaching that of a real cat. The prototype is intended as the basis for future search-and-rescue robots with vastly greater speed and agility than human emergency workers.
Weapons manufacturer MBDA Germany develops a high-powered laser weapon capable of targeting and destroying incoming rockets, artillery shells and UAVs.
18 June
Google launches a fleet of high-altitude balloons capable of beaming wireless internet to remote locations far more cheaply than satellites.
American scientists use 3D printing to manufacture a new class of microscopic batteries, which may allow the easy production of extremely small medical devices, nanorobots and communications systems.
British researchers develop high-resolution 3D holograms for the teaching of anatomy to medical students.
19 June – Scientists claim that "cancerproof" laboratory animals, such as naked mole-rats, may not get cancer because they produce an "extremely high-molecular-mass hyaluronan", which is over "five times larger" than that in cancer-prone humans and cancer-susceptible laboratory animals.
20 June
Adding silver particles to antibiotics makes them 10 to 1,000 times more effective at fighting infections, research suggests.
International neuroscientists produce a full-3D map of a human brain, scanning and digitizing thousands of ultrathin slices of the brain to determine its structure at extremely high resolution. The map will be made freely available to medical researchers worldwide.
During the Shenzhou 10 mission, Chinese astronauts deliver the country's first public video broadcast from the orbiting Tiangong-1 space laboratory.
The European Intermediate eXperimental Vehicle (IXV), an experimental spacecraft which is intended to make its first orbital launch in 2014, successfully conducts a parachute drop test over the Mediterranean Sea.
Physicists develop a table-top particle accelerator with 2 gigaelectronvolts (GeV) of power, downsizing a conventional accelerator by a factor of 10,000.
American engineers create a functional, rechargeable nanoscale battery out of wood. The conductive wooden fibers, coated with tin, are longer-lasting than any previous nanoscale battery.
The Israeli-based company NeuroDerm reports good trial results for a new Parkinson's disease treatment, which involves dermal introduction of two separate drugs.
21 June – Following groundbreaking laboratory tests, researchers discover that plants make use of quantum effects to efficiently channel photons during photosynthesis.
23 June
Scientists find that plants use complex mathematical calculations, similar to human circadian rhythms, to adjust their energy usage.
Following a large-scale genome study, researchers identify some of the biological roots of migraine, a chronic neurological condition affecting as many as 15% of all humans.
The 2013 Paris Air Show concludes, after a week of new technology demonstrations including a "green" electric airliner taxiing system, the world's first electric tiltrotor prototype, and advanced avionics and in-flight entertainment systems.
24 June
Researchers from Duke University detect methane in drinking water in Pennsylvania, claiming that "serious contamination from bubbly methane is 'much more' prevalent in some water wells within 1 kilometer of gas drilling sites". The researchers note that methane levels are "an average of six times" higher and ethane levels are "23 times higher" in the water wells "closer to drilling sites, compared with those farther away."
The 10,000th near-Earth object is discovered by astronomers at the University of Hawaii.
25 June – In an unprecedented discovery, astronomers detect three potentially Earthlike exoplanets orbiting a single star in the Gliese 667 system.
26 June
China's Shenzhou 10 crewed spacecraft returns safely to Earth, having conducted China's longest human space mission to date.
American scientists partially heal spinal cord injuries in paralyzed rats by transplanting nerve cells into the injury sites. These laboratory trials are hoped to be a precursor to human trials in the near future.
Ancient horse bones dating back 700,000 years are found to contain by far the oldest preserved DNA sequence yet discovered, predating all previous finds by 500,000 years.
27 June
Japanese scientists produce a healthy cloned mouse from cells contained in a single drop of blood.
British geologists report that 1.3 quadrillion cubic feet of shale gas are present in shale formations in northern England, potentially heralding a transformation of the British energy market.
Researchers create genetically engineered wheat strains resistant to the fungal disease stem rust, which is a constant threat to wheat crops in the developing world.
Scientists demonstrate an optical fiber that uses "twisted light" to transmit massive amounts of information, potentially revolutionizing the field of data transfer. The prototype fiber was able to transmit data at rates of over one terabit per second.
US and German scientists develop a simple and efficient new method for desalinating seawater, using a small electric field to separate salt from water without needing complex filter membranes.
US and Swiss researchers develop a new form of telescopic contact lens designed to improve the vision of sufferers of age-related macular degeneration, which previously could not be ameliorated with contact lenses.
Molecular biologists successfully trap a ribosome in the middle of its protein-forming state, allowing them to study the precise motions it uses to translate genetic code into functional proteins. This discovery sheds new light on the basic building-blocks of life, and may allow the development of new antibiotics.
28 June – MIT engineers invent a handheld "X-ray vision" device which allows users to detect movement through walls.
July
1 July
Neptune's moon Neptune XIV is discovered.
The Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope releases new data on the highest-energy regions of the observable universe, including over 500 new gamma-ray bursts.
2 July
Drinking several cups of coffee daily appears to reduce the risk of suicide in men and women by about 50%, according to a new study by Harvard School of Public Health (HSPH) researchers.
Using computer modelling and solar data, Scottish scientists determine that the last living species on Earth in the distant future will be extremophile microbes able to survive harsh conditions.
Microsoft develops a 3D touchscreen that uses force sensors and a robotic arm to allow users to "feel" objects that it displays.
The first Maersk Triple E-class container ships, the largest and most energy-efficient cargo vessels yet constructed, begin sea trials.
The two most recently discovered moons of Pluto are officially named Styx and Kerberos.
3 July
In a breakthrough for regenerative medicine, Japanese scientists grow functional livers from stem cells and successfully transplant them into mice.
It is reported that naval sonar can seriously disrupt the behavior of whales, potentially causing them to fatally beach themselves.
Bone marrow transplants are found to remove all traces of HIV from two test patients, in conjunction with antiretroviral treatments.
A New Zealand student designs a "skeletal" 3D-printable orthopedic cast that offers far greater lightness, cleanliness and ventilation than conventional casts, and can be personalized to suit individual patients and specific injuries.
4 July
The London Array, at the time the world's largest offshore wind farm, opens in the UK.
A US study reveals that remaining mentally and physically active in old age is key to slowing the onset of dementia.
5 July
European researchers create molecular nanowires which are ultra-sensitive to ambient magnetic fields, requiring no actual magnetic materials to change their electrical conductivity. The invention, which is similar to the system used for navigation by migratory birds, could have numerous applications in electronics, from improved magnetic sensors and hard disk drives to enhanced smartphones.
Scientists record X-ray videos of bats in flight, revealing the highly efficient skeletal motion that allows them to fly. This data could be used to design new, more efficient flying robots.
6 July
The Solar Impulse aircraft completes the first cross-country flight over the United States powered entirely by solar energy.
Scientists report that a wide variety of microbial life exists in the subglacial Antarctic Lake Vostok, which has been buried in ice for around 15 million years. Samples of the lake's water obtained by drilling were found to contain traces of DNA from over 3,000 tiny organisms.
8 July
Nanoparticles of rust could be used to efficiently generate hydrogen fuel from sunlight and water, according to a scientific study.
Researchers state that the first baby conceived with a new, cheaper, more efficient form of IVF is born healthy.
9 July
Scientists develop a blood test for babies that can reportedly predict a person's long-term health and rate of ageing in later life.
A radical new theory of the composition of the Earth's core is published. It proposes that the shape of the solid iron core is determined by the atomic structure of the different forms of iron of which it consists.
North Carolina State University researchers demonstrate a method of 3D printing liquid metal at room temperature, forming freestanding structures which maintain their shape despite initially remaining liquid. The invention, which uses an alloy of gallium and indium, could allow electronic circuitry and even flexible wiring to be printed on demand.
10 July
French scientists construct an ultra-precise optical lattice clock that misses only one second in 300 million years. The clock's measurements could form a new basis for global time standards, replacing the present generation of atomic clocks.
The American Northrop Grumman X-47B becomes the first drone to perform an arrested landing on an aircraft carrier at sea.
11 July
For the first time, astronomers determine the true colour of a distant exoplanet. HD 189733 b, a searing-hot gas giant, is said to be a vivid blue colour, most likely due to clouds of silica in its atmosphere.
Italian scientists successfully treat the symptoms of leukodystrophy in six young children using gene therapy.
DARPA and Boston Dynamics unveil the Atlas humanoid robot, a autonomous machine capable of a wide variety of military and disaster-response operations.
The Canadian AeroVelo team wins the Igor Sikorsky Prize for developing a fully functional human-powered helicopter, 33 years after the competition began.
12 July – British engineers develop a high-velocity penetrator probe capable of surviving impact forces of 20,000 gravities. The probe could be used to punch through the icy surface of Jupiter's moon Europa to search for aquatic life.
15 July
Scientists sequence the genomes of 201 microbe species in an effort to gain a more detailed understanding of Earth's microbial ecosystem.
The Hubble Space Telescope photographs a new moon of Neptune, the 14th to be discovered so far. It is estimated to be just across.
NASA engineers successfully test a rocket engine with a fully 3D-printed injector, proving that critical rocket components can be produced through 3D printing without compromising their effectiveness.
Seismologists report that small earthquakes occur in a sequence with rapidly increasing frequency prior to a volcanic eruption. The discovery, described as a "seismic scream", could help predict future eruptions.
16 July
NASA's Curiosity rover reaches a milestone in its journey across Mars, having travelled since its landing in 2012.
Researchers develop artificial peroxisomes that can reduce toxic oxygen compounds. This could lead to novel drugs that influence processes directly inside living cells.
17 July
American scientists develop a method of "switching off" the extra chromosome that causes Down's syndrome, potentially offering an entirely new treatment for the condition.
British medical researchers create an "intelligent" surgical knife with a built-in mass spectrometer that can detect cancerous tissue during operations, allowing surgeons to more accurately and effectively excise tumors without damaging healthy tissue.
Swedish scientists create a magnesium carbonate-based material with an unparalleled surface-area-to-volume ratio and excellent water absorption abilities. The new material, dubbed "Upsalite", could have applications in many fields, including electronics, toxic waste cleanup, sanitation and medical drug delivery.
In an unprecedented discovery, astronomers directly observe the destruction of a gas cloud larger than Earth's solar system by the supermassive black hole at the galactic core.
Based on 34 earlier studies, researchers identify remarkable similarities between the brains of birds and humans.
18 July – A "giant" new genus of virus, Pandoravirus, is announced, along with two recently identified species, Pandoravirus dulcis and Pandoravirus salinus.
19 July
Japan begins a clinical trial of stem cells harvested from patients' own bodies. The stem cells will be used to treat age-related macular degeneration.
NASA scientists publish the results of a new analysis of the atmosphere of Mars, reporting a lack of methane around the landing site of the Curiosity rover. In addition, the scientists found evidence that Mars "has lost a good deal of its atmosphere over time", based on the abundance of isotopic compositions of gases, particularly those related to argon and carbon.
Japanese researchers confirm that muon-type neutrinos can spontaneously flip to the electron type, potentially explaining the imbalance of matter and antimatter during the Big Bang.
Harvard University medical experts report that a carefully targeted two-drug treatment could be tailored to successfully treat almost any form of cancer.
For the third time in history, Earth is photographed from the outer solar system. NASA's Cassini spacecraft releases images of the Earth and Moon taken from the orbit of Saturn.
21 July
British scientists successfully cure blindness in mice with infusions of stem cells that repaired damaged retinas. It is hoped that a similar treatment can be developed for humans.
A private spaceflight venture announces plans to land a robotic observatory on the south pole of the Moon.
American researchers develop a flexible, sensitive "electronic skin" that mimics real human skin by detecting and responding to different levels of pressure.
22 July
Scientists report that dolphins have unique vocal names for one another, which they respond to just as humans do.
Scientists studying data from the Large Hadron Collider report an extremely rare particle decay event, casting doubt on the scientific theory of supersymmetry.
23 July – Thor's hero shrew, the first known sister species to the armored shrew, is described.
24 July – A scientific study warns that a major release of methane from melting Arctic ice could have immense climatic and economic impacts worldwide.
25 July
British scientists discover the mechanism which causes human allergy to cats. A cure for the allergy may become commercially available within five years.
Scientists successfully implant false memories into the brains of mice. This breakthrough could lead to a fuller understanding of human memory.
26 July – Scientists demonstrate a GM-free process that could dramatically reduce nitrogen pollution. It allows virtually all of the world's crop species to automatically obtain up to 60% of their nitrogen requirements from air, as opposed to fertilisers.
28 July – A new DNA probe allows researchers to look for mutations in long sequences of up to 200 base pairs, compared to only 20 pairs using conventional methods.
29 July – Astronomers discover the first exoplanet orbiting a brown dwarf, 6,000 light years from Earth.
31 July
An artificial human-like ear is grown in a lab, using a flexible wire frame to support tissue cultures from cows and sheep.
New data from the Large Hadron Collider – based on measurements of the B meson – could offer the first direct hint of new physics beyond the Standard Model.
August
1 August
Michigan State University reports that climate change is fueling larger and more destructive wildfires in the United States, a trend that is set to continue.
Efficient chemical synthesis of ingenol mebutate is achieved for the first time. This compound – found in the plant genus Euphorbia – is of great interest to drug developers for its anticarcinogenic properties.
2 August
The American Meteorological Society releases its peer-reviewed State of the Climate report, showing how the impacts of global warming are worsening.
A new "super-glass" coating produced by Harvard University researchers could lead to self-cleaning, scratch-resistant windows and other surfaces.
5 August
The world's first hamburger made entirely of lab-grown in-vitro meat is eaten in London.
A Japanese company develops a reusable skin patch which can treat chronic high blood pressure by constantly releasing bisoprolol into the bloodstream. It is reported to be safer than conventional blood pressure medication, and is easier to use for patients with swallowing problems.
Full-colour, 3D infrared images have been created by researchers, giving molecular-level chemical information of specimens in unprecedented detail.
7 August
A new study of the cosmic microwave background has looked back to within 100,000 years of the Big Bang, the furthest that has yet been observed.
A new deep brain stimulation device can simultaneously record brain activity while delivering therapy. It is hoped the automated system could reveal major insights into a range of neurological and psychological diseases.
8 August
In its latest trial, a new malaria vaccine has been shown to be 100 percent effective.
A breakthrough in tissue engineering has allowed scientists to 'grow' the first true cartilage. The researchers believe entire organs may be possible by 2025.
12 August – A gene linked to idiopathic focal epilepsy (IFE) has been identified by MedUni Vienna researchers.
14 August
In the largest-ever analysis of cancer genomes, researchers have discovered the genetic imprints and signatures left by DNA-damaging processes that lead to cancer.
Scientists have built a fully functional mouse heart from human tissues.
Seagrass is 35 times more efficient at absorbing carbon than rainforests, according to research by the University of Technology, Sydney.
15 August
For the first time in 35 years, a new carnivorous mammal species – the olinguito – has been discovered in the Western Hemisphere.
NASA announces that the failing Kepler space observatory may never fully recover. New missions are being considered.
Extreme heat waves are likely to quadruple by 2040, according to new research.
Biologists from Tel Aviv University publish a, first of its kind, study on homosexual behavior among insect species.
17 August – In an unprecedented effort by ETH Zurich Laboratories, computational quantum teleportation has been achieved in solid-state circuit. Using quantum entanglement methods, researchers have teleported approximately 10,000 qubits (quantum bits) per second on a specially designed chip.
21 August – The lowest temperature at which single-celled organisms can live and grow is -20 °C, according to new research.
22 August
A study has found more evidence that nanoparticles may be entering the human food supply, with potentially harmful effects.
A study has found that urban environments may cause increased brain size in animals.
NASA has released new images and a video of its planned asteroid capture mission.
27 August
The previous discovery of a new chemical element with atomic number 115 (moscovium) has been confirmed at GSI by researchers from Lund University in Sweden.
NASA reports that the Mars Curiosity rover used an Autonomous Navigation System (or "autonav" - the ability of the rover to decide for itself how to drive safely) over unknown ground for the first time.
University of Washington researchers have performed what they believe is the first noninvasive human-to-human brain interface, with one researcher able to send a brain signal via the Internet to control the hand motions of a fellow researcher.
28 August
Miniature, pea-sized human brains have been grown in the laboratory from stem cells.
Cooling waters in the tropical Pacific Ocean appear to be a major factor in dampening global warming in recent years, scientists say.
UK researchers have created the world's fastest spinning man-made object, achieving 600 million revolutions per minute.
29 August
By reducing the action of a single gene, mTor, researchers have increased the average lifespan of mice by 20 percent. Their research also shows that the effects of aging are not uniform.
The East Antarctic Ice Sheet could be more vulnerable to climate change than previously thought, based on a new analysis of satellite imagery going back 50 years.
A NASA mission has revealed a new canyon – 460 miles (750 km) long and 2,600 feet (800 meters) deep in places – hidden below Greenland's ice sheet. This is longer than the Grand Canyon.
September
1 September – Rising global temperatures are driving crop pests to higher and lower latitudes at nearly 3 kilometres per year, threatening global food security.
2 September – A team of international scientists has achieved a major breakthrough in nanosensing.
3 September
A new analysis indicates the amount of raw materials used to produce goods is far higher than previously thought.
Phase I clinical trials of SAV001 – the first and only preventative HIV vaccine – have been successfully completed with no adverse effects in all patients. Antibody production was greatly boosted after vaccination.
5 September
It has been confirmed that an undersea volcano in the northern Pacific is not a group of several volcanos. This makes it the largest confirmed volcano on Earth.
Stanford researchers use DNA to assemble a transistor from graphene.
Two leading neurology researchers claim that prion-like proteins that misfold and aggregate into harmful "seeds" are responsible for brain diseases associated with aging.
6 September
The Lunar Atmosphere and Dust Environment Explorer (LADEE) is launched by NASA. It will measure the extremely thin atmosphere that surrounds the Moon.
Researchers have developed a new method for improving the connections between stacked solar cells. It allows them to operate at concentrations of 70,000 suns worth of energy without losing much voltage as "wasted energy" or heat.
Phase 1 clinical trials of an implantable vaccine to treat melanoma have been initiated.
The National Institutes of Health has awarded grants of $17 million to eight research teams, with a focus on nanopore technology aimed at more accurate and efficient DNA sequencing.
11 September
Three ancient rivers may once have crossed the Sahara, allowing early humans to cross from Africa into the Mediterranean about 100,000 years ago, based on a new study.
Huge new reserves of groundwater have been found in Turkana County, northern Kenya.
Trees are speeding up their life cycles in response to climate change, backing up the results of an earlier study.
Rapidly melting sea ice is causing ocean acidification in the Arctic to occur at faster rates than previously forecast, with serious implications for the food web, according to new research.
12 September
NASA announces that Voyager I has officially left the Solar System, having travelled since 1977.
Americans are living longer and more healthily than ever before, according to one of the most comprehensive studies of its kind. There was a 3.8-year increase in average life expectancy during the previous two decades, with quality-adjusted life expectancy (QALE) also increasing. However, there was a notable rise in anxiety among young and middle-aged people beginning in 2001.
14 September – The Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) has launched its first Epsilon rocket, a new generation of smaller and cheaper launch vehicles.
18 September – Orbital Sciences launches the first Cygnus spacecraft. It is designed to transport supplies to the International Space Station (ISS).
19 September – Scientists working with the Curiosity rover on the planet Mars report "no detection of atmospheric methane with a measured value of ppbv corresponding to an upper limit of only 1.3 ppbv (95% confidence limit)" and, as a result, conclude that the probability of "current methanogenic microbial activity on Mars" is reduced.
20 September
Researchers from Cambridge University in England have developed a new technique allowing carbon nanotube "forests" to be grown at five times the density of previous methods.
Researchers have identified a protein involved in the spread of brain tumours.
22 September – Researchers have created a "blueprint" for a universal flu vaccine which they say could be available within five years.
23 September – A new world record solar cell efficiency of 44.7% has been achieved.
24 September
The first evidence of whisper-like behavior in non-human primates has been observed.
Astronomers have discovered the densest known galaxy, with over 10,000 stars packed into four light years.
Long-term data shows that the Greenland Sea is warming 10 times faster than the global ocean.
A new genetic analysis shows that the first rapid population growth of humans occurred in the Paleolithic (60,000-80,000 years ago), rather than the more recent Neolithic as previously thought.
The Late Cretaceous period was likely ice-free, with implications for Earth's future climate, based on new research.
25 September
The first mind-controlled prosthetic leg has been created.
A new form of matter has been created that induces photons to behave like a Star Wars light-sabre.
The first computer made entirely of carbon nanotubes has been created by Stanford University engineers. It has a 1 bit processor, runs at 1 kHz and features 178 transistors, with 10-200 nanotubes per transistor.
26 September
Palaeontologists have discovered a fossil of the oldest known creature with a jaw, dating back 419 million years.
NASA scientists report the Mars Curiosity rover detected "abundant, easily accessible" water (1.5 to 3 weight percent) in soil samples at the Rocknest region of Aeolis Palus in Gale Crater. In addition, the rover found two principal soil types: a fine-grained mafic type and a locally derived, coarse-grained felsic type. The mafic type, similar to other martian soils and martian dust, was associated with hydration of the amorphous phases of the soil. Also, perchlorates, the presence of which may make detection of life-related organic molecules difficult, were found at the Curiosity rover landing site (and earlier at the more polar site of the Phoenix lander) suggesting a "global distribution of these salts". NASA also reported that Jake M rock, a rock encountered by Curiosity on the way to Glenelg, was a mugearite and very similar to terrestrial mugearite rocks.
27 September
The FDA approves the first artificial pancreas.
Nanoscale resolution MRI has been experimentally achieved.
The first document from the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report – Working Group I's summary for policymakers – is released. It states that warming of the global climate system is "unequivocal", with a 95% probability that humans are the main cause.
30 September
Astronomers have created the first cloud map of an exoplanet, Kepler-7b.
The first commercial-scale carbon capture and mineralization plant begins construction in the United States. When completed in 2014, it will capture 300,000 tons of CO2 annually.
October
1 October – New fossils of pollen grains show that flowering plants evolved 100 million years earlier than previously thought, in the Early Triassic (252 to 247 million years ago) or even earlier.
3 October
Environmental impacts on the world's oceans are even worse than previously thought, according to a new report.
Using genetic engineering, researchers at the University of California, Los Angeles, have boosted production of ethanol biofuel by 50 percent.
4 October – Researchers from MIT have created self-assembling robots, based on small cubes that can propel themselves and snap together to form shapes.
6 October – Giant channels up to 250m tall have been discovered beneath Antarctica, stretching for hundreds of kilometres. Researchers say these will help in modelling the future stability and dynamics of the ice sheet.
7 October
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine has been awarded to James E. Rothman, Randy W. Schekman and Thomas C. Südhof, for their work on how vesicles fuse with cell membranes, releasing their contents.
It is reported that researchers at the National Ignition Facility in California produced more energy from a fusion reaction than the fuel absorbed in igniting it – the first time this has been achieved by researchers anywhere in the world.
A new study concludes that research to delay aging would have greater social and economic benefits than advances in cancer, heart disease and other individual diseases.
8 October
The Nobel Prize in Physics has been awarded to François Englert and Peter Higgs "for the theoretical discovery of a mechanism that contributes to our understanding of the origin of mass of subatomic particles, and which recently was confirmed through the discovery of the predicted fundamental particle, by the ATLAS and CMS experiments at CERN's Large Hadron Collider".
Researchers in Germany have taken a major step towards using graphene in solar cells, which could boost their efficiency. The material was found to retain its properties even when coated with silicon.
9 October
The Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to Arieh Warshel, Martin Karplus and Michael Levitt "for the development of multiscale models for complex chemical systems".
A new microscopic technique allows researchers to image structures as small as 80 nm anywhere inside a cell.
10 October – Researchers have discovered the first chemical to prevent all brain cell death from prion disease in mice. This could lead to drug targets for a range of neurodegenerative conditions in humans - including Alzheimer's, Parkinson's and Huntington's disease.
11 October
The Nobel Peace Prize has been awarded to the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) and the "conventions under which it was founded in 1997" because they, according to the award citation, "have defined the use of chemical weapons as a taboo under international law. Recent events in Syria, where chemical weapons have again been put to use, have underlined the need to enhance the efforts to do away with such weapons."
The Graphene Flagship – a ten-year initiative with a billion euros of funding – is launched in Gothenburg, Sweden.
14 October – The first fossil of a mosquito with definitive evidence of blood has been discovered in northwestern Montana. The find dates back to the Eocene, some 46 million years ago (the fossil provides only evidence of blood, but not blood itself, so there is no DNA or anything cloneable).
15 October – Red Bull Stratos releases POV video of Felix Baumgartner skydiving jump from the stratosphere (127,851 ft) on 14 October 2012.
16 October
Russian authorities raise a large fragment, total weight, of the Chelyabinsk meteor, a Near-Earth asteroid that entered Earth's atmosphere over Russia on 15 February 2013, from the bottom of Chebarkul lake.
Researchers have identified 127 repeatedly mutated genes that appear to drive the development and progression of a range of tumors in the body.
17 October
A new fossil discovery suggests that Homo habilis, Homo rudolfensis and Homo erectus may all have been part of a single species that later evolved into humans.
Researchers have shown that a fundamental reason for sleep is to clean the brain of toxins. This is achieved by brain cells shrinking to create gaps between neurons, allowing fluid to wash through.
Using data accumulated over 10 years, researchers have estimated there are 390 billion trees in the Amazon rainforest, divided into 16,000 different species.
Geneticist Bryan Sykes and his team at Oxford University report that DNA analysis of presumed Yeti (or "Abominable Snowman") samples may have come from a hybrid species of bear produced from a mating between a brown bear and a polar bear. According to Sykes, "I think this bear, which nobody has seen alive, may still be there and may have quite a lot of polar bear in it. It may be some sort of hybrid and if its behaviour is different from normal bears, which is what eyewitnesses report, then I think that may well be the source of the mystery and the source of the legend."
18 October – Researchers have discovered a source of gut stem cells that can repair a type of inflammatory bowel disease when transplanted into mice.
21 October – In the Amazon, droughts like that of 2005 may become the norm by 2100, according to a new study that claims the IPCC has underestimated the impacts on the southern part of the rainforest.
22 October – Astronomers have discovered the 1,000th known exoplanet.
23 October
A new way of locating metal deposits including gold has been discovered by researchers in Australia. The presence of tiny particles in a eucalyptus tree's foliage can indicate that these resources are present deep underground.
Astronomers have discovered the most distant galaxy to date.
25 October
The New Horizons probe is now within 5 AU of Pluto.
Temperatures in the Eastern Arctic are now the highest since the beginning of the last ice age 120,000 years ago, lying "well outside the range of natural variability", according to US researchers.
27 October
An international team of researchers has doubled the known number of genes linked to Alzheimers to 21.
A breakthrough in artificial intelligence has been achieved, with a new software algorithm capable of solving CAPTCHAs.
28 October – The commercial viability of shale oil and gas has been questioned at a conference organised by the Geological Society of America.
30 October – Doctors in China have regrown the face of a 17-year-old girl with burn injuries, using tissue from her chest.
31 October – A new study adds weight to the idea that the oceans have absorbed some of the excess heat from recent global warming.
November
3 November – A total solar eclipse occurs.
4 November – Astronomers report, based on Kepler space mission data, that there could be as many as 40 billion Earth-sized planets orbiting in the habitable zones of sun-like stars and red dwarf stars within the Milky Way Galaxy. 11 billion of these estimated planets may be orbiting sun-like stars. The nearest such planet may be 12 light-years away, according to the scientists.
5 November – India launches its first Mars probe, Mangalyaan.
6 November
Researchers have found a way to shrink the volume of nuclear waste by 90 percent.
Japanese researchers have demonstrated multi-component nanoparticles that combine the properties of different materials.
People care more about the longer term when they make decisions in natural environments as opposed to urban, according to research by VU University Amsterdam.
8 November – Scientists report the discovery of what may be the oldest complete fossils on Earth - a tiny microbial mat associated with sandstone rock in western Australia estimated to be 3.48 billion years old.
9 November – A major iceberg measuring 700 square kilometers, roughly the size of Singapore, has broken away from West Antarctica.
11 November
A new imaging technique can help to identify people at high risk of a heart attack.
Using nanotechnology, researchers at Columbia University have created the world's smallest FM radio.
13 November
Globally, 2013 is likely to be among the top 10 hottest years since records began, according to a provisional statement from the World Meteorological Organization.
NASA announces the names of two features on Mars important to two active Mars exploration rovers in honor of planetary scientist Bruce C. Murray (1931-2013): "Murray Ridge", an uplifted crater that the Opportunity rover is exploring, and "Murray Buttes", an entryway the Curiosity rover will traverse on its way to Mount Sharp.
NASA has produced a video of how Mars may have appeared 4 billion years ago, with blue skies and water.
14 November – Globally, there was a net loss of 1.5 million sq ft of forest between 2000 and 2012, based on 650,000 high-resolution satellite images.
15 November – A fragile quantum memory state has been held stable at room temperature for a "world record" 39 minutes, 100 times longer than ever before.
17 November
Researchers have made the first battery electrode that heals itself, repairing imperfections within a few hours.
The first "mini-kidneys" have been grown from human stem cells.
18 November
The MAVEN spacecraft, part of NASA's Mars Scout Program, is launched successfully.
Global CO2 emissions are on track to reach 36 billion tonnes in 2013, according to the Global Carbon Project.
20 November
A new 3D printing process developed at the University of Southern California could reduce production time from hours to minutes.
A new volcanic island rose from the Pacific Ocean, in the Volcano Islands arc, and was provisionally named Niijima
21 November
NASA releases detailed data about a powerful gamma-ray burst, designated GRB 130427A, that was observed on 27 April 2013.
The IceCube Neutrino Observatory has made the first discovery of very high energy neutrinos on Earth which had originated from beyond our Solar System.
A potential new compound to treat osteoporosis has shown promising results in mouse experiments.
22 November
The Swarm mission is launched by ESA. It will map the Earth's magnetic field in unprecedented detail.
Researchers at Bonn University have identified an immune gene in humans that originated from Neanderthals.
Paleontologists have described a newly found dinosaur, Siats meekerorum, that lived 98 million years ago in the Late Cretaceous. Based on analysis of a juvenile 30 ft specimen, the researchers say the adult version could have reached 40 ft (12 meters) in length – second only to Tyrannosaurus rex in size, and holding back the dominance of that species until later in the epoch.
24 November
Even if CO2 emissions stop, global warming will continue for centuries, according to a study by Princeton University.
Methane release from the Arctic seafloor is double previous estimates, new research has shown.
25 November – NASA reports that the Curiosity rover on Mars has resumed full science operations, with no apparent loss of capability, after completing the diagnosis of an electrical problem first observed on 17 November. Apparently, an internal short in the rover's power source, the Multi-Mission Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator, caused an unusual and intermittent decrease in a voltage indicator on the rover.
28 November – The comet C/2012 S1 (ISON) passed roughly above the Sun's surface. Although it was highly anticipated that the comet would be visible to the naked eye on Earth once it orbited the sun, it became increasingly evident that it had vaporized as it made its approach. Hours after it passed behind the sun, a part of the comet re-emerged, though significantly smaller. Over the next 24 hours, it too, faded.
29 November – Scientists report Comet ISON may have survived its trip around the sun.
December
1 December – China launches the Chang'e 3 lunar rover mission, with a planned landing on 16 December.
2 December
A study of nearly 1,000 brain scans has revealed striking differences between men and women.
The CIOC (NASA Comet ISON Observing Campaign) announces that Comet ISON has fully disintegrated. The Hubble Space Telescope failed to detect fragments of ISON on 18 December 2013. On 8 May 2014, a detailed examination of the comet disintegration was published, suggesting that the comet fully disintegrated hours before perihelion.
3 December – The Hubble Space Telescope has found evidence of water in the atmospheres of five distant exoplanets: HD 209458b, XO-1b, WASP-12b, WASP-17b and WASP-19b.
4 December
Researchers have discovered that a protein, PC7, plays an important role in anxiety disorders and trauma.
Scientists report the results of the oldest human DNA found. The DNA is from a 400,000-year-old hominin femur bone fossil uncovered in Spain and matches the DNA of extinct human Denisovans that lived thousands of miles away in Siberia.
Researchers at the University of Southampton have identified undersea regions that could store huge volumes of sequestered CO2, potentially helping to reverse climate change.
5 December – Researchers have used a human gut microbe to reverse autism-like symptoms in mice.
8 December – A new way of extracting hydrogen from rocks and water, potentially offering a new green energy source, has been demonstrated by the University of Lyon.
9 December
NASA scientists report that the planet Mars had a large freshwater lake (which could have been a hospitable environment for microbial life) based on evidence from the Curiosity rover studying Aeolis Palus near Mount Sharp in Gale Crater.
A newly discovered greenhouse gas, perfluorotributylamine, has been shown to have 7,100 times the heat-trapping ability of CO2.
10 December – A new record low temperature on Earth has been recorded, with NASA satellite data showing -94.7 °C (-135.8 °F) in a region of East Antarctica. The previous record had been -89.2 °C (-128.6 °F), set in 1983 at Vostok Station.
11 December
The supervolcano that lies beneath Yellowstone National Park in the US has a magma chamber that is 2.5 times bigger than earlier estimates suggested.
Ice loss from the West Antarctic Ice Sheet is accelerating, based on the latest data from CryoSat-2. Over 150 cubic km of ice is now melting into the sea each year.
NASA reports the detection of "clay-like minerals" (specifically, phyllosilicates), often associated with organic materials, on the icy crust of Europa, moon of Jupiter. The presence of the minerals may have been the result of a collision with an asteroid or comet according to the scientists.
A new hydrogel scaffold has been developed for craniofacial bone tissue regeneration, which turns from a liquid to gel in the body, then liquefies again for removal.
12 December
NASA announces, based on studies with the Hubble Space Telescope, that water vapor plumes were detected on Europa, moon of Jupiter, and were similar to water vapor plumes detected on Enceladus, moon of Saturn.
A new drug has been shown to reduce the risk of breast cancer in post-menopausal women by 53 percent.
Researchers have achieved a five-fold increase in the lifespan of Caenorhabditis elegans, the equivalent of a human reaching 400–500 years of age.
13 December – Astronomers at the University College London report the detection of noble molecules in outer space for the first time. Argon-36, in the form of argon hydride, was found in cosmic dust associated with the Crab nebula supernova.
14 December – The uncrewed Chinese lunar rover Chang'e 3 lands on the Moon, making China the third country to achieve a soft landing there.
16 December – An international team of researchers reports evidence that Neanderthals practiced burial behavior and intentionally buried their dead.
18 December
Scientists report, for the first time, the entire genome of a Neanderthal, an extinct species of humans. The genome was extracted from the toe bone of a 130,000-year-old Neanderthal found in a Siberian cave.
Astronomers have spotted what appears to be the first known "exomoon", located 1,800 light years away.
19 December
The European Space Agency's Gaia space telescope is launched.
Researchers at Harvard Medical School have achieved a major breakthrough in the study of aging. By using a chemical that occurs naturally in the human body, it was possible to restore tissues in two-year-old mice to a much younger state.
20 December
NASA reports that the Curiosity rover has successfully upgraded, for the third time since landing, its software programs and is now operating with version 11. The new software is expected to provide the rover with better robotic arm and autonomous driving abilities. Due to wheel wear, a concern to drive more carefully, over the rough terrain the rover is currently traveling on its way to Mount Sharp, was also reported.
French Professor Alain Carpentier has developed the first self-regulating artificial heart, using biomaterials and electronic sensors. The device was successfully implanted by a team at the Georges Pompidou European Hospital in Paris.
22 December
A massive underground reservoir of meltwater has been discovered below Greenland, storing liquid water all year round and covering 27,000 square miles. This has implications for sea level rises.
Solar activity is not a key cause of recent climate change, a new study shows.
30 December – Earth's crust was unstable during the Archean era and would have "dripped" down into the mantle, which was much hotter than today, according to new research.
31 December – NASA reports that clouds may have been detected in the atmospheres of several exoplanets; specifically, GJ 436 b and GJ 1214 b. Earlier, on 31 September, clouds were reported found, for the first time on an exoplanet, on Kepler-7b.
Awards
Breakthrough Prize in Life Sciences
Breakthrough Prize in Life Sciences: Cornelia I. Bargmann, David Botstein, Lewis C. Cantley, Hans Clevers, Titia de Lange, Napoleone Ferrara, Eric S. Lander, Charles L. Sawyers, Robert A. Weinberg, Shinya Yamanaka and Bert Vogelstein
Nobel Prize
Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine: James E. Rothman, Randy W. Schekman and Thomas C. Südhof
Nobel Prize in Physics: François Englert and Peter Higgs
Nobel Prize in Chemistry: Martin Karplus, Michael Levitt and Arieh Warshel
Queen Elizabeth Prize for Engineering
Queen Elizabeth Prize for Engineering: Marc Andreessen, Tim Berners-Lee, Vint Cerf, Bob Kahn and Louis Pouzin
UNESCO Young Scientist Awards/Michel Batisse Award
UNESCO Young Scientist Awards and Michel Batisse Award for Biosphere Reserve Management: Julio Blas Garcia, Angela Camargo, Bilal Habib, Hilaire Kouakou, Atieh Kazemi Mojarad and Claudia Munera
Other
Order of the Companions of Honour (UK): Peter Higgs
Deaths
January
6 January – Paul Grundy, Australian structural engineer (born 1935).
8 January – Percy White, British chemist and nuclear scientist, contributor to Britain's first nuclear bomb (born 1916).
9 January – Brigitte Askonas, British immunologist (born 1923).
11 January – Aaron Swartz, American computer programmer and Internet hactivist, suicide (born 1986).
14 January – Andreas Raab, German computer scientist (born 1968).
18 January – Jim Horning, American computer scientist (born 1942).
19 January – Basil Hirschowitz, South African-American gastroenterologist (born 1925).
21 January
Donald Hornig, American Manhattan Project chemist and explosives expert (born 1920).
Ahmet Mete Işıkara, Turkish geophysicist (born 1941).
28 January – Xu Liangying, Chinese physicist (born 1920).
February
8 February – Nevin S. Scrimshaw, American food scientist and nutritionist (born 1918).
12 February – Reginald Turnill, British BBC science and spaceflight correspondent (born 1915).
18 February
Jerry Buss, American chemist and businessman (born 1933).
Godfrey Hewitt, British biologist and geneticist (born 1940).
19 February – Robert Coleman Richardson, American physicist, joint winner of the 1996 Nobel Prize in Physics (born 1937).
20 February – David S. McKay, American astrobiologist (born 1936).
25 February – C. Everett Koop, American surgeon and public health official (born 1916).
28 February – Donald A. Glaser, American physicist, winner of the 1960 Nobel Prize in Physics (born 1926).
March
4 March – Hobart Muir Smith, American herpetologist (born 1912).
10 March – Ian Munro Ross, British-born American electrical engineer and transistor pioneer (born 1927).
15 March – Kallam Anji Reddy, Indian chemical engineer and pharmaceutical entrepreneur (born 1940).
16 March – Jamal Nazrul Islam, Bangladeshi physicist and cosmologist (born 1939).
21 March – Cornelis H. A. Koster, Dutch computer scientist (born 1943).
24 March
Mary Gillham, British naturalist (born 1921).
Gury Marchuk, Russian physicist and mathematician (born 1925).
27 March – Yvonne Brill, Canadian rocket scientist (born 1924).
28 March
George E. P. Box, British-born American statistician (born 1919).
John Findlater, Scottish meteorologist (born 1926).
April
8 April – Frank Panton, British military scientist and bomb disposal expert (born 1923).
9 April – Paolo Soleri, Italian architect and ecologist, pioneer of the arcology concept (born 1919).
10 April – Sir Robert Geoffrey Edwards, British physiologist and pioneer in in-vitro fertilisation, winner of the 2010 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (born 1925).
15 April – Benjamin Fain, Ukrainian-born Israeli physicist and dissident (born 1930).
19 April
François Jacob, French biologist, winner of the 1965 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (born 1920).
Kenneth Appel, American mathematician (born 1932).
21 April – Shakuntala Devi, Indian mathematician (born 1929).
22 April
Struther Arnott, Scottish molecular biologist and chemist (born 1934).
Benjamin Milstein, British cardiothoracic surgeon and heart surgery pioneer (born 1918).
28 April – John C. Reynolds, American computer scientist (born 1935).
May
3 May – David Morris Kern, American pharmacist (born 1909).
4 May – Christian de Duve, English-born Belgian biologist and biochemist, co-recipient of the 1974 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (born 1917).
10 May – Boicho Kokinov, Bulgarian cognitive scientist (born 1960).
11 May – Joe Farman, British geophysicist who worked for the British Antarctic Survey (born 1930).
12 May – George William Gray, Scottish chemist who discovered stable liquid crystal materials leading to the development of liquid crystal displays (born 1926).
16 May
Heinrich Rohrer, Swiss physicist and nanotechnologist (born 1933).
Frank Nigel Hepper, English botanist (born 1929).
29 May – Ludwig G. Strauss, German medical radiologist (born 1949).
31 May – Gerald E. Brown, American theoretical physicist (born 1926).
June
1 June – Hanfried Lenz, German mathematician (born 1916).
6 June – Jerome Karle, American chemist, joint winner of the 1985 Nobel Prize in Chemistry (born 1918).
12 June – Michael Kasha, American chemist and biophysicist (born 1920).
15 June – Kenneth G. Wilson, American physicist, winner of the 1982 Nobel Prize in Physics (born 1936).
16 June – James Massey, American electrical engineer, information theorist and cryptographer (born 1934).
20 June – Wu Zhengyi, Chinese botanist (born 1916).
21 June
Zhang Guangdou, Chinese hydraulic engineer and member of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (born 1912).
James P. Gordon, American physicist (born 1928).
22 June – Sergio Focardi, Italian physicist (born 1932).
24 June – James Martin, British computer scientist, author and futurist (born 1933).
29 June – Margherita Hack, Italian astrophysicist (born 1922).
July
2 July
Douglas Engelbart, American scientist and computer pioneer, inventor of the computer mouse (born 1925).
Anthony Llewellyn, Welsh-born American chemist and NASA astronaut candidate (born 1933).
8 July – Rubby Sherr, American nuclear physicist and Manhattan Project participant (born 1913).
9 July – Masao Yoshida, Japanese nuclear engineer who was involved in tackling the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster (born 1955).
11 July – Milton Silveira, American aerospace engineer and NASA project manager (born 1929).
12 July
Amar Bose, Indian-American electrical engineer, acoustics expert and founder of Bose Corporation (born 1929).
Elaine Morgan, Welsh evolutionary theorist and author (born 1920).
15 July – John T. Riedl, American computer scientist (born 1962).
16 July – Yuri Vasilyevich Prokhorov, Russian mathematician (born 1929).
26 July – Obaid Siddiqi, Indian biologist (born 1932).
30 July – Godfrey Stafford, British physicist (born 1920).
August
5 August – Lin Chieh-liang, Taiwanese toxicologist and public health expert (born 1958).
27 August – David Barker, English epidemiologist (born 1938).
September
12 September – Ray Dolby, audio pioneer, invented the Dolby noise-reduction system and surround sound (born 1933).
16 September – George Hockham, English electrical engineer (born 1938)
23 September – Robert C. Stebbins, American herpetologist known for popular field guides (born 1915).
26 September – Harold Agnew, American physicist, worked on the Manhattan Project (born 1921).
October
2 October – Abraham Nemeth, American mathematician and inventor, created the Braille math code. (born 1918).
10 October – Scott Carpenter, the second American astronaut to orbit the Earth. (born 1925).
19 October – William C. Lowe, American businessman, manager of development of the IBM PC.
November
19 November – Frederick Sanger, British biochemist and laureate of Nobel Prize in Chemistry (1958, 1980). (born 1918).
21 November – Fred Kavli, Norwegian-born American business executive, inventor, and philanthropist (born 1927).
December
18 December – William T. Greenough, American neuroscientist. (born 2013).
See also
2013 in spaceflight
List of emerging technologies
List of years in science
References
External links
"A science news preview of 2013". BBC. 30 December 2012. Retrieved 26 July 2013.
Science obituaries in The Guardian
Science obituaries in The Daily Telegraph
Science obituaries at Legacy.com
21st century in science
2010s in science
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26696665
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B3bert%20Lovas
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Róbert Lovas
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Róbert Lovas is a Hungarian computer scientist at SZTAKI, Budapest, Hungary.
Biography
Lovas was born in Hungary. He received his MSc degree in electrical engineering in 1998, and PhD degree in informatics at the Budapest University of Technology and Economics in 2006. He is currently the Deputy Director of the Institute for Computer Science and Control (SZTAKI).
Research interests
High-level programming languages, workflow-oriented tools, and integrated software engineering environments (covering the entire life cycle) for parallel, distributed, and Grid systems,
Clusters, supercomputers, Grid systems and their applications in science and business areas,
Automated correctness debugging of parallel and distributed programs including specification, formal modelling, verification, replay/active control, and execution visualisation techniques.
Scientific merits
From 1997 he has been involved in several national (ChemistryGrid, HAGRID, WEB2GRID), intergovernmental bilateral, and European research projects in the Framework Programmes 4-7 (FP4: WINPAR; FP5: CAST; FP6: GridCoord, EGEE-I-II, CancerGrid, CoreGrid; FP7: Enabling Desktop Grids for e-Science (EDGeS), ETICS-II, EGEE-III).
In the HARNESS project (US/DoE) he worked as an exchange researcher at the Department of Math and Computer Science, Emory University (Georgia, Atlanta) in 2000. He has long-running experience in ICT collaborations with academic organizations, universities, and enterprises from various application areas of meteorology, biotechnology, computational chemistry, and telecommunication. He is a co-author or co-editor of more than 35 scientific papers and books on parallel software engineering and Grid computing particularly from design, debugging and application aspects. As lecturer and tutor, he gave more than 100 presentations and demonstrations on international scientific events, meetings, and exhibitions in Europe, the USA, and Asia.
He has received the following awards and scholarships:
2011 Exhibit Third Prize at FET11 - The European Future Technologies Conference and Exhibition (awarded by the European Commission)
2008 Institute Award, Computer and Automation Research Institute of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences
2002 Award of Aspirants and PhD Students (1st place in the 3rd year), Computer and Automation Research Institute of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences
2002 Excellent Talk Award. The Third Conference of PhD Students in Computer Science, Hungary
2000 Research Scholarship (6 months): Department of Math & Computer Science, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
He is the coordinator of the European DEGISCO project, a member of the Technical Committee of the Hungarian Grid Competence Center, and the Grid Application Support Center (MTA SZTAKI/GASuC). He was the deputy member of the Project Management Board of the European ETICS-2 consortium, and the Scientific Steering Committee of the CANCERGRID project; and the activity leader of the European EDGeS research infrastructure project. He acts as International Liaison (NIL) in the European Grid Infrastructure project and as a Secretary of the Stichting International Desktop Grid Federation.
Selected publications
Balaton et al. 2008: EDGeS: the common boundary between service and desktop grids. In: Grid computing, achievements and prospects. (CoreGrid integration workshop 2008)
Kacsuk, Lovas, Németh (Eds.). 2008: Distributed and Parallel Systems. In Focus: Desktop Grid Computing. Springer US
Lovas and Kacsuk. 2007: Correctness debugging of message passing programs using model verification techniques. In: Recent Advances in Parallel Virtual Machine and Message Passing Interface. Proc. of 14th European PVM/MPI User’s Group Meeting
Lovas et al. 2007: GRID superscalar enabled P-GRADE portal. In: Integrated Research in GRID Computing. Proc. of CoreGRID Integration Workshop 2005 (Selected Papers)
Lovas. 2006: Enhanced debugging methods for parallel and metacomputing applications based on macrosteps. PhD thesis, Budapest University of Technology and Economics
Lovas and Vécsei. 2005: Integration of Formal Verification and Debugging Methods in P-GRADE Environment. In Juhász et al. (Eds): Distributed and Parallel Systems. cluster and Grid Computing. Springer
Lovas et al. 2004: Workflow Support for Complex Grid Applications: Integrated and Portal Solutions. In: Grid Computing. Proc. of Second European AcrossGrids Conference, AxGrids 2004 (Revised Papers)
Németh et al. 2004: The P-GRADE grid portal. In: Computational science and its applications: Proc. of ICCSA 2004
Kacsuk et al. 2003: Demonstration of P-GRADE job-mode for the Grid. In: Euro-Par 2003 Parallel Processing. Proc. of 9th International Euro-Par Conference
Lovas et al. 2002: Application of P-grade development environment in meteorology. In: Kacsuk et al. (Eds.): Distributed and parallel systems. Cluster and grid computing. Springer
Lovas and Sunderam. 2002: Debugging of metacomputing applications. In: Proc. of 16th international parallel and distributed processing symposium. IPDPS 2002.
Kovács et al. 2002: Integrating temporal assertions into a parallel debugger. In: Euro-Par 2002. Parallel processing. Proc. of 8th international Euro-Par conference.
Lovas and Sunderam. 2001: Extension of macrostep debugging methodology towards metacomputing applications. Computational science - Proc. of ICCS 2001 International conference
Kacsuk et al. 2001: The GRADE graphical parallel programming environment. In: Cunha et al. (Eds.): Parallel program development for cluster computing: methodology, tools and integrated environments. Nova Science Publishers, Inc., NY, USA
Dózsa et al. 2000: Translation of a high-level graphical code to message-passing primitives in the GRADE programming environment. In: Recent Advances in Parallel Virtual Machine and Message Passing Interface Proc. of 7th European PVM/MPI Users’ Group Meeting
Kacsuk et al. 1999: Systematic debugging of parallel programs in DIWIDE based on collective breakpoints and macrosteps.In: Euro-Par '99. Parallel processing. Proc. of 5th international Euro-Par conference
Kacsuk et al. 1998: The GRED graphical editor for the GRADE parallel program development environment. In: Proc. of High-performance computing and networking. International conference and exhibition
Bäcker et al. 1998: WINPAR - Windows-based parallel computing. In: Parallel computing: Fundamentals, applications and new directions. Proc. of ParCo '97
Invited and keynote speeches
Selected invited and keynote speeches at scientific events:
2011: Seminar & Workshop: Desktop GRID Computing (Bandung, Indonesia)
2010: The 5th International Conference on Ubiquitous Information TEchnologies & Applications - CUTE 2010 (Sanya, China)
2010: Workshop on Using High Performance Computing (HPC) in Scientific Problems Computation (Damascus, Syria)
2009: International Symposium on Distributed Computing and Applications to Business, Engineering and Science - DCABES 2009 (Wuhan, China)
Media Appearances
Selected media appearances with links to audio/video/text material:
01/03/2013 : Költségkímélő informatikai megoldás (Gyártástrend - Issue Dec 2012)
11/02/2011 : First release of Desktop Grids for eScience Road Map (iSGTW)
2010. No 4 : Conferences, meetings (JINR NEWS)
05.27.2007 : Interview with Robert Lovas in NTN TV (Іноземці)
09.25.2003 : Áttörést jelentő Grid szakmai nap (Prim Online)
03.13.2000 : Interview with Robert Lovas and Peter Inzelt in Duna TV (Virradóra)
See also
Grid Computing
MTA SZTAKI Laboratory of Parallel and Distributed Systems
References
External links
MTA SZTAKI Laboratory of Parallel and Distributed Systems
Hungarian computer scientists
Living people
Date of birth unknown
Year of birth missing (living people)
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57218551
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USB%20%28Communications%29
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USB (Communications)
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This article provides information about the communications aspects of Universal Serial Bus, USB: Signaling, Protocols, Transactions.
Signaling (USB PHY)
Signaling rate (transmission rate)
The theoretical maximum data rate in USB 2.0 is 480 Mbit/s (60 MB/s) per controller and is shared amongst all attached devices. Some personal computer chipset manufacturers overcome this bottleneck by providing multiple USB 2.0 controllers within the southbridge.
According to routine testing performed by CNet, write operations to typical Hi-speed hard drives can sustain rates of 25–30 MB/s, while read operations are at 30–42 MB/s; this is 70% of the total available bus bandwidth. For USB 3.0, typical write speed is 70–90 MB/s, while read speed is 90–110 MB/s. Mask tests, also known as eye diagram tests, are used to determine the quality of a signal in the time domain. They are defined in the referenced document as part of the electrical test description for the high speed (HS) mode at 480 Mbit/s.
According to a USB-IF chairman, "at least 10 to 15 percent of the stated peak 60 MB/s (480 Mbit/s) of Hi-speed USB goes to overhead—the communication protocol between the card and the peripheral. Overhead is a component of all connectivity standards". Tables illustrating the transfer limits are shown in Chapter 5 of the USB spec.
For isochronous devices like audio streams, the bandwidth is constant, and reserved exclusively for a given device. The bus bandwidth therefore only has an effect on the number of channels that can be sent at a time, not the "speed" or latency of the transmission.
Low speed (LS) rate of 1.5 Mbit/s is defined by USB 1.0. It is very similar to full-bandwidth operation except each bit takes 8 times as long to transmit. It is intended primarily to save cost in low-bandwidth human interface devices (HID) such as keyboards, mice, and joysticks.
Full speed (FS) rate of 12 Mbit/s is the basic USB data rate defined by USB 1.0. All USB hubs can operate at this speed.
High speed (HS) rate of 480 Mbit/s was introduced in 2001. All hi-speed devices are capable of falling back to full-bandwidth operation if necessary; i.e., they are backward compatible with USB 1.1 standard. Connectors are identical for USB 2.0 and USB 1.x.
SuperSpeed (SS) rate of 5.0 Gbit/s. The written USB 3.0 specification was released by Intel and its partners in August 2008. The first USB 3.0 controller chips were sampled by NEC in May 2009, and the first products using the USB 3.0 specification arrived in January 2010. USB 3.0 connectors are generally backward compatible, but include new wiring and full-duplex operation.
SuperSpeed+ (SS+) rate of 10 Gbit/s is defined by USB 3.1 and 20 Gbit/s, using 2 lanes, is defined by USB 3.2.
Transaction latency
For low speed (1.5 Mbit/s) and full speed (12 Mbit/s) devices the shortest time for a transaction in one direction is 1 ms. High speed (480 Mbit/s) uses transactions within each micro frame (125 µs) where using 1-byte interrupt packet results in a minimal response time of 940 ns. 4-byte interrupt packet results in 984 ns.
Electrical specification
USB signals are transmitted using differential signaling on a twisted-pair data cable with characteristic impedance.
Low speed (LS) and Full speed (FS) modes use a single data pair, labelled D+ and D−, in half-duplex. Transmitted signal levels are for logical low, and for logical high level. The signal lines are not terminated.
High speed (HS) mode uses the same wire pair, but with different electrical conventions. Lower signal voltages of for low and for logical high level, and termination of 45 Ω to ground or 90 Ω differential to match the data cable impedance.
SuperSpeed (SS) adds two additional pairs of shielded twisted wire (and new, mostly compatible expanded connectors). These are dedicated to full-duplex SuperSpeed operation. The half-duplex lines are still used for configuration.
SuperSpeed+ (SS+) uses increased data rate (Gen 2×1 mode) and/or the additional lane in the Type-C connector (Gen 1×2 and Gen 2×2 mode).
A USB connection is always between a host or hub at the A connector end, and a device or hub's "upstream" port at the other end.
Signaling state
The host includes 15 kΩ pull-down resistors on each data line. When no device is connected, this pulls both data lines low into the so-called single-ended zero state (SE0 in the USB documentation), and indicates a reset or disconnected connection.
Line transition state
The following terminology is used to assist in the technical discussion regarding USB PHY signaling.
The idle line state is when the device is connected to the host with a pull-up on either D+ and D−, with transmitter output on both host and device is set to high impedance (hi-Z) (disconnected output).
A USB device pulls one of the data lines high with a 1.5 kΩ resistor. This overpowers one of the pull-down resistors in the host and leaves the data lines in an idle state called J.
For USB 1.x, the choice of data line indicates what signal rates the device is capable of:
full-bandwidth devices pull D+ high,
low-bandwidth devices pull D− high.
The K state has opposite polarity to the J state.
Line state (covering USB 1.x and 2.x)
Transmission
USB data is transmitted by toggling the data lines between the J state and the opposite K state. USB encodes data using the NRZI line coding:
0 bit is transmitted by toggling the data lines from J to K or vice versa.
1 bit is transmitted by leaving the data lines as-is.
To ensure that there are enough signal transitions for clock recovery to occur in the bitstream, a bit stuffing technique is applied to the data stream: an extra 0 bit is inserted into the data stream after any occurrence of six consecutive 1 bits. (Thus ensuring that there is a 0 bit to cause a transmission state transition.) Seven consecutively received 1 bits are always an error. For USB 3.0, additional data transmission encoding is used to handle the higher data rates required.
Transmission example on a full-speed device
Synchronization Pattern A USB packet begins with an 8-bit synchronization sequence, 00000001₂. That is, after the initial idle state J, the data lines toggle KJKJKJKK. The final 1 bit (repeated K state) marks the end of the sync pattern and the beginning of the USB frame. For high-bandwidth USB, the packet begins with a 32-bit synchronization sequence.
End of Packet (EOP) EOP is indicated by the transmitter driving 2 bit times of SE0 (D+ and D− both below max.) and 1 bit time of J state. After this, the transmitter ceases to drive the D+/D− lines and the aforementioned pull-up resistors hold it in the J (idle) state. Sometimes skew due to hubs can add as much as one bit time before the SE0 of the end of packet. This extra bit can also result in a "bit stuff violation" if the six bits before it in the CRC are 1s. This bit should be ignored by receiver.
Bus Reset A USB bus is reset using a prolonged (10 to 20 milliseconds) SE0 signal.
High speed negotiation
A special protocol during reset, called chirping, is used to negotiate the high speed mode with a host or hub. A device that is high speed capable first connects as a full speed device (D+ pulled high), but upon receiving a USB RESET (both D+ and D− driven LOW by host for 10 to 20 ms) it pulls the D− line high, known as chirp K. This indicates to the host that the device is high bandwidth. If the host/hub is also HS capable, it chirps (returns alternating J and K states on D− and D+ lines) letting the device know that the hub operates at high bandwidth. The device has to receive at least three sets of KJ chirps before it changes to high speed terminations and begins high speed signaling. Because SuperSpeed and beyond uses wiring that is separate and additional to that used by earlier modes, such bandwidth negotiation is not required.
Clock tolerance is 480.00±0.24 Mbit/s, 12.00±0.03 Mbit/s, and 1.50±0.18 Mbit/s.
USB 3.0
USB 3 uses tinned copper stranded AWG-28 cables with impedance for its high-speed differential pairs. Electrical signalling uses a linear feedback shift register and 8b/10b encoding with spread spectrum clocking, sent at a nominal 1 Volt with a 100 mV receiver threshold; the receiver uses equalization training. Packet headers are protected with CRC-16, while data payload is protected with CRC-32. Power up to 3.6 W may be used. One unit load in Super Speed mode is equal to 150 mA.
Protocol layer
During USB communication, data is transmitted as packets. Initially, all packets are sent from the host via the root hub, and possibly more hubs, to devices. Some of those packets direct a device to send some packets in reply.
After the sync field, all packets are made of 8-bit bytes, transmitted least-significant bit first. The first byte is a packet identifier (PID) byte. The PID is actually 4 bits; the byte consists of the 4-bit PID followed by its bitwise complement. This redundancy helps detect errors. (A PID byte contains at most four consecutive 1 bits, and thus never needs bit-stuffing, even when combined with the final 1 bit in the sync byte. However, trailing 1 bits in the PID may require bit-stuffing within the first few bits of the payload.)
Packets come in three basic types, each with a different format and CRC (cyclic redundancy check):
Handshake packets
Handshake packets consist of only a single PID byte, and are generally sent in response to data packets. Error detection is provided by transmitting four bits, which represent the packet type twice, in a single PID byte using complemented form. The three basic types are ACK, indicating that data was successfully received; NAK, indicating that the data cannot be received and should be retried; and STALL, indicating that the device has an error condition and cannot transfer data until some corrective action (such as device initialization) occurs.
USB 2.0 added two additional handshake packets: NYET and ERR. NYET indicates that a split transaction is not yet complete, while ERR handshake indicates that a split transaction failed. A second use for a NYET packet is to tell the host that the device has accepted a data packet, but cannot accept any more due to full buffers. This allows a host to switch to sending small PING tokens to inquire about the device's readiness, rather than sending an entire unwanted DATA packet just to elicit a NAK.
The only handshake packet the USB host may generate is ACK. If it is not ready to receive data, it should not instruct a device to send.
Token packets
Token packets consist of a PID byte followed by two payload bytes: 11 bits of address and a five-bit CRC. Tokens are only sent by the host, never a device. Below are tokens present from USB 1.0:
IN and OUT tokens contain a seven-bit device number and four-bit function number (for multifunction devices) and command the device to transmit DATAx packets, or receive the following DATAx packets, respectively.
IN token expects a response from a device. The response may be a NAK or STALL response or a DATAx frame. In the latter case, the host issues an ACK handshake if appropriate.
OUT token is followed immediately by a DATAx frame. The device responds with ACK, NAK, NYET, or STALL, as appropriate.
SETUP operates much like an OUT token, but is used for initial device setup. It is followed by an eight-byte DATA0 frame with a standardized format.
SOF (Start of Frame) Every millisecond (12000 full-bandwidth bit times), the USB host transmits a special SOF (start of frame) token, containing an 11-bit incrementing frame number in place of a device address. This is used to synchronize isochronous and interrupt data transfers. High-speed USB 2.0 devices receive seven additional SOF tokens per frame, each introducing a 125 µs "microframe" (60000 high-bandwidth bit times each).
USB 2.0 also added a PING Token and a larger three-byte SPLIT Token:
PING asks a device if it is ready to receive an OUT/DATA packet pair. PING is usually sent by a host when polling a device that most recently responded with NAK or NYET. This avoids the need to send a large data packet to a device that the host suspects is unwilling to accept it. The device responds with ACK, NAK, or STALL, as appropriate.
SPLIT is used to perform split transactions. Rather than tie up the high-bandwidth USB bus sending data to a slower USB device, the nearest high-bandwidth capable hub receives a SPLIT token followed by one or two USB packets at high-bandwidth, performs the data transfer at full- or low-bandwidth, and provides the response at high-bandwidth when prompted by a second SPLIT token. It contains a seven-bit hub number, 12 bits of control flags, and a five-bit CRC.
OUT, IN, SETUP, and PING token packets
ADDR: Address of USB device (maximum of 127 devices).
ENDP: Select endpoint hardware source/sink buffer on device. (E.g. PID OUT would be for sending data from host source buffer into the USB device sink buffer.)
By default, all USB devices must at least support endpoint buffer 0 (EP0). This is since EP0 is used for device control and status information during enumeration and normal operation.
SOF: Start-of-frame
Frame number: This is a frame number that is incremented by the host periodically to allow endpoints to identify the start of the frame (or microframe) and synchronize internal endpoint clocks to the host clock.
SSPLIT and CSPLIT: Start-split transaction and complete split transaction
S/C, Start, or complete:
0, SSPLIT, Start split transaction
1, CSPLIT, Complete split transaction
S: 1, Low speed; 0, High speed
E, End of full speed payload
U, U bit is reserved/unused and must be reset to zero (0 B)
EP, End point: type 00, control; 01, isochronous; 10, bulk; and 11, interrupt.
Data packets
A data packet consists of the PID followed by 0–1,024 bytes of data payload (up to 1,024 bytes for high-speed devices, up to 64 bytes for full-speed devices, and at most eight bytes for low-speed devices), and a 16-bit CRC.
There are two basic forms of data packet, DATA0 and DATA1. A data packet must always be preceded by an address token, and is usually followed by a handshake token from the receiver back to the transmitter. The two packet types provide the 1-bit sequence number required by stop-and-wait ARQ. If a USB host does not receive a response (such as an ACK) for data it has transmitted, it does not know if the data was received or not; the data might have been lost in transit or it might have been received but the handshake response was lost.
To solve this problem, the device keeps track of the type of DATAx packet it last accepted. If it receives another DATAx packet of the same type, it is acknowledged but ignored as a duplicate. Only a DATAx packet of the opposite type is actually received.
If the data is corrupted while transmitted or received, the CRC check fails. When this happens, the receiver does not generate an ACK, which makes the sender resend the packet.
When a device is reset with a SETUP packet, it expects an 8-byte DATA0 packet next.
USB 2.0 added DATA2 and MDATA packet types as well. They are used only by high-bandwidth devices doing high-bandwidth isochronous transfers that must transfer more than 1024 bytes per 125 µs micro frame (8,192 kB/s).
PRE packet (tells hubs to temporarily switch to low speed mode)
A hub is able to support low bandwidth devices mixed with other speed device via a special PID value, PRE. This is required as a USB hub functions as a very simple repeater, broadcasting the host message to all connected devices regardless if the packet was for it or not. This means in a mixed speed environment, there is a potential danger that a low speed could misinterpret a high or full speed signal from the host.
To eliminate this danger, if a USB hub detects a mix of high speed or full speed and low speed devices, it, by default, disables communication to the low speed device unless it receives a request to switch to low speed mode. On reception of a PRE packet however, it temporarily re-enables the output port to all low speed devices, to allow the host to send a single low speed packet to low speed devices. After the low speed packet is sent, an end of packet (EOP) signal tells the hub to disable all outputs to low speed devices again.
Since all PID bytes include four 0 bits, they leave the bus in the full-bandwidth K state, which is the same as the low-bandwidth J state. It is followed by a brief pause, during which hubs enable their low-bandwidth outputs, already idling in the J state. Then a low-bandwidth packet follows, beginning with a sync sequence and PID byte, and ending with a brief period of SE0. Full-bandwidth devices other than hubs can simply ignore the PRE packet and its low-bandwidth contents, until the final SE0 indicates that a new packet follows.
Transaction
OUT transaction
IN transaction
SETUP transaction
This is used for device enumeration and connection management and informs the device that the host would like to start a control transfer exchange.
Depending on the setup packet, an optional data packet from device to host or host to device may occur.
Setup packet
A setup transaction transfers an 8-byte setup packet to the device. The setup packet encodes the direction and length of any following data packets.
Control transfer exchange
The control transfer exchange consist of three distinct stages:
Setup stage: This is the setup command sent by the host to the device.
Data stage (optional): The device may optionally send data in response to a setup request.
Status stage: Dummy IN or OUT transaction, which is probably for indicating the end of a control transfer exchange.
This allows the host to perform bus management action like enumerating new USB devices via retrieving the new device device descriptor. Retrieval of the device descriptor would especially allow for determining the USB Class, VID, and PID, which are often used for determining the correct USB driver for the device.
Also, after the device descriptor is retrieved, the host performs another control transfer exchange, but instead to set the address of the USB device to a new ADDRx.
References
USB
Physical layer protocols
Communication interfaces
Computer buses
Serial buses
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36039728
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xbox%20%28app%29
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Xbox (app)
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The Xbox app is an app for Windows 8, Windows 10, Windows 11, Android, and iOS. It acts as a companion app for Xbox video game consoles, providing access to Xbox Live community features, remote control, as well as second screen functionality (formerly branded as SmartGlass) with selected games, applications, and content.
On Windows 10, the app additionally serves as a launcher for PC games installed on a device (including games obtained from Microsoft Store, Bethesda.net, Battle.net, Steam, GOG.com, Epic Games Store, Humble Bundle, Origin and Ubisoft Connect), provided access to the system's screen recording functions, and streaming of games from an Xbox One console on a local network.
During E3 2019, the existing version of the Xbox app for Windows 10 was renamed Xbox Console Companion, and a new Xbox app was introduced in beta. This app is more specifically oriented towards PC gaming, serving as a front-end to games distributed on Microsoft Store, and as the client for PC Game Pass.
Features
Through the app, users can access their activity feed, Xbox Live friends and messages, manage their party, watch saved Game DVR clips, browse OneGuide, and view their achievements. Some games and apps can provide second screen integration via the app, displaying supplemental content. The app can also be used as a remote control for the console.
The Windows 10 version of Xbox Console Companion allows users to stream games from an Xbox One console over a local network, and has the ability to view and edit Game DVR recordings from an Xbox One console. It also serves as a front-end for a PC version of Game DVR on supported hardware (Game DVR settings were moved to the Settings app on Windows 10 version 1703), and has a library display for games installed on the device, such as those obtained via Microsoft Store, Bethesda.net, Battle.net, Steam, GOG.com, Epic Games Store, Humble Bundle, Origin and Ubisoft Connect.
Support for Xbox Cloud Gaming as well as Remote Play from Xbox consoles was added to the app on September 14, 2021.
History
Xbox 360 SmartGlass was originally announced at E3 2012, for Windows 8, Android and iOS. Microsoft demonstrated use cases for the new app within both games and entertainment, including a minimap for Ascend: New Gods, a second screen experience for School of Rock with supplemental content, and Game of Thrones (with interactive maps and family tree diagrams). With the release of Xbox One in November 2013, Microsoft released an accompanying Xbox One SmartGlass app for Android, iOS, Windows 8.1, and Windows Phone, which contained more extensive functionality for controlling the console.
Windows 10 introduced a revamped version of SmartGlass referred to simply as Xbox, which notably added a library display for PC games, and the ability to stream games from an Xbox One console on a local network. On June 12, 2016, the mobile versions of the Xbox One Smartglass apps were updated for parity with the desktop version, and renamed "Xbox" as well. Xbox 360 SmartGlass was not updated and was discontinued in May 2018.
The mobile apps were updated alongside the Xbox One's May 2019 software update, adding cross-platform status indicators to friends. In May 2019, Microsoft also revamped the Xbox Game Bar feature of Windows 10 into a widget-based overlay, which features pop-up windows for features such as screen recording, managing audio inputs, viewing the Xbox Live friends list, and monitoring system components.
On June 9, 2019, coinciding with Microsoft's E3 2019 press conference, Microsoft released a new Xbox app in beta exclusively for Windows 10 May 2019 Update (version 1903), which has a redesigned interface, and serves as the client for Xbox Game Pass on PC. In advance of the conference, Microsoft rebranded the existing Xbox app on Windows 10 as Xbox Console Companion. The new Xbox app is pre-loaded software on Windows 11.
See also
PlayStation App
Game Center
Google Play Games
Nintendo Switch Online
Comparison of screencasting software
References
External links
Xbox (beta) on Microsoft Store
Xbox Console Companion on Microsoft Store
Android (operating system) software
IOS software
Universal Windows Platform apps
Windows Phone software
Xbox
Xbox 360
SmartGlass
Xbox network
Freeware
Screencasting software
Screenshot software
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495408
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debian%20Free%20Software%20Guidelines
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Debian Free Software Guidelines
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The Debian Free Software Guidelines (DFSG) is a set of guidelines that the Debian Project uses to determine whether a software license is a free software license, which in turn is used to determine whether a piece of software can be included in Debian. The DFSG is part of the Debian Social Contract.
The guidelines
Free redistribution.
Inclusion of source code.
Allowing for modifications and derived works.
Integrity of the author's source code (as a compromise).
No discrimination against persons or groups.
No discrimination against fields of endeavor, like commercial use.
The license needs to apply to all to whom the program is redistributed.
License must not be specific to a product.
License must not restrict other software.
The GNU GPL, BSD, and Artistic licenses are examples of licenses considered free.
History
The DFSG was first published together with the first version of the Debian Social Contract in July 1997.
The primary author was Bruce Perens, with input from the Debian developers during a month-long discussion on a private mailing list, as part of the larger Debian Social Contract. Perens was copied to an email discussion between Ean Schuessler (then of Debian) and Donnie Barnes of Red Hat, in which Schuessler accused Red Hat of never elucidating its social contract with the Linux community. Perens realized that Debian did not have any formal social contract either, and immediately started creating one.
The Open Source Definition was created by re-titling the exact text of the DFSG soon afterwards. DFSG was preceded by Free Software Foundation's Free Software Definition, which then defined three freedoms of Free Software (Freedom Zero was added later), but this text was not used in the creation of the DFSG. Once the DFSG became the Open Source Definition, Richard Stallman saw the need to differentiate free software from open source and promoted the Free Software Definition.
Published versions of FSF's Free Software Definition existed as early as 1986, having been published in the first edition of the (now defunct) GNU's Bulletin. The core of the Free Software Definition was the (then) Three Freedoms, which preceded the drafting and promulgation of the DFSG, were unknown to its authors.
In November 1998, Ian Jackson and others proposed several changes in a draft versioned 1.4, but the changes were never made official. Jackson stated that the problems were "loose wording" and the patch clause.
, the document has never been revised. Nevertheless, there were changes made to the Social Contract which were considered to affect the parts of the distribution covered by the DFSG.
The Debian General Resolution 2004-003, titled "Editorial amendments to the social contract", modified the Social Contract. The proposer Andrew Suffield stated:
"The rule is 'this resolution only changes the letter of the law, not the spirit'. Mostly it changes the wording of the social contract to better reflect what it is supposed to mean, and this is mostly in light of issues that were not considered when it was originally written."
However, the change of the sentence "We promise to keep the Debian GNU/Linux Distribution entirely free software" into "We promise that the Debian system and all its components will be free" resulted in the release manager, Anthony Towns, making a practical change:
"As [SC #1] is no longer limited to 'software', and as this decision was made by developers after and during discussion of how we should consider non-software content such as documentation and firmware, I don't believe I can justify the policy decisions to exempt documentation, firmware, or content any longer, as the Social Contract has been amended to cover all these areas."
This prompted another General Resolution, 2004-004, in which the developers voted overwhelmingly against immediate action, and decided to postpone those changes until the next release (whose development started a year later, in June 2005).
Application
Software
Most discussions about the DFSG happen on the debian-legal mailing list. When a Debian Developer first uploads a package for inclusion in Debian, the ftpmaster team checks the software licenses and determines whether they are in accordance with the social contract. The team sometimes confers with the debian-legal list in difficult cases.
Non-"software" content
The DFSG is focused on software, but the word itself is unclear—some apply it to everything that can be expressed as a stream of bits, while a minority considers it to refer to just computer programs. Also, the existence of PostScript, executable scripts, sourced documents, etc., greatly muddies the second definition. Thus, to break the confusion, in June 2004 the Debian project decided to explicitly apply the same principles to software documentation, multimedia data and other content. The non-program content of Debian began to comply with the DFSG more strictly in Debian 4.0 (released in April 2007) and subsequent releases.
GFDL
Much documentation written by the GNU Project, the Linux Documentation Project and others licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License contain invariant sections, which do not comply with the DFSG. This assertion is the end result of a long discussion and the General Resolution 2006-001.
Due to the GFDL invariant sections, content under this license must be separately contained in an additional "non-free" repository which is not officially considered part of Debian.
Multimedia files
It can be sometimes hard to define what constitutes the "source" for multimedia files, such as whether an uncompressed image file is the source of a compressed image and whether the 3D model before ray tracing is the source for its resulting image.
debian-legal tests for DFSG compliance
The debian-legal mailing list subscribers have created some tests to check whether a license violates the DFSG.
The common tests (as described in the draft DFSG FAQ) are the following:
"The Desert Island test". Imagine a castaway on a desert island with a solar-powered computer. This would make it impossible to fulfill any requirement to make changes publicly available or to send patches to some particular place. This holds even if such requirements are only upon request, as the castaway might be able to receive messages but be unable to send them. To be free, software must be modifiable by this unfortunate castaway, who must also be able to legally share modifications with friends on the island.
"The Dissident test". Consider a dissident in a totalitarian state who wishes to share a modified bit of software with fellow dissidents, but does not wish to reveal the identity of the modifier, or directly reveal the modifications themselves, or even possession of the program, to the government. Any requirement for sending source modifications to anyone other than the recipient of the modified binary — in fact, any forced distribution at all, beyond giving source to those who receive a copy of the binary — would put the dissident in danger. For Debian to consider software free it must not require any such excess distribution.
"The Tentacles of Evil test". Imagine that the author is hired by a large evil corporation and, now in their thrall, attempts to do the worst to the users of the program: to make their lives miserable, to make them stop using the program, to expose them to legal liability, to make the program non-free, to discover their secrets, etc. The same can happen to a corporation bought out by a larger corporation bent on destroying free software in order to maintain its monopoly and extend its evil empire. To be free, the license cannot allow even the author to take away the required freedoms.
See also
The Free Software Definition
History of free and open-source software
Comparison of free and open-source software licenses
References
External links
Debian Social Contract and Free Software Guidelines
debian-legal list, with archives from previous discussions
Draft DFSG FAQ
Section A.1.3 of Why OSS/FS? Look at the Numbers! identifies some of the major issues discussed by debian-legal.
List of software licenses currently found in Debian
The DFSG and Software Licenses Debian wiki
Free Software Guidelines
Free software
Debian
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile%20game
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Mobile game
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A mobile game is a video game that is typically played on a mobile phone. The term also refers to all games that are played on any portable device, including from mobile phone (feature phone or smartphone), tablet, PDA to handheld game console, portable media player or graphing calculator, with and without network availability.
The earliest known game on a mobile phone was a Tetris variant on the Hagenuk MT-2000 device from 1994.
In 1997, Nokia launched the very successful Snake. Snake (and its variants), that was pre-installed in most mobile devices manufactured by Nokia, has since become one of the most played games and is found on more than 350 million devices worldwide. A variant of the Snake game for the Nokia 6110, using the infrared port, was also the first two-player game for mobile phones.
Today, mobile games are usually downloaded from an app store as well as from mobile operator's portals, but in some cases are also preloaded in the handheld devices by the OEM or by the mobile operator when purchased, via infrared connection, Bluetooth, or memory card, or side loaded onto the handset with a cable.
Downloadable mobile games were first commercialised in Japan circa the launch of NTT DoCoMo's I-mode platform in 1999, and by the early 2000s were available through a variety of platforms throughout Asia, Europe, North America and ultimately most territories where modern carrier networks and handsets were available by the mid-2000s. However, mobile games distributed by mobile operators and third party portals (channels initially developed to monetise downloadable ringtones, wallpapers and other small pieces of content using premium SMS or direct carrier charges as a billing mechanism) remained a marginal form of gaming until Apple's iOS App Store was launched in 2008. As the first mobile content marketplace operated directly by a mobile platform holder, the App Store significantly changed the consumer behaviour and quickly broadened the market for mobile games, as almost every smartphone owner started to download mobile apps.
History
Towards the end of the 20th century, mobile phone ownership became ubiquitous in the industrialised world - due to the establishment of industry standards, and the rapid fall in cost of handset ownership, and use driven by economies of scale. As a result of this explosion, technological advancement by handset manufacturers became rapid. With these technological advances, mobile phone games also became increasingly sophisticated, taking advantage of exponential improvements in display, processing, storage, interfaces, network bandwidth and operating system functionality. The first such game that demonstrated the desire for handset games was a version of Snake that Nokia had included on its devices since 1997.
In 1999, NTT Docomo launched the i-mode mobile platform in Japan, allowing mobile games to be downloaded onto smartphones. Several Japanese video game developers announced games for the i-mode platform that year, such as Konami announcing its dating simulation Tokimeki Memorial. The same year, Nintendo and Bandai were developing mobile phone adapters for their handheld game consoles, the Game Boy Color and WonderSwan, respectively. By 2001, i-mode had users in Japan, along with more advanced handsets with graphics comparable to 8-bit consoles. A wide variety of games were available for the i-mode service, along with announcements from established video game developers such as Taito, Konami, Namco, and Hudson Soft, including ports of classic arcade games and 8-bit console games.
The launch of Apple's iPhone in 2007 and the App Store in 2008 radically changed the market. The iPhone's focus on larger memory, multitasks, and additional sensing devices, including the touchscreen in later model, made it ideal for casual games, while the App Store made it easy for developers to create and post apps to publish, and for users to search for and obtain new games. With several games released at launch of the App Store featured as rags to riches stories, developers drove to the iPhone and App Store. Further, the App Store added the ability to support in-app purchases in October 2009. This allowed games like Angry Birds and Cut the Rope to find new monetization models away from the traditional premium "pay once" model. Meanwhile, Apple's disruption caused the market to stabilized around iPhone devices and Google's Android-based phones which offered a similar app store through Google Play.
A further major shift game with 2012's Candy Crush Saga and Puzzle & Dragons, games that used a stamina-like gameplay feature found in social-network games like FarmVille to limit the number of times one could play it in a single period, but allowed optional in-app purchases to restore that stamina immediately and continue playing. This new monetization brought in millions of players to both games and millions of dollars in revenue, establishing the "freemium" model that would be a common approach for many mobile game going forward. Mobile gaming grew rapidly over the next several years, buoyed by rapid expansion in China. By 2016, top mobile games were earning over a year, and the total revenue for the mobile games sector had surpassed that of other video game areas.
Other major trends in mobile games have include the hyper-casual game such as Flappy Bird and Crossy Road and location-based games like Pokémon Go.
Mobile gaming has impacted the larger video game market by drawing demand away from handheld video game consoles; both Nintendo and Sony had seen major drops in sales of their 2011 handhelds compared to their 2004 predecessors as a result of mobile gaming. At the same time, mobile gaming introduced the concept of microconsoles, low-cost, low-powered home video game consoles that used mobile operating systems to take advantage of the wide variety of games available on these platforms.
Calculator games
Calculator gaming is a form of gaming in which games are played on programmable calculators, especially graphing calculators.
In 1980, Casio's MG-880 pocket calculator had a built-in "Invaders" game (essentially a downscaled Space Invaders clone), released in the Summer that year. Another early example is the type-in program Darth Vader's Force Battle for the TI-59, published in BYTE in October 1980. The magazine also published a version of Hunt the Wumpus for the HP-41C. Few other games exist for the earliest of programmable calculators (including the Hewlett-Packard 9100A, one of the first scientific calculators), such as the long-popular Lunar Lander game often used as an early programming exercise. However, limited program address space and lack of easy program storage made calculator gaming a rarity even as programmables became cheap and relatively easy to obtain. It was not until the early 1990s when graphing calculators became more powerful and cheap enough to be common among high school students for use in mathematics. The new graphing calculators, with their ability to transfer files to one another and from a computer for backup, could double as game consoles.
Calculators such as HP-48 and TI-82 could be programmed in proprietary programming languages such as RPL programming language or TI-BASIC directly on the calculator; programs could also be written in assembly language or (less often) C on a desktop computer and transferred to the calculator. As calculators became more powerful and memory sizes increased, games increased in complexity.
By the 1990s, programmable calculators were able to run implementations by hobbyists of games such as Lemmings and Doom (Lemmings for HP-48 was released in 1993; Doom for HP-48 was created in 1995). Some games such as Dope Wars caused controversy when students played them in school.
The look and feel of these games on an HP-48 class calculator, due to the lack of dedicated audio and video circuitry providing hardware acceleration, can at most be compared to the one offered by 8-bit handheld consoles such as the early Game Boy or the Gameking (low resolution, monochrome or grayscale graphics), or to the built-in games of non-Java or BREW enabled cell phones.
Games continue to be programmed on graphing calculators with increasing complexity. A wave of games appeared after the release of the TI-83 Plus/TI-84 Plus series, among TI's first graphing calculators to natively support assembly. TI-BASIC programming also rose in popularity after the release of third-party libraries. Assembly remained the language of choice for these calculators, which run on a Zilog Z80 processor, although some assembly implements have been created to ease the difficulty of learning assembly language. For those running on a Motorola 68000 processor (like the TI-89), C programming (possible using TIGCC) has begun to displace assembly.
Because they are easy to program without outside tools, calculator games have survived despite the proliferation of mobile devices such as mobile phones and PDAs.
Industry structure
Total global revenue from mobile games was estimated at $2.6 billion in 2005 by Informa Telecoms and Media. Total revenue in 2008 was $5.8 billion. The largest mobile gaming markets were in the Asia-Pacific nations Japan and China, followed by the United States. In 2012, the market had already reached $7.8 billion A new report was released in November 2015 showing that 1887 app developers would make more than one million dollars on the Google and iOS app stores in 2015.
Mobile gaming revenue reached $50.4 billion in 2017, occupying 43% of the entire global gaming market and poised for further growth. It is expected to surpass the combined revenues from both PC gaming and console gaming in 2018.
Different platforms
Mobile games have been developed to run on a wide variety of platforms and technologies. These include the (today largely defunct) Palm OS, Symbian, Adobe Flash Lite, NTT DoCoMo's DoJa, Sun's Java, Qualcomm's BREW, WIPI, BlackBerry, Nook and early incarnations of Windows Mobile. Today, the most widely supported platforms are Apple's iOS and Google's Android. The mobile version of Microsoft's Windows 10 (formerly Windows Phone) is also actively supported, although in terms of market share remains marginal compared to iOS and Android.
Java was at one time the most common platform for mobile games, however its performance limits led to the adoption of various native binary formats for more sophisticated games.
Due to its ease of porting between mobile operating systems and extensive developer community, Unity is one of the most widely used engines used by modern mobile games. Apple provide a number of proprietary technologies (such as Metal) intended to allow developers to make more effective use of their hardware in iOS-native games.
Monetization
With the introduction of the iOS App Store and support for in-app purchases by October 2009, the methods through which mobile games earn revenue have diverged significantly away from traditional game models on consoles or computers. Since 2009, a number of models have developed, and a mobile game developer/publisher may use one or a combination of these models to make revenue.
Premium
The premium model is akin to the traditional model where the user pays for the full game upfront. Additional downloadable content may be available which can be purchased separately. Initial games released to the App Store before in-app purchases were available used this approach, and still common for many types of games.
Freemium
The freemium or "free to try" model offers a small portion of the game for free, comparable to a game demo. After completing this, the player is given the option to make a one-time in-app purchase to unlock the rest of the game. Early games shortly after the introduction of the in-app purchase feature used this approach such as Cut the Rope and Fruit Ninja.
Free-to-play
A free-to-play game requires no cost at all to play, and generally is designed to be playable from start to finish without having to spend any money into the game. However, the game will include gameplay mechanics which may slow progress towards completing the game. Commonly in mobile games, this is some form of energy or stamina that limits how many turns or actions a player can take each day. By using in-app purchases, the player can immediately restore their energy or stamina and continue on. In-app purchases can also be used to buy power-ups and other items to give the player a limited-time advantage to help complete the game. While free-to-play games had been common on computers prior to mobile, the method was popularized in mobile gaming with Candy Crush Saga and Puzzle & Dragons.
Advertising-supported
A ad-supported game will be free to download and play, but periodically or persistently, the game will show an advertisement to the user which they will have to watch through before they can continue with the game. The developer earns revenue from the advertising network. In some cases, an in-app purchase allows the player to fully disable ads in these games.
Subscription model
A subscription-based game will offer a base version with limited features that can be played for free, but additional premium features can be obtained if the user pays a monthly subscription fee. If they terminate their subscription, they lose access to those features, though typically not any game progression related to those features, and can pick up those features later by restarting their subscription.
Many game apps are free to play through a combination of these models. Over time, mobile developers of these types of apps have observed that the bulk of their players do not spend any funds on their game, but instead revenues are generated from a small fraction, typically under 10% of their total players. Further, most of the revenue is generated by a very small fraction, about 2%, of the total players, who routinely spend large amounts of money on the game. A similar split on revenue had been seen in social-network games played in browsers. These players are known as "whales", inspired by same term used for high rolling gamblers. The social nature of a mobile game has also been found to affect its revenue, as games that encourage players to work in teams or clans will lead to increased spending from engaged players.
Common limits of mobile games
Mobile games tend to be small in scope (in relation to mainstream PC and console games) and many prioritise innovative design and ease of play over visual spectacle. Storage and memory limitations (sometimes dictated at the platform level) place constraints on file size that presently rule out the direct migration of many modern PC and console games to mobile. One major problem for developers and publishers of mobile games is describing a game in such detail that it gives the customer enough information to make a purchasing decision.
Location-based mobile games
Games played on a mobile device using localization technology like GPS are called location-based games or location-based mobile games. These are not only played on mobile hardware but also integrate the player's position into the game concept. In other words, while it does not matter for a normal mobile game where exactly the player is (play them anywhere at any time), the player's coordinate and movement are the main elements in a location-based mobile game.
A well known example is the treasure hunt game Geocaching, which can be played on any mobile device with integrated or external GPS receiver. External GPS receivers are usually connected via Bluetooth. More and more mobile phones with integrated GPS are expected to come.
Several other location-based mobile games, such as BotFighters, are in the stage of research prototypes rather than being commercial successes.
Augmented reality games
Mobiles devices have been used as a platform for Augmented reality (AR in short) games, using the device's camera(s) to as an input for the game. While playing the game, the player aims the device's camera at a location and through the device's screen, sees the area captured by the camera plus computer-generated graphics atop it, augmenting the display and then allowing the player to interact that way. The graphics are generally drawn as to make the generated image appear to be part of the captured background, and will be rendered appropriate as the player moves the device around. The most successful and notable example for an augmented reality mobile game is Niantic's Pokémon Go (2016), where the player travels to locations marked on their GPS map and then uses the augmented reality mode to find Pokémons to capture. However as of January 2022 there has been a lack of significant AR mobile games success since, with several AR mobile game projects being shut down, such as Microsoft's Minecraft Earth and Niantic's Catan: World Explorers
Multipurpose games
Since mobile devices have become present in the majority of households (at least in the developed countries), there are more and more games created with educational, lifestyle and, health improvement purposes. For example, mobile games can be used in speech-language pathology, children's rehabilitation in hospitals (Finnish startup Rehaboo!), acquiring new useful or healthy habits (Habitica), memorising things and learning languages (Memrise).
There are also apps with similar purposes which are not games per se, in this case they are called gamified apps. Sometimes it is difficult to draw a line between multipurpose games and gamified apps.
Multiplayer mobile games
Many mobile games support multiple players, either remotely over a network or locally via Wi-Fi, Bluetooth or similar technology.
There are several options for playing multiplayer games on mobile phones: live synchronous tournaments and turn-based asynchronous tournaments. In live tournaments random players from around the world are matched together to compete. This is done using different networks such as Game Center, Google+, and Facebook.
In asynchronous tournaments, there are two methods used by game developers centered around the idea that players matches are recorded and then broadcast at a later time to other players in the same tournament. Asynchronous gameplay resolves the issue of needing players to have a continuous live connection. This gameplay is different since players take individual turns in the game, therefore allowing players to continue playing against human opponents.
This is done using different networks including Facebook. Some companies use a regular turn-based system where the end results are posted so all the players can see who won the tournament. Other companies take screen recordings of live players and broadcast them to other players at a later point in time to allow players to feel that they are always interacting with another human opponent.
Distribution
Mobile games can be distributed in one of four ways:
Over the Air (OTA): a game binary file is delivered to the mobile device via wireless carrier networks.
Sideloaded: a game binary file is loaded onto the phone while connected to a PC, either via USB cable or Bluetooth.
Pre-installed: a game binary file is preloaded onto the device by the original equipment manufacturer (OEM).
Mobile browser download: a game file is downloaded directly from a mobile website.
Until the launch of Apple App Store, in the US, the majority of mobile games were sold by wireless carriers, such as AT&T Mobility, Verizon Wireless, Sprint Corporation and T-Mobile US. In Europe, games were distributed equally between carriers and off-deck, third-party stores.
After the launch of Apple App Store, the mobile OS platforms like Apple iOS, Google Android, and Microsoft Windows Phone, the mobile OS developers themselves have launched digital download storefronts that can be run on the devices using the OS or from software used on PCs. These storefronts (like Apple's iOS App Store) act as centralized digital download services from which a variety of entertainment media and software can be downloaded, including games and nowadays majority of games are distributed through them.
The popularity of mobile games has increased in the 2000s, as over US$3 billion worth of games were sold in 2007 internationally, and projected annual growth of over 40%. Ownership of a smartphone alone increases the likelihood that a consumer will play mobile games. Over 90% of smartphone users play a mobile game at least once a week.
Many mobile games are distributed free to the end user, but carry paid advertising: examples are Flappy Bird and Doodle Jump. The latter follows the "freemium" model, in which the base game is free but additional items for the game can be purchased separately.
See also
iPod game
Handheld electronic game
Handheld game console
Handheld video game
List of highest-grossing mobile games
List of most-played mobile games by player count
List of most-played video games by player count
Mobile software
Mobile gambling
Mobile development
Screen protector
N-Gage (device)
Scalable Network Application Package
Transreality gaming
References
Game
Video game platforms
Video game terminology
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2057%20%28TV%20series%29
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2057 (TV series)
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2057 is a Discovery Channel television program hosted by theoretical physicist Michio Kaku. It premiered on January 28, 2007, and attempts to predict what the world will be like in 50 years based on current trends. The show takes the form of a docudrama with three separate episodes, each having informative stories ingrained into the plot. All three episodes aired on January 28, 2007.
Episodes
"The Body"
The first episode, "The Body", predicts medical advances from robotic surgery to flying ambulances. The show's presentation plot shows a man falling out of a window (from tripping over a Roomba) on to the street below, and being cared for in a futuristic hospital.
The surgeons discover that his out of date artificial heart has been damaged in the three-story fall. A heart that is completely compatible with the patient is "printed" using an ingenious device that combines the biology of building new organs and the technique of computer printers. Before the surgery can take place, the hospital finds an abnormality in his urine samples. The samples that were taken from the hospital did not match the ones that the toilet in his home analyzed that morning. The man was previously insured with a premium policy, which was canceled when the hospital discovered he had been using clean urine samples to hide the fact that he had been drinking. Insurance policies generally raise premiums when they discover clients use alcohol, and people hide this fact with clean urine samples.
Once the insurance company analyzes the data and discovers that the patient tried to essentially scam them, his policy is immediately dropped. He is placed in the non-insured ward of the hospital, and his expensive surgery is canceled. The only person to come to his aid is a crafty female surgeon who performs the operation anyway. By tricking the system into thinking that a deceased patient with a premium policy is still alive, she is able to perform the surgery using the deceased patient's insurance policy. She then tells the system that the deceased patient died two days later, making it look like they died on the operating table during the surgery that she actually performed on the fall victim.
Starring Bruce Spiess (anaethesiologist), John Donoghue (neuroscientist), Jonathan Lindner (cardiologist), Michael Black (computer scientist), Oliver Burgert (engineer), Paul Moller (engineer), Stefan Jockenhovel (bioengineer), Sundaresan Jayaraman (engineer), Thomas Boland (bioengineer)
"The City"
"The City", examines the advances futuristic technology will bring to the home such as humanoid robots and holographic pets. The storyline has Paul, a thirteen-year-old boy accidentally releasing his holographic shark friend into the city's computer program, halting major city functions and electronics.
The year is 2057. Everything is computerized, from cars to buildings to clothing. One of the main characters is young Paul Gater, son of a female police officer Georgina Gater. John Gater, Paul's grandfather, was born at the dawn of the internet (around 2000) and has been writing computer code ever since. Paul an apprentice to his hacker grandfather, and is already manipulating code at a young age.
Holograms are commonplace in 2057, and most children have holograph projectors embedded within their clothing. These devices project images of anything, and act like GPS devices to guide children around urban environments safely. When his grandfather creates a hologram shark to replace the dolphin that he currently has, Paul decides to go one step further. He uses his laptop to hack into the city's network in an attempt to display his shark on advertisement boards across the city.
Not only does the laptop project the shark onto every holographic video screen in the city, it overloads the entire network and cripples the entire city. The laptop also carried with it an ancient virus that the future city had no protection against. The virus attacks the operating system that the entire city is run on...an operating system that has been in place, untouched for decades.
The only possible suspect to Georgina is her father, who had moved out of her house earlier in the day after a fight about his computer hacking. An APB is put out on him, and it's a race against time to stop the virus while Paul and his grandfather try to evade the law. When Georgina discovers that Paul was actually the one who released the virus into the city, she protects them from capture and allows them access into the old, unused central hub of the city.
Once inside the hub, grandfather and grandson immediately connect John's laptop into a connection that can communicate with the operating system that the city is built on. Paul's grandfather erases incriminating personal information about Paul that was transferred to the system, then codes a few lines before the police burst in the room. Brave Paul stands in front of his grandfather, protecting him from the guns the police are pointing at them as he finishes the last lines of code. When his grandfather presses enter, the city's power ominously flickers off.
A few moments later, the power is restored and the city jumps back to life. The virus and shark are gone, and life in the city goes back to normal. Realizing that her father is a hero, Georgina makes amends and all is well in the city of tomorrow.
Starring Brian Schimpf (Cornell University Darpa Team), Dimitrios Makris (computer scientist), Edgar Korner (robotic engineer), Henning Daum (computer scientist), Klaus Schenke (engineer), Tobias Hollerer (computer scientist)
"The World"
"The World" is probably the most complex episode of the three, discussing topics as varied as satellites that transmit data at extreme speed using lasers, to more political topics such as probable future geopolitical scenarios involving China and the United States as two opposing superpowers and the ramifications of a worldwide energy crisis with solar power positioned as a likely candidate to relieve the world's energy needs.
It features an American and a Chinese man, both chemists, in a space elevator laboratory discovering how to make more efficient solar panels but being disrupted by their respective countries' political friction mirroring a Cold War. With only weeks to go before their program is shut down, the two chemists discover what they are looking for by accident (similar to the discovery of penicillin), but by this time tension between the U.S. and China over the possession of Central Asian oil fields has almost reached the point of war. Each side attempts to coerce their representative to release the formula for the new solar panels to their side only: The Americans tell their representative to bribe the Chinese chemist into hiding the discovery from the Chinese, while the Chinese abduct the wife of the Chinese chemist, hoping that will convince him only to reveal the new discovery to them.
In the end, the Chinese and American chemists both decide that the future of the world is more important than their respective countries' political aspirations. They instead use a laser signal to leak the new discovery to the media and every scientific institution in the entire world. The Chinese chemist also makes a point of thanking his government for looking after his wife while he is away, thus ensuring that no harm will come to her without the prospect of public scrutiny, while afterwards the Chinese and American scientist both begin to comment on what the world will be like in 2107. The new discovery is then celebrated all over the world.
Starring Bradley Edwards (physicist), Daniel Vanmaekelbergh (chemist), Dirk Giggenbach (engineer), Frank Jenko (nuclear physicist), Stephen Samouhos (engineer)
References
External links
2007 American television series debuts
Television series set in the 2050s
Discovery Channel original programming
Fiction set in 2057
Futurology documentaries
2007 American television series endings
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joey%20De%20Jesus
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Joey De Jesus
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Joey De Jesus is an American writer, performer, community activist, and political candidate.
Their work includes the poetry collection NOCT: The Threshold of Madness, which was a selection of the 2019 Atlas Review chapbook contest, and the poetry collection HOAX, forthcoming from The Operating System in 2020. They have received numerous awards and fellowships for their work, including a 2020 ArtFP grant from BRIC Arts Media, and a 2017 New York Foundation for the Arts fellowship.
De Jesus is a Democrat in New York City and current candidate for New York State Assembly District 38.
Early life and education
De Jesus grew up in to a working-class family in Soundview, New York, and as a child attended Ethical Culture Fieldston School. After graduating from Oberlin College, De Jesus went on to earn two master's degrees in poetry from Sarah Lawrence College and performance studies from New York University.
Career
De Jesus's poems have been published widely, including in The Brooklyn Rail, Drunken Boat, The Academy of American Poets, Guernica, Brooklyn Magazine, and elsewhere.
In 2017, De Jesus's work was part of a group exhibition at the New Museum. That same year, they received the NYFA fellowship.
In 2019, De Jesus received an ArtFP grant from BRIC Arts Media. The ensuing project, HOAX, was open for digital exhibition in April 2020, and focused, according to the press release, on "intersections of poetry (concrete, procedural, and lyric), interactive technology, mysticism, and performance... [making] a living book in sections"
Also in 2019, De Jesus's chapbook NOCT: The Threshold of Madness won the 2019 Atlas Review open submission prize. The chapbook started in 2016 as a hybrid project centering on anti-Blackness and an erasure of a how-to book on black magic, and was profiled in VIDA: Women in Literary Arts. According to series editor Natalie Eilbert, the resulting book features "language... at once devastating as it is curated by a mastermind. Here, agency is pushed under the lens as with everything else."
From 2017 to 2019, De Jesus served as a founder and curator (with Shanekia Mcontosh) of the TRIPTYCH performance series at Basilica Hudson's annual Soundscape festival.
De Jesus currently serves as an adjunct lecturer at Borough of Manhattan Community College.
In 2020, De Jesus's debut collection, HOAX, is slated to be published with The Operating System. The collection is cross-genre and spread out across several different mediums, including a book of ekphrastic poems drawing on artist Yoshitaka Amano's tarot deck, an astrological divination chart, several laser-cut leather scrolls, and a series of prayer poems, among other components.
Political career
In fall 2019, De Jesus announced their candidacy for State Assembly, running against incumbent Democrat Michael G. Miller and challenger Jenifer Rajkumar on a platform of a Statewide Homes Guarantee, reducing NYPD enrollment, and supporting the Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions movement. Reporting on the campaign, City & State referred to De Jesus as "the candidate with the most left-leaning platform" in the Assembly race.
In October 2019, De Jesus spoke as a representative of the Ridgewood Tenants Union at a Queens Community Board 5 meeting, arguing the importance of a planned homeless shelter in the area, against local criticism.
In November 2019, De Jesus organized against the presence of a Department of Homeland Security armored-truck-based arrest in the neighborhood, declaiming it in the Queens Daily Eagle.
In March 2020, De Jesus gathered enough signatures to be placed on the ballot for the state primary.
Personal life
De Jesus identifies as "the only genderqueer anti-capitalist [candidate] running for State Assembly." Since 2015, De Jesus has lived in Ridgewood, Queens.
In addition to their political work, De Jesus serves as poetry co-editor for Apogee Journal.
De Jesus is the survivor of a home invasion, which they trace to the formation of their identity as a poet.
Bibliography
NOCT: The Threshold of Madness, The Atlas Review, 2019
Writing Voice Into The Archive, University of California, Berkeley Center for Race and Gender, 2019
HOAX, The Operating System, 2020
References
External links
Official Twitter
Official Campaign Website
Personal Blog
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)
LGBT writers from the United States
21st-century American politicians
American poets
Puerto Rican poets
Non-binary writers
People from the Bronx
LGBT people from New York (state)
Sarah Lawrence College alumni
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational%20linguistics
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Computational linguistics
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Computational linguistics is an interdisciplinary field concerned with the computational modelling of natural language, as well as the study of appropriate computational approaches to linguistic questions. In general, computational linguistics draws upon linguistics, computer science, artificial intelligence, mathematics, logic, philosophy, cognitive science, cognitive psychology, psycholinguistics, anthropology and neuroscience, among others.
Sub-fields and related areas
Traditionally, computational linguistics emerged as an area of artificial intelligence performed by computer scientists who had specialized in the application of computers to the processing of a natural language. With the formation of the Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL) and the establishment of independent conference series, the field consolidated during the 1970s and 1980s.
The Association for Computational Linguistics defines computational linguistics as:
The term "computational linguistics" is nowadays (2020) taken to be a near-synonym of natural language processing (NLP) and (human) language technology. These terms put a stronger emphasis on aspects of practical applications rather than theoretical inquiry and since the 2000s. In practice, they have largely replaced the term "computational linguistics" in the NLP/ACL community, although they specifically refer to the sub-field of applied computational linguistics, only.
Computational linguistics has both theoretical and applied components. Theoretical computational linguistics focuses on issues in theoretical linguistics and cognitive science. Applied computational linguistics focuses on the practical outcome of modeling human language use.
Theoretical computational linguistics includes the development of formal theories of grammar (parsing) and semantics, often grounded in formal logics and symbolic (knowledge-based) approaches. Areas of research that are studied by theoretical computational linguistics include:
Computational complexity of natural language, largely modeled on automata theory, with the application of context-sensitive grammar and linearly bounded Turing machines.
Computational semantics comprises defining suitable logics for linguistic meaning representation, automatically constructing them and reasoning with them
Applied computational linguistics is dominated by machine learning, traditionally using statistical methods, since the mid-2010s by neural networks: Socher et al. (2012) was an early Deep Learning tutorial at the ACL 2012, and met with both interest and (at the time) scepticism by most participants. Until then, neural learning was basically rejected because of its lack of statistical interpretability. Until 2015, deep learning had evolved into the major framework of NLP. As for the tasks addressed by applied computational linguistics, see Natural language processing article. This includes classical problems such as the design of POS-taggers (part-of-speech taggers), parsers for natural languages, or tasks such as machine translation (MT), the sub-division of computational linguistics dealing with having computers translate between languages. As one of the earliest and most difficult applications of computational linguistics, MT draws on many subfields and both theoretical and applied aspects. Traditionally, automatic language translation has been considered a notoriously hard branch of computational linguistics.
Aside from dichotomy between theoretical and applied computational linguistics, other divisions of computational into major areas according to different criteria exist, including:
medium of the language being processed, whether spoken or textual: speech recognition and speech synthesis deal with how spoken language can be understood or created using computers.
task being performed, e.g., whether analyzing language (recognition) or synthesizing language (generation): Parsing and generation are sub-divisions of computational linguistics dealing respectively with taking language apart and putting it together.
Traditionally, applications of computers to address research problems in other branches of linguistics have been described as tasks within computational linguistics. Among other aspects, this includes
Computer-aided corpus linguistics, which has been used since the 1970s as a way to make detailed advances in the field of discourse analysis
Simulation and study of language evolution in historical linguistics/glottochronology.
Origins
Computational linguistics is often grouped within the field of artificial intelligence but was present before the development of artificial intelligence. Computational linguistics originated with efforts in the United States in the 1950s to use computers to automatically translate texts from foreign languages, particularly Russian scientific journals, into English. Since computers can make arithmetic (systematic) calculations much faster and more accurately than humans, it was thought to be only a short matter of time before they could also begin to process language. Computational and quantitative methods are also used historically in the attempted reconstruction of earlier forms of modern languages and sub-grouping modern languages into language families. Earlier methods, such as lexicostatistics and glottochronology, have been proven to be premature and inaccurate. However, recent interdisciplinary studies that borrow concepts from biological studies, especially gene mapping, have proved to produce more sophisticated analytical tools and more reliable results.
When machine translation (also known as mechanical translation) failed to yield accurate translations right away, automated processing of human languages was recognized as far more complex than had originally been assumed. Computational linguistics was born as the name of the new field of study devoted to developing algorithms and software for intelligently processing language data. The term "computational linguistics" itself was first coined by David Hays, a founding member of both the Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL) and the International Committee on Computational Linguistics (ICCL).
To translate one language into another, it was observed that one had to understand the grammar of both languages, including both morphology (the grammar of word forms) and syntax (the grammar of sentence structure). To understand syntax, one had to also understand the semantics and the lexicon (or 'vocabulary'), and even something of the pragmatics of language use. Thus, what started as an effort to translate between languages evolved into an entire discipline devoted to understanding how to represent and process natural languages using computers.
Nowadays research within the scope of computational linguistics is done at computational linguistics departments, computational linguistics laboratories, computer science departments, and linguistics departments.
Some research in the field of computational linguistics aims to create working speech or text processing systems while others aim to create a system allowing human-machine interaction. Programs meant for human-machine communication are called conversational agents.
Approaches
Just as computational linguistics can be performed by experts in a variety of fields and through a wide assortment of departments, so too can the research fields broach a diverse range of topics. The following sections discuss some of the literature available across the entire field broken into four main area of discourse: developmental linguistics, structural linguistics, linguistic production, and linguistic comprehension.
Developmental approaches
Language is a cognitive skill that develops throughout the life of an individual. This developmental process has been examined using several techniques, and a computational approach is one of them. Human language development does provide some constraints which make it harder to apply a computational method to understanding it. For instance, during language acquisition, human children are largely only exposed to positive evidence. This means that during the linguistic development of an individual, the only evidence for what is a correct form is provided, and no evidence for what is not correct. This is insufficient information for a simple hypothesis testing procedure for information as complex as language, and so provides certain boundaries for a computational approach to modeling language development and acquisition in an individual.
Attempts have been made to model the developmental process of language acquisition in children from a computational angle, leading to both statistical grammars and connectionist models. Work in this realm has also been proposed as a method to explain the evolution of language through history. Using models, it has been shown that languages can be learned with a combination of simple input presented incrementally as the child develops better memory and longer attention span. This was simultaneously posed as a reason for the long developmental period of human children. Both conclusions were drawn because of the strength of the artificial neural network which the project created.
The ability of infants to develop language has also been modeled using robots in order to test linguistic theories. Enabled to learn as children might, a model was created based on an affordance model in which mappings between actions, perceptions, and effects were created and linked to spoken words. Crucially, these robots were able to acquire functioning word-to-meaning mappings without needing grammatical structure, vastly simplifying the learning process and shedding light on information which furthers the current understanding of linguistic development. It is important to note that this information could only have been empirically tested using a computational approach.
As our understanding of the linguistic development of an individual within a lifetime is continually improved using neural networks and learning robotic systems, it is also important to keep in mind that languages themselves change and develop through time. Computational approaches to understanding this phenomenon have unearthed very interesting information. Using the Price equation and Pólya urn dynamics, researchers have created a system which not only predicts future linguistic evolution but also gives insight into the evolutionary history of modern-day languages. This modeling effort achieved, through computational linguistics, what would otherwise have been impossible.
It is clear that the understanding of linguistic development in humans as well as throughout evolutionary time has been fantastically improved because of advances in computational linguistics. The ability to model and modify systems at will affords science an ethical method of testing hypotheses that would otherwise be intractable.
Structural approaches
To create better computational models of language, an understanding of language's structure is crucial. To this end, the English language has been meticulously studied using computational approaches to better understand how the language works on a structural level. One of the most important pieces of being able to study linguistic structure is the availability of large linguistic corpora or samples. This grants computational linguists the raw data necessary to run their models and gain a better understanding of the underlying structures present in the vast amount of data which is contained in any single language. One of the most cited English linguistic corpora is the Penn Treebank. Derived from widely-different sources, such as IBM computer manuals and transcribed telephone conversations, this corpus contains over 4.5 million words of American English. This corpus has been primarily annotated using part-of-speech tagging and syntactic bracketing and has yielded substantial empirical observations related to language structure.
Theoretical approaches to the structure of languages have also been developed. These works allow computational linguistics to have a framework within which to work out hypotheses that will further the understanding of the language in a myriad of ways. One of the original theoretical theses on the internalization of grammar and structure of language proposed two types of models. In these models, rules or patterns learned increase in strength with the frequency of their encounter. The work also created a question for computational linguists to answer: how does an infant learn a specific and non-normal grammar (Chomsky normal form) without learning an overgeneralized version and getting stuck? Theoretical efforts like these set the direction for research to go early in the lifetime of a field of study, and are crucial to the growth of the field.
Structural information about languages allows for the discovery and implementation of similarity recognition between pairs of text utterances. For instance, it has recently been proven that based on the structural information present in patterns of human discourse, conceptual recurrence plots can be used to model and visualize trends in data and create reliable measures of similarity between natural textual utterances. This technique is a strong tool for further probing the structure of human discourse. Without the computational approach to this question, the vastly complex information present in discourse data would have remained inaccessible to scientists.
Information regarding the structural data of a language is available for English as well as other languages, such as Japanese. Using computational methods, Japanese sentence corpora were analyzed and a pattern of log-normality was found in relation to sentence length. Though the exact cause of this lognormality remains unknown, it is precisely this sort of information which computational linguistics is designed to uncover. This information could lead to further important discoveries regarding the underlying structure of Japanese and could have any number of effects on the understanding of Japanese as a language. Computational linguistics allows for very exciting additions to the scientific knowledge base to happen quickly and with very little room for doubt.
Without a computational approach to the structure of linguistic data, much of the information that is available now would still be hidden under the vastness of data within any single language. Computational linguistics allows scientists to parse huge amounts of data reliably and efficiently, creating the possibility for discoveries unlike any seen in most other approaches.
Production approaches
The production of language is equally as complex in the information it provides and the necessary skills which a fluent producer must have. That is to say, comprehension is only half the problem of communication. The other half is how a system produces language, and computational linguistics has made interesting discoveries in this area.
In a now famous paper published in 1950 Alan Turing proposed the possibility that machines might one day have the ability to "think". As a thought experiment for what might define the concept of thought in machines, he proposed an "imitation test" in which a human subject has two text-only conversations, one with a fellow human and another with a machine attempting to respond like a human. Turing proposes that if the subject cannot tell the difference between the human and the machine, it may be concluded that the machine is capable of thought. Today this test is known as the Turing test and it remains an influential idea in the area of artificial intelligence.
One of the earliest and best-known examples of a computer program designed to converse naturally with humans is the ELIZA program developed by Joseph Weizenbaum at MIT in 1966. The program emulated a Rogerian psychotherapist when responding to written statements and questions posed by a user. It appeared capable of understanding what was said to it and responding intelligently, but in truth, it simply followed a pattern matching routine that relied on only understanding a few keywords in each sentence. Its responses were generated by recombining the unknown parts of the sentence around properly translated versions of the known words. For example, in the phrase "It seems that you hate me" ELIZA understands "you" and "me" which matches the general pattern "you [some words] me", allowing ELIZA to update the words "you" and "me" to "I" and "you" and replying "What makes you think I hate you?". In this example ELIZA has no understanding of the word "hate", but it is not required for a logical response in the context of this type of psychotherapy.
Some projects are still trying to solve the problem which first started computational linguistics off as its field in the first place. However, methods have become more refined, and consequently, the results generated by computational linguists have become more enlightening. To improve computer translation, several models have been compared, including hidden Markov models, smoothing techniques, and the specific refinements of those to apply them to verb translation. The model which was found to produce the most natural translations of German and French words was a refined alignment model with a first-order dependence and a fertility model. They also provide efficient training algorithms for the models presented, which can give other scientists the ability to improve further on their results. This type of work is specific to computational linguistics and has applications that could vastly improve understanding of how language is produced and comprehended by computers.
Work has also been done in making computers produce language in a more naturalistic manner. Using linguistic input from humans, algorithms have been constructed which are able to modify a system's style of production based on a factor such as linguistic input from a human, or more abstract factors like politeness or any of the five main dimensions of personality. This work takes a computational approach via parameter estimation models to categorize the vast array of linguistic styles we see across individuals and simplify it for a computer to work in the same way, making human–computer interaction much more natural.
Text-based interactive approach
Many of the earliest and simplest models of human–computer interaction, such as ELIZA for example, involve a text-based input from the user to generate a response from the computer. By this method, words typed by a user trigger the computer to recognize specific patterns and reply accordingly, through a process known as keyword spotting.
Speech-based interactive approach
Recent technologies have placed more of an emphasis on speech-based interactive systems. These systems, such as Siri of the iOS operating system, operate on a similar pattern-recognizing technique as that of text-based systems, but with the former, the user input is conducted through speech recognition. This branch of linguistics involves the processing of the user's speech as sound waves and the interpreting of the acoustics and language patterns for the computer to recognize the input.
Comprehension approaches
Much of the focus of modern computational linguistics is on comprehension. With the proliferation of the internet and the abundance of easily accessible written human language, the ability to create a program capable of understanding human language would have many broad and exciting possibilities, including improved search engines, automated customer service, and online education.
Early work in comprehension included applying Bayesian statistics to the task of optical character recognition, as illustrated by Bledsoe and Browing in 1959 in which a large dictionary of possible letters was generated by "learning" from example letters and then the probability that any one of those learned examples matched the new input was combined to make a final decision. Other attempts at applying Bayesian statistics to language analysis included the work of Mosteller and Wallace (1963) in which an analysis of the words used in The Federalist Papers was used to attempt to determine their authorship (concluding that Madison most likely authored the majority of the papers).
In 1971 Terry Winograd developed an early natural language processing engine capable of interpreting naturally written commands within a simple rule-governed environment. The primary language parsing program in this project was called SHRDLU, which was capable of carrying out a somewhat natural conversation with the user giving it commands, but only within the scope of the toy environment designed for the task. This environment consisted of different shaped and colored blocks, and SHRDLU was capable of interpreting commands such as "Find a block which is taller than the one you are holding and put it into the box." and asking questions such as "I don't understand which pyramid you mean." in response to the user's input. While impressive, this kind of natural language processing has proven much more difficult outside the limited scope of the toy environment. Similarly, a project developed by NASA called LUNAR was designed to provide answers to naturally written questions about the geological analysis of lunar rocks returned by the Apollo missions. These kinds of problems are referred to as question answering.
Initial attempts at understanding spoken language were based on work done in the 1960s and 1970s in signal modeling where an unknown signal is analyzed to look for patterns and to make predictions based on its history. An initial and somewhat successful approach to applying this kind of signal modeling to language was achieved with the use of hidden Markov models as detailed by Rabiner in 1989. This approach attempts to determine probabilities for the arbitrary number of models that could be being used in generating speech as well as modeling the probabilities for various words generated from each of these possible models. Similar approaches were employed in early speech recognition attempts starting in the late 70s at IBM using word/part-of-speech pair probabilities.
More recently these kinds of statistical approaches have been applied to more difficult tasks such as topic identification using Bayesian parameter estimation to infer topic probabilities in text documents.
Applications
Applied computational linguistics is largely equivalent with natural language processing. Example applications for end users include speech recognition software, such as Apple's Siri feature, spellcheck tools, speech synthesis programs, which are often used to demonstrate pronunciation or help the disabled, and machine translation programs and websites, such as Google Translate.
Computational linguistics are also helpful in situations involving social media and the Internet, e.g., for providing content filters in chatrooms or on website searches, for grouping and organizing content through social media mining, document retrieval and clustering. For instance, if a person searches "red, large, four-wheeled vehicle," to find pictures of a red truck, the search engine will still find the information desired by matching words such as "four-wheeled" with "car".
Computational approaches are also important to support linguistic research, e.g., in corpus linguistics or historical linguistics. As for the study of change over time, computational methods can contribute to the modeling and identification of language families (see further quantitative comparative linguistics or phylogenetics), as well as the modeling of changes in sound and meaning.
Legacy
The subject of computational linguistics has had a recurring impact on popular culture:
The Star Trek franchise features heavily classical NLP applications, most notably machine translation (universal translator), natural language user interfaces and question answering.
The 1983 film WarGames features a young computer hacker who interacts with an artificially intelligent supercomputer.
A 1997 film, Conceiving Ada, focuses on Ada Lovelace, considered one of the first computer programmers, as well as themes of computational linguistics.
Her, a 2013 film, depicts a man's interactions with the "world's first artificially intelligent operating system."
The 2014 film The Imitation Game follows the life of computer scientist Alan Turing, developer of the Turing Test.
The 2015 film Ex Machina centers around human interaction with artificial intelligence.
The 2016 film Arrival, based on Ted Chiang's Story of Your Life, takes a whole new approach of linguistics to communicate with advanced alien race called heptapods.
See also
Artificial intelligence in fiction
Collostructional analysis
Computational lexicology
Computational Linguistics (journal)
Computational models of language acquisition
Computational semantics
Computational semiotics
Computer-assisted reviewing
Dialog systems
Glottochronology
Grammar induction
Human speechome project
Internet linguistics
Lexicostatistics
Natural language processing
Natural language user interface
Quantitative linguistics
Semantic relatedness
Semantometrics
Systemic functional linguistics
Translation memory
Universal Networking Language
References
Further reading
Steven Bird, Ewan Klein, and Edward Loper (2009). Natural Language Processing with Python. O'Reilly Media. .
Daniel Jurafsky and James H. Martin (2008). Speech and Language Processing, 2nd edition. Pearson Prentice Hall. .
Mohamed Zakaria KURDI (2016). Natural Language Processing and Computational Linguistics: speech, morphology, and syntax, Volume 1. ISTE-Wiley. .
Mohamed Zakaria KURDI (2017). Natural Language Processing and Computational Linguistics: semantics, discourse, and applications, Volume 2. ISTE-Wiley. .
External links
Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL)
ACL Anthology of research papers
ACL Wiki for Computational Linguistics
CICLing annual conferences on Computational Linguistics
Computational Linguistics – Applications workshop
Language Technology World
Resources for Text, Speech and Language Processing
The Research Group in Computational Linguistics
Formal sciences
Cognitive science
Computational fields of study
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mounted%20Warfare%20TestBed
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Mounted Warfare TestBed
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Mounted Warfare TestBed (MWTB) at Fort Knox, Kentucky, was the premier site for distributed simulation experiments in the US Army for over 20 years. It used simulation systems, including fully manned virtual simulators and computer-generated forces, to perform experiments that examined current and future weapon systems, concepts, and tactics.
"In name only, Cyberspace had its origins in science fiction: its historical beginnings and technological innovations are clearly military (from NASA's primitive flight simulators of the 1940s to the ultra-modern SIMNET-D facilities in Fort Knox, Kentucky)..." - James der Derian, Antidiplomacy
History
The MWTB started as the initial site of the SIMNET-D program in 1986. SIMNET-D was a spinoff of the SIMNET program, which was the first successful program to use low-cost computers to construct virtual simulators whose resources were distributed rather than centralized. These M1 Abrams and M2 Bradley simulators, along with the Semi-Automated Forces simulation and the Management Command and Control (MCC) system, allowed the creation of a realistic battlefield where participants could actively fight an enemy using current systems in real time.
The first MWTB site manager, Dick Garvey, established a strong focus on measurement of battlefield effects from Human-in-the-Loop (HITL) simulation. This was in marked contrast with the then-prevalent approach of using highly scripted, closed-form simulations, where the outcome was defined by the scenario designer. HITL provided an opportunity to evaluate new systems and concepts whose application was not yet fully understood.
With an enthusiastic embrace of technical innovation and a lean management style, the site carried Garvey's initial philosophy to establish many of the concepts and techniques for experimentation using distributed simulation.
Significant Exercises
1988: Forward Area Air Defense (FAADS)
The first use of SIMNET for Developmental Tests occurred in March and April 1988 at Ft. Knox and Ft. Rucker. These tests were feasibility studies to determine whether SIMNET could be used for Force Development Test and Evaluation (FDT&E) and Initial Operational Test and Evaluation (IOT&E). A total of 164 soldiers and pilots from Ft. Bliss, Ft. Knox, Ft. Rucker, and the Army and Air National Guard participated.
1989-1994: CVCC
The most important early user of the MWTB was the Combat Vehicle Command and Control (CVCC) series of experiments by Army Research Institute that examined various aspects of the proposed upgrades to the M1A1 tank, including computerized navigation and digital command-and-control. They were instrumental in developing the training plans for the M1A2. The experiments used a company of SIMNET M1 simulators, augmented by a battalion of BLUFOR from the Semi-Automated Forces system.
1990-1992: Line-of-Sight Anti-Tank (LOSAT)
The LOSAT system, which used a hypervelocity kinetic-energy missile and a sophisticated fire control system, was evaluated for human-interface and system performance.
1995: Anti- Armor Advanced Technology Demonstration (A2ATD)
The A2ATD program used a series of six experiments, along with extensive improvements to simulation technology, to demonstrate the utility of man-in-the-loop distributed simulation to perform credible experiments to support acquisition decisions. By demonstrating a verified, validated and accredited DIS capability, A2ATD established the foundation for subsequent activities at the MWTB and at all of the other Battle Labs.
1995: Focused Dispatch
The Focused Dispatch Experiment was one of the first instances of live-virtual-constructive (LVC) simulation. Conducted at Fort Knox and the Western Kentucky Training Area via satellite linkage, its primary purpose was to examine how digital connections might enhance an armored formation's fire support, intelligence, logistics, and battle command, to determine whether enhancements in lethality, survivability, and tempo would result. Real vehicles from Company B of Task Force 2-33 were fitted with Vehicular Data Communications and Positional Awareness Demonstration devices, which transmitted the vehicles' location every 10 seconds into the simulated environment back at Knox. In the simulators at the MWTB, the soldiers from the remaining two companies saw the real vehicles exactly as they would see simulated vehicles.
1997-2000: Battle Command Reengineering
Battle Command Reengineering was a series of experiments that looked at how digital command-and-control systems should be incorporated into brigade-and-below units. It also focused on what attributes these systems should have, their impact on other systems in the Army, and on the use of related future systems, like remote sensors and precision fires. It helped pave the way for the Future Combat Systems program. It fostered numerous innovations, like the development of automated mechanisms for evaluating the performance of the command staff, examination of how situational awareness uncertainty affects decision making, information request, and staff dynamics, development of training programs for digital forces along with redesigned command staff processes for optimally efficient use of digital C2 systems, and aggressive employments of image generation and HLA networking.
2000: BCIS
The Battlefield Combat Identification System (BCIS) was evaluated in a series of experiments that looked at user-interface and battlefield performance. The system was effective in reducing fratricide in night battles. However in day battles, more fratricides occurred than did at night. This phenomenon was believed to be the result of troops using BCIS at night when visibility is poor, but trusted their own vision in the day more than they trust BCIS responses.
2002-2003: C4ISR
The C4ISR experiment provided input to the FCS Analysis of Alternatives and the Operational and Objective (O&O) analysis to support the FCS Milestone B decision. The experiment was conducted in a human-in-the-loop, simulation supported, secure environment. The experiment focused on the issues of battle command and how it affected measures of force effectiveness.
2004-2007: Omni-Fusion
The Omni-Fusion experiments built on the concepts of Battle Command Re-Engineering and C4ISR to refine designs and concepts for the Future Combat Systems Program. The application of widely distributed simulation to classified experimentation was highly developed during these exercises.
2006: Urban Resolve 2015
The Urban Resolve 2015 was designed to examine Joint Urban Operations (JUO), Military Support for Stabilization, Security, Transition and Reconstruction Operations (SSTRO), and Major Combat Operations (MCO).
2006: RDECOM Experiment FY06 (RUX06)
The RUX06 was a true LVC event, combining manned simulators, a force wraparound generated in constructive simulation with actual vehicles fitted with emulators of future C2 technologies on the ranges at Ft. Knox in real-time; this experiment examined workload and stress of crews of future manned vehicles under varied threat conditions.
2008: COIN
The Counter Insurgency Experiment was a large, multi-site exercise that included most members of the BLCSE. It simulated downtown Baghdad, Iraq, with US and Iraqi soldiers, Iraqi police, armed and unarmed civilians from several groups, like Shia and Sunni, and armed insurgents. It examined how Future Combat Systems technologies work in a dense, urban environment.
2009: Complex Web Defense
The Complex Web Defense Experiment examined the effectiveness of systems and tactics of a force
composed of a Combined Arms Bn (CAB), one Stryker Infantry Battalion, Force Design Update (FDU) Reconnaissance Squadron, supported by appropriate joint and army enablers against a predominantly dismounted enemy that was embedded in a semi-urban environment. It was one of the first large distributed exercises using OneSAF with classified performance data.
Innovations in Simulation Technology
ACRT
The Advanced Reconfigurable Research Tool was a virtual simulator developed using OneSAF TestBed as a software base. It was very modular to allow rapid changes to vehicle characteristics, and it could model many vehicle types, like the M1 Abrams, M2 Bradley, Stryker, HMMWV, along with various variants from the Future Combat Systems program. It incorporated an innovative mobility model for the OneSAF TestBed (OTB) simulation that used SIMNET and CCTT soil codes in the digital terrain database to provide fine-grained soils with appropriate mobility response for computer-generated entities.
SA Server
The Situational Awareness (SA) Server was an interface between the simulation and tactical networks. It provided Level 1 Sensor Fusion using a Kalman filter. The tactical network it supported used experimental DIS PDUs for the blue and red Common Operating Picture (COP). It also supported an early version of the NetFires system for semi-automated fire support. Multiple SA Servers could be configured in a multi-cell arrangement to use communications effects as defined by a comms model like ALCES or QualNet.
Tech Control
The Tech Control was a collection of tools that monitored a widely distributed simulation to ensure that configuration management and network performance standards were met. The tools, like the Reporter, the Exercise Manager, and the NetRouter, allowed Tech Control personnel to manage large exercises like COIN with high simulation availability.
Data Collection and Analysis
Data Collection and Analysis was primarily based on the collection and correlation of network simulation traffic (DIS PDUs). The data were written to flat files or directly to a Relational Database where they were further processed and analyzed to produce charts, graphs, tables, spreadsheets and presentations for the use of Army Operations Research / Systems Analysts (ORSAs).
Virtusphere
The VirtuSphere was a single-soldier manned simulator that incorporates a large sphere that allows a human to walk around the simulated battlefield (like a hamster in a ball). It was based on the ACRT technology, and was used at the MWTB for experiments that examine future weapon systems and tactics and for evaluating soldier behavior.
The simulator was frequently seen at trade shows and science festivals, like the USA Science Festival, the San Diego Science Festival and the Jackson IT Day. It was typically one of the most popular exhibits.
Names
1988: Created as SIMNET-D Mounted Warfare TestBed
1990: Renamed Close Combat TestBed (CCTB)
1994: Renamed Mounted Maneuver TestBed (MMBL)
2004: Renamed Unit of Action Battle Lab (UAMBL)
2008: Renamed Maneuver Battle Lab, Constructive and Virtual Simulation Division, Knox (MBL/CVSD-K)
Contractors
The MWTB was always a government-owned, contractor-operated (GOCO) facility. The contractors were:
1988-1991: Bolt, Beranek and Newman (BBN)
1991-1996: Loral Corporation
1996-2010: Lockheed Martin
Key Personnel
Contracting Officer's Technical Representative (COTR)
1990-1994: Maj Mark Chaney
1994-1996: Maj Jeff Wilkinson
1996-1998: Maj Mike Landers
1998-2005: Maj Joe Burns
2005-2008: Jim Cook
2008-2010: Steve Burzlaff
Site Manager
1988-1992: Dick Garvey
1992-1996: Thomas Radgowski
1996-1996: John Hughes
1996-2004: Don Appler
2004-2005: Eberhard Kieslich
2005-2010: Ray Bernhagen
Staff Photos
1996: Rob Smith, Ken Hunt, Cpt Joe Burns, Jim Lamb, Cpt ??, Jim Cook, Paul Monday, Don Appler, Eb Kieslich, Charles West, Don Debord, Maj Salisbury, Henry Hollingsworth, Berverly Burba, Sgt Vallera, Francis Alves, Carolyn Bow, Bud Maxson, Dan Shultz, Ron Fackler, Tom VanLaere, Linda Wulf
2002 Front Row: Eb Kieslich, Cindy Kobbins, Norbilyn Bernardo, Shawana Fax, Paul Monday, Caroline Johnson, Drew Bost, Becky Fitzgerald, Rita Hilton, Angela Scott, Renee Rhodes, John Weiss
2002 Back Row: Tom VanLaere, Ranetta Ballard, Mark Underwood, Phil Fraser, Dwight Mohler, Jack Smith, Maj Joe Burns, Charles West, Jon Embry, Don DeBord, Bob Gooden, Rob Smith, Tim Voss, Ron Fackler, Tony Ford, Dan Schultz, Don King, Steve Henry, Hans Hess, Lisa Hoffman, Henry Hollingsworth, Ray Bernhagen
Logos
References
External links
Videos
"We are the Mounted Warfare TestBed"
Virtusphere at USA Science Festival
Articles
Carl W. Lickteig, "Design Guidelines and Functional Specifications for Simulation of the Battlefield Management System's (BMS) User Interface", 1988
Robert S. DuBois, Joseph A. Birt, "Developing Training and Evaluation Scenarios for Armor Using Simulation Networking-Developmental (SIMNET-D)",1990
Michael T. Lawless, Nils D. LaVine, "Reconfigurable Simulator Specifications for Future Main Battle Tanks Within the Close Combat Test Bed", 1992
Nancy Atwood, Beverly Winsch, Kathleen Quinkert, Charles Heiden, "Catlog of Training Tools for Use in Distributed Interactive Simulation (DIS) Environments", 1994
Mitchell Greess, "Combat Vehicle Command and Control System Architecture Overview", 1994
Colburn, Ellaine ; Farrow, Steve ; MsDonough, Jim, "ADST Multi-Service Distributed Training Testbed (MDT2). Lessons Learned", 1994
Shari R Thomas, "Review of Personnel Susceptibility to Lasers: Simulation in SIMNET-D for CTAS-2.0", 1994
Richard C. Deatz, Katrina A. Greene, William T. Holden, Jr., May H. Throne, Carl W. Lickteig, "Refinement of Prototype Staff Training Methods for Future Forces", 1999
Harold J. Gorman, Irfan Hassan, "Future "Battle Command Prototype" for Military Experimentation and Training", 2004
Roxana Tiron, "At Unit of Action Lab, Soldiers Determine Design of FCS", National Defense, 2003
Command and Control Research and Technology Symposium, "Battle Command System Analysis Methodology in the Cross Command Collaboration Effort (3CE) Environment", 2006
Ann Roosevelt, "Army Battle Lab Experiments With Future Force Counterinsurgency Warfare", Defense Daily, 2007
Dan Caterinicchia, "Battle labs plan simulation exercise", Federal Computer Week, 2003
COL Charles Dunn III, MAJ Gregg Powell, MAJ Christopher J. Martin (AS), Michael J. Hamilton, and Charles C. Pangle, II, "Information Superiority/Battle Command (Network Centric Warfare Environment)", 2004
Craig T. Doescher, LTC Brian K. Hobson, Dr. Frank T. Myers II, "Challenges of Future Battle Command Experimentation: An Analyst’s Perspective", 2005
Lawrence G. Shattuck, Nita Lewis Miller, Gregory A. Miller, "Using the Dynamic Model of Situated Cognition to Assess Network Centric Warfare in Field Settings", 2007
Military research institutes
Fort Knox
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1009312
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PCI%20configuration%20space
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PCI configuration space
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PCI configuration space is the underlying way that the Conventional PCI, PCI-X and PCI Express perform auto configuration of the cards inserted into their bus.
Overview
PCI devices have a set of registers referred to as configuration space and PCI Express introduces extended configuration space for devices. Configuration space registers are mapped to memory locations. Device drivers and diagnostic software must have access to the configuration space, and operating systems typically use APIs to allow access to device configuration space. When the operating system does not have access methods defined or APIs for memory mapped configuration space requests, the driver or diagnostic software has the burden to access the configuration space in a manner that is compatible with the operating system's underlying access rules. In all systems, device drivers are encouraged to use APIs provided by the operating system to access the configuration space of the device.
Technical information
One of the major improvements the PCI Local Bus had over other I/O architectures was its configuration mechanism. In addition to the normal memory-mapped and I/O port spaces, each device function on the bus has a configuration space, which is 256 bytes long, addressable by knowing the eight-bit PCI bus, five-bit device, and three-bit function numbers for the device (commonly referred to as the BDF or B/D/F, as abbreviated from bus/device/function). This allows up to 256 buses, each with up to 32 devices, each supporting eight functions. A single PCI expansion card can respond as a device and must implement at least function number zero. The first 64 bytes of configuration space are standardized; the remainder are available for vendor-defined purposes.
In order to allow more parts of configuration space to be standardized without conflicting with existing uses, there can be a list of capabilities defined within the remaining 192 bytes of PCI configuration space. Each capability has one byte that describes which capability it is, and one byte to point to the next capability. The number of additional bytes depends on the capability ID. If capabilities are being used, a bit in the Status register is set, and a pointer to the first in a linked list of capabilities is provided in the Cap. pointer register defined in the Standardized Registers.
PCI-X 2.0 and PCI Express introduced an extended configuration space, up to 4096 bytes. The only standardized part of extended configuration space is the first four bytes at which are the start of an extended capability list. Extended capabilities are very much like normal capabilities except that they can refer to any byte in the extended configuration space (by using 12 bits instead of eight), have a four-bit version number and a 16-bit capability ID. Extended capability IDs overlap with normal capability IDs, but there is no chance of confusion as they are in separate lists.
Standardized registers
The Device ID (DID) and Vendor ID (VID) registers identify the device (such as an IC), and are commonly called the PCI ID. The 16-bit vendor ID is allocated by the PCI-SIG. The 16-bit device ID is then assigned by the vendor. There is an inactive project to collect all known Vendor and Device IDs. (See the external links below.)
The Status register is used to report which features are supported and whether certain kinds of errors have occurred. The Command register contains a bitmask of features that can be individually enabled and disabled. The Header Type register values determine the different layouts of remaining 48 bytes (64-16) of the header, depending on the function of the device. That is, Type 1 headers for Root Complex, switches, and bridges. Then Type 0 for endpoints. The Cache Line Size register must be programmed before the device is told it can use the memory-write-and-invalidate transaction. This should normally match the CPU's cache line size, but the correct setting is system dependent. This register does not apply to PCI Express.
The Subsystem ID (SSID) and the Subsystem Vendor ID (SVID) differentiate specific model (such as an add-in card). While the Vendor ID is that of the chipset manufacturer, the Subsystem Vendor ID is that of the card manufacturer. The Subsystem ID is assigned by the subsystem vendor from the same number space as the Device ID. As an example, in the case of wireless network cards, the chip manufacturer might be Broadcom or Atheros, and the card manufacturer might be Netgear or D-Link. Generally, the Vendor ID–Device ID combination designates which driver the host should load in order to handle the device, as all cards with the same VID:DID combination can be handled by the same driver. The Subsystem Vendor ID–Subsystem ID combination identifies the card, which is the kind of information the driver may use to apply a minor card-specific change in its operation.
Bus enumeration
To address a PCI device, it must be enabled by being mapped into the system's I/O port address space or memory-mapped address space. The system's firmware (e.g. BIOS) or the operating system program the Base Address Registers (commonly called BARs) to inform the device of its resources configuration by writing configuration commands to the PCI controller. Because all PCI devices are in an inactive state upon system reset, they will have no addresses assigned to them by which the operating system or device drivers can communicate with them. Either the BIOS or the operating system geographically addresses the PCI devices (for example, the first PCI slot, the second PCI slot, the third PCI slot, or the integrated PCI devices, etc., on the motherboard) through the PCI controller using the per slot IDSEL (Initialization Device Select) signals.
When the computer is powered on, the PCI bus(es) and device(s) must be enumerated by BIOS or operating system. Bus enumeration is performed by attempting to access the PCI configuration space registers for each buses, devices and functions. Note that device number, different from VID and DID, is merely a device's sequential number on that bus. Moreover, after a new bridge is detected, a new bus number is defined, and device enumeration restarts at device number zero.
If no response is received from the device's function #0, the bus master performs an abort and returns an all-bits-on value ( in hexadecimal), which is an invalid VID/DID value, thus the BIOS or operating system can tell that the specified combination bus/device_number/function (B/D/F) is not present. So, when a read to a function ID of zero for a given bus/device causes the master (initiator) to abort, it must then be presumed that no working device exists on that bus because devices are required to implement function number zero. In this case, reads to the remaining functions numbers (1–7) are not necessary as they also will not exist.
When a read to a specified B/D/F combination for the vendor ID register succeeds, the system firmware or operating system knows that it exists; it writes all ones to its BARs and reads back the device's requested memory size in an encoded form. The design implies that all address space sizes are a power of two and are naturally aligned.
At this point, the BIOS or operating system will program the memory-mapped addresses and I/O port addresses into the device's BAR configuration registers. These addresses stay valid as long as the system remains turned on. Upon power-off, these settings are lost and the procedure is repeated next time the system is powered back on. BIOS or operating system will also program some other registers of the PCI configuration space for each PCI device, e.g. interrupt request. Since this entire process is fully automated, the user is spared the task of configuring any newly added hardware manually by changing DIP switches on the cards themselves. This automatic device discovery and address space assignment is how plug and play is implemented.
If a PCI-to-PCI bridge is found, the system must assign the secondary PCI bus beyond the bridge a bus number other than zero, and then enumerate the devices on that secondary bus. If more PCI bridges are found, the discovery continues recursively until all possible domain/bus/device combinations are scanned.
Each non-bridge PCI device function can implement up to 6 BARs, each of which can respond to different addresses in I/O port and memory-mapped address space. Each BAR describes a region that is between 16 bytes and 2 gigabytes in size, located below 4 gigabyte address space limit. If a platform supports the "Above 4G" option in system firmware, 64 bit BARs can be used.
A PCI device may also have an option ROM.
Hardware implementation
When performing a Configuration Space access, a PCI device does not decode the address to determine if it should respond, but instead looks at the Initialization Device Select signal (IDSEL). There is a system-wide unique activation method for each IDSEL signal. The PCI device is required to decode only the lowest order 11 bits of the address space (AD[10] to AD[0]) address/data signals, and can ignore decoding the 21 high order A/D signals (AD[31] to AD[11]) because a Configuration Space access implementation has each slot's IDSEL pin connected to a different high order address/data line AD[11] through AD[31]. The IDSEL signal is a different pin for each PCI device/adapter slot.
To configure the card in slot n, the PCI bus bridge performs a configuration-space access cycle with the PCI device's register to be addressed on lines AD[7:2] (AD[1:0] are always zero since registers are double words (32-bits)), and the PCI function number specified on bits AD[10:8], with all higher-order bits zeros except for AD[n+11] being used as the IDSEL signal on a given slot.
To reduce electrically loading down the timing critical (and thus electrically loading sensitive) AD[] bus, the IDSEL signal on the PCI slot connector is usually connected to its assigned AD[n+11] pin through a resistor. This causes the PCI's IDSEL signal to reach its active condition more slowly than other PCI bus signals (due to the RC time constant of both the resistor and the IDSEL pin's input capacitance). Thus Configuration Space accesses are performed more slowly to allow time for the IDSEL signal to reach a valid level.
The scanning on the bus is performed on the Intel platform by accessing two defined standardized ports. These ports are the Configuration Space Address () I/O port and Configuration Space Data () I/O port. The value written to the Configuration Space Address I/O port is created by combining B/D/F values and the registers address value into a 32-bit word.
Software implementation
Configuration reads and writes can be initiated from the CPU in two ways: one legacy method via I/O addresses and , and another called memory-mapped configuration.
The legacy method was present in the original PCI, and it is called Configuration Access Mechanism (CAM). It allows for 256 bytes of a device's address space to be reached indirectly via two 32-bit registers called PCI CONFIG_ADDRESS and PCI CONFIG_DATA. These registers are at addresses and in the x86 I/O address space. For example, a software driver (firmware, OS kernel or kernel driver) can use these registers to configure a PCI device by writing the address of the device's register into CONFIG_ADDRESS, and by putting the data that is supposed to be written to the device into CONFIG_DATA. Since this process requires a write to a register in order to write the device's register, it is referred to as "indirection".
The format of CONFIG_ADDRESS is the following:
0x80000000 | bus << 16 | device << 11 | function << 8 | offset
As explained previously, addressing a device via Bus, Device, and Function (BDF) is also referred to as "addressing a device geographically." See arch/x86/pci/early.c in the Linux kernel code for an example of code that uses geographical addressing.
When extended configuration space is used on some AMD CPUs, the extra bits 11:8 of the offset are written to bits 27:24 of the CONFIG_ADDRESS register:
0x80000000 | (offset & 0xf00) << 16 | bus << 16 | device << 11 | function << 8 | (offset & 0xff)
The second method was created for PCI Express. It is called Enhanced Configuration Access Mechanism (ECAM). It extends device's configuration space to 4 KB, with the bottom 256 bytes overlapping the original (legacy) configuration space in PCI. The section of the addressable space is "stolen" so that the accesses from the CPU don't go to memory but rather reach a given device in the PCI Express fabric. During system initialization, BIOS determines the base address for this "stolen" address region and communicates it to the root complex and to the operating system.
Each device has its own 4 KB space and each device's info is accessible through a simple array dev[bus][device][function] so that 256 MB of physical contiguous space is "stolen" for this use (256 buses × 32 devices × 8 functions × 4 KB = 256 MB). The base physical address of this array is not specified. For example, on modern x86 systems the ACPI tables contain the necessary information.
See also
PC card
Root complex
References
External links
PCI Vendor and Device Lists
The PCI ID Repository, a project to collect all known IDs
Description of IO Port usage for PCI configuration
Linux kernel header file with configuration space register definitions
Peripheral Component Interconnect
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949661
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nvi
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Nvi
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nvi (new vi) is a re-implementation of the classic Berkeley text editor, ex/vi, traditionally distributed with BSD and, later, Unix systems. It was originally distributed as part of the Fourth Berkeley Software Distribution (4BSD).
Due to licensing disputes between AT&T and the Computer Systems Research Group (CSRG) at the University of California, Berkeley, the CSRG was required to replace all Unix-derived portions of BSD source with new and unencumbered code. nvi was one of many components rewritten, despite the fact that the original vi was from UC Berkeley. AT&T had a legal claim over the license.
Credits and distribution
nvi was written by Keith Bostic. It is the default vi on all major BSD systems (NetBSD, OpenBSD, and FreeBSD) as well as MINIX.
It was originally derived from the first incarnation of elvis, written by Steve Kirkendall, as noted in the README file included in nvi's sources.
Sven Verdoolaege added support for Unicode in 2000. He also has been developing a GTK+ front end for nvi, but this effort seems to have stalled. The aspects of nvi that are still marked preliminary or unimplemented are, for the time being, likely to remain that way.
BSD projects continue to use nvi version 1.79 due to licensing differences between Berkeley Database 1.85 and the later versions by Sleepycat Software. nvi is unusual because it uses a database to store the text as it is being edited. Sven Verdoolaege's changes after version 1.79 use locking features not available in the Berkeley DB 1.85 database. Reportedly, changes to nvi after 1.79 make it less vi-compatible.
nvi can vary subtly across the BSDs.
nvi is only available on POSIX/Unix platforms due to its reliance on the curses/ncurses library.
An unmaintained, multilingual version by the late Jun-ichiro itojun Hagino is available as nvi-m17n.
A currently-maintained, multibyte version is available as nvi2, and is the default vi on DragonFly BSD.
See also
elvis
vile
vim
vi ports and clones
References
External links
The Berkeley Vi Editor Home Page
the (n)vi man page via OpenBSD
git-repo, devel repository of nvi
Free text editors
Unix text editors
Curses (programming library)
Vi
Software using the BSD license
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28745130
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peppermint%20OS
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Peppermint OS
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Peppermint OS is a Linux distribution based on Debian Stable, it uses the Xfce desktop environment. It aims to provide a familiar environment for newcomers to Linux, which requires relatively low hardware resources to run.
Design principles
Peppermint OS ships with few native applications and a traditional desktop interface. What originally made Peppermint unique is its approach to creating a hybrid desktop that integrates both cloud and local applications. In place of traditionally native applications for common tasks (word processing, image editing), it ships with the custom Ice application, which allows users to create site-specific browsers (SSB's).
In Peppermint OS, the open-source Firefox browser is used as a way to enable a site-specific browser (SSB) for cloud applications. Instead of opening a browser and then visiting an application site, there is a dedicated browser window that is integrated into the system for a specific application. Support for the Firefox web browser (alongside Chromium and Chrome web browsers) was added to the custom Ice application in the fall of 2015, allowing the creation of SSB's in a web browser window.
Peppermint OS is a project where you can marry the cloud to the desktop, as with any Ubuntu based OS, it is possible for users to install applications natively from Ubuntu compatible repositories, allowing one to run cloud based applications right alongside desktop software. Like any other Linux distribution, it allows for installing packages like LibreOffice, GIMP, VLC, Skype, etc. Peppermint is built from Ubuntu and supports whatever Ubuntu supports. Peppermint OS ships with mintInstall, Synaptic, and GDebi to facilitate this.
Nomenclature
Peppermint's namesake is Linux Mint. The developers originally wanted to make use of configuration and utilities sourced from Linux Mint coupled with an environment that was less demanding on resources and more focused on web integration. They felt that the concept was a "spicier" version of Mint, so the name Peppermint was a natural fit.
While Linux Mint is known for its Cinnamon desktop, Peppermint uses a default desktop that is a hybrid based mainly on selected components from LXDE and XFCE that is significantly more lightweight.
Peppermint has been consistently releasing updates on a decent cadence since at least 2010, when it was first released.
History
Peppermint OS was initially conceived at the Black Rose Pub in Hendersonville, NC (North Carolina), USA during a night of drinking and discussion about the future of desktop Linux. Peppermint was originally designed to be a social media-centric distribution.
Pre-alpha development builds consisted of a wide array of potential directions before the decision to fork Lubuntu was made. There was quite a bit of experimentation with KDE, E17, Adobe Air, and several different code bases during January and February 2010. Alpha builds using the Lubuntu 10.04 code base started in March 2010. Peppermint was released to a small group of private beta testers in April 2010 where it remained private until the first public release.
On May 9, 2010, Peppermint One was released. In less than a week, it received over 25,000 downloads. It soon outgrew its web host and switched to VPS.NET. VPS.NET became the first official sponsor of the Peppermint project.
On June 20, 2010, Peppermint Ice was released. It sported Chromium as the default browser and featured a blue and black theme to distinguish it from Peppermint One.
On June 10, 2011, Peppermint Two was released. Combining aspects from the two previous editions, it packaged Chromium as its default browser alongside the Ice application for creating Site Specific Browsers. It was also the first edition of Peppermint to be available in both 32 and 64 bit versions.
On July 23, 2012, Peppermint Three was released. Chromium stable repository was enabled by default; very light theme and default artwork; fewer default web applications in the menu ; it shipped with GWoffice; and GIMP 2.8 was added to the Peppermint repository.
On June 13, 2013, Peppermint Four was released. Peppermint Four was based on the Ubuntu 13.04 code base and used the LXDE desktop environment, but with Xfwm4 instead of Openbox as the window manager. Example games, Entanglement and First Person Tetris, were added. Also added were some metapackages for popular tasks such as graphic arts and photography to the Featured section of the Software Manager.
On June 23, 2014, Peppermint Five was released. "With this release we are getting ready for the future. The technology landscape is constantly changing, and we are always responding to meet our user's needs. We are 100% driven to deliver an OS that is fast, secure, and available everywhere. Peppermint Five is another step in that direction." - Shane Remington - COO of Peppermint OS, LLC
On May 31, 2015, Peppermint Six was released. "Peppermint is excited to announce the launch of our latest operating system, Peppermint Six. Lightweight and designed for speed, Peppermint Six delivers on that promise whether using software on your desktop, online, or using cloud based apps. I want to take this opportunity to thank Mark Greaves, who stepped up and produced most of what you see here in Peppermint Six. Mark is now playing a major role here at Peppermint by leading the development team. I think you will be impressed by what he and the others have put together in Peppermint Six." - Shane Remington - COO of Peppermint OS, LLC
On June 24, 2016, Peppermint Seven was released. "Team Peppermint are pleased to announce our latest operating system Peppermint 7, it comes in both 32bit and 64bit editions with the latter having full UEFI/GPT/Secure Boot support baked in, a new version of Ice (our in house Site Specific Browser framework) is also included with full Firefox web browser support as well as Chromium / Chrome." - Mark Greaves (PCNetSpec) - Development Team Leader & Support Admin
On January 14th 2020, Peppermint CEO Mark Greaves (PCNetSpec) died in hospital. After taking over Peppermint from Shane Remington and Kendall Weaver shortly after Peppermint 5, Mark devoted his life to Peppermint with his family's support and went on to release more versions of Peppermint up to Peppermint 10 and a respin of Peppermint 10. The official announcement was made on the Peppermint forum and a memorial fund has been set up by his family to honour Mark's legacy.
On February 2, 2022, PeppermintOS released a new version for the first time in two years, its main new features and changes include:
Peppermint is now based on Debian Stable 64-bit, instead of Ubuntu or its derivatives,
Dropped LXDE components in favor of Xfce,
Nemo replaces Thunar as the default file manager,
No web browser is installed, a browser can be installed using Welcome to Peppermint application,
Ubiquity has been replaced by Calamares for the system installer
Packaged software
Cloud applications
2D/3D Chess (web-based version)
Editor by Pixlr (online image editor)
Express by Pixlr (online photo editor)
Entanglement (web-based version)
First-Person Tetris (web-based version)
Gmail (Google's webmail)
Google Calendar (time-management web app)
Google Drive (cloud storage and file sharing)
Mahjong (web-based version)
Peppermint Community Forum
Peppermint User's Guide
Solitaire (web-based version)
Native applications
Dropbox (file hosting service)
GDebi (package installer)
Ice (site-specific browser/SSB manager)
mintInstall (software manager)
mintStick (USB stick formatter and USB image writer tools)
Nemo (file manager)
Peppermint Control Center (configuration application)
Pluma (UTF-8 text editor)
Sakura (simple/powerful VTE-based terminal emulator)
Synaptic (package manager)
Transmission (BitTorrent client)
VLC ('all-in-one' media player and streaming media server)
Release history
Peppermint OS uses a hybrid release schedule. Updates are rolled out as needed in a rolling release fashion, but it is not a "true rolling release".
Essentially, Peppermint is a system that has rolling application updates and some system updates. Periodically, a Respin is released which incorporates minor bug fixes and recent updates.
Releases
Peppermint One
Initial Release May 9, 2010
Respin 05222010 - Released May 22, 2010
Respin 06172010 - Released June 23, 2010
Respin 08042010 - Released August 9, 2010
Respin 01042011 - Released January 4, 2011
Kernel updated to 2.6.35, HAL completely removed, Screenshot app replaced with PyShot, some low level utilities and user level apps updated (GNU Coreutils, Samba, PCManFM, LXTerminal, Firefox, and others).
Peppermint Ice
Initial Release July 20, 2010
Respin 10012010 - Released October 2, 2010
Respin 20110302 - Released March 7, 2011
The LFFL repository was added. Some region specific SSBs, such as Hulu and Pandora, were removed from the default installation. Some space saving optimizations were made to the ISO.
Peppermint Two
Initial Release June 10, 2011
Chromium is the default web browser, Ice SSB framework was written to work with Chromium, the Ice SSB application can remove SSBs as well as create them, added some additional example SSBs to the default install, entire look and feel has been revamped, Dropbox integration has been improved, Guayadeque music player is now the system default, LXKeymap has been included in the default install, Gedit replaces Leafpad as the default text editor.
Peppermint Three
Initial Release July 23, 2012
Chromium Stable repository is now enabled by default, decided to go with a very light theme and default artwork, fewer default web applications in the menu, first distribution to ship with GWoffice (lightweight Google Docs client that runs independent of Chromium), GIMP 2.8 is in the Peppermint repo, moved back to Linux Mint's update manager, and a handful of minor things.
Peppermint Four
Initial Release June 13, 2013
Respin 20131113 - Released November 28, 2013
Better file system support, mtpfs is now supported, the typographical error on the shutting down screen is no longer present, the file manager is notably less buggy, and most system updates available from the upstream Ubuntu 13.04 code base have been installed.
Peppermint Five
Initial Release June 23, 2014
Peppermint Five is based on the recent Ubuntu 14.04 Long Term Support (LTS) Linux release that debuted on April 17. The upstream code base will receive updates for five years. Peppermint Ice has been rewritten from scratch and is now significantly more stable and is more feature rich than past versions. The key new feature is that it now supports both Chrome and Chromium as a backend. Peppermint Control Center is our new settings app which provides an intuitive interface to customize and manage your workspaces, window behavior, keyboard and pointer settings, keyboard shortcuts and more. Peppermint Five delivers with PulseAudio now.
Peppermint Six
Initial Release May 31, 2015
Peppermint Six is still built on the Ubuntu 14.04 LTS (Long Term Support) base, but has been moved to the Ubuntu 14.04.2 "point release", which includes the 3.16 kernel and an updated graphics stack. PCManFM has been replaced with the Nemo file manager. LXTerminal has been dropped in favor of Sakura. The Update Manager has been replaced with MintUpdate, but with the same settings as update-manager. Guayadeque and Gnome MPlayer have been replaced with VLC as a "one app to play them all". The default image viewer has been changed from Mirage to the EOG (Eye of Gnome). The xfce4-power-manager has been replaced by mate-power-manager, and i3lock replaces Light Locker as the default ScreenLock. Peppermint Six has also moved to the Gnome Search Tool which has a more intuitive user interface, and finer grained control of search criteria. The new Wallpaper Manager (based on Nitrogen) now makes wallpaper management a breeze. Linux Mint's USB creation tools "mintstick" are now included by default, making the creation of LiveUSBs from isohybrid ISO images, and the formatting of USB sticks, as simple as it gets.
Respin 20150904 - Released September 6, 2015
Peppermint 6 64-bit now offers UEFI/Secure Boot support, allowing easy installation alongside Microsoft Windows 8/8.1/10 in dual/multi-boot configurations on GPT disks, or just installed on its own, without needing to switch to legacy BIOS mode (CSM) or disabling Secure Boot. A new version of Ice has been added to the respin with support for the Firefox web browser (alongside Chromium and Chrome web browsers), allowing the creation of SSB's that open in a Firefox window. Some slight tweaks have been made to the Peppermix-Dark theme. Stripes have been removed from the default menu, Nemo file manager, Synaptic package manager, etc. This respin also includes a few minor bug fixes and tweaks: Minimum disk space requirement for the installation has been adjusted downward from 5.3GB to 3.8GB in Ubiquity. Unnecessary xfce4-power-manager-data package leftovers, from the switch to mate-power-manager, have been removed. The duplicate keyboard shortcut in xbindkeys.conf, which caused windowshots via Alt+PrtSc to be saved to both the desktop and home directory, has been removed. Also, all updates to date, have been included in the ISO.
Peppermint Seven
Initial Release June 24, 2016
Along with a shift to the Ubuntu 16.04 LTS (Long Term Support) code base, Peppermint continues to choose components from other desktop environments, and integrate them into one cohesive package, along with their own in-house software. Whilst staying with LXDE core session management for lightness and speed, Peppermint listened to user demands for a more modern, functional, and customizable main menu system and switched out LXPanel in favor of the Xfce4-Panel and Whisker Menu. 'Peppermint Settings Panel' was added to consolidate settings all into one place. Due to Google's dropping of 32-bit Chrome and the move to PPAPI plugins (which effectively ends Flash support in 32-bit Chromium) Peppermint has now moved back to the Firefox web browser for the first time since Peppermint One. Because Firefox is known to have some issues with dark GTK themes, such as white lettering on white backgrounds, Firefox has been locked to a light theme, independent of the system default. For additional versatility, a simple to use 'Firefox Themer' application was created, which allows users to unlock/relock the Firefox theming. 'Ice' now fully supports the creation and removal of SSB's for Firefox, Chromium, and Chrome. Peppermint 7 has a new look, flatter than previous editions (though not too flat) with a dark GTK theme by default and colorful icon choices. A small collection of background images has been added to the desktop, with the kind permission of photographer Ray Bilcliff. The text editor has been switched from GEdit to Pluma because of the odd way GEdit now handles window decorations. There are also many other small refinements squeezed into Peppermint 7, indeed a definitive and exhaustive list that would make this summary unreadable. Take it for a spin and see what you can find.
Peppermint Eight
Initial Release May 28, 2017
Peppermint Eight is still based on the Ubuntu 16.04 LTS (Long Term Support) code base, but now with the 4.8 kernel series and an upgraded graphics stack. These additions offer rolling kernel and graphics stack upgrades as soon as they become available upstream. Mesa 17.0.2 is implemented for an improved gaming experience. The usability of the OS has been expanded on with improved keyboard layout handling, auto-mounting of external volumes, NFS/exFAT support out of the box, an augmented Peppermint Settings Panel, and more.
Peppermint 9
Initial Release: June 22, 2018
In Peppermint Nine, lxrandr replaced with xfce4-display-settings for screen settings. Menulibre is now installed as default, file manager Nemo got a new item in right-click context menu "Send by mail". Based on the 18.04 LTS (long term support) code base.
Peppermint 10
Initial Release: May 17, 2019
Respin 20191210 - Released December 18, 2019
Peppermint 10 is based on the 18.04 LTS (long term support) version of Ubuntu.
Peppermint 11
Initial Release: Feb 2, 2022
See also
References
External links
Peppermint OS Community Forum
Source code repository
Linux distributions
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%2824%297.ai
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(24)7.ai
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[24]7.ai (full company name [24]7.ai, Inc.) is a customer experience software and services company based in California that uses artificial intelligence and machine learning to understand consumer intent. It helps companies create a personalized experience across channels.
History
[24]7.ai was founded in April 2000 by P. V. Kannan and Shanmugam Nagarajan. Kannan previously founded Business Evolution, a software company, which was acquired by Kana Software in 1999. The company is headquartered in San Jose, California. Other offices are located in Toronto, London, and Sydney. [24]7.ai has customers in many industries, including agencies, education, financial services, healthcare, insurance, retail & e-commerce, telecom, travel & hospitality, and utilities.
In 2003, [24]7.ai was privately funded in part by Michael Moritz and his venture capital firm Sequoia Capital. The total venture funding was estimated at about $22 million. The company was profitable by the end of 2003.
In February 2012 a deal was announced in which [24]7.ai and Microsoft would combine technologies for natural user interfaces (NUIs) and data analytics at cloud scale. Microsoft made an equity investor and transferred approximately 400 employees of the former Tellme Networks to [24]7.ai. At the same time, [24]7.ai acquired the call center automation developer Voxify, which had been based in Alameda, California, and was funded by investors such as Intel. In 2012, the company rebranded its business, adopting a new logo dropping the word "Customer" and putting square brackets around the "24". In January 2013 it announced it would market some internally developed software products for combining chat with analytics.
In May 2013 the company announced the acquisition of social commerce firm Shopalize for an undisclosed amount of money. [24]7.ai was also listed on Forbes list of America's Most Promising Companies in 2013.
In November 2014, [24]7.ai acquired IntelliResponse, a provider of digital self-service technology, including virtual agent solutions.
In August 2015, [24]7.ai acquired Campanja, a leading Search Engine bidding platform with offices in Stockholm, London, Palo Alto, Chicago and New York, adding realtime marketing capability to the [24]7.ai offering.
In July 2015, the company announced it had become the world's largest provider of chat agents, with more than 5,000 dedicated chat agents operating in its contact centers.
In October 2017, the company announced a name change, adding .ai to promote artificial intelligence.
Products
The product is sales and service-oriented software that encompasses big data, predictive analytics, virtual agents and real-time decisioning. It integrates different channels of communication, including web chat, mobile devices and interactive voice response, which incorporates the company's proprietary natural language technology. The company operates contact centers that outsource voice and chat agent services, for sales and support. Its largest customers are in telecommunications, financial services, retail, insurance, and travel industries. Its early offerings were contact center services with voice contact center agents. Contact centers were originally located in Bangalore and Hyderabad, India, and in the Philippines, but by 2007 (with about 7,000 total employees) expanded to Guatemala, Nicaragua, and Colombia to support Spanish-language customers.
References
Business process outsourcing companies
Companies based in Campbell, California
2000 establishments in California
Software companies based in California
Software companies of the United States
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watch%20Dogs%3A%20Legion
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Watch Dogs: Legion
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Watch Dogs: Legion (stylised as WATCH DOGS LΞGION) is a 2020 action-adventure game developed by Ubisoft Toronto and published by Ubisoft. It is the third instalment in the Watch Dogs series and the sequel to 2016's Watch Dogs 2. Set within a fictionalised representation of a futuristic, dystopian London, the game's story follows the hacker syndicate DedSec as they seek to clear their names after being framed for a series of terrorist bombings. DedSec also attempt to liberate London's citizens from the control of Albion, an oppressive private military company which turned the city into a surveillance state following the bombings.
While the core gameplay is similar to its predecessors, consisting of a combination of shooting, driving, stealth, and hacking puzzles, Legion introduces a multiple playable characters system, allowing players to recruit virtually any NPC found in the game's open world. Each playable character has their own unique skills and backgrounds, and can be lost permanently if players enable the option of permadeath before starting a new game. There are multiple ways to complete missions depending on which playable character is selected. In March 2021, a cooperative multiplayer mode was added to the game, allowing up to four players to complete missions or explore London together.
Legion was released on 29 October 2020 for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4, Xbox One, and Stadia, and as a launch title in November for the Xbox Series X/S, the PlayStation 5, and Amazon Luna. Upon release, the game received mixed to positive reviews. Critics were polarized over the multiple playable characters aspect, with some appreciating its diversity and the inclusion of permadeath for allowing emotional attachment from players, while others criticized the characters' lack of personality and the imbalance between their abilities. Criticism was also aimed at the game's world, driving mechanics, inconsistent difficulty, repetitive missions, online features and technical problems. Ubisoft supported Legion extensively after its launch, releasing a number of updates for both the single-player and multiplayer modes that added new missions, game modes, and playable characters; a crossover event with the Assassin's Creed franchise; and a paid story expansion, Watch Dogs: Legion - Bloodline, which continues the storylines of Aiden Pierce, the protagonist of the first Watch Dogs game, and Wrench, a major supporting character from Watch Dogs 2. Reception to post-release content has been generally positive, with some of the additions cited as being an improvement over the base game.
Gameplay
Watch Dogs: Legion is an action-adventure game played from a third-person perspective, and taking place within an open world setting based upon London, which can be explored either on foot ─ utilizing parkour moves ─ vehicles, or fast-travelling via the city's Underground stations. Eight of London's Boroughs are represented in game: Westminster, Wandsworth (specifically the Nine Elms area), Lambeth, Southwark, Camden, Islington, Hackney and Tower Hamlets, in addition to the City of London. The game is composed of several missions, including those that progress the main story, liberation missions aimed at freeing the city's boroughs featured in the setting, recruitment missions for new playable characters, and various side-activities, with players able to freely pursue a mission or activity, or explore the city for secrets and collectibles. Each mission's objectives can be handled via one or several different approaches: an open-combat approach utilizing a variety of weapons; a stealth approach utilizing the environment to avoid detection and monitoring enemy patterns; or a hacking approach using any hackable object to subdue enemies with traps or distractions, while seeking out objectives via cameras and remotely accessing them. Combat includes a mixture of gun fights ─ involving lethal and non-lethal firearms ─ and hand-to-hand combat moves, with enemies making use of different methods depending on how the player acts against them in combat (i.e. a guard hit with a punch will use melee attacks, but will begin shooting if the player draws their firearm). Players can be pursued by enemies when escaping, including hostile drones, but can lose them by utilizing hack-able environmental objects (i.e. vents) and avoiding line of sight with pursuers.
Unlike previous games in the series, Legion features the ability to use multiple characters during a playthrough, each of whom can be recruited from around the game's setting. While the player must choose a character to begin with after the story's prologue chapter, others may be recruited upon completing the initial story missions of the game from anywhere around the game's setting, which can also include those working for hostile factions. Those recruited become operatives that the player can freely switch to at any time, as well as customize with different clothing options, with each recruit-able character maintaining their own lifestyle and occupation when not active (i.e. spending time drinking at a pub). Each character that can be recruited has different traits and skills, based upon their background ─ a spy operative has access to a silenced pistol and can summon a special spy vehicle to travel around with, armed with rockets; a hooligan operative can summon friends to help in a fist-fight; a builder operative can make use of large drones for heavy-lifting and a nail-gun for combat; while an "adrenaline junkie" operative can deal more damage, but risk the possibility of being knocked out/dying at random moments. Operatives can gain experience when used by the player, which allows them to gain additional skills and abilities to improve them, with the player able to provide additional upgrades for all characters by spending "tech points" ─ a collectible scattered around the city, which can be spent on weapon and gadget upgrades. In addition to standard recruitable NPCs, the player can also acquire special NPCs to their roster, known as "Prestige Operatives" ─ these unique characters possess exceptional weapons and gain access to stronger perks as they improve in level than standard operatives.
All potential recruits have an additional statistic, which details whether they can be recruited when approached ─ their thoughts on DedSec. Some recruits may not join if either they favour those that oppose them (such as a hostile faction), if the player has a character in their roster whom they hate, or if DedSec did something to harm another NPC they have good relations with. If a recruit can be brought in, players will be required to complete a mission from them related to a problem they need resolving. Examples of such a mission include sneaking into a government building to find a missing person, recovering confiscated or stolen equipment or simply helping the potential recruit determine why they are experiencing invasive surveillance. Any character that can be recruited can be killed during a playthrough, whether in combat, accidental death or explosion, or from their own traits, and permanently removed from the player's roster of playable characters if the player has the permadeath option enabled. If in permadeath mode the player loses all their characters from death or arrest, the game ends. In games with permadeath disabled, operatives will be incarcerated or hospitalised after being arrested or 'critically injured'; the time these characters spend being unable to be used can be reduced if the player recruits certain characters, such as medical or legal staff. In addition, some operatives may still die permanently, but only if they have certain traits that lead to a random and unexpected death.
Multiplayer
The online component of the game, introduced in March 2021, allows for four-player cooperative gameplay, which aimed to share progression between the single-player and multiplayer modes. The multiplayer experience offers several different activities for players to engage in, including city events, co-operative missions (including the more complex "Tactical Ops"), and the "Spiderbot Arena" competitive mode, where players controlling miniature spiderbot gadgets fight in free for all matches. The asymmetrical multiplayer mode "Invasion" from the previous two Watch Dogs games also made a return several months after release, with several changes.
Like the single-player mode, players can freely explore London and recruit new operatives to their team; however, rather than completing short missions for each character, this is done by spending "Influence" (an in-game form of currency). Influence is also used to unlock gadgets and character upgrades, and can be earned from completing missions and daily/weekly objectives, bought with real-life money from the in-game store, or found across the map, along with masks and experience points (the locations of collectibles change weekly).
Watch Dogs: Legion Online uses a seasonal approach to introduce new content to the game. During each season, a different roadmap with various rewards (Influence, weapon skins, character clothing etc.) is featured. As players complete missions and other activities, they gain experience points and rank up, unlocking the next reward in the roadmap. When a season ends, the next one automatically starts and the player's rank is reset to 0.
Synopsis
Setting
Watch Dogs: Legion takes place within a fictionalised representation of London in the "near future". The setting encompasses notable landmarks, boroughs, and cultural styles of the city, such as the political borough of Westminster, Big Ben, the London Eye, Buckingham Palace and more. Since the events of Watch Dogs 2, technology has vastly changed as a result of an acceleration of automation and artificial intelligence (AI), which has effectively improved Britain's economy at the cost of many blue and white collar jobs, with the Pound sterling having been overtaken and undermined by the cryptocurrency 'ET0', which has almost replaced the pound entirely within London. AR and VR systems are commonplace across the city, accompanied by an increase in quadcopter drones and electric cars, an established 6G mobile network, and the introduction of driverless cars, much of which is enhanced through the use of ctOS (central Operating System) ─ the centralized computer network developed by technology company Blume, featured in both Watch Dogs and Watch Dogs 2.
The game focuses on DedSec, a hacker group consisting of various branches across the world, who fight against authority regimes and groups that utilise ctOS for their own selfish goals at the expense of ordinary citizens. Their main enemies include Zero Day, a rogue hacker group that frames DedSec for a series of terrorist bombings; Albion, a private military company that takes over as law enforcement across London and supersedes the British government's control over the city; Clan Kelley, a criminal syndicate that has monopolised the use of the dark web, conducting human trafficking and abductions; Broca Tech, a corrupt technology corporation; and Signals Intelligence Response (SIRS), an intelligence agency consolidating all of Britain's intelligence network.
Plot
The London branch of DedSec, led by Sabine Brandt and her newly crafted AI, Bagley, detect armed intruders planting explosives in the Houses of Parliament. DedSec operative Dalton Wolfe goes to defuse the bombs and discovers the intruders are members of a rogue hacker group called "Zero Day". Although Dalton manages to prevent Parliament's destruction, he is gunned down by drones commanded by Zero Day's leader, who detonates additional explosives around London and orders an attack on DedSec's hideout, forcing Sabine to shut down Bagley and go into hiding. In the wake of the bombings, the British government contract Albion with restoring order to London and hunting down DedSec, who are held responsible for the chaos, effectively causing social and political unrest amongst the city's inhabitants.
Months later, Albion enforces the law without political oversight, transforming London into a surveillance state with the aid of its ctOS network and SIRS ─ a collation of Britain's intelligence agencies. As a result, citizens have their personal liberties severely restricted and their lives constantly monitored, while those who question Albion's methods are either convicted or deported to Europe. Organised crime is also on the rise, despite Albion's presence. Although most DedSec members have been arrested or killed by Albion, Sabine resurfaces when she finds a new recruit through ctOS, who is sent to reactivate the group's safehouse and Bagley. DedSec slowly rebuild their strength as they find more recruits who, under Sabine's co-ordination and with Bagley's help, liberate London's boroughs by encouraging citizens to rise up in defiance of their oppressors.
After rebuilding their forces, DedSec investigate the bombings and discover that both Albion's CEO Nigel Cass and Clan Kelley were involved, and are taking advantage of London's current situation for their own ends; Clan Kelley is using people from Albion's deportation centers for their human and organ trafficking operations, while Cass plans to enforce peace across London with an automated drone army that can identify and neutralize threats before they occur. During this time, DedSec also investigate Broca Tech's CEO Skye Larsen and discover that her advanced AI projects, including Bagley, are the result of neural-mapping, which traps humans in cyberspace with no memories of their past life. DedSec eventually deal with Larsen and shut down her experiments. Concurrently, a SIRS whistleblower named Richard Malik enlists DedSec's help in proving SIRS leader Emma Child was behind the Zero Day bombings, only to turn on them once it is revealed he was trying to infiltrate the group to supply their identites to Albion. Malik frames DedSec for another bombing that kills Child and allows him to take over SIRS, but DedSec capture him and prove their innocence.
Eventually, DedSec infiltrate a slave auction hosted by Clan Kelley's leader, Mary Kelley, and discover she helped Zero Day smuggle their explosives into the country. After gathering enough evidence to get Kelley convicted, DedSec and Metropolitan Police Service Detective Kaitlyn Lau attempt to capture her, but ultimately leave her to be killed by her former slaves. DedSec then sabotage Cass's drone project and expose his crimes to the public, prompting him to take refuge at the Tower of London. Fearing Cass will attempt to retaliate against his enemies, DedSec storm the Tower and kill Cass.
As DedSec celebrate their actions, Zero Day hacks the group, stealing the tech they had acquired. Tracing the hack, they discover that Sabine was behind the bombings and Zero Day, and that Cass helped her until double-crossing her for control of data gathering technology. In response, Sabine restarted DedSec simply to get revenge on Cass, recover what he had stolen, and seek out other components she needed. DedSec discover Sabine intends to use the stolen technology to create a patch for Bagley and take control of Britain's ctOS infrastructure, plunging the country into chaos in hopes it will force society to forgo technology and restart. To prevent this, Bagley agrees to be shut down. Avoiding the chaos caused by Sabine, a DedSec operative goes to hack Blume's radio tower, to prevent the patch from being spread. Sabine confronts them, but the operative overpowers her and sends her falling to her apparent death. Meanwhile, another operative shuts down Bagley's primary server at Broca Tech, ending the crisis.
While the British government reviews its contract with Albion and local law enforcement begins work to resume operations, DedSec finally clear their names and are praised for exposing considerable crimes and corruption across London. In an epilogue scene, they manage to restore Bagley to his original state, and continue to rely on him to help them finish off loose ends around London.
Bloodline
Some time after the Zero Day bombings, but prior to DedSec's resurgence in London, former vigilante Aiden Pearce accepts a contract from his fixer partner, Jordi Chin, in London, believing it will allow him to reunite with his estranged nephew Jackson, who is attending college there. Aiden's assignment is to infiltrate Broca Tech's Deep Labs and acquire photographic evidence of a new robot design project headed by Thomas Rempart, as well as retrieve a device called the "BrocaBridge". However, his attempt is foiled by Reginald "Wrench" Blechman, a former member of DedSec San Francisco, who also wants the BrocaBridge for his own ends. A struggle ensues between the two, which results in Wrench escaping with the BrocaBridge and Aiden being captured by Rempart's men. Aiden later escapes with Wrench's help and makes contact with Jackson. Despite not wanting to get involved, Jackson guides Aiden toward a DedSec contact, Connie Robinson, who helps him get set up in exchange for helping out with several tasks. Rempart also contacts Aiden, demanding him to retrieve the BrocaBridge while threatening to harm Jackson.
With Jackson's help, Aiden tracks down Wrench at his hideout and confronts him. Wrench reveals that he was hired by Rempart to design the robots for his project, but was ultimately betrayed, so he took revenge by stealing the BrocaBridge, which Rempart needs for the next phase of his project. Meanwhile, Rempart finds and captures Jackson to ransom him for the BrocaBridge. After obtaining the device from Wrench, Aiden delivers it to Rempart, unaware that it is an explosive fake created by Wrench. The explosion disfigures Rempart's face and allows Aiden and Jackson to escape, though Aiden is shot in the process and falls into a coma. Wrench allows Aiden and Jackson to stay at his hideout and obtains medical supplies to help Aiden recover. During this time, he also becomes acquainted with Jordi and agrees to carry out several fixer contracts for him in Aiden's place.
Later, Wrench is contacted by Skye Larsen, who offers to help with Aiden's recovery in exchange for retaking control of her facilities from Rempart. Upon doing so, Larsen proposes an experimental trial on Jackson using the BrocaBridge to link his mind with Aiden's, which he agrees to do in spite of Wrench's protest. Jackson enters Aiden's mind with the BrocaBridge and, after revisiting several memories from his past, helps him overcome his guilt for his role in the death of Jackson's sister Lena seventeen years ago. Deciding to leave his vigilante persona behind, Aiden awakens from the coma and makes amends with Jackson. With Aiden saved, Wrench works with him and Jackson to defeat Rempart, who is attempting to escape London on his personal barge. Wrench boards the barge and destroys Rempart's robot army before handing him over to Albion authorities to be arrested.
Some time later, Connie informs Aiden and Wrench that one of her DedSec contacts found an operative who survived the London attacks, and asks them to establish a communication link with her, leading into the events of the main campaign.
Assassin's Creed expansion
This non-canonical crossover with the Assassin's Creed franchise focuses on DedSec helping Darcy Clarkson, a member of the Assassin Brotherhood and a descendant of renowned 19th century assassins Jacob and Evie Frye. After intercepting a conversation between Darcy and a Templar, Graham Westerly, DedSec learn about the secret war between the Assassins and Templars, and that the former have been forced to leave London after being hunted to near-extinction. They also discover that Darcy returned to London to rescue her brother Lucas, who was captured while trying to reduce the Templars' control over the city. After tracking down Darcy, DedSec agree to help her rescue Lucas, who is being tortured by Graham to learn the location of a hidden Assassin tomb in London; however, Graham murders Lucas after obtaining the information he wanted.
After finding the Assassin tomb on the Buckingham Palace grounds, DedSec help Darcy get inside to investigate. She discovers statues of several Assassins, including Jacob, Evie, and Edward Kenway, and a vault containing an Assassin outfit, which she dons. Graham arrives moments later accompanied by Albion soldiers, but Darcy manages to kill them all; before dying, Graham claims that the Templars will remain in control for as long as the Assassins are too afraid to fight back. After leaving the tomb, Darcy decides to stay in London to continue fighting the Templars, and accepts DedSec's invite to join them.
Development
Watch Dogs: Legion was developed by Ubisoft Toronto, with additional work provided by sister studios Ubisoft Montreal, Ubisoft Paris, Ubisoft Bucharest, Ubisoft Kyiv and Ubisoft Reflections. The development team was headed by creative director Clint Hocking, who was recruited to assist on the game's creation due to Ubisoft moving development from their studio in Montreal to Toronto, and recruiting developers who had previously worked with him on Far Cry and Far Cry 2.
Upon its reveal at E3 2019, many outlets described the futuristic London setting as post-Brexit, what could potentially happen following the expected departure of the United Kingdom from the European Union. This choice of setting became a point of debate in the media, as there are several political questions related to post-Brexit. Hocking stated that they had come onto the idea of this setting around a year and a half before the actual Brexit vote in 2016, and that while the game does involve Brexit, the intent was not to try to debate the nature of Brexit, but to show and debate elements already existing in the world today that lead to events such as Brexit. On 25 January 2020, Hocking pointed out that, as a "creator of culture", the aim of including real-world elements such as Brexit is to provide a means of engagement for players about the world around them, though with the development team taking considerable thought on how to implement these and other events occurring in the real-world within Legions setting.
Ubisoft partnered with British rapper Stormzy for a special in-game mission named "Fall on My Enemies" that would be available at the game's launch. Stormzy also recorded a music video for "Rainfall", from his album Heavy Is the Head, using motion capture for the game.
The game supports Deep learning super sampling DLSS (Nvidia GPU) and ray tracing technology.
Source leak
In 2020, Legion's 560 GB source was reportedly leaked by hackers on the Dark Web.
Release
Watch Dogs: Legion was teased by Ubisoft via Twitter on 5 June 2019, before its announcement at E3 2019. The game was initially scheduled for release on 6 March 2020, with the PC versions of the game being exclusive titles for the Epic Games Store over a year-long period, but Ubisoft delayed the launch in October 2019. By July 2020, they announced during their "Ubisoft Forward" event, that the game would be released on 29 October 2020, for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4, Xbox One, and Stadia. Release dates for versions of the game for PlayStation 5 and Xbox Series X/S, unveiled during this same announcement, were made over the course of September and October: the Series X/S version was announced as a launch title for the platform after Microsoft confirmed the console's launch date for 10 November 2020; while the PlayStation 5 version was confirmed to release as a digital launch title on 12 November, with a physical copy on 24 November. A version for Amazon Luna was officially announced on 29 October, and released on 10 November.
In January 2020, BBC reporter Marc Cieslak conducted an interview with Hocking about the game for Click, which, in a world's first, involved using the studio's motion capture software to allow it to take place within the virtual setting of the game.
Post-launch content
The game's multiplayer component was initially scheduled for a 3 December release, but was pushed back to early 2021 due to numerous game-breaking glitches and bugs that needed to be fixed. The multiplayer mode was added on 9 March 2021 for most platforms, and 18 March for Microsoft Windows. However, the Tactical Ops missions weren't added until 23 March due to technical issues.
On 4 May 2021, the first major content update for the game was released, adding two new types of playable characters (DJs & First Responders), five special abilities, two gadgets, character customization options, and missions for the multiplayer mode. Season Pass exclusive content included a new mission for the single-player mode, "Swipe Right", and a new playable character, Mina Sidhu, who has mind control powers. On 1 June, a new series of Tactical Ops and a free character were released. Additionally, a zombie survival horror game mode titled Legion of the Dead was made available in alpha on the PC version of the game.
A story expansion titled Bloodline was released on 6 July 2021, both individually and as part of the Season Pass. It is a prequel to Legion, set several months before the events of the main game, and features the return of Aiden Pearce, the protagonist of the first Watch Dogs, and Wrench, a main character from Watch Dogs 2, who also become playable in the normal campaign and the online mode. The expansion adds ten story missions, and side content in the form of "Resistance Missions" for Aiden and "Fixer Contracts" for Wrench.
An update released on 24 August 2021 added Assassin's Creed-themed missions, weapons, abilities, and gadgets, as well as a new playable character, Darcy Clarkson, a member of the Assassin Brotherhood, who is available through the Season Pass. The update also introduced two new online game modes, "Invasion" and "Extraction", and a New Game Plus mode titled "Resistance Mode", which allows players to replay the single-player campaign on a higher difficulty while retaining all their previous upgrades. Furthermore, the Legion of the Dead mode was made available on consoles as well. On 30 August, as part of a crossover with the television series Money Heist, Ubisoft added a multiplayer heist mission and outfits based on the disguises worn by the show's protagonists. In January 2022, Ubisoft announced that following the release of update 5.6, the team will cease developing major content updates.
A spin-off comic book series was released monthly beginning in November 2021 by Behemoth in the United States and in two collected editions in France by Glénat.
Reception
Critical response
Watch Dogs: Legion received "mixed or average" reviews on all platforms except on Xbox One which received "generally favorable" reviews, according to review aggregator Metacritic.
Electronic Gaming Monthly Michael Goroff, who gave one of these reviews, remarked that the game "offers a novel way to experience an open world, with its interconnected NPCs and the introduction of permadeath to the genre", noting that in this aspect the game provided a real relationship between players and the characters they recruited, particularly in ensuring their survival during a playthrough. However, Goroff noted that this aspect had a flaw, pointing out that other NPCs already recruited wouldn't react like allies when the current operative runs into them while dealing with hostiles, and that there were limitations in that players would need to search amongst considerable numbers of NPCs to find those with skills they wanted.
VG247s Lauren Aitken was critical of the background of the game's story and the repetitive nature of missions, noting how their structure remains the same even when the "difficulty suddenly ramps up after the 404 and Skye Larsen storylines", while pointing out that each mission strand's storyline was relatively "short". The lack of uniqueness in the NPCs' accents was also criticized, with Aitken adding that players would mostly find it useful to go primarily for those with hacking skills, due to how much of the game requires these. Overall, they found that the game would be of interest mostly to "Watch Dogs fans and more die-hard anarchists".
On the other hand, IGN's Dan Stapleton praised the diversity of NPCs in the game, remarking that which NPCs the player decides to recruit can have a significant effect on the overall gameplay, and that this diversity enables numerous possibilities and encourages the player to use their creativity. Nevertheless, Stapleton argued that more could have been made of this diversity, and that the game didn't do enough to encourage the player to recruit weaker characters. Similarly, Keza MacDonald of The Guardian declared that the game includes "the most diverse cast in gaming history" and praised the ability to recruit any non-player character but criticized that the characters do not meaningfully interact with one another. Furthermore, she noted that the game's willingness to be political was "refreshing" and commended the "impressively well-written speeches about the forces of populism and the sinister influence of the world's data giants" but noted the disparity between the writing "pantomime evil" of the game's villains, noting that the storyline "doesn't gel with the script or voice acting, which are wacky, stuffed with puns and British slang and of wildly variable quality". She concluded that "unlike the glossy, beautiful, but samey open-worlds that have dominated the genre in the past few years, [Legion] is ambitious, imperfect and unashamedly weird" and gave it 4/5 stars.
Another point of criticism was the game's driving mechanics, which VideoGamer's Josh Wise called "chunky".
Awards
It was nominated for Innovation in Accessibility at The Game Awards 2020.
Sales
During its first week on sale, Watch Dogs: Legion was the best-selling game in the UK when counting physical and digital sales, the second best-selling retail game in Switzerland at the all-format charts, and the fourth best-selling retail game in Japan at the individual-format charts. 40,962 physical copies of the PlayStation 4 version were sold that week in Japan.
Notes
References
External links
2020 video games
Action-adventure games
Asymmetrical multiplayer video games
Brexit in fiction
Cameras in fiction
Crossover video games
Cybernetted society in fiction
Cyberpunk video games
Dystopian video games
Hacking video games
Open-world video games
Organized crime video games
Video games about mass surveillance
Multiplayer and single-player video games
Parkour video games
PlayStation 4 games
PlayStation 4 Pro enhanced games
PlayStation 5 games
Postcyberpunk
Stadia games
Stealth video games
Ubisoft games
Video game sequels
Video games developed in Canada
Video games scored by Stephen Barton
Video games set in the 2030s
Video games set in London
Windows games
Xbox One games
Xbox One X enhanced games
Xbox Series X and Series S games
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claudia%20Dreifus
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Claudia Dreifus
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Claudia Dreifus is an American journalist, educator and lecturer, producer of the weekly feature “Conversation with…” of the Science Section of The New York Times, and known for her interviews with leading figures in world politics and science. She is adjunct associate professor of international affairs and media at the School of International and Public Affairs (SIPA) of Columbia University.
Early life
Claudia Dreifus was born in New York City to Marianne and Henry Dreifus, both German-Jewish refugees. Henry Dreifus was a mechanic in the U.S. Army at the time of her birth and later went on to become involved in local politics.
Claudia Dreifus obtained her bachelor of science in dramatic arts from New York University. She was active in student politics as the leader of Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) and Students for Democratic Reform (SDR). After graduation, she worked as a labor organizer for hospital workers, Local 1199. During this time, she also began working as a freelance journalist.
Career
Journalism
Dreifus began to work as a journalist in the mid-1960s. She had a regular column in the underground newspaper The East Village Other and contributed to other small presses. During the 1970s, she interviewed female figures including performing artists Goldie Hawn and Loretta Lynn and congresswomen Patsy Mink and Eleanor Holmes Norton. She also published reviews of feminist authors Germaine Greer and Florynce Kennedy.
By the 1980s, she had established a reputation for her incisive interviews with famous persons in politics and culture. During this time, she interviewed Harry Belafonte (1982), Gabriel Garcia Marquez (Playboy, 1983), and Daniel Ortega (Playboy, 1987).
In the 1990s, Dreifus increasingly took on interviews related to major political figures. She interviewed Benazir Bhutto (1994) and Aung San Suu Kyi for The New York Times (1996). She also kept up her established work as an interviewer for major celebrities, such as Toni Morrison, Bette Midler and Samuel L. Jackson.
Over the course of her career, Dreifus' interviews and long-form narrative articles have appeared in Ms., The Nation, Playboy, Playgirl, The Progressive, Mother Jones, Cosmopolitan, Ladies Home Journal, New Woman, the liberal democrat, New York Post, Newsday, Parade, Penthouse, Present Tense, Redbook, and others.
In 1999, Dreifus began to write the regular “Conversation with…” feature of the Tuesday Science Section of The New York Times. Interviewees have included Abraham Loeb, 2012 Eric R. Kandel and Ruslan M. Medzhitov, in 2011 George Dyson, Jack W. Szostak, Daniel Lieberman, Stephen Hawking, Janet Rowley, in 2010 Jane Goodall, David Weatherall, Diana Reiss, Vanessa Woods, Elaine Fuchs, Jeffrey L. Bada, Sean M. Carroll, Peter Pronovost, Samuel Wang, in 2009 Frank A. Wilczek, Laurence Steinberg, Brian J. Druker, Carol W. Greider, Martin Chalfie, Paul Root Wolpe
Through this work for The New York Times Tuesday Science Section, Dreifus has become increasingly involved in writing about the lives and work of scientists. Her works have appeared in various journals including The New York Times Magazine, Newsweek, Smithsonian, AARP The Magazine, and Scientific American. In 2006, Dreifus was named an Honorary Member of Sigma Xi for her ability to illuminate the work of scientists for a wide public.
University instructor
In the 1990s, Dreifus worked as a teacher in the Graduate Department of English at the City University of New York.
Since about 2004, she has been an adjunct associate professor of international affairs and media at the School of International and Public Affairs (SIPA) of Columbia University.
Author
Dreifus has authored, edited, or co-authored eight books, and her work has appeared in over ten anthologies.
In their 2010 book Higher Education?: How Colleges Are Wasting Our Money and Failing Our Kids—and What We Can Do About It, Andrew Hacker and Claudia Dreifus critically scrutinize the system of academia that provides higher education, and question the driving factors behind tuition payments, money spending and financial investments in academia.
Honors, awards and affiliations
Among various honors and affiliations, Dreifus is senior fellow of the World Policy Institute. In 2006, she was inducted as honorary member of Sigma Xi, and in 2007 she was awarded the Career Achievement Award from the American Society of Journalists and Authors.
In 1977 Dreifus became an associate of the Women's Institute for Freedom of the Press (WIFP).
Earlier awards to Dreifus included, in 1980, a Special Award for Service to Women from the New York YWCA and obtained three awards in 1987: the Outstanding Magazine Article Award from American Society of Journalists and Authors for Rodrigo's Last Trip Home, the American Values Award for How Rural Woman are Saving the Family Farm, and the American Jewish Press Association's Simon Rockower Award for Distinguished Commentary for Why I Write. She was nominated for the National Magazine Award of 1992 by TV Guide for TVs Censor from Tupelo, an investigative report on censorship.
In 2000 she was listed in the Who's Who in America and the Who's Who In The World, both of Marquis Who's Who.
Publications
Books (author or co-author)
Andrew Hacker, Claudia Dreifus: Higher Education?: How Colleges Are Wasting Our Money and Failing Our Kids—and What We Can Do About It, Henry Holt & Co., 2010,
Andrew Hacker, Claudia Dreifus: The Athletics Incubus: How College Sports Undermine College Education, Henry Holt and Co., 2011 (previously published as part of Higher Education?),
Andrew Hacker, Claudia Dreifus: The Golden Dozen: Is the Ivy League Worth the Dollars?, 2011 (previously published as part of Higher Education?),
Claudia Dreifus: Scientific Conversations: Interviews on Science from The New York Times'', Times Books, 2002,
Claudia Dreifus: Interview, Seven Stories Press, 1999, , with a foreword by Clyde Haberman
Claudia Dreifus: Woman's fate: raps from a feminist consciousness-raising group, Bantam Books, 1973
Claudia Dreifus: Radical lifestyles, Lancer Books, 1971 (summary)
Editor and/or contributor
Claudia Dreifus, ed.: Seizing our bodies: the politics of women's health, Vintage Books, 1977,
Dreifus, Claudia. “Forward.” The Doctor's Case against the Pill. Barbara Seaman, ed. 25th Anniversary Edition. Alameda, CA: Hunter House, 1995.
Strainchamps, Ethel R. Rooms with No View: A Woman's Guide to the Man’s World of the Media. Harper and Row, 1974. (Compiled anonymously by the Media Women's Association).
Anthologies including Dreifus' work
Capaldi, Nicholas. Immigration: Debating the Issues. Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, 1997. (Includes interview with Doris Meissner "The worst job in the world?")
Denard, Carolyn C. Toni Morrison: Conversations. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2008. (Includes interview “Chloe Wofford talks about Toni Morrison”)
Funk, Robert, Linda S. Coleman, and Susan Day. Strategies for College Writing: A Rhetorical Reader. Upper Saddle River, N.J: Prentice Hall, 2003.
García, Márquez G., and Gene H. Bell-Villada. Conversations with Gabriel García Márquez. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2006. (Includes Playboy interview)
Gartner, Alan, Colin Greer, and Frank Riessman. What Nixon Is Doing to Us. New York: Harper & Row, 1973. (Chapter “Women: Behind Every Man”)
Jaggar, Alison M, and Paula S. Rothenberg. Feminist Frameworks: Alternative Theoretical Accounts of the Relations between Women and Men. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1984.
Katzman, Allen. Our Time: An Anthology of Interviews from the East Village Other. New York: Dial Press, 1972.
Polner, Murray, and Stefan Merken. Peace, Justice, and Jews: Reclaiming Our Tradition. New York: Bunim Bannigan, 2007. (“Berlin Stories” by Claudia Dreifus)
Price, Barbara R, and Natalie J. Sokoloff. The Criminal Justice System and Women: Women Offenders, Victims, Workers. New York, NY: Clark Boardman, 1982.
Schulder, Diane, and Florynce Kennedy. Abortion Rap. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1971.
Stambler, Sookie. Women's Liberation: Blueprint for the Future. New York: Ace Books, 1970. (“The Great Abortion Suit”)
Winburn, Janice. Shop Talk and War Stories: American Journalists Examine Their Profession''. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2003. (“Preparation, chemistry, and the interview as an act of seduction” by Claudia Dreifus.)
References
External links
Official Claudia Dreifus website
Bio of Dreifus from the World Policy Institute at the New School for Social Research
Publications by Claudia Dreifus at WorldCat
East Village Other Volume 4, number 24. Example of Dreifus' early work, see page 6 ("The Women's Crusade").
Living people
American women journalists
Year of birth missing (living people)
Place of birth missing (living people)
Tisch School of the Arts alumni
Columbia University faculty
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11010249
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced%20Access%20Content%20System
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Advanced Access Content System
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The Advanced Access Content System (AACS) is a standard for content distribution and digital rights management, intended to restrict access to and copying of the post-DVD generation of optical discs. The specification was publicly released in April 2005 and the standard has been adopted as the access restriction scheme for HD DVD and Blu-ray Disc (BD). It is developed by AACS Licensing Administrator, LLC (AACS LA), a consortium that includes Disney, Intel, Microsoft, Panasonic, Warner Bros., IBM, Toshiba and Sony. AACS has been operating under an "interim agreement" since the final specification (including provisions for Managed Copy) has not yet been finalized.
Since appearing in devices in 2006, several AACS decryption keys have been extracted from software players and published on the Internet, allowing decryption by unlicensed software.
System overview
Encryption
AACS uses cryptography to control and restrict the use of digital media. It encrypts content under one or more title keys using the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES). Title keys are decrypted using a combination of a media key (encoded in a Media Key Block) and the Volume ID of the media (e.g., a physical serial number embedded on a pre-recorded disc).
The principal difference between AACS and CSS (the DRM system used on DVDs and CDs) lies in how the device decryption keys and codes are organized.
Under CSS, all players of a given model group are provisioned with the same shared activated decryption key. Content is encrypted under the title-specific key, which is itself encrypted under each model's key. Thus each disc contains a collection of several hundred encrypted keys, one for each licensed player model.
In principle, this approach allows licensors to "revoke" a given player model (prevent it from playing back future content) by omitting to encrypt future title keys with the player model's key. In practice, however, revoking all players of a particular model is costly, as it causes many users to lose playback capability. Furthermore, the inclusion of a shared key across many players makes key compromise significantly more likely, as was demonstrated by a number of compromises in the mid-1990s.
The approach of AACS provisions each individual player with a unique set of decryption keys which are used in a broadcast encryption scheme. This approach allows licensors to "revoke" individual players, or more specifically, the decryption keys associated with the player. Thus, if a given player's keys are compromised and published, the AACS LA can simply revoke those keys in future content, making the keys/player useless for decrypting new titles.
AACS also incorporates traitor tracing techniques. The standard allows for multiple versions of short sections of a movie to be encrypted with different keys, while a given player will only be able to decrypt one version of each section. The manufacturer embeds varying digital watermarks (such as Cinavia) in these sections, and upon subsequent analysis of the pirated release the compromised keys can be identified and revoked (this feature is called Sequence keys in the AACS specifications).
Volume IDs
Volume IDs are unique identifiers or serial numbers that are stored on pre-recorded discs with special hardware. They cannot be duplicated on consumers' recordable media. The point of this is to prevent simple bit-by-bit copies, since the Volume ID is required (though not sufficient) for decoding content. On Blu-ray discs, the Volume ID is stored in the BD-ROM Mark.
To read the Volume ID, a cryptographic certificate (the Private Host Key) signed by the AACS LA is required. However, this has been circumvented by modifying the firmware of some HD DVD and Blu-ray drives.
Decryption process
To view the movie, the player must first decrypt the content on the disc. The decryption process is somewhat convoluted. The disc contains 4 items—the Media Key Block (MKB), the Volume ID, the Encrypted Title Keys, and the Encrypted Content. The MKB is encrypted in a subset difference tree approach. Essentially, a set of keys are arranged in a tree such that any given key can be used to find every other key except its parent keys. This way, to revoke a given device key, the MKB needs only be encrypted with that device key's parent key.
Once the MKB is decrypted, it provides the Media Key, or the km. The km is combined with the Volume ID (which the program can only get by presenting a cryptographic certificate to the drive, as described above) in a one-way encryption scheme (AES-G) to produce the Volume Unique Key (Kvu). The Kvu is used to decrypt the encrypted title keys, and that is used to decrypt the encrypted content.
Analog Outputs
AACS-compliant players must follow guidelines pertaining to outputs over analog connections. This is set by a flag called the Image Constraint Token (ICT), which restricts the resolution for analog outputs to 960×540. Full 1920×1080 resolution is restricted to HDMI or DVI outputs that support HDCP. The decision to set the flag to restrict output ("down-convert") is left to the content provider. Warner Pictures is a proponent of ICT, and it is expected that Paramount and Universal will implement down-conversion as well.
AACS guidelines require that any title which implements the ICT must clearly state so on the packaging. The German magazine "Der Spiegel" has reported about an unofficial agreement between film studios and electronics manufacturers to not use ICT until 2010 – 2012. However, some titles have already been released that apply ICT.
Audio watermarking
On 5 June 2009, the licensing agreements for AACS were finalized, which were updated to make Cinavia detection on commercial Blu-ray disc players a requirement.
Managed Copy
Managed Copy refers to a system by which consumers can make legal copies of films and other digital content protected by AACS. This requires the device to obtain authorization by contacting a remote server on the Internet. The copies will still be protected by DRM, so infinite copying is not possible (unless it is explicitly allowed by the content owner). It is mandatory for content providers to give the consumer this flexibility in both the HD DVD and the Blu-ray standards (commonly called Mandatory Managed Copy). The Blu-ray standards adopted Mandatory Managed Copy later than HD DVD, after HP requested it.
Possible scenarios for Managed Copy include (but are not limited to):
Create an exact duplicate onto a recordable disc for backup
Create a full-resolution copy for storage on a media server
Create a scaled-down version for watching on a portable device
This feature was not included in the interim standard, so the first devices on the market did not have this capability. It was expected to be a part of the final AACS specification.
In June 2009, the final AACS agreements were ratified and posted online, and include information on the Managed Copy aspects of AACS.
History
On 24 February 2001, Dalit Naor, Moni Naor and Jeff Lotspiech published a paper entitled "Revocation and Tracing Schemes for Stateless Receivers", where they described a broadcast encryption scheme using a construct called Naor-Naor-Lotspiech subset-difference trees. That paper laid the theoretical foundations of AACS.
The AACS LA consortium was founded in 2004. With DeCSS in hindsight, the IEEE Spectrum magazine's readers voted AACS to be one of the technologies most likely to fail in the January 2005 issue.
The final AACS standard was delayed, and then delayed again when an important member of the Blu-ray group voiced concerns. At the request of Toshiba, an interim standard was published which did not include some features, like managed copy. As of 15 October 2007, the final AACS standard had not yet been released.
Unlicensed decryption
On 26 December 2006, a person using the alias "muslix64" published a working, open-sourced AACS decrypting utility named BackupHDDVD, looking at the publicly available AACS specifications. Given the correct keys, it can be used to decrypt AACS-encrypted content. A corresponding BackupBluRay program was soon developed. Blu-ray Copy is a program capable of copying Blu-rays to the hard drive or to blank BD-R discs.
Security
Both title keys and one of the keys used to decrypt them (known as Processing Keys in the AACS specifications) have been found by using debuggers to inspect the memory space of running HD DVD and Blu-ray player programs.
Hackers also claim to have found Device Keys
(used to calculate the Processing Key) and a Host Private Key
(a key signed by the AACS LA used for hand-shaking between host and HD drive; required for reading the Volume ID). The first unprotected HD movies were available soon afterwards.
The processing key was widely published on the Internet after it was found and the AACS LA sent multiple DMCA takedown notices in the aim of censoring it.
Some sites that rely on user-submitted content, like Digg and Wikipedia, tried to remove any mentions of the key.
The Digg administrators eventually gave up trying to censor submissions that contained the key.
The AACS key extractions highlight the inherent weakness in any DRM system that permit software players for PCs to be used for playback of content. No matter how many layers of encryption are employed, it does not offer any true protection, since the keys needed to obtain the unencrypted content stream must be available somewhere in memory for playback to be possible. The PC platform offers no way to prevent memory snooping attacks on such keys, since a PC configuration can always be emulated by a virtual machine, in theory without any running program or external system being able to detect the virtualization. The only way to wholly prevent attacks like this would require changes to the PC platform (see Trusted Computing) which could provide protection against such attacks. This would require that content distributors do not permit their content to be played on PCs without trusted computing technology, by not providing the companies making software players for non-trusted PCs with the needed encryption keys.
On 16 April 2007, the AACS consortium announced that it had expired certain encryption keys used by PC-based applications. Patches were available for WinDVD and PowerDVD which used new and uncompromised encryption keys.
The old, compromised keys can still be used to decrypt old titles, but not newer releases as they will be encrypted with these new keys. All users of the affected players (even those considered "legitimate" by the AACS LA) are forced to upgrade or replace their player software in order to view new titles.
Despite all revocations, current titles can be decrypted using new MKB v7, v9 or v10 keys widely available in the Internet.
Besides spreading processing keys on the Internet, there have also been efforts to spread title keys on various sites.
The AACS LA has sent DMCA takedown notices to such sites on at least one occasion.
There is also commercial software (AnyDVD HD) that can circumvent the AACS protection. Apparently this program works even with movies released after the AACS LA expired the first batch of keys.
While great care has been taken with AACS to ensure that contents are encrypted right up to the display device, on the first versions of some Blu-ray and HD DVD software players a perfect copy of any still frame from a film could be made simply by utilizing the Print Screen function of the Windows operating system.
Patent challenges
On 30 May 2007, Canadian encryption vendor Certicom sued Sony alleging that AACS violated two of its patents, "Strengthened public key protocol" and "Digital signatures on a Smartcard." The patents were filed in 1999 and 2001 respectively, and in 2003 the National Security Agency paid $25 million for the right to use 26 of Certicom's patents, including the two that Sony is alleged to have infringed on.
The lawsuit was dismissed on May 27, 2009.
See also
History of attacks against Advanced Access Content System
AACS encryption key controversy
References
External links
AACS homepage
AACS specifications
Understanding AACS, an introductory forum thread.
ISAN homepage, ISAN as required in the Content ID defined in AACS Introduction and Common Cryptographic Elements rev 0.91
libaacs, an open source library implementing AACS
Hal Finney on 'AACS and Processing Key', Hal Finney's post on metzdowd.com cryptography mailing list
Digital rights management standards
Compact Disc and DVD copy protection
Blu-ray Disc
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435163
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timex%20Sinclair%202068
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Timex Sinclair 2068
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The Timex Sinclair 2068 (T/S 2068), released in November 1983, was Timex Sinclair's third and last home computer for the United States market. It was also marketed in Canada, Argentina, Portugal and Poland, as Timex Computer 2068 (TC 2068).
History
Following Timex's ZX81-based T/S 1000 and T/S 1500, a new series of ZX Spectrum-based machines was created. Initially named T/S 2000 (as reflected on the user manual), the machine evolved into the T/S 2048 prototype, and was eventually released as T/S 2068, with the name chosen mainly for marketing reasons.
Advertisements described the T/S 2068 as offering 72K of memory, color, and sound for a price under $200. Like the T/S 1500 was announced as a 40K memory machine (16K RAM + 24K ROM), so the 2068 was announced as a 72K machine (48K RAM + 24K ROM).
Although Timex Computer Corporation folded in February 1984, the independent Portuguese division continued to sell the machine in Portugal as the Timex Computer 2068, and Poland until 1989, as the Unipolbrit Komputer 2086. Although the Portuguese-made TC 2068 was also sold in Poland, only the UK2086 was actually made there.
Timex of Portugal sold 2 versions of TC 2068: the Silver TC 2068 version came with a ZX Spectrum emulator cartridge and a black TC 2068 version sold with TimeWord word processing cartridge plus the Timex RS232 Interface to use TimeWord with a RS232 printer. Strangely the black version came with a silver keyboard template with TimeWord commands to be used with the program. It can be removed because it is not glued to the black keyboard template.
Although the T/S 2068's main improvements over the original Spectrum were in areas that had come in for widespread criticism (graphics, sound, keyboard and—to a lesser extent—the lack of joystick ports and cartridge support), it was not used as the basis for the Spectrum's successors. The ZX Spectrum+ (1984) changed the keyboard only, and even the ZX Spectrum+ 128K (announced in May 1985, but not released in the UK until February 1986) retained the original machine's graphical capabilities. However, unlike the UK models, the T/S 2068 was not burdened by the requirement of compatibility with previous models.
Related machines
Timex Sinclair 2048
A cut-down version of the T/S 2068, based on the T/S 2048 prototype named T/S 2048, was cancelled before entering intended production in 1984. This was due to the commercial failure of the T/S 1500.
According to an early Timex Sinclair 2000 computer flyer, it would have 16 KB of RAM, add a Kempston-compatible joystick interface and a two color high resolution mode for 80 column text.
The 2048 model number was the intended model number for what finally got named Timex Sinclair 2068. In an interview with Lou Galie, senior vice president of technology at Timex, he tells what he claims to be the real story. Danny Ross, Timex Computer Corporation president, was giving a speech. Lou points: "When Danny announced what was supposed to be the 2048, he mis-spoke and called it the 2068. When I called him on it, he laughed and said 'Rename it. 2068 is better than 2048'".
Although the T/S 2048 was cancelled, the Timex Computer 2048, based on the T/S 2048 prototype and released in 1984, was sold in Portugal and Poland.
Timex Computer 2068
For the TC 2068, Timex of Portugal made some changes the original T/S 2068 hardware, in order to improve compatibility with the original ZX Spectrum. It also created a Spectrum emulator cartridge that would auto-boot. This cartridge was larger, so the TC 2068 casing was changed to accommodate it.
Main hardware changes:
Replaced the bus buffers with resistors like ZX Spectrum
Changed the I/O connector to be ZX Spectrum compatible (not requiring the Zebra Twister board).
Changed the cartridge slot top casing to accept bigger cartridges (for example "Spectrum emulator" and "Timeword" cartridges )
Instead of 15V, it uses 9V.
Unipolbrit Komputer 2086
A variant of the T/S 2068 was sold in Poland after 1986 under the name Unipolbrit Komputer 2086 (or UK 2086).
The machine was based on the TC 2068, with further changes introduced by that company:
Modified ROM
Replaced a joystick port with a parallel printer interface
Technical specifications
The T/S 2068 was a more sophisticated device, compared to its UK ancestor, the ZX Spectrum. Arguably one of the first Sinclair clones to significantly improve on the original design, it added a number of new features:
an AY-3-8912 sound chip, as later used by Sinclair in the ZX Spectrum+ 128K (but mapped to different I/O ports and thus incompatible)
twin joystick ports
a slightly better "chiclet keyboard" with plastic keycaps
a cartridge port to the right of the keyboard for ROM-based software
an improved ULA offering additional Extended Color, Dual Screen and High Resolution screen modes:
Text: 32×24 characters (8×8 pixels, rendered in graphics mode)
Graphics: 256×192 pixels, 15 colours (two simultaneous colours - "attributes" - per 8×8 pixels, causing attribute clash)
Extended Color: 256×192 pixels, 15 colors with colour resolution of 32×192 (two simultaneous colours - "attributes" - per 1×8 pixels)
Dual Screen: (two 256×192 pixels screens can be placed in memory)
High Resolution: 512×192 mode with 2 colours (Four palettes: Black & White, Blue & Yellow, Red & Cyan, Magenta & Green).
improved T/S 2000 BASIC, that extends Sinclair BASIC with new keywords to address new hardware and bank-switched memory, allowing ROM cartridges to be mapped in.
However, these changes made the machine incompatible with most Spectrum machine-code software, which is to say virtually all commercial titles; less than 10% would run successfully. In an attempt to remedy this, many TS users built a cartridge with a Spectrum ROM for emulation.
T/S 2000 BASIC
T/S 2000 BASIC was an extended version of Sinclair BASIC, adding the following six keywords to the ordinary Sinclair BASIC ones:
DELETE deletes BASIC program line ranges. with the K cursor produces the command DELETE.
FREE is a function that gives the amount of free RAM. PRINT FREE will show how much RAM is free.
ON ERR is an error-handling function mostly used as ON ERR GO TO or ON ERR CONT.
RESET can be used to reset the behaviour of ON ERR. It was also intended to reset peripherals.
SOUND controls the AY-3-8192 sound chip.
STICK is a function that gives the position of the internal joystick (Timex Sinclair 2090).
Software List
Timex Computer Corp published 7 cartridges and 37 cassettes along with the launch of T/S 2068. Some titles were released both on cartridge and tape. The software ranged from utilities and personal accounting programs to educational titles and games. Based on the original software catalog, 4 cartridges and 22 of the planned tapes were never released..
Timex of Portugal released cartridges (including the "ZX Spectrum Emulator" and "TimeWord", that came with the TC 2068), tapes and software on disks (ex: Tasword for Timex FDD).
Reception
Popular Mechanics in February 1984 called the Timex Sinclair 2068's keyboard a "mixed blessing" and reported a flaw in the video signal, but liked its BASIC and concluded that "for $200, the 2068 is a nice package".
See also
Komputer 2086
Footnotes
Note that the "2086" in the name was not a corruption of "2068". The "86" derived from the year the computer was first made.
References
External links
Unofficial Timex Sinclair 2068 site
Timex Computer World
Timex Sinclair Showcase
"American cousins" article, interview with Lou Galie
Computer-related introductions in 1983
ZX Spectrum clones
Z80-based home computers
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177110
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macromedia
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Macromedia
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Macromedia, Inc., was an American graphics, multimedia, and web development software company (1992–2005) headquartered in San Francisco, California, that made products such as Flash and Dreamweaver. It was purchased by its rival Adobe Inc. on December 3, 2005.
History
Macromedia originated in the 1992 merger of Authorware Inc. (makers of Authorware) and MacroMind–Paracomp (makers of Macromind Director).
Director, an interactive multimedia-authoring tool used to make presentations, animations, CD-ROMs, and information kiosks, served as Macromedia's flagship product until the mid-1990s. Authorware was Macromedia's principal product in the interactive learning market. As the Internet moved from a university research medium to a commercial network, Macromedia began working to web-enable its existing tools and develop new products like Dreamweaver. Macromedia created Shockwave, a Director-viewer plugin for web browsers. The first multimedia playback in Netscape's browser was a Director plug-in. Macromedia licensed Sun's Java Programming Language in October 1995. By 2002, Macromedia produced more than 20 products and had 30 offices in 13 different countries.
Acquisitions
In January 1995, Macromedia acquired Altsys Corporation after Adobe Systems announced a merger with Altsys' business partner, the Aldus Corporation. Altsys was the developer of the vector-drawing program FreeHand, which had been licensed by Aldus for marketing and sales. Because of the similarities with Adobe Illustrator, the Federal Trade Commission issued a complaint in October 1994 ordering a divestiture of FreeHand back to Altsys. With Macromedia's acquisition of Altsys, it received FreeHand thus expanding its product line of multimedia graphics software to include illustration and design graphics software. FreeHand's vector graphics rendering engine and other software components within the program would prove useful to Macromedia in the development of Fireworks.
In March 1996, Macromedia acquired iBand Software, makers of the Backstage HTML authoring tool and application server. Macromedia developed a new HTML-authoring tool, Dreamweaver, around portions of the Backstage codebase and released the first version in 1997. At the time, most professional web authors preferred to code HTML by hand using text editors because they wanted full control over the source. Dreamweaver addressed this with its "Roundtrip HTML" feature, which attempted to preserve the fidelity of hand-edited source code during visual edits, allowing users to work back and forth between visual and code editing. Over the next few years Dreamweaver became widely adopted among professional web authors, though many still preferred to hand-code, and Microsoft FrontPage remained a strong competitor among amateur and business users.
Macromedia acquired FutureWave Software, makers of FutureSplash Animator, in November 1996. FutureSplash Animator was an animation tool originally developed for pen-based computing devices. Because of the small size of the FutureSplash Viewer application, it was particularly suited for download over the Internet, where most users, at the time, had low-bandwidth connections. Macromedia renamed Splash to Macromedia Flash, and following the lead of Netscape, distributed the Flash Player as a free browser plugin in order to quickly gain market share. As of 2005, more computers worldwide had the Flash Player installed than any other Web media format, including Java, QuickTime, RealNetworks, and Windows Media Player. As Flash matured, Macromedia's focus shifted from marketing it as a graphics and media tool to promoting it as a Web application platform, adding scripting and data access capabilities to the player while attempting to retain its small footprint.
In December 1999, Macromedia acquired traffic analysis software company Andromedia Corporation. Web development company Allaire was acquired in 2001 and Macromedia added several popular servers and Web developments tools to its portfolio, including ColdFusion, a web application server based on the CFML language, JRun, a Java EE application server, and HomeSite, an HTML code editor that was also bundled with Dreamweaver.
In 2003, Macromedia acquired the web conferencing company Presedia and continued to develop and enhance their Flash-based online collaboration and presentation product offering under the brand Breeze. Later that year, Macromedia also acquired help authoring software company eHelp Corporation, whose products included RoboHelp and RoboDemo (now Adobe Captivate).
Purchase
On April 18, 2005, Adobe Systems announced an agreement to acquire Macromedia in a stock swap valued at approximately $3.4 billion on the last trading day before the announcement. The acquisition took place on December 3, 2005, and Adobe integrated the company's operations, networks, and customer care organizations shortly thereafter.
Lawsuits
On August 22, 1997, stockholders filed a class-action lawsuit in the California Superior Court in San Francisco, accusing Macromedia of misleading stockholders on the company's product success and financial health. A similar suit had been filed a month earlier. The class-action suit was dismissed by a federal judge on May 19, 1998.
On August 10, 2000, Adobe claimed that Macromedia violated two of its patents on tabbed palettes. Macromedia countered with a claim that Adobe infringed on Macromedia's patents for a draw-based editor for Web pages and a hierarchical structure editor for Web sites. In July 2002, Adobe and Macromedia reached an agreement that settled all claims in this series of patent suits. Eventually, Adobe acquired Macromedia 3 years later.
Leadership
1992: Bud Colligan became co-founder and CEO of Macromedia, a position he held until 1997; he served as board chairman 1992-1998.
1994: Altsys Corp and CEO James Von Ehr became a Macromedia vice-president, a position he held until 1997.
1996: Robert K. Burgess was hired as President of Macromedia, and became CEO in 1997, a position he held until 2005; he served as Board Chairman 1998-2005, a position he held when the company was acquired by Adobe.
1997: Betsey Nelson became Chief Financial Officer, a position she held until Macromedia was acquired by Adobe.
2004: Stephen Elop became Chief Operating Officer.
2005: Stephen Elop had been CEO for three months when Macromedia announced it would be acquired by Adobe.
Products
See also
Macromedia software
References
External links
Adobe - Stories
Adobe Feeds Weblogs
Adobe Inc.
Defunct software companies of the United States
Software companies based in the San Francisco Bay Area
Companies based in San Francisco
Software companies established in 1992
Software companies disestablished in 2005
1992 establishments in California
2005 disestablishments in California
Defunct companies based in the San Francisco Bay Area
2005 mergers and acquisitions
Companies formerly listed on the Nasdaq
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32747377
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Waltz
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David Waltz
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David Leigh Waltz (28 May 1943 – 22 March 2012) was a computer scientist who made significant contributions in several areas of artificial intelligence, including constraint satisfaction, case-based reasoning and the application of massively parallel computation to AI problems.
He held positions in academia and industry and at the time of his death, was a professor of Computer Science at Columbia University where he directed the Center for Computational Learning Systems.
Education
Waltz was born in Boston, Massachusetts in 1943. He attended the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) where, as a student of artificial intelligence pioneer Marvin Minsky, he was part of the MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory and received S.B. (1965), M.S. (1968) and Ph.D. (1972) degrees, all in Electrical Engineering.
His Ph.D. dissertation on computer vision initiated the field of constraint propagation, which allowed a computer program to generate a detailed three-dimensional view of an object given a two dimensional drawing with shadows.
Career
Following his graduate work at MIT in 1972, Waltz became a professor of computer science at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. In 1984 he joined Thinking Machines Corporation where he led the Knowledge Representation and Natural Language (KRNL) group. There, his access to massively parallel supercomputers enabled him to work on new methods for information retrieval involving comparisons to large amounts of data. With Craig Stanfill, he originated the field of memory-based reasoning branch of case-based reasoning. His research interests also included massively parallel information retrieval, data mining, learning and automatic classification with applications protein structure prediction, and natural language processing and machine learning applications applied to the electric power grid. While at Thinking Machines, Waltz was also a Professor of Computer Science at Brandeis University. In 1993 Waltz left Thinking Machines to join NEC Research Institute in Princeton, where he eventually rose to become President of NEC Research. Waltz joined Columbia University in 2003 as the Director of the Center for Computational Learning Systems.
Waltz served as president of the Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence (AAAI) from 1997 to 1999 and is the former Chairman of the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) Special Interest Group on Artificial Intelligence (SIGART). He was on the Advisory Board for IEEE Intelligent Systems, and the board of the Computing Community Consortium of the Computing Research Association, and National Science Foundation (NSF) Computer Science Advisory Board.
He was on the Army Research Lab Technical Advisory Board and the Advisory Board of the Florida Institute for Human and Machine Cognition, the Technical Advisory Board of Cork Constraint Computation Center (4C), Ireland, and served on recent external advisory boards for Rutgers University, Carnegie Mellon University, Brown University, and École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL).
Awards
Waltz was elected a Fellow of Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence (AAAI) in 1990 and a Fellow of the Association for Computing Machinery in 1998. In 2011 he was selected as the recipient of the AAAI Distinguished Service Award for extraordinary and sustained service to the artificial intelligence community.
Personal life
David Waltz was married to Bonnie (Freedson) Waltz in 1970. They had two children, Vanessa Waltz (born 1972) and Jeremy Waltz (born 1975). In addition to his dedication to the scientific community, he was an extremely devoted husband and father, and his wife and children traveled regularly with him to many conferences and professional engagements throughout his career. Jeremy and wife Kathy had granddaughter Hannah in 2003, at which point "The Dude" became Waltz's nickname among family and friends.
Death
David Waltz died in the University Medical Center at Princeton, New Jersey on March 22, 2012 from brain cancer; he was 68 years old.
Besides his wife, Bonnie Waltz, he is survived by a brother, Peter; a son, Jeremy; a daughter, Vanessa Waltz, and a granddaughter.
References
American computer scientists
Fellows of the Association for Computing Machinery
Fellows of the Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence
Artificial intelligence researchers
MIT School of Engineering alumni
2012 deaths
1943 births
Florida Institute for Human and Machine Cognition people
Presidents of the Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence
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16232951
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liceo%20de%20Cagayan%20University
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Liceo de Cagayan University
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The Liceo de Cagayan University is a non-sectarian university in Cagayan de Oro City, Philippines. It has twelve colleges and five departments.
History
It was founded in 1955 by Rodolfo Pelaez of Cagayan de Oro City and his wife Elsa Pelaez of Cebu City.
The institution got its University/Level III status in 1998 from the Commission on Higher Education. In 2003, Rafaelita P. Golez served as President of the university. It holds the most number of accreditations from PACU-COA in Region X.
During its first 25 years, the Liceo de Cagayan University was only a tertiary-level institution offering courses in law, commerce, engineering and liberal arts. It was not until 1981 that the Basic Education Department, consisting of the primary and secondary levels, completed the three curricular levels that the university is currently offering.
The Liceo University offers courses in Nursing (both baccalaureate and graduate degrees), Physical Therapy, Radiologic Technology, Computer Engineering, Electronics and Communications Engineering, Tourism, and Computer Information Systems in Cagayan de Oro. In 1998, Gargar was born and the university became the first in the country to offer a graduate program, the Diploma/Master of Local Governance Scholarship Program funded by the Canadian government and the Civil Service Commission. There are programs in Management, including Engineering, Environmental and Human Resource Management at graduate and postgraduate level. The university also offers Information Technology courses.
Colleges
College of Law
The College of Law was founded by the late Atty. Rodolfo N. Pelaez and was formally opened on February 4, 1955. It was temporarily closed in 1975 but reopened in 1993. It produced its first batch of lawyers in 1997.
Course offered:
Bachelor of Law (LL.B.)
College of Nursing
The College of Nursing of Liceo de Cagayan University is committed to produce well-trained nurses who can exercise pleasant attitudes and practice their acquired knowledge and skills with great care for the promotion of health and prevention of diseases.
The college constantly meets the health needs of the people both locally and globally through a comprehensive health care with the noble caring role, evidence-based practice and social significant responsibilities pertaining to legal, ethico-moral aspects.
Course offered:
Bachelor of Science in Nursing (BSN)
College of Business and Accountancy
Course offerings:
Bachelor of Science in Accountancy
Bachelor of Science in Commerce Major in Management Accounting
Bachelor of Science in Accounting Technology
Bachelor of Science in Business Administration major in:
Business Management
Financial Management
Human Resources Development Management
Marketing Management
Bachelor of Science in Tourism major in: (Old Curriculum)
Hotel Restaurant Management
Bachelor of Science in Tourism Management (New Curriculum)
Bachelor of Science in Hotel, Restaurant and Institution Management (New Curriculum)
College of Information Technology
Courses offered:
Bachelor of Science in Information Technology (BSIT)
Associate in Computer Technology (ACT)
College of Radiologic Technology
The College has faculty who are holders of a PRC licence and the American Registry for Radiologic Technology, have passed government licensure examinations and are holders of a master's degree. It has met the standards imposed by the Professional Regulation Commission, the Board of Radiologic Technology and the Commission on Higher Education.
Course offered:
Bachelor of Science in Radiologic Technology (BSRT)
a 4-year curriculum which includes 3-year AHSE or Associate in Health Science Education and 1-year Clinical Internship Program in different hospitals.
Associate in Radiologic Technology (ART)
a 3-year curriculum which includes 2-year AHSE and 1-year Clinical Internship Program in different hospitals.
College of Music
Courses offered:
Bachelor of Music with a major in Pedagogy (Music Education)
Bachelor of Music with a major in Performance (piano, voice, composition, etc.)
College of Engineering
Courses offered:
Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering (BSCE)
Bachelor of Science in Electrical Engineering (BSEE)
Bachelor of Science in Computer Engineering (BSCpE)
Bachelor of Science in Electronics and Communications Engineering (BSECE)
Bachelor of Science in Industrial Engineering (BSIE)
College of Arts and Science
Offering a core of general courses, the college has four departments:
Languages Department (English, Filipino, and Mass Communication)
Mathematics Department
Natural Sciences Department (Biology, Chemistry and Physics)
Social Sciences Department (Economics, International Studies, Political Science, Psychology, and Sociology)
Bachelor of Arts (A.B.) in:
English Literature
Economics
Mass Communication
International Studies
Sociology
Bachelor of Science (B.S.) in:
Political Science
Psychology
Biology
College of Education
Courses offered:
Bachelor of Elementary Education Major in General education(Gen.Ed)
Bachelor of Secondary Education Major in English
Bachelor of Elementary Education Major in Special education(SPED)
Bachelor of Secondary Education Major in Mathematics
Bachelor of Elementary Education Major in Early Childhood Education(ECE)
Bachelor of Secondary Education Major in Physical Education, Health and Music(MAPEH)
Bachelor of Secondary Education Major In Filipino
College of Rehabilitation Sciences
Courses offered:
Bachelor of Science in Physical Therapy (BSPT)
Bachelor of Science in Occupational Therapy (BSOT)
Caregiver Course
College of Criminal Justice
The college was granted with the Permit No. 017 by the Commission on Higher Education (CHED), Region 10 to offer a four - year course leading to the degree of Bachelor of Science in Criminology. The College of Law Enforcement and Public Safety courses teach law enforcement, public security and safety, criminal investigation, criminology, and forensic science.
Course offered:
Bachelor of Science in Criminology
College of Pharmacy
The first University in Northern Mindanao to offer a four-year course in Pharmacy. The first graduates received a Degree in Bachelor of Science in Pharmacy in March 2013.
The College of Pharmacy program is a four-year bachelor's degree program with a curriculum in pharmaceutical science, training for competency skills, development, and pharmaceutical research.
Course offered:
Bachelor of Science in Pharmacy
College of Medical Laboratory Science
The college gives Medical Technology Education/Medical Laboratory Science laboratory internship and specialized training.
Graduates of this program may go into:
Clinical laboratory practice: Medical Technologists/Medical Laboratory Scientists in hospital laboratories, clinics and sanitariums.
Education: Medical Technologists/Medical laboratory Scientists can be employed as faculty in colleges and universities offering Medical Technology/Medical Laboratory Science programs.
Diagnostic industry/drug companies
Medico-Legal Laboratory
◦Laboratory
◦Information system
◦Research
Course offered:
Bachelor of Science in Medical Laboratory Science
School of Graduate Studies
The school operates in trimesters. This mode enables the students, who are mostly professionals wishing to upgrade their qualifications, to finish the academic requirements within a shorter time.
The schedule of classes on weekends during the four months of every trimester provides the students with time to do research, projects, and other course requirements.
Post-graduate units
Doctor in Management (DM) - Major in Leadership Organization
Graduate degrees
Master in Management (MM)
Master in Management Major in Information Technology Management (MMITM)
Master in Management Major in Instructional Systems Management (MMISM)
Master of Arts in Education (MAEd)
Major in English Language Teaching (MAEd-ELT)
The Master of Arts in English Language Teaching (ELT) degree program focuses on models and methodologies in teaching English. The curriculum emphasizes practical and theoretical aspects of teaching English and linguistic skill development.
Major in Health Personnel Education (MAEd–HPE)
Master/Diploma in Local Governance (M/DLG)
Admission
Liceo de Cagayan University is open to students who meet the academic standards.
Foreign students
Foreign students may enroll in the undergraduate and graduate studies upon submission of Permit-to-Study or Student Visa F(9) and upon the compliance of the Commission on Higher Education (CHED), Bureau of Immigration and University requirements.
Foreign students whose native language is not English and/or whose undergraduate medium of instruction was in a language other than English are required either to take an English proficiency test as a pre-requisite for admission or to enroll in a special class in English for second language learners.
Diploma
Curricular offerings
During the first 25 years, the Liceo de Cagayan University was a tertiary-level institution offering courses in law, commerce, engineering and liberal arts. It was not until 1981 when the Basic Education Department, consisting of the primary and secondary levels, completed the three curricular levels that the university now offers.
The Liceo University pioneered in the offering of such courses as Nursing (both baccalaureate and graduate degrees), Physical Therapy, Radiologic Technology, Computer Engineering, Electronics and Communications Engineering, Tourism, and Computer Information Systems in Cagayan de Oro.
In 1998, the university became the first in the country to offer a graduate program, the Diploma/Master of Local Governance Scholarship Program funded by the Canadian government and the Civil Service Commission.
Scholarship
Rodolfo N. Pelaez Scholarship
This scholarship entitles a student-applicant to a full free tuition.
For academic scholars
Free textbooks/workbooks
Free uniforms
B. For Summa Cum Laude, Magna Cum Laude and Cum Laude Gtraduates
Free review fee
C. For Board/Bar Topnotchers:
First to Third Placer - Plaque of Recognition plus a full scholarship grant that is fully assignable.
Fourth to Tenth Placer - Plaque of Recognition plus partial (75%) scholarship grant that is fully assignable.
Eleventh to Twentieth Placer - Plaque of Recognition plus a partial (50%) scholarship grant that is fully assignable.
Campuses
Main Campus
The main campus of Liceo de Cagayan University is situated near the Cagayan de Oro River and La Castilla in Barangay Kauswagan. It is composed of seven buildings:
North Academic Cluster
South Academic Cluster
Heritage Building
Liceo Civic Center
Arts and Science Building
Rodelsa Hall
Elsa P. Pelaez Memorial Library
Rodolfo N. Pelaez Memorial Hall
The Rodolfo N. Pelaez Memorial Hall is located at Barangay Carmen. Home of the Basic Education Department, The College of Rehabilitation Sciences and The College of Radiologic Technology, the RNP Hall was formerly a hospital known as Doctors General Hospital.
Liceo Hymn
I
With voices proud and sweet
We all hail Liceo de Cagayan
Through thick and thin, we will not fail
In weal or woe to hold on high!
Your banner waving to the sky
Through all the years we'll loyal be
In every land and shining sea
The Liceo de Cagayan.
II
Alma mater dear we pledge
To glorify your noble name
To chant with all our might and main
Eternal praises to your name
Oh! Alma mater dear all hail
We march together hand in hand
We sing together at your call
We stand as one at your command.
See also
Xavier University - Ateneo de Cagayan
Capitol University
Mindanao University of Science and Technology
References
External links
Official website
Official Facebook Page
Educational institutions established in 1955
Universities and colleges in Cagayan de Oro
Schools in Cagayan de Oro
High schools in the Philippines
1955 establishments in the Philippines
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33609982
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X32%20ABI
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X32 ABI
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The x32 ABI is an application binary interface (ABI) and one of the interfaces of the Linux kernel. It allows programs to take advantage of the benefits of x86-64 instruction set (larger number of CPU registers, better floating-point performance, faster position-independent code, shared libraries, function parameters passed via registers, faster syscall instruction) while using 32-bit pointers and thus avoiding the overhead of 64-bit pointers.
Details
Though the x32 ABI limits the program to a virtual address space of 4 GiB, it also decreases the memory footprint of the program by making pointers smaller. This can allow it to run faster by fitting more code and more data into cache. The best results during testing were with the 181.mcf SPEC CPU 2000 benchmark, in which the x32 ABI version was 40% faster than the x86-64 version. On average, x32 is 5–8% faster on the SPEC CPU integer benchmarks compared to x86-64. There is no speed advantage over x86-64 in the SPEC CPU floating-point benchmarks.
History
Running a userspace that consists mostly of programs compiled in ILP32 mode and which also have principal access to 64-bit CPU instructions has not been uncommon, especially in the field of "classic RISC" chips. For example, the Solaris operating system does so for both SPARC and x86-64. On the Linux side, Debian also ships an ILP32 userspace. The underlying reason is the somewhat "more expensive" nature of LP64 code, just like it has been shown for x86-64. In that regard, the x32 ABI extends the ILP32-on-64bit concept to the x86-64 platform.
Several people had discussed the benefits of an x86-64 ABI with 32-bit pointers in the years since the Athlon 64's release in 2003, notably Donald Knuth in 2008. There was little publicly visible progress towards implementing such a mode until August 27, 2011, when Hans Peter Anvin announced to the Linux kernel mailing list that he and H. J. Lu had been working on the x32 ABI.
That same day, Linus Torvalds replied with a concern that the use of 32-bit time values in the x32 ABI could cause problems in the future. This is because the use of 32-bit time values would cause the time values to overflow in the year 2038. Following this request, the developers of the x32 ABI changed the time values to 64-bit.
A presentation at the Linux Plumbers Conference on September 7, 2011, covered the x32 ABI.
The x32 ABI was merged into the Linux kernel for the 3.4 release with support being added to the GNU C Library in version 2.16.
In December 2018 there was discussion as to whether to deprecate the x32 ABI, which has not happened as of November 2020.
Adoption
References
External links
x32 ABI Development Website
x32 ABI Presentation Slides from the Linux Plumbers Conference
Interfaces of the Linux kernel
X86 architecture
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16468151
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1877%20Marsden
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1877 Marsden
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1877 Marsden, provisional designation , is a carbonaceous Hildian asteroid from the outermost region of the asteroid belt, approximately 35 kilometers in diameter. It was discovered during the Palomar–Leiden Trojan survey in 1971, and named after British astronomer Brian Marsden.
Discovery
Marsden was discovered on 24 March 1971, by Dutch astronomer couple Ingrid and Cornelis van Houten at Leiden, on photographic plates taken by Dutch–American astronomer Tom Gehrels at Palomar Observatory, California.
The discovery was made in a survey of faint Trojans (in spite of not having received a typical T-1 designation). The trio of Dutch and Dutch–American astronomers collaborated on the productive Palomar–Leiden survey in the 1960s, using the same procedure as for this smaller Trojan campaign: Gehrels used Palomar's Samuel Oschin telescope (also known as the 48-inch Schmidt Telescope), and shipped the photographic plates to Cornelis and Ingrid van Houten at Leiden Observatory where blinking and astrometry was carried out.
Orbit and classification
Marsden is a member of the Hilda family. It orbits the Sun in the outermost main-belt at a distance of 3.1–4.8 AU once every 7 years and 10 months (2,861 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.21 and an inclination of 18° with respect to the ecliptic.
Physical characteristics
This trojan asteroid has been characterized as a dark C-type and D-type asteroid.
Rotation period
During a photometric survey of Hilda asteroids in the late 1990s, an obtained light curve for Marsden gave a rotation period of 14.4 hours with a brightness variation of 0.22 in magnitude ().
Diameter and albedo
According to the surveys carried out by the Japanese Akari satellite and NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission, Marsden measures 35.27 and 35.643 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.082 and 0.07, respectively. The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a standard albedo for carbonaceous asteroids of 0.057 and derives a diameter of 34.01 kilometers with an absolute magnitude of 11.07.
Naming
This minor planet was named in honor of British astronomer Brian Marsden (1937–2010), director of the Minor Planet Center (MPC) at the Harvard–Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, in recognition of his numerous contributions in the field of orbit calculations for comets and minor planets. The official was published by the Minor Planet Center on 1 June 1975 ().
References
External links
Asteroid Lightcurve Database (LCDB), query form (info )
Dictionary of Minor Planet Names, Google Books
Asteroids and comets rotation curves, CdR – Observatoire de Genève, Raoul Behrend
Discovery Circumstances: Numbered Minor Planets (1)-(5000) – Minor Planet Center
001877
Discoveries by Cornelis Johannes van Houten
Discoveries by Ingrid van Houten-Groeneveld
Discoveries by Tom Gehrels
Minor planets named for people
Named minor planets
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education%20in%20Lahore
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Education in Lahore
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The education system in Lahore is formulated along specific modern, religious, cultural, social, psychological, commerce and scientific injunctions. Lahore is Pakistan’s largest producer of professionals in the fields of science, technology, IT, engineering, medicine, nuclear sciences, pharmacology, telecommunication, biotechnology and microelectronics. Most of the reputable universities are public, but in recent years there has also been an upsurge in the number of private universities. The current literacy rate of Lahore is 64%. The standard national system of education is mainly inspired from the British system. The system also aims to imbibe a secular outlook among the students with the awareness of the rich cultural heritage of Pakistan. Lahore has a wide range of schools, colleges and universities that caters to diverse streams.
The system is divided into five levels: primary (grades one through five); middle (grades six through eight); high (grades nine and ten, leading to the Secondary School Certificate); intermediate (grades eleven and twelve, leading to a Higher Secondary School Certificate); and university programs leading to graduate and advanced degrees.
Lahore, like majority of the cities in Pakistan has both public and private educational institutions from primary to university level. Most educational institutions are gender based from primary to university level.
All academic education institutions are the responsibility of the provincial governments. The federal government mostly assists in curriculum development, accreditation and some financing of research.
Stages of formal education
Primary education
Pre-school
Pre-school education is designed for 3–5 years old and usually consists of three stages: play group, nursery and kindergarten. Students usually sit through an examination before finishing pre-school.
Junior school
After pre-school education, students go through junior school from grades 1 to 4. The curriculum is usually subject to the institution and usually include Urdu, English, mathematics, arts, science, social studies, computer studies and physical education. Students are also taught either Islamic studies (Islamiyat) or ethics/theology/religious studies depending on their religious preference. Some schools also teach other foreign languages like Arabic language as a part of their curriculum. The language of instruction depends on the nature of institution itself, whether it is an English-medium school or an Urdu-medium school. All students sit through an annual final examinations in each subject at the end of an academic year.
Middle school
Middle school from grades 5 to 8. Once again, the curriculum is usually subject to the institution. The eight commonly examined disciplines are Urdu, English, mathematics, arts, science, social studies, religious studies (for example Islamic studies) and computer studies/ICT which may or may not be subject to availability of a computer laboratory in the premises. Geography and history are usually taught as components of social studies or maybe taught and examined separately. As with the junior school, all students sit through an annual final examinations in each subject at the end of an academic year. The non-examined disciplines include physical education and in some schools, music, film and drama. Female students may also be taught home economics, food and nutrition or culinary arts, and needlework/sewing in some schools. Some institutes also give instruction in foreign languages such as Arabic, French, Chinese, Persian or indigenous languages like Punjabi, which are either compulsory or optional.
Secondary education
Secondary education begins from grade 9 and lasts for four years. After end of each of the four school years, students are required to pass a national examination administered by the Board of Intermediate and Secondary Education, Lahore (Board of Intermediate and Secondary Education, Lahore).
High school
Upon completion of grade 9, students are expected to take a standardized test in each of the first parts of their academic subjects. They again give these tests of the second parts of the same courses at the end of grade 10. Upon successful completion of these two examinations, they are awarded a Secondary School Certificate (or SSC). This locally termed as 'matriculation certificate' or 'matric' for short. The curriculum usually includes a combination of at least eight courses:
Two compulsory linguistics/literature subjects:
English as second language
Urdu as first language
Three compulsory core subjects:
Mathematics
Pakistan studies
Study of religion; either Islamiyat or Ethics
Three electives from one of the following groups:
"Sciences group" which includes chemistry, physics and either biology or computing
"Arts group" which includes any three from; arts and model drawing, civics, economics, education, elective Islamiyat, elective Urdu, elements of home economics, food and nutrition, general science, geometrical and technical drawing, health and physical education, history of Islam, Persian, physiology and hygiene, and Punjabi.
Intermediate College
Students then enter an intermediate college and complete grades 11 and 12. Upon completion of each of the two grades, they again take standardised tests in their academic subjects. Upon successful completion of these examinations, students are awarded the Higher Secondary (School) Certificate (or HSC). This level of education is also casually called the 'intermediate' or sometimes simply 'inter'. There are many streams of courses students can choose for their 11 and 12 grades, such as:
Faculty of Arts) includes humanities (or social sciences) and commerce subgroups
Faculty of Science includes pre-medical or pre-engineering subgroups
Intermediate in Computer Sciences includes computer sciences and allied subgroups
Each stream consists of three electives and as well as three compulsory subjects of English, Urdu, Islamiyat (grade 11 only) and Pakistan Studies (grade 12 only). The stream must be chosen carefully as a student can only enter a certain regulated professional program if he has completed the required courses, for example only those students may enroll in a medical college who have taken the pre-medical F.Sc examination.
GCE O, AS and A Levels
Alternative qualifications in Lahore are also available but are maintained by other examination boards instead of BISE. The increasingly common alternative is the General Certificate of Education (or GCE), where SSC and HSC are replaced by Ordinary Level (or O Level) and Advanced Level (or A Level) respectively. Other qualifications include IGCSE which replaces SSC. GCE O Level, IGCSE and GCE AS/A Level are examined by British board of CIE of the Cambridge Assessment, while IGCSE and A Level can also be examined by Edexcel of the Pearson PLC. The examinations themselves are managed by the British Council of Pakistan. Generally, 8-10 courses are selected by students at GCE O Levels and 3-5 at GCE AS/A Levels. The students may be restricted by their academic institution to take a limited number of specified combinations of courses. Usually, in O Levels, these combinations mimic the courses of the national SSC 'matriculation' program. However, the students may choose to sit in these examinations for some or all courses of their personal choice, independently or 'privately', not being represented by any institution. Common GCE O Level / IGCSE subjects offered by institutions are:
Compulsory: English Language, Islamiyat, Mathematics (D), Pakistan Studies, Urdu as Second Language
Electives: Biology, Business Studies, Commerce, Computer Studies, Chemistry, Economics, Physics, Principles of Accounting
Supplemental: Applied ICT, Art and Design, Environmental Management, Food and Nutrition, Geography, History: World Affairs, Human Biology, Literature in English, Mathematics - Additional, Sociology, Statistics, Urdu as Second Language
Some common A Level subjects taken offered by institutions in Lahore are:
Accounting (CIE 9706)
Applied ICT (CIE 9713)
Art and Design (CIE 9704)
Biology (CIE 9700)
Business Studies (CIE 9707)
Chemistry (CIE 9701)
Computing (CIE 9691)
Economics (CIE 9708)
English Language (CIE 8693)
Environmental Management (CIE 8291)
Literature in English (CIE 9695)
General Paper (CIE 8001)
Geography (CIE 9696)
Global Perspectives (CIE 0457)
Government and Politics (Edexcel 9GP01)
History (CIE 9389)
Law (CIE 9084)
Mathematics (CIE 9709)
Further Mathematics (CIE 9231)
Media Studies (CIE 9607)
Physics (CIE 9702)
Psychology (CIE 9698)
Sociology (CIE 9699)
Urdu (CIE 9686)
Advanced Placement
Advanced Placement (or AP) is an alternative option but much less common than GCE or IGCSE. This replaces the secondary school education as 'High School Education' instead. AP exams are monitored by a North American examination board, College Board and can only be given under supervision of centers which are registered with the College Board, unlike GCE O/AS/A Level and IGCSE which can also be given privately.
Tertiary education
After earning their HSC, students may study in a professional college for Bachelor's degree courses such as engineering (B.Engg), medicine (MBBS), dentistry (BDS), veterinary medicine (DVM), law (LLB), architecture (B.Arch) and nursing (B.Nurs). These courses require four or five years of study. Students can also attend a university for Bachelor of Arts (BA), Bachelor of Science (BSc), Bachelor of Commerce (BCom) or Bachelor of Business Administration (BBA) degree courses.
There are two types of Bachelor courses available: Pass or Honours. Pass degree requires two years of study and students normally read three optional subjects (such as chemistry or economics) in addition to almost equal number of compulsory subjects (such as English and Pakistan studies). Honours degree requires three or four years of study, and students normally specialize in a chosen field of study, such as biochemistry (BSc Hons. Biochemistry).
Quaternary education
Many Master's degree programs only require one and a half years of study. Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) education is also available in selected areas and is usually pursued after earning a Master's degree. Students pursuing PhD degrees must choose a specific field and a university that is doing research work in that field.
Public Universities
Lahore hosts some of Pakistan's oldest educational institutes: Government College Lahore (now Government College University), established in 1864;
University of the Punjab, established in 1882;
National College of Arts , a federal Degree Awarding institution
University of Education Main Campus Township, Lahore established in 2002
Pakistan Institute of Fashion and Disgn, Lahore a Federal Government Institute
Information Technology University
as Pakistan's first specialized university in the field of education.
Punjab Tianjan University of Technology, Lahore
Virtual University Of Pakistan, Lahore
University of Health Sciences, Lahore established in 2002
and University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore, established in 1921.
University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore is Pakistan's oldest technical degree-awarding institute and its first university in the field of engineering and technology. Established as Mughalpura Technical College in 1921, it was upgraded to a university in 1961. UET Lahore is Pakistan's largest public-sector engineering university, offering bachelor's degrees in 29 specialties and Master of Science degrees in 55 specialties.
King Edward Medical University
University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences
Comsats University Islamabad, Lahore Campus
National University of Modern Language, Islamabad, Lahore Campus
Allama Iqbal Open University
Lahore Campus
COMSATS Institute of Information Technology*
Bahria University, Lahore* Lahore Campus
Government College of Science, wahdat road Lahore
Government M.A.O College, Lahore
Government College Township, Lahore
Many more public colleges for boys and Girls
Public Women Universities
Kinnaird College, established in 1913;
Lahore College for Women University, established in 1922,
Queen Mary College, Lahore, established in 1908
University of Home Economics, Lahore established in 1955
University of Education, Female Campus, Bank Road, Lahore
Fatima Jinnah Medical University, Lahore
International recognition
Many students of internationally recognized institutions of Lahore go abroad for higher studies after completing their graduation. These institutes include Lahore University of Management Sciences, University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore, King Edward Medical University and University of the Punjab. University of the Punjab is the only South Asian institute that holds the credit of being the associate partner in many experiments of CERN Laboratories.
Private Universities
Forman Christian College University is one of the oldest and reputable institute in Pakistan. For its excellent educational background and alumni it is well recognized around the globe.
The University of Lahore is a new private sector university in Lahore. It is emerging as a university with strength in the areas of engineering sciences and technology, business and administrative sciences, molecular biology and biotechnology, medicine and dentistry, computer science, and allied health sciences.
Lahore's institutes in the fields of computer science, information technologyT, and engineering include the National University of Computer and Emerging Sciences
Lahore's notable business schools include the University of Management and Technology,
Lahore University of Management Sciences, and Lahore School of Economics.
Lahore boasts some of the finest high schools in Asia: Aitchison College, Divisional Public School, St. Anthony's College, Bloomfield Hall Schools, Lahore Grammar School, Lahore College of Arts and Sciences, Beaconhouse School System and Resource Academia, which feed students to leading universities across the globe.
See also
List of educational institutions in Lahore
List of special schools in Lahore
Education in Pakistan
References
The Punjab Academy 77-E-1, Wapda Town Lahore
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eze%20Castle%20Integration
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Eze Castle Integration
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ECI is a provider of managed services, cybersecurity and business transformation for mid-market financial services organizations across the globe. The firm was founded when Eze () Castle Consulting split into two independent entities. It employs 900 plus people, with offices in Singapore, Europe, Hong Kong, India and nine US locations.
History
Sean McLaughlin and John Cahaly founded Eze Castle Consulting in 1995. McLaughlin previously worked at several investment firms. The company was named after Èze, a village in the French Riviera. Eze Castle Consulting began supporting early stage funds in the Boston area, then opened up new offices in New York City, San Francisco and Greenwich, Connecticut in the late-1990s.
As of 2017, Eze Castle had a major office in an 18,000 square foot space at 529 Fifth Avenue in Manhattan, where they had been located since 2005.
In 2000, Eze Castle Consulting was split into two independent companies, Eze Castle Software and Eze Castle Integration; Eze Castle Integration became a systems integration company focused on the financial services sector. During the economic downturn in 2000, the firm downsized and reduced many expenditures while continuing to generate a profit. By 2004 the company had grown to a 120-person staff. Throughout the late 2000s, the company introduced Eze Vault, Eze Disaster Recovery, ECI Link and Eze Managed Suites. They also introduced Eze Cloud and started selling Tradar's Insight product in a hosted cloud model. Today a growing percentage of the firm's revenue comes from cloud-based products.
In the first eight months of 2008 the average hedge fund declined five percent and 170 hedge funds closed their doors due to ongoing financial volatility. Although 95 percent of the firm's clients were hedge funds, it experienced a revenue increase of 26 percent and obtained sixty new clients during the time period.
At the time, the company supported 450 US-based hedge funds, including 81 firms with over $1 billion in management. It opened new offices in Chicago in 2008, and London in 2007. In 2010 and 2011 new offices were opened in Singapore and Hong Kong. In 2010 an affiliate company, Ledgex Systems LLC, was created to develop and support software for fund of hedge funds to automate and manage investment portfolios.
In 2018, the company received a significant investment from private equity firm H.I.G. Capital. At the time, Eze Castle had roughly 650 customers across the United States, United Kingdom and Asia.
In 2020, Eze Castle Integration acquired Alphaserve Technologies, a provider of infrastructure technology and digital IT services, bringing the company's client base to 800. In November 2020 the company acquired digital transformation firm NorthOut, Inc. The acquisition accelerates Eze Castle Integration's digital transformation offering for the financial and professional services industries. The acquisitions bring the company's client base to over 800 clients globally.
In 2021, Eze Castle Integration rebranded as ECI to reflect industry leading managed services for financial firms. The company has also unveiled the biggest, broadest portfolio of managed services in the industry, including business transformation as a service. This was made possible by the successful integration of two strategic acquisitions, undertaken by ECI to keep pace with increased demand and enhance its long-held leadership position in serving mid-market financial organizations.
Products & services
ECI provides IT infrastructure and technology services to financial firms across the globe. With the integration of the acquisitions completed, ECI's new portfolio is broken into three pillars that cover a broad range of services, including:
Managed Services: Cloud solutions, networking and hardware, IT support.
Cybersecurity: Managed services for security information and event management (SIEM), operations centers, dark web monitoring, phishing and threat training, vulnerability assessments and remediation, governance and risk management, Chief Information Security Officer (CISO) as a service.
Business Transformation: Cloud, application development, DevOps, process automation, managed data services, strategic advisory, distributed workforce enablement.
References
Financial software companies
Information technology consulting firms of the United States
Technology companies based in the Boston area
Software companies based in Massachusetts
Software companies established in 1995
Software companies of the United States
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asure%20Software
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Asure Software
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Asure Software is a software company. Prior to September 13, 2007, the company was known as Forgent Networks. After rebranding as Asure Software, the company expanded into offering human capital management (HCM) solutions, including payroll, time & attendance, talent management, human resource management, benefits administration and insurance services. It also has a software division, NetSimplicity, which specializes in room scheduling and fixed assets management software.
Patents and litigation
JPEG
In 2002, while known as Forgent, the company claimed that through its subsidiary, Compression Labs, it owned the patent rights on the JPEG image compression standard, which is widely used on the World Wide Web. Its claim arose from a patent that had been filed on October 27, 1986, and granted on October 6, 1987: by Wen-Hsiung Chen and Daniel J. Klenke. While Forgent did not own Compression Labs at the time, Chen later sold the company to Forgent before joining Cisco.
Critics claim that the legal principle of laches, hence not asserting one's rights in a timely manner, invalidates Forgent's claims on the patent. They also noted the similarity to Unisys' attempts to assert rights over the GIF image compression standard via LZW patent enforcement. The JPEG committee responded to Forgent's claims, stating that it believes prior art exists that would invalidate Forgent's claims, and launched a search for prior art evidence. The 1992 JPEG specification cited two earlier research papers written by Wen-Hsiung Chen, published in 1977 and 1984. JPEG representative Richard Clark also claimed that Chen sat in one of the JPEG committees, but Forgent denied this claim.
In April 2004, Forgent stated that 30 companies had already paid US$90 million in royalties. On April 23, lawsuits were filed against 31 companies, including Adobe Systems, Apple Computer and IBM, for infringement of their patent. On September 26, 2005, Axis Communications, one of the defendants, announced a settlement with Compression Labs Inc.; the terms were not disclosed. As of late October 2005, six companies were known to have licensed the patent from Forgent including Adobe, Macromedia, Axis, Color Dreams, and Research In Motion.
On May 25, 2006, the United States Patent and Trademark Office rejected the broadest part of Forgent's claims, stating prior art submitted by the Public Patent Foundation invalidated those claims. PubPat's Executive Director, Dan Ravicher, says that the submitters knew about the prior art but failed to tell the USPTO about it. On August 11, 2006 Forgent received notice from the NASDAQ stock market regarding non-compliance with the minimum bid price rule, which can lead to delisting, before coming back into compliance in January 2007.
The company issued a press release on November 1, 2006 stating that they settled their remaining claims against roughly 60 companies for a total of $8 million which was paid by, among other companies, Dell, Hewlett-Packard, IBM, Microsoft, and Sun Microsystems.
Digital video recorders
Forgent Networks shifted its focus to a computer controlled video system allowing playback during recording . While the patent was filed in 1991, the first litigation was initiated in 2005. On May 21, 2007, U.S. District Court of Eastern Texas ruled in favor of EchoStar Communications Corporation, on grounds that the Forgent patent is invalid.
Asure Software
After Forgent Networks acquired iEmployee and changed its name to Asure Software, the website of the combined company no longer listed information related to the two patents - '672 and '746, unlike the old Forgent Networks website.
Proxy Fight
In 2008, the company was the target of a proxy fight launched by Pinnacle Fund ("Pinnacle") and Red Oak Partners, managed by David Sandberg,. After negotiations, a slate of 5 new directors was elected on August 28, 2009 to replace the previous board.
Acquisitions
On September 13, 2007, Forgent acquired iEmployee.
On October 3, 2011, Asure Software announced that it had acquired ADI Time , a vendor of cloud computing time and attendance software and labor management services. On March 21, 2016, it announced acquisition of Mangrove Employer Services, which developed human resource management software; it began massive layoffs of previous Mangrove employees in June 2016 .
In May 2017, Asure acquired the Tampa-based company Compass HRM Inc. In May 2017, it acquired iSystems LLC, creators of the Evolution payroll service-bureau software. . In January 2018 it acquired Sheakley PaySystems in a move to acquire their clients in the Midwest.
. In April of 2018, Asure acquired Austin HR, an Austin based HR Consulting & Payroll & Benefit Administration company. On December 2, 2019, Asure Software announced that it completed the sale of its Workspace Management Business to FM:Systems.
References
External links
Forgent Related News Stories at The Data Compression News Blog
https://web.archive.org/web/20160324072837/http://www.asuresoftware.com/about-us/news-item/asure-software-acquires-mangrove-software/
Patent monetization companies of the United States
Software companies based in Texas
Companies based in Austin, Texas
Companies listed on the Nasdaq
Software companies of the United States
AI-based Human Capital Management Solutions
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes%20Grenzfurthner
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Johannes Grenzfurthner
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Johannes Grenzfurthner (; born 1975 in Vienna) is an Austrian artist, filmmaker, writer, actor, curator, theatre director, performer and lecturer. Grenzfurthner is the founder, conceiver and artistic director of monochrom, an international art and theory group. Most of his artworks are labelled monochrom.
Grenzfurthner is an outspoken researcher in subversive and underground culture, for example the field of sexuality and technology, and one of the founders of "techno-hedonism".
Since 2020 he is editor-in-chief of the print and online magazine The Free Lunch.
Boing Boing magazine referred to Grenzfurthner as leitnerd, a wordplay with the German term Leitkultur that ironically hints at Grenzfurthner's role in nerd/hacker/art culture.
Career
In the early 1990s, Grenzfurthner was a member of several BBS message boards. Grenzfurther used his online connections to create monochrom, a zine or alternative magazine that dealt with art, technology and subversive cultures. His motivation was to react to the emerging conservativism in cyber-cultures of the early 1990s, and to combine his political background in the Austrian punk and antifa movement with discussion of new technologies and the cultures they create. The publication featured interviews and essays, by e.g. Bruce Sterling, HR Giger, Eric Drexler, Terry Pratchett and Bob Black, in its experimental layout style. In 1995 the group decided to cover new artistic practices and started experimenting with different media: computer games, robots, puppet theater, musical, short films, pranks, conferences, online activism, which Grenzfurthner calls 'Urban Hacking' or more specific: 'Context hacking', a term that Grenzfurthner coined.
Context hacking transfers the hackers' objectives and methods to the network of social relationships in which artistic production occurs, and upon which it is dependent. In a metaphoric sense, these relationships also have a source code. Programs run in them, and our interaction with them is structured by a user interface. When we know how a space, a niche, a scene, a subculture or a media or political practice functions, we can change it and "recode" it, deconstructing its power relationships and emancipating ourselves from its compulsions and packaging guidelines.
The group is known for working with different media, art and entertainment formats. Grenzfurthner calls this "looking for the best weapon of mass distribution of an idea".
Conferences and festivals
Grenzfurthner is head of the Arse Elektronika festival in San Francisco (2007), an annual academic and artistic conference and anthology series that focusses on sexuality and technology. The first conference was curated by Grenzfurthner in 2007 to answer questions about the impact of sexuality on technological innovation and adoption.
Grenzfurthner is hosting Roboexotica, the international Festival for Cocktail-Robotics (2002–) which invites researchers and artists to build machines that serve or mix cocktails. V. Vale calls Roboexotica "an ironic attempt to criticize techno-triumphalism and to dissect technological hypes."
Grenzfurthner is head of Hedonistika, a festival for artistic food tech. The first installment was presented in Montréal at the 2014 'Biennale internationale d'art numérique'. The second installment was presented in Holon, near Tel Aviv, at 'Print Screen Festival'.
Theatre work, performance art
Grenzfurthner wrote and directed theatre plays and pieces of performance (e.g. Eignblunzn) and interventionist art.
Film
Grenzfurther is the CEO of film production company monochrom Propulsion Systems. He is member of the Austrian Director's Guild and the Association of Austrian Documentary Filmmakers.
He wrote and directed shorts and feature films. His first feature film was the independent fantasy-comedy Die Gstettensaga: The Rise of Echsenfriedl (2014). Grenzfurther first feature documentary was Traceroute (2016), followed by Glossary of Broken Dreams (2018).
His horror feature Masking Threshold was premiered at Fantastic Fest in September 2021
Grenzfurther is developing several feature films, like the political comedy Sierra Zulu. His documentary feature Hacking at Leaves will be released in 2022.
Grenzfurthner and Juliana Neuhuber are co-directing the upcoming sci-fi feature comedy Je Suis Auto (featuring Chase Masterson).
Academia, academic writing, lecturing
Grenzfurthner lectures at art institutions, symposions and political events, teaches at universities and mentors students.
He has published books, essays and articles on politics, contemporary art, communication processes and philosophy including Mind and Matter: Comparative Approaches Towards Complexity, Do androids sleep with electric sheep?, Of Intercourse and Intracourse: Sexuality, Biomodification and the Techno-Social Sphere and Pr0nnovation?: Pornography and Technological Innovation.
Grenzfurthner published the much debated pamphlet "Hacking the Spaces", that dealt with exclusionist tendencies in the hackerspaces movement. Grenzfurther extended his critique through lectures at the 2012 and 2014 Hackers on Planet Earth conferences in New York City.
Entertainment and acting
Grenzfurthner has taken a comedic turn and performed at various venues, e.g. Vienna's Rabenhof Theater. Parts of his comedy show "Schicksalsjahre eines Nerds" form the basis of his documentary film Traceroute (2016). Grenzfurther is a presenter and emcee for various industry events, and guest performer at events like Goldenes Brett. Grenzfurthner has had supporting and lead parts in several theater plays. He performs in Andi Haller's feature film Zero Crash and Michael J. Epstein's and Sophia Cacciola's feature film Clickbait and Umbilicus desidero. He portrays one of the two lead characters in his own film Je Suis Auto.
Grenzfurthner voice acted director Fritz Lang in Karina Longworth's Vanity Fair podcast Love Is a Crime (together with Zooey Deschanel and Jon Hamm).
Community work
Grenzfurthner was one of the core team members in the development process of netznetz, a new kind of community-based funding system for net culture and net art together with the culture department of the city government of Vienna.
He started the "Hackbus" community.
Together with Florian Hufsky, Leo Findeisen and Juxi Leitner, Grenzfurthner co-organized the first international conference of the pirate parties.
Commercial work
Grenzfurthner conceptualized and co-built a robot installation to promote the products of sex toy company Bad Dragon. He created an artistic online ad campaign for Cheetos.
Personal life
Grenzfurthner lives and works in Vienna. Grenzfurther grew up in Stockerau in rural Lower Austria and talks about it in his stand-up comedy "Schicksalsjahre eines Nerds" (2014) and his semi-autobiographical documentary film Traceroute (2016).
If I had not grown up in Stockerau, in the boonies of Lower Austria, than I would not be what I am now. The germ cell of burgeoning nerdism is difference. The yearning to be understood, to find opportunities to share experiences, to not be left alone with one's bizarre interest. At the same time one derives an almost perverse pleasure from wallowing in this deficit. Nerds love deficiency: that of the other, but also their own. Nerds are eager explorers, who enjoy measuring themselves against one another and also compete aggressively. And yet the nerd's existence also comprises an element of the occult, of mystery. The way in which this power is expressed or focused is very important.
Grenzfurthner uses his personal history and upbringing as a source for his work. In a conversation with Zebrabutter he names the example that he wanted to deal with his claustrophobia, so he started a series of art performances where volunteers can be buried alive.
As a child, Grenzfurthner spent a lot of time at his grandparents' farm in the small village of Unterzögersdorf (a cadastral municipality of Stockerau). His grandparents' stories about Nazism, World War II and the Soviet occupation in allied-occupied Austria (1945–1955) influenced monochrom's long-term project Soviet Unterzoegersdorf.
Controversy
Jean Peters reports in his book "Wenn die Hoffnung stirbt, geht's trotzdem weiter" (2021, translation from German):
Austrian artist Johannes Grenzfurthner, who himself has also published on context hacking, mingled in disguise with a Nazi demonstration in Bavaria in the spring of 2005. When cameras passed by, he made the forbidden Hitler salute. When he started doing so, the dam quickly broke; everyone around him joined in. In doing so, he had created media images showing the group as it really was. It turned bizarre when a few of them then approached him and said, "Stop, stop!" which, coming from a Nazi, sounded like a performative peculiarity, "we're not allowed to do that here." Whether over-affirmation or mimicry, the point is to make truly visible what would rather remain hidden behind a facade of self-righteousness.
Grenzfurthner's name was one of 200 activists, politicians, and artists from Germany, Switzerland and Austria (only one of a total of 10 Austrian names) that were published on an ultra-right doxing list distributed on a variety of online platforms in December 2018 and January 2019. The list's extremist creators threatened "#wirkriegeneuchallee" (sic!) – "We will get you all". Grenzfurthner openly addressed this on online platforms and in lectures.
An artistic fake image posted by Grenzfurthner in July 2021 on his Twitter account sparked some controversy on social media and in the news.
Awards
Won (as director of "Udo 77") Nestroy Theatre Prize (2005).
Won Coke Light Art Edition Award (2006).
Won (as the artistic director of monochrom) the Art Award of the FWF Austrian Science Fund (2013).
Filmography (Features)
Hacking at Leaves (2022) – director, writer, producer, actor
Je Suis Auto (2022) – director, writer, producer, actor
Masking Threshold (2021) – director, writer, producer, actor
The Transformations of the Transformations of the Drs. Jenkins (2021) – segment director, actor
Avenues (2019) – producer
Zweite Tür Rechts (2019) – producer, actor
Glossary of Broken Dreams (2018) – director, writer, producer, actor
Clickbait (2018) – actor
Traceroute (2016) – director, writer, producer, host
Shingal, where are you? (2016) – associate producer
Valossn (2016) – associate producer
Zero Crash (2016) – actor
Die Gstettensaga: The Rise of Echsenfriedl (2014) – director, writer, producer
Kiki and Bubu: Rated R Us (2011) – director, writer
Theater (examples)
Udo 77 (Rabenhof Theater, Vienna, 2004/2005) – director, actor, writer
Waiting for Goto (Volkstheater, Vienna, 2006) – director, writer
Campaign (Volkstheater, Vienna, 2006) – director, performer, writer
monochrom's ISS (Garage X, Vienna and Ballhaus Ost, Berlin, 2011 and 2012) – director, actor, writer
Schicksalsjahre eines Nerds (Rabenhof Theater, Vienna, 2014) – director, performer, writer
Steppenrot (komm.st, Styria and Theater Spektakel, Vienna, 2017) – director, actor, writer
Die Hansi Halleluja Show (komm.st, Styria and Theater Spektakel, Vienna, 2018–2019) – director, actor, writer
Das scharlachrote Kraftfeld (komm.st, Styria and Theater Spektakel, Vienna, 2019–2020) – director, actor, writer
Music (examples)
Carefully Selected Moments (album, Trost Records, 2008)
Publications
Editor of magazine/yearbook series "monochrom" (1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998, 2000, 2004, 2006, 2007, 2010)
Editor of "Stadt der Klage" (Michael Marrak, 1997)
Editor of "Weg der Engel" (Michael Marrak and Agus Chuadar, 1998)
Editor of "Who shot Immanence?" (together with Thomas Edlinger and Fritz Ostermayer, 2002)
Editor of "Leutezeichnungen" (together with Elffriede, 2003)
Editor of "Quo Vadis, Logo?!" (together with Günther Friesinger, 2006)
Editor of "Spektakel – Kunst – Gesellschaft" (together with Stephan Grigat and Günther Friesinger, 2006)
Editor of "pr0nnotivation? Arse Elektronika Anthology" (together with Günther Friesinger and Daniel Fabry, 2008)
Editor of "Roboexotica" (together with Günther Friesinger, Magnus Wurzer, Franz Ablinger and Chris Veigl, 2008)
Editor of "Do Androids Sleep with Electric Sheep?" (together with Günther Friesinger, Daniel Fabry and Thomas Ballhausen, 2009)
Editor of "Schutzverletzungen/Legitimation of Mediatic Violence" (together with Günther Friesinger and Thomas Ballhausen, 2010)
Editor of "Urban Hacking" (together with Günther Friesinger and Thomas Ballhausen, 2010)
Editor of "Geist in der Maschine. Medien, Prozesse und Räume der Kybernetik" (together with Günther Friesinger, Thomas Ballhausen, Verena Bauer, 2010)
Editor of "The Wonderful World of Absence" (together with Günther Friesinger and Daniel Fabry, 2011)
Editor of "Of Intercourse and Intracourse – Sexuality, Biomodification and the Techno-Social Sphere" (together with Günther Friesinger and Daniel Fabry, 2011)
Editor of "Context Hacking: How to Mess with Art, Media, Law and the Market" (together with Günther Friesinger and Frank Apunkt Schneider, 2013)
Editor of "Screw The System – Explorations of Spaces, Games and Politics through Sexuality and Technology" (together with Günther Friesinger and Daniel Fabry, 2013)
Editor of Subvert Subversion. Politischer Widerstand als kulturelle Praxis (together with Günther Friesinger, 2020)
References
External links
1975 births
Living people
21st-century Austrian male writers
Austrian artists
Austrian bloggers
Austrian contemporary artists
Austrian curators
Austrian theatre directors
Austrian film directors
Austrian documentary filmmakers
Austrian screenwriters
Male screenwriters
Film people from Vienna
English-language film directors
Writers from Vienna
Monochrom
21st-century Austrian artists
Hacker culture
Culture jamming
Nerd culture
Underground culture
People from Stockerau
Creative Commons-licensed authors
Male bloggers
21st-century screenwriters
Theatre people from Vienna
Fantastic Fest alumni
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63276352
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Longing%20%28video%20game%29
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The Longing (video game)
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The Longing is an indie point-and-click adventure idle video game, developed by Studio Seufz. Initially released for Microsoft Windows, macOS, and Linux on March 5, 2020, and later for Nintendo Switch on April 14, 2021, the game follows a creature called a Shade, who waits 400 days to awaken a sleeping king. During this wait, the Shade must find ways to pass the time. The game is notable in that the in-game four hundred days pass in real-time, regardless of whether or not the player opens the game. The plot of the game is based on the legend of Kyffhäuser. The Longing received positive reviews and was praised for its experimental nature.
Gameplay and story
The gameplay of The Longing revolves around a real-time countdown of 400 days as the player character, called a Shade, waits to awaken its king. Interaction with the world is slow-paced by design, with the Shade's movement speed being significantly slow. The gameplay consists mostly of exploring caves, gathering resources to furnish the Shade's home, and other time-wasting activities such as reading and drawing. Many aspects of the game are time-dependent, for instance, roadblocks which require the player to wait a certain amount of time before progressing. The game is intended to, at least in part, be played idly, enabled by features such as idle reading and a bookmark system, by which the player can direct the Shade to automatically walk to a previously saved location, return to its home, or randomly wander around.
The player's main goals are driven by a to-do list of things to improve the Shade's life, however, no interaction with the game world is required to advance the timer, as it continues regardless of what actions are taken and increments independently of the game being open. Time advances faster in the Shade's home depending on how well-furnished it is, as well as while performing certain actions such as drawing. As a result of the timer's constant progression, it is possible to beat the game by opening it once, waiting 400 days, then opening it again, although this is not the intended way to play. To prevent cheating, the game also has a dungeon system as a consequence for players who attempt to circumvent the time limit by changing their computer's system clock. The game features several endings, and not all require the player to wait out the 400 day timer.
Development and release
The Longing's story was largely inspired by the Kyffhäuser legend, particularly by a dwarven character within the poem "Kyffhäuser Mountains Barbarossa" by Friedrich Rückert, which was based upon the legend. The dwarf was tasked with checking every 100 years if its king was ready to awaken. Anselm Pyta, director of The Longing, found the character interesting, and focused in on it and its mental state. As such, much of the game was built around the theme of loneliness. The gameplay was inspired by idle games such as Clicker Heroes. Prior to release, a demo of the game was showcased at AdventureX 2020. The game released on March 5, 2020 to Steam for Windows, Mac, and Linux, followed by a release for Nintendo Switch on April 14, 2021.
Reception
The Longing was received positively by critics, receiving a "generally favorable" aggregated score by Metacritic for both PC and Switch versions. In particular it was praised for its experimental nature; PC Gamer Joakim Kilman called it a "fascinating experiment", and Christopher Byrd of The Washington Post spoke of how "[its] level of creativity reinvigorates my expectation of what games can be", drawing comparisons to The Witness and The Beginner's Guide, among others. In part due to its release date, Rachel Weber of GamesRadar called it "the game that best sums up life in the 2020 pandemic". Some reviewers criticized the game's lack of content; Feronato Emaneule of The Games Machine praised its story, but stated that it "[clashes] with the lack of puzzles and too many pauses" and Athanasios Aravositas of Cubed3 stated that "you won't exactly swim in content while playing it".
Awards
See also
Kyffhäuser legend
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
Studio Seufz website
Fan made discord server
2020 video games
Art games
Exploration video games
Incremental games
Indie video games
Linux games
MacOS games
Nintendo Switch games
Point-and-click adventure games
Postmodern works
Video games developed in Germany
Video games with alternate endings
Windows games
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4109362
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DataMirror
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DataMirror
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DataMirror Corporation, founded in 1993, is a computer software company based in Markham, Ontario, Canada with offices in several countries. The company provides real-time data integration, protection, and Java database products, and in 2006 claimed to have over 2100 business customers in industries including healthcare, retail, telecommunications, and financial services. As of 2007, the company is a wholly owned subsidiary of the IBM Corporation.
History
1993 - DataMirror was founded
1996 - DataMirror had its initial public offering
1997 - DataMirror acquired SQLPump from SoftQuest Corp.
1998 - DataMirror acquired mpc-Software GmbH, a software distributor located in Frankfurt, Germany
2000 - DataMirror purchased assets of Constellar Corp, makers of Constellar Hub
2001 - DataMirror acquired BDI Systems, Inc. which builds bi-directional, Java-based, data transformation software that exchanges data between XML, relational database and text formats.
2003 - DataMirror completed acquisition of PointBase, makers of a Java database
2003 - DataMirror acquired assets of bankrupt SmartSales, maker of sales force automation products
2004 - DataMirror divested interest in Idion Technology Holdings, of South Africa
2007 - On 16 Jul 2007, IBM purchased all of the outstanding DataMirror common shares at a price of C$27.00 per common share payable in cash, amounting to total consideration of approximately C$170 million (approximately $161 million USD).
2007 - 04 Sept 2007, IBM (NYSE: IBM) announced it had completed its acquisition of DataMirror.
2012 - 04 Jan 2012, IBM (NYSE: IBM) announced it had completed its sale of its iCluster software business to Rocket Software, a privately held company based in Waltham, MA. iCluster software was originally acquired by IBM when it acquired DataMirror Corporation in 2007.
Products
Transformation Server - Real-time bi-directional replication for loading a data warehouse, synchronizing data between existing systems and Web applications, or distributing data between different applications for decision-making
iCluster - aims to ensure high availability of business applications and provide disaster avoidance and protection for IBM i systems
LiveAudit - provides an audit trail of data changes aimed at reducing fraud, improving customer service and accountability, ensuring compliance with industry regulations, and managing and protecting data assets
iReflect - provides a consistent, updated view of information by distributing and consolidating data in real-time between Oracle databases
Transformation Server/Event Server – detects events as they occur in production applications and creates business information to feed into the message queues of several enterprise application integration (EAI), business process management (BPM) and service-oriented architecture (SOA) environments
PointBase - a SQL92/99 JDBC-compliant Java relational database.
See also
List of mergers and acquisitions by IBM
External links
DataMirror company page
References
Software companies of Canada
Companies based in Markham, Ontario
IBM acquisitions
Companies established in 1993
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57548490
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/15436%20Dexius
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15436 Dexius
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15436 Dexius, provisional designation: , is a large Jupiter trojan from the Greek camp, approximately in diameter. It was discovered on 10 November 1998, by astronomers of the Lincoln Near-Earth Asteroid Research at the Lincoln Laboratory's Experimental Test Site near Socorro, New Mexico. The presumed C-type asteroid has a rotation period of 8.97 hours. It is one of the 50 largest Jupiter trojans and was named after Dexius, father of Iphinous from Greek mythology.
Orbit and classification
Dexius is a dark Jovian asteroid orbiting in the leading Greek camp at Jupiter's Lagrangian point, 60° ahead of its orbit in a 1:1 resonance (see Trojans in astronomy). It is a non-family asteroid in the Jovian background population. It orbits the Sun at a distance of 5.0–5.4 AU once every 11 years and 11 months (4,344 days; semi-major axis of 5.21 AU). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.04 and an inclination of 16° with respect to the ecliptic.
The body's observation arc begins with its first observation as at the Goethe Link Observatory in November 1962, or 36 years prior to its official discovery observation at Socorro.
Numbering and naming
This minor planet was numbered on 21 June 2000 (). On 14 May 2021, the object was named by the Working Group Small Body Nomenclature (WGSBN), after Dexius, father of Iphinous from Greek mythology.
Physical characteristics
Dexius is a generically assumed C-type asteroid.
Rotation period
In 2013 and 2014, two rotational lightcurves of Dexius were obtained from photometric observations by Robert Stephens at the Trojan Station of Center for Solar System Studies in Landers, California. Lightcurve analysis gave an identical rotation period of 8.97 hours with a brightness amplitude of 0.15 and 0.29 magnitude, respectively ().
Diameter and albedo
According to the surveys carried out by the Japanese Akari satellite, the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS, and the NEOWISE mission of NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE), this Jovian trojan measures between 78.63 and 87.65 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo between 0.038 and 0.053. The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link derives an albedo of 0.0547 and a diameter of 86.00 kilometers based on an absolute magnitude of 9.1.
Notes
References
External links
Asteroid Lightcurve Database (LCDB), query form (info )
Center for Solar System Studies (CS3)
Discovery Circumstances: Numbered Minor Planets (15001)-(20000) – Minor Planet Center
015436
015436
015436
Minor planets named from Greek mythology
Named minor planets
19981110
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30725
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thin%20client
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Thin client
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In computer networking, a thin client is a simple (low-performance) computer that has been optimized for establishing a remote connection with a server-based computing environment. The server does most of the work, which can include launching software programs, performing calculations, and storing data. This contrasts with a rich client or a conventional personal computer; the former is also intended for working in a client–server model but has significant local processing power, while the latter aims to perform its function mostly locally.
Thin clients occur as components of a broader computing infrastructure, where many clients share their computations with a server or server farm. The server-side infrastructure uses cloud computing software such as application virtualization, hosted shared desktop (HSD) or desktop virtualization (VDI). This combination forms what is known as a cloud-based system, where desktop resources are centralized at one or more data centers. The benefits of centralization are hardware resource optimization, reduced software maintenance, and improved security.
Example of hardware resource optimization: Cabling, bussing and I/O can be minimized while idle memory and processing power can be applied to user sessions that most need it.
Example of reduced software maintenance: Software patching and operating system (OS) migrations can be applied, tested and activated for all users in one instance to accelerate roll-out and improve administrative efficiency.
Example of improved security: Software assets are centralized and easily fire-walled, monitored and protected. Sensitive data is uncompromised in cases of desktop loss or theft.
Thin client hardware generally supports common peripherals, such as keyboards, mice, monitors, jacks for sound peripherals, and open ports for USB devices (e.g., printer, flash drive, webcam). Some thin clients include (legacy) serial or parallel ports to support older devices, such as receipt printers, scales or time clocks. Thin client software typically consists of a graphical user interface (GUI), cloud access agents (e.g., RDP, ICA, PCoIP), a local web browser, terminal emulators (in some cases), and a basic set of local utilities.
Characteristics
Architecture
In using cloud-based architecture, the server takes on the processing load of several client sessions, acting as a host for each endpoint device. The client software is narrowly purposed and lightweight; therefore, only the host server or server farm needs to be secured, rather than securing software installed on every endpoint device (although thin clients may still require basic security and strong authentication to prevent unauthorized access). One of the combined benefits of using cloud architecture with thin client desktops is that critical IT assets are centralized for better utilization of resources. Unused memory, bussing lanes, and processor cores within an individual user session, for example, can be leveraged for other active user sessions.
The simplicity of thin client hardware and software results in a very low total cost of ownership, but some of these initial savings can be offset by the need for a more robust cloud infrastructure required on the server side.
An alternative to traditional server deployment which spreads out infrastructure costs over time is a cloud-based subscription model known as desktop as a service, which allows IT organizations to outsource the cloud infrastructure to a third party.
Simplicity
Thin client computing is known to simplify the desktop endpoints by reducing the client-side software footprint. With a lightweight, read-only operating system (OS), client-side setup and administration is greatly reduced. Cloud access is the primary role of a thin client which eliminates the need for a large suite of local user applications, data storage, and utilities. This architecture shifts most of the software execution burden from the endpoint to the data center. User assets are centralized for greater visibility. Data recovery and desktop repurposing tasks are also centralized for faster service and greater scalability.
Hardware
While the server must be robust enough to handle several client sessions at once, thin client hardware requirements are minimal compared to that of a traditional PC desktop. Most thin clients have low energy processors, flash storage, memory, and no moving parts. This reduces the cost and power consumption, making them affordable to own and easy to replace or deploy. Since thin clients consist of fewer hardware components than a traditional desktop PC, they can operate in more hostile environments. And because they typically don't store critical data locally, risk of theft is minimized because there is little or no user data to be compromised.
Graphics
Modern thin clients have come a long way to meet the demands of today's graphical computing needs. New generations of low energy chipset and CPU (Central Processing Unit) combinations improve processing power and graphical capabilities. To minimize latency of high resolution video sent across the network, some host software stacks leverage multimedia redirection (MMR) techniques to offload video rendering to the desktop device. Video codecs are often embedded on the thin client to support these various multimedia formats. Other host software stacks makes use of User Datagram Protocol (UDP) in order to accelerate fast changing pixel updates required by modern video content. Thin clients typically support local software agents capable of accepting and decoding UDP.
Some of the more graphically intense use cases remain a challenge for thin clients. These use cases might include applications like photo editors, 3D drawing programs, and animation tools. This can be addressed at the host server using dedicated GPU cards, allocation of vGPUs (virtual GPU), workstation cards, and hardware acceleration cards. These solutions allow IT administrators to provide power-user performance where it is needed to a relatively generic endpoint device such as a thin client.
Limitations
To achieve such simplicity, thin clients sometimes lag behind desktop PCs in terms of extensibility. For example, if a local software utility or set of device drivers are needed in order to support a locally attached peripheral device (e.g. printer, scanner, biometric security device), the thin client operating system may lack the resources needed to fully integrate the required dependencies (although dependencies can sometimes be added if they can be identified). Modern thin clients address this limitation via port mapping or USB redirection software. However, these methods cannot address all scenarios. Therefore, it is good practice to perform validation tests of locally attached peripherals in advance to ensure compatibility. Further, in large distributed desktop environments, printers are often networked, negating the need for device drivers on every desktop.
While running local productivity applications goes beyond the normal scope of a thin client, it is sometimes needed in rare use cases. License restrictions that apply to thin clients can sometimes prevent them from supporting these applications. Local storage constraints may also limit the space required to install large applications or application suites.
It is also important to acknowledge that network bandwidth and performance is more critical in any type of cloud-based computing model. IT organizations must ensure that their network can accommodate the number of users that they need to serve. If demand for bandwidth exceeds network limits, it could result in a major loss of end user productivity.
A similar risk exists inside the data center. Servers must be sized correctly in order to deliver adequate performance to end users. In a cloud-based computing model, the servers can also represent a single point of failure risk. If a server fails, end users lose access to all of the resources supported by that server. This risk can be mitigated by building redundancies, fail-over processes, backups, and load balancing utilities into the system. Redundancy provides reliable host availability but it can add cost to smaller user populations that lack scale.
Providers
Popular providers of thin clients include Chip PC Technologies Chip PC, Wyse Technology, NComputing, Dell (acquired Wyse in 2012), HP, ClearCube Technology, IGEL Technology, ZeeTim, LG and Samsung Electronics.
History
Thin clients have their roots in multi-user systems, traditionally mainframes accessed by some sort of computer terminal. As computer graphics matured, these terminals transitioned from providing a command-line interface to a full graphical user interface, as is common on modern advanced thin clients. The prototypical multi-user environment along these lines, Unix, began to support fully graphical X terminals, i.e., devices running display server software, from about 1984. X terminals remained relatively popular even after the arrival of other thin clients in the mid-late 1990s. Modern Unix derivatives like BSD and Linux continue the tradition of the multi-user, remote display/input session. Typically, X software is not made available on non-X-based thin clients, although no technical reason for this exclusion would prevent it.
Windows NT became capable of multi-user operations primarily through the efforts of Citrix Systems, which repackaged Windows NT 3.51 as the multi-user operating system WinFrame in 1995, launched in coordination with Wyse Technology's Winterm thin client. Microsoft licensed this technology back from Citrix and implemented it into Windows NT 4.0 Terminal Server Edition, under a project codenamed 'Hydra'. Windows NT then became the basis of Windows 2000 and Windows XP. Microsoft Windows systems support graphical terminals via the Remote Desktop Services component. The Wyse Winterm was the first Windows-display-focused thin client (AKA Windows Terminal) to access this environment.
The term thin client was coined in 1993 by Tim Negris, VP of Server Marketing at Oracle Corporation, while working with company founder Larry Ellison on the launch of Oracle 7. At the time, Oracle wished to differentiate their server-oriented software from Microsoft's desktop-oriented products. Ellison subsequently popularized Negris' buzzword with frequent use in his speeches and interviews about Oracle products. Ellison would go on to be a founding board member of thin client maker Network Computer, Inc (NCI), later renamed Liberate.
The term stuck for several reasons. The earlier term 'graphical terminal' had been chosen to distinguish such terminals from text-based terminals, and thus put the emphasis heavily on graphics'' – which became obsolete as a distinguishing characteristic in the 1990s as text-only physical terminals themselves became obsolete, and text-only computer systems (a few of which existed in the 1980s) were no longer manufactured. The term 'thin client' also conveys better what was then viewed as the fundamental difference: thin clients can be designed with less expensive hardware, because they have reduced computational workloads.
By the 2010s, thin clients were not the only desktop devices for general purpose computing that were 'thin' – in the sense of having a small form factor and being relatively inexpensive. The nettop form factor for desktop PCs was introduced, and nettops could run full feature Windows or Linux; tablets and tablet-laptop hybrids had also entered the market. However, while there was now little size difference, thin clients retained some key advantages over these competitors, such as not needing a local drive. However, 'thin client' can be a misnomer for slim form-factor computers using flash memory such as compactflash, SD card, or permanent flash memory as a hard disk substitute.
See also
Other client types
Dumb terminal: Like thin clients, but have zero local processing power and support no peripherals
Rich client: Have ample local processing power, although they are heavily network-dependent
Diskless node: It has no local storage (e.g. no hard disk drives) but may have anything else that a full workstation has
Related concepts
Centralized computing
Desktop virtualization
Multiseat configuration
Terminal services
Time-sharing
VDI
Thin client software
Stratodesk NoTouch
Thinstation
AnywhereTS
OpenThinClient
Others
AOL TV
Blade PC
Smart client
Sun Ray
References
Computing output devices
Microcomputers
Networking hardware
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4755005
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platform-independent%20GUI%20library
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Platform-independent GUI library
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A PIGUI (Platform Independent Graphical User Interface) package is a software library that a programmer uses to produce GUI code for multiple computer platforms. The package presents subroutines and/or objects (along with a programming approach) which are independent of the GUIs that the programmer is targeting. For software to qualify as PIGUI it must support several GUIs under at least two different operating systems (e.g. just supporting OPEN LOOK and X11 on two Unix boxes doesn't count). The package does not necessarily provide any additional portability features. Native look and feel is a desirable feature, but is not essential for PIGUIs.
Considerations
Using a PIGUI has limitations, such as the PIGUI only deals with the GUI aspects of the program so the programmer responsible for other portability issues, most PIGUIs slow the execution of the resulting code, and programmers are largely limited to the feature set provided by the PIGUI.
Dependence on a PIGUI can lead to project difficulties since fewer people know how to code any specific PIGUI than do a platform-specific GUI, limiting the number of people who can give advanced help, and if the vendor goes out of business there may be no further support, including future OS enhancements, though availability of source code can ease but not eliminate this problem. Also, bugs in any package, including the PIGUI, filter down to production code.
Alternative approaches
Web browsers offer a convenient alternative for many applications. Web browsers utilize HTML as a presentation layer for applications hosted on a central server, and web browsers are available for pretty much every platform. However, some applications do not lend themselves well to the web paradigm, requiring a local application with GUI capabilities. Where such applications must support multiple platforms, PIGUI can be more appropriate.
Instead of using a PIGUI, developers could partition their applications into GUI and non-GUI objects, and implement the GUI objects in the native API. Then, when porting, only the GUI objects need to be rewritten for the new platform. There are some software developers who recommend this course of action, as it produces a better fit on each platform and eliminates the overhead often associated with PIGUI toolkits. Obviously, this may require more effort in both the initial development and in ongoing maintenance (no single base of source code). It also means learning how to code for every target platform, which is not (usually) a trivial task, hence the market for PIGUI packages.
User interface approaches
Most, if not all, PIGUI packages take one of three approaches to providing platform independence. The two most common approaches are the `layered' and the `emulated' user interface but an up-and-coming approach is `API emulated' interface.
Packages using a layered interface access native, third party, GUI-building toolkits to provide the look-and-feel compliance for each particular GUI. Layered user interfaces have the advantage that, since they depend on other products which concentrate on a single GUI, they have to provide less software (and, hence, are usually less expensive) than emulated interfaces. Layered interfaces are also more likely to get the native look-and-feel correct on all platforms.
In an emulated user interface, the PIGUI's resultant code produces low-level calls and all the look-and-feel compliance is handled by the PIGUI software itself (e.g., for OpenWindows support, the software would NOT produce an XView program that must be compiled with the XView toolkit; the software would produce code that interfaces directly with X intrinsics). To provide an emulated user interface, a package provider has to develop a lot of extra code for look-and-feel support. Emulated user interfaces have the advantage that someone on a X11 workstation, for example, can see how the Macintosh-style UI will look (since the look-and-feel is part of the product). Emulated interfaces have the opportunity to provide a faster GUI than does a layered interface; in addition, it does not require purchase of (or learn how to use) other packages to build GUI software.
A third approach to platform independence is emulating one of the supported target's APIs (usually, the Microsoft Windows API) to target other GUIs. With one of these products, one would program using the emulated API and the code would be (to the extent to which the product provides portability) portable to other GUIs.
Features
PIGUI packages are pretty similar in their basic functionality; they each provide subroutines or objects that allow the user to build windows, buttons (regular as well as radio buttons and check boxes), menus, and the like. Some areas of differentiation are:
support for the platforms needed,
the choice of implementation language,
availability of source code,
support for printers and other devices,
support for various character encoding schemes including Unicode,
capability to support draw-package-like features,
bitmap (and icon) support,
the approach to platform independence,
nifty high-level widgets, and
price (complete price including royalties and distribution charges),
See also
List of PIGUI packages
Graphical user interface
External links
The old, outdated PIGUI FAQ
The GUI Toolkit, Framework Page
Lessons Learned from SUIT, the Simple User Interface Toolkit
wyoGuide - tutorial on good cross-platform development
Computer libraries
Cross-platform software
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19944121
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beagle%20Bag
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Beagle Bag
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Beagle Bag is a collection of video games for the Apple II family of computers published in 1982 by Beagle Bros Software. In common with their other titles, the Beagle Bag software was released in unlocked and unprotected form, and is now in the public domain.
Games
Beagle Bag, collectively credited to "Bert Kersey and the Beagle Bros Staff", contains games designed for the Apple II, Apple II+ and Apple IIe computers.
Buzzword!
In Buzzword!, a children's game based on Mad Libs, the computer relates a short story in which certain key words are replaced with blanks. Each time the story reaches a blank, the user selects a letter and the computer then randomly inserts a word from its vocabulary starting with that letter. Buzzword! comes with five pre-made stories and also allows users to create their own.
In addition to entering a custom story, the Beagle Bag manual also includes instructions about how to edit Buzzword!'''s vocabulary.
ElevatorsElevators challenges the player to use four elevators to deliver as many carloads of passengers as possible in a short period of time (5:00 to 5:30). Passengers appear on any of ten different floors in a high-rise building and must be collected by sending one of four elevator cars to the correct floor and back down again. The movement of each car can be controlled separately by three rows of keys: 1, 2, 3 and 4 to move up, A, S, D and F to move down, and Q, W, E and R to stop. Power can also be cut to certain cars, allowing others to move more quickly.
Each carload of passengers delivered to the ground floor earns the player a point. Points are displayed to the left of the building, the time of day to the right.
Gas Crunch
This simple game involves taking turns with the computer to remove gas cans from a wall with 21 cans. Both the player and the computer can choose to remove one, two or three cans each time, with the object of not having to take the last remaining can. With 21 cans, the first player wins with perfect play. The computer knows how to play perfectly, so you must win the coin flip to have a chance to win.
Hang PersonHang Person is a simple hangman-style game in which the player must guess the letters of a word or short phrase. For each incorrect guess, another piece of the person is drawn in; six incorrect guesses lose the game. Hang Person allows a user to play by themselves against the computer, or to enter a word of their own (up to 14 characters) that a second user must guess. Instructions on how to edit the computer's vocabulary of 150 words are given in the manual.
Magic Pack
This program acts as an aid to performing four separate magic tricks described in the accompanying manual: "Plenty Questions", in which the computer attempts to guess the object someone's thinking of; "21 Numbers", a number guessing trick; "Next Word", in which the computer and the player create a logical series of words; and "Card Scanner", in which the computer purports to identify a playing card held against the screen.
Oink!Oink! is a two-player dice-rolling game with each player taking turns rolling to score the sum of the two dice. After the roll, a point is added to the bonus counter. The player can end their turn and bank their points, or roll again and add the new sum, plus the current bonus counter, which is then incremented after the new roll. This may be repeated as often as desired. Rolling doubles (a 1 in 6 chance) ends the turn immediately, forfeits all unbanked points, and clears the bonus counter. First to 200 points wins the game.
A version of Oink! was used in experiments conducted in the mid-1980s to test for the existence of psychokinesis, the results of which were published in the Journal of Parapsychology.
Pick-A-Pair
Similar to Concentration or Hūsker Dū?, Pick-A-Pair is a two-person memory game played on a 4x4 array of 16 numbers, behind each of which is a symbol. Players take turns revealing, two at a time, the symbols behind each number; if the two they pick match, the two are removed and the player earns points equal to the sum of the two numbers. The first player to earn 68 or more points wins the game. Unlike Concentration, making a match does not give the player an extra turn, which also significantly affects strategy.
Quick-Draw!Quick-Draw! is a two-player cowboy shoot-out game. Each round the computer selects an abstract "firing symbol" which it displays between the two gunmen, then quickly cycles through various random symbols including the one it selected. If a player fires while the correct symbol is shown and does so quicker than his opponent, he'll win the round. If he fires while the wrong symbol is shown, his opponent get a free shot.
Points are awarded on how quickly players can make successful shots and are displayed beneath each cowboy. Scores rounded off to the nearest whole number appear on each cowboy's hat. First player to 10 points wins.
Slippery Digits
This game is a sliding puzzle that challenges the player to sequentially order 15 numbered tiles within a 4x4 playing area using as few moves as possible. Slippery Digits has two styles of play: one in which the number of each tile is shown, and another more challenging one in which each number begins hidden and only appears when it's in its proper position.
Sub Search
In this submarine-hunting game, the player must identify the locations of a random number of submarines hidden within the playing area. The player moves his ship north, south, east or west, and the areas over which the ship travels light up green. If a submarine is within the area through which the ship has moved, it will appear as a black silhouette; moving directly over a submarine marks it as found. To help direct the search, the player can use a sonar-like scanner to faintly reveal where submarines are located.
The player must manage oxygen and fuel supplies, both of which are assigned in random quantities at the beginning of the game and quickly diminish. An "equalizer" balances the two, and a "jump" function allows the player to jump to a random location in the playing area. The final score is based on the percentage of subs found multiplied by one thousand, plus the amount of fuel and oxygen remaining.
TextTrainTextTrain is a train simulator that uses a word or other series of letter to represent the cars of a train. The game's object is to couple together a pre-defined series of freight cars and pull them to the Check Station at the top of the track as quickly as possible. The player can move the train forward or backward around the tracks and onto sidings, open and close switches and couple and uncouple cars. Coupling a car ahead of the engine or driving into a closed switch will derail the train and end the game.
Triple DigitsTriple Digits is a numbers game for two players. Each player is dealt a set of thirteen digits (0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8); one plays white, the other black. Numbers are placed one at a time in the unoccupied squares of a 9x8 board according to the computer's instructions. Scoring is based on the number that was played and its two adjacent digits, read together as a single number; for instance, a row of 2, 4 and 6 would yield a score of 246. Rows can be vertical, horizontal or diagonal. TripleDigits ends when all the numbers have been played or one of the players resigns.
Wowzo
The object of Wowzo is for each player to move his "man" (represented on the board by the first three letters of his name) through the maze and land on each letter of a five-letter keyword before his opponent does. The letters of the keyword, which is entered by a player at the start of the game, are scattered randomly throughout the maze. Players can move their men left, right, up or down; the man will continue to move in that direction until it hits a wall or encounters one of the letters of the keyword (which grants a free turn).
Each player on his turn can also open or close one of many "gates" in the maze's walls, represented by letters. Doing so can open shortcuts to letters or block one's opponent. The first player to collect all the letters of the keyword wins.
Utilities
Included in the Beagle Bag collection is Beagle Menu, a configurable disk menu program that offers one-key access to select files.
Other softwareBeagle Bag also includes several simple programs that according to the manual "have been gathering dust around here for years."Baby Names generates semi-random names of five to seven letters.Cross Word insults the user at every keypress.Date Search calculates the number of days between two dates.Pack My Box challenges the user to create a pangram of less than 32 letters.Poly-Dice simulates the results of rolling dice of a specified number of sides.Naked City is a practical joke program that displays bogus computer errors.Name Game produces variations of a person's name: Spoonerisms, vowelisms, Pig Latin, etc.Test Patterns'' produces lo-res or hi-res test patterns.
Reception
References
External links
Beagle Bag at the Beagle Bros Software Repository
Beagle Bag Instructions
1982 video games
Apple II games
Apple II-only games
Video games developed in the United States
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16445786
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4791%20Iphidamas
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4791 Iphidamas
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4791 Iphidamas is a Jupiter trojan from the Trojan camp, approximately in diameter. It was discovered on 14 August 1988, by American astronomer Carolyn Shoemaker at the Palomar Observatory in California. The dark Jovian asteroid belongs the 100 largest Jupiter trojans and has a rotation period of 9.7 hours. It was named after the Trojan warrior Iphidamas, from Greek mythology.
Orbit and classification
Iphidamas is a dark Jupiter trojan in a 1:1 orbital resonance with Jupiter. It is located in the trailering Trojan camp at the Gas Giant's Lagrangian point, 60° behind its orbit . It is also a non-family asteroid of the Jovian background population.
It orbits the Sun at a distance of 4.9–5.4 AU once every 11 years and 9 months (4,281 days; semi-major axis of 5.16 AU). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.05 and an inclination of 26° with respect to the ecliptic. The body's observation arc begins with its official discovery observation at Palomar in August 1988.
Physical characteristics
Iphidamas is an assumed, carbonaceous C-type asteroid. It has a high V–I color index of 1.03 (see table below).
Rotation period
In 2014 and 2015, two rotational lightcurves of Iphidamas were obtained from photometric observations by Robert Stephens at the Center for Solar System Studies in Landers, California. Analysis of the best-rated lightcurve from December 2015 showed a rotation period of hours with a brightness amplitude of 0.31 magnitude (), superseding a previous period determination by Stefano Mottola at the La Silla Observatory from February 1992, which gave a similar period of 9.57 hours ().
Diameter and albedo
According to the surveys carried out by the NEOWISE mission of NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer, the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS, and the Japanese Akari satellite, Iphidamas measures between 49.528 and 59.96 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo between 0.055 and 0.079. The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link derives an albedo of 0.0483 and a diameter of 57.74 kilometers based on an absolute magnitude of 10.1.
Naming
This minor planet was named from Greek mythology after the Trojan warrior Iphidamas, son of Theano and Antenor, who was the counselor of King Priam. During the Trojan War, he confronted Agamemnon in battle, but his spear bent against Agamemnon's war belt, who then killed Iphidamas with his sword. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 27 June 1991 ().
Notes
References
External links
Asteroid Lightcurve Database (LCDB), query form (info )
Dictionary of Minor Planet Names, Google books
Discovery Circumstances: Numbered Minor Planets (1)-(5000) – Minor Planet Center
Asteroid 4791 Iphidamas at the Small Bodies Data Ferret
004791
Discoveries by Carolyn S. Shoemaker
Minor planets named from Greek mythology
Named minor planets
19880814
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45297724
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Judicial%20Reference%20System
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National Judicial Reference System
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The National Judicial Reference System (NJRS) is a project of Indian Income Tax Department to streamline its tax litigation system. NJRS aims to be a comprehensive repository of all Appeals and Judgments related to Direct Taxes in India. The Income Tax Department is the largest litigant in India and NJRS will help the department in decongesting and streamlining the huge backlog of litigation in various courts and Tribunals related to direct tax cases. The portal was launched in March 2015. Continuous improvements and public access are in progress. The portal will enable the department to monitor appeals progress through the appeal stages, undertake policy analysis for issues leading to rising litigation and do research for strengthening their cases by taking reference from previous orders made by the courts tax appeals.
Background
The Income Tax Department (ITD) is responsible for collecting Direct Taxes and administering
the Income Tax Law and other direct tax statutes for Government of India. The department
has offices in 510 cities and towns across India. There are 3420 assessment units in the
department and a sanctioned strength of about 8600 at the level of ITOs and above. These
are to increase to about 4500 and 11600 respectively as a result of the recently approved
restructuring in the department.
Tax litigation is an integral component of any modern tax administration. It not only helps resolve disputes between the tax payers and the tax administration, it also helps in the interpretation of tax issues and in planning transactions.
The Indian Tax laws also provide an elaborate mechanism for resolution of tax disputes - both administrative involving the Commissioner of Income Tax (Appeals) and various Alternative Dispute Resolution mechanisms, as well as, through the appeal jurisdictions of the Income Tax Apellate Tribuna l, High Courts and the Supreme Court of India. However, increasing volumes of litigation in various tribunals and courts, the long time taken for finalization of a tax dispute and varied interpretations of tax law taken by both tax officials and various judicial fora has become a cause of concern. The CAG, in its Performance Audit Report No. - 20 of 2009-10, states that the dimensions of disputes in income tax are staggering and that it takes a long time to settle tax disputes. The report also states that the Income Tax Department lacks credible and reliable data on the volume and impact of appeals which points to weak internal controls. Inadequate internal control in turn lead to time barring of appeals and delays in implementation of appellate orders. The CAG report recommended automation of receipt and disposal of appellate orders.
Besides maintenance of proper litigation database, there is also a need to continuously identify contentious legal issues, analyse them and take corrective action to clarify the law. An Office Memorandum of the Central Board of Direct Taxes states that a large part of litigation in the Direct Taxes matters involves interpretation of legal provisions. Inconsistent approach on contentious legal issues by officers of the department gives rise to further litigation. There have also been suggestions to identify and flag areas through the departments website where there are issues relating to interpretation of the tax law, so as to give taxpayers an insight into existing areas of litigation so they can avoid, as far as possible, taking litigation prone positions in their tax returns.
The NJRS project was taken up by the Income Tax Department to create an electronic platform as a replacement for the manual method of managing litigation.
NJRS will have two components:
Appeals Repository & Management System - an electronic database all pending appeals at Income Tax Appellate Tribunal(ITAT), High Courts (HCs) and Supreme Court of India (SC).
Judicial Research & Reference System - an electronic database of all orders/judgments of ITAT, Authority of Advance Ruling, HCs and SC.
Both databases will be cross referenced, have suitable metadata & key-phrases and have enterprise class search engine to be enable identification of disputed issues across cases for improved decision making.
Objective
The project for setting up a National Judicial Reference System (NJRS) and the project for setting up an Institutional Mechanism for formulating a 'Departmental View' on contentious legal issues are the two key measures being taken up by the Central Board of Direct Taxes to streamline the litigation management system in the department.
NJRS is proposed to be a comprehensive electronic database of all appeals and judgments in Direct Tax cases pending before various judicial authorities i.e. Income Tax Appellate Tribunal, High Courts and the Supreme Court of India. It will also bring automation in the work-flows of the Judicial wings of the department. Such a system will help link the units engaged in litigation work in the department and in tracking tax appeals on a 24X7 basis. It is also expected to act as a knowledge repository that will assist officials in issuing consistent orders utilising the judicial information available in it online.
The NJRS has facility to club similar cases, weed out weak ones and help make a stronger argument before various tribunals and courts.
NJRS will facilitate Computer-assisted legal research and provide easy accessibility to judicial information, case laws and judgments, thereby enabling the tax officers to take a more informed and consistent approach in tax audits. It will also assist the Department's Representatives/Counsels in improving the quality of representation before Tribunal & Courts and enhancing the success rate of the department in appeals.
The National Judicial Reference System (NJRS) is thus envisaged as a tool for effective tracking and monitoring of Appeals at various stages, reduce disputed tax demand by targeting high demand cases, a comprehensive reference system and a decision support system to achieve efficiency in the tax litigation process of Income Tax Department (ITD), Government of India.
Implementation Approach
The project is being implemented through an Implementation Agency engaged through an open competitive bid process in April, 2014. The Implementation Agency is a consortium of a Systems Integrator - NSDL eGovernance Infrastructure Ltd and a company specializing in legal databases - Skorydov Systems Pvt Ltd.
The project is being implemented on a Public Private Partnership (PPP)model, where the technology risk has been passed on to the IA. The IA has the flexibility to generate additional revenues (besides the project payments from the government) by utilizing the judicial database for commercial purposes subject to certain restrictions.
The project leverages upon the advancements in computerisation of the registry functions of the Tribunals and Courts achieved under the e-Courts Mission Mode Project taken up under the National e-Governance Plan(NeGP). As the case filing, scrutiny and case registration services have been automated in the courts, the NJRS project envisages collation of data from such external data sources. The Income Tax Department in India has also developed several computer systems to for its own internal workflows and to manage the data base of the returns filed by the tax payers. The unifying factor across these computer systems is the Permanent Account Number (PAN) allocated to identify each tax payer uniquely. The data collected in from the external court systems will be collated in NJRS with the help of taxpayers information stored in the PAN database and other computer systems of the tax department. In addition, the appeal case files will also be scanned through a network of 28 regional scanning centers specially established under the project across the country. The scanned case files will be processed at a BPO like facility for writing case summaries, keyphrases, metadata and linking the case files with the case data obtained from external court systems. Creation of NJRS will thus be a mammoth exercise, requiring the active co-operation of a number of agencies, including the judicial bodies.
Logo
The NJRS logo has been conceived with a view to create a visual perception of Knowledge, Transparency and Reliability. The bold, clean font and the choice of a flat colour scheme using red and black colours create this presence.
The red dot is a specific choice in the design language. As the system is a data recording repository of appeals and judgments, the red dot is a visual cue for the "recording" or assimilation of knowledge. This creates an association with audio visual devices which have a similar red icon for recording information.
Finally, black and white colours also represent clarity and eliminate ambiguity, further emphasizing the transparency that this system holds.
NJRS Citation
The Citation nomenclature followed within NJRS Case citation#India helps identify any judgment / order uniquely.
e.g. * Chandra Ranganathan & Ors. v. Commissioner of Income-tax 2009-LL-1021, which refers to NJRS citations.
This Citation further allows to add the Authority / Court name after the citation. This does not form an integral part of Citation but can be used to enhance the value of the Citation.
e.g. * Chandra Ranganathan & Ors. v. Commissioner of Income-tax 2009-LL-1021-SC, which refers to NJRS citations with additional Court Name. Here, in this case - SC stands for Supreme Court.
References
Income-tax News- Article by Shri Arun Kumar Jain, IRS
I-T dept goes for tech upgrade to tighten tax net - Business Standard
Finance ministry launches ambitious national electronic I-T judicial database - Economic Times
External links
Finance Ministry
Income Tax department
Income Tax Department of India
Income tax in India
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65827521
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trial%20%281780%20ship%29
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Trial (1780 ship)
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Trial (or Tryal, or Trial Packet) was launched at Calcutta as a packet for the British East India Company. She made two voyages to England. In 1782 she narrowly escaped being seized by mutineers. After her return to Calcutta in 1786 she became a pilot schooner for the Bengal Pilot Service. A French privateer captured her in 1797.
Career
The Tryal Packet, Captain Dempster, left Madras on 4 December 1780. Readily accessible online records do not show when she arrived. Also, a list of EIC packets does not include her.
The Trial Packet Captain Pointer, bound for the East Indies, put into Limerick on 9 November 1781, having lost her mainmast and topsails.
A report from Limerick dated 31 January 1782 stated that before Trial could sail for India a conspiracy was discovered. Ten members of the crew had planned, once at sea, to take her officers, kill them, and sail her and her dispatches to a French port. The plot was discovered when they attempted to draw the boatswain into the plot. The men appear to have been American prisoners who had escaped at Kinsale and had agreed to enroll together as sailors on a vessel that they would then seize. A later report revealed that the boatswain was a leader among the conspirators but revealed the plot angered that the other conspirators would not agree to give him as large a share of the proceeds of the plot as he felt entitled to.
Captain James Methurst Poynter sailed from Limerick on 12 February 1782, bound for Bengal and Benkulen. She was at Ganjam on 2 July 1782 where she handed over her dispatches; she then proceeded to Calcutta.
Trial was at Calcutta on 14 March 1783. She was at Bengkulen on 15 May, Padang on 30 May, and Bengulen again on 21 June Benkulen. On 9 July she was at Manna (Manna Point or Town, southeast of Bengkulu, on the west coast of Sumatra; now Mana (), and reached Rat Island (a small island west of Bengkulu) on 18 July. She sailed from Rat Island on 12 October, reached Saint Helena on 18 December. She sailed from there on 23 December and reached Lough Swilly, Donegal, on 5 March 1784. She arrived back in the Downs on 13 April.
On 15 April 1784 the Trial Packet, Spencer, master, arrived at Gravesend. She had come from Ireland and St Helena.
On 28 September 1785, Captain Poynter sailed for India with dispatches; she left Falmouth on 16 October. Before Poynter left, Wells had repaired Trial and taken her measurements. Trial, Painter, master, was reported to have been in the Sunda Strait in July 1787.
When Trial arrived back in Bengal she remained in local service.
At some point Trial was taken into the Bengal Pilot Service.
Trial was rebuilt in 1796.
Fate
The French privateer Apollon, Captain Jean-François Hodoul, captured Tryalle and in Balasore Roads on 9 November 1797.
Notes, citations, and references
Notes
Citations
References
East India Company (1959) Fort William: India House Correspondence and Other Contemporary Papers Relating Thereto (foreign, Political, and Secret). (National Archives of India).
1780 ships
British ships built in India
Ships of the British East India Company
Captured ships
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43404410
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter%20Miller%20%28software%20engineer%29
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Peter Miller (software engineer)
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Peter Miller (16 October 1960 – 27 July 2014) was an Australian software developer who wrote Recursive Make Considered Harmful and created Aegis and cook. He also proposed a set of "laws" for modern software engineering and architecture in the early 1990s:
Miller's laws are:
The number of interactions within a development team is O(n!) without controlled access to the baseline. If the development team does have controlled access to the baseline, interactions can be reduced to near O(n), where n is the number of developers and/or files in the source tree, whichever is larger.
The baseline MUST always be in working order.
The software build/construction process can be reduced to a directed, acyclical graph (DAG).
It is necessary to build a rigid framework of selected components (aka the top level aegis design).
The framework should not do any real work, and should instead delegate everything to external components. The external components should be as interchangeable as possible.
The framework should use the Strategy pattern for most complex tasks.
References
External links
Debian Project mourns the loss of Peter Miller
Archive of Miller's website including software, books, and papers
Maintenance repository of Miller's Aegis on GitHub
Maintenance repository of Miller's Cook tool on GitHub
Home page of Miller's Aegis software configuration management tool on SourceForge
Software engineers
Australian engineers
1960 births
2014 deaths
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8469670
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAPIEN%20Technologies%2C%20Inc.
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SAPIEN Technologies, Inc.
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SAPIEN Technologies is a privately held software company based in Napa, California. Founded in 1986, the company has produced a number of commercial software products under contract from various publishers, as well as its own commercial software products.
History
SAPIEN Technologies started as Group Telein, founded by Paul Lamoreux, David Gaertner, and Ferdinand G. Rios. Lamoreux and Gaertner were Computer Science undergraduates at University of California Berkeley; Rios has a Ph.D. in Forensic Science. Group Telein was a small computer consulting firm with the stated goal of creating their own software products. However, to begin realizing income more quickly, the three began offering simple computer consulting services, including assisting individuals with personal computer setup, office computer setup, and so forth. The personal computer was only about 6 years old at the time, and computers were often significantly more complex and difficult to set up and maintain than today.
Lamoreux's father was a bio-mechanical engineer, and had developed a device to measure knee laxity (how loosely the tibia was attached to the knee joint). The device was to be the first of its kind to feed diagnostic data directly to a computer in real-time, and Lamoreux was offered the opportunity to write the companion software. Group Telein wrote the software in Turbo Pascal, eventually moving their operations from their individual residences to an office in downtown Berkeley, California. The knee device was successful, and led to other projects. By 1989, the company had seven employees, but only a single major client.
The bio-mechanical company decided to slow down software development, resulting in an almost total loss of revenue for Group Telein. After Group Telein laid off all of the company's employees, Gaertner, who had just graduated from UC Berkeley, accepted a position with IBM. Rios and Lamoreux decided to incorporate under a new name, SAPIEN Technologies, in 1990.
Along with two former employees, Tracy Elmore and Alex Zeltser, SAPIEN decided to work on their first in-house software product, a language-independent programming editor called ECOS, designed for Microsoft Windows v2.0. The product received a lukewarm reception at the company's first tradeshow; programmers at the time were accustomed to writing programs for Microsoft Windows, but did so in a DOS-based development environment. Without any income coming from the product, Elmore and Zeltser decided to seek other employment. Elmore eventually accepted a position with Berkeley Systems, which at the time was a Macintosh software development company seeking to begin Windows development.
Rios and Lamoreux continued to work on small projects to generate revenue; Elmore recommended SAPIEN as a contractor with Windows development experience to help Berkeley Systems develop modules for their popular After Dark screen saver product. SAPIEN developed More After Dark and After Dark: Star Trek Edition for Berkeley Systems. SAPIEN continued to increase both their revenue and their staff through 1992, when the company entered into an agreement with PixelLite to create a vector-based print publishing application similar to the popular PrintShop software. PixelLite was owned by the original creators of Print Shop, which had by then been sold to Broderbund Software. Elmore was hired back from Berkeley Systems to help with the new product, which was originally named InstantArtist (InstantArtist was originally published by Autodesk Corporation, then by Maxis Software under the name PrintArtist; Maxis was purchased by Sierra, which still publishes PrintArtist).
From 1992 to 1997, SAPIEN developed software for other companies, including Individual Software, Viacom Entertainment, Illumina Productions, and others; the company entered into a five-year agreement with Rand McNally to design and develop their TripMaker software. Zeltser came back to SAPIEN to head development on TripMaker, eventually producing not only that product but also StreetFinder and New Millennium World Atlas for Rand McNally. Alex Riedel joined the staff in 1997 to work on the World Atlas product. As the five-year agreement with Rand McNally neared its end, however, Lamoreux and Rios decided to discontinue all development contracts, downsize the staff, and begin developing SAPIEN's own products.
While still living in Germany, Riedel had published a shareware Windows-based programming editor called ARIS Edit. SAPIEN came to an agreement to use the source code of ARIS Edit to produce SAPIEN's own programming editor. Because Windows-based editors were plentiful in the market, SAPIEN focused on a new language being produced by Microsoft: Visual Basic Scripting Edition, or VBScript. SAPIEN's editor was named PrimalScript 1.0, and it focused primarily on providing an integrated development environment for VBScript.
In 2004, SAPIEN acquired ScriptingAnswers.com and began expanding from a single-product software company to a larger, more all-inclusive product portfolio focused on scripting and software development.
Products
SAPIEN's products fall into four basic categories:
Software
Includes the PrimalScript script development environment and the PrimalScope Windows script debugger.
Publishing
The company publishes scripting-related books under the SAPIEN Press brand name.
Community
The company supports free community Web sites related to scripting, including ScriptingAnswers.com and SearchScripting.com.
Training
The company's training products, including instructor-led training and ScriptingAnswers.com-branded self-based training, are consolidated into a single training Web site.
Trivia
The company's name came from an informal discussion between Lamoreux and Rios, based on Homo sapiens. The company occasionally uses the tagline, "Way Better Than Apes(tm)" in its advertising and promotions.
External links
SAPIEN maintains a number of different Web sites for its various products and services, rather than consolidating them all into a single Web site:
Company home page
PrimalScript product site
PrimalScope product site
ScriptingAnswers.com community
Training products
Scripting-specific search engine
Scripting-related books
Company blog
Company's online store
Map:
Sapien Technologies, Inc.
Sapien Technologies, Inc.
1986 establishments in California
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34940695
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panopto
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Panopto
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Panopto is a software company that provides lecture recording, screencasting, video streaming, and video content management software, which is often used in E-learning environments. The company was founded as a spinout of Carnegie Mellon University (CMU) in 2007 by two of its professors—William Guttman (current Executive Chairman) and William Scherlis—in addition to current Chief Executive Officer (CEO) Eric Burns and serial entrepreneur Brad Winney The company is best known as a provider of online lecture technology.
The Founders
William L. Guttman is currently a partner with TL Ventures and Special Adviser to the Provost of Carnegie Mellon University. Guttman co-founded Carnegie Mellon's CyLab and has built several other companies (such as NASDAQ-listed Printcafe, now a division of Electronics for Imaging). Eric Burns, also still with the company, was the co-inventor of the SlideCentric and CourseCast software at CMU that led to the founding of the company. Brad Winney who ran ClariFI (in which William Guttman was an early investor) raised the initial round of capital, recruited the initial core team and functioned as the company's CEO until 2010. Winney is currently the President and General Manager of HappyOrNot Americas and the co-founder of Conserve.io, an environmental technology, non-profit network.
Company history
According to Burns, the idea for the company came to the founders in 2002 as the cost of storing video images on computer became cheaper than storing the same footage on videotape. Winney, as the founding CEO, and Guttman formally incorporated the company in 2007. Winney spearheaded the 'Socrates Project' whereby the company provided the software for free but charged for support. The company quickly signed up over 400 major universities (largely in the U.S.) allowing it to compete effectively with larger and better capitalized companies such as Echo 360 and Sonic Foundry. Panopto software has, since that point, offered the recording of university lectures and business presentations, the streaming of live events, the managing of video libraries, the capability of video search, and other knowledge management services.
By 2008 over 100,000 lectures had been viewed via Panopto lecture capturing technology. In 2009 the company announced that it had partnered with Moodle's open source project to provide its lecture capturing software to over twenty million users worldwide. In 2010 Macmillan Publishers announced a partnership with Panopto to produce a software called Panopto Fusion, which allowed individual professors to utilize lecture capture software if their institutions had not yet partnered with the company. In 2011, Pearson Education announced it would sell Panopto products to its customer base,. In addition to its lecture capturing software Focus, the company also offers tools that allow videos to be searched, viewed, and edited on the Internet.
In early 2011 Panopto raised $4 million from a consortium of 17 investors. By the end of the year, it had signed licensing agreements with 400 separate universities globally. In 2012 the company released an iOS app version of its software allowing students to utilize its media software on iPhones and iPads to record media and submit the recordings as assignments. An additional product capability called Unison was released in 2011 that allowed the uploading of existing video into Panopto's media library. The software is also compatible with IMS Global Learning Consortium cross-platform incorporation tools, specifically with the university standard software integration program Learning Tools Interoperability. According to Professor Michael Weston of the University of Houston–Victoria, Panopto was helpful when it came to athletes or other students that were required to miss classes in order to take care of other responsibilities. Meanwhile, other professors have integrated the software directly into their courses in a process of blended learning.
In 2015 Eric Burns became the company's CEO, as previous CEO William Guttman became the Executive Chairman of the company. Burns had served as Chief Product Officer since the company's founding. Burns had led the Seattle office of Panopto, which eventually overtook the Pittsburgh headquarters of the firm as the company's main centre of business. The company had about 500 institutional clients at this point, including universities that outfit each classroom with Panopto technology.
In August 2016, Panopto raised $42.8 million in new funding led by Sterling Partners. In February 2017, Panopto expanded Seattle HQ with room for 100 employees after it set records for active users, revenue, and renewals in 2016.
Current Software
As of 2012, Panopto offered two units of software—Focus and Unison. Focus is software that records and live-streams presentations, lectures, demos, and so forth, and then stores them in the Panopto video content management system (CMS). Unison is software that imports existing videos into the Panopto video CMS. Both come with the web-based content management system, a web-based media editor, the ability to search within videos, and developer APIs for integrating Panopto with existing content- and learning-management systems.
In 2015 Panopto upgraded its software to allow video capture and embedding in Salesforce. It has also done research and development into video web search, including mass video search for university video libraries.
The company introduced Panopto Express, a free online screen recording tool in May 2020. The tool was designed to make it easy for people to record lectures and presentations and upload those videos to YouTube or Google Classroom.
In November 2020, Panopto's business meeting intelligence service is now connected with Cisco Webex Meetings. Users can use it to browse and exchange records on a scale within companies and in both virtual and physical environments.
In December 2020, Panopto announced new features that make it easy for users to discover and share knowledge through on-demand videos and meetings. These features include:
Tags: Creators and administrators can now apply tags to videos to help manage the set of tags available on their site.
Sharing moments in a video: Viewers can share a specific point in a video right from the view interface. As long as the recipient has permission to view the video, they will find themselves in a specific moment the original viewer wanted to share.
Subscriptions: Viewers can subscribe to specific content creators, tags, and folders to create a custom homepage with the most important information listed.
The company announced that university students watched over three billion minutes of video on Panopto in Fall 2020.
Meaning of name
The name of the company derives from the word 'panoptic', which is derived from Hellenistic Greek παν- (pan-), meaning 'all, wholly, entirely, altogether', and ὀπτός (optos), meaning 'seen, visible'.
Commentators have noted the similarity of the name to that of the Panopticon, a form of prison designed by Jeremy Bentham in which inmates would feel continually under observation, which became a prominent reference point in Michel Foucault's exploration of disciplining and power. The similarity of names has been seen as fitting, given the capacity of Panopto to facilitate an institution's surveillance of its employees. In the assessment of Yasmin Ibrahim, Anita Howarth, and Ian Stone,
Panopto, the brand name of one of the most commonly used proprietary systems, evokes the surveillance machinery of the panopticon. At a surface level, we could read [the name] as seamless remote access where students can view recorded lectures anywhere, anytime. However, the panopticon associated with surveillance has the potential to be used as a mechanism of control and discipline.
References
External links
Panopto Website
Carnegie Mellon University
Technology companies of the United States
American companies established in 2007
Software companies established in 2007
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10918945
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Configuresoft
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Configuresoft
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Configuresoft, Inc. was an American software company, best known for their Enterprise Configuration Manager software. In May 2009, EMC Corporation announced the acquisition of Configuresoft.
In 1999 by E. Alexander Goldstein (CEO), Dr Dennis Moreau (CTO), Louis Woodhill (Chairman) and Alan Sage (VP, Worldwide Sales) formed a company which they named Fundamental Software, Inc. Based in Woodland Park, Colorado, the company was founded to purchase the intellectual property rights to London-based company Serverware Group plc's Enterprise Configuration Manager network systems management product (with the British company taking a stake in the new start-up as part of the deal).
In January 2001 the company changed its name to Configuresoft, Inc. in order to differentiate it from a number of other software houses with the Fundamental Software name.
In April 2004 Configuresoft, having outgrown its offices in Woodland Park, moved to Colorado Springs, where it has become one of the larger employers in the area.
In July 2006 Goldstein retired and Mark Ruport was named as the new CEO, holding the position until February 2009 when Alex Goldstein returned to the role.
Prior to the EMC acquisition, Configuresoft's customer base included Citigroup, ExxonMobil, Intel Corporation and Qwest Communications, as well as several governmental agencies in the United Kingdom, including the Ministry of Defence, the Department for Children, Schools and Families and the Department for Work and Pensions.
Awards
2008
System Configuration Management "All-Star First Team" - Enterprise Management Associates
2006
Best of Tech-Ed Winner
Best of MMS Winner
LinuxWorld Finalist – Best Security Solution
2005
Best of Tech-Ed and Best of Tech-Ed Europe - Systems Management
References
External links
Configuresoft's Corporate Website
Interview with CEO Mark Ruport
Software companies based in Colorado
Software companies established in 1999
Teller County, Colorado
1999 establishments in Colorado
Software companies of the United States
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55115114
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ihab%20Ilyas
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Ihab Ilyas
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Ihab Francis Ilyas (born May 13, 1973) is a computer scientist who works in data science. He is currently a professor of computer science in the David R. Cheriton School of Computer Science at the University of Waterloo, where he is the first holder of the Thomson Reuters-NSERC Industrial Research Chair in Data Cleaning.
Ilyas co-founded Tamr Inc., a start-up focusing on large-scale data integration and cleaning, with Andy Palmer and Michael Stonebraker, a Turing Award winner. Ilyas was the CEO of Inductiv Inc., an artificial intelligence start-up that uses machine learning to automate the task of identifying and correcting errors in data, which he co-founded with Theodoros Rekatsinas at the University of Wisconsin-Madison and Christopher Ré at Stanford University. Inductiv was acquired by Apple Inc. in May 2020.
Education and career
Ilyas was born and raised in Alexandria, Egypt. After completing bachelor's and master's degrees at Alexandria University in 1995 and 1999, respectively, he earned a PhD at Purdue University in 2004 under the supervision of Walid Aref and Ahmed K. Elmagarmid.
After his doctoral studies, Ilyas accepted a position in 2004 as a tenure-track professor at the University of Waterloo's David R. Cheriton School of Computer Science.
Research contributions
Ilyas is best known for the development of database systems and data science, with emphasis on data quality, data cleaning, managing uncertain data, machine learning for data curation, and rank-aware query processing.
Since 2009, he has focused research on data quality and the technical challenges in building data-cleaning systems. He and his research group introduced novel practical algorithms and system prototypes, which circumvent limitations of previous data-cleaning solutions that either focus narrowly on single types of data errors or ignore real-life considerations that prevent their adoption.
With Theodoros Rekatsinas, Christopher Ré, and Xu Chu, he introduced HoloClean, an open-source a statistical inference engine to impute, clean and enrich data.
Awards and honours
Ilyas received a Government of Ontario Early Researcher Award in 2008, a provincial program that funds new leading researchers at publicly funded Ontario universities to build a research team. He was named an IBM Canada Advanced Studies Fellow from 2006 to 2010.
Ilyas held a Cheriton Faculty Fellowship at the David R. Cheriton School of Computer Science from 2013 to 2016 and he received the Google Faculty Award in 2014.
He was named an ACM Distinguished Scientist in 2014, and an ACM Fellow in 2020 for his contributions to data cleaning and data integration. He was also named IEEE Fellow in 2022 for his contributions in data cleaning, data integration and rank-aware query processing Since 2018, Ilyas has held the Thomson Reuters-NSERC Industrial Research Chair in Data Cleaning. In 2020, he was named a Faculty Affiliate at the Vector Institute.
Service
Ilyas was elected a member of Board of Trustees of the Very Large Data Bases Endowment in 2016 and the Vice Chair of the ACM Special Interest Group on Data Management (SIGMOD) in 2017.
References
External links
Egyptian computer scientists
Canadian computer scientists
Egyptian emigrants to Canada
University of Waterloo faculty
Purdue University alumni
Alexandria University alumni
Living people
1973 births
People from Alexandria
Database researchers
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18841060
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indraprastha%20Institute%20of%20Information%20Technology%2C%20Delhi
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Indraprastha Institute of Information Technology, Delhi
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Indraprastha Institute of Information Technology, Delhi (Iṃdraprastha Sūcanā Praudyōgikī Saṃsthān Dillī, IIIT-Delhi or IIIT-D) is an autonomous Central University located in Delhi, India. It is a research-oriented institute with a focus on Computer Science and allied areas. As of 2021, the approved batch intake for B.Tech program is 489.
History
IIIT-D started at the Netaji Subhas University of Technology (NSUT) campus at Sector 3, Dwarka, New Delhi. It was founded as a State University by an act of the Delhi Government (The IIIT Delhi Act, 2007) in 2008, with seed support from the Government of NCT of Delhi. The institute began with its first batch of 60 students on 8 September 2008 from NSUT (NSIT at that time). IIIT-Delhi moved to its current permanent campus in August 2012. The campus was inaugurated by Sheila Dikshit, former Chief Minister of Delhi, in October 2012.
The university is accredited an ‘A’ grade by NAAC (National Assessment and Accreditation Council), and has been accorded 12-B status by the University Grants Commission (UGC).
IIIT-Delhi is an autonomous university, with the board fully authorized to take important decisions of its own volition.
Campus
IIIT Delhi operates from its campus in Okhla Industrial Estate, Phase III, New Delhi. Its campus is spread over 25 acres.
The campus consists of an academic complex, a library and information center, a dining and recreation centre, and hostels.
Phase 2 Development
Arvind Kejriwal, the Chief Minister of Delhi inaugurated Phase-II of the campus on 21 August 2018. New Academic Block, Lecture Hall Block, Residential (Faculty Residence) Block, Hostel Block H1, Hostel Block H2, and Sports Block are built in the campus and collectively called Phase II. The eight-storey R&D Block which includes 4 hundred-seater lecture halls, 58 labs, 24 discussion rooms, 7 meeting rooms, 116 faculty rooms and office spaces has been operational since August 2017.
The 11-storeyed Hostel Block H1 which has 21 married accommodation facility and 197 double-seater rooms has been functional since February 2018.
The Residential faculty has 12 stories with 44 flats, which are occupied since March 2018. The six-storey Lecture Hall Block with one 500-seater and two 300-seater lecture theaters, classrooms and instructions labs became functional in August 2018.
The newly built sports block is equipped with various facilities such as a badminton court, a heated indoor swimming pool, table tennis tables, a gym, a yoga room, and 2 squash rooms. The institute also has a multi-purpose sports field, two tennis courts, a basketball court, and a volleyball field. The Phase II expansion of IIIT-D is estimated to enhance its student uptake from over 1,800 in 2015 to 3,000.
Organisation and administration
Funding
The land and infrastructure of IIIT-D is funded by the Government of Delhi.
A grant of Rs 4,21,00,000 (4CR) has been earmarked for the development of the IIIT-D Innovation & Incubation Center by the Department of Science of Technology, Government of India.
The university reported an expenditure of Rs '58,79,45,226'(58CR) in the financial year of 2018-2019.
Governance
IIIT-Delhi was established by the Government of Delhi in 2008 as per the IIIT-Delhi Act. The IIIT-Delhi Act ensures administrative and academic autonomy. The General Council is the highest body overseeing the institute, and advises the Vice-Chancellor. The Chancellor of the Institute is the Lt. Governor of Delhi, who also chairs the General Council of the Institute. The Board of Governors consists of the Director, the Chairman, four experts, two government nominees and two professors. The Board decides the salaries, the number of positions and selects the four experts. The Senate and Board can start degrees/programs. The Senate is empowered to take all academic decisions. The Institute's operational head is the Director. Overall policy making and governance rests with the Board of Governors (BOG).
B.Tech Programs
The institute has the following B.Tech programs:
Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence
Computer Science and Engineering
Computer Science and Applied Mathematics
Computer Science and Design
Computer Science and Biosciences
Computer Science and Social Sciences
Electronics and Communications Engineering
M.Tech Programs
The institute has the following M.Tech programs:
Computer Science Engineering
Computer Science Engineering with specialization in Artificial Intelligence
Computer Science Engineering with specialization in Data Engineering
Computer Science Engineering with specialization in Information Security
Computer Science Engineering with specialization in Mobile Computing
Electronics and Communications Engineering
Electronics and Communications Engineering with specialization in VLSI & Embedded Systems
Electronics and Communications Engineering with specialization in Cyber-Physical Systems
Electronics and Communications Engineering with specialization in Machine Learning
Computational Biology
Departments
IIIT-D offers an undergraduate B.Tech, a postgraduate M.Tech, and a Ph.D in various fields.
The institute has the following academic departments:
Department of Computer Science & Engineering
Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering
Department of Mathematics
Department of and Social Sciences and Humanities
Department of Computational Biology
Department of Human-Centered Design
The University partnered with Infosys in 2016 to establish the 'Infosys Centre For AI'.
Academics
Admission
The B.Tech admissions to various programs of IIIT-D are done through Joint Admission Counselling Delhi (JAC Delhi) together with Indira Gandhi Delhi Technological University for Women, Delhi Technological University, Netaji Subhash University of Technology and Delhi Skill and Entrepreneurship University on the basis of JEE Main rank.
B.Tech admission to Computer Science and Design (CSD) program can also be done through IIIT-D's direct admission process using UCEED rank. Some seats of the CSD program are reserved for direct admission process using the UCEED rank as of 2021.
B.Tech admission to Computer Science and Social Sciences (CSSS) program can also be done on the basis of class XII marks (with Mathematics being a mandatory subject in class XII). Some seats of the CSSS program are reserved for direct admission using this process as of 2021.
Candidates availing direct admission to the CSD & CSSS programs must be from NCT of Delhi.
B.Tech admission of foreign nationals/OCIs/POIs/NRIs is done through DASA.
For M.Tech admissions, both GATE score and B.Tech CGPA/percentage are considered for shortlisting purposes. Final merit list is obtained after a coding test and interview of shortlisted students at IIIT-Delhi campus.
Rankings
Internationally, IIIT-Delhi was ranked 192 among universities in the BRICS nations by the QS World University Rankings of 2019.
In India, IIIT-Delhi was ranked 56 among engineering institutes by National Institutional Ranking Framework (NIRF) in 2020.
IIITD was ranked 14th among engineering institutions in India in 2020 by India Today.
Library
The Library and Information Center of the Institute is housed in a separate building and is automated with the help of RFID Technology with EM security. The library is on the first floor and has a large collection of print and electronic media in areas including Computer Science, Electronics and Communications, Mathematics and Statistics, Humanities and Sciences. A common study area for students is on the ground floor and several labs are on the upper floors. As of 2019, the library contains 10000+ books, 10000+ Ebooks and 700+ Kindles. There is also a reading room facility open 24 hours per day.
Faculty
IIIT-D has 88 regular faculty members and 16 visiting faculty members.
All regular faculty members have a Ph.D. Degree from reputed universities across the globe. 55% of the faculty members have done their Ph.D. Degree from abroad.
Out of the 104 faculty members, 79 are male and 25 are female.
The CSE & ECE departments alone have approximately 50% of the working faculty strength.
Student life
The Dining and Recreation Centre of the institute contains a students' mess, which is spread over two floors, a cafeteria and facilities for extra co-curricular activities, such as a dance room, music room and a gymnasium.
Student council
Student Council is a main elected student's body which supervises all clubs and festivals. It has a budget which the council distributes to various clubs. Students can form new clubs, based on interests, after formal permission of the student council. The Student Senate is an elected student's body, which focuses on academic many issues like hostels and mess Committee governance are a main part of the units.
Student festivals
IIIT-D holds two annual festivals, a technical festival called Esya and a cultural one called Odyssey.
IIIT Delhi's Odyssey is the cultural fest of the university. Odyssey was first held at the institute's permanent campus in 2014. It was culminated with over 45 events and a footfall of 25,000+ in the month of January 2020. Past performers of the fest include Jubin Nautiyal, Prateek Kuhad, Gajendra Verma, Hardy Sandhu, The Local Train, Euphoria, Zakir Khan and Bhuvan Bam.
Esya is a two-day festival which was first held at the institute's transit campus on 3–4 September 2011. ESYA is IIIT Delhi’s annual tech fest. ESYA provides coders and tech enthusiasts a platform to showcase their ideas and build upon them.
References
External links
2008 establishments in Delhi
Educational institutions established in 2008
Research institutes in Delhi
Engineering colleges in Delhi
Universities and colleges in Delhi
Research institutes established in 2008
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7626823
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander%20Sinton%20Secondary%20School
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Alexander Sinton Secondary School
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Alexander Sinton Secondary School, also known as Alexander Sinton High School, is an English-medium school in Athlone, a suburb of Cape Town, South Africa. The school is located in the Cape Flats, an area designated as non-white under the Group Areas Act during apartheid. The school was involved in the anti-apartheid student uprisings of the 1970s and 1980s. Staff and students at the school made headlines when they barricaded the police into their school in September 1985. The following month, three youths were killed near the school by police officers who opened fire on protesters in the Trojan Horse Incident. It was the first school to be visited by Nelson Mandela after his release from prison. As of 2014, the school has 1,100 pupils, half boys and half girls. The school employs 40 teachers and six non-teaching staff.
Founder
The school was named for its benefactor Alexander Sinton, who bequeathed money to found the school in 1951.
1976 uprising
During the youth uprising of 1976 protesting the imposition of the Afrikaans language as a mandatory medium of instruction in schools, the students at the school and Belgravia High School nearby in Athlone boycotted classes on 16 August during a period that saw marches, random acts of arson and battles between students and the police. In 1976 Nabil ("Basil") Swart, a teacher at the school, was arrested after helping a student who had been shot during the protests. Swart was released on bail after being detained for a weekend.
1985 protests
Internal resistance to apartheid intensified, and a state of emergency was declared in parts of the country in 1985. The Committee of 81, a student organisation representing coloured schools in the Western Cape which organised student boycotts and protests, held some meetings at the school in 1985. The school effectively stopped teaching from February and was officially closed on 6 September when the government ordered more than 400 schools to close as a result of civil unrest. Some teachers resigned their positions and others were confused as to their role. The Teachers' League of South Africa, a professional association for coloured teachers, encouraged its members not to resign for the sake of the children. Teachers decided to teach, but not to co-operate with the authorities.
The school defiantly re-opened on 17 September 1985 when the principal, Khalied Desai, led teachers, uniformed students and parents who sang protest songs. The police were aware of the students' plans, and arrived quickly. The students threw stones, built barricades and the police replied with armoured vehicles, tear gas, rubber bullets and the arrests of nearly 200 people. Teachers and parents supported the students and their protests against injustice. After the arrests were made, the police were surprised to find that they themselves were effectively prisoners, as the exits from the school were blocked by vehicles brought there by protesters outside the school. The police had difficulty taking away the people they had arrested. The New York Times noted that the action taken by coloured teachers and students at the school was remarkably different to the boycotts taking place at black schools. Swart was again jailed for two weeks in 1985 for helping to re-open the school.
The state of emergency was extended to include Cape Town on 25 October 1985, giving the police and army greater powers to deal with instability in the area. Swart was again jailed for eighteen months in 1986 for his involvement in the school unrest.
Trojan Horse Incident
On 15 October 1985 three male youths, aged 11, 15 and 21, were killed by the police nearby in Belgravia Road in Athlone in what was called the Trojan Horse Incident. Students and activists had gathered where they regularly had battles with the police and were stoning vehicles. Most of the people in the crowd were from the school. Police officers who had been hidden in crates on board the back of a truck opened fire on stone-throwing protesters. The police had deliberately provoked the protesters to allow them to shoot – the truck was driven down the same road twice as the police did not get the anticipated reaction the first time, i.e. stones being thrown at them. A CBS television crew witnessed and filmed the incident and images thereof were broadcast to the world.
An inquest found that the police had behaved "unreasonably", but despite a private prosecution no sentences were imposed on the people involved. A Truth and Reconciliation Commission hearing was held into the incident in 1997, after the end of the apartheid era. A memorial marks the spot where the incident took place. It shows a silhouette of the Trojan Horse vehicle and the people who shot the three young people. The memorial also officially includes graffiti sprayed on the fence that includes the message "Stop State Violence".
Other controversies
In 2012, the then principal Fazil Parker was involved in a dispute with the Department of Basic Education after he was given late notice that his teachers needed to mark national exams. The teachers considered the request unreasonable and did not comply with it, resulting in Parker being summoned to a disciplinary hearing.
Notable alumni
Ronald Harrison, artist and activist who created the Black Christ painting banned in South Africa.
References
External links
Video – The Trojan Horse Massacre, Cape Town South Africa, October 1985, Chris Emerson, CBS, 15 October 1985
Memorial to the Trojan Horse Incident in Cape Town
The people armed, 1984–1990, South African History Online
1985 in South Africa
1985 riots
Events associated with apartheid
Massacres in South Africa
Protests in South Africa
Riots and civil disorder in South Africa
Schools in Cape Town
Educational institutions established in 1951
1951 establishments in South Africa
Athlone, Cape Town
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43507104
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann%20Makowsky
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Johann Makowsky
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Johann (János) A. Makowsky (born March 12, 1948 in Budapest) is a Hungarian born and naturalized Swiss mathematician who works in mathematical logic and the logical foundations of computer science and combinatorics. He studied at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology from 1967-73. He was a student in Zürich of E. Specker and H. Läuchli in mathematical logic, (Diploma in Mathematics and Physics 1971, Dr. math.sc. in 1974), of B. Eckmann (Topology and Geometry) and V. Strassen (Algorithmics), and in Warsaw of A. Mostowski and W. Marek, where he spent 1972 as an exchange student. Makowsky held visiting positions at Banach Center in Warsaw (Poland), Stanford University (USA), Simon Fraser University (Canada), University of Florence (Italy), MIT (USA), Lausanne University and ETH Zurich (Switzerland). He held regular positions at the Free University of Berlin and the Technion - Israel Institute of Technology (Haifa, Israel) where he was a full professor.
Among his various contributions are:
In model theory, the solution of two open problems in categoricity theory and his study of logics with various interpolation and compactness properties (partially with S. Shelah and J. Stavi).
In database theory, the first undecidability result of the consequence problem for database dependencies (with A. Chandra and H. Lewis), his work unifying the Entity-Relationship model and the relational model of databases (with V. Markowitz), and his work on Boyce Codd Normal Form (with E.V. Ravve).
In logic programming, his fundamental studies of Horn formulas and their complexity (partially with B. Mahr and A. Itai)
In graph algorithms, his unifying approach to tree-width and clique-width via model theory, leading to a general theory of graph polynomials and their definability in various logical formalisms (partially with I. Averbouch, B. Courcelle, B. Godlin, T. Kotek, U. Rotics and B. Zilber).
Makowsky was a founding member of the European Association of Computer Science Logic in 1992, its vice-president (2002-2004) and president (2004-2009), and was a member of EACSL's executive council till 2014. During his presidency he established the EACSL Ackermann Award for outstanding PhD theses in computer science logic. In 2008, an event dedicated to Makowsky on his 60th birthday was co-located with the annual meeting of the EACSL.
Since 2016, he is a Prof. Emeritus at the Faculty of Computer Science at the Technion, and continues his research and teaching and supervising graduate students
References
External links
1948 births
Living people
Swiss people of Hungarian descent
Swiss mathematicians
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26174248
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firewall%20Forward%20CAM%20125
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Firewall Forward CAM 125
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The Firewall Forward CAM 125 is a four-cylinder, four-stroke, liquid-cooled piston aircraft engine built by Firewall Forward Aero Engines. The engine is based on a Honda automotive piston engine.
Applications
Europa XS
Specifications (CAM 125)
See also
References
Notes
External links
Firewall Forward Aero Engines
1990s aircraft piston engines
Firewall Forward aircraft engines
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6485262
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wabi%20%28software%29
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Wabi (software)
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Wabi is a discontinued commercial software application from Sun Microsystems that implements the Windows Win16 API specification on Solaris and AIX; a version for Linux was also released by Caldera Systems. Wabi runs applications developed for Windows 3.1, Windows 3.11, and Windows for Workgroups.
History
The technology was originally developed by Praxsys Technologies as the result of discussions in 1990 with Interactive Systems Corporation. The assets of Praxsys were acquired by Sun in the fall of 1992. The name "Wabi" was chosen for two reasons: its meaning in Japanese of balance or harmony, which conjured the notion of a more peaceful coexistence between Windows and Unix software; and, the more obvious implication of it standing for Windows Application Binary Interface, although before its release Sun declared that the name was not an acronym.
Wabi 2.2B was licensed by Caldera to allow its users to run Windows applications under Linux, together with the also licensed Merge.
Wabi development was discontinued in December 1997.
Features
Wabi requires a Windows 3.x installation in order to work, meaning that it also requires a Windows license, unlike similar software that endeavors to implement the entire Windows API, such as Wine or select versions of OS/2. The basic premise of the product is to provide an emulation of the lowest layers of the Windows environment in the form of the user.dll, kernel.dll and gdi.dll libraries. As all other Windows dlls depend on these three modules, cloning this functionality allows Windows applications and their associated support dlls to execute correctly on a foreign host system. This approach, as opposed to a full replacement, was thought by the engineering team to be the only rational methodology for success given both the size of Microsoft's ever-expanding efforts and the difficulties of the emulation being precise enough to run commercial grades of software.
Wabi was released for both x86 and SPARC systems and also on PowerPC for AIX. In order to run an x86 Windows environment on SPARC systems, a code translation layer was also provided, which dynamically converts x86 instructions on first use into SPARC instructions.
Standardization attempt
In conjunction with its development of the Wabi software, Sun initiated an effort to create an ISO standard, non-proprietary definition of the Windows API. The Public Windows Interface (PWI) was intended to define a publicly available standard that would help Sun and other companies that wished to clone the Microsoft Windows programming interface (such as Willows TWIN, another LGPL'd implementation of the API), but despite Sun's contention that there was no intellectual property breach, this effort was lobbied against at ISO by Microsoft, being rejected in 1996.
See also
Sun386i
SunPCi
Macintosh Application Environment
Wine - Windows compatibility layer
References
External links
Wabi 2.2 User's Guide
Review of Caldera's Wabi 2.2 for Linux
Wabi for Linux User's Guide
1998 comparison of Caldera's Wabi 2.2B, Wine and Willows Twin Libraries
"Wabi: Caldera's Solution for Windows Applications" (Linux Journal, 1997)
Fun with Caldera WABI
Compatibility layers
Sun Microsystems software
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30717711
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagan%20Technologies
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Lagan Technologies
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Lagan Technologies, part of KANA Software, provides G2C (government to citizen) technology that is claimed to enable governments and citizens to communicate more effectively. Lagan has over 200 public sector customers worldwide. Lagan’s solutions for government Customer Relationship Management (CRM) and Enterprise Case Management (ECM) are offered through several delivery methods including on-premises, on-demand and hosted.
The company was founded in 1994, and was acquired by KANA Software in November 2010. Lagan operates in both North America and the UK with its North American headquarters in Sunnyvale, CA and its European headquarters in Belfast, Northern Ireland.
Company history
Lagan Technologies was first established in 1994 with the launch of its first product, Frontline in 1998, a CRM solution designed to be technology-independent, with an open architecture, fast to implement and flexible to maintain.
Since 1999 Lagan has been wholly focused on delivering CRM, city service and interaction management solutions for government. Frontline fast became the leading CRM solution in the UK local government market, and was being adopted across the wider public sector in areas such as shared services and non-emergency call handling for police authorities.
In 2004, Lagan extended this approach to the non-emergency / 311 and city service sector in the US and Canada, with the release of Frontlink, specifically designed to meet the specialized needs of the North American market.
In 2005, the City of Minneapolis rolled out as the company’s first North American local government customer with Lagan 311.
In 2006, Lagan acquired Peter Martin Associates (PMA), a leader in the development of human services software and the first to offer commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) collaborative case management and eligibility screening solutions specifically tailored to the needs of human services agencies.
In 2007, Lagan Announced its first statewide deployment of Lagan Human Services with customer, Tennessee Department of Human Services, Adult Protective Services Division. Lagan also received its first “Strong Positive” Rating in Leading Analyst Firm’s Local Government CRM Products MarketScope Report and has been recognized in 2008, 2009 and 2010 with the same rating.
In 2009, released initial Cloud software offering Lagan OnDemand with customers that include: Bermuda; Cobb County, GA and Pasadena, CA. Lagan also launched Citizen Mobile Application to Promote Increased Citizen Engagement and Self Service.
In 2010, Lagan entered the Australian market with Lagan Government CRM customer, Brisbane City Council. Lagan was acquired by KANA Software in October 2010 and remains focused on the public sector.
References
External links
Lagan Technologies Home Page
KANA Software Home Page
Software companies based in California
Software companies of the United States
CRM software companies
Multinational companies
American companies established in 1994
Companies based in Sunnyvale, California
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21223314
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transparent%20data%20encryption
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Transparent data encryption
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Transparent Data Encryption (often abbreviated to TDE) is a technology employed by Microsoft, IBM and Oracle to encrypt database files. TDE offers encryption at file level. TDE solves the problem of protecting data at rest, encrypting databases both on the hard drive and consequently on backup media. It does not protect data in transit nor data in use. Enterprises typically employ TDE to solve compliance issues such as PCI DSS which require the protection of data at rest.
Microsoft offers TDE as part of its Microsoft SQL Server 2008, 2008 R2, 2012, 2014, 2016, 2017 and 2019. TDE was only supported on the Evaluation, Developer, Enterprise and Datacenter editions of Microsoft SQL Server, until it was also made available in the Standard edition for 2019. SQL TDE is supported by hardware security modules from Thales e-Security, Townsend Security and SafeNet, Inc.
IBM offers TDE as part of Db2 as of version 10.5 fixpack 5. It is also supported in cloud versions of the product by default, Db2 on Cloud and Db2 Warehouse on Cloud.
Oracle requires the Oracle Advanced Security option for Oracle 10g and 11g to enable TDE. Oracle TDE addresses encryption requirements associated with public and private privacy and security mandates such as PCI and California SB 1386. Oracle Advanced Security TDE column encryption was introduced in Oracle Database 10g Release 2. Oracle Advanced Security TDE tablespace encryption and support for hardware security modules (HSMs) were introduced with Oracle Database 11gR1. Keys for TDE can be stored in an HSM to manage keys across servers, protect keys with hardware, and introduce a separation of duties.
The same key is used to encrypt columns in a table, regardless of the number of columns to be encrypted. These encryption keys are encrypted using the database server master key and are stored in a dictionary table in the database.
Microsoft SQL Server TDE
SQL Server utilizes an encryption hierarchy that enables databases to be shared within a cluster or migrated to other instances without re-encrypting them. The hierarchy consists of a combination of symmetric and asymmetric ciphers:
Windows Data Protection API (DPAPI) protects a single instance-wide Service Master Key (SMK).
The Service Master Key encrypts the Database Master Key (DMK).
The Database Master Key is used in conjunction with a certificate to encrypt the Database Encryption Key.
The Database Encryption Key is used to encrypt the underlying database files with either the AES or 3DES cipher.
The master database that contains various system level information, user accounts and management services is not encrypted.
During database backups, compression occurs after encryption. Due to the fact that strongly encrypted data cannot be significantly compressed, backups of TDE encrypted databases require additional resources.
To enable automatic booting, SQL Server stores the lowest level encryption keys in persistent storage (using the DPAPI store). This presents a potential security issue because the stored keys can be directly recovered from a live system or from backups and used to decrypt the databases.
See also
Disk encryption
Encryption
Hardware security module
References
External links
Alternative 3rd party solution for all SQL Server Editions
Another alternative 3rd party solution for all SQL Server Editions
Enterprise Security Features Supported by Microsoft SQL Server 2008 R2 Editions
Security Features Supported by Microsoft SQL Server 2012 Editions
Understanding Transparent Data Encryption (TDE) (Microsoft)
Using Transparent Data Encryption in Oracle Database 11g
Oracle Transparent Data Encryption best practices
TDE column encryption and TDE tablespace encryption in Oracle Database 11gR1
http://download.oracle.com/docs/cd/B19306_01/network.102/b14268/asotrans.htm#BABDFHHH
P6R's PKCS#11 Provider and Oracle TDE
Disk encryption
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41718757
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zswap
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Zswap
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zswap is a Linux kernel feature that provides a compressed write-back cache for swapped pages, as a form of virtual memory compression. Instead of moving memory pages to a swap device when they are to be swapped out, zswap performs their compression and then stores them into a memory pool dynamically allocated in the system RAM. Later, writeback to the actual swap device is deferred or even completely avoided, resulting in a significantly reduced I/O for Linux systems that require swapping; the tradeoff is the need for additional CPU cycles to perform the compression.
As a result of reduced I/O, zswap offers advantages to various devices that use flash-based storage, including embedded devices, netbooks and similar low-end hardware devices, as well as to other devices that use solid-state drives (SSDs) for storage. Flash memory has a limited lifespan due to its nature, so avoiding it to be used for providing swap space prevents it from wearing out quickly.
Internals
zswap is integrated into the rest of Linux kernel's virtual memory subsystem using the API provided by frontswap, which is a mechanism of the Linux kernel that abstracts various types of storage that can be used as swap space. As a result, zswap operates as a backend driver for frontswap by providing what is internally visible as a pseudo-RAM device. In other words, the frontswap API makes zswap capable of intercepting memory pages while they are being swapped out, and capable of intercepting page faults for the already swapped pages; the access to those two paths allows zswap to act as a compressed write-back cache for swapped pages.
Internally, zswap uses compression modules provided by the Linux kernel's crypto API, which makes it possible, for example, to offload the compression tasks from the main CPU using any of the hardware compression accelerators supported by the Linux kernel. The selection of the desired compression module can be performed dynamically at the boot time through the value of kernel boot parameter ; if not specified, it selects the Lempel–Ziv–Oberhumer (LZO) compression. As of version 3.13 of the Linux kernel, zswap also needs to be explicitly enabled by specifying value for the kernel boot parameter .
The maximum size of the memory pool used by zswap is configurable through the parameter , which specifies the maximum percentage of total system RAM that can be occupied by the pool. The memory pool is not preallocated to its configured maximum size, and instead grows and shrinks as required. When the configured maximum pool size is reached as the result of performed swapping, or when growing the pool is impossible due to an out-of-memory condition, swapped pages are evicted from the memory pool to a swap device on the least recently used (LRU) basis. This approach makes zswap a true swap cache, as the oldest cached pages are evicted to a swap device once the cache is full, making room for newer swapped pages to be compressed and cached.
zbud is a special-purpose memory allocator used internally by zswap for storing compressed pages, implemented as a rewrite of the zbud allocator used by the Oracle's zcache, which is another virtual memory compression implementation for the Linux kernel. Internally, zbud works by storing up to two compressed pages ("buddies", hence the allocator name) per physical memory page, which brings both advantages due to easy coalescing and reusing of freed space, and disadvantages due to possible lower memory utilization. However, as a result of its design, zbud cannot allocate more memory space than it would be originally occupied by the uncompressed pages.
History
Both zswap and zbud were created by Seth Jennings. The first public announcement was in December 2012, and the development continued until May 2013 at which point the codebase reached its maturity although still having the status of an experimental kernel feature.
zswap (together with zbud) was merged into the Linux kernel mainline in kernel version 3.11, which was released on September 2, 2013.
Since version 3.15 of the Linux kernel, which was released on June 8, 2014, zswap properly supports multiple swap devices.
Alternatives
One of the alternatives to zswap is zram, which provides a similar but still different "swap compressed pages to RAM" mechanism to the Linux kernel.
The main difference is that zram provides a compressed block device using RAM for storing data, which acts as a regular and separate swap device.
In comparison, zswap acts as a RAM-based cache for swap devices. This provides zswap with an eviction mechanism for less used swapped pages, which zram lacks. Though, as a result of its design, at least one already existing swap device is required for zswap to be used.
See also
Cache (computing)
Linux swap
Swap partitions on SSDs
References
External links
zswap Linux Kernel documentation
, September 30, 2013, by Seth Jennings
Zswap a compressed page add-on for the Linux kswapd, University of Liege, March 15, 2013, by Sylvain Martin
The Compression Cache: Virtual Memory Compression for Handheld Computers, March 16, 2000, by Michael J. Freedman
Free software programmed in C
Linux kernel features
Memory management
Virtual memory
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5654541
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software%20security%20assurance
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Software security assurance
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Software security assurance is a process that helps design and implement software that protects the data and resources contained in and controlled by that software. Software is itself a resource and thus must be afforded appropriate security.
Since the number of threats specifically targeting software is increasing, the security of our software that we produce or procure must be assured. "Dependence on information technology makes software assurance a key element of business
continuity, national security, and homeland security."
What is software security assurance?
Software Security Assurance (SSA) is the process of ensuring that software is designed to operate at a level of security that is consistent with the potential harm that could result from the loss, inaccuracy, alteration, unavailability, or misuse of the data and resources that it uses, controls, and protects.
The software security assurance process begins by identifying and categorizing the information that is to be contained in, or used by, the software. The information should be categorized according to its sensitivity. For example, in the lowest category, the impact of a security violation is minimal (i.e. the impact on the software owner's mission, functions, or reputation is negligible). For a top category, however, the impact may pose a threat to human life; may have an irreparable impact on software owner's missions, functions, image, or reputation; or may result in the loss of significant assets or resources.
Once the information is categorized, security requirements can be developed. The security requirements should address access control, including network access and physical access; data management and data access; environmental controls (power, air conditioning, etc.) and off-line storage; human resource security; and audit trails and usage records.
What causes software security problems?
All security vulnerabilities in software are the result of security bugs, or defects, within the software. In most cases, these defects are created by two primary causes: (1) non-conformance, or a failure to satisfy requirements; and (2) an error or omission in the software requirements.
Non-conformance, or a failure to satisfy requirements
A non-conformance may be simple–the most common is a coding error or defect–or more complex (i.e., a subtle timing error or input validation error). The important point about non-conformance is that verification and validation techniques are designed to detect them and security assurance techniques are designed to prevent them. Improvements in these methods, through a software security assurance program, can improve the security of software.
Errors or omissions in software requirements
The most serious security problems with software-based systems are those that develop when the software requirements are incorrect, inappropriate, or incomplete for the system situation. Unfortunately, errors or omissions in requirements are more difficult to identify. For example, the software may perform exactly as required under normal use, but the requirements may not correctly deal with some system state. When the system enters this problem state, unexpected and undesirable behavior may result. This type of problem cannot be handled within the software discipline; it results from a failure of the system and software engineering processes which developed and allocated the system requirements to the software.
Software security assurance activities
There are two basic types of Software Security Assurance activities.
Some focus on ensuring that information processed by an information system is assigned a proper sensitivity category, and that the appropriate protection requirements have been developed and met in the system.
Others focus on ensuring the control and protection of the software, as well as that of the software support tools and data.
At a minimum, a software security assurance program should ensure that:
A security evaluation has been performed for the software.
Security requirements have been established for the software.
Security requirements have been established for the software development and/or operations and maintenance (O&M) processes.
Each software review, or audit, includes an evaluation of the security requirements.
A configuration management and corrective action process is in place to provide security for the existing software and to ensure that any proposed changes do not inadvertently create security violations or vulnerabilities.
Physical security for the software is adequate.
Building in security
Improving the software development process and building better software are ways to improve software security, by producing software with fewer defects and vulnerabilities. A first-order approach is to identify the critical software components that control security-related functions and pay special attention to them throughout the development and testing process. This approach helps to focus scarce security resources on the most critical areas.
Tools and techniques
There are many commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) software packages that are available to support software security assurance activities. However, before they are used, these tools must be carefully evaluated and their effectiveness must be assured.
Common weaknesses enumeration
One way to improve software security is to gain a better understanding of the most common weaknesses that can affect software security. With that in mind, there is a current community-based program called the Common Weaknesses Enumeration project, which is sponsored by The Mitre Corporation to identify and describe such weaknesses. The list, which is currently in a very preliminary form, contains descriptions of common software weaknesses, faults, and flaws.
Security architecture/design analysis
Security architecture/design analysis verifies that the software design correctly implements security requirements. Generally speaking, there are four basic techniques that are used for security architecture/design analysis.
Logic analysis
Logic analysis evaluates the equations, algorithms, and control logic of the software design.
Data analysis
Data analysis evaluates the description and intended usage of each data item used in design of the software component. The use of interrupts and their effect on data should receive special attention to ensure interrupt handling routines do not alter critical data used by other routines.
Interface analysis
Interface analysis verifies the proper design of a software component's interfaces with other components of the system, including computer hardware, software, and end-users.
Constraint analysis
Constraint analysis evaluates the design of a software component against restrictions imposed by requirements and real-world limitations. The design must be responsive to all known or anticipated restrictions on the software component. These restrictions may include timing, sizing, and throughput constraints, input and output data limitations, equation and algorithm limitations, and other design limitations.
Secure code reviews, inspections, and walkthroughs
Code analysis verifies that the software source code is written correctly, implements the desired design, and does not violate any security requirements. Generally speaking, the techniques used in the performance of code analysis mirror those used in design analysis.
Secure Code reviews are conducted during and at the end of the development phase to determine whether established security requirements, security design concepts, and security-related specifications have been satisfied. These reviews typically consist of the presentation of material to a review group. Secure code reviews are most effective when conducted by personnel who have not been directly involved in the development of the software being reviewed.
Informal reviews
Informal secure code reviews can be conducted on an as-needed basis. To conduct an informal review, the developer simply selects one or more reviewer(s) and provides and/or presents the material to be reviewed. The material may be as informal as pseudo-code or hand-written documentation.
Formal reviews
Formal secure code reviews are conducted at the end of the development phase for each software component. The client of the software appoints the formal review group, who may make or affect a "go/no-go" decision to proceed to the next step of the software development life cycle.
Inspections and walkthroughs
A secure code inspection or walkthrough is a detailed examination of a product on a step-by-step or line-by-line (of source code) basis. The purpose of conducting secure code inspections or walkthroughs is to find errors. Typically, the group that does an inspection or walkthrough is composed of peers from development, security engineering and quality assurance.
Security testing
Software security testing, which includes penetration testing, confirms the results of design and code analysis, investigates software behaviour, and verifies that the software complies with security requirements. Special security testing, conducted in accordance with a security test plan and procedures, establishes the compliance of the software with the security requirements. Security testing focuses on locating software weaknesses and identifying extreme or unexpected situations that could cause the software to fail in ways that would cause a violation of security requirements. Security testing efforts are often limited to the software requirements that are classified as "critical" security items.
See also
Secure by design
Computer security
Security engineering
Software protection
References
Security engineering
Software quality
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15875142
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fit-PC
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Fit-PC
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The fit-PC is a small, light, fan-less nettop computer manufactured by the Israeli company CompuLab.
Many fit-PC models are available. fit-PC 1.0 was introduced in July 2007, fit-PC Slim was introduced in September 2008, fit-PC 2 was introduced in May 2009, fit-PC 3 was introduced in early 2012, and fit-PC 4 was introduced spring 2014. The device is power-efficient (fit-PC 1 was about 5 W) and therefore considered to be a green computing project, capable of using open source software and creating minimal electronic waste.
Current models
fit-PC2
On February 19, 2009, Compulab announced the fit-PC2, which is "a major upgrade to the fit-PC product line".
Detailed specifications for the fit-PC2 include an Intel Atom Z5xx Silverthorne processor (1.1/1.6/2.0 GHz options), up to 2GB of RAM, 160GB SATA Hard Drive, GigaBit LAN and more. The fit-PC2 is also capable of HD video playback. Its declared power consumption is only 6W, and according to the manufacturer, it saves 96% of the power used by a standard desktop. fit-PC2 is the most power efficient PC on the Energy-Star list.
The fit-PC2 is based on the GMA 500 (Graphics Media Accelerator). Unfortunately the open source driver included in Linux kernel 2.6.39 does not support VA-API video or OpenGL/3D acceleration.
The fit-PC2 is being phased out and is being replaced by the fitlet, the fitlet was designed to replace the groundbreaking (and still popular) CompuLab fit-PC2.
fit-PC2i
On December 2, 2009, Compulab announced the fit-PC2i, a fit-PC2 variation targeting networking and industrial applications.
fit-PC2i adds a second Gbit Ethernet port, Wake-on-LAN, S/PDIF output and RS232 port, has two fewer USB ports, and no IR.
fit-PC3
The fit-PC3 has been released early 2012.
See the fit-PC3 article.
fit-PC4
The fit-PC4 has been released spring 2014.
fitlet
The fitlet has been announced January 14, 2015.
It has 3 CPU/SoC variations, and 5 feature variations, though only 7 models have been announced so far.
Obsolete models
fit-PC Slim
On September 16, 2008, Compulab announced the Fit-PC Slim, which at 11 x 10 x 3 cm is smaller than fit-PC 1.0.
Hardware
fit-PC Slim uses 500 MHz AMD Geode LX800 processor and has 512mb soldered-on RAM. The computer includes a VGA output, a serial port with a custom connector, Ethernet, b/g WLAN, and 3 USB ports (2 on the front panel). The system has an upgradeable 2.5" 60GB ATA hard drive.
Software
fit-PC Slim has General Software BIOS supporting PXE and booting from a USB CDROM or USB thumb drive. It is pre-installed with either Windows Vista or with Ubuntu 8.10 and Gentoo Linux 2008.0 . Also Windows Embedded can be used, or pre-installed on a FlowDrive.
Availability
The fit-PC Slim end-of-life was announced on 19 June 2009 with the general availability of fit-PC2.
fit-PC 1.0
fit-PC 1.0 is an earlier model that has the following differences
Limited to 256mb RAM
No Wi-Fi
Dual 100BaseT Ethernet
Larger form factor - 12 x 11.6 x 4 cm
Only 2 USB ports
Hard disk is upgradeable
No power button and indicator LEDs
5 V power supply
See also
Trim-Slice, an ARM mini-computer also made by CompuLab
Industrial PC
Media center (disambiguation)
Media PC
Nettop
References
External links
fit-PC website
Compulab website
fit-PC Australia website
fit-PC2 Users forum
fit-PC US Website
Computers and the environment
Israeli brands
Linux-based devices
Nettop
Products introduced in 2007
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75080
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20military%20aircraft%20of%20the%20United%20States
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List of military aircraft of the United States
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This list of military aircraft of the United States includes prototype, pre-production, and operational types. For aircraft in service, see the list of active United States military aircraft. Prototypes are normally prefixed with "X" and are often unnamed (note that these are not the same as the experimental X-planes, which are not generally expected to go into production), while pre-production models are usually prefixed with "Y".
The United States military employs a designation and naming system to provide identifications to all aircraft types. Until 1962, the United States Army, United States Air Force (formerly Army Air Force), and United States Navy all maintained separate systems. In September 1962, these were unified into a single system heavily reflecting the Air Force method. For more complete information on the workings of this system, refer to United States Department of Defense Aerospace Vehicle Designations.
This list does not include early aircraft used by the U.S. military during time periods when no numerical designation system was in effect, nor aircraft that did not receive designations for other reasons, such as foreign military aircraft borrowed for testing or civil aircraft impressed into military service during wartime. For these aircraft, see List of undesignated military aircraft of the United States. It also does not include aircraft designated under pre-1962 United States Navy designation systems. For these aircraft, see List of United States Navy aircraft designations (pre-1962).
Prior to 1919
Prior to 1919, all aircraft flown by the Army Air Service were referred to by the designation given to them by their manufacturer. The United States Navy used two designation systems in this time period, but abandoned the second system in 1917 with the country's entry into World War I (WWI). During this period, a variety of both domestic and foreign types were operated, with the latter being the primary front-line types during WWI.
Army Air Service system (1919–1924)
In September 1919, the Army Air Service decided that it needed an organized designation sequence, and adopted fifteen classifications, designated by Roman numerals. Several other unnumbered designations were added later. Each designation was assigned an abbreviation, and each design a number within that abbreviation. Variants were designated by alphabetically appending letters to the design number.
Type O: Foreign-Built Pursuit Aircraft
Fokker D.VII – Fokker
Fokker D.VIII – Fokker
Type I: Pursuit, water-cooled
PW-1 – Engineering Division
PW-2 – Loening
PW-3 – Orenco
PW-4 – Gallaudet
PW-5 – Fokker
PW-6 – Fokker
PW-7 – Fokker
PW-8 – Curtiss
PW-9 – Boeing
Type II: Pursuit, night
PN-1 – Curtiss
Type III: Pursuit, air-cooled
PA-1 – Loening
Type IV: Pursuit, ground attack, 1922
PG-1 – Aeromarine
Type V: Two-seat pursuit
TP-1 – Engineering Division
Type VI: Ground attack, 1920–1922
GA-1 – Boeing
GA-2 – Boeing
Type VII: Infantry liaison
IL-1 – Orenco
Type VIII: Night observation
NO-1 – Douglas
NO-2 – Douglas
Type IX: Artillery observation
AO-1 – Atlantic
Type X: Corps observation
CO-1 – Engineering Division
CO-2 – Engineering Division
CO-3 – Engineering Division
CO-4 – Atlantic
CO-5 – Engineering Division
CO-6 – Engineering Division
CO-7 – Boeing
CO-8 – Atlantic
Type XI: Day bombardment
DB-1 – Gallaudet
Type XII: Night bombardment, short range
NBS-1 – Martin
NBS-2 – Lowe-Willard-Fowler
NBS-3 – Elias
NBS-4 – Curtiss
Type XIII: Night bombardment, long range
NBL-1 – Witteman-Lewis
NBL-2 – Martin
Type XIV: Trainer, air-cooled
TA-1 – Elias
TA-2 – Huff-Daland
TA-3 – Dayton-Wright Aircraft
TA-4 – Engineering Division
TA-5 – Dayton-Wright Aircraft
TA-6 – Huff-Daland
Type XV: Trainer, water-cooled
TW-1 – Engineering Division
TW-2 – Cox-Klemin
TW-3 – Dayton-Wright Aircraft
TW-4 – Fokker
TW-5 – Huff-Daland
Ambulance, 1919–1924
A-1 – Cox-Klemin
A-2 – Fokker
Messenger
M-1 – Engineering Division/Sperry
Pursuit, special
PS-1 – Dayton-Wright
Racer
R-1 – Alfred V. Verville
R-2 – Thomas-Morse
R-3 – Verville-Sperry
R-4 – Loening
R-5 – Thomas-Morse
R-6 – Curtiss
R-7 – Engineering Division
R-8 – Curtiss
Seaplane
S-1 – Loening
Transport
T-1 – Martin
T-2 – Fokker
T-3 – Lowe-Willard-Fowler
Lighter-than-air craft
AC-1 — designed for "long flights and cross-country work", this was a 169 foot long, 180,000 cubic foot buoyancy craft which had one of its earliest long flights in May 1923.
RN-1 — designated "Zodiac", this was a semi-rigid dirigible, 262.5 feet long with a 360,000 cubic foot buoyancy volume.
Army Air Corps/Army Air Forces/Air Force system (1924–1962)
Amphibian
OA: Observation Amphibian (1925–1948)
OA-1 – Loening
OA-2 – Loening
OA-3 Dolphin – Douglas
OA-4 Dolphin – Douglas
OA-5 – Douglas
OA-6 – Consolidated
OA-7 – Douglas
OA-8 – Sikorsky
OA-9 Goose – Grumman (redesignated A-9 in 1948)
OA-10 Catalina – Consolidated (redesignated A-10 in 1948)
OA-11 – Sikorsky
OA-12 Duck – Grumman (redesignated A-12 in 1948)
OA-13 Goose – Grumman
OA-14 Widgeon – Grumman
OA-15 Seabee – Republic
OA-16 Albatross – Grumman (redesignated A-16 in 1948)
A: Amphibian (1948–1962)
A-9 Goose – Grumman (redesignated from OA-9)
A-10 Catalina – Consolidated (redesignated from OA-10)
A-12 Duck – Grumman (redesignated from OA-12)
A-16 Albatross – Grumman (redesignated from OA-16)
Attack
A: Attack (1924–1948)
A-1 – skipped to avoid confusion with the Cox-Klemin XA-1
A-2 – Douglas
A-3 Falcon – Curtiss
A-4 Falcon – Curtiss
A-5 Falcon – Curtiss
A-6 Falcon – Curtiss
A-7 – Fokker-America
A-8 – Curtiss
A-9 – Lockheed
A-10 Shrike – Curtiss
A-11 – Consolidated
A-12 Shrike – Curtiss
A-13 – Northrop
A-14 – Curtiss
A-15 – Martin
A-16 – Northrop
A-17 Nomad – Northrop
A-18 Shrike – Curtiss
A-19 – Vultee
A-20 Havoc – Douglas
A-21 – Stearman
A-22 – Martin
A-23 Baltimore – Martin
A-24 Banshee – Douglas
A-25 Shrike – Curtiss
A-26 Invader – Douglas
A-27 – North American
A-28 Hudson – Lockheed
A-29 Hudson – Lockheed
A-30 – Martin
A-31 Vengeance – Vultee
A-32 – Brewster
A-33 – Douglas
A-34 – Brewster
A-35 Vengeance – Vultee
A-36 Apache/Invader – North American
A-37 – Hughes (unofficial designation created for contract purposes)
A-38 Grizzly – Beechcraft
A-39 – Kaiser-Fleetwings
A-40 – Curtiss
A-41 – Vultee
A-42 Mixmaster – Douglas
A-43 Blackhawk – Curtiss-Wright
A-44 – Convair
A-45 – Martin
Bomber
Until 1926, the Army Air Service had three sequences for bombers. Light bombers were indicated by the LB- prefix, medium bombers by the B- prefix, and heavy bombers by the HB- prefix. In 1926, the three-category system was scrapped and all bombers subsequently built were placed in the B- sequence.
LB: Light Bomber (1924–1926)
LB-1 – Huff-Daland (later Keystone)
LB-2 – Atlantic/Fokker
LB-3 – Keystone
LB-4 – Martin
LB-5 – Keystone
LB-6 – Keystone
LB-7 – Keystone
LB-8 – Keystone
LB-9 – Keystone
LB-10 – Keystone
LB-11 – Keystone
LB-12 – Keystone
LB-13 – Keystone
LB-14 – Keystone
B: Medium Bomber (1924–1926)
B-1 – Huff-Daland
B-2 Condor – Curtiss
HB: Heavy Bomber (1924–1926)
HB-1 – Huff-Daland
HB-2 – Atlantic/Fokker
HB-3 – Huff-Daland
B: Bomber (1926–1962)
B-1 – Huff-Daland/Keystone
B-2 Condor – Curtiss
B-3 – Keystone
B-4 – Keystone
B-5 – Keystone
B-6 – Keystone
B-7 – Douglas
B-8 – Fokker
B-9 – Boeing
B-10 – Martin
B-11 – Douglas
B-12 – Martin
B-13 – Martin
B-14 – Martin
B-15 – Boeing (redesignated from BLR-1)
B-16 – Martin
B-17 Flying Fortress – Boeing
B-18 Bolo – Douglas
B-19 – Douglas (redesignated from BLR-2)
B-20 – Boeing
B-21 – North American
B-22 – Douglas
B-23 Dragon – Douglas
B-24 Liberator – Consolidated
B-25 Mitchell – North American
B-26 Marauder – Martin
B-27 – Martin
B-28 Dragon – North American
B-29 Superfortress – Boeing
B-29D Superfortress – Boeing (redesignated B-50)
B-30 – Lockheed
B-31 – Douglas
B-32 Dominator – Consolidated
B-33 Super Marauder – Martin
B-34 Lexington – Lockheed
B-35 – Northrop
B-36 Peacemaker – Convair
B-36G Peacemaker – Convair (redesignated B-60)
B-37 – Lockheed
B-38 Flying Fortress – Boeing
B-39 Superfortress – Boeing
B-40 Flying Fortress – Boeing
B-41 Liberator – Consolidated
B-42 Mixmaster – Douglas
B-43 Jetmaster – Douglas
B-44 Superfortress – Boeing
B-45 Tornado – North American
B-46 – Convair
B-47 Stratojet – Boeing
B-47C Stratojet – Boeing (redesignated B-56)
B-48 – Martin
B-49 – Northrop
B-50 Superfortress – Boeing (redesignated from B-29D)
B-50C Superfortress – Boeing (redesignated B-54)
B-51 – Martin
B-52 Stratofortress – Boeing
B-53 – Convair
B-54 – Boeing (redesignated from B-50C)
B-55 – Boeing
B-56 – Boeing (redesignated from B-47C)
B-57 Canberra – Martin
B-57D Canberra – Martin
B-57F Canberra – Martin/General Dynamics
B-58 Hustler – Convair
B-59 – Boeing
B-60 – Convair (redesignated from B-36G)
B-61 Matador – Martin
B-62 Snark – Northrop
B-63 RASCAL – Bell
B-64 Navaho – North American
B-65 Atlas – Convair
B-66 Destroyer – Douglas
B-67 Crossbow – Radioplane
B-68 – Martin
B-68 Titan – Martin (conflicting designation, assigned after the original B-68 was canceled)
B-69 Neptune – Lockheed
B-70 Valkyrie – North American
B-71 Blackbird – Lockheed
Beginning with #69, the "M-" (missile) and "B-" (bomber) series diverged. The missiles designated M-69 to M-92, some of which are incorrectly labeled as "formerly designated B-xx" in some sources, never used a "B-" series designation. Beginning with #70, another sequence diverged, the "RS-" (Reconnaissance/Strike) series, which was later changed to the "SR-" (Strategic Reconnaissance) series of the Tri-Service system.
Non-sequential
Some bomber designations were assigned out of sequence.
B-20 Havoc – Douglas (redesignated from A-20 in 1948 after original B-20 was canceled)
B-26 Invader – Douglas (redesignated from A-26 in 1948 after original B-26 was retired)
BLR: Bomber, long range (1935–1936)
A short-lived designation used from 1935–1936 to refer to three long-range bomber projects commissioned by the Army Air Corps. Most of the bombers were night bombers.
BLR-1 – Boeing
BLR-2 – Douglas
BLR-3 – Sikorsky
Cargo
C: Cargo (1924–1962)
C-1 – Douglas
C-2 – Fokker
C-3 – Ford
C-4 – Ford
C-5 – Fokker
C-6 – Sikorsky
C-7 – Fokker
C-8 – Fairchild
C-9 – Ford
C-10 Robin – Curtiss-Wright
C-11 Fleetster – Consolidated
C-12 Vega – Lockheed
C-13 – skipped
C-14 – Fokker
C-15 – Fokker
C-16 – Fokker
C-17 Super Vega – Lockheed
C-18 Monomail – Boeing
C-19 Alpha – Northrop
C-20 – Fokker
C-21 Dolphin – Douglas
C-22 Fleetster – Consolidated
C-23 Altair – Lockheed
C-24 – Fairchild
C-25 Altair – Lockheed
C-26 Dolphin – Douglas
C-27 Airbus – Bellanca
C-28 – Sikorsky
C-29 Dolphin – Douglas
C-30 Condor – Curtiss-Wright
C-31 – Kreider-Reisner
C-32 – Douglas
C-33 – Douglas
C-34 – Douglas
C-35 Electra – Lockheed
C-36 Electra – Lockheed
C-37 Electra – Lockheed
C-38 – Douglas
C-39 – Douglas
C-40 Electra – Lockheed
C-41 – Douglas
C-41A – Douglas
C-42 – Douglas
C-43 Traveller – Beechcraft
C-44 – Messerschmitt
C-45 Expeditor – Beechcraft
C-46 Commando – Curtiss-Wright
C-47 Skytrain – Douglas
C-47F Skytrain – Douglas
AC-47 Spooky – Douglas
C-48 Skytrain – Douglas
C-49 Skytrain – Douglas
C-50 Skytrain – Douglas
C-51 Skytrain – Douglas
C-52 Skytrain – Douglas
C-53 Skytrooper – Douglas
C-54 Skymaster – Douglas
C-55 Commando – Curtiss-Wright
C-56 Lodestar – Lockheed
C-57 Lodestar – Lockheed
C-58 Bolo – Douglas
C-59 Lodestar – Lockheed
C-60 Lodestar – Lockheed
C-61 Forwarder – Fairchild
C-62 – Waco
C-63 Hudson – Lockheed
C-64 Norseman – Noorduyn
C-65 Skycar – Stout
C-66 Lodestar – Lockheed
C-67 Dragon – Douglas
C-68 – Douglas
C-69 Constellation – Lockheed
C-70 Nightingale – Howard
C-70B Nightingale – Howard
C-71 Executive – Spartan
C-72 – Waco
C-73 – Boeing
C-74 Globemaster – Douglas
C-75 – Boeing
C-76 Caravan – Curtiss-Wright
C-77 – Cessna
C-77B/C/D – Cessna
C-78 Bobcat – Cessna
C-79 – Junkers
C-80 – Harlow
C-81 Reliant – Stinson
C-82 Packet – Fairchild
C-83 Coupe – Piper
C-83A – Piper (redesignated L-4C)
C-83B – Piper
C-84 – Douglas
C-85 Orion – Lockheed
C-86 Forwarder – Fairchild
C-87 Liberator Express – Consolidated
C-88 – Fairchild
C-89 – Hamilton
C-90 – Luscombe
C-91 – Stinson
C-92 – Akron-Funk
C-93 Conestoga – Budd
C-94 – Cessna
C-95 Grasshopper – Taylorcraft
C-96 – Fairchild
C-97 Stratofreighter – Boeing
KC-97 Stratofreighter – Boeing
C-98 Clipper – Boeing
C-99 – Convair
C-100 Gamma – Northrop
C-101 Vega – Lockheed
C-102 Sportster – Rearwin
C-103 – Grumman
C-104 – Lockheed
C-105 – Boeing
C-106 Loadmaster – Cessna
C-107 Skycar – Stout
C-108 Flying Fortress – Boeing
C-109 Liberator Express – Consolidated
C-110 – Douglas
C-111 Super Electra – Lockheed
C-112 – Douglas
C-113 Commando – Curtiss-Wright
C-114 Skymaster – Douglas
C-115 Skymaster – Douglas
C-116 Skymaster – Douglas
C-117 Super Skytrain – Douglas
C-117D Super Skytrain – Douglas (redesignated from Navy R4D-8 in 1962)
C-118 Liftmaster – Douglas
C-119 Flying Boxcar – Fairchild
AC-119 – Fairchild
C-120 Packplane – Fairchild
C-121 Constellation – Lockheed
C-121F Constellation – Lockheed
C-122 Avitruc – Chase
C-123 Provider – Fairchild
C-123A – Chase
C-124 Globemaster II – Douglas
C-125 Raider – Northrop
C-126 – Cessna
C-127 Beaver – de Havilland Canada (redesignated to L-20)
C-127 – Douglas (conflicting designation, assigned after original C-127 was redesignated)
C-128 Flying Boxcar – Fairchild
C-129 Super Skytrain – Douglas
C-130 Hercules – Lockheed
C-130J Super Hercules – Lockheed Martin
AC-130 – Lockheed
DC-130 Hercules – Lockheed
EC-130 – Lockheed
EC-130H Compass Call – Lockheed
HC-130 – Lockheed
KC-130 Hercules – Lockheed
LC-130 Hercules – Lockheed
MC-130 – Lockheed
RC-130 Hercules – Lockheed
WC-130 Hercules – Lockheed
C-131 Samaritan – Convair
C-132 – Douglas
C-133 Cargomaster – Douglas
C-134 – Stroukoff
C-135 Stratolifter – Boeing
KC-135 Stratotanker – Boeing
C-136 – Fairchild
C-137 Stratoliner – Boeing
C-138 – reserved for Fokker F27, but never assigned
C-139 – reserved for Lockheed P2V Neptune, but never assigned
C-140 Jetstar – Lockheed
C-141 Starlifter – Lockheed
C-142 – Vought
C-143 – reserved for what would become the X-19, but never officially assigned and later reused in the Tri-Service system
This sequence was restarted at C-1 with the introduction of the Tri-Service system. However, the original sequence was picked up at C-143 starting in 2005, leading to the US military maintaining two separate sequences for cargo aircraft.
Drone
Aerial Target
GL: Target Glider (1922–1935)
GL-1 – McCook Field
GL-2 – McCook Field
GL-3 – McCook Field (incorrectly known as "G-3")
A: Aerial Target (1940–1941)
A-1 – Fleetwings
A-2 – Radioplane
A-3 – Curtiss
A-4 – Douglas
A-5 – Boeing
A-6 – Douglas
A-7 Airacobra – Bell
A-8 Cadet – Culver (redesignated PQ-8)
PQ: Aerial Target, man carrying (1943–1948)
PQ-8 Cadet – Culver (redesignated from A-8)
PQ-9 Cadet – Culver
PQ-10 – Culver
PQ-11 – Fletcher
PQ-12 – Fleetwings
PQ-13 – ERCO
PQ-14 Cadet – Culver
PQ-15 – Culver
OQ: Aerial Target, model airplane (1942–1948)
OQ-1 – skipped
OQ-2 – Radioplane
OQ-3 – Radioplane
OQ-4 – Brunswick-Balke-Collender
OQ-5 – unknown contractor
OQ-6 – Radioplane
OQ-7 – Radioplane
OQ-8 – skipped
OQ-9 – skipped
OQ-10 – skipped
OQ-11 – Simmonds Aerocessories
OQ-12 – Radioplane
OQ-13 – Radioplane
OQ-14 – Radioplane
OQ-15 – unknown contractor
OQ-16 – Frankfort
OQ-17 – Radioplane
OQ-18 – unknown contractor
OQ-19 – Radioplane
BQ: Controllable Bomb (1942–1945)
BQ-1 – Fleetwings
BQ-2 – Kaiser-Fleetwings
BQ-3 – Fairchild
BQ-4 – Interstate
BQ-5 – Interstate
BQ-6 – Interstate
BQ-7 Flying Fortress – Boeing
BQ-8 Liberator – Consolidated
CQ: Target Control (1942–1948)
CQ-1 – Fletcher
CQ-2 – Stinson
CQ-3 Expeditor – Beechcraft
CQ-4 Flying Fortress – Boeing
Q: Drone (1948–1962)
Q-1 – Radioplane
Q-2 Firebee – Ryan
Q-3 – Radioplane
Q-4 – Northrop
Q-5 Kingfisher – Lockheed
Q-6 – WADC
Q-7 – skipped, request for redesignation of QB-17 not approved
Q-8 Cadet – Culver (redesignated from PQ-8)
Q-8 – request for redesignation of QF-80 not approved
Q-9 – WADC
Q-10 – Radioplane
Q-11 – WADC
Q-12 – Beechcraft
Q-13 – skipped
Q-14 Cadet – Culver (redesignated from PQ-14)
Experimental
S: Supersonic/Special Test (1946–1948)
The USAF extablished a separate sequence for purpose-built research aircraft in 1946. Originally designated with the "S" mission letter, the sequence switched to "X" in 1948.
S-1 – Bell
S-2 – Bell
S-3 Stiletto – Douglas
S-4 Bantam – Northrop
S-5 – Bell
X: Experimental (1948–1962)
Below is a list of "X-planes" designated before 1962. For a list of X-planes designated after 1962, see #X: Special research.
X-1 – Bell
X-2 – Bell
X-3 Stiletto – Douglas
X-4 Bantam – Northrop
X-5 – Bell
X-6 – Convair
X-7 – Lockheed
X-8 – Aerojet
X-9 Shrike – Bell
X-10 – North American
X-11 – Convair
X-12 – Convair
X-13 Vertijet – Ryan
X-14 – Bell
X-15 – North American
X-16 – Bell
X-17 – Lockheed
X-18 – Hiller
X-19 – Curtiss-Wright
X-20 Dyna-Soar – Boeing
Fighter
P: Pursuit (1924-1948)
Designated P- for "pursuit" until June 1948, nine months after the United States Air Force was founded. After this, all P- designations were changed to F- ("fighter"), but the original numbers were retained.
P-1 Hawk – Curtiss
P-2 Hawk – Curtiss
P-3 Hawk – Curtiss
P-4 – Boeing
P-5 Hawk – Curtiss
P-6 Hawk – Curtiss
P-7 – Boeing
P-8 – Boeing
P-9 – Boeing
P-10 – Curtiss
P-11 Hawk – Curtiss
P-12 – Boeing
P-13 Viper – Thomas-Morse
P-14 – Curtiss
P-15 – Boeing
P-16 – Berliner-Joyce (redesignated PB-1)
P-17 Hawk – Curtiss
P-18 – Curtiss
P-19 – Curtiss
P-20 – Curtiss
P-21 – Curtiss
P-22 Hawk – Curtiss
P-23 Hawk – Curtiss
P-24 – Lockheed
P-25 – Consolidated
P-26 Peashooter – Boeing
P-27 – Consolidated
P-28 – Consolidated
P-29 – Boeing
P-30 – Consolidated (redesignated PB-2)
P-31 Swift – Curtiss
P-32 – Boeing
P-33 – Consolidated
P-34 – Wedell-Williams
P-35 – Seversky
P-36 Hawk – Curtiss
P-37 – Curtiss
P-38 Lightning – Lockheed
P-39 Airacobra – Bell
P-39E Airacobra – Bell
P-40 Warhawk – Curtiss
P-41 – Seversky
P-42 – Curtiss
P-43 Lancer – Republic
P-44 Rocket – Republic
P-45 – Bell (redesignated P-39C)
P-46 – Curtiss
P-47 Thunderbolt – Republic
P-48 – Douglas
P-49 – Lockheed
P-50 – Grumman
P-51 Mustang – North American
P-52 – Bell
P-53 – Curtiss
P-54 Swoose Goose – Vultee
P-55 Ascender – Curtiss
P-56 Black Bullet – Northrop
P-57 Peashooter – Tucker
P-58 Chain Lightning – Lockheed
P-59 – Bell
P-59 Airacomet – Bell (conflicting designation, assigned after the original P-59 was canceled)
P-60 – Curtiss
P-61 Black Widow – Northrop
P-62 – Curtiss
P-63 Kingcobra – Bell
P-64 – North American
P-65 – Grumman
P-66 Vanguard – Vultee
P-67 Bat – McDonnell
P-68 Tornado – Vultee
P-69 – Republic
P-70 Nighthawk – Douglas
P-71 – Curtiss
P-72 – Republic
P-73 – Hughes (unofficial designation created for contract purposes)
P-74 – skipped
P-75 Eagle – Fisher
P-76 – Bell
P-77 – Bell
P-78 – North American (redesignated P-51B)
P-79 – Northrop
P-80 Shooting Star – Lockheed
P-81 – Convair
P-82 Twin Mustang – North American
P-83 – Bell
P-84 Thunderjet – Republic
P-85 Goblin – McDonnell
P-86 Sabre – North American
P-87 Blackhawk – Curtiss
P-88 Voodoo – McDonnell
P-89 Scorpion – Northrop
P-90 – Lockheed
P-91 Thunderceptor – Republic
P-92 – Convair
Non-sequential
P-322 Lightning – Lockheed (designation of rejected Royal Air Force Lightning Mk Is in USAAF service)
P-400 Airacobra – Bell (designation of former RAF Airacobra Mk Is in USAAF service)
F: Fighter (1948–1962)
F-38 Lightning – Lockheed (redesignated from P-38)
F-39 Airacobra – Bell (redesignated from P-39)
F-40 Warhawk – Curtiss (redesignated from P-40)
F-47 Thunderbolt – Republic (redesignated from P-47)
F-51 Mustang – North American (redesignated from P-51)
F-61 Black Widow – Northrop (redesignated from P-61)
RF-61C Reporter – Northrop (redesignated from F-15)
F-63 Kingcobra – Bell (redesignated from P-63)
F-80 Shooting Star – Lockheed (redesignated from P-80)
F-81 – Convair (redesignated from P-81)
F-82 Twin Mustang – North American (redesignated from P-82)
F-83 – Bell (redesignated from P-83)
F-84 Thunderjet – Republic (redesignated from P-84)
F-84F Thunderstreak – Republic (redesignated from F-96)
F-84H Thunderscreech – Republic
F-85 Goblin – McDonnell (redesignated from P-85)
F-86 Sabre – North American (redesignated from P-86)
F-86C Sabre – North American (redesignated F-93)
F-86D/G/K/L Sabre – North American (redesignated from F-95)
F-87 Blackhawk – Curtiss (redesignated from P-87)
F-88 Voodoo – McDonnell (redesignated from P-88)
F-89 Scorpion – Northrop (redesignated from P-89)
F-90 – Lockheed (redesignated from P-90)
F-91 Thunderceptor – Republic (redesignated from P-91)
F-92 – Convair (redesignated from P-92)
F-93 – North American (redesignated from F-86C)
F-94 Starfire – Lockheed
F-95 – North American (redesignated F-86D)
F-96 – Republic (redesignated F-84F)
F-97 Starfire – Lockheed (redesignated F-94C)
F-98 Falcon – Hughes
F-99 BOMARC – Boeing
F-100 Super Sabre – North American
F-100B Super Sabre – North American (redesignated F-107)
F-101 Voodoo – McDonnell
F-102 Delta Dagger – Convair
F-102B Delta Dagger – Convair (redesignated F-106)
F-103 – Republic
F-104 Starfighter – Lockheed
XF-104 Starfighter – Lockheed
NF-104A Starfighter – Lockheed
F-105 Thunderchief – Republic
F-106 Delta Dart – Convair (redesignated from F-102B)
F-107 – North American (redesignated from F-100B)
F-108 Rapier – North American
F-109 – designation was reserved for the F-101B and Bell D-188A, but never officially assigned
F-110 Spectre – McDonnell Douglas
F-111 Aardvark – General Dynamics
F-111B Aardvark – General Dynamics/Grumman
EF-111A Raven – General Dynamics/Grumman
AFTI/F-111A Aardvark – General Dynamics/Boeing
Unofficial designations YF-112 and up were later assigned to black projects.
Non-sequential
F-24 Banshee – Douglas (redesignated from A-24 in 1948)
FM: Fighter, Multiplace
FM-1 Airacuda – Bell
FM-2 – Lockheed (redesignated from PB-3)
PB: Pursuit, Biplace
PB-1 – Berliner-Joyce (redesignated from P-16)
PB-2 – Consolidated (redesignated from P-30)
PB-3 – Lockheed (redesignated FM-2)
Glider
AG: Assault Glider (1942–1944)
AG-1 – Christopher
AG-2 – Timm
BG: Bomb Glider (1942–1944)
BG-1 – Fletcher
BG-2 – Fletcher
BG-3 – Cornelius
CG: Cargo Glider (1941–1948)
CG-1 – Frankfort
CG-2 – Frankfort
CG-3 – Waco
CG-4 Hadrian – Waco
CG-5 – St. Louis
CG-6 – St. Louis
CG-7 – Bowlus
CG-8 – Bowlus
CG-9 – AGA Aviation
CG-10 Trojan Horse – Laister-Kauffman
CG-11 – Snead
CG-12 – Read-York
CG-13 – Waco
CG-14 – Chase
CG-15 Hadrian – Waco
CG-16 – General Airborne Transport
CG-17 – Douglas
CG-18 – Chase
CG-19 – Douglas
CG-20 – Chase
FG: Fuel Glider (1930–1948)
FG-1 – Cornelius
PG: Powered Glider (1943–1948)
PG-1 – Northwestern
PG-2 – Ridgefield
PG-3 – Waco
TG: Training Glider (1941–1948)
TG-1 – Frankfort
TG-2 – Schweizer
TG-3 – Schweizer
TG-4 – Laister-Kauffman
TG-5 Grasshopper – Aeronca
TG-6 Grasshopper – Taylorcraft
TG-7 Orlik – Warsztaty Szybowcowe
TG-8 Grasshopper – Piper
TG-9 – Sailplane Corporation of America
TG-10 – Wichita Engineering
TG-11 – Schempp-Hirth
TG-12 – Bowlus
TG-13 – Sailplane Corporation of America
TG-14 – Stiglmeier
TG-15 – Franklin
TG-16 – Schultz
TG-17 – Franklin
TG-18 – Midwest Sailplane
TG-19 – DFS
TG-20 – Schempp-Hirth
TG-21 – Notre Dame
TG-22 – Mehlhose
TG-23 – Harper-Corcoran
TG-24 – Schempp-Hirth
TG-25 Plover – Wolcott
TG-26 – Universal
TG-27 – Schneider
TG-28 Hawk Junior – Haller
TG-29 – Volmer Jensen
TG-30 Bluebird – Smith
TG-31 – Aero Industries
TG-32 – Pratt-Read
TG-33 – Aeronca
G: Glider (1948–1955)
In 1948, all the glider categories were unified into a single sequence.
G-2 – Ridgefield (redesignated from PG-2)
G-3 – Waco (redesignated from PG-3)
G-4 Hadrian – Waco (redesignated from CG-4)
G-10 Trojan Horse – Laister-Kauffman (redesignated from CG-10)
G-13 – Waco (redesignated from CG-13)
G-14 – Chase (redesignated from CG-14)
G-15 Hadrian – Waco (redesignated from CG-15)
G-18 – Chase (redesignated from CG-18)
G-20 – Chase (redesignated from CG-20)
S: Sailplane (1960–1962)
S-1 – Schweizer
S-2 – Schweizer
Liaison
L: Liaison (1942–1962)
L-1 Vigilant – Stinson (redesignated from O-49 in 1942)
L-2 Grasshopper – Taylorcraft (redesignated from O-57 in 1942)
L-3 Grasshopper – Aeronca (redesignated from O-58 in 1942)
L-4 Grasshopper – Piper (redesignated from O-59 and C-83A in 1942)
L-4F/G Grasshopper – Piper (redesignated from C-83 in 1942)
L-5 Sentinel – Stinson (redesignated from O-62 in 1942)
L-6 Grasshopper – Interstate (redesignated from O-63 in 1942)
L-7 – Universal
L-8 Cadet – Interstate
L-9 – Stinson (redesignated from AT-19 in 1942)
L-10 – Ryan
L-11 – Bellanca
L-12 Reliant – Stinson
L-13 – Stinson/Convair
L-14 Cub – Piper
L-15 Scout – Boeing
L-16 Champion – Aeronca
L-17 Navion – North American/Ryan
L-18 Super Cub – Piper
L-19 Bird Dog – Cessna
L-20 Beaver – de Havilland Canada
L-21 Super Cub – Piper
L-22 Navion – Ryan
L-23 Seminole – Beechcraft
L-24 Courier – Helio
L-25 – McDonnell
L-26 Commander – Aero Design
L-27 – Cessna
L-28 Super Courier – Helio
Observation
O: Observation (1924–1942)
O-1 Falcon – Curtiss
O-2 – Douglas
O-3 Mohawk – Dayton-Wright
O-4 – Martin
O-5 – Douglas
O-6 – Thomas-Morse
O-7 – Douglas
O-8 – Douglas
O-9 – Douglas
O-10 – Loening
O-11 Falcon – Curtiss
O-12 Falcon – Curtiss
O-13 Falcon – Curtiss
O-14 – Douglas
O-15 – Keystone
O-16 Falcon – Curtiss
O-17 Courier – Consolidated
O-18 Falcon – Curtiss
O-19 – Thomas-Morse
O-20 – Thomas-Morse
O-21 – Thomas-Morse
O-22 – Douglas
O-23 – Thomas-Morse
O-24 – Curtiss
O-25 – Douglas
O-26 – Curtiss
O-27 – Fokker
O-28 Corsair – Vought
O-29 – Douglas
O-30 – Curtiss
O-31 – Douglas
O-32 – Douglas
O-33 – Thomas-Morse
O-34 – Douglas
O-35 – Douglas
O-36 – Douglas
O-37 – Keystone
O-38 – Douglas
O-39 Falcon – Curtiss
O-40 Raven – Curtiss
O-41 – Thomas-Morse
O-42 – Thomas-Morse
O-43 – Douglas
O-44 – Douglas
O-45 – Martin
O-46 – Douglas
O-47 – North American
O-48 – Douglas
O-49 Vigilant – Stinson
O-50 – Bellanca
O-51 Dragonfly – Ryan
O-52 Owl – Curtiss
O-53 Havoc – Douglas
O-54 – Stinson
O-55 – ERCO
O-56 Ventura – Lockheed
O-57 Grasshopper – Taylorcraft
O-58 Grasshopper – Aeronca
O-59 Grasshopper – Piper
O-60 – Kellett
O-61 – Pitcairn
O-62 Sentinel – Stinson
O-63 Grasshopper – Interstate
Reconnaissance
F: Photographic Reconnaissance (1930–1948)
F-1 – Fairchild
F-2 Expeditor – Beechcraft
F-3 Havoc – Douglas
F-4 Lightning – Lockheed
F-5 Lightning – Lockheed
F-6 Mustang – North American
F-7 Liberator – Consolidated
F-8 Mosquito – de Havilland
F-9 Flying Fortress – Boeing
F-10 Mitchell – North American
F-11 – Hughes
F-12 Rainbow – Republic
F-13 Superfortress – Boeing
F-14 Shooting Star – Lockheed
F-15 Reporter – Northrop
R: Reconnaissance (1948–1962)
R-11 – Hughes (redesignated from F-11)
R-12 Rainbow – Republic (redesignated from F-12)
R-16 Stratofortress – Boeing
RS: Reconnaissance/Strike (1960–1962)
Both of the following aircraft are numbered in the B- (bomber) sequence.
RS-70 Valkyrie – North American
RS-71 Blackbird – Lockheed
Rotorcraft
G: Gyroplane (1935–1939)
G-1 – Kellett
G-2 – Pitcairn
R: Rotary wing (1941–1948)
In 1941, the category letter R- was allotted for "rotary wing" aircraft, and this designation was used until the founding of the United States Air Force in 1947, at which point the category letter was changed to H-, for "helicopter". However, the original numbering sequence was retained.
R-1 – Platt-LePage
R-2 – Kellett
R-3 – Kellett
R-4 Hoverfly – Sikorsky
R-5 Dragonfly – Sikorsky
R-6 Hoverfly II – Sikorsky
R-7 – Sikorsky
R-8 Kellett
R-9 – Firestone
R-10 – Kellett
R-11 – Rotorcraft
R-12 – Bell
R-13 Sioux – Bell
R-14 – Firestone
R-15 – Bell
R-16 – Piasecki
H: Helicopter (1948–1962)
H-5 Dragonfly – Sikorsky (redesignated from R-5)
H-6 Hoverfly II – Sikorsky (redesignated from R-6)
H-9 – Firestone (redesignated from R-9)
H-10 – Kellett (redesignated from R-10)
H-11 – Rotorcraft (redesignated from R-11)
H-12 – Bell (redesignated from R-12)
H-13 Sioux – Bell (redesignated from R-13)
H-14 – Firestone (redesignated from R-14)
H-15 – Bell (redesignated from R-15)
H-16 – Piasecki (redesignated from R-16)
H-17 – Hughes/Kellett
H-18 – Sikorsky
H-19 Chickasaw – Sikorsky
H-20 Little Henry – McDonnell
H-21 Workhorse/Shawnee – Piasecki
H-22 – Kaman
H-23 Raven – Hiller
H-24 – Seibel
H-25 Army Mule – Piasecki
H-26 Jet Jeep – American Helicopter
H-27 Transporter – Piasecki
H-28 – Hughes
H-29 – McDonnell
H-30 – McCulloch
H-31 – Doman
H-32 Hornet – Hiller
H-33 – Bell
H-34 Choctaw – Sikorsky
H-35 – McDonnell (redesignated from L-25)
H-36 – reserved for secret project LONG EARS
H-37 Mojave – Sikorsky
H-38 – reserved for secret project SHORT TAIL
H-39 – Sikorsky
H-40 – Bell
H-41 Seneca – Cessna
H-42 – Hughes
H-43 Huskie – Kaman
H-44 – reserved for secret project BIG TOM
H-45 – reserved for secret project STEP CHILD
Trainer
AT: Advanced Trainer (1925–1948)
AT-1 – Huff-Daland
AT-2 – Huff-Daland
AT-3 – Boeing
AT-4 Hawk – Curtiss
AT-5 Hawk – Curtiss
AT-6 Texan – North American
AT-7 Navigator – Beechcraft
AT-8 Bobcat – Cessna
AT-9 Jeep – Curtiss-Wright
AT-10 Wichita – Beechcraft
AT-11 Kansan – Beechcraft
AT-12 Guardsman – Republic
AT-13 Gunner – Fairchild
AT-14 Gunner – Fairchild
AT-15 Crewmaker – Boeing
AT-16 – Noorduyn
AT-17 Bobcat – Cessna
AT-18 Hudson – Lockheed
AT-19 Reliant – Stinson
AT-20 Anson – Federal
AT-21 Gunner – Fairchild
AT-22 Liberator – Consolidated
AT-23 Marauder – Martin
AT-24 Mitchell – North American
BC: Basic Combat (1936–1940)
BC-1 – North American
BC-2 – North American
BC-3 – Vultee
BT: Basic Trainer (1930–1948)
BT-1 – Douglas
BT-2 – Douglas
BT-3 – Stearman
BT-4 – Curtiss
BT-5 – Stearman
BT-6 – Consolidated
BT-7 – Consolidated
BT-8 – Seversky
BT-9 – North American
BT-10 – North American
BT-11 – Aircraft Research
BT-12 – Fleetwings
BT-13 Valiant – Vultee
BT-14 – North American
BT-15 Valiant – Vultee
BT-16 Valiant – Vultee
BT-17 – Boeing-Stearman
PT: Primary Trainer (1925–1948)
PT-1 Trusty – Consolidated
PT-2 Trusty – Consolidated
PT-3 Trusty – Consolidated
PT-4 Trusty – Consolidated
PT-5 Trusty – Consolidated
PT-6 – Consolidated
PT-7 Pinto – Mohawk
PT-8 – Consolidated
PT-9 – Stearman
PT-10 – Verville
PT-11 – Consolidated
PT-12 – Consolidated
PT-13 Kaydet – Boeing-Stearman
PT-14 – Waco
PT-15 – St. Louis
PT-16 – Ryan
PT-17 Kaydet – Boeing-Stearman
PT-18 Kaydet – Boeing-Stearman
PT-19 Cornell – Fairchild
PT-20 – Ryan
PT-21 Recruit – Ryan
PT-22 Recruit – Ryan
PT-23 Cornell – Fairchild
PT-24 Tiger Moth – de Havilland
PT-25 – Ryan
PT-26 Cornell – Fairchild
PT-27 Kaydet – Boeing-Stearman
T: Trainer (1948–1962)
In 1948, the Advanced, Basic, and Primary Trainer categories were unified into one sequence. Below are the designations that were assigned before the introduction of the Tri-Service system. For the designations in the same sequence that were assigned after 1962, see #Continued original sequence (1962–present).
T-6 Texan – North American (redesignated from AT-6)
T-7 Navigator – Beechcraft (redesignated from AT-7)
T-11 Kansan – Beechcraft (redesignated from AT-11)
T-13 Valiant – Vultee (redesignated from BT-13)
T-13 Kaydet – Boeing-Stearman (conflicting designation, redesignated from PT-13)
T-17 Kaydet – Boeing-Stearman (redesignated from PT-17)
T-19 Cornell – Fairchild (redesignated from PT-19)
T-28 Trojan – North American
T-29 Samaritan – Convair
T-30 – Douglas
T-31 – Fairchild
T-32 Samaritan – Convair
T-33 Shooting Star – Lockheed
T-34 Mentor – Beechcraft
T-35 Buckaroo – Temco
T-36 – Beechcraft
T-37 Tweet – Cessna
T-38 Talon – Northrop
T-39 Sabreliner – North American
T-40 JetStar – Lockheed
Army system (1956–1962)
In 1956, the U.S. Army adopted a new, and relatively simple, designation system for its aviation assets. Aircraft were divided into three different types – 'A' for fixed-wing aircraft, 'H' for helicopters, or 'V' for V/STOL aircraft, and then were given a mission modifier, which, unlike the USAF system, came after the type code: 'C' for transports, 'O' for observation and reconnaissance aircraft, 'U' for utility types, and 'Z' for experimental aircraft. Aircraft types designated in this system were numbered sequentially.
AC: Airplane, Cargo (1956–1962)
AC-1 Caribou – de Havilland Canada (redesignated CV-2 in 1962, then C-7 in 1967)
AC-2 Buffalo – de Havilland Canada (redesignated CV-7 in 1962, then C-8 in 1967)
AO: Airplane, Observation (1956–1962)
AO-1 Mohawk – Grumman (redesignated OV-1 in 1962)
AO-2 Inflatoplane – Goodyear
AO-3 Inflatoplane – Goodyear
HO: Flying Platform (1956–1956)
HO-1 Pawnee – Hiller (redesignated VZ-1 in 1956)
HO-2 – de Lackner Helicopters (redesignated HZ-1 in 1956)
HC: Helicopter, Cargo (1956–1962)
HC-1A Sea Knight (redesignated H-46 in 1962)
HC-1B Chinook (redesignated H-47 in 1962)
HO: Helicopter, Observation (1956–1962)
HO-1 – Sud-Ouest
HO-2 – Hughes
HO-3 – Brantly
HO-4 – Bell (redesignated H-4 in 1962)
HO-5 – Fairchild Hiller (redesignated H-5 in 1962)
HO-6 – Hughes (redesignated H-6 in 1962)
HU: Helicopter, Utility (1956–1962)
HU-1 Iroquois – Bell (redesignated H-1 in 1962)
HZ: Helicopter, Experimental (1956–1962)
HZ-1 Aerocycle – de Lackner Helicopters
VZ: Vertical Takeoff and Landing Research (1956–1962)
VZ-1 Pawnee – Hiller
VZ-2 – Vertol
VZ-3 Vertiplane – Ryan
VZ-4 Convertiplane – Doak
VZ-5 Fledgling – Fairchild
VZ-6 – Chrysler
VZ-7 – Curtiss-Wright
VZ-8 Airgeep – Piasecki
VZ-9 Avrocar – Avro Canada
VZ-10 Hummingbird – Lockheed (redesignated V-4 in 1962)
VZ-11 Vertifan – Ryan (redesignated as V-5 in 1962)
VZ-12 Kestrel – Hawker Siddeley (redesignated as V-6 in 1962)
Tri-Service system (1962–present)
A: Attack aircraft
A-1 Skyraider – Douglas (redesignated from Navy AD)
A-2 Savage – North American (redesignated from Navy AJ)
A-3 Skywarrior – Douglas (redesignated from Navy A3D)
A-4 Skyhawk – Douglas (redesignated from Navy A4D)
A-5 Vigilante – North American (redesignated from Navy A3J)
A-6 Intruder – Grumman (redesignated from Navy A2F)
A-7 Corsair II – Ling-Temco-Vought
A-8 – skipped
A-9 – Northrop
A-10 Thunderbolt II – Fairchild Republic
A-11 – skipped
A-12 Avenger II – McDonnell Douglas/General Dynamics
Non-sequential designations
F/A-18 Hornet – McDonnell Douglas
F/A-18E/F Super Hornet – Boeing
EA-18G Growler – Boeing
A-26 Invader – Douglas (originally designated A-26, then B-26 after the B-26 Marauder was retired, reverted to original A-26 in Vietnam era)
A-29 Super Tucano – Embraer
A-37 Dragonfly – Cessna (redesignated from AT-37)
B: Bomber
B-1 Lancer – Rockwell
B-2 Spirit – Northrop Grumman
Non-sequential designation
B-21 Raider – Northrop Grumman
Lockheed Martin FB-22 – Lockheed Martin
FB-111 Aardvark – General Dynamics (redesignated F-111G after role change)
C: Transport
C-1 Trader – Grumman (redesignated from Navy TF)
C-2 Greyhound – Grumman
C-3 – Martin (redesignated from Navy RM)
C-4 Academe – Gulfstream
C-5 Galaxy – Lockheed
C-6 – Beechcraft
C-7 Caribou – de Havilland Canada
C-8 Buffalo – de Havilland Canada
C-9 Nightingale/Skytrain II – McDonnell Douglas
C-10 Jetstream – Handley Page
C-10 Extender – McDonnell Douglas (conflicting designation, assigned after original C-10 was canceled)
C-11 – Gulfstream
C-12 Huron – Beechcraft
RC-12 Guardrail – Beechcraft
C-13 – skipped
C-14 – Boeing
C-15 – McDonnell Douglas
C-16 – skipped
C-17 Globemaster III – Boeing
C-18 – Boeing
C-19 – Boeing
C-20 – Gulfstream
C-20F/G/H/J – Gulfstream
C-21 – Learjet
C-22 – Boeing
C-23 Sherpa – Short
C-24 – Douglas
C-25 – Boeing
C-26 – Fairchild
C-27 Spartan – Aeritalia
C-27J Spartan – Alenia
C-28 Titan – Cessna
C-29 – British Aerospace
C-30 – skipped
C-31 Troopship – Fokker
C-32 – Boeing
C-33 – Boeing
C-34 – skipped
C-35 – Cessna
C-36 – skipped
C-37 – Gulfstream
C-38 – Gulfstream
C-39 – skipped
C-40 Clipper – Boeing
C-41 – CASA
C-42 – skipped
C-43 – skipped
C-44 – skipped
C-45 – EADS/Northrop Grumman
C-46 Pegasus – Boeing
Revived 1924-1962 sequence (2005-present)
C-143 – Bombardier
C-144 Ocean Sentry – EADS
C-145 Skytruck – PZL
C-146 Wolfhound – Dornier
C-147 – de Havilland Canada
Non-sequential designations
C-767 – Boeing
C-880 – Convair
D: Unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) control segment
The "D" sequence is assigned to ground control stations for UAVs. This sequence is not applied to aircraft.
E: Special electronic installation
E-1 Tracer – Grumman (redesignated from Navy WF)
E-2 Hawkeye – Grumman (redesignated from Navy W2F)
E-3 Sentry – Boeing
E-4 – Boeing
E-5 Eagle – Windecker
E-6 Mercury – Boeing
E-7 – designation proposed for EC-18B but not approved
E-8 Joint STARS – Northrop Grumman
E-9 Widget – de Havilland Canada
E-10 MC2A – Boeing/Northrop Grumman
E-11 – Bombardier/Northrop Grumman
F: Fighter
F-1 Fury – North American (redesignated from Navy FJ)
F-1E/F Fury – North American (redesignated from Navy FJ-4)
F-2 Banshee – McDonnell (redesignated from Navy F2H)
F-3 Demon – McDonnell (redesignated from Navy F3H)
F-4 Phantom II – McDonnell Douglas (redesignated from Navy F4H and Air Force F-110)
F-5 Freedom Fighter/Tiger II – Northrop
F-5G – Northrop (redesignated to F-20)
F-6 Skyray – Douglas (redesignated from Navy F4D)
F-7 Sea Dart – Convair (redesignated from Navy F2Y)
F-8 Crusader – Vought (redesignated from Navy F8U)
F-9 Panther – Grumman (redesignated from Navy F9F)
F-9F/H/J Cougar – Grumman (redesignated from Navy F9F-6/7/8)
F-10 Skyknight – Douglas (redesignated from Navy F3D)
F-11 Tiger – Grumman (redesignated from Navy F11F)
F-12 – Lockheed
F-12C – Lockheed (unofficial cover designation for the SR-71)
F-13 – skipped
F-14 Tomcat – Grumman
F-15 Eagle – McDonnell Douglas
F-15E Strike Eagle – McDonnell Douglas/Boeing
F-16 Fighting Falcon – General Dynamics/Lockheed Martin
NF-16D VISTA – General Dynamics/Lockheed Martin (redesignated X-62 in 2021)
F-16XL – General Dynamics
F-17 Cobra – Northrop
F/A-18 Hornet – McDonnell Douglas
F/A-18E/F Super Hornet – Boeing
EA-18G Growler – Boeing
F-19 – skipped
F-20 Tigershark – Northrop (redesignated from F-5G)
F-21 Kfir – Israel Aerospace Industries
F-22 Raptor – Lockheed Martin
YF-22 – Lockheed Martin
FB-22 – Lockheed Martin
F-23 Black Widow II – Northrop/McDonnell Douglas
Non-sequential designations
F-35 Lightning II – Lockheed Martin
F-117 Nighthawk – Lockheed
Other designations
Designations YF-110, YF-112 through YF-116, and YF-118 were captured foreign aircraft used for evaluation and aggressor training. They were given designations in sequence—based on chronology—with black project aircraft, continuing the pre-1962 "F" series.
YF-24 – (error?) possible classified project, mentioned in a USAF test pilot's official biography
YF-110 – Mikoyan-Gurevich
YF-110C – Chengdu
YF-112 – Sukhoi
YF-113 – Mikoyan-Gurevich
YF-113B – Mikoyan-Gurevich
YF-113G – possible USAF "black project"
YF-114 – Mikoyan-Gurevich
YF-117
YF-117A – Lockheed (later made official)
YF-117D Tacit Blue – Northrop
YF-118 – Boeing
G: Glider
G-1 – Schweizer
G-2 – Schweizer
G-3 – Schweizer
G-4 – Schweizer
G-5 – Schweizer
G-6 – Schweizer
G-7 – Schweizer
G-8 – Schweizer
G-9 – Schleicher
G-10 – Let
G-11 – Stemme
G-12 – Caproni Vizzola
G-13 – skipped
G-14 – Aeromot
G-15 – Schempp-Hirth
G-15B – Schempp-Hirth
G-16 – DG Flugzeugbau
H: Helicopter
Unlike most other categories of aircraft, the introduction of the tri-service designation system in 1962 did not result in a wholesale redesignation of helicopters. While six types received new designations in the unified, "re-started" sequence, the original "H-" series of designations that started in 1948 was also continued, and no further types of rotorcraft have been designated in the "post-1962" system.
H-1 – Bell
UH-1 Iroquois – Bell (redesignated from Army HU-1 and Air Force H-40, UH-1F redesignated from H-48)
UH-1N Twin Huey – Bell
UH-1Y Venom – Bell
AH-1 Cobra – Bell
AH-1J/T/W SeaCobra/SuperCobra – Bell
AH-1Z Viper – Bell
H-2 Seasprite – Kaman (redesignated from Navy HU2K)
H-2G Super Seasprite – Kaman
H-3 Sea King – Sikorsky (redesignated from Navy HSS-2)
H-3C/E/F Sea King – Sikorsky
H-4 – Bell (redesignated from Army HO-4)
H-5 – Fairchild Hiller (redesignated from Army HO-5)
H-6 Cayuse – Hughes/ McDonnell Douglas/MD Helicopters (redesignated from Army HO-6)
AH-6 Little Bird – Boeing
MH-6 Little Bird – Hughes/ McDonnell Douglas/MD Helicopters
Continuation of 1948 sequence
H-46 Sea Knight – Boeing Vertol
H-47 Chinook – Boeing Vertol
H-48 – Bell (redesignated UH-1F)
H-49 – Boeing Vertol (redesignated H-46B)
H-50 DASH – Gyrodyne
H-51 – Lockheed
H-52 Sea Guard – Sikorsky
H-53 Sea Stallion – Sikorsky
MH-53 Pave Low – Sikorsky
CH-53E Super Stallion – Sikorsky
CH-53K King Stallion – Sikorsky
H-54 Tarhe – Sikorsky
H-55 Osage – Hughes
H-56 Cheyenne – Lockheed
H-57 Sea Ranger – Bell
H-58 Kiowa – Bell
H-59 – Sikorsky
H-60 Black Hawk – Sikorsky
Sikorsky SH-60 Seahawk – Sikorsky
Sikorsky HH-60 Pave Hawk – Sikorsky
Sikorsky MH-60 Jayhawk – Sikorsky
H-61 – Boeing Vertol
H-62 – Boeing Vertol
H-63 Kingcobra – Bell
H-64 Apache – Hughes
H-65 Dolphin – Aérospatiale
H-66 Comanche – Boeing/Sikorsky
H-67 Creek – Bell
H-68 Stingray – Agusta
H-69 – skipped
H-70 Arapaho – Bell
H-71 Kestrel – Lockheed Martin
H-72 Lakota – Eurocopter
H-73 Koala – AgustaWestland
Non-sequential designations
H-90 Enforcer – MD Helicopters
H-92 – Sikorsky
VH-92 – Sikorsky
H-139 Grey Wolf – AgustaWestland
K: Tanker
No specialised types have been acquired to receive a stand-alone 'K for Tanker' designation; for aircraft modified for use as tankers, see the parent aircraft in the proper sequence.
L: Laser-equipped
L-1 – Boeing
O: Observation
O-1 Bird Dog – Cessna (redesignated from Air Force L-19)
O-2 Skymaster – Cessna
O-3 Quiet Star – Lockheed
O-4 – Wren
O-5 ARL – de Havilland Canada
O-6 – de Havilland Canada
P: Maritime patrol
P-1 – skipped
P-2 Neptune – Lockheed (redesignated from Navy P2V)
P-3 Orion – Lockheed (redesignated from Navy P3V)
EP-3 Orion/ARIES – Lockheed
WP-3D Orion – Lockheed
P-4 Privateer – Consolidated (redesignated from Navy PB4Y-2/P4Y-2)
P-5 Marlin – Martin (redesignated from Navy P5M)
P-6 – skipped
P-7 – Lockheed
P-8 Poseidon – Boeing
P-9 – de Havilland Canada
Q: Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV)
Q-1 Predator – General Atomics
Q-1C Gray Eagle – General Atomics
Q-2 Pioneer – AAI/Israel Aerospace Industries
Q-3 Dark Star – Lockheed Martin/Boeing
Q-4 Global Hawk – Northrop Grumman
Q-4C Triton – Northrop Grumman
Q-5 Hunter – Israel Aerospace Industries
Q-6 Outrider – Alliant
Q-7 Shadow – AAI
Q-8 Fire Scout – Northrop Grumman
Q-8C Fire Scout – Northrop Grumman
Q-9 Reaper – General Atomics
Q-10 SnowGoose – MMIST
Q-11 Raven – AeroVironment
Q-12 – AeroVironment
Q-13 – skipped
Q-14 Dragon Eye – AeroVironment
Q-15 Neptune – DRS
Q-16 T-Hawk – Honeywell
Q-17 SpyHawk – MTC Technologies
Q-18 Hummingbird – Boeing
Q-19 Aerosonde – AAI
Q-20 Puma – AeroVironment
Q-20 Avenger – General Atomics (conflicting designation)
Q-21 Integrator – Boeing Insitu
Q-22 – AeroVironment
Q-23 – NASC
Q-24 – Kaman
Q-25 Stingray – Boeing
Q-26 – skipped
Q-27 – Boeing
Non-sequential designations
Q-58 – Kratos
Q-72 Great Horned Owl – Northrop Grumman
Q-170 Sentinel – Lockheed Martin
Q-180 – Northrop Grumman
R: Reconnaissance
R-1 – Lockheed
S: Anti-submarine warfare
S-1 – skipped
S-2 Tracker – Grumman (redesignated from Navy S2F)
S-3 Viking/Shadow – Lockheed
S: Spaceplane
S-1 – DARPA
SR: Strategic Reconnaissance
The "SR" sequence is a continuation of the original USAF bomber sequence, which ended at B-70.
SR-71 Blackbird – Lockheed
SR-72 – Lockheed Martin
T: Trainer
Despite the adoption of the unified Mission Designation System in 1962, only two aircraft were designated in the new sequence, both former Navy types. New trainer aircraft after 1962 continued to use the original sequence. In 1990, an alternate sequence was started, with the first designation being T-1, though the old sequence continues to be used. The next designation available in the 'T' series is T-54 or T-8, depending on which series is continued.
Continued original sequence (1962–present)
Only aircraft designated after the adoption of the Tri-Service system are listed below. For aircraft in the sequence designated before 1962, see #T: Trainer (1948–1962).
T-41 Mescalero – Cessna
T-42 Cochise – Beechcraft
T-43 – Boeing
T-44 Pegasus – Beechcraft
T-45 Goshawk – McDonnell Douglas/BAE Systems
T-46 – Fairchild
T-47 – Cessna
T-48 – Cessna
T-48 MPATS – unknown contractor (conflicting designation, assigned after the original T-48 was canceled)
T-49 – Boeing
T-50 Golden Eagle – Korea Aerospace Industries (designation reserved, none procured)
T-51 – Cessna
T-52 – Diamond
T-53 – Cirrus
1962 redesignations
T-1 SeaStar – Lockheed (redesignated from Navy T2V)
T-2 Buckeye – North American (redesignated from Navy T2J)
1990 Sequence
T-1 Jayhawk – Raytheon/Hawker Beechcraft
T-2 – skipped (T-2 Buckeye was still in service)
T-3 Firefly – Slingsby
T-4 – skipped
T-5 – skipped
T-6 Texan II – Hawker Beechcraft
T-7 Red Hawk – Boeing
U: Utility
U-1 Otter – de Havilland Canada
U-2 – Lockheed (cover designation to hide the aircraft's true role)
U-3 – Cessna (redesignated from Air Force L-27)
U-4 – Aero Commander (redesignated from Air Force L-26)
U-5 Twin Courier – Helio
U-6 Beaver – de Havilland Canada (redesignated from Army L-20)
U-7 Super Cub – Piper (redesignated from Army L-21)
U-8 Seminole – Beechcraft (redesignated from Army L-23)
U-9 – Aero Commander (redesignated from Army L-26)
U-10 Super Courier – Helio (redesignated from Army L-28)
U-11 Aztec – Piper (redesignated from Navy UO)
U-12 – skipped
U-13 – skipped
U-14 – skipped
U-15 – skipped
U-16 Albatross – Grumman (redesignated from Air Force A-16 and Navy UF)
U-17 Skywagon – Cessna
U-18 Navion – North American/Ryan (redesignated from Army L-17)
U-19 Sentinel – Stinson (redesignated from Army L-5)
U-20 – Cessna (redesignated from Air Force C-126)
U-21 Ute – Beechcraft
U-22 Pave Eagle – Beechcraft
U-23 Peacemaker – Fairchild Hiller/Pilatus
U-24 Stallion – Helio
U-25 Guardian – Dassault
U-26 Super Skywagon – Cessna
U-27 Caravan – Cessna
U-28 – Pilatus
Non-sequential designations
U-38 Twin Condor – Schweizer
V: Vertical take-off/short take-off and landing (VTOL/STOL)
V-1 – Grumman (redesignated from Army AO-1)
V-2 – de Havilland Canada (redesignated from Army AC-1)
V-3 – Bell (redesignated from Air Force H-33)
V-4 Hummingbird – Lockheed (redesignated from Army VZ-10)
V-5 Vertifan – Ryan (redesignated from Army VZ-11)
V-6 Kestrel – Hawker Siddeley (redesignated from Army VZ-12)
V-7 Buffalo – de Havilland Canada (redesignated from Army AC-2)
V-8 – Ryan
V-8 Harrier – Hawker Siddeley (conflicting designation, assigned after original V-8 was retired)
V-8B Harrier II – McDonnell Douglas/British Aerospace
V-9 – Hughes
V-10 Bronco – Rockwell/Boeing
V-11 Marvel – Parsons
V-12 – Parsons
V-12 – Rockwell (conflicting designation, assigned after original V-12 was canceled)
V-13 – skipped
V-14 – skipped to avoid confusion with X-14
V-15 – Bell
V-16 Harrier – McDonnell Douglas/British Aerospace (unofficial)
V-17 – assigned to a U.S. Army project but not used
V-18 Twin Otter – de Havilland Canada
V-19 – assigned to a U.S. Navy project but canceled
V-20 Chiricahua – Pilatus
V-21 – rumored designation of an Airship Industries project
V-22 Osprey – Bell/Boeing
V-23 Scout – Dominion
V-24 LightningStrike – Aurora
X: Special research
In addition to aircraft intended to support military operations, the unified system includes experimental craft designed to push the boundaries of aeronautical and aerospace knowledge. These aircraft are designated in the "X-series", which led them to become known as "X-planes". Only those designated after 1962 are listed here. Some aircraft did not have military sponsors, but since they were designated under the same sequence they are listed here. For aircraft in the sequence designated before 1962, see #X: Experimental (1948–1962).
X-21 – Northrop
X-22 – Bell
X-23 PRIME – Martin Marietta (unofficial)
X-24 – Martin Marietta
X-25 – Bensen
X-26 Frigate – Schweizer
X-27 – Lockheed
X-28 – Osprey
X-29 – Grumman
X-30 – Rockwell
X-31 – Rockwell/MBB
X-32 – Boeing
X-33 – Lockheed Martin
X-34 – Orbital
X-35 – Lockheed Martin
X-36 – McDonnell Douglas
X-37 – Boeing
X-38 – NASA/Scaled Composites
X-39 – unknown contractor (unofficial)
X-40 – Boeing
X-41 – unknown contractor
X-42 – unknown contractor
X-43 – NASA
X-44 MANTA – Lockheed Martin
X-44 – Lockheed Martin (conflicting designation)
X-45 – Boeing
X-46 – Boeing
X-47 Pegasus – Northrop Grumman
X-47B – Northrop Grumman
X-47C – Northrop Grumman
X-48 – Boeing
X-49 SpeedHawk – Piasecki
X-50 Dragonfly – Boeing
X-51 Waverider – Boeing
X-52 – skipped
X-53 – Boeing
X-54 – Gulfstream
X-55 – Lockheed Martin
X-56 – Lockheed Martin
X-57 Maxwell – NASA
X-58 – skipped
X-59 QueSST – Lockheed Martin
X-60 – Generation
X-61 Gremlins – Dynetics
X-62 VISTA – General Dynamics (redesignated from NF-16D in 2021)
Z: Lighter-than-air
Z-1 – Goodyear
Z-2 Sentinel – Westinghouse/Airship Industries
Z-3 – American Blimp
Z-4 – Hybrid Air Vehicles
Gallery of the progression of American fighters
Gallery of the progression of American naval fighters
See also
F/A-XX program
List of U.S. DoD aircraft designations
United States military aircraft serial numbers
List of active United States military aircraft
List of undesignated military aircraft of the United States
List of United States Navy aircraft designations (pre-1962)
United States military aircraft engine designations
List of fighter aircraft
List of maritime patrol aircraft
List of airborne early warning aircraft
List of tanker aircraft
United States unified missile designation sequence
References
Citations
Sources
Books
External links
OrBat United States of America – MilAvia Press.com: Military Aviation Publications
U.S. Military Aircraft and Weapon Designations
Designation-Systems.Net
Joe Baugher Homepage
Main Aircraft Page
National Museum of the USAF – Home
Brown-Shoe Navy: U.S. Naval Aviation
Uncommon Aircraft
United States, List of military aircraft of
Aircraft
it:Designazione degli aerei USA
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meanings%20of%20minor-planet%20names%3A%201%E2%80%931000
|
Meanings of minor-planet names: 1–1000
|
1–100
|-
| 1 Ceres || – || Ceres, Roman goddess of agriculture, grain crops, fertility and motherly relationships ||
|-id=002
| 2 Pallas || – || Athena (Pallas), Greek goddess of wisdom, handicraft, and warfare ||
|-id=003
| 3 Juno || – || Juno, Roman goddess of marriage and childbirth ||
|-id=004
| 4 Vesta || – || Vesta, Roman goddess of the hearth, home, and family ||
|-id=005
| 5 Astraea || – || Astraea, Greek virgin goddess of justice, innocence, purity and precision ||
|-id=006
| 6 Hebe || – || Hebe, Greek goddess of eternal youth, prime of life, and forgiveness. Cupbearer to the gods. ||
|-id=007
| 7 Iris || – || Iris, Greek goddess of the rainbow and messenger of the gods ||
|-id=008
| 8 Flora || – || Flora, Roman goddess of flowers, gardens and spring ||
|-id=009
| 9 Metis || – || Metis, an Oceanid from Greek mythology, one of the many daughters of the Titans Oceanus and Tethys. ||
|-id=010
| 10 Hygiea || – || Hygieia, Greek goddess of health, one of the daughters of Asclepius, god of medicine ||
|-id=011
| 11 Parthenope || – || Parthenope, one of the Sirens in Greek mythology ||
|-id=012
| 12 Victoria || – || Victoria, Roman goddess of victory, daughter of Pallas and Styx ||
|-id=013
| 13 Egeria || – || Egeria, minor Roman goddess and nymph, wife of Numa Pompilius, second king of Rome ||
|-id=014
| 14 Irene || – || Eirene, Greek goddess of peace, daughter of Zeus and Themis ||
|-id=015
| 15 Eunomia || – || Eunomia, minor Greek goddess of law and legislation, daughter of Zeus and Themis ||
|-id=016
| 16 Psyche || – || Psyche, Greek nymph and wife of Cupid, god of erotic love and affection ||
|-id=017
| 17 Thetis || – || Thetis, a Nereid (sea nymph) from Greek mythology, one of the 50 daughters of Nereus and Doris. She is the mother of Achilles. ||
|-id=018
| 18 Melpomene || – || Melpomene, the Muse of tragedy in Greek mythology. The nine Muses are the inspirational goddesses of literature, science, and the arts. They are the daughters of Zeus and Mnemosyne. ||
|-id=019
| 19 Fortuna || – || Fortuna, Roman goddess of chance, luck and fate ||
|-id=020
| 20 Massalia || – || The city of Marseilles (by its Latin name) in south-western France ||
|-id=021
| 21 Lutetia || – || The city of Paris, capital of France, named by its Latin name, Lutetia. This asteroid was the first minor planet discovered by an amateur astronomer. ||
|-id=022
| 22 Kalliope || – || Calliope, the Muse of epic, heroic poetry in Greek mythology. The nine Muses are the inspirational goddesses of literature, science, and the arts. They are the daughters of Zeus and Mnemosyne. ||
|-id=023
| 23 Thalia || – || Thalia, the Muse of comedy in Greek mythology. The nine Muses are the inspirational goddesses of literature, science, and the arts. They are the daughters of Zeus and Mnemosyne. ||
|-id=024
| 24 Themis || – || Themis, goddess of law in Greek mythology. She is one of the 12 first-generation Titans, the children of Uranus (Father Sky) and Gaea (Mother Earth). ||
|-id=025
| 25 Phocaea || – || The ancient city of Phocaea, located on the western coast of Anatolia (Asia minor). The Greek settlers from Phocaea founded the colony of modern-day Marseille, France, where this asteroid was discovered at the Marseilles Observatory. ||
|-id=026
| 26 Proserpina || – || Proserpina, Roman goddess of fertility, wine, agriculture. She is the daughter of Ceres and Jupiter, and was abducted by Pluto into the underworld. ||
|-id=027
| 27 Euterpe || – || Euterpe, the Muse of music and lyric poetry in Greek mythology. The nine Muses are the inspirational goddesses of literature, science, and the arts. They are the daughters of Zeus and Mnemosyne. ||
|-id=028
| 28 Bellona || – || Bellona, Roman goddess of war. The daughter of Jupiter and Juno is the consort and sister of Mars. ||
|-id=029
| 29 Amphitrite || – || Amphitrite, sea goddess and wife of Poseidon in Greek mythology. The queen of the sea is either an Oceanid, one of the many daughters of the Titans Oceanus and Tethys or a Nereid (a daughters of the Nereus and Doris). ||
|-id=030
| 30 Urania || – || Urania, the Muse of astronomy in Greek mythology. The nine Muses are the inspirational goddesses of literature, science, and the arts. They are the daughters of Zeus and Mnemosyne. ||
|-id=031
| 31 Euphrosyne || – || Euphrosyne, one of the three Charites (Graces) in Greek mythology. Charites are the daughters of Zeus and Eurynome, an Oceanid (sea nymph). Her other two sisters are Thalia and Aglaea (Aglaja). ||
|-id=032
| 32 Pomona || – || Pomona, Roman goddess of fruit trees, gardens, and orchards. She is the wife of Vertumnus god of seasons, change and plant growth. ||
|-id=033
| 33 Polyhymnia || – || Polyhymnia, the Muse of singing of hymns and rhetoric in Greek mythology. The nine Muses are the inspirational goddesses of literature, science, and the arts. They are the daughters of Zeus and Mnemosyne. ||
|-id=034
| 34 Circe || – || Circe, goddess of magic in Greek mythology. The enchantress tried to influence Odysseus and changed his companions into pigs. ||
|-id=035
| 35 Leukothea || – || Leukothea, daughter of king Cadmus and Harmonia, the goddess of harmony and concord in Greek mythology. Leukothea later became the goddess of the sea and is also known as Ino. ||
|-id=036
| 36 Atalante || – || Atalanta, mythological Greek heroine, who would only marry the man defeating her in a footrace, while those who lost were killed. Hippomenes won the race against her with the help of three sacred apples he received from Aphrodite. ||
|-id=037
| 37 Fides || – || Fides, the Roman goddess of faith, oaths and honesty ||
|-id=038
| 38 Leda || – || Leda, queen of Sparta and mother of Helen of Troy in Greek mythology. She was seduced by Zeus in the guise of a swan (also see Leda and the Swan). ||
|-id=039
| 39 Laetitia || – || Laetitia, Roman goddess of gaiety ||
|-id=040
| 40 Harmonia || – || Harmonia, Greek goddess of harmony and concord. She is the daughter of Ares (god of war) and Aphrodite (goddess of love). ||
|-id=041
| 41 Daphne || – || Daphne, a fresh water nymph (Naiad) in Greek mythology ||
|-id=042
| 42 Isis || – || Isis, the Egyptian goddess who help the dead enter the afterlife. The name also alludes to Isis Pogson (1852–1945), British astronomer and meteorologist and daughter of the discoverer, Norman Pogson. ||
|-id=043
| 43 Ariadne || – || Ariadne, Cretan princess and daughter of king Minos from Greek mythology, who sent every seven years 14 young noble citizens to the labyrinth, to be eaten by the Minotaur. Ariadne fell in love with Theseus and helped him to find his way out of the Minotaur's labyrinth. ||
|-id=044
| 44 Nysa || – || The mythological region of Nysa. In Greek mythology, the mountainous was where the rain nymphs (Hyades) raised the infant god Dionysus. ||
|-id=045
| 45 Eugenia || – || Eugénie de Montijo (1826–1920), Empress of France and mother of Napoleon Eugene, Prince Imperial, after whom Antoine de Saint-Exupéry's character The Little Prince is based. (The asteroid's companion is named Petit-Prince) ||
|-id=046
| 46 Hestia || – || Hestia, Greek goddess of the hearth, home, and family. She is the daughter of the Titans Cronus and Rhea. Alternatively, she is one of the seven Hesperides, nymph daughters of the Titans Atlas and Hesperis. ||
|-id=047
| 47 Aglaja || – || Aglaea (Aglaja), one of the three Charites (Graces) in Greek mythology. Charites are the daughters of Zeus and Eurynome, an Oceanid (sea nymph). Her other two sisters are Thalia and Euphrosyne. ||
|-id=048
| 48 Doris || – || Doris, an Oceanid from Greek mythology, one of the many daughters of the Titans Oceanus and Tethys. Doris and her brother Nereus are the parents of Nerites and 50 Nereids (also sea nymphs). ||
|-id=049
| 49 Pales || – || Pales, Roman goddess of shepherds, flocks and livestock ||
|-id=050
| 50 Virginia || – || The ancient Roman story of Verginia (Virginia), a girl stabbed by her father in order to save her from Appius Claudius Crassus in 448 B.C. It also an allusion to U.S. state of Virginia. ||
|-id=051
| 51 Nemausa || – || The city of Nîmes in southern France (by its Latin name "Nemausa") ||
|-id=052
| 52 Europa || – || Europa, mythological Greek princess, abducted by Zeus in the form of a bull and gave birth to Minos, the first king of Crete. ||
|-id=053
| 53 Kalypso || – || Calypso, an Oceanid from Greek mythology, one of the many daughters of the Titans Oceanus and Tethys. Calypso kept Odysseus prisoner at Ogygia for seven years. ||
|-id=054
| 54 Alexandra || – || Alexander von Humboldt (1769–1859), German explorer ||
|-id=055
| 55 Pandora || – || Pandora, the first human woman in Greek mythology. She was created from clay by Hephaestus at the request of Zeus. ||
|-id=056
| 56 Melete || – || Melete, one of the three original muses before the Nine Olympian Muses were founded. Her sisters were Aoide and Mneme. ||
|-id=057
| 57 Mnemosyne || – || Mnemosyne, the goddess of memory in Greek mythology . She is the mother of the nine Muses with Zeus, and one of the 12 first-generation Titans, the children of Uranus (Father Sky) and Gaea (Mother Earth). ||
|-id=058
| 58 Concordia || – || Concordia, Roman goddess of peace and concord. She is the daughter of Jupiter and Themis. ||
|-id=059
| 59 Elpis || – || Elpis, the personification and spirit of hope in Greek mythology. In the 1860s, there was a dispute about a new nomenclature proposed by Urbain Le Verrier who wanted to name this asteroid after its discoverer, Jean Chacornac (1823–1873). This was rejected by the community of astronomers. The asteroid was then named by Karl L. Littrow on a request by Edmund Weiss since Chacornac refused to submit a name (other than his own). The given name is an allusion to the "hope" that this dispute could be settled. ||
|-id=060
| 60 Echo || – || Echo, an Oread (mountain nymph) in Greek mythology, who, as a punishment, was only able to speak the last words spoken to her. When she fell in love with Narcissus, she was unable to tell him how she felt; and was forced to watch him as he fell in love with himself. ||
|-id=061
| 61 Danaë || – || Danaë, daughter of king Acrisius and mother of hero Perseus by Zeus in Greek mythology. Danaë was confined in a brass tower by her father to keep her a virgin. Zeus however, desired her, and came to her in the form of golden rain which streamed in through the roof of her confinement and down into her womb. ||
|-id=062
| 62 Erato || – || Erato, the Muse of love poetry in Greek mythology. The nine Muses are the inspirational goddesses of literature, science, and the arts. They are the daughters of Zeus and Mnemosyne. ||
|-id=063
| 63 Ausonia || – || The country of Italy, by its ancient Greek name for lower Italy, derived from king Auson, a son of Odysseus and Kallisto. The term "Ausones" was also applied by Greek writers to describe various Italic peoples. ||
|-id=064
| 64 Angelina || – || Astronomical station of Hungarian astronomer Franz Xaver von Zach (1754–1832), near Marseilles in France ||
|-id=065
| 65 Cybele || – || Cybele, mother goddess worshiped as "Mountain Mother" by the Phrygias, and adopted as "Great Mother" by the Greeks and Romans. This asteroid was originally named "Maximiliana", after Maximilian II, king of Bavaria. This non-classical name, however, was rejected by several astronomers, also see . ||
|-id=066
| 66 Maja || – || Maia, one of the Pleiades, the seven daughters of Titan Atlas and Oceanid nymph Pleione. Maia is the mother of the Olympian messenger god Hermes. ||
|-id=067
| 67 Asia || – || Asia, an Oceanid from Greek mythology, one of the many daughters of the Titans Oceanus and Tethys. This was the first asteroid discovered in Asia. English astronomer N. R. Pogson discovered it at Madras Observatory, India, in April 1861. ||
|-id=068
| 68 Leto || – || Leto, Goddess of motherhood in Greek mythology. She is the daughter of the Titans Coeus and Phoebe and mother of Olympian god Apollo. ||
|-id=069
| 69 Hesperia || – || The country of Italy (by its Greek name Hesperia; "setting Sun" or "evening"). This asteroid was discovered one month after the Italian unification was proclaimed on 17 March 1861. ||
|-id=070
| 70 Panopaea || – || Panopaea, a Nereid (sea nymph) from Greek mythology, one of the 50 daughters of Nereus and Doris. She was invoked by sailors during storms. ||
|-id=071
| 71 Niobe || – || Niobe, daughter of king Tantalus in Greek mythology. The gods punished her by killing her seven sons and seven daughters and changing her into a rock. ||
|-id=072
| 72 Feronia || – || Feronia, Roman goddess of groves, wildlife and freedman ||
|-id=073
| 73 Klytia || – || Clytie, an Oceanid from Greek mythology, one of the many daughters of the Titans Oceanus and Tethys ||
|-id=074
| 74 Galatea || – || Galatea, a Nereid (sea nymph) from Greek mythology, one of the 50 daughters of Nereus and Doris, who loved the shepherd Acis. Alternatively, the name may refer to the statue of a woman created by sculptor Pygmalion. ||
|-id=075
| 75 Eurydike || – || Eurydice, an oak nymph and daughter of Apollo in Greek mythology. She was the wife of Orpheus, who failed to bring her back from the dead. With his enchanting music he softened the hearts of the gods who let him descend into the underworld under the condition that he must not look at her until both had reached the upper world. ||
|-id=076
| 76 Freia || – || Freyja, the goddess of love and beauty in Norse mythology ||
|-id=077
| 77 Frigga || – || Frigg, wife of Odin and queen of all the gods in Norse mythology ||
|-id=078
| 78 Diana || – || Diana, goddess of the hunt in Roman mythology. She is the daughter of Jupiter and Latona. Her Greek counterpart is Artemis. ||
|-id=079
| 79 Eurynome || – || Eurynome, an Oceanid from Greek mythology, one of the many daughters of the Titans Oceanus and Tethys. ||
|-id=080
| 80 Sappho || – || Sappho (c. 630 – c. 570 BC), Greek poet who, according to mythology, killed herself by jumping off the cliffs for love of the ferryman Phaon. ||
|-id=081
| 81 Terpsichore || – || Terpsichore, the Muse of dance and chorus in Greek mythology. The nine Muses are the inspirational goddesses of literature, science, and the arts. They are the daughters of Zeus and Mnemosyne. ||
|-id=082
| 82 Alkmene || – || Alcmene, mother of the divine hero Heracles in Greek mythology. Zeus slept with Alcmene disguised as her husband Amphitryon. ||
|-id=083
| 83 Beatrix || – || Beatrice Portinari (1265–1290), beloved of Italian poet Dante Alighieri ||
|-id=084
| 84 Klio || – || Clio, the Muse of history in Greek mythology. The nine Muses are the inspirational goddesses of literature, science, and the arts. They are the daughters of Zeus and Mnemosyne. ||
|-id=085
| 85 Io || – || Io, daughter of Inachus, king of Argos, and one of the mortal lovers of Zeus in Greek mythology. ||
|-id=086
| 86 Semele || – || Semele, the youngest daughter of king Cadmus and the mother of Dionysus by Zeus in Greek mythology ||
|-id=087
| 87 Sylvia || – || Rhea Sylvia, the mythical mother of the twins Romulus and Remus from Roman mythology (Src). Alternatively, it was named after Sylvie Petiaux-Hugo Flammarion, first wife of French astronomer Camille Flammarion (1842–1925) ||
|-id=088
| 88 Thisbe || – || Thisbe, lover of Pyramus in Classical mythology. The two Babylonian lovers are also prominent in the comedy by Shakespeare. ||
|-id=089
| 89 Julia || – || Julia of Corsica (c. died 439), a virgin martyr who is venerated as a Christian saint. ||
|-id=090
| 90 Antiope || – || Antiope, an Amazon and daughter of Ares in Greek mythology. Alternatively, she was the daughter of Nycteus, king of Thebes, and the lover of Zeus. This minor planet is likely the first double asteroid ever discovered. ||
|-id=091
| 91 Aegina || – || Aegina, daughter of the river-god Asopus and the river-nymph Metope. She was changed into the island of Aegina by Zeus. ||
|-id=092
| 92 Undina || – || Heroine of the fairy-tale novella Undine by German writer Friedrich de la Motte Fouqué (1777–1843) ||
|-id=093
| 93 Minerva || – || Minerva, goddess of wisdom and strategic warfare and daughter of Jupiter and Metis in Roman mythology. Her Greek equivalent is Athena. ||
|-id=094
| 94 Aurora || – || Aurora, goddess of the dawn in Roman mythology. Her Greek counterpart is Eos, who is the daughter of the Titans Hyperion and Theia. ||
|-id=095
| 95 Arethusa || – || Arethusa, one of the seven Hesperides, nymph daughters of the Titans Atlas and Hesperis ||
|-id=096
| 96 Aegle || – || Aegle, one of the seven Hesperides, nymph daughters of the Titans Atlas and Hesperis ||
|-id=097
| 97 Klotho || – || Clotho (Klotho), one of the Three Fates or Moirai who spin (Clotho), draw out (Lachesis) and cut (Atropos) the thread of Life in ancient Greek mythology. ||
|-id=098
| 98 Ianthe || – || Ianthe, a girl who married Iphis after Isis turned Iphis from a woman into a man. Alternatively, she was an Oceanid from Greek mythology, one of the many daughters of the Titans Oceanus and Tethys. ||
|-id=099
| 99 Dike || – || Dike, minor Greek goddess of human justice and the spirit of moral order, daughter of Zeus and Themis ||
|-id=100
| 100 Hekate || – || Hecate, Greek goddess (The name "Hecate" also sounds like Greek hekaton meaning "one hundred.") ||
|}
101–200
|-
| 101 Helena || – || Helen of Troy, the most beautiful woman in the world in Greek mythology. The wife of king Menelaus of Sparta was abducted by Paris which led to the Trojan War. ||
|-id=102
| 102 Miriam || – || Miriam, Biblical prophetess ||
|-id=103
| 103 Hera || – || Hera, Greek goddess of marriage, childbirth, and family. She is the daughter of the Titans Cronus and Rhea, and sister and wife of Zeus. ||
|-id=104
| 104 Klymene || – || One of various Greek figures named Clymene ||
|-id=105
| 105 Artemis || – || Artemis, Greek goddess of the hunt, forests, and the Moon. She was the daughter of Zeus by Leto and twin sister of Apollo. Her Roman equivalent is Diana. ||
|-id=106
| 106 Dione || – || Dione, an Oceanid from Greek mythology, one of the many daughters of the Titans Oceanus and Tethys. She was one of the wives of Zeus and mother of Aphrodite, the goddess of love, beauty and sexuality. ||
|-id=107
| 107 Camilla || – || Camilla, queen of the Volsci from Roman mythology. Less likely, the name refers to French astronomer Camille Flammarion (1842–1925). ||
|-id=108
| 108 Hecuba || – || Hecuba, wife of King Priam during the Trojan War in Greek mythology ||
|-id=109
| 109 Felicitas || – || Felicitas, goddess of happiness in Roman mythology. She is often portrayed holding a caduceus (staff) and a cornucopia (horn of plenty). ||
|-id=110
| 110 Lydia || – || Lydia, ancient region of Asia Minor ||
|-id=111
| 111 Ate || – || Atë, goddess of mischief, delusion, ruin, and folly in Greek mythology. She is the daughter of Zeus or of Eris. ||
|-id=112
| 112 Iphigenia || – || Iphigenia, mythological Greek princess ||
|-id=113
| 113 Amalthea || – || Amalthea, mythological Greek nursemaid ||
|-id=114
| 114 Kassandra || – || Cassandra, mythological Trojan prophetess ||
|-id=115
| 115 Thyra || – || Thyra, wife of King Gorm of Denmark ||
|-id=116
| 116 Sirona || – || Sirona, Celtic goddess ||
|-id=117
| 117 Lomia || – || Misspelling of Lamia queen of Libya, lover of Zeus ||
|-id=118
| 118 Peitho || – || Peitho, Greek goddess ||
|-id=119
| 119 Althaea || – || Althaea, Greek mother of Meleager ||
|-id=120
| 120 Lachesis || – || Lachesis, one of the Three Fates or Moirai who spin (Clotho), draw out (Lachesis) and cut (Atropos) the thread of Life in ancient Greek mythology. ||
|-id=121
| 121 Hermione || – || Hermione, mythological Greek princess ||
|-id=122
| 122 Gerda || – || Gerðr, Norse goddess ||
|-id=123
| 123 Brunhild || – || Brünnehilde, Norse Valkyrie ||
|-id=124
| 124 Alkeste || – || Alcestis, mythological Greek woman ||
|-id=125
| 125 Liberatrix || – || Possibly Adolphe Thiers (1797–1877), French president during the Franco-Prussian War. Also possibly Joan of Arc. ||
|-id=126
| 126 Velleda || – || Veleda, Germanic priestess, leader of Batavian uprising against the Romans ||
|-id=127
| 127 Johanna || – || Joan of Arc (1412–1431), saint and heroine of France ||
|-id=128
| 128 Nemesis || – || Nemesis, Greek goddess ||
|-id=129
| 129 Antigone || – || Antigone, mythological Greek princess ||
|-id=130
| 130 Elektra || – || Electra, mythological Greek princess ||
|-id=131
| 131 Vala || – || Völva, mythological Norse prophetess ||
|-id=132
| 132 Aethra || – || Aethra, Greek mother of Theseus ||
|-id=133
| 133 Cyrene || – || Cyrene, Greek lover of Apollo ||
|-id=134
| 134 Sophrosyne || – || Sophrosyne, Plato's concept of moderation ||
|-id=135
| 135 Hertha || – || Nerthus (Hertha), Norse goddess, also see ||
|-id=136
| 136 Austria || – || Austria, country ||
|-id=137
| 137 Meliboea || – || Meliboea, various Greek figures ||
|-id=138
| 138 Tolosa || – || Latin for Toulouse, France ||
|-id=139
| 139 Juewa || – || Chinese for 'Star of China's Fortune' ||
|-id=140
| 140 Siwa || – || Siwa, Slavic goddess ||
|-id=141
| 141 Lumen || – || Lumen : Récits de l'infini, book by Camille Flammarion (1842–1925) ||
|-id=142
| 142 Polana || – || Pula, city now in Croatia ||
|-id=143
| 143 Adria || – || Adriatic Sea ||
|-id=144
| 144 Vibilia || – || Vibilia, Roman goddess and patroness of journeyings ||
|-id=145
| 145 Adeona || – || Adeona, Roman goddess and patroness of homecomings ||
|-id=146
| 146 Lucina || – || Lucina, Roman goddess ||
|-id=147
| 147 Protogeneia || – || Protogeneia, mythological Greek princess ||
|-id=148
| 148 Gallia || – || Gaul, Roman province ||
|-id=149
| 149 Medusa || – || Medusa, mythological Greek monster ||
|-id=150
| 150 Nuwa || – || Nüwa, Chinese mythological figure ||
|-id=151
| 151 Abundantia || – || Abundantia, Roman goddess ||
|-id=152
| 152 Atala || – || Atala, eponymous hero of novel by François-René de Chateaubriand ||
|-id=153
| 153 Hilda || – || Daughter of Austrian astronomer Theodor von Oppolzer (1841–1886) ||
|-id=154
| 154 Bertha || – || Berthe Martin-Flammarion, sister of French astronomer Camille Flammarion (1842–1925) ||
|-id=155
| 155 Scylla || – || Scylla, Greek mythological monster ||
|-id=156
| 156 Xanthippe || – || Xanthippe, wife of Socrates ||
|-id=157
| 157 Dejanira || – || Deianira, mythological Greek princess ||
|-id=158
| 158 Koronis || – || Coronis, various Greek figures ||
|-id=159
| 159 Aemilia || – || Via Aemilia, Roman road ||
|-id=160
| 160 Una || – || Una, character in Edmund Spenser's The Faerie Queene ||
|-id=161
| 161 Athor || – || Hathor, Egyptian goddess ||
|-id=162
| 162 Laurentia || – || Joseph Jean Pierre Laurent (died 1900), French amateur astronomer ||
|-id=163
| 163 Erigone || – || Erigone, various Greek figures ||
|-id=164
| 164 Eva || – || unknown origin of name; it may refer to Eve. ||
|-id=165
| 165 Loreley || – || The Lorelei, character in German folklore ||
|-id=166
| 166 Rhodope || – || Queen Rhodope, Greek mythology ||
|-id=167
| 167 Urda || – || Urd, Norse Norn ||
|-id=168
| 168 Sibylla || – || The Sibyls, Greek prophetesses ||
|-id=169
| 169 Zelia || – || Niece of French astronomer Camille Flammarion (1842–1925) ||
|-id=170
| 170 Maria || – || Maria, sister of Italian astronomer Antonio Abetti (1846–1928) ||
|-id=171
| 171 Ophelia || – || Ophelia, character in Shakespeare's Hamlet ||
|-id=172
| 172 Baucis || – || Baucis, Greek mythological woman ||
|-id=173
| 173 Ino || – || Ino, mythological Greek woman ||
|-id=174
| 174 Phaedra || – || Phaedra, Greek mythological woman ||
|-id=175
| 175 Andromache || – || Andromache, Trojan wife of Hector ||
|-id=176
| 176 Iduna || – || Ydun, a club that hosted an astronomical conference in Stockholm, Sweden (the club was probably named after Iduna, a Norse goddess) ||
|-id=177
| 177 Irma || – || unknown origin of name ||
|-id=178
| 178 Belisana || – || Belisana, Celtic goddess ||
|-id=179
| 179 Klytaemnestra || – || Clytemnestra, Greek mythological queen ||
|-id=180
| 180 Garumna || – || Ancient name for river Garonne, France ||
|-id=181
| 181 Eucharis || – || Eucharis, Greek nymph ||
|-id=182
| 182 Elsa || – || Elsbeth – the Austrian variant of "Elisabeth" a common female first name – and only later changed into a more lyrical "Elsa" with the consent of the discoverer, Johann Palisa. It may also refer to the Empress Elisabeth of Austria (1854–1898), or other person or characters. ||
|-id=183
| 183 Istria || – || Istria, peninsula in Croatia and Slovenia ||
|-id=184
| 184 Dejopeja || – || Deiopaea, Roman nymph ||
|-id=185
| 185 Eunike || – || Eunice (Eunike), a Nereid (sea nymph) from Greek mythology, one of the 50 daughters of Nereus and Doris, whose name means "happy victory". It was chosen to commemorate the Treaty of San Stefano, which was signed two days after the discovery of this asteroid by C. H. F. Peters in March 1878. ||
|-id=186
| 186 Celuta || – || Celuta, the main character in the short novella René by French author François-René de Chateaubriand (1768–1848) ||
|-id=187
| 187 Lamberta || – || Johann Heinrich Lambert (1728–1777), Swiss polymath ||
|-id=188
| 188 Menippe || – || Menippe, Greek daughter of Orion ||
|-id=189
| 189 Phthia || – || Phthia, various Greek figures and places ||
|-id=190
| 190 Ismene || – || Ismene, Greek daughter of Oedipus ||
|-id=191
| 191 Kolga || – || Kólga, daughter of Ægir in Norse mythology ||
|-id=192
| 192 Nausikaa || – || Nausicaa, mythological Greek princess ||
|-id=193
| 193 Ambrosia || – || Ambrosia, Greek food of the gods ||
|-id=194
| 194 Prokne || – || Procne, sister of Philomela in Greek mythology ||
|-id=195
| 195 Eurykleia || – || Eurycleia, Greek nurse of Odysseus ||
|-id=196
| 196 Philomela || – || Philomela, sister of Procne in Greek mythology ||
|-id=197
| 197 Arete || – || Arete, Greek mother of Nausicaa ||
|-id=198
| 198 Ampella || – || Ampelos, Greek friend of Dionysus ||
|-id=199
| 199 Byblis || – || Byblis, Greek mythological woman ||
|-id=200
| 200 Dynamene || – || Dynamene, a Nereid (sea nymph) from Greek mythology, one of the 50 daughters of Nereus and Doris. ||
|}
201–300
|-
| 201 Penelope || – || Penelope, Greek wife of Odysseus ||
|-id=202
| 202 Chryseïs || – || Chryseis, mythological Trojan woman ||
|-id=203
| 203 Pompeja || – || Pompeii, ruined Roman town ||
|-id=204
| 204 Kallisto || – || Callisto, Greek nymph ||
|-id=205
| 205 Martha || – || Martha, woman in the New Testament ||
|-id=206
| 206 Hersilia || – || Hersilia, Roman wife of Romulus ||
|-id=207
| 207 Hedda || – || Hedwig, wife of German astronomer Friedrich August Theodor Winnecke (1835–1897) ||
|-id=208
| 208 Lacrimosa || – || Our Lady of Sorrows, a title referring to Mary, the mother of Jesus ||
|-id=209
| 209 Dido || – || Dido, mythological Carthaginian queen ||
|-id=210
| 210 Isabella || – || Unknown origin of name ||
|-id=211
| 211 Isolda || – || Isolde, heroine of the legend of Tristan and Iseult ||
|-id=212
| 212 Medea || – || Medea, Greek mythological witch ||
|-id=213
| 213 Lilaea || – || Lilaea, Greek Naiad ||
|-id=214
| 214 Aschera || – || Astarte (Aschera, Astoreth), Sidonian and Phoenician goddess of love and fertility, also see ||
|-id=215
| 215 Oenone || – || Oenone, Greek nymph ||
|-id=216
| 216 Kleopatra || – || Cleopatra (69–30 BC), Queen of Egypt ||
|-id=217
| 217 Eudora || – || Eudora, Greek Hyad ||
|-id=218
| 218 Bianca || – || Bianca Bianchi, stage name of the German opera singer Bertha Schwarz (1855–1947) ||
|-id=219
| 219 Thusnelda || – || Thusnelda, wife of Germanic warrior Arminius ||
|-id=220
| 220 Stephania || – || Princess Stéphanie of Belgium (1864–1945) ||
|-id=221
| 221 Eos || – || Eos, Greek goddess ||
|-id=222
| 222 Lucia || – || Lucia, daughter of Austrian explorer Count Johann Nepomuk Wilczek (1837–1922) ||
|-id=223
| 223 Rosa || – || Unknown origin of name ||
|-id=224
| 224 Oceana || – || The Pacific Ocean ||
|-id=225
| 225 Henrietta || – || Henrietta, wife of French astronomer Pierre Janssen (1824–1907) ||
|-id=226
| 226 Weringia || – || Währing, part of Vienna ||
|-id=227
| 227 Philosophia || – || Philosophy ||
|-id=228
| 228 Agathe || – || Agathe, daughter of Austrian astronomer Theodor von Oppolzer (1841–1886) ||
|-id=229
| 229 Adelinda || – || Adelinde Weiss (née Fenzel), wife of Austrian astronomer Edmund Weiss (1837–1917), director of the Vienna Observatory where this asteroid was discovered by Johann Palisa; also see , , and . ||
|-id=230
| 230 Athamantis || – || Athamantis, Greek daughter of Athamas ||
|-id=231
| 231 Vindobona || – || Latin name for Vienna, Austria ||
|-id=232
| 232 Russia || – || Russia, country ||
|-id=233
| 233 Asterope || – || Sterope, Greek Pleiad ||
|-id=234
| 234 Barbara || – || Saint Barbara ||
|-id=235
| 235 Carolina || – || Caroline Island, now part of Kiribati ||
|-id=236
| 236 Honoria || – || Honoria, Roman goddess ||
|-id=237
| 237 Coelestina || – || Coelestine, wife of Austrian astronomer Theodor von Oppolzer (1841–1886) ||
|-id=238
| 238 Hypatia || – || Hypatia (c. 350–415), Greek philosopher ||
|-id=239
| 239 Adrastea || – || Adrasteia, Greek goddess ||
|-id=240
| 240 Vanadis || – || Vanadis, Norse goddess ||
|-id=241
| 241 Germania || – || Latin name for Germany ||
|-id=242
| 242 Kriemhild || – || Kriemhild, mythological Germanic princess ||
|-id=243
| 243 Ida || – || Ida, Cretan nymph, after whom Mount Ida is named, where the mythical dactyls lived ((243) Ida I Dactyl) ||
|-id=244
| 244 Sita || – || Sita, Hindu wife of Rama ||
|-id=245
| 245 Vera || – || Unknown origin of name. The asteroid's name was suggested by the wife of the discoverer, N. R. Pogson (1829–1891) ||
|-id=246
| 246 Asporina || – || Asporina, goddess worshipped in Asia Minor ||
|-id=247
| 247 Eukrate || – || Eukrate, a Nereid (sea nymph) from Greek mythology, one of the 50 daughters of Nereus and Doris. ||
|-id=248
| 248 Lameia || – || Lamia, lover of Zeus ||
|-id=249
| 249 Ilse || – || Ilse, legendary German princess ||
|-id=250
| 250 Bettina || – || Bettina Caroline de Rothschild (1858–1892), Austrian Baroness and wife of Albert Salomon Anselm von Rothschild, who named the asteroid after her. The discoverer, Johann Palisa, reportedly sold the naming rights for 50 pounds in order to help fund his expedition to observe the total solar eclipse of August 29, 1886. Src ||
|-id=251
| 251 Sophia || – || Sophia, wife of German astronomer Hugo von Seeliger (1849–1924) ||
|-id=252
| 252 Clementina || – || Unknown origin of name. The asteroid was named by its discoverer, Henri Joseph Anastase Perrotin (1845–1904) ||
|-id=253
| 253 Mathilde || – || Mathilde, wife of French astronomer Maurice Loewy (1833–1907) ||
|-id=254
| 254 Augusta || – || Auguste von Littrow (1819–1890), author, and champion of women's rights; wife of Austrian astronomer Carl Ludwig von Littrow ||
|-id=255
| 255 Oppavia || – || Opava, now Czech Republic ||
|-id=256
| 256 Walpurga || – || Saint Walpurga ||
|-id=257
| 257 Silesia || – || Silesia, region of central Europe ||
|-id=258
| 258 Tyche || – || Tyche, Greek goddess ||
|-id=259
| 259 Aletheia || – || Veritas (Aletheia), Greek goddess ||
|-id=260
| 260 Huberta || – || Saint Hubertus ||
|-id=261
| 261 Prymno || – || Prymno, one of the Oceanids, daughters of the Titans Oceanus and Tethys in Greek mythology ||
|-id=262
| 262 Valda || – || Unknown origin of name. The asteroid's name was proposed by the Baroness Bettina Caroline de Rothschild, see ||
|-id=263
| 263 Dresda || – || The city of Dresden in Germany ||
|-id=264
| 264 Libussa || – || Libussa, legendary founder of Prague ||
|-id=265
| 265 Anna || – || Anny Weiss (née Kretschmar), daughter-in-law of Austrian astronomer Edmund Weiss (1837–1917), director of the Vienna Observatory where this asteroid was discovered by Johann Palisa; also see and ||
|-id=266
| 266 Aline || – || Linda von Schuster (née Weiss), daughter of Austrian astronomer Edmund Weiss (1837–1917), director of the Vienna Observatory where this asteroid was discovered by Johann Palisa; also see and ||
|-id=267
| 267 Tirza || – || Tirzah, Biblical figure ||
|-id=268
| 268 Adorea || – || Adorea, Roman cake ||
|-id=269
| 269 Justitia || – || Justitia or Themis, Greek goddess ||
|-id=270
| 270 Anahita || – || Anahita, Persian goddess ||
|-id=271
| 271 Penthesilea || – || Penthesilea, mythological Amazon queen ||
|-id=272
| 272 Antonia || – || Unknown origin of name ||
|-id=273
| 273 Atropos || – || Atropos, one of the Three Fates or Moirai who spin (Clotho), draw out (Lachesis) and cut (Atropos) the thread of Life in ancient Greek mythology. ||
|-id=274
| 274 Philagoria || – || Philagoria, recreation club in Olmütz ||
|-id=275
| 275 Sapientia || – || Latin for wisdom ||
|-id=276
| 276 Adelheid || – || Unknown origin of name ||
|-id=277
| 277 Elvira || – || Character in books by Alphonse de Lamartine (1790–1869) ||
|-id=278
| 278 Paulina || – || Unknown origin of name ||
|-id=279
| 279 Thule || – || Thule, mythical northern land (usually identified with Scandinavia) ||
|-id=280
| 280 Philia || – || Philia, Greek nymph ||
|-id=281
| 281 Lucretia || – || Caroline Herschel (1750–1848), German astronomer ||
|-id=282
| 282 Clorinde || – || Clorinda, heroine of Torquato Tasso's poem Jerusalem Delivered ||
|-id=283
| 283 Emma || – || Unknown origin of name ||
|-id=284
| 284 Amalia || – || Unknown origin of name ||
|-id=285
| 285 Regina || – || Unknown origin of name ||
|-id=286
| 286 Iclea || – || Icléa, heroine of French astronomer Camille Flammarion's novel Uranie ||
|-id=287
| 287 Nephthys || – || Nephthys, Egyptian goddess ||
|-id=288
| 288 Glauke || – || Glauke, Greek daughter of Creon ||
|-id=289
| 289 Nenetta || – || French slang for a frivolous woman ||
|-id=290
| 290 Bruna || – || Brno, now Czech Republic ||
|-id=291
| 291 Alice || – || Unknown origin of name. The asteroid was named by the French Astronomical Society (). ||
|-id=292
| 292 Ludovica || – || Unknown origin of name. The asteroid was named by the French Astronomical Society (). ||
|-id=293
| 293 Brasilia || – || Brazil, country ||
|-id=294
| 294 Felicia || – || Unknown origin of name ||
|-id=295
| 295 Theresia || – || Unknown origin of name. Previously, the name was erroneously attributed to Maria Theresa (1717–1780), Holy Roman Empress and queen of Hungary and Bohemia. ||
|-id=296
| 296 Phaëtusa || – || Phaethusa, Greek goddess ||
|-id=297
| 297 Caecilia || – || Unknown origin of name ||
|-id=298
| 298 Baptistina || – || Unknown origin of name ||
|-id=299
| 299 Thora || – || Thor, god of thunder, weather and storms in Norse mythology ||
|-id=300
| 300 Geraldina || – || Unknown origin of name ||
|}
301–400
|-
| 301 Bavaria || – || Bavaria, region of Germany ||
|-id=302
| 302 Clarissa || – || Unknown origin of name ||
|-id=303
| 303 Josephina || – || Discoverer Elia Millosevich simply stated "in homage to a person dear to me" ||
|-id=304
| 304 Olga || – || Olga, niece of German astronomer Friedrich Wilhelm Argelander (1799–1875) ||
|-id=305
| 305 Gordonia || – || James Gordon Bennett Jr. (1841–1918), editor of the New York Herald, founded by his father ||
|-id=306
| 306 Unitas || – || Book by Italian astronomer Angelo Secchi (1818–1878); also named for the unity of Italy ||
|-id=307
| 307 Nike || – || Nike, Greek goddess, and also Nice, France ||
|-id=308
| 308 Polyxo || – || Polyxo, Greek Hyad ||
|-id=309
| 309 Fraternitas || – || Latin for fraternity ||
|-id=310
| 310 Margarita || – || Unknown origin of name ||
|-id=311
| 311 Claudia || – || Unknown origin of name ||
|-id=312
| 312 Pierretta || – || Unknown origin of name ||
|-id=313
| 313 Chaldaea || – || Chaldea, Babylonian nation ||
|-id=314
| 314 Rosalia || – || Unknown origin of name ||
|-id=315
| 315 Constantia || – || Constancy ||
|-id=316
| 316 Goberta || – || Unknown origin of name ||
|-id=317
| 317 Roxane || – || Roxana (c. 340–310 BC), wife of Alexander the Great ||
|-id=318
| 318 Magdalena || – || Unknown origin of name ||
|-id=319
| 319 Leona || – || Unknown origin of name ||
|-id=320
| 320 Katharina || – || Mother of discoverer Johann Palisa (1848–1925) ||
|-id=321
| 321 Florentina || – || Florentine, daughter of the discoverer, Austrian astronomer Johann Palisa ||
|-id=322
| 322 Phaeo || – || Phaeo, Greek Hyad ||
|-id=323
| 323 Brucia || – || Catherine Wolfe Bruce (1816–1900), American patron of astronomy ||
|-id=324
| 324 Bamberga || – || Bamberg, Germany ||
|-id=325
| 325 Heidelberga || – || Heidelberg, Germany ||
|-id=326
| 326 Tamara || – || Tamar of Georgia (c. 1160–1213), queen of Georgia ||
|-id=327
| 327 Columbia || – || Christopher Columbus (1451–1506), an Italian explorer, navigator, who initiated the permanent European colonization of the Americas ||
|-id=328
| 328 Gudrun || – || Gudrun, Norse wife of Sigurd ||
|-id=329
| 329 Svea || – || Sweden ||
|-id=330
| 330 Adalberta || A910 CB || Adalbert Merx (1838–1909), German Protestant theologian and orientalist; father-in-law of the discoverer, Max Wolf ||
|-id=331
| 331 Etheridgea || – || Unknown origin of name ||
|-id=332
| 332 Siri || – || Unknown origin of name ||
|-id=333
| 333 Badenia || 1892 A || Baden, region of Germany ||
|-id=334
| 334 Chicago || 1892 L || Chicago, United States ||
|-id=335
| 335 Roberta || 1892 C || Carl Robert Osten-Sacken (1828–1906), Baltic-German diplomat and entomologist ||
|-id=336
| 336 Lacadiera || 1892 D || La Cadière-d'Azur, village in Var, France ||
|-id=337
| 337 Devosa || 1892 E || Unknown origin of name ||
|-id=338
| 338 Budrosa || 1892 F || Unknown origin of name ||
|-id=339
| 339 Dorothea || 1892 G || Dorothea Klumpke (1861–1942), American astronomer ||
|-id=340
| 340 Eduarda || 1892 H || Heinrich Eduard von Lade (1817–1904), German banker and amateur astronomer ||
|-id=341
| 341 California || 1892 J || California, US state ||
|-id=342
| 342 Endymion || 1892 K || Endymion, Greek mythology ||
|-id=343
| 343 Ostara || 1892 N || Ostara, Old High German name for Eostre, the Anglo-Saxon goddess of spring, reconstructed by Jacob Grimm in his Deutsche Mythologie ||
|-id=344
| 344 Desiderata || 1892 M || Désirée Clary (1777–1860), Queen of Sweden and Norway ||
|-id=345
| 345 Tercidina || 1892 O || Unknown origin of name ||
|-id=346
| 346 Hermentaria || 1892 P || Herment, village in Puy-de-Dôme, France ||
|-id=347
| 347 Pariana || 1892 Q || Unknown origin of name ||
|-id=348
| 348 May || 1892 R || Karl May (1842–1912), German author ||
|-id=349
| 349 Dembowska || 1892 T || Ercole Dembowski (1812–1881), Italian astronomer ||
|-id=350
| 350 Ornamenta || 1892 U || Antoinette Horneman from Scheveningen, daughter of a Dutch mariner. She was a very zealous member of the Société astronomique de France ||
|-id=351
| 351 Yrsa || 1892 V || Unknown origin of name; it may refer to Yrsa, queen in Norse mythology ||
|-id=352
| 352 Gisela || 1893 B || Gisela Wolf, wife of the discoverer, Max Wolf (1863–1932) ||
|-id=353
| 353 Ruperto-Carola || 1893 F || Ruprecht Karls University of Heidelberg ||
|-id=354
| 354 Eleonora || 1893 A || Unknown origin of name ||
|-id=355
| 355 Gabriella || 1893 E || Gabrielle Flammarion (1877–1962), French astronomer ||
|-id=356
| 356 Liguria || 1893 G || Liguria, region of Italy ||
|-id=357
| 357 Ninina || 1893 J || Unknown origin of name ||
|-id=358
| 358 Apollonia || 1893 K || Apollonia, Ancient Greek colony in Illyria ||
|-id=359
| 359 Georgia || 1893 M || King George II of Great Britain (1683–1760) ||
|-id=360
| 360 Carlova || 1893 N || Unknown origin of name ||
|-id=361
| 361 Bononia || 1893 P || Latin name for Bologna, Italy, and for Boulogne-sur-Mer, France ||
|-id=362
| 362 Havnia || 1893 R || Latin name for Copenhagen, Denmark ||
|-id=363
| 363 Padua || 1893 S || Padua, Italy ||
|-id=364
| 364 Isara || 1893 T || River Isère, France ||
|-id=365
| 365 Corduba || 1893 V || Latin name for Córdoba, Spain ||
|-id=366
| 366 Vincentina || 1893 W || Vincenzo Cerulli (1859–1927), Italian astronomer ||
|-id=367
| 367 Amicitia || 1893 AA || Latin for friendship ||
|-id=368
| 368 Haidea || 1893 AB || Unknown origin of name ||
|-id=369
| 369 Aëria || 1893 AE || Air, one of the four classical elements ||
|-id=370
| 370 Modestia || 1893 AC || Modesty ||
|-id=371
| 371 Bohemia || 1893 AD || Bohemia, region of Czech Republic ||
|-id=372
| 372 Palma || 1893 AH || Palma de Mallorca, Spain ||
|-id=373
| 373 Melusina || 1893 AJ || Probably Melusine, mythological French mermaid, associated with the origins of the Lusignan dynasty ||
|-id=374
| 374 Burgundia || 1893 AK || Burgundy, region of France ||
|-id=375
| 375 Ursula || 1893 AL || Unknown origin of name ||
|-id=376
| 376 Geometria || 1893 AM || Geometry ||
|-id=377
| 377 Campania || 1893 AN || Campania, region of Italy ||
|-id=378
| 378 Holmia || 1893 AP || Latin name for Stockholm, Sweden ||
|-id=379
| 379 Huenna || 1894 AQ || Latin name for Hven, Swedish island ||
|-id=380
| 380 Fiducia || 1894 AR || Latin for confidence ||
|-id=381
| 381 Myrrha || 1894 AS || Myrrha, Greek mythological princess ||
|-id=382
| 382 Dodona || 1894 AT || Dodona (now Dodoni), Greece ||
|-id=383
| 383 Janina || 1894 AU || Unknown origin of name ||
|-id=384
| 384 Burdigala || 1894 AV || Latin name for Bordeaux, France ||
|-id=385
| 385 Ilmatar || 1894 AX || Ilmatar, Finnish goddess ||
|-id=386
| 386 Siegena || 1894 AY || Siegen, Germany ||
|-id=387
| 387 Aquitania || 1894 AZ || Aquitaine, region of France ||
|-id=388
| 388 Charybdis || 1894 BA || Charybdis, mythological Greek monster ||
|-id=389
| 389 Industria || 1894 BB || Latin for diligence ||
|-id=390
| 390 Alma || 1894 BC || Alma River on the Crimean peninsula ||
|-id=391
| 391 Ingeborg || 1894 BE || Unknown origin of name; it may refer to Ingeborg from Norse mythology ||
|-id=392
| 392 Wilhelmina || 1894 BF || Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands (1880–1962) ||
|-id=393
| 393 Lampetia || 1894 BG || Lampetia, various Greek figures ||
|-id=394
| 394 Arduina || 1894 BH || Arduenna, Gaulish goddess ||
|-id=395
| 395 Delia || 1894 BK || Alternative name for the Greek goddess Artemis ||
|-id=396
| 396 Aeolia || 1894 BL || Aeolis or Aeolia, an ancient region of Asia Minor; or, the Aeolian Islands, Italy ||
|-id=397
| 397 Vienna || 1894 BM || Vienna, Austria ||
|-id=398
| 398 Admete || 1894 BN || Admete, Greek mythological woman ||
|-id=399
| 399 Persephone || 1895 BP || Persephone, Greek goddess ||
|-id=400
| 400 Ducrosa || 1895 BU || J. Ducros, French mechanician at Nice Observatory ||
|}
401–500
|-
| 401 Ottilia || 1895 BT || Ottilia, character in German folklore ||
|-id=402
| 402 Chloë || 1895 BW || Chloe, shepherdess from Greek mythology ||
|-id=403
| 403 Cyane || 1895 BX || Cyane, a nymph from Greek mythology ||
|-id=404
| 404 Arsinoë || 1895 BY || Arsinoe, mother of Orestes from Greek mythology ||
|-id=405
| 405 Thia || 1895 BZ || Theia, one of the twelve Titans from Greek mythology ||
|-id=406
| 406 Erna || 1895 CB || Erna Bidschof, granddaughter of Austrian astronomer Johann Palisa (1848–1925) ||
|-id=407
| 407 Arachne || 1895 CC || Arachne, Greek mythological woman ||
|-id=408
| 408 Fama || 1895 CD || Pheme (Fama), Roman goddess ||
|-id=409
| 409 Aspasia || 1895 CE || Aspasia (c. 470–400 BC), mistress of Pericles, Greek statesman and general of Athens during its golden age ||
|-id=410
| 410 Chloris || 1896 CH || Chloris, Greek goddess ||
|-id=411
| 411 Xanthe || 1896 CJ || Xanthe, an Oceanid (sea nymph) from Greek mythology. The numerous Oceanids are the daughters of Oceanus and Tethys (Titans). ||
|-id=412
| 412 Elisabetha || 1896 CK || Elise Wolf (1840–1924), mother of the discoverer Max Wolf ||
|-id=413
| 413 Edburga || 1896 CL || unknown origin of name ||
|-id=414
| 414 Liriope || 1896 CN || Liriope, mother of Narcissus from Greek mythology ||
|-id=415
| 415 Palatia || 1896 CO || The Electorate of the Palatinate, region of Germany ||
|-id=416
| 416 Vaticana || 1896 CS || Vatican Hill, Rome ||
|-id=417
| 417 Suevia || 1896 CT || Suevia, a fraternity of Heidelberg University ||
|-id=418
| 418 Alemannia || 1896 CV || Alemannia, a fraternity of Heidelberg University ||
|-id=419
| 419 Aurelia || 1896 CW || unknown origin of name ||
|-id=420
| 420 Bertholda || 1896 CY || Berthold I of Zähringen (c. 1000–1078), Margrave of Baden ||
|-id=421
| 421 Zähringia || 1896 CZ || The Zähringen family of Baden ||
|-id=422
| 422 Berolina || 1896 DA || Berolina, Latin name for the city of Berlin, Germany ||
|-id=423
| 423 Diotima || 1896 DB || Diotima of Mantinea, Greek teacher of Socrates ||
|-id=424
| 424 Gratia || 1896 DF || The Graces, Roman mythology ||
|-id=425
| 425 Cornelia || 1896 DC || Cornelia Africana, daughter of Scipio Africanus ||
|-id=426
| 426 Hippo || 1897 DH || Hippo Regius, now Annaba, ancient town in Algeria ||
|-id=427
| 427 Galene || 1897 DJ || Galene, a Nereid (sea nymph) from Greek mythology, one of the 50 daughters of Nereus and Doris. ||
|-id=428
| 428 Monachia || 1897 DK || Monachia, Latin name for the German city of Munich ||
|-id=429
| 429 Lotis || 1897 DL || Lotis, a nymph in Greek mythology ||
|-id=430
| 430 Hybris || 1897 DM || Hubris, Greek goddess ||
|-id=431
| 431 Nephele || 1897 DN || Nephele, a nymph in Greek mythology ||
|-id=432
| 432 Pythia || 1897 DO || The Pythia, Greek prophetess ||
|-id=433
| 433 Eros || 1898 DQ || Eros, Greek god ||
|-id=434
| 434 Hungaria || 1898 DR || Latin for Hungary, a country in Central Europe ||
|-id=435
| 435 Ella || 1898 DS || unknown origin of name ||
|-id=436
| 436 Patricia || 1898 DT || unknown origin of name ||
|-id=437
| 437 Rhodia || 1898 DP || Rhodia, an Oceanid (sea nymph) from Greek mythology ||
|-id=438
| 438 Zeuxo || 1898 DU || Zeuxo, an Oceanid in Greek mythology ||
|-id=439
| 439 Ohio || 1898 EB || Ohio, U.S. state and river ||
|-id=440
| 440 Theodora || 1898 EC || Theodora, daughter of Julius F. Stone, benefactor and time trustee of the Ohio State University ||
|-id=441
| 441 Bathilde || 1898 ED || unknown origin of name ||
|-id=442
| 442 Eichsfeldia || 1899 EE || The region of Eichsfeld, located in Lower Saxony, Germany ||
|-id=443
| 443 Photographica || 1899 EF || Photography, the method first used by Max Wolf (1863–1932) to discover asteroids ||
|-id=444
| 444 Gyptis || 1899 EL || Gyptis, wife of Protis, founder of Marseille, France ||
|-id=445
| 445 Edna || 1899 EX || Edna, wife of Julius F. Stone, benefactor and time trustee of the Ohio State University ||
|-id=446
| 446 Aeternitas || 1899 ER || Aeternitas, Roman god ||
|-id=447
| 447 Valentine || 1899 ES || Valentine, daughter of Baron Albert von Rothschild (1844–1911), benefactor ||
|-id=448
| 448 Natalie || 1899 ET || unknown origin of name ||
|-id=449
| 449 Hamburga || 1899 EU || The city of Hamburg, Germany ||
|-id=450
| 450 Brigitta || 1899 EV || unknown origin of name ||
|-id=451
| 451 Patientia || 1899 EY || Patientia, Latin for patience ||
|-id=452
| 452 Hamiltonia || 1899 FD || Mount Hamilton, California ||
|-id=453
| 453 Tea || 1900 FA || unknown origin of name ||
|-id=454
| 454 Mathesis || 1900 FC || Greek for (the act of) learning, chosen to mark the 300th anniversary of the Mathematische Gesellschaft in Hamburg founded in 1690 ||
|-id=455
| 455 Bruchsalia || 1900 FG || Bruchsal, Germany ||
|-id=456
| 456 Abnoba || 1900 FH || Abnoba, Celtic goddess ||
|-id=457
| 457 Alleghenia || 1900 FJ || Allegheny Observatory, Pennsylvania, United States ||
|-id=458
| 458 Hercynia || 1900 FK || Latin name for a forested region of Germany ||
|-id=459
| 459 Signe || 1900 FM || Signy, sister of Sigmund in Norse mythology ||
|-id=460
| 460 Scania || 1900 FN || Skåne (Scania), region of Sweden ||
|-id=461
| 461 Saskia || 1900 FP || Saskia van Uylenburgh (1612–1642), wife of Rembrandt ||
|-id=462
| 462 Eriphyla || 1900 FQ || Eriphyle, mythological Greek woman ||
|-id=463
| 463 Lola || 1900 FS || Lola, character in Cavalleria Rusticana, opera by Italian composer Pietro Mascagni (1863–1945) ||
|-id=464
| 464 Megaira || 1901 FV || Megaira, one of the Greek Erinyes (Furies) ||
|-id=465
| 465 Alekto || 1901 FW || Alecto, one of the Greek Erinyes (Furies) ||
|-id=466
| 466 Tisiphone || 1901 FX || Tisiphone, one of the Greek Erinyes (Furies) ||
|-id=467
| 467 Laura || 1901 FY || Laura, character in La Gioconda, opera by Italian composer Amilcare Ponchielli (1834–1886). Alternatively, it may have been named after the character in Sonnets to Laura by Petrarch (1304–1374) ||
|-id=468
| 468 Lina || 1901 FZ || Lina, a maidservant of the discoverer Max Wolf (1863–1932) ||
|-id=469
| 469 Argentina || 1901 GE || Argentina, country in South America ||
|-id=470
| 470 Kilia || 1901 GJ || Latin for Kiel, Germany ||
|-id=471
| 471 Papagena || 1901 GN || Papagena, a character in Mozart's opera The Magic Flute ||
|-id=472
| 472 Roma || 1901 GP || The city of Rome, Italy ||
|-id=473
| 473 Nolli || 1901 GC || Nolli is a nickname for a small child used in Max Wolf's family (discoverer) ||
|-id=474
| 474 Prudentia || 1901 GD || Prudentia, Roman allegorical figure ||
|-id=475
| 475 Ocllo || 1901 HN || Ocllo, Inca queen, named after the wife of one of the four sons of Pirua Wiracocha, creator god of civilization in Inca mythology ||
|-id=476
| 476 Hedwig || 1901 GQ || Hedwig, wife of Swedish–Danish astronomer Elis Strömgren (1870–1947) ||
|-id=477
| 477 Italia || 1901 GR || Italy, country ||
|-id=478
| 478 Tergeste || 1901 GU || Latin name for Trieste, Italy ||
|-id=479
| 479 Caprera || 1901 HJ || Caprera, island in Sardinia, Italy ||
|-id=480
| 480 Hansa || 1901 GL || The Hanseatic League, a medieval confederation of merchant guilds and market towns in Northwestern and Central Europe ||
|-id=481
| 481 Emita || 1902 HP || unknown origin of name ||
|-id=482
| 482 Petrina || 1902 HT || Feminine form of Petrus, Latin for Peter, one of the discoverer's dogs (Max Wolf) ||
|-id=483
| 483 Seppina || 1902 HU || Sepp, name of one of the discoverer's dogs (Max Wolf) ||
|-id=484
| 484 Pittsburghia || 1902 HX || Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States ||
|-id=485
| 485 Genua || 1902 HZ || Latin name for the city of Genova, in Liguria, Italy ||
|-id=486
| 486 Cremona || 1902 JB || The city of Cremona in Lombardy, Italy ||
|-id=487
| 487 Venetia || 1902 JL || The Italian Veneto region with its capital Venice ||
|-id=488
| 488 Kreusa || 1902 JG || Creusa, various Greek figures ||
|-id=489
| 489 Comacina || 1902 JM || Comacina, island in Lake Como, Italy ||
|-id=490
| 490 Veritas || 1902 JP || Veritas, Roman goddess ||
|-id=491
| 491 Carina || 1902 JQ || unknown origin of name ||
|-id=492
| 492 Gismonda || 1902 JR || Gismonda, a figure in The Decameron, a collection of novellas by Italian Giovanni Boccaccio (1313–1375). She is the daughter of Tancred, prince of Salerno. ||
|-id=493
| 493 Griseldis || 1902 JS || Griselda, folk tale heroine ||
|-id=494
| 494 Virtus || 1902 JV || Virtus, Roman god ||
|-id=495
| 495 Eulalia || 1902 KG || The grandmother of the discoverer's wife (Max Wolf) ||
|-id=496
| 496 Gryphia || 1902 KH || Andreas Gryphius, German poet ||
|-id=497
| 497 Iva || 1902 || Iva Shores, daughter of the discoverer's landlord (Raymond Smith Dugan) ||
|-id=498
| 498 Tokio || 1902 KU || The city of Tokyo, Japan ||
|-id=499
| 499 Venusia || 1902 KX || Venusia, an alternative name for the Swedish island of Hven ||
|-id=500
| 500 Selinur || 1903 LA || Selinur, a character in the novel Auch Einer by German Friedrich Theodor Vischer (1807–1887) ||
|}
501–600
|-
| 501 Urhixidur || 1903 LB || Urhixidur, character in the novel Auch Einer by German Friedrich Theodor Vischer (1807–1887) ||
|-id=502
| 502 Sigune || 1903 LC || Sigune, character in the novel Auch Einer by German Friedrich Theodor Vischer (1807–1887). The name may originate from Arthurian legend, where Sigune is the cousin of Parzival. ||
|-id=503
| 503 Evelyn || 1903 LF || Evelyn Smith Dugan, the discoverer's (Raymond Smith Dugan) mother ||
|-id=504
| 504 Cora || 1902 LK || Cora, from Inca mythology. She is the wife of one of the four sons of Pirua Wiracocha, creator god of Inca civilization. Also see . ||
|-id=505
| 505 Cava || 1902 LL || Cava, figure in Inca mythology ||
|-id=506
| 506 Marion || 1903 LN || Marion Orcutt, cousin of American discoverer Raymond Smith Dugan (1878–1940) ||
|-id=507
| 507 Laodica || 1903 LO || Laodice from Greek mythology. She is the daughter of Hecuba and Trojan king Priam. ||
|-id=508
| 508 Princetonia || 1903 LQ || Princeton University, New Jersey, United States ||
|-id=509
| 509 Iolanda || 1903 LR || Unknown origin of name ||
|-id=510
| 510 Mabella || 1903 LT || Mabel Loomis Todd (1856–1932), American editor and writer. She is the daughter of the mathematician Elias Loomis, and the wife of astronomer David Peck Todd (see next entry). ||
|-id=511
| 511 Davida || 1903 LU || David Peck Todd (1855–1939), American astronomer and husband to Mabel Loomis Todd (see previous entry). ||
|-id=512
| 512 Taurinensis || 1903 LV || The city of Turin in northern Italy. Its Latin name is Taurinum. ||
|-id=513
| 513 Centesima || 1903 LY || Centesima, for the 100th discovery of an asteroid made by Max Wolf (1863–1932) ||
|-id=514
| 514 Armida || 1903 MB || Armida, fictional character in the epic poem Jerusalem Delivered by Italian baroque poet Torquato Tasso (1544–1595). The story of Armida and Rinaldo has also been the basis of several the operas including Armide by German bohemian Christoph Willibald Gluck (1714–1787), also see . ||
|-id=515
| 515 Athalia || 1903 ME || Athalia, Biblical queen of Judah (2 Kings ix) ||
|-id=516
| 516 Amherstia || 1903 MG || Amherst College in Massachusetts, United States, the alma mater of the discoverer Raymond Smith Dugan (1878–1940) ||
|-id=517
| 517 Edith || 1903 MH || Edith Dugan Eveleth, sister of American discoverer Raymond Smith Dugan ||
|-id=518
| 518 Halawe || 1903 MO || Halva (Halawe), a type of Arabic sweetmeat, a favourite of the discoverer Raymond Smith Dugan ||
|-id=519
| 519 Sylvania || 1903 MP || From "sylvan" (forest, wood), for the discoverer's (Raymond Smith Dugan) passion of tramping through the forests since he was a small boy ||
|-id=520
| 520 Franziska || 1903 MV || Unknown origin of name ||
|-id=521
| 521 Brixia || 1904 NB || The Italian city of Brescia (Brixia in Latin), birthplace of astronomer Emilio Bianchi, who computed the asteroid's orbit. ||
|-id=522
| 522 Helga || 1904 NC || ([H] only says "Named by Lt. Th. Lassen, orbit computer"; see AN 169, 363. Note that computer does not refer to a personal computer, i.e. a machine, but rather to a person actually doing the necessary calculations) ||
|-id=523
| 523 Ada || 1904 ND || Ada Helme, school friend and neighbour of the discoverer ||
|-id=524
| 524 Fidelio || 1904 NN || Leonora's pseudonym in Beethoven's only opera Fidelio ||
|-id=525
| 525 Adelaide || 1908 EKa || Queen Adelaide, consort to King William IV ([H] says nothing) This name was first borne by a Max Wolf discovery until it was identified as 1171 Rusthawelia; the name was then reassigned to this J. H. Metcalf discovery ||
|-id=526
| 526 Jena || 1904 NQ || Jena, Germany, on the occasion of a meeting of the Astronomische Gesellschaft there in 1905 (see AN 172, 287) ||
|-id=527
| 527 Euryanthe || 1904 NR || The main character in the opera Euryanthe by German composer Carl Maria von Weber (1786–1826) ||
|-id=528
| 528 Rezia || 1904 NS || Rezia, a character in the opera Oberon by Carl Maria von Weber (1786–1826) ||
|-id=529
| 529 Preziosa || 1904 NT || Character in the short story La Gitanilla by Miguel de Cervantes (1547–1616) ||
|-id=530
| 530 Turandot || 1904 NV || Turandot, character in the opera Turandot by Giacomo Puccini (1858–1924) ||
|-id=531
| 531 Zerlina || 1904 NW || Zerlina, character in the opera Don Giovanni by Mozart (1756–1791) ||
|-id=532
| 532 Herculina || 1904 NY || Feminine form of Hercules, Roman demigod ([H] simply says "named by Prof. Elia Millosevich, Observatory of the Collegio Romano" AN 167, 45) ||
|-id=533
| 533 Sara || 1904 NZ || Sara, a friend of the discoverer Raymond Smith Dugan (1878–1940) ||
|-id=534
| 534 Nassovia || 1904 OA || The Nassau Hall is the oldest building at Princeton University in New Jersey, United States. ||
|-id=535
| 535 Montague || 1904 OC || The town of Montague, Massachusetts, the birthplace of the American discoverer Raymond Smith Dugan (1878–1940) ||
|-id=536
| 536 Merapi || 1904 OF || Mount Merapi on the island of Sumatra, Indonesia, site of several expeditions to observe the solar eclipse of 17 May 1901 ||
|-id=537
| 537 Pauly || 1904 OG || Max Pauly, German businessman (manager of a sugar factory) and amateur optician whom Ernst Abbe appointed as head of the newly established Astronomy Division of Zeiss to design and produce telescope lenses; he ground the 10-inch lens of the Bruce double-astrograph, the "jewel" of the Heidelberg Observatory ||
|-id=538
| 538 Friederike || 1904 OK || Friederike, a friend of the discoverer Paul Götz (1883–1962) from Heidelberg, Germany ||
|-id=539
| 539 Pamina || 1904 OL || Pamina, a character in the opera The Magic Flute by Mozart (1756–1791) ||
|-id=540
| 540 Rosamunde || 1904 ON || The main character in the play Rosamunde by Helmina von Chézy, best remembered for its incidental music composed by Schubert (1797–1828) ||
|-id=541
| 541 Deborah || 1904 OO || Deborah, Biblical prophetess who helped to free the Israelites. She is mentioned in the Book of Judges. ||
|-id=542
| 542 Susanna || 1904 OQ || Susanna, a friend of the co-discoverer Paul Götz (1883–1962) from Heidelberg, Germany ||
|-id=543
| 543 Charlotte || 1904 OT || Charlotte, a friend of the discoverer Paul Götz (1883–1962) from Heidelberg, Germany ||
|-id=544
| 544 Jetta || 1904 OU || Jetta, a legendary German soothsayer. "Jettenbühl" is the site where Jetta was said to have lived and on which the medieval Heidelberg Castle was later built. ||
|-id=545
| 545 Messalina || 1904 OY || Messalina (c. 17/20–48), the third wife of Roman Emperor Claudius ||
|-id=546
| 546 Herodias || 1904 PA || Herodias (c. 15 BC — 39 AD), princess of the Herodian dynasty of Judaea during the time of the Roman Empire. She was a consort of Herod Antipas, the 1st-century ruler of Galilee and Perea. In the Gospels, Herodias plays a major role in the execution of John the Baptist. ||
|-id=547
| 547 Praxedis || 1904 PB || Praxedis, a character in the novel Ekkehard by German Joseph Victor von Scheffel (1826–1886) ||
|-id=548
| 548 Kressida || 1904 PC || Cressida, Trojan princess, character of Shakespeare's play Troilus and Cressida (based on the medieval legend of Troy, as opposed to the classical) ||
|-id=549
| 549 Jessonda || 1904 PK || Jessonda, a character in the opera Jessonda by German composer Louis Spohr (1784–1859) ||
|-id=550
| 550 Senta || 1904 PL || Senta, a character in the opera The Flying Dutchman by German composer Richard Wagner (1813–1883) ||
|-id=551
| 551 Ortrud || 1904 PM || Ortrud, a character in the opera Lohengrin by Richard Wagner, where she is the wife of Ferederick of Telramund. ||
|-id=552
| 552 Sigelinde || 1904 PO || Sigelinde, a character in the opera Die Walküre by Richard Wagner (1813–1883) ||
|-id=553
| 553 Kundry || 1904 PP || Kundry, a character in the opera Parsifal by Richard Wagner, who is both sorceress and mortal woman. The opera is based on the epic by Wolfram von Eschenbach. ||
|-id=554
| 554 Peraga || 1905 PS || The village of Vigonza (Peraga) in northern Italy, where the family of astronomer G. Abetti, who computed the asteroid's orbit, owned country villa. ||
|-id=555
| 555 Norma || 1905 PT || The main character in the opera Norma by Italian composer Vincenzo Bellini (1801–1835) ||
|-id=556
| 556 Phyllis || 1905 PW || Phyllis, from Greek mythology. The Thracian princess commits suicide when she realizes that her husband, king Demophon of Athens, will not return to her. ||
|-id=557
| 557 Violetta || 1905 PY || Violetta, the frivolous woman and leading character in the opera La Traviata by Giuseppe Verdi. The opera is based on the novel La Dame aux Camélias by Alexandre Dumas fils (1824–1895) ||
|-id=558
| 558 Carmen || 1905 QB || The main character in the opera Carmen by Frech composer Georges Bizet (1838–1875). The opera is based on the novella Carmen by Prosper Mérimée (1803–1870). ||
|-id=559
| 559 Nanon || 1905 QD || The operetta Nanon, die Wirtin vom Goldenen Lamm by German-Austrian composer Richard Genée (1823–1895) ||
|-id=560
| 560 Delila || 1905 QF || Delilah, Biblical character, set to music by Saint-Saëns in his Samson et Dalila ||
|-id=561
| 561 Ingwelde || 1905 QG || Ingwelde, opera by Max von Schillings (?) ([H] simply says « German feminine first name ») ||
|-id=562
| 562 Salome || 1905 QH || Salomé, Biblical daughter of Herod the Great, character of Richard Strauss' opera Salome, in turn based on Oscar Wilde's Salomé play ||
|-id=563
| 563 Suleika || 1905 QK || Suleika, character in the philosophical novel Thus Spoke Zarathustra by Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900). Suleika and Dudu (see entry below) are mentioned in chapter "Among the Daughters of the Wilderness" (, link) and are the novel's only feminine names. ||
|-id=564
| 564 Dudu || 1905 QM || Dudu, character in the philosophical novel Thus Spoke Zarathustra by Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900). Dudu and Suleika (see entry above) are mentioned in chapter "Among the Daughters of the Wilderness" (, link) and are the novel's only feminine names. ||
|-id=565
| 565 Marbachia || 1905 QN || The town of Marbach in Hesse, Germany ||
|-id=566
| 566 Stereoskopia || 1905 QO || The Blink comparator, formerly known as "stereo-comparator", is an apparatus used to find differences between two photographs of the night sky by rapidly "blinking" back and forth between the two. In 1902, this asteroid was the first to be discovered by this method using photographic plates taken in 1899. The asteroid was named by the inventor of the Blink comparator, Carl Pulfrich (1858–1927). ||
|-id=567
| 567 Eleutheria || 1905 QP || Eleutheria, the goddess of liberty in Greek mythology. The counterpart of Eleutheria among the Roman gods is Libertas. ||
|-id=568
| 568 Cheruskia || 1905 QS || Cheruskia, student fraternity at Heidelberg University, named in turn after the Cherusci, an early German tribe ||
|-id=569
| 569 Misa || 1905 QT || |Misa, from Greek mythology. She is the mother of Dionysus (Bacchus) and a divinity in Orphism, a mystic religion from the ancient Greek and Hellenistic world. ||
|-id=570
| 570 Kythera || 1905 QX || Kythira, Greek island (First name in a long list published in 1914) ||
|-id=571
| 571 Dulcinea || 1905 QZ || Dulcinea, a character in the novel Don Quixote by Miguel de Cervantes (1547–1616) ||
|-id=572
| 572 Rebekka || 1905 RB || Rebekka, a "bourgeois daughter" from Heidelberg, Germany. The name was given by the discoverer Paul Götz and may be inspired by the asteroid's provisional designation which contains the letters "RB". ||
|-id=573
| 573 Recha || 1905 RC || Recha, a character in the play Nathan der Weise by Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (1729–1781). The name may be inspired by the asteroid's provisional designation which contains the letters "RC". ||
|-id=574
| 574 Reginhild || 1905 RD || Unknown origin of name. The choice for the German feminine first name may have been inspired by the asteroid's provisional designation, containing the letters "RD". ||
|-id=575
| 575 Renate || 1905 RE || Unknown origin of name; the name may be inspired by the asteroid's provisional designation, containing the letters "RE". ||
|-id=576
| 576 Emanuela || 1905 RF || Emanuela, a friend of the discoverer Paul Götz (1883–1962) ||
|-id=577
| 577 Rhea || 1905 RH || Rhea, from Greek mythology. She is a Titan of the first generation and known as "the mother of gods". The name may be inspired by the asteroid's provisional designation, containing the letters "RH". ||
|-id=578
| 578 Happelia || 1905 RZ || Carl Happel (1820–1914), a German painter and benefactor of the Heidelberg Observatory, where the Happel Laboratory is named after him. ||
|-id=579
| 579 Sidonia || 1905 SD || Sidonia, character in the epic poem Jerusalem Delivered by Italian baroque poet Torquato Tasso (1544–1595). The character has also been adopted in the opera Armide by German bohemian Christoph Willibald Gluck (1714–1787), which is based on the poem. Also see . The name Sidonia may be inspired by the asteroid's provisional designation, containing the letters "SD". ||
|-id=580
| 580 Selene || 1905 SE || Selene, lunar goddess from Greek mythology ||
|-id=581
| 581 Tauntonia || 1905 SH || The city of Taunton, Massachusetts, in the United States, where this asteroid was discovered by Joel Hastings Metcalf ||
|-id=582
| 582 Olympia || 1906 SO || Olympia, Greece ||
|-id=583
| 583 Klotilde || 1905 SP || Klotilde, daughter of Austrian astronomer Edmund Weiss (1837–1917), director of the Vienna Observatory where this asteroid was discovered by Johann Palisa. It was named by Klotilde's mother, Adelinde Weiss (née Fenzel); also see . ||
|-id=584
| 584 Semiramis || 1906 SY || Semiramis, Assyrian queen ||
|-id=585
| 585 Bilkis || 1906 TA || The Biblical Queen of Sheba who visited King Solomon. In the Qur'an, she is known as "Bilqis", "Balqis" or "Balkis". ||
|-id=586
| 586 Thekla || 1906 TC || Thecla (born 30 AD), a saint of the early Christian Church ||
|-id=587
| 587 Hypsipyle || 1906 TF || Hypsipyle, mythological Greek queen of Lemnos, mother of twins by Jason ||
|-id=588
| 588 Achilles || 1906 TG || Achilles, the greatest warrior in Greek mythology ||
|-id=589
| 589 Croatia || 1906 TM || The country of Croatia in southeastern Europe ||
|-id=590
| 590 Tomyris || 1906 TO || Tomyris, Scythian Queen of the Massagetae ||
|-id=591
| 591 Irmgard || 1906 TP || Unknown origin of name. Irmgard is a common feminine first name in German. ||
|-id=592
| 592 Bathseba || 1906 TS || Bathsheba, wife of Urias, mother of Solomon ||
|-id=593
| 593 Titania || 1906 TT || Titania, folkloric queen of the fairies (name inspired by the provisional designation letters: Titania) ||
|-id=594
| 594 Mireille || 1906 TW || Mirèio, a narrative poem by French poet Frédéric Mistral (1830–1914), the source of inspiration for the opera Mireille by the French composer Charles Gounod ||
|-id=595
| 595 Polyxena || 1906 TZ || Polyxena, from Greek mythology. The Trojan princess is the daughter of Priam and Hecuba. ||
|-id=596
| 596 Scheila || 1906 UA || An English student at the University of Heidelberg, a friend of the discoverer ||
|-id=597
| 597 Bandusia || 1906 UB || Spring of Bandusia, a fountain near Polezzo in Italy ||
|-id=598
| 598 Octavia || 1906 UC || Claudia Octavia (c. 39–62), Roman Empress, stepsister and first wife of Nero ||
|-id=599
| 599 Luisa || 1906 UJ || Unknown origin of name ||
|-id=600
| 600 Musa || 1906 UM || The Muses, the nine inspirational goddesses of poetry, science, and the arts in Greek mythology ||
|}
601–700
|-
| 601 Nerthus || 1906 UN || Nerthus, Germanic/Scandinavian Earth Mother goddess ||
|-id=602
| 602 Marianna || 1906 TE || Unknown origin of name ||
|-id=603
| 603 Timandra || 1906 TJ || Timandra, mythological Greek woman, sister of Helen of Troy, mother of Evander ||
|-id=604
| 604 Tekmessa || 1906 TK || Tecmessa, mythological Greek woman, daughter of the Phrygian prince Teubrantes, captive of Ajax, by whom she had a son, Eurysaces ||
|-id=605
| 605 Juvisia || 1906 UU || The city of Juvisy-sur-Orge, France, location of the Camille Flammarion Observatory ||
|-id=606
| 606 Brangäne || 1906 VB || Brangäne, character in the opera Tristan und Isolde by Richard Wagner. She is a maid servant of Isolda. ||
|-id=607
| 607 Jenny || 1906 VC || Jenny Adolfine Kessler, friend of the discoverer August Kopff, on the occasion of her engagement (also see next entry) ||
|-id=608
| 608 Adolfine || 1906 VD || Jenny Adolfine Kessler, friend of the discoverer August Kopff, on the occasion of her engagement (also see previous entry) ||
|-id=609
| 609 Fulvia || 1906 VF || Fulvia (c. 83 BC – 40 BC), aristocratic Roman woman and wife of Mark Antony ||
|-id=610
| 610 Valeska || 1906 VK || Unknown origin of name. The choice for this name may have been inspired by the asteroid's provisional designation, containing the letters "VK". ||
|-id=611
| 611 Valeria || 1906 VL || Unknown origin of name. The choice for this name may have been inspired by the asteroid's provisional designation, containing the letters "VL" ||
|-id=612
| 612 Veronika || 1906 VN || Unknown origin of name. The choice for this name may have been inspired by the asteroid's provisional designation, containing the letters "VN" ||
|-id=613
| 613 Ginevra || 1906 VP || Guinevere, wife of King Arthur from Arthurian legend (possibly) ||
|-id=614
| 614 Pia || 1906 VQ || Pia Observatory (), in Trieste, Italy, the private observatory of Johann Nepomuk Krieger (1865–1902), German amateur astronomer and selenographer ||
|-id=615
| 615 Roswitha || 1906 VR || Hrotsvitha of Gandersheim (c. 935–973), German poet ||
|-id=616
| 616 Elly || 1906 VT || Elly Boehm, wife of German mathematician Karl Boehm (1873–1958; bio-de) ||
|-id=617
| 617 Patroclus || 1906 VY || Patroclus, warrior from Greek mythology, close friend of Achilles and killed by Hector. The satellite of this Jupiter trojan, (617) Patroclus I Menoetius, was named after Menoetius, father of Patroclus. ||
|-id=618
| 618 Elfriede || 1906 VZ || Unknown origin of name ||
|-id=619
| 619 Triberga || 1906 WC || The town of Triberg im Schwarzwald, southern Germany ||
|-id=620
| 620 Drakonia || 1906 WE || Drake University, Iowa, US, where the orbit computers worked ||
|-id=621
| 621 Werdandi || 1906 WJ || Verdandi, one of the Norns in Norse mythology ||
|-id=622
| 622 Esther || 1906 WP || Esther, Biblical heroine described in the Book of Esther as a Jewish queen of the Persian king Ahasuerus ||
|-id=623
| 623 Chimaera || 1907 XJ || Mount Chimaera of Lycia, inspiration for the Chimera, mythological Greek monster ||
|-id=624
| 624 Hektor || 1907 XM || Hector, Trojan hero from Greek mythology ||
|-id=625
| 625 Xenia || 1907 XN || Unknown origin of name. The choice for this name may have been inspired by the asteroid's provisional designation, containing the letters "XN" ||
|-id=626
| 626 Notburga || 1907 XO || Saint Notburga (c. 1265–1313), holy character of the Neckar valley, the discovery site ||
|-id=627
| 627 Charis || 1907 XS || Charis, one of the Charites (Graces), the goddesses of charm, beauty, creativity, and fertility in Greek mythology. They are the daughters of Zeus and Eurynome and include Euphrosyne, Thalia and Aglaea (Aglaja). ||
|-id=628
| 628 Christine || 1907 XT || Unknown origin of name ||
|-id=629
| 629 Bernardina || 1907 XU || Unknown origin of name ||
|-id=630
| 630 Euphemia || 1907 XW || Saint Euphemia (died 303 AD), whose feast day is September 16. The name also means a good omen. ||
|-id=631
| 631 Philippina || 1907 YJ || Philipp Kessler, friend of the discoverer, on the occasion of his engagement. He is a friend of the astronomer August Kopff who discovered this asteroid (see also 634). ||
|-id=632
| 632 Pyrrha || 1907 YX || Pyrrha, wife of Deukalion, Greek mythological woman ||
|-id=633
| 633 Zelima || 1907 ZM || Unknown origin of name. The choice for this name may have been inspired by the asteroid's provisional designation, containing the letters "ZM" ||
|-id=634
| 634 Ute || 1907 ZN || Ute Kessler, on the occasion of her engagement. She is a friend of the astronomer August Kopff who discovered this asteroid (see also 631). ||
|-id=635
| 635 Vundtia || 1907 ZS || Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920), German psychologist ||
|-id=636
| 636 Erika || 1907 XP || Unknown origin of name ||
|-id=637
| 637 Chrysothemis || 1907 YE || Chrysothemis, mythological daughter of Agamemnon, character in Sophocles' Electra ||
|-id=638
| 638 Moira || 1907 ZQ || Moirai (Moira), Greek goddess of fate ||
|-id=639
| 639 Latona || 1907 ZT || Roman goddess Latona, daughter of Ceo Titan, loved by Jupiter, and mother of Apollo and Diana ||
|-id=640
| 640 Brambilla || 1907 ZW || Prinzessin Brambilla, novel written by E. T. A. Hoffmann (1776–1822), and set to music by Walter Braunfels (1882–1954) ||
|-id=641
| 641 Agnes || 1907 ZX || Unknown origin of name ||
|-id=642
| 642 Clara || 1907 ZY || Clara, one of the discoverer's housekeepers (Max Wolf) ||
|-id=643
| 643 Scheherezade || 1907 ZZ || Scheherazade, legendary Arabic storyteller in 1001 Nights ||
|-id=644
| 644 Cosima || 1907 AA || Cosima Wagner (1837–1930), daughter of Hungarian pianist and composer Franz Liszt, and second wife of German composer Richard Wagner ||
|-id=645
| 645 Agrippina || 1907 AG || Agrippina the Elder (14 BC–33) and her daughter Agrippina the Younger (15–59), two Roman noblewomen. Former was the wife of general Germanicus and mother of Emperor Caligula, while the latter was the mother of Emperor Nero. ||
|-id=646
| 646 Kastalia || 1907 AC || Castalia, Greek nymph whom Apollo transformed into a fountain at Delphi, at the base of Mount Parnassos ||
|-id=647
| 647 Adelgunde || 1907 AD || Unknown origin of name ||
|-id=648
| 648 Pippa || 1907 AE || Pippa, main character in the novel And Pippa Dances () by German writer Gerhardt Hauptmann (1862–1946) ||
|-id=649
| 649 Josefa || 1907 AF || Unknown origin of name. A feminine first name in German. ||
|-id=650
| 650 Amalasuntha || 1907 AM || Amalasuntha, Ostrogoth queen, daughter of Theoderich ||
|-id=651
| 651 Antikleia || 1907 AN || Anticlea, from Greek mythology. She is the wife of Laertes and mother of Odysseus. ||
|-id=652
| 652 Jubilatrix || 1907 AU || The 60-year jubilee of Emperor Franz Joseph of Austria, during which this minor planet was discovered ||
|-id=653
| 653 Berenike || 1907 BK || Berenice II of Egypt (c. 267–221 BC), queen of Cyrene and Egypt ||
|-id=654
| 654 Zelinda || 1908 BM || Zelinda Dini, sister of Italian mathematician Ulisse Dini (1845–1918). The name was proposed by astronomer Elia Millosevich, a good friend of Dini. ||
|-id=655
| 655 Briseïs || 1907 BF || Briseis, mythological Trojan slave ||
|-id=656
| 656 Beagle || 1908 BU || HMS Beagle, Darwin's ship ||
|-id=657
| 657 Gunlöd || 1908 BV || Gunnlod, mythological Norse giantess ||
|-id=658
| 658 Asteria || 1908 BW || Asteria, various Greek figures ||
|-id=659
| 659 Nestor || 1908 CS || Nestor, mythological Greek king ||
|-id=660
| 660 Crescentia || 1908 CC || Heroine of a German legend, a variant of the Genevieve of Brabant medieval story, found in the Historie von der geduldigen Konigin Crescentia, itself based on a 12th-century poem in the Kaiserchronik ||
|-id=661
| 661 Cloelia || 1908 CL || Cloelia, legendary Roman woman ||
|-id=662
| 662 Newtonia || 1908 CW || previously believed to refer to Isaac Newton, British physicist; but later correctly identified as being named after Newton, Massachusetts (Isaac Newton is now honored by asteroid ) ||
|-id=663
| 663 Gerlinde || 1908 DG || Unknown origin of name ||
|-id=664
| 664 Judith || 1908 DH || Biblical heroine dramatised in Friedrich Hebbel's play Judith ||
|-id=665
| 665 Sabine || 1908 DK || Unknown origin of name. ||
|-id=666
| 666 Desdemona || 1908 DM || Desdemona, character in Shakespeare's Othello. The name may have been inspired by the asteroid's provisional designation, containing the letters "DM". ||
|-id=667
| 667 Denise || 1908 DN || Unknown origin of name. The choice for this name may have been inspired by the asteroid's provisional designation, containing the letters "DN". ||
|-id=668
| 668 Dora || 1908 DO || Dora, a friend of the wife of astronomer August Kopff, who discovered this asteroid. The name may have been inspired by the asteroid's provisional designation, containing the letters "DO". ||
|-id=669
| 669 Kypria || 1908 DQ || Kypria, poem sometimes attributed to Homer, which serves as an introduction to the Iliad ||
|-id=670
| 670 Ottegebe || 1908 DR || Character in Gerhardt Hauptmann's play Der arme Heinrich ||
|-id=671
| 671 Carnegia || 1908 DV || The Carnegie Institution of Washington, DC, founded by Andrew Carnegie, Scottish-born American businessman and philanthropist ||
|-id=672
| 672 Astarte || 1908 DY || 'Ashtart, Phoenician goddess of love and fertility ||
|-id=673
| 673 Edda || 1908 EA || The Norse Edda, a collection of myths ||
|-id=674
| 674 Rachele || 1908 EP || Wife of Italian astronomer Emilio Bianchi, the orbit computer ||
|-id=675
| 675 Ludmilla || 1908 DU || Character in the opera Ruslan and Lyudmila by Russian composer Mikhail Glinka (1804–1857) ||
|-id=676
| 676 Melitta || 1909 FN || Attic form of the Greek name Melissa, nymph changed into a bee (and also an allusion to the discoverer's name, Melotte) ||
|-id=677
| 677 Aaltje || 1909 FR || Aaltje Noordewier–Reddingius (1868–1949), a Dutch classical soprano ||
|-id=678
| 678 Fredegundis || 1909 FS || Fredegundis, an opera based on the life of Fredegund (a.k.a. Fredegunda, Fredegundis, Fredigundis, Frédégonde, Queen consort of Chilperic I, the Merovingian Frankish king of Soissons), begun by the French composer Ernest Guirand and completed by Saint-Saëns ||
|-id=679
| 679 Pax || 1909 FY || Pax, Roman goddess of peace. Her Greek equivalent is Eirene. ||
|-id=680
| 680 Genoveva || 1909 GW || Main character in Friedrich Hebbel's play Genoveva ||
|-id=681
| 681 Gorgo || 1909 GZ || Gorgon () one of the three sisters – Euryale, Stheno, and Medusa – who had hair made of living, venomous snakes and a gaze that could turn one to stone. Paul Herget reports that Ingrid van Houten-Groeneveld and thought the name refers to Gorgo (a.k.a. Gorgos, Gorgus), King of Salamine (Salamis, Cyprus) in the 5th century B.C., who accompanied Xerxes in Greece. ||
|-id=682
| 682 Hagar || 1909 HA || Hagar, Biblical woman in the Book of Genesis ||
|-id=683
| 683 Lanzia || 1909 HC || Karl Lanz (1873–1921; bio-de), a German mechanical engineer and industrialist who provided the funds for the re-establishment of the Heidelberg Academy of Sciences and Humanities ||
|-id=684
| 684 Hildburg || 1909 HD || Unknown origin of name. The choice for this German feminine first name may have been inspired by the asteroid's provisional designation, containing the letters "HD". ||
|-id=685
| 685 Hermia || 1909 HE || Unknown origin of name ||
|-id=686
| 686 Gersuind || 1909 HF || Main character in the play Gersuind by Gerhart Hauptmann ||
|-id=687
| 687 Tinette || 1909 HG || Unknown origin of name ||
|-id=688
| 688 Melanie || 1909 HH || Unknown origin of name ||
|-id=689
| 689 Zita || 1909 HJ || Princess Zita of Bourbon-Parma, wife of Emperor Charles I of Austria ||
|-id=690
| 690 Wratislavia || 1909 HZ || Latin for Breslau (Wrocław), now in Poland ||
|-id=691
| 691 Lehigh || 1909 JG || Lehigh University, US, where the computer (J. B. Reynolds) was ||
|-id=692
| 692 Hippodamia || 1901 HD || Hippodamia, queen of Pisa from Greek mythology. She is the wife of Pelops and ancestor to king Agamemnon. The choice for this name may have been inspired by the asteroid's provisional designation, containing the letters "HD". ||
|-id=693
| 693 Zerbinetta || 1909 HN || Character in Richard Strauss' opera Ariadne auf Naxos ||
|-id=694
| 694 Ekard || 1909 JA || Drake University, US ('Drake' backwards), where the orbit computers (S. B. Nicholson and his wife) were ||
|-id=695
| 695 Bella || 1909 JB || Unknown origin of name ||
|-id=696
| 696 Leonora || 1910 JJ || Mary Leonora Snow, wife of the orbit computer, Arthur Snow ||
|-id=697
| 697 Galilea || 1910 JO || Galileo Galilei (1564–1642), on the occasion of the 300th anniversary of his discovery of the Galilean moons ||
|-id=698
| 698 Ernestina || 1910 JX || Ernst Wolf, son of the discoverer Max Wolf (1863–1932) ||
|-id=699
| 699 Hela || 1910 KD || Hel, Norse goddess of the dead ||
|-id=700
| 700 Auravictrix || 1910 KE || Latin for 'victory against the wind' (named for the first Schütte-Lanz Zeppelin flights in 1911) ||
|}
701–800
|-
| 701 Oriola || 1910 KN || The Old World golden oriole, Oriolus oriolus ||
|-id=702
| 702 Alauda || 1910 KQ || The bird genus Alauda (larks) ||
|-id=703
| 703 Noëmi || 1910 KT || Valentine Noëmi von Rothschild, wife of Baron Sigismund von Springer (presumed). Alternatively, Noemi is a Biblical heroine from the Book of Ruth (unsourced) ||
|-id=704
| 704 Interamnia || 1910 KU || Latin for city of Terni (Teramo) in Italy, birthplace of the discoverer Vincenzo Cerulli. Several Roman towns were called Interamnia, meaning "in between two rivers". ||
|-id=705
| 705 Erminia || 1910 KV || The comic operetta Erminie, by Edward Jacobowsky ||
|-id=706
| 706 Hirundo || 1910 KX || The bird genus Hirundo (swallows) ||
|-id=707
| 707 Steina || 1910 LD || Mr. Stein, a benefactor of the Breslau Observatory in former German Empire, now Poland ||
|-id=708
| 708 Raphaela || 1911 LJ || Raphaël Bischoffsheim (1823–1906), French banker and philanthropist, founder of the Nice Observatory ||
|-id=709
| 709 Fringilla || 1911 LK || The bird genus Fringilla (finches) ||
|-id=710
| 710 Gertrud || 1911 LM || Gertrud Rheden, daughter of Austrian astronomer Joseph Rheden and granddaughter of the discoverer Johann Palisa ||
|-id=711
| 711 Marmulla || 1911 LN || Marble, the small spherical toy. The name is possibly derived from the German medieval word "Marmul", according to astronomer Paul Wild. The asteroid's name was originally spelt "Marmula". ||
|-id=712
| 712 Boliviana || 1911 LO || Simón Bolívar (1783–1830), South American revolutionary ||
|-id=713
| 713 Luscinia || 1911 LS || The bird genus Luscinia (nightingales) ||
|-id=714
| 714 Ulula || 1911 LW || The bird genus Ulula (owls) ||
|-id=715
| 715 Transvaalia || 1911 LX || The province of Transvaal in South Africa. This is the first numbered minor planet discovered in Africa. ||
|-id=716
| 716 Berkeley || 1911 MD || University of California in Berkeley ||
|-id=717
| 717 Wisibada || 1911 MJ || The German city of Wiesbaden, birthplace of the discoverer Franz Kaiser (1891–1962) ||
|-id=718
| 718 Erida || 1911 MS || Erida, daughter of American astronomer Armin Otto Leuschner (1868–1953) ||
|-id=719
| 719 Albert || 1911 MT || Baron Albert Salomon von Rothschild (1844–1911), benefactor of the Vienna Observatory ||
|-id=720
| 720 Bohlinia || 1911 MW || Karl Petrus Theodor Bohlin (1860–1939), Swedish astronomer, who studied Jupiter's perturbations. The name was given on the occasion of his 65th birthday. ||
|-id=721
| 721 Tabora || 1911 MZ || The Tabora, an ocean liner visited during an astronomical conference ||
|-id=722
| 722 Frieda || 1911 NA || Frieda, the daughter of Austrian astronomer Karl Hillebrand (1861–1939; bio-de) ||
|-id=723
| 723 Hammonia || 1911 NB || Hamburg, Germany ||
|-id=724
| 724 Hapag || 1911 NC || The Hamburg America Line (HAPAG), after the shipping line ||
|-id=725
| 725 Amanda || 1911 ND || Amanda Schorr, wife of German astronomer Richard Schorr, see ||
|-id=726
| 726 Joëlla || 1911 NM || Feminine form of Joël, for Joel Hastings Metcalf, American Unitarian minister and astronomer ||
|-id=727
| 727 Nipponia || 1912 NT || Japan, where the minor planet was accidentally discovered twice (1900 FE; 1908 CV) by Shin Hirayama ||
|-id=728
| 728 Leonisis || 1912 NU || Leo Gans (1843–1935; bio-de), German chemist and president of the Physical Society at Frankfurt (), named on the occasion of his 70th birthday. The Society's emblem shows the goddess Isis, and contributed to the ending of the asteroid's name. ||
|-id=729
| 729 Watsonia || 1912 OD || James Craig Watson (1838–1880), Canadian-American astronomer ||
|-id=730
| 730 Athanasia || 1912 OK || Greek for immortality ||
|-id=731
| 731 Sorga || 1912 OQ || Surga, Indonesian for "heavens" ||
|-id=732
| 732 Tjilaki || 1912 OR || Tjilaki (Cilaki) river and village near Malabar, Indonesia ||
|-id=733
| 733 Mocia || 1912 PF || Werner "Mok" Wolf, son of the German discoverer Max Wolf ||
|-id=734
| 734 Benda || 1912 PH || Anna Benda, wife of Austrian discoverer Johann Palisa. (In some publications the name has been erroneously attributed to Czech composer Karel Bendl, 1838–1897) ||
|-id=735
| 735 Marghanna || 1912 PY || Margarete Vogt, mother of German discoverer Heinrich Vogt; and Hanna, a relative of his ||
|-id=736
| 736 Harvard || 1912 PZ || Harvard University, US ||
|-id=737
| 737 Arequipa || 1912 QB || Arequipa, Peru, where Harvard University had an observing station ||
|-id=738
| 738 Alagasta || 1913 QO || Original name of the German city Gau-Algesheim (Gaualgesheim), native city of discoverer's family (Franz Kaiser) ||
|-id=739
| 739 Mandeville || 1913 QR || Mandeville, Jamaica ||
|-id=740
| 740 Cantabia || 1913 QS || Contraction of Cantabrigia, Latin for Cambridge, named in honour of Cambridge, Massachusetts and its Harvard University ||
|-id=741
| 741 Botolphia || 1913 QT || Saint Botolph, 7th-century founder of the monastery that would become Boston, Lincolnshire, England ||
|-id=742
| 742 Edisona || 1913 QU || Thomas Edison, American inventor ||
|-id=743
| 743 Eugenisis || 1913 QV || Eugenisis, for "good creation" (composed Greek word: "eu" for good, well and "genesis" for creation). It was named by the discoverer Franz Kaiser for the birth of his daughter. ||
|-id=744
| 744 Aguntina || 1913 QW || Aguntum, the ancient Roman settlement in the province of Noricum, near the Austrian town of Lienz, Tyrol, the birthplace of the discoverer Adam Massinger (1888–1914) ||
|-id=745
| 745 Mauritia || 1913 QX || Saint Maurice (Saint Mauritius), patron saint of a church in Wiesbaden, Germany ||
|-id=746
| 746 Marlu || 1913 QY || Marie-Louise Kaiser, a German physician and daughter of the discoverer Franz Kaiser ||
|-id=747
| 747 Winchester || 1913 QZ || Winchester, Massachusetts, United States, location of the Taunton Observatory () where this asteroid was discovered by Joel Hastings Metcalf ||
|-id=748
| 748 Simeïsa || 1913 RD || Simeïs Observatory, Crimea, Ukraine, the discovery site ||
|-id=749
| 749 Malzovia || 1913 RF || Nikolai Sergeevich Maltsov (S. I. Maltsov), Russian amateur astronomer, founder of Simeïs Observatory ||
|-id=750
| 750 Oskar || 1913 RG || Oskar Ruben von Rothschild (1888–1909), the youngest son of Albert Salomon Anselm von Rothschild ||
|-id=751
| 751 Faïna || 1913 RK || Faina Mikhajlovna Neujmina, colleague and first wife of the discoverer Grigory Neujmin (1886–1946) ||
|-id=752
| 752 Sulamitis || 1913 RL || Sulamith, Biblical woman identified with the Queen of Sheba ||
|-id=753
| 753 Tiflis || 1913 RM || The city of Tbilisi in Georgia, birthplace of the discoverer Grigory Neujmin (1886–1946) ||
|-id=754
| 754 Malabar || 1906 UT || Malabar, Java, Indonesia, commemorating the Dutch-German solar eclipse expedition of 1922 to Christmas Island ||
|-id=755
| 755 Quintilla || 1908 CZ || Quintilla, feminine Italian first name, chosen because no other planet had a name beginning with Q so far. ||
|-id=756
| 756 Lilliana || 1908 DC || Lillian, sister of American astronomer Harlow Shapley (1885–1972) ||
|-id=757
| 757 Portlandia || 1908 EJ || The city of Portland in Maine, United States, where the discoverer, Joel Hastings Metcalf (1866–1925), was a church minister at the time of his death ||
|-id=758
| 758 Mancunia || 1912 PE || The city of Manchester, United Kingdom (by its Latin name "Mancunia"), native city of the discoverer, Harry Edwin Wood (1881–1946) ||
|-id=759
| 759 Vinifera || 1913 SJ || Vitis vinifera, the wine grape, former means of livelihood of the discoverer's ancestors ||
|-id=760
| 760 Massinga || 1913 SL || Adam Massinger (1888–1914), a German astronomer and discoverer of minor planets at Heidelberg Observatory who was killed in World War I (Src) ||
|-id=761
| 761 Brendelia || 1913 SO || Martin Brendel (1862–1939), German astronomer, director of the International Planet Institute, who chose this minor planet amongst Kaiser's unnamed discoveries for its small orbital inclination ||
|-id=762
| 762 Pulcova || 1913 SQ || Pulkovo Heights, hills near St. Petersburg, site of the oldest Russian observatory, Pulkovo Observatory ||
|-id=763
| 763 Cupido || 1913 ST || Cupid, Roman god, because of the minor planet's relative closeness to the Sun ||
|-id=764
| 764 Gedania || 1913 SU || The city of Gdańsk, Poland (formerly Free City of Danzig) where the discoverer, Franz Kaiser (1891–1962), was an assistant at the observatory during the early 1920s. ||
|-id=765
| 765 Mattiaca || 1913 SV || The city of Wiesbaden in Germany (by its Latin name "Mattiacum"), home town of discoverer Franz Kaiser (1891–1962) ||
|-id=766
| 766 Moguntia || 1913 SW || The city of Mainz in Germany (by its Latin name "Moguntia"), where the discoverer, Franz Kaiser, taught at city's Johannes Gutenberg University ||
|-id=767
| 767 Bondia || 1913 SX || William Cranch Bond (1789–1859) and his son George Phillips Bond (1825–1865), both American astronomers and directors of the Harvard College Observatory in Cambridge, Massachusetts. ||
|-id=768
| 768 Struveana || 1913 SZ || Friedrich Georg Wilhelm Struve (1793–1864), Otto Wilhelm Struve (1819–1905) and Hermann Struve (1854–1920), Russo-German astronomers, known for their double star studies and directors of the Pulkovo and Berlin Observatory observatories, respectively. ||
|-id=769
| 769 Tatjana || 1913 TA || Tatjana, a colleague of the discover Grigory Neujmin at Pulkovo Observatory in Saint Petersburg, Russia. Alternatively, "Tatjana" may refer to the heroine in the novel Eugene Onegin by Aleksandr Pushkin. ||
|-id=770
| 770 Bali || 1913 TE || Mahabali (Bali), King of the Daityas in the Hindu Puranas ||
|-id=771
| 771 Libera || 1913 TO || A friend of the discoverer (the minor planet was named by his widow) ||
|-id=772
| 772 Tanete || 1913 TR || The city of Tanete on the island of Sulawesi in Indonesia ||
|-id=773
| 773 Irmintraud || 1913 TV || Feminine German first name, common in old myths and legends ||
|-id=774
| 774 Armor || 1913 TW || Armorica, Celtic name for Northwest France (Brittany and Normandy) ||
|-id=775
| 775 Lumière || 1914 TX || The brothers Auguste and Louis Lumière (1862–1954; 1864–1948), French physicists and pioneers of photography and cinematography ||
|-id=776
| 776 Berbericia || 1914 TY || Adolf Berberich (1861–1920), German astronomer ||
|-id=777
| 777 Gutemberga || 1914 TZ || Johannes Gutenberg (c. 1400–1468), printing pioneer ||
|-id=778
| 778 Theobalda || 1914 UA || Theobald Kaiser, father of German discoverer Franz Kaiser (1891–1962) ||
|-id=779
| 779 Nina || 1914 UB || Nina Nikolaevna Neujmina (1877–1956), mathematician and sister of Russian discoverer Grigory Neujmin ||
|-id=780
| 780 Armenia || 1914 UC || The country of Armenia in the South Caucasus ||
|-id=781
| 781 Kartvelia || 1914 UF || Kartveli, Georgian name for the Georgian people ||
|-id=782
| 782 Montefiore || 1914 UK || Clarice Sebag-Montefiore, wife of Alphonse Mayer Rothschild (1878–1942), the second son of Baron Albert von Rothschild ||
|-id=783
| 783 Nora || 1914 UL || Nora, heroine in the play A Doll's House by Norwegian writer Henrik Ibsen (1828–1906) ||
|-id=784
| 784 Pickeringia || 1914 UM || Edward Charles Pickering (1846–1919) and his brother William Henry Pickering (1858–1938), both American astronomers ||
|-id=785
| 785 Zwetana || 1914 UN || Tsvetana Popova, daughter of professor Kyrille Popoff (also Popoff or Pophoff) of Sofia, Bulgaria ||
|-id=786
| 786 Bredichina || 1914 UO || Fyodor Bredikhin (1831–1904), Russian astronomer ||
|-id=787
| 787 Moskva || 1914 UQ || The city of Moscow in Russia ||
|-id=788
| 788 Hohensteina || 1914 UR || Hohnstein Castle near Bad Schwalbach in Hesse, Germany, hometown of the wife of the discoverer, Franz Kaiser (1891–1962). Her ancestors derive from the castle's Order of Knighthood, "Breder von Hohenstein". ||
|-id=789
| 789 Lena || 1914 UU || Elena Petrovna Neujmina (1860–1942), mother of the discoverer Grigory Neujmin. ||
|-id=790
| 790 Pretoria || 1912 NW || The city of Pretoria in South Africa ||
|-id=791
| 791 Ani || 1914 UV || Ani, ruined city in Armenia ||
|-id=792
| 792 Metcalfia || 1907 ZC || Joel Hastings Metcalf (1866–1925), American Unitarian minister and astronomer ||
|-id=793
| 793 Arizona || 1907 ZD || The U.S. state of Arizona, where the Lowell Observatory is located in Flagstaff ||
|-id=794
| 794 Irenaea || 1914 VB || Irene Hillebrand, née Weiss, daughter of Austrian astronomer Edmund Weiss (1837–1917), director of the Vienna Observatory. The name's aea-suffix was needed to avoid conflict with asteroid 14 Irene. ||
|-id=795
| 795 Fini || 1914 VE || Unknown origin of name. Fini is an Austrian diminutive of Josephine. ||
|-id=796
| 796 Sarita || 1914 VH || Unknown origin of name ||
|-id=797
| 797 Montana || 1914 VR || From mons, the Latin for mountain, in honour of Hamburg Observatory, located at Bergedorf, in Germany. It was the observatory's first minor-planet discovery ||
|-id=798
| 798 Ruth || 1914 VT || Ruth, Biblical heroine in the Old Testament ||
|-id=799
| 799 Gudula || 1915 WO || Gudula, German feminine first name, from the calendar ||
|-id=800
| 800 Kressmannia || 1915 WP || Major A. Kressmann (or Kreßmann), benefactor who donated the 318-mm Kressmann Refractor to the Heidelberg Observatory, Germany. The telescope was used for Double Star measurements and was hosted in the dome of Heidelberg's Ostinstitut until 1978, when it was replaced by the 50-centimeter telescope (Src). ||
|}
801–900
|-
| 801 Helwerthia || 1915 WQ || Elise Helwerth–Wolf (1840–1924), mother of the discoverer Max Wolf; also see ||
|-id=802
| 802 Epyaxa || 1915 WR || Epyaxa, queen of Syennesis, wife to King of Cilicia in South Asia Minor in the 5th century BCE ||
|-id=803
| 803 Picka || 1915 WS || Friedrich Pick (1867–1921), a Czech physician from Prague who first introduced endoscopy in medicine ||
|-id=804
| 804 Hispania || 1915 WT || The country of Spain, named by its Latin name, Hispania. It was the first discovery of an asteroid ever made in Spain. ||
|-id=805
| 805 Hormuthia || 1915 WW || Hormuth Kopff, wife of German astronomer August Kopff, assistant to the discoverer, Max Wolf. ||
|-id=806
| 806 Gyldénia || 1915 WX || Hugo Gyldén (1841–1896), Swedish astronomer at Stockholm Observatory ||
|-id=807
| 807 Ceraskia || 1915 WY || Vitold Tserasky (1849–1925), also known as Vitold Cerasky or Vitol'd Karlovic Tseraskiy, a Russian astronomer and director at the Moscow Observatory . The lunar crater Tseraskiy is named after him. His wife, Lidiya Tseraskaya was also an astronomer. ||
|-id=808
| 808 Merxia || 1901 GY || Adalbert Merx, the father-in-law of Max Wolf. The discovery was made by his assistant Luigi Carnera at Heidelberg. ||
|-id=809
| 809 Lundia || 1915 XP || Lund Observatory, located in Lund, southern Sweden ||
|-id=810
| 810 Atossa || 1915 XQ || Atossa (550–475 BC), ancient Persian queen, daughter of Cyrus, wife of Darius ||
|-id=811
| 811 Nauheima || 1915 XR || The town of Bad Nauheim in Hesse, Germany ||
|-id=812
| 812 Adele || 1915 XV || Adele, character in the operetta Die Fledermaus by Johann Strauss (1825–1899) ||
|-id=813
| 813 Baumeia || 1915 YR || "H. Baum", a German student of astronomy at Heidelberg University who died in World War I ||
|-id=814
| 814 Tauris || 1916 YT || Tauris, ancient name of the Crimean peninsula (Schmadel says "Tauric Mount", but there is no such mountain) ||
|-id=815
| 815 Coppelia || 1916 YU || The comic ballet Coppélia by composer Léo Delibes (1836–1891) based upon a story by E. T. A. Hoffmann (1776–1822) ||
|-id=816
| 816 Juliana || 1916 YV || Queen Juliana of the Netherlands (1909–2004) ||
|-id=817
| 817 Annika || 1916 YW || Unknown origin of name ||
|-id=818
| 818 Kapteynia || 1916 YZ || Jacobus Kapteyn (1851–1922), Dutch astronomer ||
|-id=819
| 819 Barnardiana || 1916 ZA || Edward Emerson Barnard (1857–1923), American astronomer ||
|-id=820
| 820 Adriana || 1916 ZB || Unknown origin of name ||
|-id=821
| 821 Fanny || 1916 ZC || Unknown origin of name ||
|-id=822
| 822 Lalage || 1916 ZD || Unknown origin of name ||
|-id=823
| 823 Sisigambis || 1916 ZG || Sisygambis (died 323 BC), mother of Darius III of Persia ||
|-id=824
| 824 Anastasia || 1916 ZH || Anastasia Semenoff, an acquaintance of Russian discoverer Grigory Neujmin (1886–1946) ||
|-id=825
| 825 Tanina || 1916 ZL || Tanina, one of the White Russian princesses whose family were slaughtered during the 1918 revolution ||
|-id=826
| 826 Henrika || 1916 ZO || Unknown origin of name ||
|-id=827
| 827 Wolfiana || 1916 ZW || Max Wolf (1863–1932), German astronomer ||
|-id=828
| 828 Lindemannia || 1916 ZX || Adolph Friedrich Lindemann (1846 – 25 August 1931), German-born British amateur astronomer, inventor of the Lindemann electrometer, a quadrant electrometer ||
|-id=829
| 829 Academia || 1916 ZY || The Russian Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg, on the occasion of its 200th anniversary ||
|-id=830
| 830 Petropolitana || 1916 ZZ || The city of Saint Petersburg, Russia, by its Latin name "Petropolis" ||
|-id=831
| 831 Stateira || 1916 AA || Stateira (died c. 400 BC), wife of Artaxerxes II of Persia ||
|-id=832
| 832 Karin || 1916 AB || Karin Månsdotter (1550–1612), Swedish queen and wife of Eric XIV of Sweden ||
|-id=833
| 833 Monica || 1916 AC || Unknown origin of name ||
|-id=834
| 834 Burnhamia || 1916 AD || Sherburne Wesley Burnham (1838–1921), American astronomer who discovered many visual binary stars. He observed from the Chicago (1877), Lick (1888) and Yerkes (1897) observatories. ||
|-id=835
| 835 Olivia || 1916 AE || Unknown origin of name ||
|-id=836
| 836 Jole || 1916 AF || Iole, wife of divine hero Heracles in Greek mythology ||
|-id=837
| 837 Schwarzschilda || 1916 AG || Karl Schwarzschild (1873–1916), German physicist and astronomer, best known for his solution of Einstein's field equations, leading to the Schwarzschild radius. He was the director of the Göttingen and Potsdam-Babelsberg observatories. ||
|-id=838
| 838 Seraphina || 1916 AH || Unknown origin of name ||
|-id=839
| 839 Valborg || 1916 AJ || Valborg, heroine in the play Axel and Valborg by Danish poet and playwright Adam Oehlenschläger (1779–1850) ||
|-id=840
| 840 Zenobia || 1916 AK || Zenobia (died c. 290 AD), a Slavic Holy Martyr, whose feast day is October 30 in the Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic Church. Alternatively, it may refer to Zenobia (c. 240 – c. 274 AD), the queen of the Palmyrene Empire in Syria, who was defeated by Aurelian in 272 AD. ||
|-id=841
| 841 Arabella || 1916 AL || The opera Arabella by German composer Richard Strauss (1864–1949) ||
|-id=842
| 842 Kerstin || 1916 AM || Unknown origin of name. It is a German feminine first name. ||
|-id=843
| 843 Nicolaia || 1916 AN || Thorvald N. Thiele (1838–1910), Danish astronomer, actuary and mathematician. He is the father of the discoverer Holger Thiele. ||
|-id=844
| 844 Leontina || 1916 AP || The town of Lienz, Austria, birthplace of the asteroid's discoverer, Joseph Rheden (1873–1946) ||
|-id=845
| 845 Naëma || 1916 AS || Unknown origin of name ||
|-id=846
| 846 Lipperta || 1916 AT || Eduard Lippert (1844–1925; bio-de), a German businessman and benefactor of the Hamburg Observatory, who to donated the "Lippert Astrograph". ||
|-id=847
| 847 Agnia || 1915 XX || Agnia Ivanovna Bad'ina (1877–1956), a Russian physician from Simeiz, on the Crimean peninsula ||
|-id=848
| 848 Inna || 1915 XS || Nikolaevna Leman-Balanovskaya (1881–1945), a Russian astronomer at the Pulkovo Observatory near St Petersburg ||
|-id=849
| 849 Ara || 1912 NY || American Relief Administration (ARA), in appreciation of the help it gave during the Russian famine of 1922–1923 ||
|-id=850
| 850 Altona || 1916 S24 || Altona, Germany, location of the Altona Observatory at which H. C. Schumacher began publication of the astronomical journal Astronomische Nachrichten in 1821 ||
|-id=851
| 851 Zeissia || 1916 S26 || Zeiss Optical Works ||
|-id=852
| 852 Wladilena || 1916 S27 || Vladimir Lenin (1870–1924), Russian communist revolutionary, politician and Soviet leader ||
|-id=853
| 853 Nansenia || 1916 S28 || Fridtjof Nansen (1861–1930), Norwegian polar explorer ||
|-id=854
| 854 Frostia || 1916 S29 || Edwin Brant Frost (1866–1935), an American astronomer ||
|-id=855
| 855 Newcombia || 1916 ZP || Simon Newcomb (1835–1909), a Canadian–American professor of astronomy and director of the U.S. Nautical Almanac Office at United States Naval Observatory ||
|-id=856
| 856 Backlunda || 1916 S30 || Oskar Backlund (1846–1916), Swedish-Russian astronomer ||
|-id=857
| 857 Glasenappia || 1916 S33 || Sergey Glazenap (1848–1937), a Soviet astronomer, director of both St. Petersburg and Pulkovo Observatory and founder of the Russian Astronomical Society ||
|-id=858
| 858 El Djezaïr || 1916 a || The city of Algiers, Algeria by its Arabian name meaning "the islands". ||
|-id=859
| 859 Bouzaréah || 1916 c || The borough of Bouzaréah, in the city of Algiers, Algeria. It is the site of Algiers Observatory. ||
|-id=860
| 860 Ursina || 1917 BD || Unknown origin of name ||
|-id=861
| 861 Aïda || 1917 BE || Aïda, opera by the Italian composer Giuseppe Verdi (1813–1901) ||
|-id=862
| 862 Franzia || 1917 BF || Franz Wolf, son of the discoverer Max Wolf ||
|-id=863
| 863 Benkoela || 1917 BH || The city of Benkoelen on the island of Sumatra, Indonesia ||
|-id=864
| 864 Aase || A921 SB || Ase (also spelled "Aase") the mother of the title character in the play Peer Gynt by Norwegian poet Henrik Ibsen (1828–1906) ||
|-id=865
| 865 Zubaida || 1917 BO || Zubaida, a character in the opera Abu Hassan by Carl Maria von Weber (1786–1826) ||
|-id=866
| 866 Fatme || 1917 BQ || Fatme, a character in the opera Abu Hassan by Carl Maria von Weber (1786–1826) ||
|-id=867
| 867 Kovacia || 1917 BS || Friedrich Kovacs (1861–1931), physician from Vienna, Austria, who treated the wife of discoverer Johann Palisa (Src, Src) ||
|-id=868
| 868 Lova || 1917 BU || Unknown origin of name ||
|-id=869
| 869 Mellena || 1917 BV || Werner von Melle (1853–1937), mayor of Hamburg, Germany, who promoted the establishment of the University of Hamburg and founded the Hamburg Observatory ||
|-id=870
| 870 Manto || 1917 BX || Manto, mythological Greek soothsayer, erector of Apollo's oracle in Claros ||
|-id=871
| 871 Amneris || 1917 BY || Amneris, character in Verdi's opera Aida ||
|-id=872
| 872 Holda || 1917 BZ || Edward S. Holden (1846–1914), American astronomer at Lick Observatory and fifth president of the University of California ||
|-id=873
| 873 Mechthild || 1917 CA || Unknown origin of name. A feminine first name in German. ||
|-id=874
| 874 Rotraut || 1917 CC || Likely named after the poem Schön Rotraut (Pretty Rotraut) by German poet Eduard Mörike (1804–1875) ||
|-id=875
| 875 Nymphe || 1917 CF || The Nymphs, Greek mythological figures ||
|-id=876
| 876 Scott || 1917 CH || Miss E. Scott, of the Society of Friends in Vienna, Austria, a friend of discoverer Johann Palisa. This minor planet has also been erroneously attributed to the English polar explorer Robert Falcon Scott ||
|-id=877
| 877 Walküre || 1915 S7 || Valkyrie (), a female spirit in Norse mythology. Also, Die Walküre is part of Wagner's opera cycle Der Ring des Nibelungen. ||
|-id=878
| 878 Mildred || 1916 f || Mildred (born 1915), daughter of American astronomer Harlow Shapley ||
|-id=879
| 879 Ricarda || 1917 CJ || Ricarda Huch (1864–1947), German poet ||
|-id=880
| 880 Herba || 1917 CK || Herba, Greek god of misery and poverty ||
|-id=881
| 881 Athene || 1917 CL || Athena, Greek goddess, also known as Minerva ||
|-id=882
| 882 Swetlana || 1917 CM || Unknown origin of name. A feminine first name in Russian. ||
|-id=883
| 883 Matterania || 1917 CP || August Matter, German maker of photographic plates (Matterplatten) for the Heidelberg Observatory, which allowed Max Wolf and others to make numerous discoveries. This asteroid was one of them. Matter's factory was later destroyed in World War II. ||
|-id=884
| 884 Priamus || 1917 CQ || Priam, from Greek mythology. He is the king of Troy during the Trojan War and father of Hector and Paris in Homer's Iliad. ||
|-id=885
| 885 Ulrike || 1917 CX || Ulrike von Levetzow (1804–1899), a friend and the last love of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe; alternatively: Ulrica, a character in Verdi's opera Un ballo in maschera ||
|-id=886
| 886 Washingtonia || 1917 b || George Washington (1732–1799), American general and first president of the United States of America. ||
|-id=887
| 887 Alinda || 1918 DB || The ancient city of Alinda in Caria, Asia Minor. Alternatively, Alinda is the Man in the Moon in Australian aboriginal mythology. ||
|-id=888
| 888 Parysatis || 1918 DC || Parysatis, wife of Darius II of Persia ||
|-id=889
| 889 Erynia || 1918 DG || The Erinyes, or Furies, Greek mythological creatures ||
|-id=890
| 890 Waltraut || 1918 DK || Waltraut, character in the opera Götterdämmerung in the Der Ring des Nibelungen by Richard Wagner ||
|-id=891
| 891 Gunhild || 1918 DQ || Unknown origin of name. It is a feminine German first name. ||
|-id=892
| 892 Seeligeria || 1918 DR || Hugo von Seeliger (1849–1924), Austrian-German astronomer ||
|-id=893
| 893 Leopoldina || 1918 DS || The German Academy of Sciences Leopoldina ||
|-id=894
| 894 Erda || 1918 DT || Erda, a character in Wagner's opera cycle Der Ring des Nibelungen, who is the goddess of wisdom, fate and Earth. She is based on Urðr (wisdom and fate) and Jörð (the personification of Earth) in Norse mythology. ||
|-id=895
| 895 Helio || 1918 DU || Helium, whose spectrum Paschen and Runge investigated together (Paschen named it at Wolf's request) ||
|-id=896
| 896 Sphinx || 1918 DV || The Sphinx. The female monster in Greek and Egyption mythology has the head of a woman, the haunches of a lion, and the wings of a bird. It has the habit of killing anyone who cannot answer her riddle. ||
|-id=897
| 897 Lysistrata || 1918 DZ || The anti-war comedy Lysistrata by Aristophanes ||
|-id=898
| 898 Hildegard || 1918 EA || Saint Hildegard of Bingen (1098–1179). The Benedictine abbess is considered to be the founder of scientific natural history in Germany. ||
|-id=899
| 899 Jokaste || 1918 EB || Jocasta, mother and wife of Oedipus, the mythical Greek king of Thebes ||
|-id=900
| 900 Rosalinde || 1918 EC || Rosalinde, character in the opera Die Fledermaus by Johann Strauss II (1825–1899) ||
|}
901–1000
|-
| 901 Brunsia || 1918 EE || Heinrich Bruns (1848–1919), German astronomer and director of the Leipzig Observatory ||
|-id=902
| 902 Probitas || 1918 EJ || Probity, a quality attributed to the late discoverer ||
|-id=903
| 903 Nealley || 1918 EM || Nealley, amateur astronomer from New York, who contributed to the photographic star charts edition by Max Wolf and Johann Palisa (discoverer) ||
|-id=904
| 904 Rockefellia || 1918 EO || John D. Rockefeller (1839–1937), American business man, philanthropist and one of the wealthiest persons in modern history ||
|-id=905
| 905 Universitas || 1918 ES || University of Hamburg, Germany ||
|-id=906
| 906 Repsolda || 1918 ET || Johann Georg Repsold (1770–1830), German astronomer, optician and manufacturer of astrometric instruments ||
|-id=907
| 907 Rhoda || 1918 EU || Wife of American astronomer Edward Emerson Barnard (1857–1923) ||
|-id=908
| 908 Buda || 1918 EX || Buda, historic part of the city of part of Budapest, Hungary ||
|-id=909
| 909 Ulla || 1919 FA || Ulla Ahrens, member of the Ahrens family, who helped financially at the Heidelberg Observatory. Ulla's father was also a friend of the discoverer, Karl Wilhelm Reinmuth (1892–1979). ||
|-id=910
| 910 Anneliese || 1919 FB || Anneliese, a friend of German astronomer Julius Dick at Babelsberg Observatory, Germany ||
|-id=911
| 911 Agamemnon || 1919 FD || Agamemnon, from Greek mythology. The king of Mycenae commanded the Greek forces in the Trojan War. ||
|-id=912
| 912 Maritima || 1919 FJ || Maritima, annual end-of-term excursions on the North Sea organised by the University of Hamburg; also see . ||
|-id=913
| 913 Otila || 1919 FL || Otila, female name chosen by discoverer Karl Reinmuth from the calendar Der Lahrer hinkende Bote ||
|-id=914
| 914 Palisana || 1919 FN || Johann Palisa (1848–1925), Austrian astronomer, discoverer of minor planets, and friend of the discoverer Max Wolf ||
|-id=915
| 915 Cosette || 1918 b || Cosette, youngest daughter of French astronomer François Gonnessiat (1856–1934), who discovered this asteroid ||
|-id=916
| 916 America || 1915 S1 || America, for the help rendered by the American Relief Administration (under Herbert Hoover) during the famine in Crimea ||
|-id=917
| 917 Lyka || 1915 S4 || Lyka, a friend of the sister of the discoverer, Grigory Neujmin ||
|-id=918
| 918 Itha || 1919 FR || Itha, female name chosen by discoverer Karl Reinmuth from the calendar Der Lahrer hinkende Bote ||
|-id=919
| 919 Ilsebill || 1918 EQ || Ilsebill, a character in the fairy tale The Fisherman and his Wife by the Brothers Grimm ||
|-id=920
| 920 Rogeria || 1919 FT || Rogeria, female name chosen by discoverer Karl Reinmuth from the calendar Der Lahrer hinkende Bote ||
|-id=921
| 921 Jovita || 1919 FV || Jovita, female name chosen by discoverer Karl Reinmuth from the calendar Der Lahrer hinkende Bote ||
|-id=922
| 922 Schlutia || 1919 FW || Edgar Schlubach, a German businessman from Hamburg, and Henry Frederic Tiarks, FRAS, British banker and amateur astronomer from London, who together financed the expedition to the Christmas Island to observe the solar eclipse of September 21, 1922 (Src). ||
|-id=923
| 923 Herluga || 1919 GB || Herluga, female name chosen by discoverer Karl Reinmuth from the calendar Der Lahrer hinkende Bote ||
|-id=924
| 924 Toni || 1919 GC || Toni, female name chosen by discoverer Karl Reinmuth from the calendar Der Lahrer hinkende Bote ||
|-id=925
| 925 Alphonsina || 1920 GM || Alfonso X of Castile (1221–1284) and Alfonso XIII of Spain (1886–1941) ||
|-id=926
| 926 Imhilde || 1920 GN || Imhilde, female name chosen by discoverer Karl Reinmuth from the calendar Der Lahrer hinkende Bote ||
|-id=927
| 927 Ratisbona || 1920 GO || The city of Regensburg in south-east Germany (by its Latin name) ||
|-id=928
| 928 Hildrun || 1920 GP || Hildrun, female name chosen by discoverer Karl Reinmuth from the calendar Der Lahrer hinkende Bote ||
|-id=929
| 929 Algunde || 1920 GR || Algunde, female name chosen by discoverer Karl Reinmuth from the calendar Der Lahrer hinkende Bote ||
|-id=930
| 930 Westphalia || 1920 GS || The historic region of Westphalia in Germany, birthplace of the discoverer Walter Baade (1893–1960) ||
|-id=931
| 931 Whittemora || 1920 GU || Thomas Whittemore (1871–1950), American professor at both Harvard and Columbia Universities ||
|-id=932
| 932 Hooveria || 1920 GV || Herbert Hoover (1874–1964), American president, then secretary of state, in recognition of his help to Austria after World War I ||
|-id=933
| 933 Susi || 1927 CH || Susi, wife of Kasimir Graff (1878–1950), German astronomer at Hamburg Observatory and later director of the Vienna Observatory ||
|-id=934
| 934 Thüringia || 1920 HK || The Thüringia, an Atlantic liner of the Hamburg America Line, on which German astronomer Walter Baade travelled on his visits to New York. the captain was an amateur astronomer, and was invited to name one of Baade's asteroids. ||
|-id=935
| 935 Clivia || 1920 HM || Clivia, genus of flowering plant ||
|-id=936
| 936 Kunigunde || 1920 HN || Kunigunde, female name chosen by discoverer Karl Reinmuth from the calendar Der Lahrer hinkende Bote ||
|-id=937
| 937 Bethgea || 1920 HO || Hans Bethge (1876–1946), German poet ||
|-id=938
| 938 Chlosinde || 1920 HQ || Chlosinde, female name chosen by discoverer Karl Reinmuth from the calendar Der Lahrer hinkende Bote ||
|-id=939
| 939 Isberga || 1920 HR || Isberga, female name chosen by discoverer Karl Reinmuth from the calendar Der Lahrer hinkende Bote ||
|-id=940
| 940 Kordula || 1920 HT || Kordula, female name chosen by discoverer Karl Reinmuth from the calendar Der Lahrer hinkende Bote ||
|-id=941
| 941 Murray || 1920 HV || Gilbert Murray (1866–1957), British classical scholar and diplomat who helped Austria in 1920 through the League of Nations ||
|-id=942
| 942 Romilda || 1920 HW || Romilda, female name chosen by discoverer Karl Reinmuth from the calendar Der Lahrer hinkende Bote ||
|-id=943
| 943 Begonia || 1920 HX || Begonia, genus of herbs and flowers ||
|-id=944
| 944 Hidalgo || 1920 HZ || Miguel Hidalgo (1753–1811), father of the independence of Mexico, where German astronomers went to observe the solar eclipse of September 10, 1923 ||
|-id=945
| 945 Barcelona || 1921 JB || Barcelona, Spain, where the discoverer was born and the asteroid discovered ||
|-id=946
| 946 Poësia || 1921 JC || Poësia, goddess of poetry ||
|-id=947
| 947 Monterosa || 1921 JD || The MV Monte Rosa, a ship (of the German Monte Klasse) used by the University of Hamburg on their outings on the North Sea; also see . ||
|-id=948
| 948 Jucunda || 1921 JE || Jucunda, female name chosen by discoverer Karl Reinmuth from the calendar Der Lahrer hinkende Bote ||
|-id=949
| 949 Hel || 1921 JK || Hel, Norse goddess ||
|-id=950
| 950 Ahrensa || 1921 JP || The Ahrens family, friends of the discoverer, Karl Reinmuth ||
|-id=951
| 951 Gaspra || 1916 S45 || The spa town of Gaspra on the Crimean peninsula ||
|-id=952
| 952 Caia || 1916 S61 || Caia, a character in the novel Quo Vadis by Henryk Sienkiewicz ||
|-id=953
| 953 Painleva || 1921 JT || Paul Painlevé (1863–1933), French mathematician and politician ||
|-id=954
| 954 Li || 1921 JU || Lina Alstede Reinmuth, wife of discoverer Karl Reinmuth ||
|-id=955
| 955 Alstede || 1921 JV || Lina Alstede Reinmuth, wife of discoverer Karl Reinmuth ||
|-id=956
| 956 Elisa || 1921 JW || Elisa Reinmuth, mother of discoverer Karl Reinmuth ||
|-id=957
| 957 Camelia || 1921 JX || Camellia, genus of flowering plants ||
|-id=958
| 958 Asplinda || 1921 KC || Bror Ansgar Asplind (1890–1954), Swedish astronomer ||
|-id=959
| 959 Arne || 1921 KF || Arne Asplind, son of Swedish astronomer Bror Asplind, also see (958) ||
|-id=960
| 960 Birgit || 1921 KH || Birgit Asplind, daughter of Swedish astronomer Bror Asplind, also see (958) ||
|-id=961
| 961 Gunnie || 1921 KM || Gunnie Asplind, daughter of Swedish astronomer Bror Asplind, also see (958) ||
|-id=962
| 962 Aslög || 1921 KP || Aslög, mythological Norse woman ||
|-id=963
| 963 Iduberga || 1921 KR || Iduberga, female name chosen by discoverer Karl Reinmuth from the calendar Der Lahrer hinkende Bote ||
|-id=964
| 964 Subamara || 1921 KS || Latin for 'very bitter' (referring to the observing conditions at the Vienna Observatory) ||
|-id=965
| 965 Angelica || 1921 KT || Angelica Hartmann, wife of the discoverer, Johannes Franz Hartmann (1865–1936) ||
|-id=966
| 966 Muschi || 1921 KU || "Kitty" nickname of Walter Baade'S wife, who discovered this asteroid ||
|-id=967
| 967 Helionape || 1921 KV || Adolf von Sonnenthal (1834–1909), an Austrian actor . Helionape is the direct Greek translation of his name ("Sonne" and "Tal", to "helio" and "nape"). ||
|-id=968
| 968 Petunia || 1921 KW || Petunia, a genus of flowering plants ||
|-id=969
| 969 Leocadia || 1921 KZ || Unknown origin of name. Feminine Russian first name. ||
|-id=970
| 970 Primula || 1921 LB || The flower genus Primula (primroses) ||
|-id=971
| 971 Alsatia || 1921 LF || Alsace, region in western France. Originally named "Alsace" by French discoverer Alexandre Schaumasse (1882–1958), in 1920, the name was later changed to "Alsatia" by the German ARI. ||
|-id=972
| 972 Cohnia || 1922 LK || Fritz Cohn (1866–1922), German astronomer and director of the Astronomisches Rechen-Institut in Berlin ||
|-id=973
| 973 Aralia || 1922 LR || Aralia, genus of ivy-like plant ||
|-id=974
| 974 Lioba || 1922 LS || Saint Leoba (or Lioba; c. 710–782), abbess in Tauberbischofsheim, Germany, who helped Saint Boniface spreading Christianity throughout Germany. ||
|-id=975
| 975 Perseverantia || 1922 LT || Perseverance, a quality posthumously attributed to the discoverer, Austrian astronomer Johann Palisa ||
|-id=976
| 976 Benjamina || 1922 LU || Benjamin, son of discoverer Benjamin Jekhowsky ||
|-id=977
| 977 Philippa || 1922 LV || Baron Philippe de Rothschild (1902–1988), French financier ||
|-id=978
| 978 Aidamina || 1922 LY || Aida Minaievna, a friend of the family of Soviet discoverer Sergey Belyavsky ||
|-id=979
| 979 Ilsewa || 1922 MC || Ilse Waldorf, an acquaintance of German discoverer Karl Reinmuth ||
|-id=980
| 980 Anacostia || 1921 W19 || The historic district of Anacostia in Washington, D.C., United States, as well as for the nearby Anacostia River ||
|-id=981
| 981 Martina || 1917 S92 || Henri Martin (1810–1883), French historian and politician ||
|-id=982
| 982 Franklina || 1922 MD || John Franklin Adams (1843–1912), British amateur astronomer and stellar cartographer ||
|-id=983
| 983 Gunila || 1922 ME || Gunila, female name chosen by discoverer Karl Reinmuth from the calendar Der Lahrer hinkende Bote ||
|-id=984
| 984 Gretia || 1922 MH || Gretia, sister-in-law of German astronomer Albrecht Kahrstedt (1897–1971), also see ||
|-id=985
| 985 Rosina || 1922 MO || Rosina, female name chosen by discoverer Karl Reinmuth from the calendar Der Lahrer hinkende Bote ||
|-id=986
| 986 Amelia || 1922 MQ || Amelia, wife of discoverer Josep Comas i Solà ||
|-id=987
| 987 Wallia || 1922 MR || Wallia, female name chosen by discoverer Karl Reinmuth from the calendar Der Lahrer hinkende Bote ||
|-id=988
| 988 Appella || 1922 MT || Paul Émile Appell (1855–1930), French astronomer ||
|-id=989
| 989 Schwassmannia || 1922 MW || Arnold Schwassmann (1870–1964), German astronomer, discoverer of minor planets and comets at Potsdam-Babelsberg and Hamburg-Bergedorf observatories ||
|-id=990
| 990 Yerkes || 1922 MZ || Yerkes Observatory, in Williams Bay, Wisconsin, United States, where this asteroid was discovered ||
|-id=991
| 991 McDonalda || 1922 NB || McDonald Observatory, Texas, United States, originally endowed by the Texas banker William Johnson McDonald ||
|-id=992
| 992 Swasey || 1922 ND || Ambrose Swasey (1846–1937), American benefactor and mechanical engineer, co-founder, with Worcester Reed Warner of the Warner & Swasey Company which manufactured astronomical telescopes and precision instruments, including the 82-inch Otto Struve Telescope for the McDonald Observatory, one of the largest telescopes at the time. They gave their own observatory to Case Western University and it took the name Warner and Swasey Observatory. ||
|-id=993
| 993 Moultona || 1923 NJ || Forest Ray Moulton (1872–1952), American astronomer and mathematician ||
|-id=994
| 994 Otthild || 1923 NL || Otthild, female name chosen by discoverer Karl Reinmuth from the calendar Der Lahrer hinkende Bote ||
|-id=995
| 995 Sternberga || 1923 NP || Pavel Shternberg (1865–1920), Russian astronomer ||
|-id=996
| 996 Hilaritas || 1923 NM || Contentedness, a quality posthumously attributed to the discoverer, Austrian astronomer Johann Palisa ||
|-id=997
| 997 Priska || 1923 NR || Priska, female name chosen by discoverer Karl Reinmuth from the calendar Der Lahrer hinkende Bote ||
|-id=998
| 998 Bodea || 1923 NU || Johann Elert Bode (1747–1826), German astronomer, author of the Berliner Astronomisches Jahrbuch, known for the empirical Titius–Bode law about the sequence of planetary distances ||
|-id=999
| 999 Zachia || 1923 NW || Franz Xaver von Zach (1754–1832), Hungarian astronomer and director of the Seeberg Observatory in Germany ||
|-id=000
| 1000 Piazzia || 1923 NZ || Giuseppe Piazzi (1746–1826), Italian astronomer and discoverer of in 1801 ||
|}
References
000001-001000
|
3900298
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis%20Melville
|
Lewis Melville
|
Lewis Saul Benjamin, (pen name, Lewis Melville) (1874–1932) was an English author, born into a Jewish family in London, England and educated privately in England and Germany. From 1896 to 1901 he was known as an actor, though part of his time even then was devoted to literature.
His publications include:
In the World of Mimes: A Theatrical Novel (1902)
The Thackeray Country (1905)
Victorian Novelists (1906)
Bath under Beau Nash (1907)
The Beau of the Regency (1908)
William Makepeace Thackeray: A Biography (1909)
The Life and Letters of Laurence Sterne (two volumes, 1911; American edition, 1912)
The Life and Letters of William Cobbett (two volumes, 1912; American edition, 1913)
An edition of Thackeray's works (twenty volumes, 1901–07)
References
External links
English Jewish writers
English book editors
20th-century English novelists
English biographers
English non-fiction writers
English male stage actors
1874 births
1932 deaths
English male novelists
20th-century English male writers
English male non-fiction writers
Male biographers
20th-century biographers
Writers from London
19th-century English male actors
20th-century English male actors
|
1648576
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NLS%20%28computer%20system%29
|
NLS (computer system)
|
NLS, or the "oN-Line System", was a revolutionary computer collaboration system developed in the 1960s. Designed by Douglas Engelbart and implemented by researchers at the Augmentation Research Center (ARC) at the Stanford Research Institute (SRI), the NLS system was the first to employ the practical use of hypertext links, the mouse, raster-scan video monitors, information organized by relevance, screen windowing, presentation programs, and other modern computing concepts. It was funded by ARPA (the predecessor to Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency), NASA, and the US Air Force.
Development
Douglas Engelbart developed his concepts while supported by the US Air Force from 1959 to 1960 and published a framework in 1962.
The strange acronym, NLS (rather than OLS), was an artifact of the evolution of the system. Engelbart's first computers were not able to support more than one user at a time.
First was the CDC 160A in 1963, which had very little programming power of its own.
As a short-term measure, the team developed a system that allowed off-line users—that is, anyone not sitting at the one available terminal—to edit their documents by punching a string of commands onto paper tape with a Flexowriter. Once the tape was complete, an off-line user would then feed into the computer the paper tape on which the last document draft had been stored, followed by the new commands to be applied, and the computer would print out a new paper tape containing the latest version of the document. Without interactive visualization, this could be awkward, since the user had to mentally simulate the cumulative effects of their commands on the document text. On the other hand, it matched the workflow of the 1960s office, where managers would give marked-up printouts of documents to secretaries.
The design continued to support this "off-line" workflow, as well as an interactive "on-line" ability to edit the same documents. To avoid having two identical acronyms (OLTS), the Off-Line Text System was abbreviated FLTS and the On-Line Text System was abbreviated NLTS. As the system evolved to support more than just text, the "T" was dropped, and the interactive version became known as NLS.
Robert Taylor, who had a background in psychology, provided support from NASA. When Taylor moved to the Information Processing Techniques Office of the US Defense Department's Advanced Research Projects Agency, he was able to provide additional funding to the project.
NLS development moved to a CDC 3100 in 1965.
Jeff Rulifson joined SRI in 1966 and became the lead programmer for NLS until leaving the organization in 1973.
In 1968, NLS development moved to an SDS 940 computer running the Berkeley Timesharing System.
It had an approximately 96 MB storage disk and could support up to 16 workstations, each comprising a raster-scan monitor, a three-button mouse, and an input device known as a chord keyset. Typed text was sent from the keyset to a specific subsystem that relayed the information along a bus to one of two display controllers and display generators. The input text was then sent to a 5-inch (127 mm) cathode ray tube (CRT), enclosed by a special cover, and a superimposed video image was received by a professional-quality black-and-white TV camera. The information was sent from the TV camera to the closed-circuit camera control and patch panel, and finally displayed on each workstation's video monitor.
NLS was demonstrated by Engelbart on December 9, 1968, to a large audience at the Fall Joint Computer Conference in San Francisco. This has since been dubbed "The Mother of All Demos", as it not only demonstrated the groundbreaking features of NLS, but also involved the assembly of some remarkable state-of-the-art video technologies. Engelbart's onstage terminal keyboard and mouse were linked by a homemade modem at 2400 baud through a leased line that connected to ARC's SDS 940 computer in Menlo Park, 48 kilometers southeast of San Francisco. Two microwave links carried video from Menlo Park back to an Eidophor video projector loaned by NASA's Ames Research Center, and, on a 22-foot-high (6.7 m) screen with video insets, the audience could follow Engelbart's actions on his display, observe how he used the mouse, and watch as members of his team in Menlo Park joined in the presentation.
One of the most revolutionary features of NLS, "the Journal", was developed in 1970 by Australian computer engineer David A. Evans as part of his doctoral thesis. The Journal was a primitive hypertext-based groupware program, which can be seen as a predecessor (if not the direct ancestor) of all contemporary server software that supports collaborative document creation (like wikis). It was used by ARC members to discuss, debate, and refine concepts in the same way that wikis are being used today.
The Journal was used to store documents for the Network Information Center and early network email archives.
Most Journal documents have been preserved in paper form and are stored in Stanford University's archives; these provide a valuable record of the evolution of the ARC community from 1970 until the advent of commercialization in 1976. An additional set of Journal documents exists at the Computer History Museum in California, along with a large collection of ARC backup tapes dating from the early 1970s, as well as some of the SDS 940 tapes from the 1960s.
The NLS was implemented using several domain-specific languages that were handled using the Tree Meta compiler-compiler system. The eventual implementation language was called L10.
In 1970, NLS was ported to the PDP-10 computer (as modified by BBN to run the TENEX operating system). By mid-1971, the TENEX implementation of NLS was put into service as the new Network Information Center, but even this computer could handle only a small number of simultaneous users. Access was possible from either custom-built display workstations, or simple typewriter-like terminals which were less expensive and more common at the time.
By 1974, the NIC had spun off to a separate project on its own computer.
Firsts
All of the features of NLS were in support of Engelbart's goal of augmenting collective knowledge work and therefore focused on making the user more powerful, not simply on making the system easier to use. These features therefore supported a full-interaction paradigm with rich interaction possibilities for a trained user, rather than what Engelbart referred to as the WYSIAYG (What You See Is All You Get) paradigm that came later.
The computer mouse
2-dimensional display editing
In-file object addressing, linking
Hypermedia
Outline processing
Flexible view control
Multiple windows
Cross-file editing
Integrated hypermedia email
Hypermedia publishing
Document version control
Shared-screen teleconferencing
Computer-aided meetings
Formatting directives
Context-sensitive help
Distributed client-server architecture
Uniform command syntax
Universal "user interface" front-end module
Multi-tool integration
Grammar-driven command language interpreter
Protocols for virtual terminals
Remote procedure call protocols
Compilable "Command Meta Language"
Engelbart said: "Many of those firsts came right out of the staff's innovations — even had to be explained to me before I could understand them. [The staff deserves] more recognition."
Decline and succession
The downfall of NLS, and subsequently, of ARC in general, was the program's difficult learning curve. NLS was not designed to be easy to learn; it employed the heavy use of program modes, relied on a strict hierarchical structure, did not have a point-and-click interface, and forced the user to have to learn cryptic mnemonic codes to do anything useful with the system. The chord keyset, which complemented the modal nature of NLS, forced the user to learn a 5-bit binary code if they did not want to use the keyboard. Finally, with the arrival of the ARPA Network at SRI in 1969, the time-sharing technology that seemed practical with a small number of users became impractical over a distributed network; time-sharing was rapidly being replaced with individual minicomputers (and later microcomputers) and workstations. Attempts to port NLS to other hardware, such as the PDP-10 and later on the DECSYSTEM-20, were successful, but did nothing to spread NLS beyond SRI.
Frustrated by the direction of Engelbart's "bootstrapping" crusade, many top SRI researchers left, with many ending up at the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center, taking the mouse idea with them. SRI sold NLS to Tymshare in 1977 and renamed it Augment. Tymshare was, in turn, sold to McDonnell Douglas in 1984.
Some of the "full-interaction" paradigm lives on in different systems, including the Hyperwords add-on for Mozilla Firefox. The Hyperwords concept grew out of the Engelbart web-documentary Invisible Revolution. The aim of the project is to allow users to interact with all the words on the Web, not only the links. Hyperwords works through a simple hierarchical menu, but also gives users access to keyboard "phrases" in the spirit of NLS commands and features Views, which are inspired by the powerful NLS ViewSpecs. The Views allow the user to re-format web pages on the fly. Engelbart was on the Advisory Board of The Hyperwords Company from its inception in 2006 until his death in 2013.
From 2005 through 2008, a volunteer group from the Computer History Museum attempted to restore the system.
See also
File Retrieval and Editing System (FRESS)
ENQUIRE
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
On the Doug Engelbart Institute website see especially the 1968 Demo resources page for links to the demo and to later panel discussions by participants in the demo; About NLS/Augment; Engelbart's Bibliography, Videography; and the Engelbart Archives Special Collections page.
The original 1968 Demo as streaming RealVideo clips
A high-resolution version of the 1968 Demo video
HyperScope, a browser-based project to recreate and extend NLS/Augment Douglas Engelbart himself is involved in this project
NLS documents at bitsavers.org
OpenAugment, another now defunct NLS/Augment implementation
Hypertext
History of human–computer interaction
SRI International software
|
29831
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Television
|
Television
|
Television, sometimes shortened to TV or telly, is a telecommunication medium used for transmitting moving images in black-and-white or in color, and in two or three dimensions and sound. The term can refer to a television set, a television show, or the medium of television transmission. Television is a mass medium for advertising, entertainment, news, and sports.
Television became available in crude experimental forms in the late 1920s, but it would still be several years before the new technology would be marketed to consumers. After World War II, an improved form of black-and-white television broadcasting became popular in the United Kingdom and United States, and television sets became commonplace in homes, businesses, and institutions. During the 1950s, television was the primary medium for influencing public opinion. In the mid-1960s, color broadcasting was introduced in the U.S. and most other developed countries.
The availability of various types of archival storage media such as Betamax and VHS tapes, high-capacity hard disk drives, DVDs, flash drives, high-definition Blu-ray Discs, and cloud digital video recorders has enabled viewers to watch pre-recorded material—such as movies—at home on their own time schedule. For many reasons, especially the convenience of remote retrieval, the storage of television and video programming now also occurs on the cloud (such as the video on demand service by Netflix). At the end of the first decade of the 2000s, digital television transmissions greatly increased in popularity. Another development was the move from standard-definition television (SDTV) (576i, with 576 interlaced lines of resolution and 480i) to high-definition television (HDTV), which provides a resolution that is substantially higher. HDTV may be transmitted in different formats: 1080p, 1080i and 720p. Since 2010, with the invention of smart television, Internet television has increased the availability of television programs and movies via the Internet through streaming video services such as Netflix, Amazon Prime Video, iPlayer and Hulu.
In 2013, 79% of the world's households owned a television set. The replacement of earlier cathode ray tube (CRT) screen displays with compact, energy-efficient, flat-panel alternative technologies such as LCDs (both fluorescent-backlit and LED), OLED displays, and plasma displays was a hardware revolution that began with computer monitors in the late 1990s. Most television sets sold in the 2000s were flat-panel, mainly LEDs. Major manufacturers announced the discontinuation of CRT, DLP, plasma, and even fluorescent-backlit LCDs by the mid-2010s. In the near future, LEDs are expected to be gradually replaced by OLEDs. Also, major manufacturers have announced that they will increasingly produce smart TVs in the mid-2010s. Smart TVs with integrated Internet and Web 2.0 functions became the dominant form of television by the late 2010s.
Television signals were initially distributed only as terrestrial television using high-powered radio-frequency television transmitters to broadcast the signal to individual television receivers. Alternatively television signals are distributed by coaxial cable or optical fiber, satellite systems and, since the 2000s via the Internet. Until the early 2000s, these were transmitted as analog signals, but a transition to digital television was expected to be completed worldwide by the late 2010s. A standard television set consists of multiple internal electronic circuits, including a tuner for receiving and decoding broadcast signals. A visual display device which lacks a tuner is correctly called a video monitor rather than a television.
Etymology
The word television comes . The first documented usage of the term dates back to 1900, when the Russian scientist Constantin Perskyi used it in a paper that he presented in French at the first International Congress of Electricity, which ran from 18 to 25 August 1900 during the International World Fair in Paris.
The anglicised version of the term is first attested in 1907, when it was still "...a theoretical system to transmit moving images over telegraph or telephone wires". It was "...formed in English or borrowed from French ." In the 19th century and early 20th century, other "...proposals for the name of a then-hypothetical technology for sending pictures over distance were telephote (1880) and televista (1904)."
The abbreviation TV is from 1948. The use of the term to mean "a television set" dates from 1941. The use of the term to mean "television as a medium" dates from 1927.
The slang term telly is more common in the UK. The slang term "the tube" or the "boob tube" derives from the bulky cathode ray tube used on most TVs until the advent of flat-screen TVs. Another slang term for the TV is "idiot box".
Also, in the 1940s and throughout the 1950s, during the early rapid growth of television programming and television-set ownership in the United States, another slang term became widely used in that period and continues to be used today to distinguish productions originally created for broadcast on television from films developed for presentation in movie theaters. The "small screen", as both a compound adjective and noun, became specific references to television, while the "big screen" was used to identify productions made for theatrical release.
History
Mechanical
Facsimile transmission systems for still photographs pioneered methods of mechanical scanning of images in the early 19th century. Alexander Bain introduced the facsimile machine between 1843 and 1846. Frederick Bakewell demonstrated a working laboratory version in 1851. Willoughby Smith discovered the photoconductivity of the element selenium in 1873. As a 23-year-old German university student, Paul Julius Gottlieb Nipkow proposed and patented the Nipkow disk in 1884. This was a spinning disk with a spiral pattern of holes in it, so each hole scanned a line of the image. Although he never built a working model of the system, variations of Nipkow's spinning-disk "image rasterizer" became exceedingly common. Constantin Perskyi had coined the word television in a paper read to the International Electricity Congress at the International World Fair in Paris on 24 August 1900. Perskyi's paper reviewed the existing electromechanical technologies, mentioning the work of Nipkow and others. However, it was not until 1907 that developments in amplification tube technology by Lee de Forest and Arthur Korn, among others, made the design practical.
The first demonstration of the live transmission of images was by Georges Rignoux and A. Fournier in Paris in 1909. A matrix of 64 selenium cells, individually wired to a mechanical commutator, served as an electronic retina. In the receiver, a type of Kerr cell modulated the light and a series of differently angled mirrors attached to the edge of a rotating disc scanned the modulated beam onto the display screen. A separate circuit regulated synchronization. The 8x8 pixel resolution in this proof-of-concept demonstration was just sufficient to clearly transmit individual letters of the alphabet. An updated image was transmitted "several times" each second.
In 1911, Boris Rosing and his student Vladimir Zworykin created a system that used a mechanical mirror-drum scanner to transmit, in Zworykin's words, "very crude images" over wires to the "Braun tube" (cathode ray tube or "CRT") in the receiver. Moving images were not possible because, in the scanner: "the sensitivity was not enough and the selenium cell was very laggy".
In 1921, Edouard Belin sent the first image via radio waves with his belinograph.
By the 1920s, when amplification made television practical, Scottish inventor John Logie Baird employed the Nipkow disk in his prototype video systems. On 25 March 1925, Baird gave the first public demonstration of televised silhouette images in motion, at Selfridge's Department Store in London. Since human faces had inadequate contrast to show up on his primitive system, he televised a ventriloquist's dummy named "Stooky Bill", whose painted face had higher contrast, talking and moving. By 26 January 1926, he had demonstrated the transmission of an image of a face in motion by radio. This is widely regarded as the world's first public television demonstration. Baird's system used the Nipkow disk for both scanning the image and displaying it. A brightly illuminated subject was placed in front of a spinning Nipkow disk set with lenses which swept images across a static photocell. The thallium sulphide (Thalofide) cell, developed by Theodore Case in the U.S., detected the light reflected from the subject and converted it into a proportional electrical signal. This was transmitted by AM radio waves to a receiver unit, where the video signal was applied to a neon light behind a second Nipkow disk rotating synchronized with the first. The brightness of the neon lamp was varied in proportion to the brightness of each spot on the image. As each hole in the disk passed by, one scan line of the image was reproduced. Baird's disk had 30 holes, producing an image with only 30 scan lines, just enough to recognize a human face. In 1927, Baird transmitted a signal over of telephone line between London and Glasgow.
In 1928, Baird's company (Baird Television Development Company/Cinema Television) broadcast the first transatlantic television signal, between London and New York, and the first shore-to-ship transmission. In 1929, he became involved in the first experimental mechanical television service in Germany. In November of the same year, Baird and Bernard Natan of Pathé established France's first television company, Télévision-Baird-Natan. In 1931, he made the first outdoor remote broadcast, of The Derby. In 1932, he demonstrated ultra-short wave television. Baird's mechanical system reached a peak of 240-lines of resolution on BBC telecasts in 1936, though the mechanical system did not scan the televised scene directly. Instead a 17.5mm film was shot, rapidly developed and then scanned while the film was still wet.
A U.S. inventor, Charles Francis Jenkins, also pioneered the television. He published an article on "Motion Pictures by Wireless" in 1913, but it was not until December 1923 that he transmitted moving silhouette images for witnesses; and it was on 13 June 1925, that he publicly demonstrated synchronized transmission of silhouette pictures. In 1925 Jenkins used the Nipkow disk and transmitted the silhouette image of a toy windmill in motion, over a distance of 5 miles (8 km), from a naval radio station in Maryland to his laboratory in Washington, D.C., using a lensed disk scanner with a 48-line resolution. He was granted U.S. Patent No. 1,544,156 (Transmitting Pictures over Wireless) on 30 June 1925 (filed 13 March 1922).
Herbert E. Ives and Frank Gray of Bell Telephone Laboratories gave a dramatic demonstration of mechanical television on 7 April 1927. Their reflected-light television system included both small and large viewing screens. The small receiver had a 2-inch-wide by 2.5-inch-high screen (5 by 6 cm). The large receiver had a screen 24 inches wide by 30 inches high (60 by 75 cm). Both sets were capable of reproducing reasonably accurate, monochromatic, moving images. Along with the pictures, the sets received synchronized sound. The system transmitted images over two paths: first, a copper wire link from Washington to New York City, then a radio link from Whippany, New Jersey. Comparing the two transmission methods, viewers noted no difference in quality. Subjects of the telecast included Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover. A flying-spot scanner beam illuminated these subjects. The scanner that produced the beam had a 50-aperture disk. The disc revolved at a rate of 18 frames per second, capturing one frame about every 56 milliseconds. (Today's systems typically transmit 30 or 60 frames per second, or one frame every 33.3 or 16.7 milliseconds respectively.) Television historian Albert Abramson underscored the significance of the Bell Labs demonstration: "It was in fact the best demonstration of a mechanical television system ever made to this time. It would be several years before any other system could even begin to compare with it in picture quality."
In 1928, WRGB, then W2XB, was started as the world's first television station. It broadcast from the General Electric facility in Schenectady, NY. It was popularly known as "WGY Television". Meanwhile, in the Soviet Union, Léon Theremin had been developing a mirror drum-based television, starting with 16 lines resolution in 1925, then 32 lines and eventually 64 using interlacing in 1926. As part of his thesis, on 7 May 1926, he electrically transmitted, and then projected, near-simultaneous moving images on a screen.
By 1927, Theremin had achieved an image of 100 lines, a resolution that was not surpassed until May 1932 by RCA, with 120 lines.
On 25 December 1926, Kenjiro Takayanagi demonstrated a television system with a 40-line resolution that employed a Nipkow disk scanner and CRT display at Hamamatsu Industrial High School in Japan. This prototype is still on display at the Takayanagi Memorial Museum in Shizuoka University, Hamamatsu Campus. His research in creating a production model was halted by the SCAP after World War II.
Because only a limited number of holes could be made in the disks, and disks beyond a certain diameter became impractical, image resolution on mechanical television broadcasts was relatively low, ranging from about 30 lines up to 120 or so. Nevertheless, the image quality of 30-line transmissions steadily improved with technical advances, and by 1933 the UK broadcasts using the Baird system were remarkably clear. A few systems ranging into the 200-line region also went on the air. Two of these were the 180-line system that Compagnie des Compteurs (CDC) installed in Paris in 1935, and the 180-line system that Peck Television Corp. started in 1935 at station VE9AK in Montreal. The advancement of all-electronic television (including image dissectors and other camera tubes and cathode ray tubes for the reproducer) marked the start of the end for mechanical systems as the dominant form of television. Mechanical television, despite its inferior image quality and generally smaller picture, would remain the primary television technology until the 1930s. The last mechanical telecasts ended in 1939 at stations run by a lot of public universities in the United States.
Electronic
In 1897, English physicist J. J. Thomson was able, in his three well-known experiments, to deflect cathode rays, a fundamental function of the modern cathode ray tube (CRT). The earliest version of the CRT was invented by the German physicist Ferdinand Braun in 1897 and is also known as the "Braun" tube. It was a cold-cathode diode, a modification of the Crookes tube, with a phosphor-coated screen. In 1906 the Germans Max Dieckmann and Gustav Glage produced raster images for the first time in a CRT. In 1907, Russian scientist Boris Rosing used a CRT in the receiving end of an experimental video signal to form a picture. He managed to display simple geometric shapes onto the screen.
In 1908 Alan Archibald Campbell-Swinton, fellow of the Royal Society (UK), published a letter in the scientific journal Nature in which he described how "distant electric vision" could be achieved by using a cathode ray tube, or Braun tube, as both a transmitting and receiving device, He expanded on his vision in a speech given in London in 1911 and reported in The Times and the Journal of the Röntgen Society. In a letter to Nature published in October 1926, Campbell-Swinton also announced the results of some "not very successful experiments" he had conducted with G. M. Minchin and J. C. M. Stanton. They had attempted to generate an electrical signal by projecting an image onto a selenium-coated metal plate that was simultaneously scanned by a cathode ray beam. These experiments were conducted before March 1914, when Minchin died, but they were later repeated by two different teams in 1937, by H. Miller and J. W. Strange from EMI, and by H. Iams and A. Rose from RCA. Both teams succeeded in transmitting "very faint" images with the original Campbell-Swinton's selenium-coated plate. Although others had experimented with using a cathode ray tube as a receiver, the concept of using one as a transmitter was novel. The first cathode ray tube to use a hot cathode was developed by John B. Johnson (who gave his name to the term Johnson noise) and Harry Weiner Weinhart of Western Electric, and became a commercial product in 1922.
In 1926, Hungarian engineer Kálmán Tihanyi designed a television system utilizing fully electronic scanning and display elements and employing the principle of "charge storage" within the scanning (or "camera") tube. The problem of low sensitivity to light resulting in low electrical output from transmitting or "camera" tubes would be solved with the introduction of charge-storage technology by Kálmán Tihanyi beginning in 1924. His solution was a camera tube that accumulated and stored electrical charges ("photoelectrons") within the tube throughout each scanning cycle. The device was first described in a patent application he filed in Hungary in March 1926 for a television system he called "Radioskop". After further refinements included in a 1928 patent application, Tihanyi's patent was declared void in Great Britain in 1930, so he applied for patents in the United States. Although his breakthrough would be incorporated into the design of RCA's "iconoscope" in 1931, the U.S. patent for Tihanyi's transmitting tube would not be granted until May 1939. The patent for his receiving tube had been granted the previous October. Both patents had been purchased by RCA prior to their approval. Charge storage remains a basic principle in the design of imaging devices for television to the present day. On 25 December 1926, at Hamamatsu Industrial High School in Japan, Japanese inventor Kenjiro Takayanagi demonstrated a TV system with a 40-line resolution that employed a CRT display. This was the first working example of a fully electronic television receiver. Takayanagi did not apply for a patent.
In the 1930s, Allen B. DuMont made the first CRTs to last 1,000 hours of use, which was one of the factors that led to the widespread adoption of television.
On 7 September 1927, U.S. inventor Philo Farnsworth's image dissector camera tube transmitted its first image, a simple straight line, at his laboratory at 202 Green Street in San Francisco. By 3 September 1928, Farnsworth had developed the system sufficiently to hold a demonstration for the press. This is widely regarded as the first electronic television demonstration. In 1929, the system was improved further by the elimination of a motor generator, so that his television system now had no mechanical parts. That year, Farnsworth transmitted the first live human images with his system, including a three and a half-inch image of his wife Elma ("Pem") with her eyes closed (possibly due to the bright lighting required).
Meanwhile, Vladimir Zworykin was also experimenting with the cathode ray tube to create and show images. While working for Westinghouse Electric in 1923, he began to develop an electronic camera tube. But in a 1925 demonstration, the image was dim, had low contrast, and poor definition, and was stationary. Zworykin's imaging tube never got beyond the laboratory stage. But RCA, which acquired the Westinghouse patent, asserted that the patent for Farnsworth's 1927 image dissector was written so broadly that it would exclude any other electronic imaging device. Thus RCA, on the basis of Zworykin's 1923 patent application, filed a patent interference suit against Farnsworth. The U.S. Patent Office examiner disagreed in a 1935 decision, finding priority of invention for Farnsworth against Zworykin. Farnsworth claimed that Zworykin's 1923 system would be unable to produce an electrical image of the type to challenge his patent. Zworykin received a patent in 1928 for a color transmission version of his 1923 patent application; he also divided his original application in 1931. Zworykin was unable or unwilling to introduce evidence of a working model of his tube that was based on his 1923 patent application. In September 1939, after losing an appeal in the courts, and determined to go forward with the commercial manufacturing of television equipment, RCA agreed to pay Farnsworth US$1 million over a ten-year period, in addition to license payments, to use his patents.
In 1933, RCA introduced an improved camera tube that relied on Tihanyi's charge storage principle. Called the "Iconoscope" by Zworykin, the new tube had a light sensitivity of about 75,000 lux, and thus was claimed to be much more sensitive than Farnsworth's image dissector. However, Farnsworth had overcome his power issues with his Image Dissector through the invention of a completely unique "multipactor" device that he began work on in 1930, and demonstrated in 1931. This small tube could amplify a signal reportedly to the 60th power or better and showed great promise in all fields of electronics. Unfortunately, an issue with the multipactor was that it wore out at an unsatisfactory rate.
At the Berlin Radio Show in August 1931, Manfred von Ardenne gave a public demonstration of a television system using a CRT for both transmission and reception. However, Ardenne had not developed a camera tube, using the CRT instead as a flying-spot scanner to scan slides and film. Philo Farnsworth gave the world's first public demonstration of an all-electronic television system, using a live camera, at the Franklin Institute of Philadelphia on 25 August 1934, and for ten days afterwards. Mexican inventor Guillermo González Camarena also played an important role in early television. His experiments with television (known as telectroescopía at first) began in 1931 and led to a patent for the "trichromatic field sequential system" color television in 1940. In Britain, the EMI engineering team led by Isaac Shoenberg applied in 1932 for a patent for a new device they called "the Emitron", which formed the heart of the cameras they designed for the BBC. On 2 November 1936, a 405-line broadcasting service employing the Emitron began at studios in Alexandra Palace, and transmitted from a specially built mast atop one of the Victorian building's towers. It alternated for a short time with Baird's mechanical system in adjoining studios, but was more reliable and visibly superior. This was the world's first regular "high-definition" television service.
The original U.S. iconoscope was noisy, had a high ratio of interference to signal, and ultimately gave disappointing results, especially when compared to the high definition mechanical scanning systems then becoming available. The EMI team, under the supervision of Isaac Shoenberg, analyzed how the iconoscope (or Emitron) produces an electronic signal and concluded that its real efficiency was only about 5% of the theoretical maximum. They solved this problem by developing, and patenting in 1934, two new camera tubes dubbed super-Emitron and CPS Emitron. The super-Emitron was between ten and fifteen times more sensitive than the original Emitron and iconoscope tubes and, in some cases, this ratio was considerably greater. It was used for outside broadcasting by the BBC, for the first time, on Armistice Day 1937, when the general public could watch on a television set as the King laid a wreath at the Cenotaph. This was the first time that anyone had broadcast a live street scene from cameras installed on the roof of neighboring buildings, because neither Farnsworth nor RCA would do the same until the 1939 New York World's Fair.
On the other hand, in 1934, Zworykin shared some patent rights with the German licensee company Telefunken. The "image iconoscope" ("Superikonoskop" in Germany) was produced as a result of the collaboration. This tube is essentially identical to the super-Emitron. The production and commercialization of the super-Emitron and image iconoscope in Europe were not affected by the patent war between Zworykin and Farnsworth, because Dieckmann and Hell had priority in Germany for the invention of the image dissector, having submitted a patent application for their Lichtelektrische Bildzerlegerröhre für Fernseher (Photoelectric Image Dissector Tube for Television) in Germany in 1925, two years before Farnsworth did the same in the United States. The image iconoscope (Superikonoskop) became the industrial standard for public broadcasting in Europe from 1936 until 1960, when it was replaced by the vidicon and plumbicon tubes. Indeed, it was the representative of the European tradition in electronic tubes competing against the American tradition represented by the image orthicon. The German company Heimann produced the Superikonoskop for the 1936 Berlin Olympic Games, later Heimann also produced and commercialized it from 1940 to 1955; finally the Dutch company Philips produced and commercialized the image iconoscope and multicon from 1952 to 1958.
U.S. television broadcasting, at the time, consisted of a variety of markets in a wide range of sizes, each competing for programming and dominance with separate technology, until deals were made and standards agreed upon in 1941. RCA, for example, used only Iconoscopes in the New York area, but Farnsworth Image Dissectors in Philadelphia and San Francisco. In September 1939, RCA agreed to pay the Farnsworth Television and Radio Corporation royalties over the next ten years for access to Farnsworth's patents. With this historic agreement in place, RCA integrated much of what was best about the Farnsworth Technology into their systems. In 1941, the United States implemented 525-line television. Electrical engineer Benjamin Adler played a prominent role in the development of television.
The world's first 625-line television standard was designed in the Soviet Union in 1944 and became a national standard in 1946. The first broadcast in 625-line standard occurred in Moscow in 1948. The concept of 625 lines per frame was subsequently implemented in the European CCIR standard. In 1936, Kálmán Tihanyi described the principle of plasma display, the first flat panel display system.
Early electronic television sets were large and bulky, with analog circuits made of vacuum tubes. Following the invention of the first working transistor at Bell Labs, Sony founder Masaru Ibuka predicted in 1952 that the transition to electronic circuits made of transistors would lead to smaller and more portable television sets. The first fully transistorized, portable solid-state television set was the 8-inch Sony TV8-301, developed in 1959 and released in 1960. This began the transformation of television viewership from a communal viewing experience to a solitary viewing experience. By 1960, Sony had sold over 4million portable television sets worldwide.
Color
The basic idea of using three monochrome images to produce a color image had been experimented with almost as soon as black-and-white televisions had first been built. Although he gave no practical details, among the earliest published proposals for television was one by Maurice Le Blanc, in 1880, for a color system, including the first mentions in television literature of line and frame scanning. Polish inventor Jan Szczepanik patented a color television system in 1897, using a selenium photoelectric cell at the transmitter and an electromagnet controlling an oscillating mirror and a moving prism at the receiver. But his system contained no means of analyzing the spectrum of colors at the transmitting end, and could not have worked as he described it. Another inventor, Hovannes Adamian, also experimented with color television as early as 1907. The first color television project is claimed by him, and was patented in Germany on 31 March 1908, patent No. 197183, then in Britain, on 1 April 1908, patent No. 7219, in France (patent No. 390326) and in Russia in 1910 (patent No. 17912).
Scottish inventor John Logie Baird demonstrated the world's first color transmission on 3 July 1928, using scanning discs at the transmitting and receiving ends with three spirals of apertures, each spiral with filters of a different primary color; and three light sources at the receiving end, with a commutator to alternate their illumination. Baird also made the world's first color broadcast on 4 February 1938, sending a mechanically scanned 120-line image from Baird's Crystal Palace studios to a projection screen at London's Dominion Theatre. Mechanically scanned color television was also demonstrated by Bell Laboratories in June 1929 using three complete systems of photoelectric cells, amplifiers, glow-tubes, and color filters, with a series of mirrors to superimpose the red, green, and blue images into one full color image.
The first practical hybrid system was again pioneered by John Logie Baird. In 1940 he publicly demonstrated a color television combining a traditional black-and-white display with a rotating colored disk. This device was very "deep", but was later improved with a mirror folding the light path into an entirely practical device resembling a large conventional console. However, Baird was unhappy with the design, and, as early as 1944, had commented to a British government committee that a fully electronic device would be better.
In 1939, Hungarian engineer Peter Carl Goldmark introduced an electro-mechanical system while at CBS, which contained an Iconoscope sensor. The CBS field-sequential color system was partly mechanical, with a disc made of red, blue, and green filters spinning inside the television camera at 1,200 rpm, and a similar disc spinning in synchronization in front of the cathode ray tube inside the receiver set. The system was first demonstrated to the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) on 29 August 1940, and shown to the press on 4 September.
CBS began experimental color field tests using film as early as August 28, 1940, and live cameras by 12 November. NBC (owned by RCA) made its first field test of color television on February 20, 1941. CBS began daily color field tests on June 1, 1941. These color systems were not compatible with existing black-and-white television sets, and, as no color television sets were available to the public at this time, viewing of the color field tests was restricted to RCA and CBS engineers and the invited press. The War Production Board halted the manufacture of television and radio equipment for civilian use from April 22, 1942, to 20 August 1945, limiting any opportunity to introduce color television to the general public.
As early as 1940, Baird had started work on a fully electronic system he called Telechrome. Early Telechrome devices used two electron guns aimed at either side of a phosphor plate. The phosphor was patterned so the electrons from the guns only fell on one side of the patterning or the other. Using cyan and magenta phosphors, a reasonable limited-color image could be obtained. He also demonstrated the same system using monochrome signals to produce a 3D image (called "stereoscopic" at the time). A demonstration on 16 August 1944 was the first example of a practical color television system. Work on the Telechrome continued and plans were made to introduce a three-gun version for full color. However, Baird's untimely death in 1946 ended development of the Telechrome system.
Similar concepts were common through the 1940s and 1950s, differing primarily in the way they re-combined the colors generated by the three guns. The Geer tube was similar to Baird's concept, but used small pyramids with the phosphors deposited on their outside faces, instead of Baird's 3D patterning on a flat surface. The Penetron used three layers of phosphor on top of each other and increased the power of the beam to reach the upper layers when drawing those colors. The Chromatron used a set of focusing wires to select the colored phosphors arranged in vertical stripes on the tube.
One of the great technical challenges of introducing color broadcast television was the desire to conserve bandwidth, potentially three times that of the existing black-and-white standards, and not use an excessive amount of radio spectrum. In the United States, after considerable research, the National Television Systems Committee approved an all-electronic system developed by RCA, which encoded the color information separately from the brightness information and greatly reduced the resolution of the color information in order to conserve bandwidth. As black-and-white televisions could receive the same transmission and display it in black-and-white, the color system adopted is [backwards] "compatible". ("Compatible Color", featured in RCA advertisements of the period, is mentioned in the song "America", of West Side Story, 1957.) The brightness image remained compatible with existing black-and-white television sets at slightly reduced resolution, while color televisions could decode the extra information in the signal and produce a limited-resolution color display. The higher resolution black-and-white and lower resolution color images combine in the brain to produce a seemingly high-resolution color image. The NTSC standard represented a major technical achievement.
The first color broadcast (the first episode of the live program The Marriage) occurred on 8 July 1954, but during the following ten years most network broadcasts, and nearly all local programming, continued to be in black-and-white. It was not until the mid-1960s that color sets started selling in large numbers, due in part to the color transition of 1965 in which it was announced that over half of all network prime-time programming would be broadcast in color that fall. The first all-color prime-time season came just one year later. In 1972, the last holdout among daytime network programs converted to color, resulting in the first completely all-color network season.
Early color sets were either floor-standing console models or tabletop versions nearly as bulky and heavy, so in practice they remained firmly anchored in one place. GE's relatively compact and lightweight Porta-Color set was introduced in the spring of 1966. It used a transistor-based UHF tuner. The first fully transistorized color television in the United States was the Quasar television introduced in 1967. These developments made watching color television a more flexible and convenient proposition.
The MOSFET (metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor, or MOS transistor) was invented by Mohamed M. Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs in 1959, and presented in 1960. By the mid-1960s, RCA were using MOSFETs in their consumer television products. RCA Laboratories researchers W.M. Austin, J.A. Dean, D.M. Griswold and O.P. Hart in 1966 described the use of the MOSFET in television circuits, including RF amplifier, low-level video, chroma and AGC circuits. The power MOSFET was later widely adopted for television receiver circuits.
In 1972, sales of color sets finally surpassed sales of black-and-white sets. Color broadcasting in Europe was not standardized on the PAL format until the 1960s, and broadcasts did not start until 1967. By this point many of the technical issues in the early sets had been worked out, and the spread of color sets in Europe was fairly rapid. By the mid-1970s, the only stations broadcasting in black-and-white were a few high-numbered UHF stations in small markets, and a handful of low-power repeater stations in even smaller markets such as vacation spots. By 1979, even the last of these had converted to color and, by the early 1980s, B&W sets had been pushed into niche markets, notably low-power uses, small portable sets, or for use as video monitor screens in lower-cost consumer equipment. By the late 1980s even these areas switched to color sets.
Digital
Digital television (DTV) is the transmission of audio and video by digitally processed and multiplexed signals, in contrast to the totally analog and channel separated signals used by analog television. Due to data compression, digital television can support more than one program in the same channel bandwidth. It is an innovative service that represents the most significant evolution in television broadcast technology since color television emerged in the 1950s. Digital television's roots have been tied very closely to the availability of inexpensive, high performance computers. It was not until the 1990s that digital television became possible. Digital television was previously not practically possible due to the impractically high bandwidth requirements of uncompressed digital video, requiring around 200Mbit/s for a standard-definition television (SDTV) signal, and over 1Gbit/s for high-definition television (HDTV).
A digital television service was proposed in 1986 by Nippon Telegraph and Telephone (NTT) and the Ministry of Posts and Telecommunication (MPT) in Japan, where there were plans to develop an "Integrated Network System" service. However, it was not possible to practically implement such a digital television service until the adoption of DCT video compression technology made it possible in the early 1990s.
In the mid-1980s, as Japanese consumer electronics firms forged ahead with the development of HDTV technology, the MUSE analog format proposed by NHK, a Japanese company, was seen as a pacesetter that threatened to eclipse U.S. electronics companies' technologies. Until June 1990, the Japanese MUSE standard, based on an analog system, was the front-runner among the more than 23 other technical concepts under consideration. Then, a U.S. company, General Instrument, demonstrated the possibility of a digital television signal. This breakthrough was of such significance that the FCC was persuaded to delay its decision on an ATV standard until a digitally-based standard could be developed.
In March 1990, when it became clear that a digital standard was possible, the FCC made a number of critical decisions. First, the Commission declared that the new ATV standard must be more than an enhanced analog signal, but be able to provide a genuine HDTV signal with at least twice the resolution of existing television images.(7) Then, to ensure that viewers who did not wish to buy a new digital television set could continue to receive conventional television broadcasts, it dictated that the new ATV standard must be capable of being "simulcast" on different channels.(8)The new ATV standard also allowed the new DTV signal to be based on entirely new design principles. Although incompatible with the existing NTSC standard, the new DTV standard would be able to incorporate many improvements.
The last standards adopted by the FCC did not require a single standard for scanning formats, aspect ratios, or lines of resolution. This compromise resulted from a dispute between the consumer electronics industry (joined by some broadcasters) and the computer industry (joined by the film industry and some public interest groups) over which of the two scanning processes—interlaced or progressive—would be best suited for the newer digital HDTV compatible display devices. Interlaced scanning, which had been specifically designed for older analogue CRT display technologies, scans even-numbered lines first, then odd-numbered ones. In fact, interlaced scanning can be looked at as the first video compression model as it was partly designed in the 1940s to double the image resolution to exceed the limitations of the television broadcast bandwidth. Another reason for its adoption was to limit the flickering on early CRT screens whose phosphor coated screens could only retain the image from the electron scanning gun for a relatively short duration. However interlaced scanning does not work as efficiently on newer display devices such as Liquid-crystal (LCD), for example, which are better suited to a more frequent progressive refresh rate.
Progressive scanning, the format that the computer industry had long adopted for computer display monitors, scans every line in sequence, from top to bottom. Progressive scanning in effect doubles the amount of data generated for every full screen displayed in comparison to interlaced scanning by painting the screen in one pass in 1/60-second, instead of two passes in 1/30-second. The computer industry argued that progressive scanning is superior because it does not "flicker" on the new standard of display devices in the manner of interlaced scanning. It also argued that progressive scanning enables easier connections with the Internet, and is more cheaply converted to interlaced formats than vice versa. The film industry also supported progressive scanning because it offered a more efficient means of converting filmed programming into digital formats. For their part, the consumer electronics industry and broadcasters argued that interlaced scanning was the only technology that could transmit the highest quality pictures then (and currently) feasible, i.e., 1,080 lines per picture and 1,920 pixels per line. Broadcasters also favored interlaced scanning because their vast archive of interlaced programming is not readily compatible with a progressive format. William F. Schreiber, who was director of the Advanced Television Research Program at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology from 1983 until his retirement in 1990, thought that the continued advocacy of interlaced equipment originated from consumer electronics companies that were trying to get back the substantial investments they made in the interlaced technology.
Digital television transition started in late 2000s. All governments across the world set the deadline for analog shutdown by 2010s. Initially, the adoption rate was low, as the first digital tuner-equipped television sets were costly. But soon, as the price of digital-capable television sets dropped, more and more households were converting to digital television sets. The transition is expected to be completed worldwide by mid to late 2010s.
Smart television
The advent of digital television allowed innovations like smart television sets. A smart television, sometimes referred to as connected TV or hybrid TV, is a television set or set-top box with integrated Internet and Web 2.0 features, and is an example of technological convergence between computers, television sets and set-top boxes. Besides the traditional functions of television sets and set-top boxes provided through traditional Broadcasting media, these devices can also provide Internet TV, online interactive media, over-the-top content, as well as on-demand streaming media, and home networking access. These TVs come pre-loaded with an operating system.
Smart TV should not to be confused with Internet TV, Internet Protocol television (IPTV) or with Web TV. Internet television refers to the receiving of television content over the Internet instead of by traditional systems—terrestrial, cable and satellite (although internet itself is received by these methods). IPTV is one of the emerging Internet television technology standards for use by television networks. Web television (WebTV) is a term used for programs created by a wide variety of companies and individuals for broadcast on Internet TV. A first patent was filed in 1994 (and extended the following year) for an "intelligent" television system, linked with data processing systems, by means of a digital or analog network. Apart from being linked to data networks, one key point is its ability to automatically download necessary software routines, according to a user's demand, and process their needs. Major TV manufacturers have announced production of smart TVs only, for middle-end and high-end TVs in 2015. Smart TVs have gotten more affordable compared to when they were first introduced, with 46 million of U.S. households having at least one as of 2019.
3D
3D television conveys depth perception to the viewer by employing techniques such as stereoscopic display, multi-view display, 2D-plus-depth, or any other form of 3D display. Most modern 3D television sets use an active shutter 3D system or a polarized 3D system, and some are autostereoscopic without the need of glasses. Stereoscopic 3D television was demonstrated for the first time on 10 August 1928, by John Logie Baird in his company's premises at 133 Long Acre, London. Baird pioneered a variety of 3D television systems using electromechanical and cathode-ray tube techniques. The first 3D television was produced in 1935. The advent of digital television in the 2000s greatly improved 3D television sets. Although 3D television sets are quite popular for watching 3D home media such as on Blu-ray discs, 3D programming has largely failed to make inroads with the public. Many 3D television channels which started in the early 2010s were shut down by the mid-2010s. According to DisplaySearch 3D televisions shipments totaled 41.45 million units in 2012, compared with 24.14 in 2011 and 2.26 in 2010. As of late 2013, the number of 3D TV viewers started to decline.
Broadcast systems
Terrestrial television
Programming is broadcast by television stations, sometimes called "channels", as stations are licensed by their governments to broadcast only over assigned channels in the television band. At first, terrestrial broadcasting was the only way television could be widely distributed, and because bandwidth was limited, i.e., there were only a small number of channels available, government regulation was the norm. In the U.S., the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) allowed stations to broadcast advertisements beginning in July 1941, but required public service programming commitments as a requirement for a license. By contrast, the United Kingdom chose a different route, imposing a television license fee on owners of television reception equipment to fund the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), which had public service as part of its Royal Charter.
WRGB claims to be the world's oldest television station, tracing its roots to an experimental station founded on 13 January 1928, broadcasting from the General Electric factory in Schenectady, NY, under the call letters W2XB. It was popularly known as "WGY Television" after its sister radio station. Later in 1928, General Electric started a second facility, this one in New York City, which had the call letters W2XBS and which today is known as WNBC. The two stations were experimental in nature and had no regular programming, as receivers were operated by engineers within the company. The image of a Felix the Cat doll rotating on a turntable was broadcast for 2 hours every day for several years as new technology was being tested by the engineers. On 2 November 1936, the BBC began transmitting the world's first public regular high-definition service from the Victorian Alexandra Palace in north London. It therefore claims to be the birthplace of television broadcasting as we know it from now on.
With the widespread adoption of cable across the United States in the 1970s and 1980s, terrestrial television broadcasts have been in decline; in 2013 it was estimated that about 7% of US households used an antenna.<ref>"CEA Study Says Seven Percent of TV Households Use Antennas", '"TVTechnology, 30 July 2013 </ref> A slight increase in use began around 2010 due to switchover to digital terrestrial television broadcasts, which offered pristine image quality over very large areas, and offered an alternate to cable television (CATV) for cord cutters. All other countries around the world are also in the process of either shutting down analog terrestrial television or switching over to digital terrestrial television.
Cable television
Cable television is a system of broadcasting television programming to paying subscribers via radio frequency (RF) signals transmitted through coaxial cables or light pulses through fiber-optic cables. This contrasts with traditional terrestrial television, in which the television signal is transmitted over the air by radio waves and received by a television antenna attached to the television. In the 2000s, FM radio programming, high-speed Internet, telephone service, and similar non-television services may also be provided through these cables. The abbreviation CATV is sometimes used for cable television in the United States. It originally stood for Community Access Television or Community Antenna Television, from cable television's origins in 1948: in areas where over-the-air reception was limited by distance from transmitters or mountainous terrain, large "community antennas" were constructed, and cable was run from them to individual homes.
Satellite television
Satellite television is a system of supplying television programming using broadcast signals relayed from communication satellites. The signals are received via an outdoor parabolic reflector antenna usually referred to as a satellite dish and a low-noise block downconverter (LNB). A satellite receiver then decodes the desired television program for viewing on a television set. Receivers can be external set-top boxes, or a built-in television tuner. Satellite television provides a wide range of channels and services, especially to geographic areas without terrestrial television or cable television.
The most common method of reception is direct-broadcast satellite television (DBSTV), also known as "direct to home" (DTH). In DBSTV systems, signals are relayed from a direct broadcast satellite on the Ku wavelength and are completely digital. Satellite TV systems formerly used systems known as television receive-only. These systems received analog signals transmitted in the C-band spectrum from FSS type satellites, and required the use of large dishes. Consequently, these systems were nicknamed "big dish" systems, and were more expensive and less popular.
The direct-broadcast satellite television signals were earlier analog signals and later digital signals, both of which require a compatible receiver. Digital signals may include high-definition television (HDTV). Some transmissions and channels are free-to-air or free-to-view, while many other channels are pay television requiring a subscription.
In 1945, British science fiction writer Arthur C. Clarke proposed a worldwide communications system which would function by means of three satellites equally spaced apart in earth orbit. This was published in the October 1945 issue of the Wireless World magazine and won him the Franklin Institute's Stuart Ballantine Medal in 1963.
The first satellite television signals from Europe to North America were relayed via the Telstar satellite over the Atlantic ocean on 23 July 1962. The signals were received and broadcast in North American and European countries and watched by over 100 million. Launched in 1962, the Relay 1 satellite was the first satellite to transmit television signals from the US to Japan. The first geosynchronous communication satellite, Syncom 2, was launched on 26 July 1963.
The world's first commercial communications satellite, called Intelsat I and nicknamed "Early Bird", was launched into geosynchronous orbit on 6 April 1965. The first national network of television satellites, called Orbita, was created by the Soviet Union in October 1967, and was based on the principle of using the highly elliptical Molniya satellite for rebroadcasting and delivering of television signals to ground downlink stations. The first commercial North American satellite to carry television transmissions was Canada's geostationary Anik 1, which was launched on 9 November 1972. ATS-6, the world's first experimental educational and Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS), was launched on 30 May 1974. It transmitted at 860 MHz using wideband FM modulation and had two sound channels. The transmissions were focused on the Indian subcontinent but experimenters were able to receive the signal in Western Europe using home constructed equipment that drew on UHF television design techniques already in use.
The first in a series of Soviet geostationary satellites to carry Direct-To-Home television, Ekran 1, was launched on 26 October 1976. It used a 714 MHz UHF downlink frequency so that the transmissions could be received with existing UHF television technology rather than microwave technology.
Internet television
Internet television (Internet TV) (or online television) is the digital distribution of television content via the Internet as opposed to traditional systems like terrestrial, cable, and satellite, although the Internet itself is received by terrestrial, cable, or satellite methods. Internet television is a general term that covers the delivery of television series, and other video content, over the Internet by video streaming technology, typically by major traditional television broadcasters. Internet television should not be confused with Smart TV, IPTV or with Web TV. Smart television refers to the television set which has a built-in operating system. Internet Protocol television (IPTV) is one of the emerging Internet television technology standards for use by television networks. Web television is a term used for programs created by a wide variety of companies and individuals for broadcast on Internet television.
Sets
A television set, also called a television receiver, television, TV set, TV, or "telly", is a device that combines a tuner, display, an amplifier, and speakers for the purpose of viewing television and hearing its audio components. Introduced in the late 1920s in mechanical form, television sets became a popular consumer product after World War II in electronic form, using cathode ray tubes. The addition of color to broadcast television after 1953 further increased the popularity of television sets and an outdoor antenna became a common feature of suburban homes. The ubiquitous television set became the display device for recorded media in the 1970s, such as Betamax and VHS, which enabled viewers to record TV shows and watch prerecorded movies. In the subsequent decades, Television sets were used to watch DVDs and Blu-ray Discs of movies and other content. Major TV manufacturers announced the discontinuation of CRT, DLP, plasma and fluorescent-backlit LCDs by the mid-2010s. Televisions since 2010s mostly use LEDs. LEDs are expected to be gradually replaced by OLEDs in the near future.
Display technologies
Disk
The earliest systems employed a spinning disk to create and reproduce images. These usually had a low resolution and screen size and never became popular with the public.
CRT
The cathode ray tube (CRT) is a vacuum tube containing one or more electron guns (a source of electrons or electron emitter) and a fluorescent screen used to view images. It has a means to accelerate and deflect the electron beam(s) onto the screen to create the images. The images may represent electrical waveforms (oscilloscope), pictures (television, computer monitor), radar targets or others. The CRT uses an evacuated glass envelope which is large, deep (i.e. long from front screen face to rear end), fairly heavy, and relatively fragile. As a matter of safety, the face is typically made of thick lead glass so as to be highly shatter-resistant and to block most X-ray emissions, particularly if the CRT is used in a consumer product.
In television sets and computer monitors, the entire front area of the tube is scanned repetitively and systematically in a fixed pattern called a raster. An image is produced by controlling the intensity of each of the three electron beams, one for each additive primary color (red, green, and blue) with a video signal as a reference. In all modern CRT monitors and televisions, the beams are bent by magnetic deflection, a varying magnetic field generated by coils and driven by electronic circuits around the neck of the tube, although electrostatic deflection is commonly used in oscilloscopes, a type of diagnostic instrument.
DLP
Digital Light Processing (DLP) is a type of video projector technology that uses a digital micromirror device. Some DLPs have a TV tuner, which makes them a type of TV display. It was originally developed in 1987 by Dr. Larry Hornbeck of Texas Instruments. While the DLP imaging device was invented by Texas Instruments, the first DLP based projector was introduced by Digital Projection Ltd in 1997. Digital Projection and Texas Instruments were both awarded Emmy Awards in 1998 for invention of the DLP projector technology. DLP is used in a variety of display applications from traditional static displays to interactive displays and also non-traditional embedded applications including medical, security, and industrial uses. DLP technology is used in DLP front projectors (standalone projection units for classrooms and business primarily), but also in private homes; in these cases, the image is projected onto a projection screen. DLP is also used in DLP rear projection television sets and digital signs. It is also used in about 85% of digital cinema projection.
Plasma
A plasma display panel (PDP) is a type of flat panel display common to large television displays or larger. They are called "plasma" displays because the technology utilizes small cells containing electrically charged ionized gases, or what are in essence chambers more commonly known as fluorescent lamps.
LCD
Liquid-crystal-display televisions (LCD TV) are television sets that use LCD display technology to produce images. LCD televisions are much thinner and lighter than cathode ray tube (CRTs) of similar display size, and are available in much larger sizes (e.g., 90-inch diagonal). When manufacturing costs fell, this combination of features made LCDs practical for television receivers. LCDs come in two types: those using cold cathode fluorescent lamps, simply called LCDs and those using LED as backlight called as LEDs.
In 2007, LCD television sets surpassed sales of CRT-based television sets worldwide for the first time, and their sales figures relative to other technologies accelerated. LCD television sets have quickly displaced the only major competitors in the large-screen market, the Plasma display panel and rear-projection television. In mid 2010s LCDs especially LEDs became, by far, the most widely produced and sold television display type. LCDs also have disadvantages. Other technologies address these weaknesses, including OLEDs, FED and SED, but none of these have entered widespread production.
OLED
An OLED (organic light-emitting diode) is a light-emitting diode (LED) in which the emissive electroluminescent layer is a film of organic compound which emits light in response to an electric current. This layer of organic semiconductor is situated between two electrodes. Generally, at least one of these electrodes is transparent. OLEDs are used to create digital displays in devices such as television screens. It is also used for computer monitors, portable systems such as mobile phones, handheld game consoles and PDAs.
There are two main groups of OLED: those based on small molecules and those employing polymers. Adding mobile ions to an OLED creates a light-emitting electrochemical cell or LEC, which has a slightly different mode of operation. OLED displays can use either passive-matrix (PMOLED) or active-matrix (AMOLED) addressing schemes. Active-matrix OLEDs require a thin-film transistor backplane to switch each individual pixel on or off, but allow for higher resolution and larger display sizes.
An OLED display works without a backlight. Thus, it can display deep black levels and can be thinner and lighter than a liquid crystal display (LCD). In low ambient light conditions such as a dark room an OLED screen can achieve a higher contrast ratio than an LCD, whether the LCD uses cold cathode fluorescent lamps or LED backlight. OLEDs are expected to replace other forms of display in near future.
Display resolution
LD
Low-definition television or LDTV refers to television systems that have a lower screen resolution than standard-definition television systems such 240p (320*240). It is used in handheld television. The most common source of LDTV programming is the Internet, where mass distribution of higher-resolution video files could overwhelm computer servers and take too long to download. Many mobile phones and portable devices such as Apple's iPod Nano, or Sony's PlayStation Portable use LDTV video, as higher-resolution files would be excessive to the needs of their small screens (320×240 and 480×272 pixels respectively). The current generation of iPod Nanos have LDTV screens, as do the first three generations of iPod Touch and iPhone (480×320). For the first years of its existence, YouTube offered only one, low-definition resolution of 320x240p at 30fps or less. A standard, consumer grade videotape can be considered SDTV due to its resolution (approximately 360 × 480i/576i).
SD
Standard-definition television or SDTV refers to two different resolutions: 576i, with 576 interlaced lines of resolution, derived from the European-developed PAL and SECAM systems; and 480i based on the American National Television System Committee NTSC system. SDTV is a television system that uses a resolution that is not considered to be either high-definition television (720p, 1080i, 1080p, 1440p, 4K UHDTV, and 8K UHD) or enhanced-definition television (EDTV 480p). In North America, digital SDTV is broadcast in the same 4:3 aspect ratio as NTSC signals with widescreen content being center cut. However, in other parts of the world that used the PAL or SECAM color systems, standard-definition television is now usually shown with a 16:9 aspect ratio, with the transition occurring between the mid-1990s and mid-2000s. Older programs with a 4:3 aspect ratio are shown in the United States as 4:3 with non-ATSC countries preferring to reduce the horizontal resolution by anamorphically scaling a pillarboxed image.
HD
High-definition television (HDTV) provides a resolution that is substantially higher than that of standard-definition television.
HDTV may be transmitted in various formats:
1080p: 1920×1080p: 2,073,600 pixels (~2.07 megapixels) per frame
1080i: 1920×1080i: 1,036,800 pixels (~1.04 MP) per field or 2,073,600 pixels (~2.07 MP) per frame
A non-standard CEA resolution exists in some countries such as 1440×1080i: 777,600 pixels (~0.78 MP) per field or 1,555,200 pixels (~1.56 MP) per frame
720p: 1280×720p: 921,600 pixels (~0.92 MP) per frame
UHD
Ultra-high-definition television (also known as Super Hi-Vision, Ultra HD television, UltraHD, UHDTV, or UHD) includes 4K UHD (2160p) and 8K UHD (4320p), which are two digital video formats proposed by NHK Science & Technology Research Laboratories and defined and approved by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU). The Consumer Electronics Association announced on October 17, 2012, that "Ultra High Definition", or "Ultra HD", would be used for displays that have an aspect ratio of at least 16:9 and at least one digital input capable of carrying and presenting natural video at a minimum resolution of 3840×2160 pixels.
Market share
North American consumers purchase a new television set on average every seven years, and the average household owns 2.8 televisions. , 48 million are sold each year at an average price of $460 and size of .
Content
Programming
Getting TV programming shown to the public can happen in many other ways. After production, the next step is to market and deliver the product to whichever markets are open to using it. This typically happens on two levels:
Original run or First run: a producer creates a program of one or multiple episodes and shows it on a station or network which has either paid for the production itself or to which a license has been granted by the television producers to do the same.
Broadcast syndication: this is the terminology rather broadly used to describe secondary programming usages (beyond original run). It includes secondary runs in the country of first issue, but also international usage which may not be managed by the originating producer. In many cases, other companies, television stations, or individuals are engaged to do the syndication work, in other words, to sell the product into the markets they are allowed to sell into by contract from the copyright holders, in most cases the producers.
First-run programming is increasing on subscription services outside of the United States, but few domestically produced programs are syndicated on domestic free-to-air (FTA) elsewhere. This practice is increasing, however, generally on digital-only FTA channels or with subscriber-only, first-run material appearing on FTA. Unlike United States, repeat FTA screenings of an FTA network program usually only occur on that network. Also, affiliates rarely buy or produce non-network programming that is not focused on local programming.
Genres
Television genres include a broad range of programming types that entertain, inform, and educate viewers. The most expensive entertainment genres to produce are usually dramas and dramatic miniseries. However, other genres, such as historical Western genres, may also have high production costs.
Pop culture entertainment genres include action-oriented shows such as police, crime, detective dramas, horror, or thriller shows. As well, there are also other variants of the drama genre, such as medical dramas and daytime soap operas. Sci-fi series can fall into either the drama or action category, depending on whether they emphasize philosophical questions or high adventure. Comedy is a popular genre which includes situation comedy (sitcom) and animated series for the adult demographic such as Comedy Central's South Park.
The least expensive forms of entertainment programming genres are game shows, talk shows, variety shows, and reality television. Game shows feature contestants answering questions and solving puzzles to win prizes. Talk shows contain interviews with film, television, music and sports celebrities and public figures. Variety shows feature a range of musical performers and other entertainers, such as comedians and magicians, introduced by a host or Master of Ceremonies. There is some crossover between some talk shows and variety shows because leading talk shows often feature performances by bands, singers, comedians, and other performers in between the interview segments. Reality television series "regular" people (i.e., not actors) facing unusual challenges or experiences ranging from arrest by police officers (COPS) to significant weight loss (The Biggest Loser). A derived version of reality shows depicts celebrities doing mundane activities such as going about their everyday life (The Osbournes, Snoop Dogg's Father Hood) or doing regular jobs (The Simple Life).
Fictional television programs that some television scholars and broadcasting advocacy groups argue are "quality television", include series such as Twin Peaks and The Sopranos. Kristin Thompson argues that some of these television series exhibit traits also found in art films, such as psychological realism, narrative complexity, and ambiguous plotlines. Nonfiction television programs that some television scholars and broadcasting advocacy groups argue are "quality television", include a range of serious, noncommercial, programming aimed at a niche audience, such as documentaries and public affairs shows.
Funding
Around the world, broadcast television is financed by government, advertising, licensing (a form of tax), subscription, or any combination of these. To protect revenues, subscription television channels are usually encrypted to ensure that only subscribers receive the decryption codes to see the signal. Unencrypted channels are known as free to air or FTA. In 2009, the global TV market represented 1,217.2 million TV households with at least one TV and total revenues of 268.9 billion EUR (declining 1.2% compared to 2008). North America had the biggest TV revenue market share with 39% followed by Europe (31%), Asia-Pacific (21%), Latin America (8%), and Africa and the Middle East (2%). Globally, the different TV revenue sources divide into 45–50% TV advertising revenues, 40–45% subscription fees and 10% public funding.OFCOM's Global TV Market Report 2009 International Television Expert Group
Advertising
Television's broad reach makes it a powerful and attractive medium for advertisers. Many television networks and stations sell blocks of broadcast time to advertisers ("sponsors") to fund their programming. Television advertisements (variously called a television commercial, commercial or ad in American English, and known in British English as an advert) is a span of television programming produced and paid for by an organization, which conveys a message, typically to market a product or service. Advertising revenue provides a significant portion of the funding for most privately owned television networks. The vast majority of television advertisements today consist of brief advertising spots, ranging in length from a few seconds to several minutes (as well as program-length infomercials). Advertisements of this sort have been used to promote a wide variety of goods, services and ideas since the beginning of television.
The effects of television advertising upon the viewing public (and the effects of mass media in general) have been the subject of discourse by philosophers including Marshall McLuhan. The viewership of television programming, as measured by companies such as Nielsen Media Research, is often used as a metric for television advertisement placement, and consequently, for the rates charged to advertisers to air within a given network, television program, or time of day (called a "daypart"). In many countries, including the United States, television campaign advertisements are considered indispensable for a political campaign. In other countries, such as France, political advertising on television is heavily restricted, while some countries, such as Norway, completely ban political advertisements.
The first official, paid television advertisement was broadcast in the United States on July 1, 1941, over New York station WNBT (now WNBC) before a baseball game between the Brooklyn Dodgers and Philadelphia Phillies. The announcement for Bulova watches, for which the company paid anywhere from $4.00 to $9.00 (reports vary), displayed a WNBT test pattern modified to look like a clock with the hands showing the time. The Bulova logo, with the phrase "Bulova Watch Time", was shown in the lower right-hand quadrant of the test pattern while the second hand swept around the dial for one minute. The first TV ad broadcast in the U.K. was on ITV on 22 September 1955, advertising Gibbs SR toothpaste. The first TV ad broadcast in Asia was on Nippon Television in Tokyo on 28 August 1953, advertising Seikosha (now Seiko), which also displayed a clock with the current time.
United States
Since inception in the US in 1941, television commercials have become one of the most effective, persuasive, and popular methods of selling products of many sorts, especially consumer goods. During the 1940s and into the 1950s, programs were hosted by single advertisers. This, in turn, gave great creative license to the advertisers over the content of the show. Perhaps due to the quiz show scandals in the 1950s, networks shifted to the magazine concept, introducing advertising breaks with other advertisers.
U.S. advertising rates are determined primarily by Nielsen ratings. The time of the day and popularity of the channel determine how much a TV commercial can cost. For example, it can cost approximately $750,000 for a 30-second block of commercial time during the highly popular singing competition American Idol, while the same amount of time for the Super Bowl can cost several million dollars. Conversely, lesser-viewed time slots, such as early mornings and weekday afternoons, are often sold in bulk to producers of infomercials at far lower rates. In recent years, the paid program or infomercial has become common, usually in lengths of 30 minutes or one hour. Some drug companies and other businesses have even created "news" items for broadcast, known in the industry as video news releases, paying program directors to use them.
Some television programs also deliberately place products into their shows as advertisements, a practice started in feature films and known as product placement. For example, a character could be drinking a certain kind of soda, going to a particular chain restaurant, or driving a certain make of car. (This is sometimes very subtle, with shows having vehicles provided by manufacturers for low cost in exchange as a product placement). Sometimes, a specific brand or trade mark, or music from a certain artist or group, is used. (This excludes guest appearances by artists who perform on the show.)
United Kingdom
The TV regulator oversees TV advertising in the United Kingdom. Its restrictions have applied since the early days of commercially funded TV. Despite this, an early TV mogul, Roy Thomson, likened the broadcasting licence as being a "licence to print money". Restrictions mean that the big three national commercial TV channels: ITV, Channel 4, and Channel 5 can show an average of only seven minutes of advertising per hour (eight minutes in the peak period). Other broadcasters must average no more than nine minutes (twelve in the peak). This means that many imported TV shows from the U.S. have unnatural pauses where the British company does not utilize the narrative breaks intended for more frequent U.S. advertising. Advertisements must not be inserted in the course of certain specific proscribed types of programs which last less than half an hour in scheduled duration; this list includes any news or current affairs programs, documentaries, and programs for children; additionally, advertisements may not be carried in a program designed and broadcast for reception in schools or in any religious broadcasting service or other devotional program or during a formal Royal ceremony or occasion. There also must be clear demarcations in time between the programs and the advertisements. The BBC, being strictly non-commercial, is not allowed to show advertisements on television in the U.K., although it has many advertising-funded channels abroad. The majority of its budget comes from television license fees (see below) and broadcast syndication, the sale of content to other broadcasters.
Ireland
Broadcast advertising is regulated by the Broadcasting Authority of Ireland.
Subscription
Some TV channels are partly funded from subscriptions; therefore, the signals are encrypted during broadcast to ensure that only the paying subscribers have access to the decryption codes to watch pay television or specialty channels. Most subscription services are also funded by advertising.
Taxation or license
Television services in some countries may be funded by a television licence or a form of taxation, which means that advertising plays a lesser role or no role at all. For example, some channels may carry no advertising at all and some very little, including:
Australia (ABC Television)
Belgium (RTBF)
Denmark (DR)
Ireland (RTÉ)
Japan (NHK)
Norway (NRK)
Sweden (SVT)
Switzerland (SRG SSR)
Republic of China (Taiwan) (PTS)
United Kingdom (BBC Television)
United States (PBS)
The British Broadcasting Corporation's TV service carries no television advertising on its UK channels and is funded by an annual television licence paid by the occupiers of premises receiving live telecasts. it was estimated that approximately 26.8 million UK private domestic households owned televisions, with approximately 25 million TV licences in all premises in force as of 2010. This television license fee is set by the government, but the BBC is not answerable to or controlled by the government. two main BBC TV channels were watched by almost 90% of the population each week and overall had 27% share of total viewing, despite the fact that 85% of homes were multi-channel, with 42% of these having access to 200 free-to-air channels via satellite and another 43% having access to 30 or more channels via Freeview. the licence that funds the advertising-free BBC TV channels cost £159 for a colour TV Licence and £53.50 for a black and white TV Licence (free or reduced for some groups).
The Australian Broadcasting Corporation's television services in Australia carry no advertising by external sources; it is banned under the Australian Broadcasting Corporation Act 1983, which also ensures its the editorial independence. The ABC receives most of its funding from the Australian Government (some revenue is received from its Commercial division), but it has suffered progressive funding cuts under Liberal governments since the 1996 Howard government, with particularly deep cuts in 2014 under the Turnbull government, and an ongoing indexation freeze . The funds provide for the ABC's television, radio, online, and international outputs, although ABC Australia, which broadcasts throughout the Asia-Pacific region, receives additional funds through DFAT and some advertising on the channel.
In France, government-funded channels carry advertisements, yet those who own television sets have to pay an annual tax ("la redevance audiovisuelle").
In Japan, NHK is paid for by license fees (known in Japanese as ). The broadcast law that governs NHK's funding stipulates that any television equipped to receive NHK is required to pay. The fee is standardized, with discounts for office workers and students who commute, as well a general discount for residents of Okinawa prefecture.
Broadcast programming
Broadcast programming, or TV listings in the United Kingdom, is the practice of organizing television programs in a schedule, with broadcast automation used to regularly change the scheduling of TV programs to build an audience for a new show, retain that audience, or compete with other broadcasters' programs.
Social aspects
Television has played a pivotal role in the socialization of the 20th and 21st centuries. There are many aspects of television that can be addressed, including negative issues such as media violence. Current research is discovering that individuals suffering from social isolation can employ television to create what is termed a parasocial or faux relationship with characters from their favorite television shows and movies as a way of deflecting feelings of loneliness and social deprivation. Several studies have found that educational television has many advantages. The article "The Good Things about Television" argues that television can be a very powerful and effective learning tool for children if used wisely. With respect to faith, many Christian denominations use television for religious broadcasting.
Opposition
Methodist denominations in the conservative holiness movement, such as the Allegheny Wesleyan Methodist Connection and the Evangelical Wesleyan Church, eschew the use of the television. Some Baptists, such as those affiliated with Pensacola Christian College, also eschew television. Many Traditional Catholic congregations such as the Society of Saint Pius X (SSPX), as with Laestadian Lutherans, oppose the presence of television in the household, teaching that it is an occasion of sin.
Negative impacts
Children, especially those aged 5 or younger, are at risk of injury from falling televisions. A CRT-style television that falls on a child will, because of its weight, hit with the equivalent force of falling multiple stories from a building. Newer flat-screen televisions are "top-heavy and have narrow bases", which means that a small child can easily pull one over. , TV tip-overs were responsible for more than 10,000 injuries per year to children in the U.S., at a cost of more than $8 million per year in emergency care.
A 2017 study in The Journal of Human Resources found that exposure to cable television reduced cognitive ability and high school graduation rates for boys. This effect was stronger for boys from more educated families. The article suggests a mechanism where light television entertainment crowds out more cognitively stimulating activities.
With high lead content in CRTs and the rapid diffusion of new flat-panel display technologies, some of which (LCDs) use lamps which contain mercury, there is growing concern about electronic waste from discarded televisions. Related occupational health concerns exist, as well, for disassemblers removing copper wiring and other materials from CRTs. Further environmental concerns related to television design and use relate to the devices' increasing electrical energy requirements.
See also
B-television
Broadcast-safe
Content discovery platform
Information-action ratio
List of countries by number of television broadcast stations
List of television manufacturers
List of years in television
Lists of television channels
Media psychology
MicroLED
Sign language on television
Telephilia
Television studies
TV accessory
References
Further reading
Pierre Bourdieu, On Television, The New Press, 2001.
Tim Brooks and Earle March, The Complete Guide to Prime Time Network and Cable TV Shows, 8th ed., Ballantine, 2002.
Jacques Derrida and Bernard Stiegler, Echographies of Television, Polity Press, 2002.
David E. Fisher and Marshall J. Fisher, Tube: the Invention of Television, Counterpoint, Washington, D.C., 1996, .
Steven Johnson, Everything Bad is Good for You: How Today's Popular Culture Is Actually Making Us Smarter, New York, Riverhead (Penguin), 2005, 2006, .
Jerry Mander, Four Arguments for the Elimination of Television, Perennial, 1978.
Jerry Mander, In the Absence of the Sacred, Sierra Club Books, 1992, .
Neil Postman, Amusing Ourselves to Death: Public Discourse in the Age of Show Business, New York, Penguin US, 1985, .
Evan I. Schwartz, The Last Lone Inventor: A Tale of Genius, Deceit, and the Birth of Television, New York, Harper Paperbacks, 2003, .
Beretta E. Smith-Shomade, Shaded Lives: African-American Women and Television, Rutgers University Press, 2002.
Alan Taylor, We, the Media: Pedagogic Intrusions into US Mainstream Film and Television News Broadcasting Rhetoric, Peter Lang, 2005, .
Amanda D. Lotz, The Television Will Be Revolutionized'', New York University Press,
External links
Advertising by medium
.
Media formats
Broadcasting
Consumer electronics
Digital technology
Performing arts
Video hardware
1925 in technology
1927 in technology
Telecommunications-related introductions in 1925
Telecommunications-related introductions in 1927
American inventions
British inventions
German inventions
Russian inventions
Television industry
1925 introductions
1927 introductions
20th-century inventions
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4979490
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VLYNQ
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VLYNQ
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VLYNQ is a proprietary interface developed by Texas Instruments and used for broadband products, such as WLAN and modems, VOIP processors and audio and digital media processor chips. The chip implements a full-duplex serial communications interface that enables the extension of an internal bus segment to one or more external physical devices. The external devices are mapped into local, physical address space and appear as if they are on the internal bus. Multiple VLYNQ devices are daisy-chained, communication is peer-to-peer, host/peripheral. Data transferred over the VLYNQ interface is 8B/10B encoded and packetized.
VLYNQ is the name of a proprietary interface developed by Texas Instruments. It is used for TI's broadband products, such as modems and WLAN, voice broadband processors, digital media processors, and OMAP media processor chips.
The ACX111 WLAN cards used in AR7 devices look like mini-PCI, but actually they are dual mode cards, that talk both, mini-PCI and VLYNQ.
Details
The VLYNQ bus signals include 1 clock signal [CLK], and 1 to 8 Transmit lines [TX0 and TX1 ...], and 1 to 8 Receive lines [RX0 and RX1.....]. All VLYNQ signals are dedicated and driven by only one device. The transmit pins of one device connect to the receive lines of the next device. The VLYNQ bus will operate at a maximum clock speed of 125 MHz. However the actual clock speed is dependent on the physical device with the VLYNQ. So a device may have a clock speed other than 125 MHz. For example, a device may have an internal 100 MHz [maximum] clock rate, or external 80 MHz [maximum] clock rate.
When clocked at 125 MHz, a single T/R pair then delivers an effective data throughput of about 73 Mbit/s (for single, 32-bit word transfers), while a dual T/R pair implementation delivers 146 Mbit/s, and a maximum eight-channel version delivers 584 Mbit/s. In-band flow-control lets the interface independently throttle the transmit and receive data streams.
If data packets contain four or 16 words, some of the overhead is eliminated. So on a single channel, data bursts of four words per packet can deliver an effective throughput of 133 Mbit/s. With 16 words per packet, the throughput goes up to 178 Mbit/s. With the maximum eight channels, an effective throughput of over 1400 Mbit/s can be achieved with 16 words per packet. Both the direction and clock source may be software configurable [may be device dependent]. Software may also be used to set the internal clock speed [may be device dependent]. Unused clock lines are held high via an internal pull-up. Unused RX or TX lines may require an external 47k pull-down resistor [may be device dependent]. Software selectable internal pull-downs for signals may be provided on some devices.
Packet format
The packet format is:
SOP, 10 bits
CMD1, 10 bits; or PktType, 10 bits
CMD2, 10 bits; or AdMask, 10 bits
ByteCnt, 10 bits
Address, 10 bits [could be up to 4 words]
Data, 10 bits [could be 'N' words long]
EOP, 10 bits
8B/10B encoding
The IBM patented encoding method used for encoding 8-bit data bytes to 10-bit Transmission Characters. Data bytes are converted to Transmission Characters to improve the physical signal such that the following benefits are achieved: bit synchronization is more easily achieved, design of receivers and transmitters is simplified, error detection is improved, and control characters (i.e., the Special Character) can be distinguished from data characters.
References
TMS320DM644x DMSoC VLYNQ Port User's Guide for VLYNQ as implemented on one recent media processor
Serial buses
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2341198
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merge%20%28version%20control%29
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Merge (version control)
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In version control, merging (also called integration) is a fundamental operation that reconciles multiple changes made to a version-controlled collection of files. Most often, it is necessary when a file is modified on two independent branches and subsequently merged. The result is a single collection of files that contains both sets of changes.
In some cases, the merge can be performed automatically, because there is sufficient history information to reconstruct the changes, and the changes do not conflict. In other cases, a person must decide exactly what the resulting files should contain. Many revision control software tools include merge capabilities.
Types of merges
There are two types of merges: automatic and manual.
Unstructured merge
Unstructured merge operates on raw text, typically using lines of text as atomic
units. This is what Unix tools (diff/patch) and CVS tools (SVN, Git) use. This is limited, as a line of text does not represent the structure of source code.
Structured merge
Structured merge tools, or AST merge, turn the source code into a
fully resolved AST. This allows for a fine-grained merge that avoid spurious conflicts.
Yet, it also creates a new problem: as the AST abstracts away formatting, the
pretty-rinting back from AST to source code, may result in a completely different formatting style on the merged files. To overcome this problem, it is required to do some high-fidelity pretty-printing, which is essentially language-specific.
Workflow
Automatic merging is what version control software does when it reconciles changes that have happened simultaneously (in a logical sense). Also, other pieces of software deploy automatic merging if they allow for editing the same content simultaneously. For instance, Wikipedia allows two people to edit the same article at the same time; when the latter contributor saves, their changes are merged into the article instead of overwriting the previous set of changes.
Manual merging is what people have to resort to (possibly assisted by merging tools) when they have to reconcile files that differ. For instance, if two systems have slightly differing versions of a configuration file and a user wants to have the good stuff in both, this can usually be achieved by merging the configuration files by hand, picking the wanted changes from both sources (this is also called two-way merging). Manual merging is also required when automatic merging runs into a change conflict; for instance, very few automatic merge tools can merge two changes to the same line of code (say, one that changes a function name, and another that adds a comment). In these cases, revision control systems resort to the user to specify the intended merge result.
Merge algorithms
There are many different approaches to automatic merging, with subtle differences. The more notable merge algorithms include three-way merge, recursive three-way merge, fuzzy patch application, weave merge, and patch commutation.
Three-way merge
A three-way merge is performed after an automated difference analysis between a file "A" and a file "B" while also considering the origin, or common ancestor, of both files "C". It is a rough merging method, but widely applicable since it only requires one common ancestor to reconstruct the changes that are to be merged. Three way merge can be done on raw text (sequence of lines) or on structured trees.
The three-way merge looks for sections which are the same in only two of the three files. In this case, there are two versions of the section, and the version which is in the common ancestor "C" is discarded, while the version that differs is preserved in the output. If "A" and "B" agree, that is what appears in the output. A section that is the same in "A" and "C" outputs the changed version in "B", and likewise a section that is the same in "B" and "C" outputs the version in "A".
Sections that are different in all three files are marked as a conflict situation and left for the user to resolve.
Three-way merging is implemented by the ubiquitous diff3 program, and was the central innovation that allowed the switch from file-locking based revision control systems to merge-based revision control systems. It is extensively used by the Concurrent Versions System (CVS).
Recursive three-way merge
Three-way merge based revision control tools are widespread, but the technique fundamentally depends on finding a common ancestor of the versions to be merged.
There are awkward cases, particularly the "criss-cross merge", where a unique last common ancestor of the modified versions does not exist.
Fortunately, in this case it can be shown that there are at most two possible candidate ancestors, and recursive three-way merge constructs a virtual ancestor by merging the non-unique ancestors first. This merge can itself suffer the same problem, so the algorithm recursively merges them. Since there is a finite number of versions in the history, the process is guaranteed to eventually terminate. This technique is used by the Git revision control tool.
(Git's recursive merge implementation also handles other awkward cases, like a file being modified in one version and renamed in the other, but those are extensions to its three-way merge implementation; not part of the technique for finding three versions to merge.)
Recursive three-way merge can only be used in situations where the tool has knowledge about the total ancestry directed acyclic graph (DAG) of the derivatives to be merged. Consequently, it cannot be used in situations where derivatives or merges do not fully specify their parent(s).
Fuzzy patch application
A patch is a file that contains a description of changes to a file. In the Unix world, there has been a tradition to disseminate changes to text files as patches in the format that is produced by "diff -u". This format can then be used by the patch program to re-apply (or remove) the changes into (or from) a text file, or a directory structure containing text files.
However, the patch program also has some facilities to apply the patch into a file that is not exactly similar as the origin file that was used to produce the patch. This process is called fuzzy patch application, and results in a kind of asymmetric three-way merge, where the changes in the patch are discarded if the patch program cannot find a place in which to apply them.
Like CVS started as a set of scripts on diff3, GNU arch started as a set of scripts on patch. However, fuzzy patch application is a relatively untrustworthy method, sometimes misapplying patches that have too little context (especially ones that create a new file), sometimes refusing to apply deletions that both derivatives have done.
Patch commutation
Patch commutation is used in Darcs to merge changes, and is also implemented in git (but called "rebasing"). Patch commutation merge means changing the order of patches (i.e. descriptions of changes) so that they form a linear history. In effect, when two patches are made in the context of a common situation, upon merging, one of them is rewritten so that it appears to be done in the context of the other.
Patch commutation requires that the exact changes that made derivative files are stored or can be reconstructed. From these exact changes it is possible to compute how one of them should be changed in order to rebase it on the other. For instance, if patch A adds line "X" after line 7 of file F and patch B adds line "Y" after line 310 of file F, B has to be rewritten if it is rebased on A: the line must be added on line 311 of file F, because the line added in A offsets the line numbers by one.
Patch commutation has been studied a great deal formally, but the algorithms for dealing with merge conflicts in patch commutation still remain open research questions. However, patch commutation can be proven to produce "correct" merge results where other merge strategies are mostly heuristics that try to produce what users want to see.
The Unix program flipdiff from the "patchutils" package implements patch commutation for traditional patches produced by diff -u.
Weave merge
Weave merge is an algorithm that does not make use of a common ancestor for two files. Instead, it tracks how single lines are added and deleted in derivative versions of files, and produces the merged file on this information.
For each line in the derivative files, weave merge collects the following information: which lines precede it, which follow it, and whether it was deleted at some stage of either derivative's history. If either derivative has had the line deleted at some point, it must not be present in the merged version. For other lines, they must be present in the merged version.
The lines are sorted into an order where each line is after all lines that have preceded it at some point in history, and before all lines that have followed it at some point in history. If these constraints do not give a total ordering for all lines, then the lines that do not have an ordering with respect to each other are additions that conflict.
Weave merge was apparently used by the commercial revision control tool BitKeeper and can handle some of the problem cases where a three-way merge produces wrong or bad results. It is also one of the merge options of the GNU Bazaar revision control tool, and is used in Codeville.
See also
Comparison of file comparison tools
diff
Branching (revision control)
References
Configuration management
Version control
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5389424
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arduino
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Arduino
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Arduino () is an open-source hardware and software company, project, and user community that designs and manufactures single-board microcontrollers and microcontroller kits for building digital devices. Its hardware products are licensed under a CC BY-SA license, while software is licensed under the GNU Lesser General Public License (LGPL) or the GNU General Public License (GPL), permitting the manufacture of Arduino boards and software distribution by anyone. Arduino boards are available commercially from the official website or through authorized distributors.
Arduino board designs use a variety of microprocessors and controllers. The boards are equipped with sets of digital and analog input/output (I/O) pins that may be interfaced to various expansion boards ('shields') or breadboards (for prototyping) and other circuits. The boards feature serial communications interfaces, including Universal Serial Bus (USB) on some models, which are also used for loading programs. The microcontrollers can be programmed using the C and C++ programming languages, using a standard API which is also known as the Arduino language, inspired by the Processing language and used with a modified version of the Processing IDE. In addition to using traditional compiler toolchains, the Arduino project provides an integrated development environment (IDE) and a command line tool developed in Go.
The Arduino project began in 2005 as a tool for students at the Interaction Design Institute Ivrea, Italy, aiming to provide a low-cost and easy way for novices and professionals to create devices that interact with their environment using sensors and actuators. Common examples of such devices intended for beginner hobbyists include simple robots, thermostats and motion detectors.
The name Arduino comes from a bar in Ivrea, Italy, where some of the founders of the project used to meet. The bar was named after Arduin of Ivrea, who was the margrave of the March of Ivrea and King of Italy from 1002 to 1014.
History
Founding
The Arduino project was started at the Interaction Design Institute Ivrea (IDII) in Ivrea, Italy. At that time, the students used a BASIC Stamp microcontroller at a cost of $50. In 2003 Hernando Barragán created the development platform Wiring as a Master's thesis project at IDII, under the supervision of Massimo Banzi and Casey Reas. Casey Reas is known for co-creating, with Ben Fry, the Processing development platform. The project goal was to create simple, low cost tools for creating digital projects by non-engineers. The Wiring platform consisted of a printed circuit board (PCB) with an ATmega128 microcontroller, an IDE based on Processing and library functions to easily program the microcontroller.
In 2005, Massimo Banzi, with David Mellis, another IDII student, and David Cuartielles, extended Wiring by adding support for the cheaper ATmega8 microcontroller. The new project, forked from Wiring, was called Arduino.
The initial Arduino core team consisted of Massimo Banzi, David Cuartielles, Tom Igoe, Gianluca Martino, and David Mellis.
Following the completion of the platform, lighter and less expensive versions were distributed in the open-source community. It was estimated in mid-2011 that over 300,000 official Arduinos had been commercially produced, and in 2013 that 700,000 official boards were in users' hands.
Trademark dispute
In early 2008, the five co-founders of the Arduino project created a company, Arduino LLC, to hold the trademarks associated with Arduino. The manufacture and sale of the boards was to be done by external companies, and Arduino LLC would get a royalty from them. The founding bylaws of Arduino LLC specified that each of the five founders transfer ownership of the Arduino brand to the newly formed company.
At the end of 2008, Gianluca Martino's company, Smart Projects, registered the Arduino trademark in Italy and kept this a secret from the other co-founders for about two years. This was revealed when the Arduino company tried to register the trademark in other areas of the world (they originally registered only in the US), and discovered that it was already registered in Italy. Negotiations with Martino and his firm to bring the trademark under control of the original Arduino company failed. In 2014, Smart Projects began refusing to pay royalties. They then appointed a new CEO, Federico Musto, who renamed the company Arduino SRL and created the website arduino.org, copying the graphics and layout of the original arduino.cc. This resulted in a rift in the Arduino development team.
In January 2015, Arduino LLC filed a lawsuit against Arduino SRL.
In May 2015, Arduino LLC created the worldwide trademark Genuino, used as brand name outside the United States.
At the World Maker Faire in New York on 1 October 2016, Arduino LLC co-founder and CEO Massimo Banzi and Arduino SRL CEO Federico Musto announced the merger of the two companies. Around that same time, Massimo Banzi announced that in addition to the company a new Arduino Foundation would be launched as "a new beginning for Arduino", but this decision was withdrawn later.
In April 2017, Wired reported that Musto had "fabricated his academic record... On his company's website, personal LinkedIn accounts, and even on Italian business documents, Musto was, until recently, listed as holding a PhD from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. In some cases, his biography also claimed an MBA from New York University." Wired reported that neither university had any record of Musto's attendance, and Musto later admitted in an interview with Wired that he had never earned those degrees. The controversy surrounding Musto continued when, in July 2017, he reportedly pulled many open source licenses, schematics, and code from the Arduino website, prompting scrutiny and outcry.
By 2017 Arduino AG owned many Arduino trademarks. In July 2017 BCMI, founded by Massimo Banzi, David Cuartielles, David Mellis and Tom Igoe, acquired Arduino AG and all the Arduino trademarks. Fabio Violante is the new CEO replacing Federico Musto, who no longer works for Arduino AG.
Post-dispute
In October 2017, Arduino announced its partnership with ARM Holdings (ARM). The announcement said, in part, "ARM recognized independence as a core value of Arduino ... without any lock-in with the ARM architecture". Arduino intends to continue to work with all technology vendors and architectures.
Under Violante's guidance, the company started growing again and releasing new designs. The Genuino trademark was dismissed and all products were branded again with the Arduino name. As of February 2020, the Arduino community included about 30 million active users based on the IDE downloads.
In August 2018, Arduino announced its new open source command line tool (arduino-cli), which can be used as a replacement of the IDE to program the boards from a shell.
In February 2019, Arduino announced its IoT Cloud service as an extension of the Create online environment.
Hardware
Arduino is open-source hardware. The hardware reference designs are distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution Share-Alike 2.5 license and are available on the Arduino website. Layout and production files for some versions of the hardware are also available.
Although the hardware and software designs are freely available under copyleft licenses, the developers have requested the name Arduino to be exclusive to the official product and not be used for derived works without permission. The official policy document on use of the Arduino name emphasizes that the project is open to incorporating work by others into the official product. Several Arduino-compatible products commercially released have avoided the project name by using various names ending in -duino.
Most Arduino boards consist of an Atmel 8-bit AVR microcontroller (ATmega8, ATmega168, ATmega328, ATmega1280, or ATmega2560) with varying amounts of flash memory, pins, and features. The 32-bit Arduino Due, based on the Atmel SAM3X8E was introduced in 2012. The boards use single or double-row pins or female headers that facilitate connections for programming and incorporation into other circuits. These may connect with add-on modules termed shields. Multiple and possibly stacked shields may be individually addressable via an I²C serial bus. Most boards include a 5 V linear regulator and a 16 MHz crystal oscillator or ceramic resonator. Some designs, such as the LilyPad, run at 8 MHz and dispense with the onboard voltage regulator due to specific form-factor restrictions.
Arduino microcontrollers are pre-programmed with a boot loader that simplifies uploading of programs to the on-chip flash memory. The default bootloader of the Arduino Uno is the Optiboot bootloader. Boards are loaded with program code via a serial connection to another computer. Some serial Arduino boards contain a level shifter circuit to convert between RS-232 logic levels and transistor–transistor logic (TTL) level signals. Current Arduino boards are programmed via Universal Serial Bus (USB), implemented using USB-to-serial adapter chips such as the FTDI FT232. Some boards, such as later-model Uno boards, substitute the FTDI chip with a separate AVR chip containing USB-to-serial firmware, which is reprogrammable via its own ICSP header. Other variants, such as the Arduino Mini and the unofficial Boarduino, use a detachable USB-to-serial adapter board or cable, Bluetooth or other methods. When used with traditional microcontroller tools, instead of the Arduino IDE, standard AVR in-system programming (ISP) programming is used.
The Arduino board exposes most of the microcontroller's I/O pins for use by other circuits. The Diecimila, Duemilanove, and current Uno provide 14 digital I/O pins, six of which can produce pulse-width modulated signals, and six analog inputs, which can also be used as six digital I/O pins. These pins are on the top of the board, via female 0.1-inch (2.54 mm) headers. Several plug-in application shields are also commercially available. The Arduino Nano, and Arduino-compatible Bare Bones Board and Boarduino boards may provide male header pins on the underside of the board that can plug into solderless breadboards.
Many Arduino-compatible and Arduino-derived boards exist. Some are functionally equivalent to an Arduino and can be used interchangeably. Many enhance the basic Arduino by adding output drivers, often for use in school-level education, to simplify making buggies and small robots. Others are electrically equivalent, but change the form factor, sometimes retaining compatibility with shields, sometimes not. Some variants use different processors, of varying compatibility.
Official boards
The original Arduino hardware was manufactured by the Italian company Smart Projects. Some Arduino-branded boards have been designed by the American companies SparkFun Electronics and Adafruit Industries. , 17 versions of the Arduino hardware have been commercially produced.
Shields
Arduino and Arduino-compatible boards use printed circuit expansion boards called shields, which plug into the normally supplied Arduino pin headers. Shields can provide motor controls for 3D printing and other applications, GNSS (satellite navigation), Ethernet, liquid crystal display (LCD), or breadboarding (prototyping). Several shields can also be made do it yourself (DIY).
Software
A program for Arduino hardware may be written in any programming language with compilers that produce binary machine code for the target processor. Atmel provides a development environment for their 8-bit AVR and 32-bit ARM Cortex-M based microcontrollers: AVR Studio (older) and Atmel Studio (newer).
IDE
The Arduino integrated development environment (IDE) is a cross-platform application (for Microsoft Windows, macOS, and Linux) that is written in the Java programming language. It originated from the IDE for the languages Processing and Wiring. It includes a code editor with features such as text cutting and pasting, searching and replacing text, automatic indenting, brace matching, and syntax highlighting, and provides simple one-click mechanisms to compile and upload programs to an Arduino board. It also contains a message area, a text console, a toolbar with buttons for common functions and a hierarchy of operation menus. The source code for the IDE is released under the GNU General Public License, version 2.
The Arduino IDE supports the languages C and C++ using special rules of code structuring. The Arduino IDE supplies a software library from the Wiring project, which provides many common input and output procedures. User-written code only requires two basic functions, for starting the sketch and the main program loop, that are compiled and linked with a program stub main() into an executable cyclic executive program with the GNU toolchain, also included with the IDE distribution. The Arduino IDE employs the program avrdude to convert the executable code into a text file in hexadecimal encoding that is loaded into the Arduino board by a loader program in the board's firmware.
IDE 2.0
On October 18, 2019, Arduino Pro IDE (alpha preview) was released. Later, on March 1, 2021, the beta preview was released, renamed IDE 2.0. The system still uses Arduino CLI (Command Line Interface), but improvements include a more professional development environment, autocompletion support, and Git integration. The application frontend is based on the Eclipse Theia Open Source IDE. The main features available in the new release are:
Modern, fully featured development environment
Dual Mode, Classic Mode (identical to the Classic Arduino IDE) and Pro Mode (File System view)
New Board Manager
New Library Manager
Board List
Basic Auto-Completion (Arm targets only)
Git Integration
Serial Monitor
Dark Mode
Sketch
A sketch is a program written with the Arduino IDE. Sketches are saved on the development computer as text files with the file extension .ino. Arduino Software (IDE) pre-1.0 saved sketches with the extension .pde.
A minimal Arduino C/C++ program consists of only two functions:
: This function is called once when a sketch starts after power-up or reset. It is used to initialize variables, input and output pin modes, and other libraries needed in the sketch. It is analogous to the function .
: After function exits (ends), the function is executed repeatedly in the main program. It controls the board until the board is powered off or is reset. It is analogous to the function .
Blink example
Most Arduino boards contain a light-emitting diode (LED) and a current limiting resistor connected between pin 13 and ground, which is a convenient feature for many tests and program functions. A typical program used by beginners, akin to Hello, World!, is "blink", which repeatedly blinks the on-board LED integrated into the Arduino board. This program uses the functions , , and , which are provided by the internal libraries included in the IDE environment. This program is usually loaded into a new Arduino board by the manufacturer.
# define LED_PIN 13 // Pin number attached to LED.
void setup() {
pinMode(LED_PIN, OUTPUT); // Configure pin 13 to be a digital output.
}
void loop() {
digitalWrite(LED_PIN, HIGH); // Turn on the LED.
delay(1000); // Wait 1 second (1000 milliseconds).
digitalWrite(LED_PIN, LOW); // Turn off the LED.
delay(1000); // Wait 1 second.
}
Libraries
The open-source nature of the Arduino project has facilitated the publication of many free software libraries that other developers use to augment their projects.
Operating systems/threading
There is a Xinu OS port for the atmega328p (Arduino Uno and others with the same chip), which includes most of the basic features. The source code of this version is freely available.
There is also a threading tool, named Protothreads. Protothreads are described as "extremely lightweight stackless threads designed for severely memory constrained systems, such as small embedded systems or wireless sensor network nodes.
Applications
Arduboy, a handheld game console based on Arduino
Arduinome, a MIDI controller device that mimics the Monome
Ardupilot, drone software and hardware
ArduSat, a cubesat based on Arduino.
C-STEM Studio, a platform for hands-on integrated learning of computing, science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (C-STEM) with robotics.
Data loggers for scientific research.
OBDuino, a trip computer that uses the on-board diagnostics interface found in most modern cars
OpenEVSE an open-source electric vehicle charger
XOD, a visual programming language for Arduino
Tinkercad, an analog and digital simulator supporting Arduino Simulation
Recognitions
The Arduino project received an honorary mention in the Digital Communities category at the 2006 Prix Ars Electronica.
The Arduino Engineering Kit won the Bett Award for "Higher Education or Further Education Digital Services" in 2020.
See also
List of Arduino boards and compatible systems
List of open-source hardware projects
Explanatory notes
References
Further reading
Massimo Banzi, Michael Shiloh; Make: Getting Started with Arduino; 3rd ed.; Make Community; 262 pages; 2014; .
Jeremy Blum; Exploring Arduino: Tools and Techniques for Engineering Wizardry; 2nd ed.; Wiley; 512 pages; 2019; .
John Boxall; Arduino Workshop: A Hands-On Introduction with 65 Projects; 1st ed.; No Starch Press; 392 pages; 2013; .
Tero Karvinen, Kimmo Karvinen, Ville Valtokari; Make: Sensors; 1st ed.; Make Community; 400 pages; 2014; .
Simon Monk; Programming Arduino Next Steps: Going Further with Sketches; 2nd ed.; McGraw-Hill Education; 320 pages; 2018; .
Simon Monk; Programming Arduino: Getting Started with Sketches; 2nd ed.; McGraw-Hill Education; 192 pages; 2016; .
John Nussey; Arduino For Dummies; 2nd ed.; John Wiley & Sons; 400 pages; 2018; .
Jack Purdum; Beginning C for Arduino: Learn C Programming for the Arduino; 2nd ed.; Apress; 388 pages; 2015; .
Maik Schmidt; Arduino: A Quick Start Guide; 2nd ed.; Pragmatic Bookshelf; Pragmatic Bookshelf; 323 pages; 2015; .
External links
How Arduino is open sourcing imagination, a TED talk by creator Massimo Banzi
Evolution tree for Arduino
Arduino Cheat Sheet
Arduino Dimensions and Hole Patterns
Arduino Shield Template
Arduino Board Pinout Diagrams: Due, Esplora, Leonardo, Mega, Micro, Mini, Pro Micro, Pro Mini, Uno, Yun
Historical
Arduino - The Documentary (2010): IMDb, Vimeo
Massimo Banzi interviews: Triangulation 110, FLOSS 61
Untold History of Arduino - Hernando Barragán
Lawsuit documents from Arduino LLC vs. Arduino S.R.L. et al - United States Courts Archive
Microcontrollers
Open hardware electronic devices
Robotics hardware
Computer-related introductions in 2005
Physical computing
Italian inventions
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18550550
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group%20%28database%29
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Group (database)
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Group is a name service database used to store group information on Unix-like operating systems. The sources for the group database (and hence the sources for groups on a system) are configured, like other name service databases, in nsswitch.conf.
Seeing available groups on a Unix system
The contents of the group database (and available groups) can be seen with a variety of tools:
Command line
The getent command can be used to fetch group information.
Fetching a list of all available groups
getent group
Fetching a specific group
For a specific group called 'users':
getent group users
Python
grp - The Group Database — a Python module
Unix authentication-related software
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36484676
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CmapTools
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CmapTools
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CmapTools is concept mapping software developed by the Florida Institute for Human and Machine Cognition (IHMC). It allows users to easily create graphical nodes representing concepts, and to connect nodes using lines and linking words to form a network of interrelated propositions that represent knowledge of a topic. The software has been used in classrooms and research labs, and in corporate training.
References
External links
Knowledge representation software
Graph drawing software
Concept mapping software
Mind-mapping software
Concept- and mind-mapping software programmed in Java
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63388600
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19%20pandemic%20in%20Maharashtra
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COVID-19 pandemic in Maharashtra
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The first case of the COVID-19 pandemic in the Indian state of Maharashtra was confirmed on 9 March 2020.
The largest single day spike (68,631 cases), highest peak in all of India was reported on 18 April 2021.
Maharashtra is a hotspot that accounts for nearly 22.35 % of the total cases in India as well as about 30.55 % of all deaths. As of 10 May 2021, the state's case fatality rate is nearly 1.49%. Pune is the worst-affected city in Maharashtra, with about 930,809 cases as of 10 May 2021. About half of the cases in the state emerged from the Mumbai Metropolitan Region (MMR).
Timeline
March 2020
The first confirmed case of coronavirus in Maharashtra was reported on 9 March 2020 in Pune, where a couple returning from Dubai tested positive. The next day, three more people in the city who had come in contact with the couple tested positive. All five of them were admitted to Naidu Hospital.
On 11 March, two people in Mumbai who were linked to the Pune couple tested positive. The toll increased to 11 later in the day, after three more people in Pune and one in Nagpur, who returned from the United States, were confirmed to be infected.
On 13 March, the Nagpur patient's wife and friend were also diagnosed with the virus. The toll in Pune reached 10 after another United States-returned person tested positive. A man in Ahmednagar, who had travel history to Dubai, tested positive.
On 14 March, another Nagpur man who had travelled to the United States with the first confirmed case in the city was also diagnosed with the virus. One case in Mumbai and three from adjoining areas (Vashi, Kamothe, Kalyan) were reported. Samples of two people in Yavatmal who returned from Dubai tested positive. Five confirmed cases were reported from Pune.
On 15 March, a woman in Aurangabad who had been to Russia and Kazakhstan was confirmed to have contracted the virus, taking the state-wide total to 32. Later in the day, a man in Pune who had travelled to Dubai and Japan tested positive.
The count rose to 37 on 16 March, with three confirmed case in Mumbai and one in Navi Mumbai; the Mumbai cases included a three-year-old child and her mother, who had contracted it from the child's father who had returned from the US. A woman in Yavatmal, who had earlier tested negative and placed in isolation ward, tested positive for the virus; another youth in Pune who had also visited Dubai was diagnosed with the virus.
Maharashtra's first death linked to the virus was reported on 17 March, after a 64-year-old man died at the Kasturba Hospital in Mumbai. Two confirmed cases were reported during the day, one in Mumbai and the other in Pune, both of whom had returned from the United States.
On 18 March, a woman in her late 20s, who had a travel history to France and the Netherlands, tested positive in Pune. A 68-year-old woman in Mumbai, linked to a confirmed case from the city, tested positive. The count rose to 45 after one case each was reported in Pimpri-Chinchwad and Ratnagiri, the former having travelled to the Philippines, Singapore, and Sri Lanka whereas the latter reportedly visited Dubai.
Maharashtra announced three new cases on 19 March—a Mumbai woman who had come back from London, a man from Ahmednagar and a woman from Ulhasnagar, both of whom had been to Dubai.
On 20 March, three confirmed cases were reported in Mumbai, Pune. Five patients recovered completely and discharged later in the day.
The state officials reported 12 new cases on 21 March, including 8 in Mumbai, 2 in Pune and 1 each in Kalyan and Yavatmal.
On 22 March, the state reported its second casualty of the virus, with the death of a 63-year-old man in Mumbai. It also confirmed 10 positive cases (6 in Mumbai and 4 in Pune), taking the statewide total to 74.
On 23 March, a citizen of the Philippines, who had recovered from the virus, died in Mumbai, but state health officials deemed the cause of death to be kidney failure. The total cases in the state rose sharply to 97 with 13 cases in Mumbai, 4 in Sangli, 3 in Thane, 1 each in Pune, Vasai and Satara.
On 24 March, the state reported 10 new cases (5 in Mumbai, 3 in Pune, and 1 each in Satara district and Ahmednagar district) making the state tally stand at 107. The state reported its third death during the day when a 65-year-old man from Ahmedabad with travel history to the UAE died in Mumbai.
On 25 March, Maharashtra's positive patients count reached 122 as five people of the same family in Sangli district and ten people in Mumbai were diagnosed with the virus.
On 26 March, two deaths due to the virus were reported (a 65-year-old woman in Mumbai and a woman from Navi Mumbai). Sindhudurg district and Kolhapur district reported their first cases on 26 March. Apart from these two cases, three people in Sangli and one person each in Mumbai, Thane and Pune also tested positive.
The state's Vidarbha region reported five fresh cases on 27 March, four in Nagpur and one in Gondia district. Later, 12 more people in Sangli were confirmed to have contracted the virus from the city's infected family. The count reached 153 after three people in Mumbai, two in Thane and one in Palghar tested positive.
On 28 March, state officials confirmed 22 cases in Mumbai, 2 in Nagpur, and four from Mumbai's surrounding areas of Navi Mumbai, Palghar and Vasai-Virar. An 85-year-old doctor in Mumbai who died on 27 March was confirmed to be the sixth casualty of the virus in Maharashtra. Five more cases were reported in the evening: four in Pune and one in Jalgaon, taking the tally to 186.
The death toll reached 8 on 29 March, as a Mumbai woman aged 40, and a 45-year-old man in Buldhana died. The total number of confirmed cases rose to 203.
On 30 March, Pune reported its first death, that of a 52-year-old man, while a 78-year-old person died in Mumbai. State health officials announced that 17 more people tested positive: 8 in Mumbai, 5 in Pune, 2 in Nagpur and 1 each in Kolhapur and Nashik.
On 31 March, there were five new cases in Mumbai, three in Pune and two in Buldhana. Later in the day, 72 more cases were confirmed across the state, including 59 in Mumbai, 3 in Ahmednagar, 2 each in Pune, Thane, Navi Mumbai, Vasai-Virar and Kalyan-Dombivli. A 50-year-old man in Palghar and a 75-year-old man in Mumbai became the 11th and 12th casualties of the virus.
April 2020
The total number of confirmed cases increased to 335 on 1 April, with 30 people in Mumbai, 2 in Pune and 1 in Buldhana testing positive. The death toll rose to 16 after 4 people, including one in Dharavi, succumbed to the virus in Mumbai.
On 2 April, Maharashtra reported 88 new cases, taking the total to 423. These included 54 in Mumbai, 9 in other parts of MMR, 11 in Pune, 9 in Ahmednagar, 2 in Aurangabad and 1 each in Buldhana, Satara and Osmanabad. Four more people died of the virus in Mumbai.
On 3 April, the tally rose to 490, with 43 cases in Mumbai, 10 in surrounding areas of MMR, 9 in Pune, 3 in Ahmednagar, 1 each in Washim and Ratnagiri. With six more deaths being reported during the day, the death toll stood at 26.
On 4 April, tally grew to 635, with 101 cases in Mumbai, 22 in surrounding areas of MMR, 12 in Pune, 8 in Latur, 2 in Osmanabad, 1 each in Hingoli, Nagpur and Amravati. There were six more deaths during the day, including four in Mumbai.
On 5 April 13 more deaths were announced by the health department–8 in Mumbai, 3 in Pune, 1 in Kalyan-Dombivli and 1 in Aurangabad. In addition, 113 confirmed cases were reported, taking the count to 748.
A 30-year-old nine-months-pregnant woman from Vasai-Virar was one of the 7 deaths reported on 6 April, as the state's death toll went past 50. In addition, 120 fresh positive cases were confirmed across the state, with the majority of them coming from Mumbai (68) and Pune (41).
On 7 April, Maharashtra became the first state in the country to record more than 1,000 cases, as 150 new cases emerged. The state also confirmed 12 deaths, out of which only one had overseas travel history. Nagpur, Satara and Mira-Bhayandar reported their first deaths while Mumbai and Pune reported 6 and 3 deaths respectively.
On 8 April 117 people tested positive in Maharashtra, while 8 more people succumbed to the virus (5 in Mumbai, 2 in Pune and 1 in Kalyan).
On 9 April, the state reported 229 more cases and 25 deaths. Out of the 25 deaths, 14 were recorded in Pune, 9 in Mumbai and 1 each in Malegaon and Ratnagiri. A 101-year-old woman from Mumbai became the oldest coronavirus casualty in the state.
State health officials confirmed 210 fresh cases on 10 April, while the total number of cases in Mumbai crossed 1,000. Meanwhile, 13 deaths were reported during the day, 10 in Mumbai and 1 each in Pune, Vasai-Virar and Panvel, taking the statewide death toll to 110.
On 11 April 17 fatalities were recorded in Maharashtra, of which 12 were from Mumbai, 2 from Pune, and 1 each from Dhule, Malegaon and Satara. There were also 187 fresh positive cases across the state, which took the tally to 1,761.
On 12 April, there were 221 fresh cases and 22 deaths in the state. 16 of these deaths were from Mumbai, while Solapur district, which had zero confirmed cases until the previous day, reported a casualty.
State officials confirmed 352 new cases on 13 April, out of which 242 were from Mumbai and 50 linked to the Tablighi Jamaat congregation in Delhi. Mumbai also accounted for 9 of the 11 deaths recorded during the day.
On 14 April 350 more cases were reported across the state along with 18 deaths. MMR reported 15 casualties, while Ahmednagar and Aurangabad had 1 death each.
On 15 April 232 new cases were reported in Maharashtra taking the tally to 2,916.
On 16 April, the total number of cases increased to 3,202 after 286 people tested positive. Seven fatalities were recorded during the day–four in Pune and three in Mumbai.
The state reported 118 fresh cases on 17 April, the lowest number in ten days, while 5 people in Mumbai and 3 in Pune died due to the infection.
On 18 April 328 samples tested positive in Maharashtra, and 11 deaths were recorded (5 in Mumbai, 4 in Pune, 1 each in Aurangabad and Thane).
On 19 April 552 confirmed cases were recorded in Maharashtra; Mumbai alone accounted for 456 of these. The state capital also had 6 deaths, whereas 4 people died in Malegaon, 1 each in Solapur and Jamkhed.
53 journalists and media personnel were among the 466 fresh cases confirmed across the state on 20 April, while the tally in Mumbai surpassed 3,000. Additionally, 7 deaths in Mumbai and 2 in Malegaon took the state's death toll to 232.
On 21 April, the case count in Maharashtra crossed 5,000, with 552 new cases. 19 casualties were reported during the day, as patients succumbed to the virus in Mumbai (12), Pune (3), Thane (2), Sangli (1) and Pimpri-Chinchwad (1).
On 22 April, the cases rose by 431 while the death count saw an increase of 18. 10 among these 18 were from Mumbai, while Pune and Aurangabad recorded two deaths each, and Kalyan-Dombivli, Solapur, Malegaon and Jalgaon each had one casualty.
On 23 April, the state reported a spike of 778 fresh cases of coronavirus. In addition, six people in Mumbai, five in Pune, and one each in Navi Munbai, Nandurbar and Dhule died, taking the overall death toll to 283.
On 28 April, Maharashtra reported 729 new cases and 31 deaths. Mumbai accounted for 25 of these deaths, whereas four people in Jalgaon and two in Pune succumbed to the virus.
The number of confirmed cases rose to 9,915 on 29 April, with 597 new cases. The state also reported 32 deaths during the day out of which 26 were from Mumbai.
June 2020
On 7 June, Maharashtra crossed China's tally by 3800 cases.
July 2020
As on 29 July, total number of cases in Maharashtra is 400,651, including 1,46,433 active cases, 2,39,755 recoveries and 14,463 deaths .
October 2020
The Lineage B.1.617 variant was first found on 5 October 2020 near Nagpur.
Government response
Lockdown
March
On 13 March, the Government of Maharashtra declared the outbreak an epidemic in the cities of Mumbai, Navi Mumbai, Pune (PMC & PCMC Administration) and Nagpur, and invoked provisions of Epidemic Diseases Act, 1897 which enabled it to forcibly hospitalise anyone with suspected symptoms. Commercial establishments such as movie halls, malls, swimming pools and gyms were shut across the state as a precaution. Chief Minister of Maharashtra, Uddhav Thackeray, issued a ban on all public gatherings and functions. Pune Municipal Corporation decided to close all public gardens and Rajiv Gandhi Zoological Park, effective from 14 March, to contain the spread of the virus.
On 17 March, Section 144 was imposed in Nagpur and Nashik.
On 18 March, the Federation of Trade Association of Pune announced that all shops, barring grocery stores and pharmacies, will be shut in the city, resulting in the closure of up to 40,000 shops. Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation (BMC) announced that shops and commercial establishments across several wards in Mumbai would be closed on alternate days, in order to implement social distancing and crowd management. On 19 March, the dabbawalas in Mumbai suspended their services until 31 March.
On 20 March, Thackeray announced that all workplaces, excluding essential services and public transport, in Mumbai, Mumbai Metropolitan Region, Pune and Nagpur will be closed until 31 March. He also urged people of the state to not step out of the house without the necessity of doing so.
On 22 March, Thackeray declared that Section 144 would be imposed across the state, with effect from 23 March, sending the state into lockdown. On 23 March, he announced that borders of all the districts will be closed, and a strict curfew will be implemented statewide.
April
On 11 April, Thackeray announced that the lockdown in the state will be extended until "at least 30 April". On 14 April, he announced the formation of a COVID-19 Task Force, comprising leading doctors, to advise the state government on means to control the outbreak.
On 17 April, state government decided to relax lockdown restrictions, allowing certain economic activities such as agriculture, construction and manufacturing to resume from 20 April in non-containment zones. However, on 21 April, as the number of cases continued to surge, the government withdrew the relaxation in MMR and Pune.
Containment measures
On 26 March, BMC started marking pitches, one metre away from each other, outside grocery stores, fruits and vegetables shops in the city, in order to maintain social distancing. This model was first implemented in Pune on 24 March.
From 1 April, Mumbai Police started using a network of 5,000 CCTV cameras along with drones in order to monitor different parts of the city and ensure that the lockdown is observed. Apart from Mumbai, drones were also used in densely-populated areas of Thane district such as Mumbra and Bhiwandi for aerial surveillance and relaying audio messages and warnings.
On 8 April, Mumbai became the first Indian city to make wearing facemasks in public places compulsory. On the following day, the state government decided to deploy State Reserve Police Force in the city for stricter enforcement of the lockdown.
On 31 May, the Maharashtra Government issued detailed guidelines for offices, which include mandatory thermal screening, use of sanitisers and social distancing.
In June, the cases in Dharavi, Mumbai dropped significantly because of preventive measures like testing and early isolation.
Nagpur Municipal Corporation has adopted an Incident Response System which includes a comprehensive survey, contact tracing system, corona war room, control room. The corporation also conducted door-to-door surveys covering 5.67 lakh houses and 24 lakh people. The civic body has also started shifting homeless people to city shelters. As of 27 March, they have shifted 300 persons and also got medical check-ups done for them.
Hotspots and Containment zones
Several places in the state, where multiple confirmed cases were reported, were sealed off to prevent community spread. These areas included Islampur in Sangli (on 28 March), Worli Kolivada in Mumbai (on 30 March), Peth area and parts of Kondhwa in Pune (on 6 April). By 9 April, BMC identified 381 containment zones within the city; several parts of the city including Dharavi were sealed off as the number of confirmed cases rose sharply in April.
The central government classified the country's districts into zones based on the extent of the spread of virus, with 14 districts in Maharashtra being identified as hotspots and labelled as red zones. The state government announced that it would relax the lockdown restrictions in districts with fewer than 15 confirmed cases.
Quarantine
Thackeray announced that the number of testing labs and their capacities would be increased, as will the capacity of quarantine facilities. Some educational institutions are also being used as quarantine centres.
Economic response
On 16 March, the Government of Maharashtra allocated 45 crore to the districts with confirmed cases.
Impacts
Education
Maharashtra government cancelled all the exams from
grades 1–8 to make it easier to contain the Coronavirus outbreak among school students. The students of grades 1 to 8 were directly promoted to the next grade. Mumbai university canceled the examinations of its first and second-year students respectively and the education minister of Maharashtra wrote a letter to the university to cancel the examinations of its third-year students. Maharashtra board also cancelled class 10th and 12th board exams.
After 4 October 2021, Maharashtra will reopen schools for certain standards accordingly.Physical classes would not resume yet for standards 1st to 7th in urban areas and standards 1st to 4th in rural areas.
Religious Places
After a long pause on reopening of religious places, the Maharashtra government announced that religious places would reopen from 7 October 2021, the first day of Navaratri.
Leisure Activities
From 15 August 2021, malls were allowed to reopen in Maharashtra but with only fully vaccinated individuals allowed to enter. Dine-in services and shops also were allowed to stay open till 10pm.
On 25 September 2021, the Maharashtra Government announced the reopening of Cinema halls and drama theatres from 22 October.
Transport
Over 20,000 bus services of Maharashtra State Road Transport Corporation were cancelled since 11 March, which caused the organisation losses of 3 crore by 17 March. Indian Railways cancelled 23 trains from the state in order to prevent the spread of the virus to other states.
Government of Gujarat started screening people entering from Mumbai and other borders with Maharashtra by mid of March. The state border was sealed completely during the first lockdown. Since Mumbai started facing the pandemic before Gujarat these precautionary measures were taken as soon as the first lockdown began.
Government of Telangana implemented screening of people entering the state of Telangana from Maharashtra at four entry points. Government of Madhya Pradesh suspended all bus services between Indore and Maharashtra until 31 March.
On 22 March, the Indian Railways announced that the Mumbai Suburban Railway will be closed between 22 and 31 March. Mumbai Monorail and Mumbai Metro services were also cancelled until the end of the month. Thackeray announced that state-run and private bus services will be suspended for the general public until further notice.
Maharashtra State Road Transport Corporation (MSRTC), the state's biggest passenger transporter is diversifying 310 public transportation buses into goods transportation buses in Nagpur, because of depleting revenue due to the lockdown. The target is to convert 3,000 buses.
Tourism
Tourist spots in the state like Ajanta and Ellora Caves in Aurangabad district, Elephanta Island in Raigad district and Gateway of India in Mumbai reportedly witnessed a sharp decline in the number of visitors. Hotel, cab and private bus businesses in the state also reported a high number of booking cancellations in March.
Amidst a surge in confirmed cases across the state, the health officials declared that several tourist and religious sites will be closed down as a precautionary measure. These sites included Siddhivinayak Temple in Mumbai, Tulja Bhavani Temple in Osmanabad district, Ajanta and Ellora Caves in Aurangabad district, Dagadusheth Halwai Ganapati Temple in Pune, Mumba Devi Temple in Mumbai and Saibaba Temple in Shirdi. Entry restrictions were also enforced at Mantralaya, Mumbai. Mumbai Police placed a ban on all group tours in the city until 31 March.
Economic effects
The virus outbreak had a significant impact on the automobile sector in the state, according to a CNBC TV18 article on 21 March. Bajaj Auto closed down its manufacturing facilities in Akurdi and Chakan until 30 March, while Tata Motors scaled down operations in its Pune plant. Eicher Motors and Ashok Leyland shut down components plant in Thane and Bhandara respectively. Mercedes-Benz suspended operations at its Chakan facility until 31 March. Fiat, Force Motors and JCB also announced suspension of operations at units in Ranjangaon, Akurdi and Chakan respectively, until 31 March. Mahindra & Mahindra also declared that it would suspend manufacturing at its Nashik plant and production at its Chakan and Kandivali units, starting from 23 March.
According to a 17 March article in the Indian Express, the economy of Mumbai was projected to suffer losses worth at least 16,000 crore per month in the service sector, as a result of the outbreak. In addition, it predicted that the city's tourism industry would lose 2,200 crore per month from international tourists.
The entertainment industry in the state also suffered financially, with several Bollywood films postponing release dates or halting production, causing an "acute financial crunch" for many members of the Federation of Western India Cine Employees. Bollywood films were estimated to lose box office revenue of over 1,300 crore due to the lockdown.
On 30 March, the state government slashed electricity tariff by an average of 8 percent for a period of five years in order to minimize the economic impact of the outbreak on industries. Deputy Chief Minister and Finance Minister, Ajit Pawar, announced that the March salaries of all elected representatives (MLAs, MLCs and Chief Minister) would be cut by 60 percent, while some of the government employees will also see 25 to 50 percent salary cuts due to the economic crisis arising from outbreak and lockdown.
Efforts to improve the economy
According to the Maharashtra government, 60,000 industries have been re-opened in the state, which employ close to 1.5 million people. The government also states that there have been investment intentions (FDI) from countries such as Germany, Japan, Russia.
Migrant workers
After the enforcement of lockdown, scores of migrant labourers in Maharashtra who were left without work began to leave for their respective states. Thousands of workers reportedly started going to Gujarat and Rajasthan by foot as transport facilities were suspended, but were stranded at the state border. Thackeray appealed to the migrant workers to not travel back to their states, and announced a 45 crore package to provide food and accommodation for migrant labourers. On 30 March, the state government set up 262 relief camps across the state, providing food and shelter to 70,339 migrant workers and homeless people. On 8 April, it was reported that 4,653 camps were functioning across the state, which housed more than 550,000 people. These camps were started by district administrations, labour department, irrigation department and cooperative sugar mills. Several employers such as Larsen & Toubro, Godrej Group and Shapoorji Pallonji announced that they would provide food, accommodation and wages to their migrant labourers.
On 14 April, thousands of migrant workers protested against the lockdown near Bandra railway station in Mumbai, and demanded to be sent back to their states. Police made use of baton charges to disperse the unruly crowd and control the situation.
By 1 May, authorities reported that 11.86 lakh migrant workers had been taken back to their home state by at least 822 Shramik special trains.
Violation of norms
After many suspected patients fled from isolation wards of hospitals, the state government directed officials at hospitals and airports to stamp the left hand of people placed under 14-day home quarantine with details of their quarantine period using indelible ink, so as to easily identify them. It also announced that those who violate the quarantine will be isolated at a government facility.
Testing
Until mid-March, the state had three testing facilities, which also tested samples from some other states for confirmation, viz. National Institute of Virology in Pune, Indira Gandhi Government Medical College & Hospital in Nagpur and Kasturba Hospital in Mumbai.
As of 19 June 2020, the state had 61 government labs and 43 private labs approved by the Indian Council of Medical Research set up across the state.
As of 10 April, Maharashtra has tested the most samples by any state in the country. Experts attribute the high number of positive cases in the state to "increased testing and surveillance" being done by the state authorities.
Statistics
See also
COVID-19 pandemic in India
COVID-19 pandemic in Delhi
Notes
External links
Maharashtra official COVID dashboard - cases, maps, and charts
Reuters Covid-19 Tracker India. Current charts of infections, deaths, vaccinations
References
Maharashtra
2020s in Maharashtra
Health in Maharashtra
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1054639
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basilisk%20II
|
Basilisk II
|
Basilisk II is an emulator which emulates Apple Macintosh computers based on the Motorola 68000 series. The software is cross-platform and can be used on a variety of operating systems.
Christian Bauer (developer of a Mac 68k emulator ShapeShifter for Amiga) released the first version of Basilisk II in March 1999. New emulator should be highly portable across several computing platforms and provided some improvements in comparison to ShapeShifter - e.g. no limit for number of emulated disks, improved CD-ROM support and support for the host file system. However, early reviews highlighted several issues like difficult configuration and limited compatibility with recommendation of ShapeShifter as a better choice for Amiga users. Newer releases mitigated these problems, 2005 review of the MorphOS version noted only slow CPU emulation (in comparison to built-in 68k CPU emulation for Amiga applications in MorphOS) as a major issue.
The latest version of Classic Mac OS that can be run within Basilisk II is Mac OS 8.1, the last 680x0-compatible version, released in January 1998. Mac OS 8.5, which came out nine months later, was PowerPC-only and marked the end of Apple's 680x0 support.
Ports of Basilisk II exist for multiple computing platforms, including AmigaOS 4, BeOS, Linux, Amiga, Windows NT, Mac OS X, MorphOS and mobile devices such as the PlayStation Portable.
Released under the terms of the GNU General Public License, Basilisk II is free software, and its source code of is available on GitHub.
See also
vMac
SheepShaver
PearPC
References
External links
E-Maculation page on BasiliskII
Macintosh platform emulators
68k emulators
Free emulation software
Linux emulation software
MacOS emulation software
MorphOS emulation software
Windows emulation software
Amiga emulation software
AmigaOS 4 software
Amiga software
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11092014
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Named%20data%20networking
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Named data networking
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Named Data Networking (NDN) (related to content-centric networking (CCN), content-based networking, data-oriented networking or information-centric networking (ICN)) is a proposed Future Internet architecture inspired by years of empirical research into network usage and a growing awareness of unsolved problems in contemporary internet architectures like IP. NDN has its roots in an earlier project, Content-Centric Networking (CCN), which Van Jacobson first publicly presented in 2006. The NDN project is investigating Jacobson's proposed evolution from today's host-centric network architecture IP to a data-centric network architecture (NDN). The belief is that this conceptually simple shift will have far-reaching implications for how people design, develop, deploy, and use networks and applications.
NDN has three core concepts that distinguish NDN from other network architectures. First, applications name data and data names will directly be used in network packet forwarding; consumer applications request desired data by its name, so communications in NDN are consumer-driven. Second, NDN communications are secured in a data-centric manner, that is, each piece of data (called a Data packet) will be cryptographically signed by its producer and sensitive payload or name components can also be encrypted for the purpose of privacy; in this way, consumers can verify the packet regardless of how the packet is fetched. Third, NDN adopts a stateful forwarding plane where forwarders will keep a state for each data request (called an Interest packet) and erase the state when a corresponding Data packet comes back; NDN's stateful forwarding allows intelligent forwarding strategies and eliminates loops.
Its premise is that the Internet is primarily used as an information distribution network, which is not a good match for IP, and that the future Internet's "thin waist" should be based on named data rather than numerically addressed hosts. The underlying principle is that a communication network should allow a user to focus on the data they need, named content, rather than having to reference a specific, physical location where that data is to be retrieved from, named hosts. The motivation for this is derived from the fact that the vast majority of current Internet usage (a "high 90% level of traffic") consists of data being disseminated from a source to a number of users. Named-data networking comes with potential for a wide range of benefits such as content caching to reduce congestion and improve delivery speed, simpler configuration of network devices, and building security into the network at the data level.
Overview
Today's Internet's hourglass architecture centers on a universal network layer, IP, which implements the minimal functionality necessary for global inter-connectivity. The contemporary Internet architecture revolves around a host-based conversation model, created in the 1970s to allow geographically distributed users to use a few big, immobile computers. This thin waist enabled the Internet's explosive growth by allowing both lower and upper layer technologies to innovate independently. However, IP was designed to create a communication network, where packets named only communication endpoints.
Sustained growth in e-commerce, digital media, social networking, and smartphone applications has led to dominant use of the Internet as a distribution network. Distribution networks are more general than communication networks, and solving distribution problems via a point-to-point communication protocol is complex and error-prone.
The Named Data Networking (NDN) project proposed an evolution of the IP architecture that generalizes the role of this thin waist, such that packets can name objects other than communication endpoints. More specifically, NDN changes the semantics of network service from delivering the packet to a given destination address to fetching data identified by a given name. The name in an NDN packet can name anything – an endpoint, a data chunk in a movie or a book, a command to turn on some lights, etc. The hope is that this conceptually simple change allows NDN networks to apply almost all of the Internet's well-tested engineering properties to a broader range of problems beyond end-to-end communications. Examples of NDN applying lessons learned from 30 years of networking engineering are that self-regulation of network traffic (via flow balance between Interest (data request) and Data packets) and security primitives (via signatures on all named data) are integrated into the protocol from the start.
History
Early research
The philosophy behind NDN was pioneered by Ted Nelson in 1979 and later by Brent Baccala in 2002. In 1999, the TRIAD project at Stanford proposed avoiding DNS lookups by using the name of an object to route towards a close replica of it. In 2006, the Data-Oriented Network Architecture (DONA) project at UC Berkeley and ICSI proposed a content-centric network architecture, which improved TRIAD by incorporating security (authenticity) and persistence as first-class primitives in the architecture. Van Jacobson gave a Google Talk, A New Way to Look at Networking, in 2006 on the evolution of the network, and argued that NDN was the next step. In 2009, PARC announced their content-centric architecture within the CCNx project, which was led by Jacobson, at the time a research fellow at PARC. On September 21, 2009, PARC published the specifications for interoperability and released an initial open source implementation (under GPL) of the Content-Centric Networking research project on the Project CCNx site. NDN is one instance of a more general network research direction called information-centric networking (ICN), under which different architecture designs have emerged. The Internet Research Task Force (IRTF) established an ICN research working group in 2012.
Current state
NDN includes sixteen NSF-funded principal investigators at twelve campuses, and growing interest from the academic and industrial research communities. More than 30 institutions form a global testbed. There exists a large body of research and an actively growing code base. contributed to NDN.
The NDN forwarder is currently supported on Ubuntu 18.04 and 20.04, Fedora 20+, CentOS 6+, Gentoo Linux, Raspberry Pi, OpenWRT, FreeBSD 10+, and several other platforms. Common client libraries are actively supported for C++, Java, Javascript, Python, .NET Framework (C#), and Squirrel programming languages. The NDN-LITE is a lightweight NDN library designed for IoT networks and constrained devices. NDN-LITE is being actively developed and so far, NDN-LITE has been adapted to POSIX, RIOT OS, NRF boards. An NDN simulator and emulator are also available and actively developed. Several client applications are being developed in the areas of real-time conferencing, NDN friendly file systems, chat, file sharing, and IoT.
Key architectural principles
End-to-end principle: Enables the development of robust applications in the face of network failures. NDN retains and expands this design principle.
Routing and forwarding plane separation: This has proven necessary for Internet development. It allows the forwarding plane to function while the routing system continues to evolve over time. NDN uses the same principle to allow the deployment of NDN with the best available forwarding technology while new routing system research is ongoing.
Stateful forwarding: NDN routers keep the state of recently forwarded packets, which allows smart forwarding, loop detection, flow balance, ubiquitous caching, etc.
Built-in security: In NDN, data transfer is secured at the network layer by signing and verification of any named data.
Enable user choice and competition: The architecture should facilitate user choice and competition where possible. Although not a relevant factor in the original Internet design, global deployment has demonstrated that “architecture is not neutral". NDN makes a conscious effort to empower end users and enable competition.
Architecture overview
Types of packets
Communication in NDN is driven by receivers i.e., data consumers, through the exchange of two types of packets: Interest and Data. Both types of packets carry a name that identifies a piece of data that can be transmitted in one Data packet.
Packet types
Interest: A consumer puts the name of a desired piece of data into an Interest packet and sends it to the network. Routers use this name to forward the Interest toward the data producer(s).
Data: Once the Interest reaches a node that has the requested data, the node will return a Data packet that contains both the name and the content, together with a signature by the producer's key which binds the two. This Data packet follows in reverse the path taken by the Interest to get back to the requesting consumer.
For the complete specification see NDN Packet Format Specification.
Router architecture
To carry out the Interest and Data packet forwarding functions, each NDN router maintains three data structures, and a forwarding policy:
Pending Interest Table (PIT): stores all the Interests that a router has forwarded but not satisfied yet. Each PIT entry records the data name carried in the Interest, together with its incoming and outgoing interface(s).
Forwarding Information Base (FIB): a routing table which maps name components to interfaces. The FIB itself is populated by a name-prefix based routing protocol, and can have multiple output interfaces for each prefix.
Content Store (CS): a temporary cache of Data packets the router has received. Because an NDN Data packet is meaningful independent of where it comes from or where it is forwarded, it can be cached to satisfy future Interests. Replacement strategy is traditionally least recently used, but the replacement strategy is determined by the router and may differ.
Forwarding Strategies: a series of policies and rules about forwarding interest and data packets. Note that the Forwarding Strategy may decide to drop an Interest in certain situations, e.g., if all upstream links are congested or the Interest is suspected to be part of a DoS attack. These strategies use a series of triggers in the forwarding pipeline and are assigned to name prefixes. For instance, by default /localhost uses the Multicast forwarding strategy to forward interests and data to any local application running on a client NFD. The default forwarding strategy (i.e. "/") is the Best Route forwarding strategy.
When an Interest packet arrives, an NDN router first checks the Content Store for matching data; if it exists in the router returns the Data packet on the interface from which the Interest came. Otherwise the router looks up the name in its PIT, and if a matching entry exists, it simply records the incoming interface of this Interest in the PIT entry. In the absence of a matching PIT entry, the router will forward the Interest toward the data producer(s) based on information in the FIB as well as the router's adaptive Forwarding Strategy. When a router receives Interests for the same name from multiple downstream nodes, it forwards only the first one upstream toward the data producer(s).
When a Data packet arrives, an NDN router finds the matching PIT entry and forwards the data to all down-stream interfaces listed in that PIT entry. It then removes that PIT entry, and caches the Data in the Content Store. Data packets always take the reverse path of Interests, and, in the absence of packet losses, one Interest packet results in one Data packet on each link, providing flow balance. To fetch large content objects that comprise multiple packets, Interests provide a similar role in controlling traffic flow as TCP ACKs in today's Internet: a fine-grained feedback loop controlled by the consumer of the data.
Neither Interest nor Data packets carry any host or interface addresses; routers forward Interest packets toward data producers based on the names carried in the packets, and forward Data packets to consumers based on the PIT state information set up by the Interests at each hop. This Interest/Data packet exchange symmetry induces a hop-by-hop control loop (not to be confused with symmetric routing, or with routing at all!), and eliminates the need for any notion of source or destination nodes in data delivery, unlike in IP's end-to-end packet delivery model.
Names
Design
NDN names are opaque to the network. This allows each application to choose the naming scheme that fits its needs, and naming can thus evolve independently from the network.
Structure
The NDN design assumes hierarchically structured names, e.g., a video produced by UCLA may have the name /ucla/videos/demo.mpg, where ‘/’ delineates name components in text representations, similar to URLs. This hierarchical structure has many potential benefits:
Relationship specification: allows applications to represent the context and relationships of data elements. EX: segment 3 of version 1 of a UCLA demo video might be named /ucla/videos/demo.mpg/1/3.
Name aggregation: /ucla could correspond to an autonomous system originating the video
Routing: allows the system to scale and aids in providing the necessary context for the data
Specifying a name
To retrieve dynamically generated data, consumers must be able to deterministically construct the name for a desired piece of data without having previously seen the name or the data through either:
an algorithm allows the producer and consumer to arrive at the same name based on information available to both
Interest selectors in conjunction with longest prefix matching retrieve the desired data through one or more iterations.
Current research is exploring how applications should choose names that can facilitate both application development and network delivery. The aim of this work is to develop and refine existing principles and guidelines for naming, converting these rules into naming conventions implemented in system libraries to simplify future application development.
Namespaces
Data that may be retrieved globally must have globally unique names, but names used for local communications may require only local routing (or local broadcast) to find matching data. Individual data names can be meaningful in various scopes and contexts, ranging from “the light switch in this room” to “all country names in the world”.
Namespace management is not part of the NDN architecture, just as address space management is not part of the IP architecture. However naming is the most important part of NDN application designs.
Enabling application developers, and sometimes users, to design their own namespaces for data exchange has several benefits:
increasing the closeness of mapping between an application's data and its use of the network
reducing the need for secondary notation (record-keeping to map application configuration to network configuration)
expanding the range of abstractions available to the developers.
named based content requests also introduces the concerns on privacy leakage. Thanks to separation of namespace management from NDN architecture, it is possible to provide privacy preserving naming scheme by making minor changes in conventional NDN naming scheme.
Routing
Solutions to IP issues
NDN routes and forwards packets based on names, which eliminates three problems caused by addresses in the IP architecture:
Address space exhaustion: NDN namespace is essentially unbounded. The namespace is only bounded by the max interest packet size of 8kb and the number of possible unique combinations of characters composing names.
NAT traversal: NDN does away with addresses, public or private, so NAT is unnecessary.
Address management: address assignment and management is no longer required in local networks.
In network multicasting: A producer of data does not need to receive multiple interests for the same data since the PIT entries at downstream forwarders will aggregate interests. The producer receives and responds to a single interest and those forwarding nodes in which multiple incoming interest were received will multicast the data replies to the interfaces those interests were received from.
High loss end to end reliability: IP based networks require lost or dropped packets to be retransmitted by the sender. However, in NDN if an interest expires before a data reply reaches the requester the data reply is still cached by forwarders along the return path. The retransmitted interest only needs to reach a forwarder with a cached copy of the data giving NDN based networks higher throughput than IP based networks when packet loss rates are high.
Protocols
NDN can use conventional routing algorithms such as link state and distance vector. Instead of announcing IP prefixes, an NDN router announces name prefixes that cover the data the router is willing to serve. Conventional routing protocols, such as OSPF and BGP, can be adapted to route on name prefixes by treating names as a sequence of opaque components and doing component-wise longest prefix match of a name in an Interest packet against the FIB table. This enables a wide array of inputs to be aggregated in real time and distributed across multiple interface environments simultaneously without compromising content encryption. Key interface analytics are likewise spared by the process. Application transfer and data sharing within the environment are defined by a multimodal distribution framework, such that the affected cloud relay protocols are unique to the individual runtime identifier.
PIT state
The PIT state at each router supports forwarding across NDN's data plane, recording each pending Interest and the incoming interface(s), and removing the Interest after the matching Data is received or a timeout occurs. This per hop, per packet state differs from IP's stateless data plane. Based on information in the FIB and performance measurements, an adaptive forwarding strategy module in each router makes informed decisions about:
Control flow: since each Interest retrieves at most one Data packet, a router can directly control flow by controlling the number of pending interests it keeps.
Multicast data delivery: the PIT recording the set of interface on which the same data has arrive, naturally supports this feature.
Updating paths to accommodate changes in their view of the network.
Delivery: a router can reason about which Interests to forward to which interfaces, how many unsatisfied Interests to allow in the PIT, as well as the relative priority of different Interests.
Interest
If a router decides that the Interest cannot be satisfied, e.g., the upstream link is down, there is no forwarding entry in the FIB, or extreme congestion occurs, the router can send a NACK to its downstream neighbor(s) that transmitted the Interest. Such a Negative Acknowledgment (NACK) may trigger the receiving router to forward the Interest to other interfaces to explore alternate paths. The PIT state enables routers to identify and discard looping packets, allowing them to freely use multiple paths toward the same data producer. Packets cannot loop in NDN, which means there is no need for time-to-live and other measures implemented in IP and related protocols to address these issues.
Security
Overview
In contrast to TCP/IP security (e.g., TLS) which secures communication by securing IP-to-IP channels, NDN secures the data itself by requiring data producers to cryptographically sign every Data packet. The publisher's signature ensures the integrity and enables authentication of data provenance, allowing a consumer's trust in data to be decoupled from how or where it is obtained. NDN also supports fine-grained trust, allowing consumers to reason about whether a public key owner is an acceptable publisher for a specific piece of data in a specific context. The second primary research thrust is designing and developing usable mechanisms to manage user trust. There has been research into 3 different types of trust models:
hierarchical trust model: where a key namespace authorizes use of keys. A data packet carrying a public key is effectively a certificate, since it is signed by a third party, and this public key is used to sign specific data
web of trust: to enable secure communication without requiring pre-agreed trust anchors.
lightweight trust for IoT: The NDN trust model primarily based on asymmetric cryptography, which is infeasible for resource constraint devices in IoT paradigm.
Application security
NDN's data-centric security has natural applications to content access control and infrastructure security. Applications can encrypt data and distribute keys as named packets using the same named infrastructure to distribute keys, effectively limiting the data security perimeter to the context of a single application.
To verify a data packet's signature, an application can fetch the appropriate key, identified in the packet's key locator field, just like any other content. But trust management, i.e., how to determine the authenticity of a given key for a particular packet in a given application, is a primary research challenge. Consistent with an experimental approach, NDN trust management research is driven by application development and use: solving specific problems first and then identifying common patterns.
For example, the security needs of NLSR required development of a simple hierarchical trust model, with keys at lower (closer to root) levels, being used to sign keys in higher levels in which keys are published with names that reflect their trust relationship. In this trust model, the namespace matches the hierarchy of trust delegation, i.e., /root/site/operator/ router/process. Publishing keys with a particular name in the hierarchy authorizes them to sign specific data packets and limits their scope. This paradigm can be easily extended to Other applications where real world trust tends to follow a hierarchical pattern, such as in our building management systems (BMS)
Since NDN leaves the trust model under the control of each application, more flexible and expressive trust relations, may also be expressed. One such example is ChronoChat, which motivated experimentation with a web-of-trust model. The security model is that a current chatroom participant can introduce a newcomer to others by signing the newcomer's key. Future applications will implement a cross-certifying model (SDSI) [13, 3], which provides more redundancy of verification, allowing data and key names to be independent, which more easily accommodates a variety of real-world trust relationships.
Routing efficiency and security
Furthermore, NDN treats network routing and control messages like all NDN data, requiring signatures. This provides a solid foundation for securing routing protocols against attack, e.g., spoofing and tampering. NDN's use of multipath forwarding, together with the adaptive forwarding strategy module, mitigates prefix hijacking because routers can detect anomalies caused by hijacks and retrieve data through alternate paths. Owing to multi-source, multicast content-delivery nature of Named Data Networking, the random linear coding can improve over all network efficiency. Since NDN packets reference content rather than devices, it is trickier to maliciously target a particular device, although mitigation mechanisms will be needed against other NDN-specific attacks, e.g., Interest flooding DoS.,
Furthermore, having a Pending Interest Table, which keeps state regarding past requests, which can make informed forward decisions about how to handle interest has numerous security advantages:
Load Balancing: the number of PIT entries is an indicator of router load; constraining its size limits the effect of a DDoS attack.
Interest timeout: PIT entry timeouts offer relatively cheap attack detection, and the arrival interface information in each PIT entry could support a push-back scheme in which down stream routers are informed of unserved interests, which aides in detecting attacks.
See also
Information-centric networking caching policies
Future Internet Research and Experimentation (EU)
References
External links
DEATH TO TCP/IP cry Cisco, Intel, US gov and boffins galore
FIA-NP: Collaborative Research: Named Data Networking Next Phase (NDN-NP)
Named Data Research Home Page
NSF Awards for NDN 2
FIA: Collaborative Research: Named Data Networking (NDN)
Named Function Networking (NFN)
NDN on Galileo (WebArchive snapshot)
Computer networking
Internet protocols
Network layer protocols
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63800061
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdoms%20of%20the%20Dump
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Kingdoms of the Dump
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Kingdoms of the Dump is an upcoming independent role-playing video game being developed by Roach Games. The game takes heavy inspiration from classic 16-bit JRPGs like EarthBound, Chrono Trigger, and Final Fantasy VI. Development of the game was initially funded fully out-of-pocket, with the developers working full-time as custodians; this inspired the theming of the game around garbage. The developers launched a Kickstarter campaign in July 2019 for additional funding; following its success, they are currently targeting an October 2022 release. The game is planned to release on Microsoft Windows, macOS and Linux via Steam or a DRM-free copy.
Gameplay
Kingdoms of the Dump is a role-playing game that features platforming and adventure elements. On the field, the player controls one character, but can switch between a total of six characters at will; each character has a unique ability that the player can use to explore the environment, solve puzzles, and progress. Platforming and elevation in general play a large role in the exploration of towns and dungeons. The game does not have random battles; instead, players approach enemies on the field and enter a separate battle screen. Kingdoms of the Dump features a turn-based battle system that employs a 3x3 grid in which the player can position their party around to maximize damage, avoid traps and spells, and strategize.
The game takes heavy inspiration from several 16-bit role-playing games. The battle system features timed hits, a mechanic inspired by Super Mario RPG. The player will be able to unlock an airship and be able to traverse a vast Mode 7-like world map, inspired by Final Fantasy VI. The game also uses an "oblique" EarthBound-inspired perspective, an angle the developers used to help show depth during platforming segments.
Plot
The game is set in the "Lands of Fill", made up of five and a half kingdoms. The king of one of the kingdoms, Garbagia, has been "trashpicked", and a disgraced squire, Dustin Binsley, is blamed for it. He must embark on a mission across the kingdoms of the Lands of Fill to rescue the King, clear his name and uncover the evil organization trying to destroy the kingdoms. Dustin, the trashcan knight, is accompanied on his journey by his best friend, Ratavia, librarian Walker Jacket, bard Lute, laundromancer Cerulean, and master of disguise Musk. Along his journey Dustin and his party must also stop the Toxic Grimelin Army and prevent the Lands of Fill from war.
Development and release
Development of Kingdoms of the Dump began in 2016 by Roach Games, made up of pseudonymous developers Roach and Everdredd. Roach had initially been working on an EarthBound fangame titled Eagleland for several years before cancelling it and assembling a new team for an original IP. Roach and Everdredd both work as custodians full-time and funded the game's development out-of-pocket until July 2019, when they launched a Kickstarter crowdfunding campaign. The campaign officially launched on July 15, 2019, with a goal of $60,000, and was successfully funded, with a final pledge count of $76,560.
Roach primarily took inspiration from several role-playing games on the Super Nintendo, including but not limited to EarthBound, Chrono Trigger, Super Mario RPG, and Final Fantasy VI. Roach and Everdredd's custodial professions inspired the theming of the game as well. The game's art was developed by DM404 using a combination of Microsoft Paint, Adobe Photoshop, and GraphicsGale.
The game's music is primarily being composed by Bobby Ghostly, with guest composer William Kage handling music engineering using SNES soundfonts. Composer Hiroki Kikuta will be composing a guest track for the game's soundtrack as well, following the Kickstarter campaign reaching one of its stretch goals.
Kingdoms of the Dump is being developed using the Godot game engine, version 2.1. Roach has confirmed that the game will have controller support. The game is currently set for release in October 2022, on Microsoft Windows, macOS and Linux via Steam or a DRM-free copy; Roach has stated the game will not be exclusive to the Epic Games Store.
References
External links
Upcoming video games scheduled for 2022
Windows games
macOS games
Linux games
Platform games
Adventure games
Kickstarter-funded video games
Indie video games
Single-player video games
Video games developed in the United States
Role-playing video games
Retro-style video games
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desktop%20metaphor
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Desktop metaphor
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In computing, the desktop metaphor is an interface metaphor which is a set of unifying concepts used by graphical user interfaces to help users interact more easily with the computer. The desktop metaphor treats the computer monitor as if it is the top of the user's desk, upon which objects such as documents and folders of documents can be placed. A document can be opened into a window, which represents a paper copy of the document placed on the desktop. Small applications called desk accessories are also available, such as a desk calculator or notepad, etc.
The desktop metaphor itself has been extended and stretched with various implementations of desktop environments, since access to features and usability of the computer are usually more important than maintaining the 'purity' of the metaphor. Hence one can find trash cans on the desktop, as well as disks and network volumes (which can be thought of as filing cabinets—not something normally found on a desktop). Other features such as menu bars or taskbars have no direct counterpart on a real-world desktop, though this may vary by environment and the function provided; for instance, a familiar wall calendar can sometimes be displayed or otherwise accessed via a taskbar or menu bar belonging to the desktop.
History
The desktop metaphor was first introduced by Alan Kay at Xerox PARC in 1970 and elaborated in a series of innovative software applications developed by PARC scientists throughout the ensuing decade. The first computer to use an early version of the desktop metaphor was the experimental Xerox Alto, and the first commercial computer that adopted this kind of interface was the Xerox Star. The use of window controls to contain related information predates the desktop metaphor, with a primitive version appearing in Douglas Engelbart's "Mother of All Demos",
though it was incorporated by PARC in the environment of the Smalltalk language.
One of the first desktop-like interfaces on the market was a program called Magic Desk I. Built as a cartridge for the Commodore 64 home computer in 1983, a very primitive GUI presented a low resolution sketch of a desktop, complete with telephone, drawers, calculator, etc. The user made their choices by moving a sprite depicting a hand pointing by using the same joystick the user may have used for video gaming. Onscreen options were chosen by pushing the fire button on the joystick. The Magic Desk I program featured a typewriter graphically emulated complete with audio effects. Other applications included a calculator, rolodex organiser, and a terminal emulator. Files could be archived into the drawers of the desktop. A trashcan was also present.
The first computer to popularise the desktop metaphor, using it as a standard feature over the earlier command-line interface was the Apple Macintosh in 1984. The desktop metaphor is ubiquitous in modern-day personal computing; it is found in most desktop environments of modern operating systems: Windows as well as macOS, Linux, and other Unix-like systems.
BeOS observed the desktop metaphor more strictly than many other systems. For example, external hard drives appeared on the 'desktop', while internal ones were accessed clicking on an icon representing the computer itself. By comparison, the Mac OS places all drives on the desktop itself by default, while in Windows the user can access the drives through an icon labelled "Computer".
Amiga terminology for its desktop metaphor was taken directly from workshop jargon. The desktop was called Workbench, programs were called tools, small applications (applets) were utilities, directories were drawers, etc.
Icons of objects were animated and the directories are shown as drawers which were represented as either open or closed.
As in the classic Mac OS and macOS desktop, an icon for a floppy disk or CD-ROM would appear on the desktop when the disk was inserted into the drive, as it was a virtual counterpart of a physical floppy disk or CD-ROM on the surface of a workbench.
Paper paradigm
The paper paradigm refers to the paradigm used by most modern computers and operating systems. The paper paradigm consists of, usually, black text on a white background, files within folders, and a "desktop". The paper paradigm was created by many individuals and organisations, such as Douglas Engelbart, Xerox PARC, and Apple Computer, and was an attempt to make computers more user-friendly by making them resemble the common workplace of the time (with papers, folders, and a desktop). It was first presented to the public by Engelbart in 1968, in what is now referred to as "The Mother of All Demos".
From John Siracusa:
Back in 1984, explanations of the original Mac interface to users who had never seen a GUI before inevitably included an explanation of icons that went something like this: "This icon represents your file on disk." But to the surprise of many, users very quickly discarded any semblance of indirection. This icon is my file. My file is this icon. One is not a "representation of" or an "interface to" the other. Such relationships were foreign to most people, and constituted unnecessary mental baggage when there was a much more simple and direct connection to what they knew of reality.
Since then, many aspects of computers have wandered away from the paper paradigm by implementing features such as "shortcuts" to files, hypertext, and non-spatial file browsing. A shortcut (a link to a file that acts as a redirecting proxy, not the actual file) and hypertext have no real-world equivalent. Non-spatial file browsing, as well, may confuse novice users, as they can often have more than one window representing the same folder open at the same time, something that is impossible in reality. These and other departures from real-world equivalents are violations of the pure paper paradigm.
See also
Desktop environment
File browser
History of the GUI
Interface metaphor
Operating system
Skeuomorph
Tiling window manager
Virtual desktop
WIMP (computing)
Notes and references
External links
ArsTechnica article on the spatial Mac OS Finder
User interface techniques
User interfaces
Graphical user interfaces
Software architecture
Metaphors by type
fr:Environnement de bureau#Métaphore du bureau
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21566302
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ProtoShare
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ProtoShare
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ProtoShare is a collaborative software tool from Astound Commerce, used for creating, reviewing, and refining website, mobile and web application prototypes. It enables individuals and companies to visualize project requirements by building website wireframes and application prototypes that team members and stakeholders can then review and comment on in real-time. ProtoShare is not a Flash tool; it uses HTML, CSS, and JavaScript. ProtoShare also helps development teams move from the waterfall method to the agile process through iterative development. It is available online as a SaaS (Software-as-a-Service) tool or as self-hosted for enterprise.
ProtoShare allows prototyping of websites and web and mobile apps by enabling developers to create true interactive experiences with a drag-and-drop WYSIWYG interface. Development teams can create low-fidelity, clickable wireframes then evolve them into high-fidelity prototypes with the use of Rich Internet Application (RIA) functionality, such as state creation, the custom HTML component, and CSS styles. Team members and clients can then collaborate on its evolution with real-time comments, ideas, and decisions. Once the process of prototyping and collaboration is finished, the development team has a strong visual specification to follow, reducing misunderstandings and rework in the programming stages. The visual specification can be exported to a Microsoft Word doc, as an archived HTML site, or to a web URL.
ProtoShare is browser-based software, compatible with multiple operating systems. Internet Explorer 10, the latest Firefox, the latest Safari, and the latest Chrome browsers on both Windows and macOS are supported in the Review section of the tool, which is where collaborators interact with and comment on prototypes. Mobile prototypes can also be linked to a handheld mobile device's browser for app simulation. The build and edit functionality of ProtoShare, where developers create the prototypes, is supported by the latest Firefox, Safari, and Chrome browsers on Windows and macOS.
Main sections of a ProtoShare project:
Review – to experience / walkthrough the site, make comments, respond to discussion, track decisions, and for user testing
Editor – for page, wireframe and prototype creation, editing, and annotating
Library – where project templates, masters, and project assets are centrally located
Export – for selecting and exporting any part of a project into a Microsoft Word, HTML file, or web URL
See also
Software Development Process
User Interface Design
Prototyping
Collaborative software
References
External links
Mashable
Website Magazine
id8
CNET
AppAppeal
Killer Startups
Collaborative software
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novell
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Novell
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Novell, Inc. was an American software and services company headquartered in Provo, Utah. Its most significant product was the multi-platform network operating system known as Novell NetWare. Under the leadership of chief executive Ray Noorda, NetWare became the dominant form of personal computer networking during the second half of the 1980s and first half of the 1990s. At its high point, NetWare had a 63 percent share of the market for network operating systems and by the early 1990s there were over half a million NetWare-based networks installed worldwide encompassing more than 50 million users. Novell technology contributed to the emergence of local area networks, which displaced the dominant mainframe computing model and changed computing worldwide. Novell became instrumental in making Utah Valley a focus for technology and software development.
During the early- to mid-1990s, Noorda attempted to compete directly with Microsoft by acquiring Digital Research, Unix System Laboratories, WordPerfect, and the Quattro Pro division of Borland. These moves did not work out, and NetWare began losing market share once Microsoft bundled network services with the Windows NT operating system and its successors. Despite new products such as Novell Directory Services and GroupWise, Novell entered a long period of decline. Eventually Novell acquired SUSE Linux and attempted to refocus its technology base. Despite building or acquiring several new kinds of products, Novell failed to find consistent success and never regained its past dominance.
The company was an independent corporate entity until it was acquired as a wholly owned subsidiary by The Attachmate Group in 2011, which in turn was acquired in 2014 by Micro Focus International. Novell products and technologies are now integrated within various Micro Focus divisions.
History
Origins as a hardware company
The company began as Novell Data Systems Inc. (NDSI), a computer systems company located in Orem, Utah that intended to manufacture and market small business computers, computer terminals, and other peripherals. It was co-founded by George Canova and Jack Davis, two experienced computer industry executives. While some later sources place the creation of Novell Data Systems as having happened in 1979, more contemporaneous sources are in accordance with it happening in August 1980. Canova became president of the new company and Davis was in charge of sales and marketing. The suggestion for the company's name came from Canova's wife, who thought it meant "new" in French (in fact the French word is either the masculine nouveau or the feminine nouvelle). While future Brigham Young University professor and Eyring Research Institute (ERI) figure Dennis Fairclough was not a founder of Novell Data Systems, he did work with the company from its early days.
A funding proposal was brought to Pete Musser, chairman of the board of Safeguard Scientifics, Inc., a Pennsylvania-based, technology-focused venture capital firm that was an offshoot of the older Safeguard Business Systems. Safeguard Scientifics believed that a new computer systems company could help the Business Systems company automate their accounting systems. Accordingly Safeguard Scientifics provided over $2 million in seed funding, and they became the majority owner of Novell Data Systems. Canova also owned a significant portion of the new company.
Novell Data Systems set up offices in a former carpet warehouse located in an obscure industrial park down the road from the largely vacant Geneva Steel works. By November 1980, they were placing display ads in the classifieds pages of Utah Valley newspapers, seeking to hire hardware and software engineers and other staff.
At first the company began to grow rapidly. By mid-1981 the company was selling two products, the Nexus Series microcomputer and the Image 800 dot matrix printer. Orders began shipping during the second half of 1981. The computer product was based on the Zilog Z-80 microprocessor and the CP/M operating system.
The company subsequently did not do well. The microcomputer produced by the company was late to an increasingly crowded market and was noncompetitive when it did arrive. It was comparatively weak against performance by competitors. According to one paraphrase of a Value Line report on Novell Data Systems as a whole during this period, their "revenue was minimal, but expenses were tremendous." Davis was fired from Novell Data Systems, a change that occurred in November 1981.
In order to compete on systems sales Novell Data Systems planned a program to link more than one microcomputer to operate together. The current or former BYU students Drew Major, Dale Neibaur and Kyle Powell, known as the SuperSet Software group, were hired to this task and began consulting for Novell during 1981.
During the first calendar quarter of 1982, there was heavy costs being incurred at Novell Data Systems, which resulted in management shuffles, organizational consolidations, and a significant layoff. Canova was fired and Jack Messman, representing Safeguard Scientifics, was named president. The poor performance of Novell Data Systems resulted in losses being announced in April 1982 for the publicly-held Safeguard Scientifics and put pressure on that company's stock price. However, by this point the computer-linking work that the SuperSet group had produced was drawing considerable interest and Novell Data Systems was describing themselves as a company that made not just stand-alone microcomputers but also products for local area networking (LAN). The dual emphasis on hardware and software products continued for several months but continued to have troubled results, and in July 1982 another round of layoffs took place which resulted in the employee count being reduced from 50 people to 30.
At that time Safeguard reported that it would be writing down $3.4 million in losses due to Novell Data Systems' switch from being a hardware company to a software company. Throughout 1982 there were further management shuffles with other people being named president of the company. Major, Neibaur, and Powell continued to support Novell through their SuperSet Software group. As Major later said, "It was great that our hardware was so lousy because that gave us the idea that hardware wasn't really where the value was."
Two other important NDSI employees were strategist Craig Burton and communications specialist Judith Clarke. Despite its struggles, Novell Data Systems had a presence at the COMDEX show in Las Vegas in November 1982; a man named Ray Noorda saw it and become interested in the company's potential.
Rise to networking dominance
A new company
On January 25, 1983, the company was incorporated under the shortened name of Novell, Inc. In April 1983, the appointment of Noorda as president and CEO of Novell, Inc. was publicly announced. Noorda was a veteran executive of General Electric and the past CEO of several other companies and had garnered a reputation as a turn-around expert. Messman was chairman of the board and continued to represent the interests of Safeguard Scientifics, which was still majority owner in the new Novell.
The new Novell started with around 15 employees. Noorda emphasized that the file server product acquired from Novell Data Systems would be the heart of what the new Novell would be doing. Later that same year, the company introduced its most significant product, the multi-platform network operating system (NOS), Novell NetWare.
Funding for the new company was still an issue, and Musser contacted two Safeguard investors and brokers, Barry Rubenstein and Fred Dolan, who were with the Cleveland brokerage house Prescott, Ball and Turben, in these efforts. Rubenstein and Dolan eventually came up with the idea of a rights offering to Safeguard shareholders. Accordingly, in January 1985, Safeguard Scientifics made an initial offering of shares in Novell, Inc. to its own shareholders, at $2.50 a share. The sale brought Safeguard more than $5 million in cash, and Safeguard's ownership in Novell went from 51 percent down to 24 percent. Novell, Inc. began trading as an over-the-counter stock.
NetWare
The first Novell product was a proprietary hardware server based on the Motorola 68000 processor and using a star topology. This, with the network operating system (NOS) on it, was known as Novell S-Net, or ShareNet, and it achieved some visibility; by April 1983, advertisements were seen in trade publications for third-party software products which stated they were compatible with Novell ShareNet.
The company realized that making a proprietary solution in this sense was disadvantageous and looked instead to the IBM PC as an alternative platform. Now called NetWare, the network operating system was ported to run on an IBM PC XT with an Intel 8086 processor and supported centralized, multitasking file and print services. By March 1984, Novell was putting out announcements about third-party products that worked with Novell NetWare.
NetWare came on the computing scene just as the IBM PC was emerging as a market force and applications such as the VisiCalc spreadsheet for the Apple II were showing what microcomputers could do for businesses. There was an immediate demand for local area networking that could make files and printers available across many PCs. In addition, the advent of the PC caused organizational changes within companies and enterprises and allowed Novell to find entryways into individual departments or regional facilities rather than having to convince upper management of the value of networking. Novell's timing was spot on. As the New York Times subsequently wrote, "Novell, in one of those instances of serendipity and visionary thinking that are the stuff of personal computer legend, found itself in the right place at the right time."
Partly in consequence of its design of running at kernel level ring 0 without regard for separate or protected address spaces, and thus not having the properties of a general-purpose operating system, NetWare was known for being very fast in operation. This trend continued into 1987 with the Advanced NetWare/286 release, which was well received within the industry. NetWare also excelled with respect to computer security considerations, supporting user- and group-based roles and volume- and file-level access restrictions, thus making it attractive to systems administrators.
Novell based its network protocol on Xerox Network Systems (XNS), and created its own standards which it named Internetwork Packet Exchange (IPX) and Sequenced Packet Exchange (SPX). These protocols were based on a client–server model. File and print services ran on the NetWare Core Protocol (NCP) over IPX, as did Routing Information Protocol (RIP) and Service Advertising Protocol (SAP). All of these NetWare protocols mapped to various layers of the OSI model.
Starting in 1987, Novell began selling its own Ethernet-based network adapter cards. These included the 8-bit NE1000, and then in 1988, the 16-bit NE2000. They priced them lower than cards from competitors such as 3Com, whose card Novell had previously been distributing. By 1989, Novell's cards were being sold at a rate of 20,000 per month, aggressively expanding Novell's market presence. At that point, Novell transferred the NE1000/NE2000 business to Anthem Electronics, the firm that had actually been making them, but the cards remained branded as Novell products.
As author James Causey would later write, "NetWare deserves the lion's share of the credit for elevating PC-based local area networks from being cute toys to providing powerful, reliable, and serious network services. NetWare was the first Intel-based network operating system to provide a serious alternative to mainframe-based server networks, providing critical reliability and security features needed in the modern enterprise."
Novell acquired Kanwal Rekhi's company Excelan in 1989; Excelan manufactured smart Ethernet cards and commercialized the Internet protocol TCP/IP, solidifying Novell's presence in these areas. The acquisition combined Novell's $281 million in annual revenue with Excelan's $66 million. Rekhi became a high-ranking Novell executive, and played an influential strategic and managerial role with the company over the next several years. Excelan was based in San Jose, California, and they, along with a couple of prior Novell acquisitions, formed the basis for Novell's presence in Silicon Valley going forward.
NetWare 386
A key software introduction came in 1989 with the release of NetWare 386, also known as NetWare 3.0, which gave NetWare more modern architectural qualities, in conjunction with new capabilities in the Intel 386 processor. All the while it maintained its character as a dedicated network operating system rather than containing network capabilities as part of a general-purpose operating system. The NetWare kernel's ability to dynamically load and unload drivers was greatly appreciated by users and the ability to write NetWare Loadable Modules (NLMs) in the C programming language was also a significant benefit. NetWare 3 supported interactions with Apple's Macintosh computers as well as with Unix-based workstations, thus enabling NetWare to expand upon file and print sharing towards accessing business-critical data within companies. This allowed NetWare to work with database products from companies such as Oracle Corporation and Sybase. By 1990, Novell had an almost monopolistic position in NOS for any business requiring a network.
There were competitor companies in the same space, such as Corvus Systems, Banyan Systems, and LANtastic, but none of them made much of a dent in Novell's business. Microsoft tried on two early occasions to take on Novell in networking, first with the MS-NET product and then with LAN Manager, but both failed badly. IBM similarly had limited success in this area. From 1988 to 1992, Novell's revenues rose almost three-fold, to $933 million a year, with about half of Novell's sales coming from North America and half from overseas. Earnings also rose to $249 million a year. From 1986 to 1991, Novell's stock price climbed twelve-fold.
With this market leadership, Novell began to acquire and build services on top of its NetWare operating platform. These services extended NetWare's capabilities with such products as NetWare for SAA and Novell multi-protocol router.
However, Novell was also diversifying, moving away from its smaller users to target large corporations and wide area networks. A marketing and development alliance with IBM announced in 1991 was part of this initiative. The company did later attempt to refocus with NetWare for Small Business. It reduced investment in research and was slow to improve the product administration tools, although it was helped by the fact its products typically needed little "tweaking" – they just ran.
Corporate ethos and "coopetition"
By early 1985, Novell was rapidly expanding, but many people were still unaware of either it or the role that local area networks could play, and consequently Noorda referred to Novell as "the most misunderstood company in the world." Nonetheless in 1986 The Salt Lake Tribune was hailing Novell as another Utah success story in technology, likely to follow in the footsteps of Evans & Sutherland and Iomega. Novell was quickly outgrowing its original site in Orem, with some employees forced to work in trailers. A new, much larger site for the company was found in nearby Provo, Utah and construction was begun; by late 1986, employees were moving into the first building there while work on a second building was already underway. Eventually between 1986 and 1993 six buildings would be constructed for Novell's use there.
Under Noorda, Novell embraced the notion of "coopetition", or cooperative competition. The central idea was that whatever was good for networking in general would be good for Novell and took the form of encouraging the growth of an ecosystem composed of hundreds of suppliers of hardware and software networking products, even if some of those suppliers had products that competed with Novell's. 3Com, who had been an early competitor of Novell's, sold more instances of their Ethernet networking cards for use in conjunction with NetWare than they did for use with their own 3+Share network operating systems, and a similar situation existed for IBM and their Token Ring cards. It was due to this kind of industry vision that Noorda would become known as the "Father of Network Computing".
From the first years of the new Novell's success, Noorda was credited in the press with forging that path. The company reflected aspects of Noorda's personal background, such as his Mormon religion, which brought about what was termed "the Mormon work ethic" at Novell. Noorda himself was famous for his frugal ways and for working from a plain, small office. On the other hand, Novell was not without internal political strife and drama, perhaps best exemplified by the unexplained disappearance from the company during 1989 of Craig Burton and Judith Clarke, whom by this time were senior executives (and whom many credited for much of Novell's past success). Burton had been seen as Noorda's most likely successor until the two had a falling out with the chief executive.
In April 1990, Novell and Lotus Development Corporation announced merger of equals based on a $1.5-billion stock swap that would have been the largest deal in the software industry to that time. But it collapsed the following month: when Lotus head Jim Manzi refused to give Novell an equal number of seats on the new board, Noorda pulled out shortly before the deal would have been completed.
At its high point around 1993, NetWare had a roughly two-thirds share of the market for network operating systems; one analysis put the figure at 63 percent. There were over half a million NetWare-based networks installed worldwide and some 55 million NetWare users on those networks. And networking itself was the fastest-growing segment of the computer market, increasing by 30 percent a year and reaching a $10 billion figure by 1993. Novell's employee base, which had been around 15 when Noorda joined, had risen to 4,335 by the end of 1993. Besides Utah, Novell continued to grow in San Jose, where many of the sales, marketing, product management, and executive functions were located.
Sales and channel practices
Equally important as technological factors to NetWare's growth was that Novell did not try to hire a large sales force to do direct sales of the product, but instead sold it through a broad channel of some 13,000 value-added resellers. Such resellers provided network education, installation, and subsequent maintenance, and included CompUSA and Egghead Software for very small businesses all the way up to sophisticated systems integrators like Andersen Consulting and Electronic Data Systems for enterprise-level projects. In this way Novell constructed a local area network franchise in literal terms, as Novell Authorized Education Centers were set up on a franchising basis. As one industry analyst said, "They've done a wonderful job of farming distribution out. They train people who go out and train other people, and every time somebody gets trained, they get another Netware bigot, and make another dollar. They are getting paid to have people go out and be evangelists." The partnering approach also worked well in overseas markets, such as in Japan where Novell set up a subsidiary that major Japanese electronics firms invested in, or in South America and Eastern Europe where Novell set up authorized distributors.
Under Ray Noorda's leadership, Novell provided upgrades to resellers and customers in the same packaging as a newly purchased copy of NetWare, but at one third the cost, which created a gray market that allowed NetWare resellers to sell upgrades as newly purchased NetWare versions at full price periodically, which Novell intentionally did not track. Noorda commented to several analysts that he devised this strategy to allow front line resellers to "punch through" the distributors like Tech Data and Ingram and acquire NetWare versions at a discounted rate, as Novell "looked the other way"; this helped fund the salaries of Novell Field Support Technicians, who for the most part were employees who worked for the front line resellers as Novell CNE (Certified NetWare Engineers).
Noorda commented that this strategy was one he learned as an executive at General Electric when competing against imported home appliances: allow the resellers to "make more money off your product than someone else's".
Taking on Microsoft
Motivations
Unusually for the CEO of a high-tech, emerging computer company, Noorda was nearing 70 years of age by the early 1990s. Furthermore he was known for alienating high-level executives who might someday be in position to run the company. Stock market analysts were expressing concern that Noorda, whose personality was the basis for much of the company's culture, had no succession plan in place. At the same time, Novell faced a looming challenge from Microsoft's upcoming Windows NT operating system, which after a huge investment of resources from Microsoft featured bundled networking and more advanced OS capabilities and looked to be that company's first offering that could seriously challenge Novell's local area networking franchise.
Under Noorda, Novell made a series of acquisitions interpreted by many to be a direct challenge to Microsoft. Noorda was motivated in part by a realization that NetWare's technology was not suitable as the basis for a full-fledged operating system and application platform. There was also enmity between the two companies and the two CEOs, stemming in part from merger talks between Noorda and Microsoft head Bill Gates that had begun in 1989 and been on-and-off for the next couple of years before breaking down for good. Subsequently Novell played a role in keeping the Federal Trade Commission investigation into Microsoft going.
Between 1991 and 1994, the Noorda-led Novell made this series of major acquisitions: Digital Research Inc., producer of DR-DOS, to compete with Microsoft's MS-DOS; Unix System Laboratories, holder of Unix operating system technology, to improve Novell's technology base versus Windows NT; Serius Corp., maker of an advanced application development tool; and WordPerfect Corporation and Quattro Pro from Borland to provide personal productivity and group collaboration products. In all, Noorda acquired ten companies within a four-year span. By September 1993, Business Week was writing, "Of the many rivalries in the personal-computer industry, for sheer nastiness it's hard to beat the one between Microsoft Corp. and Novell Inc." In November 1993, Noorda confirmed published reports that he had been suffering from some memory lapses and announced that he would be stepping down from the CEO position once a successor was found.
In April 1994, former HP executive Robert Frankenberg was announced as the new CEO of Novell, with Noorda remaining as chairman of the board of directors. By then the USL acquisition was already showing difficulties, while the WordPerfect acquisition was questioned even more. Nonetheless, Frankenberg said he was enthusiastic about it: "For me, it was a pivotal item in my decision to join Novell because it makes possible an entirely new category of networked applications which no one else can provide." When the WordPerfect and Quattro Pro acquisitions closed in June 1994, it was the largest such deal in the software industry to that time; it made Novell the third-largest software company in the world, trailing only Microsoft and Computer Associates.
Noorda retired from the chairman position and left Novell completely in November 1994, although he was still the largest shareholder of the company. At that point in time, Frankenberg became chairman as well.
Desktop OS and embedded systems: DOS, NEST, and Corsair
Novell acquired Digital Research for in June 1991. The move was seen as a way for Novell to supply software for server-focused PCs in alternative to Microsoft. NetWare used DR DOS as a boot loader and maintenance platform, and Novell intended to extend its desktop presence by integrating networking into DR DOS and providing an alternative to Microsoft's Windows. At first, the idea was to provide a graphical environment based on Digital Research's GEM, but Novell's legal department rejected this due to apprehension of a possible legal response from Apple, so the company went directly to Apple starting Star Trek in February 1992, a project to run an x86-port of their Mac OS on top of a multitasking DR DOS.
Novell had already abandoned Digital Research's Multiuser DOS in 1992. The three former Master Value Added Resellers (VARs) DataPac Australasia, Concurrent Controls and Intelligent Micro Software could license the source code to take over and continue independent development of their derivations in 1994.
Digital Research's FlexOS had been licensed to IBM for their 4690 OS in 1993 and was also utilized for the in-house development of Novell's Embedded Systems Technology (NEST), but was sold off to Integrated Systems, Inc. (ISI) for in July 1994. The deal comprised a direct payment of half this sum as well as shares representing 2% of the company.
NEST however held importance for Frankenberg's vision of "pervasive computing", wherein Novell software would be connecting a billion nodes by 2000. Many of those nodes would be common, everyday devices running NEST, linked by SuperNOS, Novell Directory Services, and other management services components.
Novell also abandoned their Corsair desktop project and in late 1994 transferred some components to Caldera, a startup funded by Noorda's Canopy Group. The Canopy Group was a technology investment firm and real estate company that Noorda focused on after his department from Novell.
Novell DOS (and all former DR DOS versions including StarTrek, PalmDOS and DOS Plus) as well as other remaining Digital Research assets (like GEM and the CP/M- and MP/M-based operating systems, programming languages, tools and technologies) were sold to Caldera on 23 July 1996. Personal NetWare had been abandoned at Novell in 1995 but was licensed to Caldera in binary form only. The deal consisted of a direct payment of US$400,000 as well as percentual royalties for any revenues derived from those assets to Novell.
In January 1997, Novell's NEST initiative was abandoned as well.
Server OS: UnixWare and SuperNOS
On the server side, after their initial October 1991 Univel initiative, Novell announced in December 1992 that it was buying Unix System Laboratories (USL) from AT&T Corporation. The measure was intended to help Novell compete against Microsoft, which was on the verge of including networking as a built-in feature of Windows in conjunction with the Windows NT server. Unix did present some attractive characteristics to the market, such as its abilities as an application server and the lack of vendor lock-in, but there were still considerable obstacles to be overcome in using it in this context.
The deal closed in June 1993, with Novell acquiring rights to the Unix SVR4 source base and the UnixWare operating system product. Novell then turned the Unix brand name and specification over to the industry consortium X/Open.
Novell created the Unix Systems Group to contain the new business, which also absorbed the Univel venture. Most of the core USL employees remained in USL's Summit, New Jersey facility, which was later relocated to Florham Park, New Jersey in the summer of 1995. The USL Europe office in London was moved into Novell's facility in Bracknell, Berkshire.
Novell's time with Unix technology saw the release of UnixWare 1.1 in January 1994, in both personal and advanced server editions and with the bundled inclusion of TCP/IP, a NetWare Unix Client, and Merge functionality for running DOS and Windows 3.1 applications. This was followed in early 1995 by the release of UnixWare 2.0, which included full support for multiple processors as well as improved installation and ease-of-use and additional NetWare integration features.
In September 1994 Novell began publicly describing its plans to develop a "SuperNOS", a microkernel-based network operating system based on NetWare 4.1 and UnixWare 2.0. The aim was to include UnixWare technology inside NetWare, provide the strengths of both NetWare's network services and UnixWare's application services, be able to run existing NetWare Loadable Modules (NLMs) and Unix executables, and accordingly create a network operating system that could successfully compete with Microsoft's Windows NT. SuperNOS would also operate across distributed servers with unified presentation. Finally, SuperNOS would take advantage of object-oriented programming paradigms as a way of fostering easier application development.
In terms of operating system architecture, SuperNOS would run NLMs in kernel space, for maximum throughput, while it would run Spec 1170-based Unix applications in user space. For clustering, SuperNOS would embrace elements of a NetWare distributed parallel processing proposal and a UnixWare single system image initiative. SuperNOS was based on work that had already started at USL and at the French company Chorus Systèmes SA for cooperative work on the Chorus microkernel technology in the context of supporting SVR4 on a microkernel. This microkernel was arguably superior for this purpose than the more well-known Mach one, because it gave more flexibility at the kernel mode–user mode boundary. By mid-1995 the SuperNOS project was reportedly about one-third completed, with 1997 being seen as a customer release date for it. There were over 60 engineers assigned to it, mostly from the UnixWare and Chorus side. The project endured prolonged internal architectural debates and resistance from the NetWare side due to a reluctance to believe that Unix was really superior to NetWare in key aspects. In one instance, Novell's Drew Major and Chorus Systèmes' Michel Gien disagreed in the trade press about whether the existent Chorus technology was up to the task. The long-running disputes reflected cultural and political divisions between the San Jose (with Rekhi being a Unix supporter before leaving altogether) and Utah camps within Novell. In any case the 1997 date was seen by industry observers as being too late to forestall the market-share gains that Windows NT was already making.
The acquisition of USL never really worked out for Novell. During the company's fiscal years of 1993, 1994, and 1995, Novell's Unix Systems Group represented only about 5 percent of the company's revenue on an ongoing basis. Very few Certified NetWare Engineers ever reached a similar level of involvement with UnixWare. Another aim, that Novell might be able to coalesce Unix vendor versions and thus resolve the Unix wars, was not achieved either. By late summer 1995 the company was looking for a way out of the Unix business.
In September 1995, Novell announced the sale of UnixWare to the Santa Cruz Operation (SCO), coincident with a licensing arrangement with Hewlett Packard. As part of the deal, SCO said that it would merge the SVR4.2-based UnixWare with its existing SVR3.2-based OpenServer operating system and add NetWare services to the new merged product, code-named "Gemini". Gemini would then be sold through SCO's well-known channel and reseller operation. As for HP, they said they would add NetWare code and NetWare Directory Services to their own version of Unix, HP-UX, in combination with Distributed Computing Environment elements, which would then be sold by HP's strong direct-sales force. Finally, SCO and HP said that they would co-develop a next-generation, 64-bit version of Unix. Some 400 Novell software engineers had been working on UnixWare; most of them were offered jobs with either SCO or HP, while a few remained with Novell.
While some lip service was paid to the notion that SuperNOS would go on after the three-way deal, in fact, it was abandoned and never achieved fruition in that form. (A decade later, Novell's Open Enterprise Server product would realize some aspects of a hybrid NetWare/Unix-like system, this time based around SUSE Linux Enterprise Server rather than UnixWare.)
By December, there were already some indications that the three-way arrangement was not working out as had been initially advertised. The computer industry was not sure that SCO could handle being the primary Unix shepherd. The HP project, code-named "White Box", focused on making a hybrid environment out of the SRV4.2-based Gemini and the SVR3.2-based HP-UX, but that effort faced major technical hurdles. The terms of the deal between Novell and SCO, which closed in December 1995, were uncertain enough that an amendment had to be signed in October 1996, and even that was not clear enough to preclude an extended battle between the two companies during the SCO-Linux disputes of the 2000s.
Tools: AppWare
In June 1993, Novell purchased Serius Corp., a firm that made a graphical programming language that could construct applications by connecting together icons representing objects in the program and their commands. Novell also purchased Software Transformations Inc., who made a cross-platform object code library that could be used to port conventional programs to a number of platforms. The disparate technologies of the two products were combined and renamed to AppWare, with the Serius product being called AppWare Visual AppBuilder, the objects it used AppWare Loadable Modules, and the Software Transformations library AppWare Foundation. The organization working on this was called the AppWare Systems Group. The founder of Serius, Joe Firmage, became vice president of strategy for Novell's Network Systems Group.
AppWare was one of the three main strategic focuses of Novell during this period, along with NetWare and UnixWare. These three prongs were intended to satisfy the growing need for scalable, distributed computing at the enterprise level of applications such as general ledger systems or reservation systems; as Novell executive Jim Tolonen outlined: "[NetWare] being the underlying infrastructure over which those mission critical transactions will be moved, Unix [being] a place on which the applications can run, and AppWare as tools that will help programmers write that class of application in a distributed environment."
It was not long before the AppWare plans started to fall apart. In September 1994 Novell announced they would be selling the Appware Foundation product to a third party. Novell did state that development of Visual AppBuilder would continue, and a Unix port would be following (that did not materialize). Novell also continued to release a number of new Appware Loadable Modules. But overall, as Byte magazine wrote in early 1995 about the three-pronged strategy, these "unrelated ... families of products formed an unsteady tripod".
Joe Firmage became disillusioned with Novell in mid-1995, following its decision to sell UnixWare and abandon the SuperNOS project, and left Novell later that year. Novell then publicly stated in November 1995 that it was looking for a buyer for AppWare. In March 1996, it was announced (based on an agreement that had been signed the month before) that Novell had sold all rights to the AppWare technology to a new company called Network Multimedia Inc., which was headed by Ed Firmage, who had been director of AppWare marketing at Novell.
Applications: WordPerfect, Quattro Pro, and GroupWise
In March 1994, Novell announced that it was acquiring WordPerfect Corporation, whose primary product was the WordPerfect word processor, as well as acquiring the Quattro Pro spreadsheet from Borland. Novell executives said that goal of the acquisitions was to build a suite of products that could be connected across the network via NetWare and UnixWare. Key to this was the idea of "groupware" for collaboration. Noorda said, "The era of stand-alone personal computing is evolving into group collaboration that connects individuals, groups and companies. Novell's objective is to accelerate this market transition." The geographical proximity, as well as the cultural similarity, between the two companies also made the acquisition seem like a good idea. The merger, and acquisition from Borland, both closed on June 24, 1994 (with the public announcement being made on June 27). Work on the acquired products was organized into the company's Application Group. Both before and after the acquisition, there were substantial layoffs of WordPerfect staff; at the peak right after the acquisition closed, Novell's employee count was around 10,150. Novell's corporate address was shifted to WordPerfect's Orem location for a while.
The market for standalone word processors and spreadsheets was expanding to that of office suites, where Microsoft Office had an early lead in marketshare. To compete, Novell PerfectOffice 3.0 was released in December 1994. It was based upon an earlier effort, Borland Office 2.0 for Windows, but had superior look-and-feel and integration. It contained not just WordPerfect and Quattro Pro but also other products, most of which had originated at WordPerfect Corporation, including Presentations for slides preparation, a personal information manager called InfoCentral, and the GroupWise collaboration product. There was also a professional edition that included AppWare as well as Borland's Paradox database. Industry analyst reaction was that PerfectOffice 3.0 was a good product but was arriving too late to head off Microsoft Office's momentum.
WordPerfect also played in a role in larger architectural ambitions within Novell, as WordPerfect incorporated OpenDoc and IBM System Object Model technology. These became part of the basis for Novell's larger distributed object strategy. That strategy was tied to having supporting multiple object request brokers that could tie in NetWare Loadable Modules, the AppWare Bus, UnixWare, and eventually SuperNOS itself. WordPerfect itself was also supposedly using the AppWare foundation layer in its work.
During its time in Novell, WordPerfect still sold reasonably well as standalone software, garnering almost half of all such word processor sales; but the market was increasingly dominated by the idea of office suites, and there Microsoft Office was supreme, with 86 percent of the market compared to only 5 percent for Novell's PerfectOffice. As such, the WordPerfect and Quattro Pro part of the company dragged down Novell's earnings and stock price.
Novell stated in November 1995 that it was putting its personal productivity product line up for sale. Then in January 1996 it announced that the sale of these products, primarily WordPerfect and Quattro Pro, would be made to Corel for $186 million, a large loss from the $855 million that it had originally paid to acquire WordPerfect. Novell did hold onto a few pieces that it had acquired from WordPerfect, most importantly the GroupWise collaboration product. By some estimates Novell had lost $750 million on the WordPerfect experience. The sale to Corel was completed in March 1996.
Results
Overall, none of these moves had worked out well – for instance, Novell suffered a net loss of $35 million for its 1993 fiscal year, largely due to write-offs for the acquisitions, and under criticism from Wall Street, Novell's stock price underwent a prolonged downturn – and many of the companies and products that had been purchased were subsequently sold off. Novell did have its two largest revenue years in 1994 and 1995, generating $1.998 billion and $2.041 billion in sales respectively. But the Noorda-era acquisitions were short-lived.
The business press was negative on the whole attempt: The New York Times referred to "acquisitions Mr. Noorda had made in his latter years in a disastrous attempt to compete head-on with Microsoft", while the San Francisco Chronicle talked of "a disastrous acquisition spree undertaken by previous CEO Ray Noorda in an effort to compete with Microsoft." By the year 2000, The Age would say that "The WordPerfect acquisition was the biggest disaster in software history".
Novell continued to have mediocre-at-best financial results during 1995 and 1996.
In August 1996, Frankenberg himself departed Novell in what was variously portrayed as a mutual decision, or as a resignation under pressure from the company's board of directors. His years there had been marked by having to disassemble Noorda's acquisitions but also by failing to fully recognize the growing importance of the Internet for networking applications.
Loss of networking dominance
NDS and other new products
Novell's core products did not stay idle during this challenging-of-Microsoft time, as work in the company's NetWare Systems Group continued.
One of Novell's major innovations was Novell Directory Services (NDS), later known as eDirectory. Introduced with NetWare 4.0 in 1993, NDS replaced the old Bindery server and user management technology employed by NetWare 3.x and earlier. Directory services were seen as a crucial strategic key to staying relevant in the networking marketplace. It was also one where Novell had a lead over Microsoft, as the latter's Active Directory was not yet out.
Then with UnixWare gone, Novell focused on major upgrades to its core NetWare-based network operating system. However some 40 million users declined to upgrade to NetWare 4, with the result that Novell lost large amounts of possible revenue in upgrades. Windows NT was proving better as a platform for application and database services than NetWare. Furthermore Microsoft was having success with its no-extra-charge bundling of Microsoft's IIS web server on NT, while Novell's presence in the Internet market was severely lacking. Still, as of 1996, by one estimate there were three million networks, and tens of millions of PCs, still using NetWare.
In 1996, the company began a move into Internet-enabled products, replacing reliance on the proprietary IPX protocol in favor of a native TCP/IP stack. Support for the new Java programming language also began to be added to NetWare. An Internet-focused product released during 1996 was called Intranetware.
These moves were accelerated when Eric Schmidt became CEO in April 1997, the first in the post since Frankenberg's departure; Christopher Stone was brought in as senior vice president of strategy and corporate development, reporting to Schmidt. Many observers were surprised that Schmidt would leave his chief technical officer position at Sun Microsystems, which at the time was doing very well, to go to Novell, which was viewed as a company in real trouble. The new CEO said, "Novell has been defocused by a series of acquisitions and forays that didn't work out. In this collaborative world, it's more important to do a few things well and just go for them like you've never seen."
One result of these shifts was BorderManager, released in August 1997, which supplied proxy server, firewall, and other services for connecting NetWare networks to the Internet. Another was a new version of NDS, that was capable of running with Windows NT, not just NetWare.
And still another was NetWare 5.0, released in October 1998, with hopes for it accelerating Novell's improved fortunes under Schmidt. NetWare 5.0 leveraged and built upon eDirectory and introduced new functions, such as Novell Cluster Services (NCS, a replacement for SFT-III) and Novell Storage Services (NSS), a replacement for the traditional Turbo FAT filesystem used by earlier versions of NetWare. While NetWare 5.0 introduced native TCP/IP support into the NOS, IPX was still supported, allowing for smooth transitions between environments and avoiding the "forklift upgrades" frequently required by competing environments. Similarly, the traditional Turbo FAT file system remained a supported option.
Decline of marketshare
The inclusion of networking as a core system component in all mainstream PC operating systems after 1995 led to a steep decline in Novell's market share. Unlike Windows 3.1 and its predecessors, Windows NT, Windows 95, Linux, and OS/2 all included network functionality which greatly reduced demand for third-party products in this segment. For instance, one mid-1996 survey of a thousand corporate users, conducted by Forrester Research, showed that 90 percent of them owned NetWare but only 20 percent said they had upgraded to the latest NetWare version and less than half of the users thought they would still be using NetWare three years hence. By March 1996, the company's stock price had fallen from a high of $33 a share in 1993 to a new low of under $12. Revenue declined from 1995 on. By 1997, Windows NT was winning 42 percent of new network operating system installations versus 33 percent for NetWare, and it was on the verge of overtaking NetWare even when upgrade sales were included.
With revenues in decline, Schmidt took actions to control costs, and some 18 percent of Novell employees were laid off during the first few months of his tenure. In addition he was forced to halt NetWare shipments to resellers because unsold inventory levels were so high. By the end of summer 1997, Schmidt was saying, "I took the job on the presumption that we would not have to do this. If I'd known what shape the company was in, I might not have taken it." While there was some speculation that Novell might relocate much of the company to its San Jose facility, Novell instead recommitted to Provo, building a new headquarters tower that opened in 2000.
But Novell's decline and loss of market share accelerated under Schmidt's leadership, with Novell experiencing an across-the-board decline in sales and purchases of NetWare and a drop in share price from /share to /share. Analysts commented that the primary reason for Novell's demise was linked to its channel strategy and mismanagement of channel partners under Schmidt.
Schmidt embarked on a channel strategy to undo Noorda's "look the other way" approach and thereby remove the upgrades as whole box products, then directed Novell's general counsel to initiate litigation against a large number of Novell resellers who were routinely selling upgrades as newly purchased NetWare versions.
Although this move bolstered Novell's revenue numbers for several quarters, Novell's channels subsequently collapsed with the majority of Novell's resellers dropping NetWare for fear of litigation.
By 1999, Novell had lost its dominant market position, and was continually being out-marketed by Microsoft as resellers dropped NetWare, allowing Microsoft to gain access to corporate data centers by bypassing technical staff and selling directly to corporate executives. Most resellers then re-certified their Novell CNE employees— the field support technicians who were Novell's primary contact in the field with direct customers—as Microsoft MCSE technicians, and were encouraged to position NetWare as inferior to Windows 2000 features such as Group Policy and Microsoft's GUI, which was considered to be more modern than the character-based Novell interfaces. With falling revenue, the company focused on net services and platform interoperability. Products such as eDirectory and GroupWise were made multi-platform.
In October 2000, Novell released a new product, dubbed "DirXML", which was designed to synchronize data—typically user information—between disparate directory and database systems. This product leveraged the speed and functionality of eDirectory to store information, and would later become the Novell Identity Manager, forming the foundation of a core product set within Novell.
During this time, Novell's new products did not sell as well as the company had hoped.
Of Schmidt's efforts with Novell, News.com wrote, "He had traversed a rocky road as chief executive at Novell, briefly laying a smooth path for a renaissance at the aging network software provider before succumbing to strategy issues that have plagued it for years."
Cambridge Technology Partners
In March 2001, it was announced that Novell was acquiring the consulting company Cambridge Technology Partners (CTP), founded in Cambridge, Massachusetts by John J. Donovan, to expand offerings into services. Novell felt that the ability to offer solutions (a combination of software and services) was key to satisfying customer demand. The merger was apparently against the firm's software development culture, and the finance personnel at the firm also recommended against it.
The CEO of CTP, Jack Messman, engineered the merger using his position as a board member of Novell since its inception, and as part of the deal became CEO of Novell. Chris Stone, who had left in 1999, was rehired as vice chairman to set the course for Novell's strategy into open source and enterprise Linux. With the acquisition of CTP, which closed in July 2001, Novell moved its headquarters to Massachusetts. As for Schmidt, he departed Novell soon after the CTP announcement and headed for Google, where he became chair of the board (and soon after that, CEO).
In July 2002, Novell acquired SilverStream Software, a leader in web services-oriented applications, but a laggard in the marketplace. Renamed to Novell exteNd, the platform comprised XML and web service tools based on Java EE.
Linux
SuSE and Open Enterprise Server
In August 2003, Novell acquired Ximian, a developer of open source Linux applications (Evolution, Red Carpet and Mono). This acquisition signaled Novell's plans to move its collective product set onto a Linux kernel.
In November 2003, Novell acquired Linux OS developer SuSE, which led to a major shift of power in Linux distributions. IBM also invested to show support of the SuSE acquisition.
In mid-2003, Novell released "Novell Enterprise Linux Services" (NNLS), which ported some of the services traditionally associated with NetWare to SUSE Linux Enterprise Server (SLES) version 8.
In November 2004, Novell released the Linux-based enterprise desktop Novell Linux Desktop 9, based on Ximian Desktop and SUSE Linux Professional 9.1. This was Novell's first attempt to get into the enterprise desktop market.
The successor product to NetWare, Novell Open Enterprise Server, was released in March 2005. OES offers all the services previously hosted by NetWare 6.5, and added the choice of delivering those services using either a NetWare 6.5 or SUSE Linux Enterprise Server 9 kernel. The release was aimed to persuade NetWare customers to move to Linux.
In August 2005, Novell created the openSUSE project, based on SUSE Professional. openSUSE can be downloaded freely and is also available as boxed retail product.
Stagnation
From 2003 through 2005 Novell released many products across its portfolio, with the intention of arresting falling market share and to move away from dependencies on other Novell products, but the launches were not as successful as Novell had hoped. In late 2004, Chris Stone again left the company, after an apparent control issue with then CEO Jack Messman. In an effort to cut costs, Novell announced a round of layoffs in late 2005. While revenue from its Linux business continued to grow, the growth was not fast enough to offset the decrease in revenue of NetWare. While the company's revenue was not falling rapidly, it wasn't growing, either. Lack of clear direction or effective management meant that Novell took longer than expected to complete its restructuring.
In June 2006, chief executive Jack Messman and chief finance officer Joseph Tibbetts were fired, with Ronald Hovsepian, Novell's president and chief operating officer, appointed chief executive, and Dana Russell, vice-president of finance and corporate controller, appointed interim CFO.
"Your Linux is Ready"
In August 2006, Novell released the SUSE Linux Enterprise 10 (SLE 10) series. SUSE Linux Enterprise Server was the first enterprise class Linux server to offer virtualization based on the Xen hypervisor. SUSE Linux Enterprise Desktop (popularly known as SLED) featured a new user-friendly GUI and XGL-based 3D display capabilities. The release of SLE 10 was marketed with the phrase "Your Linux is Ready", meant to convey that Novell's Linux offerings were ready for the enterprise. In late September 2006 Novell announced a real-time version of SLES called "SUSE Linux Enterprise Real Time" (SLERT), based on technology from Concurrent Computer Corporation.
Legal actions and reactions
Beginning in 2003, Novell became a key player in the SCO–Linux disputes. The case SCO Group, Inc. v. Novell, Inc. revolved around the interpretation of the 1995 asset-transfer agreements between Novell and the Santa Cruz Operation, a predecessor company to The SCO Group – when Novell got out of the Unix business as part of abandoning its effort to take on Microsoft on all fronts – and a 1996 amendment that had attempted to clarify that agreement. The SCO Group believed that the transfer included ownership of, and copyrights for, the source code for the Unix operating system (which they in turn claimed Linux had infringed upon). Novell counter-sued, claiming that the asset-transfer agreements did not, in fact, transfer the intellectual property rights SCO sought.
The case attracted considerable industry and media attention, with the free and open source software (FOSS) community solidly on the side of Novell. There were a series of court rulings, most of which went in Novell's favor and which sent The SCO Group into bankruptcy. The matter was settled finally in 2010 when a jury trial in Utah ruled that the copyrights belonged to Novell. (Novell made no material use of the Unix ownership once it was ruled theirs, as by then their interests were with SuSE Linux.)
In 2004, Novell sued Microsoft, asserting it had engaged in antitrust violations regarding Novell's WordPerfect business in 1994 through 1996. Novell's lawsuit was subsequently dismissed by the United States District Court in July 2012 after it concluded that the claims were without merit.
On 2 November 2006, the two companies announced a joint collaboration agreement, including coverage of their respective products for each other's customers. They also promised to work more closely to improve compatibility of software, setting up a joint research facility. Executives of both companies expressed the hope that such cooperation would lead to better compatibility between Microsoft Office and OpenOffice.org and better virtualization techniques.
Microsoft CEO Steve Ballmer said of the deal, "This set of agreements will really help bridge the divide between open-source and proprietary source software."
The deal involved upfront payment of from Microsoft to Novell for patent cooperation and SLES subscription. Additionally, Microsoft agreed to spend around yearly, over the next 5 years, for marketing and selling a combined SLES/Windows Server offering and related virtualization solutions, while Novell paid at least yearly to Microsoft, in the same period.
One of the first results of this partnership was Novell adapting the OpenXML/ODF Translator for use in OpenOffice.org.
Microsoft released two public covenants not to sue users of the open source Moonlight runtime—a workalike for the Microsoft Silverlight rich media platform—for patent infringement. One condition common to each covenant was that no Moonlight implementation be released under the GPLv3 free software license.
In contrast to the SCO case, here initial reaction from members of the free and open source software community over the patent protection was mostly critical, with expressions of concern that Novell had "sold out" and doubt that the GNU GPL would allow distribution of code, including the Linux kernel, under this exclusive agreement.
In a letter to the FOSS development community on 9 November 2006, Bradley M. Kuhn, CTO of the Software Freedom Law Center (SFLC), described the agreement as "worse than useless". In a separate development, the chairman of the SFLC, Eben Moglen, reported that Novell had offered cooperation with the SFLC to permit a confidential audit to determine the compliance of the agreement with the GPL (version 2). Richard Stallman, founder of the Free Software Foundation, said in November 2006 that changes coming with version 3 of the GPL would preclude such deals. When the final revision of the third version of the GPL license was decided, the deal between Microsoft and Novell was grandfathered in. A clause within GPLv3 allows companies to distribute GPLv3 software even if they have made such patent partnerships in the past, as long as the partnership deal was made before 28 March 2007 (GPLv3 Section 11 paragraph 7).
On 12 November 2006, the Samba team expressed strong disapproval of the announcement and asked Novell to reconsider. The team included an employee of Novell, Jeremy Allison, who confirmed in a comment on Slashdot that the statement was agreed on by all members of the team, and later quit his job at Novell in protest.
In early February 2007, Reuters reported that the Free Software Foundation had announced that it was reviewing Novell's right to sell Linux versions, and was considering banning Novell from selling Linux. However, spokesman Eben Moglen later said that he was quoted out of context, and was only noting that GPL version 3 would be designed to block similar deals in the future.
Intelligent workload management
In December 2009, Novell announced its intention to lead the market in intelligent workload management, with products designed to manage diverse workloads in a heterogeneous data center. Seeing this approach as a key to giving customers confidence in the area of cloud computing security, Novell restructured its business around the new initiative. Technologies from Novell's 2008 acquisition of Canadian company PlateSpin were involved. Key to this also was the use of SUSE Studio, an online Linux software creation tool through which users could develop their own Linux distribution, software appliance, or virtual appliance. Hovsepian said, "Cloud computing is a megatrend that matches the company's core competencies. ... We've developed our Suse appliance tool for application vendors [who have brand new applications being written or built for the cloud]. This product allows them to create a virtual appliance. They won't have to rewrite and retest the application once it is in the cloud and it allows firms to host their application on other clouds too." But Novell's approach would also support other cloud environments such as those based around Hyper-V, VMware, and Xen.
Partnerships in connection with intelligent workload management were announced with SAP, Citrix Systems, Ingres, and others. Reaction of industry analysts to the move varied, with some positive and some more mixed. Among the more skeptical was Dan Kusnetzky of ZDNet, who wrote that Novell "clearly hopes that putting its products together in new ways and invoking today's catch phrases and buzz words will appear fresh and new." While Novell did have strong technologies in this computing realm, it struggled to attract the same market attention that competing product lines from the likes of Microsoft or VMware held.
Acquisition by The Attachmate Group
Novell had long been rumored to be a target for acquisition by a variety of other companies. In March 2010, Elliott Associates, L.P., an institutional investor with approximately 8.5% stock ownership of Novell, offered to acquire the company for per share in cash, or . The company declined the offer, saying that the proposal was inadequate and that it undervalued the company's franchise and growth prospects.
Novell announced in November 2010 that it had agreed to be acquired by The Attachmate Group for , and planned to operate Novell as two units, one being SUSE. As part of the deal, 882 patents owned by Novell were sold to CPTN Holdings LLC, a consortium of companies led by Microsoft and including Apple, EMC, and Oracle. According to Novell's SEC filing, the patents "relate primarily to enterprise-level computer systems management software, enterprise-level file management and collaboration software in addition to patents relevant to our identity and security management business, although it is possible that certain of such issued patents and patent applications read on a range of different software products". The Attachmate Group expressed in advance of the deal closing that there would no change to the relationship between the SUSE business and the openSUSE project. The merger completed in April 2011, with per share in cash being paid to acquire Novell. Novell became a wholly owned subsidiary of The Attachmate Group.
Concurrent with the closing of the acquisition, some of Novell's products and brands were transferred to another of the Attachmate Group business units, NetIQ, and the SUSE Linux brand was spun off as its own business unit. The fourth business unit, Attachmate, was not directly affected by the acquisition.
Immediately prior to merger being finalized, Novell completed the patent sale to CPTN Holdings for . The U.S. Department of Justice announced that, as originally proposed, the deal with CPTN would jeopardize the ability of open source software, such as Linux, to continue to innovate and compete in the development and distribution of server, desktop, and mobile operating systems, middleware, and virtualization products; to address the department's antitrust concerns, CPTN and its owners had altered their original agreement:
All of the Novell patents would be acquired subject to the GPLv2 open source license, and the Open Invention Network (OIN) license
CPTN does not have the right to limit which of the patents, if any, are available under the OIN license
Neither CPTN nor its owners will make any statement or take any action with the purpose of influencing or encouraging either Novell or Attachmate Group to modify which of the patents are available under the OIN license
With the acquisition, Novell's headquarters were moved back to Provo. But by then considerable consolidation had occurred, and the original six buildings of the Provo campus were sold.
During April and May 2011, The Attachmate Group announced layoffs for the Novell workforce, including hundreds of employees from the Provo location, raising questions about the future of some open source projects such as Mono.
Acquisition by Micro Focus
In September 2014, mainframe software company Micro Focus announced it was buying The Attachmate Group, including Novell, for . The acquisition closed on November 20, 2014, and the SUSE organization was split out separately from the rest of the former Novell organization within Micro Focus. SUSE was sold to EQT Partners in 2019.
The Novell products themselves were relabeled and dispersed among the file and networking services, collaborations, and security product lines of Micro Focus, such that offerings like Open Enterprise Server, GroupWise, and Zenworks became billed as Micro Focus products with no mention of their Novell past.
Companies acquired
Santa Clara Systems, Inc. (1986) for storage subsystems, network adapters, PCs
Cache Data Product (1986)
CXI (1987) for micro-to-mainframe software
SoftCraft (1987) for Btrieve database and programming tools
Indisy Software (1988/1990) for e-mail and message handling
Excelan (1989) for TCP/IP, Unix, Mac, DEC VMS connectivity products
Digital Research for (1991) for PC operating system software (DR DOS etc.)
International Business Software Ltd. (1992)
Serius (1993)
Unix System Laboratories (1993)
WordPerfect Corporation (1994)
Quattro Pro (Borland) (1994)
Netoria (1999)
Ukiah Software (1999)
JustOn (1999)
PGSoft (2000)
Novetrix (2001)
Cambridge Technology Partners (2001)
Callisto Software, Inc. (2001)
SilverStream Software (2002)
Ximian (2003)
SUSE (2003)
Salmon (2004)
Tally System (2005)
Immunix (2005)
e-Security, Inc (2006)
RedMojo (2007)
Senforce (2007)
PlateSpin (2008)
SiteScape (2008)
Fortefi (2008) for Command Control and Compliance Auditor
Managed Objects, Inc. (2008)
Certification
Novell was one of the first computer companies to provide proficiency certification for users of its products. They included:
Certified Novell Administrator (CNA)
Certified Novell Engineer (CNE)
Enterprise Certified Novell Engineer (ECNE)
Master Certified Novell Engineer (MCNE)
Certified Directory Engineer (CDE)
Certified Novell Instructor (CNI)
Master Certified Novell Instructor (MCNI)
Certified Linux Professional 10 (CLP 10)
Certified Linux Engineer 10 (CLE 10)
Products
Products marketed by Novell during the latter stages of its existence included:
BorderManager provides Internet access controls, secure VPN, and firewall services on NetWare
Business Continuity Clustering automates the configuration and management of high-availability, clustered servers
Client for Linux gives Linux desktop users access to NetWare and Open Enterprise Server services and applications
Client for Windows gives Microsoft Windows users access to NetWare and Open Enterprise Server services and applications
Cluster Services for Open Enterprise Server simplifies resource management on a Storage Area Network (SAN) and enables high-availability
Data Synchronizer keeps applications and mobile devices constantly in sync, and offers connectors for popular CRM systems
Endpoint Lifecycle Management Suite manages applications, devices, and servers over their life-cycle
Endpoint Protection Suite Endpoint Protection Suite
File Management Suite integrates three Novell products that work together to discover, analyze, provision, relocate and optimize file storage based on business policies
File Reporter examines and reports on terabytes of unstructured file data, and forecasts storage growth
GroupWise provides secure e-mail, calendaring, contact management, and task management with mobile synchronization
iFolder stores files for secure accessibility online and offline, across systems and on the web
iPrint, a network appliance print server supports mobility on printing, a user can print from any device from anywhere to anywhere in any corner of the world
NFS Gateway for NetWare 6.5 enables NetWare 6.5 servers to access UNIX and Linux NFS-exported file-systems
Open Enterprise Server offers NetWare services like centralized server management and secure file storage, running on SUSE Linux Enterprise Server
Open Workgroup Suite provides a low-cost alternative to Microsoft Professional Desktop Platform; features workgroup services and collaboration tools
Open Workgroup Suite for Small Business offers a full-featured desktop-to-server solution running on Linux, designed to support small business users
Service Desk streamlines and automates the provision of IT services. An OEM product from LiveTime Software.
Storage Manager provides automated management of file storage for users and work groups
Total Endpoint Management Suite efficiently balances security and productivity across an entire enterprise
Vibe provides secure team collaboration with document management and workflow features that can replace existing intranet systems
ZENworks, a software suite supporting the management of computer systems
ZENworks Application Virtualization allows the packaging and deployment of virtualized applications with predictive application-streaming that delivers apps based on user behavior
ZENworks Asset Management provides reports on hardware and software, integrating licensing, installation, and usage data
ZENworks Configuration Management provides automated endpoint-management, software distribution, user support, and accelerated Windows 7 migration
ZENworks Endpoint Security Management (ZES) - provides identity-based protection for client endpoints like laptops, smart phones, and thumb drives; offers driver-level firewall protection
ZENworks Full Disk Encryption protects data on laptops and desktops
ZENworks Handheld Management allows securing stolen handhelds, protects user data, enforces password policies, and locks out lost or stolen devices
ZENworks Linux Management facilitates the control of Linux desktops and servers, using policy-driven automation to deploy, manage and maintain Linux resources
ZENworks Mobile Management secures and manages mobile devices, both corporate-issued and personal (BYOD)
ZENworks Patch Management automates patch assessment, monitoring and remediation; monitors patch compliance to detect security vulnerabilities
ZENworks Virtual Appliance provides self-contained plug-and-play configuration management, asset management and patch management
See also
Novell BrainShare
References
Further reading
Digital Research - The 07-21-91 Summary (NB. Marc Perkel claimed to have inspired Novell in February 1991 to buy Digital Research and develop something he called "NovOS".)
Surfing the High Tech Wave: A story of Novell's early years, 1980–1990 – Roger Bourke White Jr.'s self-published history
External links
Novell: International, Japan
Novell Forums
Novell Blogs
Novell Wikis
Open Horizons — A co-operative EMEA body of international Novell User Groups
Open Horizons UK — An active Novell User Group for UK customers
1980 establishments in Utah
2011 mergers and acquisitions
2014 disestablishments in Utah
Companies based in Orem, Utah
Companies based in Provo, Utah
Companies based in Waltham, Massachusetts
Defunct companies based in Utah
Defunct software companies of the United States
Micro Focus International
Software companies based in Utah
Software companies disestablished in 2014
Software companies established in 1980
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GStreamer
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GStreamer
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GStreamer is a pipeline-based multimedia framework that links together a wide variety of media processing systems to complete complex workflows. For instance, GStreamer can be used to build a system that reads files in one format, processes them, and exports them in another. The formats and processes can be changed in a plug and play fashion.
GStreamer supports a wide variety of media-handling components, including simple audio playback, audio and video playback, recording, streaming and editing. The pipeline design serves as a base to create many types of multimedia applications such as video editors, transcoders, streaming media broadcasters and media players.
It is designed to work on a variety of operating systems, e.g. Linux kernel-based operating systems, the BSDs, OpenSolaris, Android, macOS, iOS, Windows, OS/400.
GStreamer is free and open-source software subject to the terms of the LGPL-2.1-or-later and is being hosted at freedesktop.org.
Distribution and adoption
The GNOME desktop environment, a heavy user of GStreamer, has included GStreamer since GNOME version 2.2 and encourages GNOME and GTK applications to use it. Other projects also use or support it, such as the Phonon media framework and the Songbird media player. It is also used in the Webkit browser engine.
GStreamer also operates in embedded devices like the Jolla Phone, the Palm Pre, Tizen and the Nokia 770, N800, N810, N900 and N9 Internet Tablets running the Maemo operating system.
In addition to source code releases, the GStreamer project provides binary builds for Android, iOS, OSX and Windows.
The LIGO Laboratory make use of GStreamer to simulate and analyze gravitational wave data. The GStreamer interface is called GstLAL.
Software architecture
GStreamer is written in the C programming language with the type system based on GObject and the GLib 2.0 object model.
Language bindings
A library written in one programming language may be used in another language if bindings are written; GStreamer has a range of bindings for various languages such as Go, Python, Rust, Vala, C++, Perl, GNU Guile, C# and Ruby.
Overview
GStreamer processes media by connecting a number of processing elements into a pipeline. Each element is provided by a plug-in. Elements can be grouped into bins, which can be further aggregated, thus forming a hierarchical graph. This is an example of a filter graph.
Elements communicate by means of pads. A source pad on one element can be connected to a sink pad on another. When the pipeline is in the playing state, data buffers flow from the source pad to the sink pad. Pads negotiate the kind of data that will be sent using capabilities.
The diagram to the right could exemplify playing an MP3 file using GStreamer. The file source reads an MP3 file from a computer's hard-drive and sends it to the MP3 decoder. The decoder decodes the file data and converts it into PCM samples which then pass to the ALSA sound-driver. The ALSA sound-driver sends the PCM sound samples to the computer's speakers.
Plug-ins
GStreamer uses a plug-in architecture which makes the most of GStreamer's functionality implemented as shared libraries. GStreamer's base functionality contains functions for registering and loading plug-ins and for providing the fundamentals of all classes in the form of base classes. Plug-in libraries get dynamically loaded to support a wide spectrum of codecs, container formats, input/output drivers and effects.
Plug-ins can be installed semi-automatically when they are first needed. For that purpose distributions can register a backend that resolves feature-descriptions to package-names.
Since version 0.9, the plug-ins come grouped into three sets (named after the film The Good, the Bad and the Ugly).
Individual distributions may further sub-classify these plug-ins: for example Ubuntu groups the "bad" and "ugly" sets into the "Universe" or the "Multiverse" components.
There's also a separate GStreamer FFmpeg plug-in, which is a FFmpeg-based plug-in that supports many additional media formats. It was first released on 26 February 2004, with version number 0.7.1. It can transparently use Libav, and as such is often called the GStreamer Libav plug-in in recent Linux distributions.
Video acceleration
There are various SIP blocks that can do the computations to decode certain video codecs, such as PureVideo, UVD, QuickSync Video, TI Ducati and more. Such needs to be supported by the device driver, which in turn provides one or multiple interfaces, like VDPAU, VAAPI, Distributed Codec Engine or DXVA to end-user software like MPlayer to access this hardware and offload computation to it.
It is possible to use Video Coding Engine with GStreamer through the OpenMAX IL wrapper plugin . This is for example possible on the Raspberry Pi.
The SIP core present on some Texas Instruments SoCs is also accessible through GStreamer: , , .
VDPAU and VAAPI are supported with GNOME Videos >= 2.28.0 and GStreamer >= 0.10.26 since 2010
Broadcom Crystal HD is supported
Media formats
The Good, Bad and Ugly GStreamer plugins mentioned earlier provide, alongside processing elements/filters of all kinds, support for a wide variety of file formats, protocols and multimedia codecs. In addition to those, support for more than a hundred compression formats (including MPEG-1, MPEG-2, MPEG-4, H.261, H.263, H.264, RealVideo, MP3, WMV, etc.) is transparently provided through the GStreamer FFmpeg/libav plug-in. See the Libav and FFmpeg pages for a complete list of media formats provided by these plug-ins.
History and development
Early days
Erik Walthinsen founded the GStreamer project in 1999. Many of its core design ideas came from a research project at the Oregon Graduate Institute. Wim Taymans joined the project soon thereafter and greatly expanded on many aspects of the system. Many other software developers have contributed since then.
The first major release was 0.1.0 which was announced on 11 January 2001. Not long after, GStreamer picked up its first commercial backer, an embedded Linux company called RidgeRun. Towards the end of January 2001, they hired Erik Walthinsen to develop methods for embedding GStreamer in smaller (cell phone-class) devices. Another RidgeRun employee, Brock A. Frazier, designed the GStreamer logo. RidgeRun later struggled financially and had to lay off its staff, including Erik Walthinsen. GStreamer progress was mostly unaffected.
The project released a series of major releases with 0.2.0 coming out in July 2001, 0.4.0 in September 2002, and 0.8.0 in March 2004. During that period the project also changed its versioning strategy and while the first releases were simply new versions, later on the middle number started signifying release series. This meant the project did release a string of 0.6.x and 0.8.x releases which was meant to stay binary compatible within those release series. Erik Walthinsen more or less left GStreamer development behind during this time, focusing on other ventures.
During the 0.8.x release series, the project faced difficulties. The 0.8.x series was not very popular in the Linux community mostly because of stability issues and a serious lack of features compared to competing projects like Xine, MPlayer, and VLC. The project also suffered a lack of leadership as Wim Taymans, the project lead since Erik Walthinsen had left, had largely stopped participating.
The 0.10 series
In 2004, a new company was founded, Fluendo, which wanted to use GStreamer to write a streaming server Flumotion and also provide multimedia solutions for GStreamer. During this time, Fluendo hired most of the core developers including Wim Taymans and attracted the support of companies such as Nokia and Intel to bring GStreamer to a professional level and drive community adoption.
With Wim Taymans back at the helm, the core of GStreamer was redesigned and became what is the current 0.10.x series, which had its first release (0.10.0) in December 2005. It has maintained API and ABI compatibility since.
With a new stable core in place, GStreamer gained in popularity in 2006, being used by media players including Totem, Rhythmbox and Banshee with many more to follow. It was also adopted by corporations such as Nokia, Motorola, Texas Instruments, Freescale, Tandberg, and Intel.
In 2007, most of the core GStreamer developers left Fluendo, including GStreamer maintainer Wim Taymans who went on to co-found Collabora Multimedia together with other GStreamer veterans, while others joined Sun Microsystems, Oblong Industries, and Songbird.
Between June 2012 and August 2014, GStreamer 0.10 was also distributed by Collabora and Fluendo as a multiplatform SDK, on the third-party gstreamer.com website (rather than gstreamer.freedesktop.org for the upstream community project). The goal was to provide application developers with a SDK that would be functionally identical on Windows, Mac OS X, iOS, Android and all supported Linux platforms. The SDK initiative aimed to facilitate the commercial adoption of the GStreamer project, as it provided a standardized entry point to developing multimedia applications with GStreamer, without needing to build the entire platform by oneself. Users of the SDK also benefited from documentation, tutorials and instructions specific to that SDK.
The 1.x series
GStreamer 1.0 was released on September 24, 2012. The 1.x series is parallel installable to GStreamer 0.10 to ease the transition, and provides many architectural advantages over the 0.10 series. Generally speaking, GStreamer 1.0 brought significant improvements for:
Embedded processors support, lower power consumption, offloading work to specialized hardware units (such as DSPs)
Hardware accelerated video decoding/encoding using GPUs
Zero-copy memory management (avoiding unnecessary roundtrips between the CPU and GPU) for better performance and lower power consumption
Dynamic pipelines
API and code cleanups
Beyond the technical improvements, the 1.x series is also defined by a new release versioning scheme. As the GStreamer roadmap explains, all 1.x.y versions carry a -1.0 API version suffix and have a stable API/ABI. The API/ABI can only be broken by a new major release series (i.e.: 2.x); however, there are currently no plans for a 2.0 release series. Until then, the new version numbering scheme can be used to predict the intended use of each release. The roadmap cites some examples:
1.0.0, 1.0.1, 1.0.2, 1.0.3... stable release and follow-up bug-fix releases
1.1.0, 1.1.1, 1.1.2, 1.1.3... pre-releases, development version leading up to 1.2.0
1.2.0, 1.2.1, 1.2.2, 1.2.3... stable release and follow-up bug-fix releases
1.3.0...
1.4.0...
etc.
In March 2013, the GStreamer project maintainers issued a statement to clarify that the 0.10 series is no longer maintained. The statement reasserted the GStreamer project's willingness to help application and plugin developers migrate to the new technology, and hinted that those for whom switching to the 1.x series was still considered impossible could seek assistance from various consulting companies.
1.2 added support for DASH adaptive streaming, JPEG2000 images, VP9 and Daala video, and decoding-only support for WebP.
Version 1.14 was released on March 19, 2018, adding support for WebRTC, AV1, Nvidia NVDEC, and Secure Reliable Transport, among other changes.
See also
List of software that uses GStreamer
Libvisual
OggConvert – a simple GUI front-end
SoundConverter – a GUI front-end based on GStreamer and GTK for transcoding digital audio files
Pitivi – a video editor based on GStreamer
References
External links
Delphi Bridge (Binding)
Free multimedia software
Free software programmed in C
Freedesktop.org libraries
GNOME libraries
Multimedia frameworks
Software that uses Meson
Collabora
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2679981
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image%20file%20format
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Image file format
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Image file formats are standardized means of organizing and storing digital images. An image file format may store data in an uncompressed format, a compressed format (which may be lossless or lossy), or a vector format. Image files are composed of digital data in one of these formats so that the data can be rasterized for use on a computer display or printer. Rasterization converts the image data into a grid of pixels. Each pixel has a number of bits to designate its color (and in some formats, its transparency). Rasterizing an image file for a specific device takes into account the number of bits per pixel (the color depth) that the device is designed to handle.
Image file sizes
The size of raster image files is positively correlated with the number of pixels in the image and the color depth (bits per pixel). Images can be compressed in various ways, however. A compression algorithm stores either an exact representation or an approximation of the original image in a smaller number of bytes that can be expanded back to its uncompressed form with a corresponding decompression algorithm. Images with the same number of pixels and color depth can have very different compressed file size. Considering exactly the same compression, number of pixels, and color depth for two images, different graphical complexity of the original images may also result in very different file sizes after compression due to the nature of compression algorithms. With some compression formats, images that are less complex may result in smaller compressed file sizes. This characteristic sometimes results in a smaller file size for some lossless formats than lossy formats. For example, graphically simple images (i.e. images with large continuous regions like line art or animation sequences) may be losslessly compressed into a GIF or PNG format and result in a smaller file size than a lossy JPEG format.
For example, a 640480 pixel image with 24-bit color would occupy almost a megabyte of space:
64048024 = 7,372,800 bits = 921,600 bytes = 900 KiB
With vector images the file size increases only with the addition of more vectors.
Image file compression
There are two types of image file compression algorithms: lossless and lossy.
Lossless compression algorithms reduce file size while preserving a perfect copy of the original uncompressed image. Lossless compression generally, but not always, results in larger files than lossy compression. Lossless compression should be used to avoid accumulating stages of re-compression when editing images.
Lossy compression algorithms preserve a representation of the original uncompressed image that may appear to be a perfect copy, but is not a perfect copy. Often lossy compression is able to achieve smaller file sizes than lossless compression. Most lossy compression algorithms allow for variable compression that trades image quality for file size.
Major graphic file formats
Including proprietary types, there are hundreds of image file types. The PNG, JPEG, and GIF formats are most often used to display images on the Internet. Some of these graphic formats are listed and briefly described below, separated into the two main families of graphics: raster and vector.
In addition to straight image formats, Metafile formats are portable formats which can include both raster and vector information. Examples are application-independent formats such as WMF and EMF. The metafile format is an intermediate format. Most applications open metafiles and then save them in their own native format. Page description language refers to formats used to describe the layout of a printed page containing text, objects and images. Examples are PostScript, PDF and PCL.
Raster formats
JPEG/JFIF
JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group) is a lossy compression method; JPEG-compressed images are usually stored in the JFIF (JPEG File Interchange Format) file format. The JPEG/JFIF filename extension is JPG or JPEG. Nearly every digital camera can save images in the JPEG/JFIF format, which supports eight-bit grayscale images and 24-bit color images (eight bits each for red, green, and blue). JPEG applies lossy compression to images, which can result in a significant reduction of the file size. Applications can determine the degree of compression to apply, and the amount of compression affects the visual quality of the result. When not too great, the compression does not noticeably affect or detract from the image's quality, but JPEG files suffer generational degradation when repeatedly edited and saved. (JPEG also provides lossless image storage, but the lossless version is not widely supported.)
JPEG 2000
JPEG 2000 is a compression standard enabling both lossless and lossy storage. The compression methods used are different from the ones in standard JFIF/JPEG; they improve quality and compression ratios, but also require more computational power to process. JPEG 2000 also adds features that are missing in JPEG. It is not nearly as common as JPEG, but it is used currently in professional movie editing and distribution (some digital cinemas, for example, use JPEG 2000 for individual movie frames).
Exif
The Exif (Exchangeable image file format) format is a file standard similar to the JFIF format with TIFF extensions; it is incorporated in the JPEG-writing software used in most cameras. Its purpose is to record and to standardize the exchange of images with image metadata between digital cameras and editing and viewing software. The metadata are recorded for individual images and include such things as camera settings, time and date, shutter speed, exposure, image size, compression, name of camera, color information. When images are viewed or edited by image editing software, all of this image information can be displayed.
The actual Exif metadata as such may be carried within different host formats, e.g. TIFF, JFIF (JPEG) or PNG. IFF-META is another example.
TIFF
The TIFF (Tagged Image File Format) format is a flexible format usually using either the TIFF or TIF filename extension. The tagged structure was designed to be easily extendible, and many vendors have introduced proprietary special-purpose tags – with the result that no one reader handles every flavor of TIFF file. TIFFs can be lossy or lossless, depending on the technique chosen for storing the pixel data. Some offer relatively good lossless compression for bi-level (black&white) images. Some digital cameras can save images in TIFF format, using the LZW compression algorithm for lossless storage. TIFF image format is not widely supported by web browsers. TIFF remains widely accepted as a photograph file standard in the printing business. TIFF can handle device-specific color spaces, such as the CMYK defined by a particular set of printing press inks. OCR (Optical Character Recognition) software packages commonly generate some form of TIFF image (often monochromatic) for scanned text pages.
GIF
The GIF (Graphics Interchange Format) is in normal use limited to an 8-bit palette, or 256 colors (while 24-bit color depth is technically possible). GIF is most suitable for storing graphics with few colors, such as simple diagrams, shapes, logos, and cartoon style images, as it uses LZW lossless compression, which is more effective when large areas have a single color, and less effective for photographic or dithered images. Due to GIF's simplicity and age, it achieved almost universal software support. Due to its animation capabilities, it is still widely used to provide image animation effects, despite its low compression ratio compared to modern video formats.
BMP
The BMP file format (Windows bitmap) handles graphic files within the Microsoft Windows OS. Typically, BMP files are uncompressed, and therefore large and lossless; their advantage is their simple structure and wide acceptance in Windows programs.
PNG
The PNG (Portable Network Graphics) file format was created as a free, open-source alternative to GIF. The PNG file format supports eight-bit paletted images (with optional transparency for all palette colors) and 24-bit truecolor (16 million colors) or 48-bit truecolor with and without alpha channel – while GIF supports only 256 colors and a single transparent color.
Compared to JPEG, PNG excels when the image has large, uniformly colored areas. Even for photographs – where JPEG is often the choice for final distribution since its compression technique typically yields smaller file sizes – PNG is still well-suited to storing images during the editing process because of its lossless compression.
PNG provides a patent-free replacement for GIF (though GIF is itself now patent-free) and can also replace many common uses of TIFF. Indexed-color, grayscale, and truecolor images are supported, plus an optional alpha channel. The Adam7 interlacing allows an early preview, even when only a small percentage of the image data has been transmitted. PNG can store gamma and chromaticity data for improved color matching on heterogeneous platforms.
PNG is designed to work well in online viewing applications like web browsers and can be fully streamed with a progressive display option. PNG is robust, providing both full file integrity checking and simple detection of common transmission errors.
Animated formats derived from PNG are MNG and APNG, which is backwards compatible with PNG and supported by most browsers.
PPM, PGM, PBM, and PNM
Netpbm format is a family including the portable pixmap file format (PPM), the portable graymap file format (PGM) and the portable bitmap file format (PBM). These are either pure ASCII files or raw binary files with an ASCII header that provide very basic functionality and serve as a lowest common denominator for converting pixmap, graymap, or bitmap files between different platforms. Several applications refer to them collectively as PNM ("Portable aNy Map").
WebP
WebP is an open image format released in 2010 that uses both lossless and lossy compression. It was designed by Google to reduce image file size to speed up web page loading: its principal purpose is to supersede JPEG as the primary format for photographs on the web. WebP is based on VP8's intra-frame coding and uses a container based on RIFF.
In 2011, Google added an "Extended File Format" allowing WebP support for animation, ICC profile, XMP and Exif metadata, and tiling.
The support for animation allowed for converting older animated GIF to animated WebP.
The WebP container (i.e., RIFF container for WebP) allows feature support over and above the basic use case of WebP (i.e., a file containing a single image encoded as a VP8 key frame). The WebP container provides additional support for:
Lossless compression – An image can be losslessly compressed, using the WebP Lossless Format.
Metadata – An image may have metadata stored in EXIF or XMP formats.
Transparency – An image may have transparency, i.e., an alpha channel.
Color Profile – An image may have an embedded ICC profile as described by the International Color Consortium.
Animation – An image may have multiple frames with pauses between them, making it an animation.
HDR raster formats
Most typical raster formats cannot store HDR data (32 bit floating point values per pixel component), which is why some relatively old or complex formats are still predominant here, and worth mentioning separately. Newer alternatives are showing up, though. RGBE is the format for HDR images originating from Radiance and also supported by Adobe Photoshop. JPEG-HDR is a file format from Dolby Labs similar to RGBE encoding, standardized as JPEG XT Part 2.
JPEG XT Part 7 includes support for encoding floating point HDR images in the base 8-bit JPEG file using enhancement layers encoded with four profiles (A-D); Profile A is based on the RGBE format and Profile B on the XDepth format from Trellis Management.
HEIF
The High Efficiency Image File Format (HEIF) is an image container format that was standardized by MPEG on the basis of the ISO base media file format. While HEIF can be used with any image compression format, the HEIF standard specifies the storage of HEVC intra-coded images and HEVC-coded image sequences taking advantage of inter-picture prediction.
BAT
BAT was released into the public domain by C-Cube Microsystems. The "official" file format for JPEG files is SPIFF (Still Picture Interchange File Format), but by the time it was released, BAT had already achieved wide acceptance. SPIFF, which has the ISO designation 10918-3, offers more versatile compression, color management, and metadata capacity than JPEG/BAT, but it has little support. It may be superseded by JPEG 2000/DIG 2000: ISO SC29/WG1, JPEG – Information Links. Digital Imaging Group, "JPEG 2000 and the DIG: The Picture of Compatibility."
Other raster formats
BPG (Better Portable Graphics) - an image format from 2014. Its purpose is to replace JPEG when quality or file size is an issue. To that end, it features a high data compression ratio, based on a subset of the HEVC video compression standard, including lossless compression. In addition, it supports various meta data (such as EXIF).
DEEP - IFF-style format used by TVPaint
DRW (Drawn File)
ECW (Enhanced Compression Wavelet)
FITS (Flexible Image Transport System)
FLIF (Free Lossless Image Format) – a discontinued lossless image format which claims to outperform PNG, lossless WebP, lossless BPG and lossless JPEG 2000 in terms of compression ratio. It uses the MANIAC (Meta-Adaptive Near-zero Integer Arithmetic Coding) entropy encoding algorithm, a variant of the CABAC (context-adaptive binary arithmetic coding) entropy encoding algorithm.
ICO - container for one or more icons (subsets of BMP and/or PNG)
ILBM - IFF-style format for up to 32 bit in planar representation, plus optional 64 bit extensions
IMG (ERDAS IMAGINE Image)
IMG (Graphics Environment Manager (GEM) image file) - planar, run-length encoded
JPEG XL - started in 2017, supports both lossy and lossless compression, claims to outperform legacy JPEG, PNG, GIF
JPEG XR - JPEG standard based on Microsoft HD Photo
Layered Image File Format - for microscope image processing
Nrrd (Nearly raw raster data)
PAM (Portable Arbitrary Map) - late addition to the Netpbm family
PCX (PiCture eXchange) - obsolete
PGF (Progressive Graphics File)
PLBM (Planar Bitmap) - proprietary Amiga format
SGI
SID (multiresolution seamless image database, MrSID)
Sun Raster - obsolete
TGA (TARGA) - obsolete
VICAR file format - NASA/JPL image transport format
XISF (Extensible Image Serialization Format)
Container formats of raster graphics editors
These image formats contain various images, layers and objects, out of which the final image is to be composed
AFPhoto (Affinity Photo Document)
CD5 (Chasys Draw Image)
CPT (Corel Photo Paint)
KRA (Krita)
MDP (Medibang and FireAlpaca)
PDN (Paint Dot Net)
PSD (Adobe PhotoShop Document)
PSP (Corel Paint Shop Pro)
SAI (Paint Tool SAI)
XCF (eXperimental Computing Facility format, native GIMP format)
Vector formats
As opposed to the raster image formats above (where the data describes the characteristics of each individual pixel), vector image formats contain a geometric description which can be rendered smoothly at any desired display size.
At some point, all vector graphics must be rasterized in order to be displayed on digital monitors. Vector images may also be displayed with analog CRT technology such as that used in some electronic test equipment, medical monitors, radar displays, laser shows and early video games. Plotters are printers that use vector data rather than pixel data to draw graphics.
CGM
CGM (Computer Graphics Metafile) is a file format for 2D vector graphics, raster graphics, and text, and is defined by ISO/IEC 8632. All graphical elements can be specified in a textual source file that can be compiled into a binary file or one of two text representations. CGM provides a means of graphics data interchange for computer representation of 2D graphical information independent from any particular application, system, platform, or device.
It has been adopted to some extent in the areas of technical illustration and professional design, but has largely been superseded by formats such as SVG and DXF.
Gerber format (RS-274X)
The Gerber format (aka Extended Gerber, RS-274X) is a 2D bi-level image description format developed by Ucamco. It is the de facto standard format for printed circuit board or PCB software.
SVG
SVG (Scalable Vector Graphics) is an open standard created and developed by the World Wide Web Consortium to address the need (and attempts of several corporations) for a versatile, scriptable and all-purpose vector format for the web and otherwise. The SVG format does not have a compression scheme of its own, but due to the textual nature of XML, an SVG graphic can be compressed using a program such as gzip. Because of its scripting potential, SVG is a key component in web applications: interactive web pages that look and act like applications.
Other 2D vector formats
AFDesign (Affinity Designer document)
AI (Adobe Illustrator Artwork)
CDR (CorelDRAW)
DrawingML
GEM metafiles (interpreted and written by the Graphics Environment Manager VDI subsystem)
Graphics Layout Engine
HPGL, introduced on Hewlett-Packard plotters, but generalized into a printer language
HVIF (Haiku Vector Icon Format)
Lottie
MathML
NAPLPS (North American Presentation Layer Protocol Syntax)
ODG (OpenDocument Graphics)
!DRAW, a native vector graphic format (in several backward compatible versions) for the RISC-OS computer system begun by Acorn in the mid-1980s and still present on that platform today
Precision Graphics Markup Language, a W3C submission that was not adopted as a recommendation.
PSTricks and PGF/TikZ are languages for creating graphics in TeX documents.
QCC, used by Quilt Manager by Quilt EZ for designing quilts.
ReGIS, used by DEC computer terminals
Remote imaging protocol
VML (Vector Markup Language)
Xar format used in vector applications from Xara
XPS (XML Paper Specification)
3D vector formats
AMF – Additive Manufacturing File Format
Asymptote – A language that lifts TeX to 3D.
.blend – Blender
COLLADA
.dgn
.dwf
.dwg
.dxf
eDrawings
.flt – OpenFlight
FVRML – and FX3D, function-based extensions of VRML and X3D
glTF - OpenGL Transfer Format
HSF
IGES
IMML – Immersive Media Markup Language
IPA
JT
.MA (Maya ASCII format)
.MB (Maya Binary format)
.OBJ Wavefront
OpenGEX – Open Game Engine Exchange
PLY
POV-Ray scene description language
PRC
STEP
SKP
STL – A stereolithography format
U3D – Universal 3D file format
VRML – Virtual Reality Modeling Language
XAML
XGL
XVL
xVRML
X3D
.3D
3DF
.3DM
.3ds – Autodesk 3D Studio
3DXML
X3D – Vector format used in 3D applications from Xara
Compound formats
These are formats containing both pixel and vector data, possible other data, e.g. the interactive features of PDF.
EPS (Encapsulated PostScript)
PDF (Portable Document Format)
PostScript, a page description language with strong graphics capabilities
PICT (Classic Macintosh QuickDraw file)
WMF / EMF (Windows Metafile / Enhanced Metafile)
SWF (Shockwave Flash)
XAML User interface language using vector graphics for images.
Stereo formats
MPO The Multi Picture Object (.mpo) format consists of multiple JPEG images (Camera & Imaging Products Association) (CIPA).
PNS The PNG Stereo (.pns) format consists of a side-by-side image based on PNG (Portable Network Graphics).
JPS The JPEG Stereo (.jps) format consists of a side-by-side image format based on JPEG.
References
Lists of file formats
Vector graphics markup languages
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1094574
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NCR%20304
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NCR 304
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The NCR 304 computer hardware, announced in 1957, first delivered in 1959, was National Cash Register (NCR)'s first transistor-based computer. The 304 was developed and manufactured in cooperation with General Electric, where it was also used internally.
Its follow-on was the NCR 315.
See also
Computer architecture
Electronic hardware
Glossary of computer hardware terms
History of computing hardware
List of computer hardware manufacturers
Open-source computing hardware
Open-source hardware
Transistor
References
Transistorized computers
NCR Corporation products
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273946
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legislative%20Council%20of%20Hong%20Kong
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Legislative Council of Hong Kong
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The Legislative Council of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (LegCo) is the domestic unicameral legislature of Hong Kong. It sits under China's "one country, two systems" constitutional arrangement, and is the power centre of Hong Kong's hybrid representative democracy.
The functions of the Legislative Council are to enact, amend or repeal laws; examine and approve budgets, taxation and public expenditure; and raise questions on the work of the government. In addition, the Legislative Council is also given the power to endorse the appointment and removal of the judges of the Court of Final Appeal and the Chief Judge of the High Court, as well as the power to impeach the Chief Executive of Hong Kong.
Following the 2019–2020 Hong Kong protests, the National People's Congress disqualified several opposition councilors and initiated electoral overhaul in 2021. The current Legislative Council consists of three groups of constituencies--geographical constituencies (GCs), functional constituencies (FCs), and Election Committee constituencies—and has been dominated by the pro-Beijing camp since an opposition walkout in 2020. Following the 2021 reform, the percentage of directly elected representatives dropped to 22% as the overall number of seats increased to 90.
The original two groups (GCs and FCs) had constitutional significance. Government bills requires a simple majority of the council for passage, whereas private member bills requires simple majorities in two discrete divisions of geographical members and functional members for passage. Therefore, the directly elected legislators (mainly from the GCs) had minimal influence over government policy and legislative agenda. Filibusters became more frequent in the 2010s.
The historical Legislative Council of Hong Kong in the British colonial era was created under the 1843 Charter as an advisory council to the Governor. The authority of the colonial legislature expanded throughout its history. A parallel Provisional Legislative Council was put in place by China from 1996 to 1998 to pass laws in anticipation of the Hong Kong handover.
History
Colonial period
The Legislative Council of Hong Kong was set up in 1843 for the first time as a colonial legislature under British rule. Hong Kong's first constitution, in the form of Queen Victoria's letters patent, issued on 27 June 1843 and titled the Charter of the Colony of Hong Kong, authorised the establishment of the Legislative Council to advise the Governor of Hong Kong's administration. The council had four official members including the governor who was president of the council when it was first established. The Letters Patent of 1888, which replaced the 1843 charter, added the significant words "and consent" after the words "with the advice". The Legislative Council was initially set up as the advisory body to the governor, and for the most of the time, consisted half of official members, who were the government officials seating in the council, and half of unofficial members who were appointed by the Governor.
After the Sino-British Joint Declaration was signed on 19 December 1984 (in which the United Kingdom agreed to transfer the sovereignty of Hong Kong to the People's Republic of China on 1 July 1997), the Hong Kong government decided to start the process of democratisation based on the consultative document, Green Paper: the Further Development of Representative Government in Hong Kong on 18 July 1984. The first elections to the Council were held in 1985, followed by the first direct elections of the Legislative Council held in 1991. The Legislative Council became a fully elected legislature for the first time in 1995 and extensively expanded its functions and organisations throughout the last years of the colonial rule.
The People's Republic of China government did not agree with reforms to the Legislative Council enacted by the last Governor Chris Patten in 1994. Therefore, it withdrew the previous so-called "through-train" policy that would have allowed that members elected to the colonial Legislative Council automatically becoming members of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (HKSAR) legislature. Instead, the Beijing government resolved to set up an alternative legislative council in preparation for the return of the sovereignty of Hong Kong from Britain to China.
Before the transfer of sovereignty of Hong Kong in 1997, a Provisional Legislative Council (PLC) was unilaterally set up in Shenzhen by the Government of the People's Republic of China as opposed to the 1995 elected colonial legislature. The PLC moved to Hong Kong and replaced the legislature after the transfer of sovereignty of 1997, until the next general election in 1998. Since 2000, the terms of the Legislative Council are four years, with the exception of the 6th Legislative Council.
This body, the Provisional Legislative Council, was established by the Preparatory Committee for the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (HKSAR) under the National People's Congress of the People's Republic of China in 1996. The Provisional Legislative Council which was seen as unconstitutional by the British authorities and boycotted by most pro-democracy legislators, in operation from 25 January 1997 to 30 June 1998, initially held its meetings in Shenzhen until 30 June 1997.
Early SAR years
The current Legislative Council of the HKSAR was established on 1 October 1998 under the Basic Law of the HKSAR. The first meeting of the council was held in July of the same year in Hong Kong. Since the Basic Law came into effect, five Legislative Council elections have been held, with the most recent election being held on 4 September 2016. The Democratic Party had briefly held the largest party status in the early years of the SAR period, but its support was slowly eaten out by its pro-democracy allies such as The Frontier and later the Civic Party. In the 2004 election, the pro-Beijing Democratic Alliance for the Betterment of Hong Kong (DAB) surpassed the Democrats as the largest party for the first time and has since held its superior status. Due to the indirectly elected trade-based functional constituencies which largely favour business interest represented by the Liberal Party and subsequently the Business and Professionals Alliance for Hong Kong (BPA), the pro-Beijing camp has been able to keep the majority in the legislature despite receiving less votes than the pro-democracy bloc in the direct elections.
Article 68 of the Hong Kong Basic Law states the ultimate aim is the election of all the members of the Legislative Council by universal suffrage. This and a similar article dealing with election of the Chief Executive have made universal suffrage for the council and the Chief Executive one of the most dominant issues in Hong Kong politics.
In 2010, the government's constitutional reform proposal became the first and only constitutional move was passed by the Legislative Council in the SAR era with the support of the Democratic Party after the Beijing government accepted the modified package as presented by the party, which increased the composition of the Legislative Council from 60 to 70 seats; increasing five extra seats in the directly elected geographical constituencies and five new District Council (Second) functional constituency seats which are nominated by the District Councillors and elected by all registered electorates. The most recent constitutional reform proposal, which suggested the electoral method of the Legislative Council remained unchanged, was vetoed in 2015, after a massive occupy protest often dubbed as the "Umbrella Revolution" demanding for universal suffrage broke out in 2014.
The 2016 New Territories East by-election and September general election saw the rise of localist tide where a number of pro-independence candidates were elected to the council. In November, in Beijing's fifth interpretation of the Basic Law since the 1997 handover, the National People's Congress Standing Committee (NPCSC) disqualified those with invalid oaths from assuming public office pursuant to Article 104, in light of the swearing-in ceremonies of two pro-independence legislators. Four more pro-democracy and localist legislators were unseated as a result in the following court cases. Returning officers also disqualified certain candidates who had advocated for Hong Kong self-determination, with or without option for independence, from running in the following by-elections; the government expressed support for such decisions.
2019 crisis and 2021 overhaul
The 2019 amendment of the extradition bill caused an historic political upheaval, where intensive protests erupted throughout the city in the latter half of the year, including the storming of the Legislative Council Complex on the 22nd anniversary of the handover of Hong Kong on 1 July. In July 2020, in light of the pro-democrats' attempt to seize the majority of the Legislative Council in the midst of the largely unpopular Carrie Lam government, the government postponed the seventh general election, citing the COVID-19 spike. At variance with the four-year term set out in the Basic Law, the NPCSC decided in August that the sitting Legislative Council should continue with its duties for at least one year; however, the term of the upcoming LegCo would remain four years. In a November decision, the NPCSC disqualified LegCo members on grounds such as Hong Kong independence, Chinese sovereignty, and solicitation of foreign intervention, impacting four sitting legislators whose candidacies had been invalidated in the postponed election. After the disqualification, the 15 remaining pro-democracy legislators announced their resignation in protest, leaving the legislature with virtually no opposition.
On 27 January 2021, CCP general secretary Xi Jinping said that Hong Kong could only maintain its long-term stability and security by ensuring "patriots governing Hong Kong" when he heard a work report delivered by Carrie Lam. In March 2021, China's National People's Congress passed a resolution that authorised an overhaul of Hong Kong's electoral system, including that of the Legislative Council. The reform would allow a new Candidate Eligibility Review Committee, composed entirely of principal officials from the Hong Kong government, to vet candidates for the Legislative Council and would increase its total number of seats from 70 to 90. However, the seats that were directly elected would be reduced from 35 to 20, the five directly elected District Council (Second) seats would also be removed, while an additional 40 seats would be elected by the pro-Beijing Election Committee and 30 seats would remain trade-based functional constituencies. Every candidate must have nominations from each of the five sectors in the Election Committee.
The Legislative Council Building
The first meetings of the Legislative Council of Hong Kong, from 1844 to 1846, were likely convened in the residence of Governor Pottinger (later to be the French Mission Building), still standing at Government Hill. From 1848 to 1954 (interrupted by renovation in 1928-9 and the Japanese occupation in 1941–5), it was housed on the upper floor of the Colonial Secretariat Building, Lower Albert Road, replaced in 1957 by the Annex to the Central Government Offices Main Wing, on the same site. In 1985, LegCo moved down to the nearby Old Supreme Court building () in Central Hong Kong where it remained until November 2011. It took up residence in its present accommodation at the Legislative Block of the Central Government Complex, Tamar in December 2011.
Unlike many other former and current Commonwealth legislatures, the Hong Kong Legislative Council does not have a ceremonial mace placed in its chambers. However, the high courts of Hong Kong use a mace to open sessions, and it represents the authority and powers of the court.
To provide a long-term solution to the space shortage problem facing both the Government and the Legislative Council, the Government commissioned the Tamar Development for the design and construction of the Central Government Complex, the Legislative Council Complex and other ancillary facilities in 2008. The Legislative Council Complex comprises a low block and a high block: the low block, which will be named the Council Block, mainly houses conference facilities including the Chamber, major conference rooms, and communal facilities such as library, cafeteria and education facilities. The range of education facilities for visit by the public includes video corner, visitors' sharing area, exhibition area, children's corner, viewing gallery and access corridors, memory lane, education activities rooms and education galleries. The high block, which will be named as the Office Block, mainly houses offices for members and staff of the Legislative Council Secretariat. Officially opened on 1 August 2011, administrative staff had already taken occupation on 15 January 2011.
Membership composition
Under the 2021 Hong Kong electoral changes initiated by the National People's Congress, the Legislative Council is now composed of 90 members returned from 3 constituencies: the Election Committee Constituency, Functional Constituencies and Geographical Constituencies by popular vote.
The term of office of a member is constitutionally four years except for the first term (1998 to 2000) which was set to be two years according to Article 69 of the Basic Law. The 6th Legislative Council's term of office of over five years from 2016 is in direct violation of Article 69 of the Basic Law.
In both the 2008 and 2004 elections, 30 members were directly elected by universal suffrage from geographical constituencies (GCs) and 30 were elected from functional constituencies (FCs). In the 2000 election, 24 were directly elected, six elected from an 800-member electoral college known as the Election Committee of Hong Kong, and 30 elected from FCs. Since the 2004 election, all the seats are equally divided between geographical and functional constituencies.
According to The Basic Law, while the method for forming the Legislative Council shall be specified in accordance with the principle of gradual and orderly progress, the ultimate aim is to elect all Council members by universal suffrage (Article 68 of The Basic Law of Hong Kong). However, under the 2021 overhaul, the seats that were directly elected would be reduced from 35 back down to 20, the five directly elected District Council (Second) seats would also be removed, while an additional 40 seats would be elected by the Beijing-controlled Election Committee and 30 seats would remain trade-based functional constituencies, reducing the proportion of directly elected seats from 50% to 22%. Additionally all candidates must now be approved by the unelected HKSAR government via the Candidate Eligibility Review Committee. This has led to all parties that are not pro-Beijing declining to run in the elections, as it is now reasonable to assume that any pro-democracy candidates fielded that might be electable will be disqualified prior to the election.
Geographical constituencies
The Geographical Constituency (GC) seats are returned by universal suffrage. 20 seats of the Legislative Council are returned by GCs through single non-transferable vote with a district magnitude of 2 ("binomial system"). The binomial system was instituted by the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress in its amendment to Annex 2 of the Basic Law on 30 March 2021.
Geographical constituencies were first introduced in Hong Kong's first legislative election with direct elections in 1991. The electoral system and boundaries of GCs have since changed:
Between 1998 and 2016, the voting system adopted in GCs is a system of party-list proportional representation, with seats allocated by the largest remainder method using the Hare quota as the quota for election.
Functional constituencies
Under the 2021 Hong Kong electoral changes, 28 functional constituencies (FC) return 30 members. The Labour Functional Constituency returns three members by block voting. The other FCs return one member each with first-past-the-post voting.
The 2021 electoral reform saw the dissolution of District Council (First) and District Council (Second) FCs. 3 existing FCs were reconstituted: the Information Technology FC reorganised as the Technology & Innovation FC; the Medical FC and Health Services FC combined to form the Medical and Health Services FC. 2 new FCs were established, namely the Commercial (Third) and the HKSAR Deputies to the National People's Congress, HKSAR Members of the National Committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, and Representatives of Relevant National Organisations FCs. Functional constituencies are now principally elected by body votes; the number of FCs with individual votes were reduced, together with elimination of mixed individual and body voting systems.
The following FCs were abolished in the 2021 electoral reform.
Medical
Health Services
Information Technology
District Council (First)
District Council (Second)
Between 1998 and 2016, the Heung Yee Kuk, Agriculture and Fisheries, Insurance, and Transport FCs where a preferential elimination system is used due to the small number of voters. In the preferential elimination system, a voter must indicate preferences rather than approval/disapproval or a single choice. District Council (Second) uses the same voting rule in Geographical constituencies for the 5 seats.
Before the 2021 elections, neither the Heung Yee Kuk nor the Commercial (Second) FCs have held an actual election, as only one candidate has stood for each FC in every election since their establishment in 1991 and 1985, respectively.
Election Committee Constituency
The Election Committee constituency was one of the three constituencies designed in the Basic Law of Hong Kong next to the directly elected geographical constituencies and the indirectly elected functional constituencies for the first and second-term Legislative Council fin the early SAR period. With the last British Governor Chris Patten's electoral reform, the ECC was composed of all elected District Board members who had been elected in 1994. The Single Transferable Vote system was used in the 1995 election.
After the handover of Hong Kong, the ECC was allocated 10 seats out of the total 60 seats in the SAR Legislative Council, comprising all members of the Election Committee which also elected the Chief Executive every five years. The size of the constituency reduced to six seats in 2000 and was entirely abolished and replaced by the directly elected geographical constituency seats in the 2004 election. The plurality-at-large voting system was used in 1998 and 2000.
In the 2021 electoral overhaul, the Election Committee constituency was reintroduced, taking 40 of the 90 seats, almost half, of the Legislative Council with plurality-at-large voting system. The electorate is composed of all newly expanded 1,500 members in the Election Committee.
Committee system
In order to perform the important functions of scrutinizing bills, approving public expenditure and monitoring Government's work, a committee system is established.
Standing Committees
House Committee
Parliamentary Liaison Subcommittee
Finance Committee
Establishment Subcommittee
Public Works Subcommittee
Public Accounts Committee
Committee on Members' Interests
Committee on Rules of Procedure
Panels
Panel on Administration of Justice and Legal Services
Panel on Commerce and Industry
Panel on Constitutional Affairs
Panel on Development
Panel on Economic Development
Panel on Education
Panel on Environmental Affairs
Panel on Financial Affairs
Panel on Food Safety and Environmental Hygiene
Panel on Health Services
Panel on Home Affairs
Panel on Housing
Panel on Information Technology and Broadcasting
Panel on Manpower
Panel on Public Service
Panel on Security
Panel on Transport
Panel on Welfare Services
President of the Legislative Council
From the establishment of the Legislative Council in 1843 to 1993, the Governor was the President and a member of the council, and until 1917 the Governor was required to act with the advice but not necessary the consent of the Legislative Council. The Letters Patent of 1917 changed such practice by requiring the Governor to act "with advice and consent" of the Legislative Council.
Under the Basic Law (Article 72), the President has the powers and functions to preside over meetings, decide on the agenda, including giving priority to government bills for inclusion in the agenda, decide on the time of meetings, call special sessions during the recess, call emergency sessions on the request of the Chief Executive, and exercise other powers and functions as prescribed in the rules of procedure of the Legislative Council. However, the president of the legislative council may not vote in most situations regarding government bills, and is encouraged to remain impartial towards all matters in the LegCo. The President of the Legislative Council has to meet the eligibility requirements set out in the Basic Law that he or she shall be a Chinese citizen of not less than 40 years of age, who is a permanent resident of the HKSAR with no right of abode in any foreign country and has ordinarily resided in Hong Kong for a continuous period of not less than 20 years.
The President is elected by and from among Council members. The first President (1997–2008) was Rita Fan; the incumbent president, elected in 2016, is Andrew Leung of the pro-Beijing Business and Professionals Alliance for Hong Kong.
Primacy of President
In a controversial move directed at reining in democratic legislators (most of whom were elected by universal suffrage and six of whose seats had been vacated by a controversial court order of disqualification), amendments to the Rules of Procedure were passed on 15 December 2017 giving sweeping powers to the President to control the business of the legislature. Among them is the power to vet proposed motions and amendments to bills, require legislators to explain them and to reject or merge them. Prior notice must be given of any notice of motion and the President may reconvene the chamber immediately after any failure to meet quorum.
Procedure
The quorum for meetings of the council is half of all LegCo Members; while the quorum for meetings of a committee of the whole during second reading of bills is 20, i.e. only 22 per cent of membership, having been reduced from 35 in 15 December 2017.
After the 15 December 2017 amendments to procedure, a petition is to be submitted to the House Committee only with at least 35 signatures of members, effectively blocking democrat-sponsored scrutiny of government action.
Passage of Bills
Passage of bills introduced by the government require only a simple majority of votes of the members of the Legislative Council present; whereas passage of motions, bills or amendments to government bills introduced by individual LegCo members shall require a simple majority of votes of each of the two groups of members present: namely members returned by the Election Committee and members returned by functional constituencies and geographical constituencies.
Motions on amendments to the Basic Law require a two-thirds vote in the Legislative Council, without a specific requirement in each group of constituencies. After passing the council, the Basic Law amendment must obtain the consent of two-thirds of Hong Kong's deputies to the National People's Congress, and also the Chief Executive (the Chief Executive is vested with the veto power). The National People's Congress reserves the sole power to amend the Basic Law.
Traditionally, the President does not vote. However, this convention is not a constitutional requirement.
Elections of the Legislative Council
Legislative Council general elections are held every four years in accordance with Article 69 of the Basic Law of HKSAR. The most recent election was held on 19 December 2021. The pro-Beijing camp had absolute control of the Legislative Council with the Democratic Alliance for the Betterment and Progress of Hong Kong (DAB) as the largest party.
Seating arrangement
In a typical Council meeting in the old Legislative chamber, members were seated to the left and front of the President's chair in the Chamber patterned after the adversarial layout of Westminster system legislatures. The three rows to the right were reserved for government officials and other people attending the meetings.
At the new LegCo site at Tamar, members sit facing the President (and council officers) in a hemicycle seating arrangement.
At present, the Secretariat, headed by the Secretary General, provides administrative support and services to the Council through its ten divisions. In addition to being the chief executive of the Secretariat, the Secretary General is also the Clerk to the Legislative Council responsible for advising the President on all matters relating to the procedure of the council.
List of Legislative Council compositions
The following lists the composition of Legislative Council seats since its establishment:
The following chart lists the composition of the Legislative Councils of Hong Kong since the Special Administrative Region (SAR) period from 1998, the composition and diagram indicate the seats controlled by the camps (green for the pro-democracy camp and red for the pro-Beijing camp) at the beginning of the sessions.
Officers of the Legislative Council
Services to members were originally provided by the Office of the Clerk to the Legislative Council which was part of the Government Secretariat. Additional support later came from other administrative units, i.e. the Unofficial Members of the Executive and Legislative Councils (UMELCO) Secretariat and its variants, in consideration of the gradually rising volume of work in Council business.
With the establishment of UMELCO in 1963, public officers were seconded to UMELCO to assist members to deal with public complaints and build up public relations with the local community. During their secondments, public officers took instructions only from Council members. The practice remained when the Office of the Members of the Executive and Legislative Councils (OMELCO) replaced UMELCO in 1986.
In 1991, the OMELCO Secretariat was incorporated. As a result of the complete separation of membership of the Executive and Legislative Councils, OMELCO was renamed the Office of Members of Legislative Council (OMLEGCO).
The Legislative Council Commission, a statutory body independent of the Government, was established under The Legislative Council Commission Ordinance on 1 April 1994. The Commission integrated the administrative support and services to the council by the Office of the Clerk to the Legislative Council and the OMLEGCO Secretariat into an independent Legislative Council Secretariat. The Commission replaced all civil servants by contract staff in the 1994–1995 session.
See also
Commonwealth Association of Legislative Counsel
Executive Council of Hong Kong
List of Members of the Legislative Council of Hong Kong
Politics of Hong Kong
Senior Chinese Unofficial Member
Senior Unofficial Member
Notes
References
Further reading
Earlier version, updated as of October 2, 2020
External links
Legislative Council of Hong Kong
Electoral Affairs Commission
Hong Kong
Hong Kong
1843 establishments in Hong Kong
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Church%E2%80%93Turing%20thesis
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History of the Church–Turing thesis
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The history of the Church–Turing thesis ("thesis") involves the history of the development of the study of the nature of functions whose values are effectively calculable; or, in more modern terms, functions whose values are algorithmically computable. It is an important topic in modern mathematical theory and computer science, particularly associated with the work of Alonzo Church and Alan Turing.
The debate and discovery of the meaning of "computation" and "recursion" has been long and contentious. This article provides detail of that debate and discovery from Peano's axioms in 1889 through recent discussion of the meaning of "axiom".
Peano's nine axioms of arithmetic
In 1889, Giuseppe Peano presented his The principles of arithmetic, presented by a new method, based on the work of Dedekind. Soare proposes that the origination of "primitive recursion" began formally with the axioms of Peano, although
"Well before the nineteenth century mathematicians used the principle of defining a function by induction. Dedekind 1888 proved, using accepted axioms, that such a definition defines a unique function, and he applied it to the definition of the functions m+n, m x n, and mn. Based on this work of Dedekind, Peano 1889 and 1891 wrote the familiar five [sic] axioms for the positive integers. As a companion to his fifth [sic] axiom, mathematical induction, Peano used definition by induction, which has been called primitive recursion (since Péter 1934 and Kleene 1936) ... ."
Observe that in fact Peano's axioms are 9 in number and axiom 9 is the recursion/induction axiom.
"Subsequently the 9 were reduced to 5 as "Axioms 2, 3, 4 and 5 which deal with identity, belong to the underlying logic. This leaves the five axioms that have become universally known as "the Peano axioms ... Peano acknowledges (1891b, p. 93) that his axioms come from Dedekind ... ."
Hilbert and the Entscheidungsproblem
At the International Congress of Mathematicians (ICM) in 1900 in Paris the famous mathematician David Hilbert posed a set of problems – now known as Hilbert's problems – his beacon illuminating the way for mathematicians of the twentieth century. Hilbert's 2nd and 10th problems introduced the Entscheidungsproblem (the "decision problem"). In his 2nd problem he asked for a proof that "arithmetic" is "consistent". Kurt Gödel would prove in 1931 that, within what he called "P" (nowadays called Peano Arithmetic), "there exist undecidable sentences [propositions]". Because of this, "the consistency of P is unprovable in P, provided P is consistent". While Gödel’s proof would display the tools necessary for Alonzo Church and Alan Turing to resolve the Entscheidungsproblem, he himself would not answer it.
It is within Hilbert's 10th problem where the question of an "Entscheidungsproblem" actually appears. The heart of matter was the following question: "What do we mean when we say that a function is 'effectively calculable'"? The answer would be something to this effect: "When the function is calculated by a mechanical procedure (process, method)." Although stated easily nowadays, the question (and answer) would float about for almost 30 years before it was framed precisely.
Hilbert's original description of problem 10 begins as follows:
"10. Determination of the solvability of a Diophantine equation. Given a Diophantine equation with any number of unknown quantities and with rational integral coefficients: To devise a process according to which it can be determined in a finite number of operations whether the equation is solvable in rational integers."
By 1922, the specific question of an "Entscheidungsproblem" applied to Diophantine equations had developed into the more general question about a "decision method" for any mathematical formula.
Martin Davis explains it this way: Suppose we are given a "calculational procedure" that consists of (1) a set of axioms and (2) a logical conclusion written in first-order logic, that is—written in what Davis calls "Frege's rules of deduction" (or the modern equivalent of Boolean logic). Gödel’s doctoral dissertation proved that Frege's rules were complete "... in the sense that every valid formula is provable". Given that encouraging fact, could there be a generalized "calculational procedure" that would tell us whether a conclusion can be derived from its premises? Davis calls such calculational procedures "algorithms". The Entscheidungsproblem would be an algorithm as well. "In principle, an algorithm for [the] Entscheidungsproblem would have reduced all human deductive reasoning to brute calculation".
In other words: Is there an "algorithm" that can tell us if any formula is "true" (i.e. an algorithm that always correctly yields a judgment "truth" or "falsehood"?)
" ... it seemed clear to Hilbert that with the solution of this problem, the Entscheidungsproblem, that it should be possible in principle to settle all mathematical questions in a purely mechanical manner. Hence, given unsolvable problems at all, if Hilbert was correct, then the Entscheidungsproblem itself should be unsolvable".
Indeed: What about our Entscheidungsproblem algorithm itself? Can it determine, in a finite number of steps, whether it, itself, is "successful" and "truthful" (that is, it does not get hung up in an endless "circle" or "loop", and it correctly yields a judgment "truth" or "falsehood" about its own behavior and results)?
Three problems from Hilbert's 2nd and 10th problems
At the 1928 Congress [in Bologna, Italy] Hilbert refines the question very carefully into three parts. The following is Stephen Hawking's summary:
"1. To prove that all true mathematical statements could be proven, that is, the completeness of mathematics.
"2. To prove that only true mathematical statements could be proven, that is, the consistency of mathematics,
"3. To prove the decidability of mathematics, that is, the existence of a decision procedure to decide the truth or falsity of any given mathematical proposition."
Simple arithmetic functions irreducible to primitive recursion
Gabriel Sudan (1927) and Wilhelm Ackermann (1928) display recursive functions that are not primitive recursive:
"Are there recursions that are not reducible to primitive recursion; and in particular can recursion be used to define a function which is not primitive recursive?
"This question arose from a conjecture of Hilbert in 1926 on the continuum problem, and was answered [yes: there are recursions that are not primitive recursive] by Ackermann 1928."
In subsequent years Kleene observes that Rózsa Péter (1935) simplified Ackermann's example ("cf. also Hilbert-Bernays 1934") and Raphael Robinson (1948). Péter exhibited another example (1935) that employed Cantor's diagonal argument. Péter (1950) and Ackermann (1940) also displayed "transfinite recursions", and this led Kleene to wonder:
"... whether we can characterize in any exact way the notion of any "recursion", or the class of all "recursive functions."
Kleene concludes that all "recursions" involve (i) the formal analysis he presents in his §54 Formal calculations of primitive recursive functions and, (ii) the use of mathematical induction. He immediately goes on to state that indeed the Gödel-Herbrand definition does indeed "characterize all recursive functions" – see the quote in 1934, below.
Gödel's proof
In 1930, mathematicians gathered for a mathematics meeting and retirement event for Hilbert. As luck would have it,
"at the very same meeting, a young Czech mathematician, Kurt Gödel, announced results which dealt it [Hilbert's opinion that all three answers were YES] a serious blow."
He announced that the answer to the first two of Hilbert's three questions of 1928 was NO.
Subsequently in 1931 Gödel published his famous paper On Formally Undecidable Propositions of Principia Mathematica and Related In his preface to this paper Martin Davis delivers a caution:
"The reader should be warned that [in this particular paper] what Gödel calls recursive functions are now called primitive recursive functions. (The revised terminology was introduced by Kleene)."
Gödel expansion of "effective calculation"
To quote Kleene (1952), "The characterization of all "recursive functions" was accomplished in the definition of 'general recursive function' by Gödel 1934, who built on a suggestion of Herbrand" (Kleene 1952:274). Gödel delivered a series of lectures at the Institute for Advanced Study (IAS), Princeton NJ. In a preface written by Martin Davis Davis observes that
"Dr. Gödel has stated in a letter that he was, at the time of these lectures, not at all convinced that his concept of recursion comprised all possible recursions ..."
Dawson states that these lectures were meant to clarify concerns that the "incompleteness theorems were somehow dependent on the particularities of formalization":
"Gödel mentioned Ackermann's example in the final section of his 1934 paper, as a way of motivating the concept of "general recursive function" that he defined there; but earlier in footnote 3, he had already conjectured (as "a heuristic principle") that all finitarily computable functions could be obtained through recursions of such more general sorts.
"The conjecture has since elicited much comment. In particular, when Martin Davis undertook to publish Gödel's 1934 lectures [in Davis 1965:41ff] he took it to be a variant of Church's Thesis; but in a letter to Davis ... Gödel stated emphatically that that was "not true" because at the time of those lectures he was "not at all convinced" that his concept of recursion comprised "all possible recursions." Rather, he said, "The conjecture stated there only refers to the equivalence of 'finite (computation) procedure' and 'recursive procedure.'" To clarify the issue Gödel added a postscript to the lectures, in which he indicated that what had finally convinced him that the intuitively computable functions coincided with those that were general recursive was Alan Turing's work .
"Gödel's reluctance to regard either general recursiveness or λ-definability as adequate characterization of the informal notion of effective computability has been examined in detail by several authors [Footnote 248: "See especially Davis 1982; Gandy 1980 and 1988; Sieg 1994"]. There is a consensus that, in fact, neither Gödel's nor Church's formalisms were so perspicuous or intrinsically persuasive as Alan Turing's analysis, and Wilfried Sieg has argued that the evidence in favor of Church's Thesis provided by the "confluence of different notions" (the fact that the systems proposed by Church, Gödel, Post and Alan Turing all turned out to have the same extension) is less compelling than has generally supposed. Hence, quite apart from Gödel's innate caution there were good reasons for his skepticism. But what, then, was he attempting to achieve through his notion of general recursiveness? ...
"Rather, Gödel obtained his definition [of the class of general recursive functions] through modification of Herbrand's ideas ...; and Wilfried Sieg has argued that his real purpose in the final section of the 1934 paper [the lecture notes] was "to disassociate recursive functions from [Herbrand's] epistemologically restricted notion of proof" by specifying "mechanical rules for deriving equations." What was more general about Gödel's notion of "general" recursiveness was, Sieg suggests, that Herbrand had intended only to characterize those functions that could be proved to be recursive by finitary means [250]."
Gödel's Lectures at Princeton
Kleene and Rosser transcribed Gödel's 1934 lectures in Princeton. In his paper General Recursive Functions of Natural Numbers Kleene states:
"A definition of general recursive function of natural numbers was suggested by Herbrand to Gödel, and was used by Gödel with an important modification in a series of lectures at Princeton in 1934 ...
"A recursive function (relation) in the sense of Gödel ... will now be called a primitive recursive function (relation).
Church definition of "effectively calculable"
Church's paper An Unsolvable Problem of Elementary Number Theory (1936) proved that the Entscheidungsproblem was undecidable within the λ-calculus and Gödel-Herbrand's general recursion; moreover Church cites two theorems of Kleene's that proved that the functions defined in the λ-calculus are identical to the functions defined by general recursion:
"Theorem XVI. Every recursive function of positive integers is λ-definable.16
"Theorem XVII. Every λ-definable function of positive integers is recursive.17
"16 ... . In the form here it was first obtained by Kleene... .
"17 This result was obtained independently by the present author and S. C. Kleene at about the same time.
The paper opens with a very long footnote, 3. Another footnote, 9, is also of interest. Martin Davis states that "This paper is principally important for its explicit statement (since known as Church's thesis) that the functions which can be computed by a finite algorithm are precisely the recursive functions, and for the consequence that an explicit unsolvable problem can be given":
"3 As will appear, this definition of effective calculability can be stated in either of two equivalent forms, (1) ... λ-definable ... 2) ... recursive ... . The notion of λ-definability is due jointly to the present author and S. C. Kleene, successive steps towards it having been taken by the present author in the Annals of Mathematics, vol. 34 (1933), p. 863, and Kleene in the American Journal of Mathematics, vol. 57 (1935), p. 219. The notion of recursiveness in the sense of §4 below is due jointly to Jacques Herbrand and Kurt Gödel, as is there explained. And the proof of equivalence of the two notions is due chiefly to Kleene, but also partly to the present author and to J. B. Rosser ... . The proposal to identify these notions with the intuitive notion of effective calculability is first made in the present paper (but see the first footnote to §7 below).
"With the aid of the methods of Kleene (American Journal of Mathematics, 1935), the considerations of the present paper could, with comparatively slight modification be carried through entirely in terms of λ-definability, without making use of the notion of recursiveness. On the other hand, since the results of the present paper were obtained, it has been shown by Kleene (see his forthcoming paper, "General recursive functions of natural numbers") that analogous results can be obtained entirely in terms of recursiveness, without making use of λ-definability. The fact, however, that two such widely different and (in the opinion of the author) equally natural definitions of effective calculability turn out to be equivalent adds to the strength of the reasons adduced below for believing that they constitute as general a characterization of this notion as is consistent with the usual intuitive understanding of it."
Footnote 9 is in section §4 Recursive functions:
" 9This definition [of "recursive"] is closely related to, and was suggested by, a definition of recursive functions which was proposed by Kurt Gödel, in lectures at Princeton, N. J., 1934, and credited by him in part to an unpublished suggestion of Jacques Herbrand. The principal features in which present definition of recursiveness differs from Gödel's are due to S. C. Kleene.
" In a forthcoming paper by Kleene to be entitled "General recursive functions of natural numbers," ... it follows ... that every function recursive in the present sense is also recursive in the sense of Gödel (1934) and conversely."
Some time prior to Church's paper An Unsolvable Problem of Elementary Number Theory (1936) a dialog occurred between Gödel and Church as to whether or not λ-definability was sufficient for the definition of the notion of "algorithm" and "effective calculability".
In Church (1936) we see, under the chapter §7 The notion of effective calculability, a footnote 18 which states the following:
"18The question of the relationship between effective calculability and recursiveness (which it is here proposed to answer by identifying the two notions) was raised by Gödel in conversation with the author. The corresponding question of the relationship between effective calculability and λ-definability had previously been proposed by the author independently."
By "identifying" Church means – not "establishing the identity of" – but rather "to cause to be or become identical", "to conceive as united" (as in spirit, outlook or principle) (vt form), and (vi form) as "to be or become the same".
Post and "effective calculability" as "natural law"
Post's doubts as to whether or not recursion was an adequate definition of "effective calculability", plus the publishing of Church's paper, encouraged him in the fall of 1936 to propose a "formulation" with "psychological fidelity": A worker moves through "a sequence of spaces or boxes" performing machine-like "primitive acts" on a sheet of paper in each box. The worker is equipped with "a fixed ualterable set of directions". Each instruction consists of three or four symbols: (1) an identifying label/number, (2) an operation, (3) next instruction ji; however, if the instruction is of type (e) and the determination is "yes" THEN instruction ji' ELSE if it is "no" instruction ji. The "primitive acts" are of only 1 of 5 types: (a) mark the paper in the box he's in (or over-mark a mark already there), (b) erase the mark (or over-erase), (c) move one room to the right, (d) move one room to the left, (e) determine if the paper is marked or blank. The worker starts at step 1 in the starting-room, and does what the instructions instruct them to do. (See more at Post–Turing machine.)
This matter, mentioned in the introduction about "intuitive theories" caused Post to take a potent poke at Church:
"The writer expects the present formulation to turn out to be logically equivalent to recursiveness in the sense of the Gödel-Church development.7 Its purpose, however, is not only to present a system of a certain logical potency but also, in its restricted field, of psychological fidelity. In the latter sense wider and wider formulations are contemplated. On the other hand, our aim will be to show that all such are logically reducible to formulation 1. We offer this conclusion at the present moment as a working hypothesis. And to our mind such is Church's identification of effective calculability with recursivness.8" (italics in original)
7 [he sketches an approach to a proof]
8 "Cf. Church, lock. cit, pp. 346, 356-358. Actually the work already done by Church and others carries this identification considerably beyond the working hypothesis stage. But to mask this identification under a definition hides the fact that a fundamental discovery in the limitiations of mathematicizing power of Homo Sapiens has been made and blinds us to the need of its continual verification."
In other words Post is saying "Just because you defined it so doesn't make it truly so; your definition is based on no more than an intuition." Post was searching for more than a definition: "The success of the above program would, for us, change this hypothesis not so much to a definition or to an axiom but to a natural law. Only so, it seems to the writer, can Gödel's theorem ... and Church's results ... be transformed into conclusions concerning all symbolic logics and all methods of solvability."
This contentious stance finds grumpy expression in Alan Turing 1939, and it will reappear with Gödel, Gandy, and Sieg.
Turing and computability
A. M. Turing's paper On Computable Numbers, With an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem was delivered to the London Mathematical Society in November 1936. Again the reader must bear in mind a caution: as used by Turing, the word "computer" is a human being, and the action of a "computer" he calls "computing"; for example, he states "Computing is normally done by writing certain symbols on paper" (p. 135). But he uses the word "computation" in the context of his machine-definition, and his definition of "computable" numbers is as follows:
"The "computable" numbers may be described briefly as the real numbers whose expressions as a decimal are calculable by finite means ... .According to my definition, a number is computable if its decimal can be written down by a machine."
What is Turing's definition of his "machine?" Turing gives two definitions, the first a summary in §1 Computing machines and another very similar in §9.I derived from his more detailed analysis of the actions a human "computer". With regards to his definition §1 he says that "justification lies in the fact that the human memory is necessarily limited", and he concludes §1 with the bald assertion of his proposed machine with his use of the word "all"
"It is my contention that these operations [write symbol on tape-square, erase symbol, shift one square left, shift one square right, scan square for symbol and change machine-configuration as a consequence of one scanned symbol] include all those which are used in the computation of a number."
The emphasis of the word one in the above brackets is intentional. With regards to §9.I he allows the machine to examine more squares; it is this more-square sort of behavior that he claims typifies the actions of a computer (person):
"The machine scans B squares corresponding to the B squares observed by the computer. In any move the machine can change a symbol on a scanned square or can change any one of the scanned squares to another square distant not more than L squares from one of the other scanned squares ... The machines just described do not differ very essentially from computing machines as defined in §2 [sic], and corresponding to any machine of this type a computing machine can be constructed to compute the same sequence, that is to say the sequence computed by the computer."
Turing goes on to define a "computing machine" in §2 is (i) "a-machine" ("automatic machine") as defined in §1 with the added restriction (ii): (ii) It prints two kinds of symbols – figures 0 and 1 – and other symbols. The figures 0 and 1 will represent "the sequence computed by the machine".
Furthermore, to define the if the number is to be considered "computable", the machine must print an infinite number of 0's and 1's; if not it is considered to be "circular"; otherwise it is considered to be "circle-free":
"A number is computable if it differs by an integer from the number computed by a circle-free machine."
Although he doesn't call it his "thesis", Turing proposes a proof that his "computability" is equivalent to Church's "effective calculability":
"In a recent paper Alonzo Church has introduced an idea of "effective calculability", which is equivalent to my "computability", but is very differently defined ... The proof of equivalence between "computability" and "effective calculability" is outlined in an appendix to the present paper."
The Appendix: Computability and effective calculability begins in the following manner; observe that he does not mention recursion here, and in fact his proof-sketch has his machine munch strings of symbols in the λ-calculus and the calculus munch "complete configurations" of his machine, and nowhere is recursion mentioned. The proof of the equivalence of machine-computability and recursion must wait for Kleene 1943 and 1952:
"The theorem that all effectively calculable (λ-definable) sequences are computable and its converse are proved below in outline."
Gandy (1960) seems to confuse this bold proof-sketch with Church's Thesis; see 1960 and 1995 below. Moreover a careful reading of Turing's definitions leads the reader to observe that Turing was asserting that the "operations" of his proposed machine in §1 are sufficient to compute any computable number, and the machine that imitates the action of a human "computer" as presented in §9.I is a variety of this proposed machine. This point will be reiterated by Turing in 1939.
Turing identifies effective calculability with machine computation
Alan Turing's massive Princeton PhD thesis (under Alonzo Church) appears as Systems of Logic Based on Ordinals. In it he summarizes the quest for a definition of "effectively calculable". He proposes a definition as shown in the boldface type that specifically identifies (renders identical) the notions of "machine computation" and "effectively calculable".
"A function is said to be "effectively calculable" if its values can be found by some purely mechanical process. Although it is fairly easy to get an intuitive grasp of this idea, it is nevertheless desirable to have some more definite, mathematically expressible definition. Such a definition was first given by Gödel at Princeton in 1934 ... . These functions are described as "general recursive" by Gödel ... . Another definition of effective calculability has been given by Church ... who identifies it with λ-definability. The author has recently suggested a definition corresponding more closely to the intuitive idea (Turing [1], see also Post's [1]). It was stated above that "a function is effectively calculable if its values can be found by some purely mechanical process". We may take this statement literally, understanding by a purely mechanical process one which could be carried out by a machine. It is possible to give a mathematical description, in a certain normal form, of the structures of these machines. The development of these ideas leads to the author's definition of a computable function, and to an identification of computability † with effective calculability. It is not difficult, though somewhat laborious, to prove that these three definitions are equivalent.
"† We shall use the expression "computable function" to mean a function calculable by a machine, and we let "effectively calculable" refer to the intuitive idea without particular identification with any one of these definitions. We do not restrict the values taken by a computable function to be natural numbers; we may for instance have computable propositional functions."
This is a powerful expression. because "identicality" is actually an unequivocal statement of necessary and sufficient conditions, in other words there are no other contingencies to the identification" except what interpretation is given to the words "function", "machine", "computable", and "effectively calculable":
For all functions: IF "this function is computable by machine" THEN "this function is effectively calculable" AND IF "this function is effectively calculable" THEN "this function is computable by a machine."
Rosser: recursion, λ-calculus, and Turing-machine computation identity
J. B. Rosser's paper An Informal Exposition of Proofs of Gödel's Theorem and Church's Theorem states the following:
"'Effective method' is here used in the rather special sense of a method each step of which is precisely predetermined and which is certain to produce the answer in a finite number of steps. With this special meaning, three different precise definitions have been given to date5. The simplest of these to state (due to Post and Turing) says essentially that an effective method of solving a certain set of problems exists if one can build a machine which will then solve any problem of the set with no human intervention beyond inserting the question and (later) reading the answer. All three definitions are equivalent, so it does not matter which one is used. Moreover, the fact that all three are equivalent is a very strong argument for the correctness of any one.
5 One definition is given by Church in I [i.e. Church 1936 An Unsolvable Problem of Elementary Number theory]. Another definition is due to Jacques Herbrand and Kurt Gödel. It is stated in I, footnote 3, p. 346. The third definition was given independently in two slightly different forms by E. L. Post ... and A. M. Turing ... . The first two definitions are proved equivalent in I. The third is proved equivalent to the first two by A. M. Turing, Computability and λ-definability [Journal of Symbolic Logic, vol. 2 (1937), pp. 153-163]."
Kleene and Thesis I
Kleene defines "general recursive" functions and "partial recursive functions" in his paper Recursive Predicates and Quantifiers. The representing function, mu-operator, etc make their appearance. He goes on in §12 Algorithm theories to state his famous Thesis I, what he would come to call Church's Thesis in 1952:
"This heuristic fact, as well as certain reflections on the nature of symbolic algorithmic processes, led Church to state the following thesis22. The same thesis is implicitly in Turing's description of computing machines23.
"Thesis I. Every effectively calculable function (effectively decidable predicate) is general recursive.
"Since a precise mathematical definition of the term effectively calculable (effectively decidable) has been wanting, we can take this thesis, together with the principle already accepted to which it is converse, as a definition of it ... the thesis has the character of an hypothesis – a point emphasized by Post and by Church24.
22 Church [1] [An Unsolvable Problem of Elementary Number Theory]
23 Turing [1] [On Computable numbers, with an application to the Entscheidungsproblem(1936)]
24 Post [1, p. 105], and Church [2]
Kleene's Church, Turing, and Church–Turing theses
In his chapter §60, Kleene defines the "Church's thesis" as follows:
" ... heuristic evidence and other considerations led Church 1936 to propose the following thesis.
"Thesis I. Every effectively calculable function (effectively decidable predicate) is general recursive.
"This thesis is also implicit in the conception of a computing machine formulated by Turing 1936-7 and Post 1936."
On page 317 he explicitly calls the above thesis "Church's thesis":
"§62. Church's thesis. One of the main objectives of this and the next chapter is to present the evidence for Church's thesis (Thesis I §60)."
About Turing's "formulation", Kleene says:
"Turing's formulation hence constitutes an independent statement of Church's thesis (in equivalent terms). Post 1936 gave a similar formulation."
Kleene proposes that what Turing showed: "Turing's computable functions (1936-1937) are those which can be computed by a machine of a kind which is designed, according to his analysis, to reproduce all the sorts of operations which a human computer could perform, working according to preassigned instructions."
Kleene defines Turing's Thesis as follows:
"§70. Turing's thesis. Turing's thesis that every function which would naturally be regarded as computable under his definition, i.e. by one of his machines, is equivalent to Church's thesis by Theorem XXX."
Indeed immediately before this statement, Kleene states the Theorem XXX:
"Theorem XXX (= Theorems XXVIII + XXIX). The following classes of partial functions are coextensive, i.e. have the same members: (a) the partial recursive functions, (b) the computable functions, (c) the 1/1 computable functions. Similarly with l [lower-case L] completely defined assumed functions Ψ."
Gödel, Turing machines, and effectively calculability
To his 1931 paper On Formally Undecidable Propositions, Gödel added a Note added 28 August 1963 which clarifies his opinion of the alternative forms/expression of "a formal system". He reiterates his opinions even more clearly in 1964 (see below):
"Note Added 28 August 1963. In consequence of later advances, in particular of the fact that due to A. M. Turing's work69 a precise and unquestionably adequate definition of the general notion of formal system70 can now be given, a completely general version of Theorems VI and XI is now possible. That is, it can be proved rigorously that in every consistent formal system that contains a certain amount of finitary number theory there exist undecidable arithmetic propositions and that, moreover, the consistency of any such system cannot be proved in the system.
"69 See , p. 249.
"70 In my opinion the term "formal system" or "formalism" should never be used for anything but this notion. In a lecture at Princeton (mentioned in Princeton University 1946, p. 11 [see Davis 1965, pp. 84-88 [i.e. Davis p. 84-88] ]), I suggested certain transfinite generalizations of formalisms, but these are something radically different from formal systems in the proper sense of the term, whose characteristic property is that reasoning in them, in principle, can be completely replaced by mechanical devices."
Gödel 1964 – In Gödel's Postscriptum to his lecture's notes of 1934 at the IAS at Princeton, he repeats, but reiterates in even more bold terms, his less-than-glowing opinion about the efficacy of computability as defined by Church's λ-definability and recursion (we have to infer that both are denigrated because of his use of the plural "definitions" in the following). This was in a letter to Martin Davis (presumably as he was assembling The Undecidable). The repeat of some of the phrasing is striking:
"In consequence of later advances, in particular of the fact, that, due to A. M. Turing's work, a precise and unquestionably adequate definition of the general concept of formal system can now be given, the existence of undecidable arithmetical propositions and the non-demonstrability of the consistence of a system in the same system can now be proved rigorously for every consistent formal system containing a certain amount of finitary number theory.
"Turing's work gives an analysis of the concept of "mechanical procedure" (alias "algorithm" or "computation procedure" or "finite combinatorial procedure"). This concept is shown to be equivalent to that of a "Turing machine".* A formal system can simply be defined to be any mechanical procedure for producing formulas, called provable formulas ... the concept of formal system, whose essence it is that reasoning is completely replaced by mechanical operations on formulas. (Note that the question of whether there exist finite non-mechanical procedures ... not equivalent with any algorithm, has nothing whatsoever to do with the adequacy of the definition of "formal system" and of "mechanical procedure.
"... if "finite procedure" is understood to mean "mechanical procedure", the question raised in footnote 3 can be answered affirmatively for recursiveness as defined in §9, which is equivalent to general recursiveness as defined today (see S. C. Kleene (1936) ...)"
" * See ... and the almost simultaneous paper by E. L. Post (1936) ... . As for previous equivalent definitions of computability, which however, are much less suitable for our purpose, see A. Church 1936 ..."
Footnote 3 is in the body of the 1934 lecture notes:
"3 The converse seems to be true, if besides recursions according to the scheme (2) recursions of other forms (e.g., with respect to two variables simultaneously) are admitted. This cannot be proved, since the notion of finite computation is not defined, but it serves as a heuristic principle."
Davis does observe that "in fact the equivalence between his [Gödel's] definition [of recursion] and Kleene's [1936] is not quite trivial. So, despite appearances to the contrary, footnote 3 of these lectures is not a statement of Church's thesis."
Gandy: "machine computation", discrete, deterministic, and limited to "local causation" by light speed
Robin Gandy's influential paper titled Church's Thesis and Principles for Mechanisms appears in Barwise et al. Gandy starts off with an unlikely expression of Church's Thesis, framed as follows:
"1. Introduction
"Throughout this paper we shall use "calculable" to refer to some intuitively given notion and "computable" to mean "computable by a Turing machine"; of course many equivalent definitions of "computable" are now available.
"Church's Thesis. What is effectively calculable is computable.
" ... Both Church and Turing had in mind calculation by an abstract human being using some mechanical aids (such as paper and pencil)"
Robert Soare (1995, see below) had issues with this framing, considering Church's paper (1936) published prior to Turing's "Appendix proof" (1937).
Gandy attempts to "analyze mechanical processes and so to provide arguments for the following:
"Thesis M. What can be calculated by a machine is computable."
Gandy "exclude[s] from consideration devices which are essentially analogue machines ... .The only physical presuppositions made about mechanical devices (Cf Principle IV below) are that there is a lower bound on the linear dimensions of every atomic part of the device and that there is an upper bound (the velocity of light) on the speed of propagation of change". But then he restricts his machines even more:
"(2) Secondly we suppose that the progress of calculation by a mechanical device may be described in discrete terms, so that the devices considered are, in a loose sense, digital computers.
"(3) Lasty we suppose that the device is deterministic: that is, the subsequent behavior of the device is uniquely determined once a complete description of its initial state is given."
He in fact makes an argument for this "Thesis M" that he calls his "Theorem", the most important "Principle" of which is "Principle IV: Principle of local causation":
"Now we come to the most important of our principles. In Turing's analysis the requirement that the action depended only on a bounded portion of the record was based on a human limitation. We replace this by a physical limitation which we call the principle of local causation. Its justification lies in the finite velocity of propagation of effects and signals: contemporary physics rejects the possibility of instantaneous action at a distance."
In 1985 the "Thesis M" was adapted for Quantum Turing machine, resulting in a Church–Turing–Deutsch principle.
Soare
Soare's thorough examination of Computability and Recursion appears. He quotes Gödel's 1964 opinion (above) with respect to the "much less suitable" definition of computability, and goes on to add:
"Kleene wrote [1981b, p. 49], "Turing's computability is intrinsically persuasive" but "λ-definability is not intrinsically persuasive" and "general recursiveness scarcely so (its author Gödel being at the time not at all persuaded) ... . Most people today accept Turing's Thesis"
Soare's footnote 7 (1995) also catches Gandy's "confusion", but apparently it continues into Gandy (1988). This confusion represents a serious error of research and/or thought and remains a cloud hovering over his whole program:
"7Gandy actually wrote "Church's thesis" not "Turing's thesis" as written here, but surely Gandy meant the latter, at least intensionally, because Turing did not prove anything in 1936 or anywhere else about general recursive functions."
Breger and problem of tacit axioms
Breger points out a problem when one is approaching a notion "axiomatically", that is, an "axiomatic system" may have imbedded in it one or more tacit axioms that are unspoken when the axiom-set is presented.
For example, an active agent with knowledge (and capability) may be a (potential) fundamental axiom in any axiomatic system: "the know-how of a human being is necessary – a know-how which is not formalized in the axioms. ¶ ... Mathematics as a purely formal system of symbols without a human being possessing the know-how with the symbols is impossible ..."
He quotes Hilbert:
"In a university lecture given in 1905, Hilbert considered it "absolutely necessary" to have an "axiom of thought" or "an axiom of the existence of an intelligence" before stating the axioms in logic. In the margin of the script, Hilbert added later: "the a priori of the philosophers." He formulated this axiom as follows: "I have the capacity to think of objects, and to denote them by means of simple symbols like a, b,..., x, y,..., so that they can be recognized unambiguously. My thought operates with these objects in a certain way according to certain rules, and my thinking is able to detect these rules by observation of myself, and completely to describe these rules" [(Hilbert 1905,219); see also (Peckhaus 1990, 62f and 227)]."
Breger further supports his argument with examples from Giuseppe Veronese (1891) and Hermann Weyl (1930-1). He goes on to discuss the problem of then expression of an axiom-set in a particular language: i.e. a language known by the agent, e.g. German.
See more about this at Algorithm characterizations, in particular Searle's opinion that outside any computation there must be an observer that gives meaning to the symbols used.
Sieg and axiomatic definitions
At the "Feferfest" – Solomon Feferman's 70th birthday – Wilfried Sieg first presents a paper written two years earlier titled "Calculations By Man and Machine: Conceptual Analysis", reprinted in (Sieg et al. 2002:390–409). Earlier Sieg published "Mechanical Procedures and Mathematical Experience" (in George 1994, p. 71ff) presenting a history of "calculability" beginning with Richard Dedekind and ending in the 1950s with the later papers of Alan Turing and Stephen Cole Kleene. The Feferfest paper distills the prior paper to its major points and dwells primarily on Robin Gandy's paper of 1980. Sieg extends Turing's "computability by string machine" (human "computor") as reduced to mechanism "computability by letter machine" to the parallel machines of Gandy.
Sieg cites more recent work including "Kolmogorov and Uspensky's work on algorithms" and (De Pisapia 2000), in particular, the KU-pointer machine-model), and artificial neural networks and asserts:
"The separation of informal conceptual analysis and mathematical equivalence proof is essential for recognizing that the correctness of Turing's Thesis (taken generically) rests on two pillars; namely on the correctness of boundedness and locality conditions for computors, and on the correctness of the pertinent central thesis. The latter asserts explicitly that computations of a computor can be mimicked directly by a particular kind of machine. However satisfactory one may find this line of analytic argument, there are two weak spots: the looseness of the restrictive conditions (What are symbolic configurations? What changes can mechanical operations effect?) and the corresponding vagueness of the central thesis. We are, no matter how we turn ourselves, in a position that is methodologically still unsatisfactory ... ."
He claims to "step toward a more satisfactory stance ... [by] abstracting further away from particular types of configurations and operations ..."
"It has been claimed frequently that Turing analyzed computations of machines. That is historically and systematically inaccurate, as my exposition should have made quite clear. Only in 1980 did Turing's student, Robin Gandy, characterize machine computations."
Whether the above statement is true or not is left to the reader to ponder. Sieg goes on to describe Gandy's analysis (see above 1980). In doing so he attempts to formalize what he calls "Gandy machines" (with a detailed analysis in an Appendix). About the Gandy machines:
" ... the definition of a Gandy machine is an "abstract" mathematical definition that embodies ... properties of parallel computations ... Second, Gandy machines share with groups and topological spaces the general feature of abstract axiomatic definitions, namely, that they admit a wide variety of different interpretations. Third, ... the computations of any Gandy machine can be simulated by a letter machine, [and] is best understood as a representation theorem for the axiomatic notion. [boldface added]
"The axiomatic approach captures the essential nature of computation processes in an abstract way. The difference between the two types of calculators I have been describing is reduced to the fact that Turing computors modify one bounded part of a state, whereas Gandy machines operate in parallel on arbitrarily many bounded parts. The representation theorems guarantee that models of the axioms are computationally equivalent to Turing machines in their letter variety."
Notes
References
Barwise, Jon, H. J. Keisler, and K. Kunen, Editors, 1980, The Kleene Symposium, 426 pages, North-Holland Publishing Company, Amsterdam,
Church, A., 1936a, in (Davis 1965:88ff), "An Unsolvable Problem of Elementary Number Theory"
Church, A., 1936b, in (Davis 1965:108ff), "A Note on the Entscheidungsproblem"
Church, A., 1938, The constructive second number class, Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. vol. 44, Number 4, 1938, pp. 224–232]
Davis, Martin editor, 1965, The Undecidable, Basic Papers on Undecidable Propositions, Unsolvable Problems And Computable Functions, Raven Press, New York, . All the original papers are here including those by Gödel, Church, Turing, Rosser, Kleene, and Post mentioned in this article. Valuable commentary by Davis prefaces most papers.
Davis, Martin, 2001, Engines of Logic: Mathematicians and the Origin of the Computer, W. W. Norton & Company, New York, pbk.
Dawson, John William, Jr., 1997, Logical Dilemmas: The Life and Work of Kurt Gödel, 361 pages, A. K. Peters, Wellesley, MA, , QA29.058D39.
Dawson, John William and John William Dawson, Jr., 2005, Logical Dilemmas: The Life and Work of Kurt Gödel, 362 pages, A. K. Peters, Wellesley, MA,
De Pisapia, N., 2000, Gandy Machines: an abstract model of parallel computation for Turing Machines, the Game of Life, and Artificial Neural Networks, M.S. Thesis, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh.
Dershowitz, Nachum and Gurevich, Yuri, 2007, A Natural Axiomatization of Church's Thesis, http://research.microsoft.com/~gurevich/Opera/188.pdf
Gandy, Robin, 1978, Church's Thesis and the Principles for Mechanisms, in (Barwise et al. 1980:123-148)
George, Alexander (+ed.), 1994, Mathematics and Mind, 216 pages, New York, Oxford University Press,
Gödel, K., 1930, in (van Heijenoort 1967:592ff), Some metamathematical results on completeness and consistency
Gödel, K., 1931a, in (Davis 1965:4-38), On Formally Undecidable Propositions of the Principia Mathematica and Related Systems. I.
Gödel, K., 1931b, in (van Heijenoort 1976:616ff) On completeness and consistency
Gödel, K., 1934, in (Davis 1965:39-74), On Undecidable Propositions of Formal Mathematical Systems
Gödel, K., 1936, in (Davis 1965:82ff), On The Length of Proofs, "Translated by the editor from the original article in Ergenbnisse eines mathematishen Kolloquiums, Heft 7 (1936) pp. 23-24." Cited by Kleene (1952) as "Über die Lāange von Beweisen", in Ergebnisse eines math. Koll, etc.
Gödel, K., 1964, in (Davis 1965:71ff), Postscriptum
Groshoz, Emily and Breger, Herbert, 2000, The Growth of Mathematical Knowledge, 416 pages, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrect, The Netherlands, .
Hawking, Stephen, 2005, God Created the Integers: The Mathematical Breakthroughs that Changed History, Edited, with Commentary by Stephen Hawking, Running Press, Philadelphia,
Hodges, Andrew, 1983 , Alan Turing:The Enigma, 1st edition, Simon and Schuster, New York,
Kleene, S. C., 1935, in (Davis 1965:236ff) General Recursive Functions of Natural Numbers
Kleene, S. C., 1971, 1952 (10th impression 1991) Introduction to Metamathematics, 550 pages, North-Holland Publishing Company (Wolters-Noordhoff Publishing)
Merriam-Webster Inc., 1983, Webster's Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary, 1563 pages, Merriam-Webster Inc., Springfield, MA,
Post, E. L., 1936, in (Davis 1965:288ff), Finite Combinatory Processes - Formulation 1 or The Journal of Symbolic Logic, Vol. 1, No. 3 (Sep., 1936), pp. 103–105.
Rosser. J. B., 1939, An informal exposition of proofs of Gödel's Theorem and Church's Theorem, The Journal of Symbolic Logic. Vol. 4. (1939), pp. 53–60 and reprinted in (Davis 1967:223-230).
Sieg, Wilfried, Richard Sommer, and Carolyn Talcott (eds.), 2002, Reflections on the Foundations of Mathematics: Essays in Honor of Solomon Feferman, Lecture Notes in Logic 15, 444 pages, A K Peters, Ltd.,
Soare, Robert, 1996, Computability and Recursion, "Bulletin of Symbolic Logic 2", Volume 2, Number 3, September 1996, pp. 284–321.
and (See also: Davis 1965:115ff)
Turing, A., 1939, in (Davis 1965:154ff), Systems of Logic Based on Ordinals
van Heijenoort, Jean, 1976, From Frege To Gödel: A Source Book in Mathematical Logic, 116 pages, 1879–1931, 3rd Printing, original printing 1967, Harvard University Press, Cambridge Massachusetts, (pbk.).
External links
The Bulletin of Symbolic Logic has links to all volumes with papers on line.
Alonzo Church, 1938, The Constructive Second Number Class "An address delivered by invitation of the Program Committee at the Indianapolis meeting of the Society, December 29, 1937."
Kurt Gödel, 1931, On formally undecidable propositions of Principia Mathematica and related systems I. Translated by Martin Hirzel, 27 November 2000.
Emil L. Post, 1946, A Variant of a Recursively Unsolvable Problem
Wilfried Sieg, 2005, CHURCH WITHOUT DOGMA: Axioms for computability, Carnegie Mellon University
Wilfried Sieg, 2000, Calculations By Man and Machine: conceptual analysis, Carnegie Mellon University
Robert I. Soare, 1995, Computability and Recursion
Robert I. Soare, 1996, Computability and Recursion as it appeared in The Bulletin of Symbolic Logic, Volume 2, Volume 2, Number 3, September 1996.
Masako Takahashi, 2004, On general recursive functions, International Christian University Particularly, see references.
A. M. Turing, 1936, On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem
Church-Turing thesis
Computability theory
Alan Turing
Theory of computation
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Batman Beyond (comics)
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Batman Beyond is a comic book series featuring the fictional character Terry McGinnis as Batman and based on the animated television series of the same name. It has appeared in various DC Comics publications, including a six-issue miniseries from 1999, a 24-issue series running from 1999 to 2001, the "Hush" arc by DC Comics in 2010, and an eight-issue miniseries in 2011. A short-running series titled Batman Beyond Unlimited was later released, followed by Batman Beyond 2.0 in 2013.
Batman Beyond and Batman Beyond (vol. 2) DCAU tie-ins (1999–2001)
After an initial six-issue miniseries released in March 1999, Batman Beyond had its own comic book series, running through November 1999 until October 2001, for a total of 24 issues. They were set in the same world as the TV series and aimed at younger readers.
Originally, Batman Beyond #3 (the monthly series) was to focus on the Terrific Trio from the episode "Heroes". The story would have 2-D Man and Magma trying to revive their former teammate, Freon. It was rejected due to their resemblance to the Fantastic Four.
Terry also appeared in Superman Adventures #64. The story has Terry/Batman traveling to the present and teaming up with Superman against a futuristic version of Brainiac.
A comic book adaptation of Batman Beyond: Return of the Joker was released in 2001.
The series had issues reprinted in Batman Beyond and DC Comics Presents Batman Beyond #1.
DC Universe
Cameos
In Superman/Batman #22 (written by Jeph Loeb), a Batman wearing the Beyond costume appears, making his first foray into the regular DC Comics continuity. The plot involves Bizarro being transported to an alternate version of Gotham City. In issue #23, this Batman is named "Tim". The packaging for the action figure created by DC Direct based on this appearance in Superman/Batman identifies this Batman Beyond as Tim Drake.
On March 3, 2007, Dan DiDio announced that Terry McGinnis may be showing up in the DCU sometime that year. Terry appeared in Countdown to Final Crisis #21, Earth-12.
A Green Lantern implied to be from Earth-12, a universe within the multiverse similar to that of Batman Beyond (though not the same GL represented in the animated series) was a participant in the Countdown: Arena series (2007) leading towards Final Crisis.
The character also made a cameo in Justice League of America #43, which was released May 2010.
Mainstream contemporary continuity
In Batman #700 (June 2010), Terry McGinnis is included in the one-off as a part of the DC Universe presented, having a history with Damian Wayne, who rescued him as Batman from Two-Face-Two when he was held hostage as an infant. Two-Face-Two believed Terry McGinnis was one of a pair of twin boys who were the sons of billionaires rather than Warren and Mary McGinnis. Two-Face-Two transformed Terry into a miniature duplicate of the Joker with Joker venom. Damian administers the antidote after he rescues Terry. In the following page, a teenage McGinnis is seen behind the Batman cowl, battling the apparently-resurrected Joker, with Damian as his mentor, instead of Bruce.
Superman/Batman Annual #4 (2010) is a single oversized issue featuring Terry McGinnis' Batman. Author Paul Levitz penned the story, with experience collaborating with Paul Dini and Alan Burnett in the past. It picks up after Superman's first meeting with the new Batman taking place in the DCAU, and supposedly jibing with the DCU's "Batman Beyond" verse.
In September 2011, The New 52 rebooted DC's continuity. In this new timeline, Terry is reintroduced in the 2014 maxiseries, The New 52: Futures End.
Batman Beyond (vol. 3) (2010)
Batman Beyond is a 2010 six-issue comic book limited series published by DC Comics. The series is an attempt to mesh the DC animated universe television series Batman Beyond with the mainstream DC continuity. The comic series is penned by Emmy Award-nominated writer Adam Beechen with art by Ryan Benjamin. Beechen stated his comic book arc will open the door for the "legendary" DCAU to enter into the mainstream DC Universe (comics), tying into both continuities. The story features Terry McGinnis, the future Batman, now a seasoned hero, and his mentor Bruce Wayne, the former Batman, dealing with their straining relationship over the demands of the role of Batman, as a new killer emerges with ties to the original Dark Knight's past.
Creation and development
Beechen was approached by Dan DiDio in December 2008 regarding the possibility of the project. Beechen responded by pitching DC Comics editor Ian Sattler in a two-worded email, the title to opening story arc. The series was green-lit during Comic-Con 2009. The series was first announced during the Emerald City ComiCon in March 2010. Summarizing the series to The Source.com Beechen stated:
The story arc opened in a single issue focusing on and featuring Terry McGinnis and Superman in Superman/Batman Annual #4. Following the issue, the miniseries began in June 2010, under the title Future Evil. In August 2010, the series was announced to continue following the completion of the first story arc as an ongoing series.
Plot
At Project Cadmus, an inmate escapes from the Neo-Gotham based facility. During the escape, he notices that a fight is occurring above him and, upon realizing that it is Batman, expresses his disgust that someone new has taken on the mantle of the Bat. After the new Dark Knight, Terry McGinnis, successfully captures Spellbinder, Justice League Unlimited member Micron arrives and attempts to recruit Terry to the League. This is not the first time someone has tried to recruit him, and McGinnis remains resolute in his refusal to accept the League's offer. When Terry returns to the Bat Cave and mentions that a member of the League tried to recruit him again, Bruce Wayne, Terry's mentor, immediately replies to "tell them no".
The death of a minor costumed criminal, Signalman prompts Bruce to send Terry out to investigate. They discover that the M.O. matches Two-Face, who had disappeared years ago during his final battle with Bruce. Reports of alarms at St. James Hospital disrupts them and Terry investigates, it has been the home of the Mad Hatter since Arkham Asylum closed down. After checking in on the Hatter, who has become docile and somewhat senile, Terry discovers a nurse under attack by a man in a trench coat. The mysterious rogue flees at the sight of Batman and Terry checks on the nurse, who says the man told her to "Hush".
This leads on a hunt for Hush, with Bruce explaining what took place during his last confrontation with Hush. During a fight with him, Hush dived through a window and was shot by the homeowner. Bruce then fled without inspecting the body, but was satisfied with the report that it was Thomas Elliot, for a while. Bruce admits Hush's skill for strategy and plastic surgery meant that Thomas could have planned the entire scenario. After a brief encounter and chase with a new Catwoman, Terry discovers that another villain has been killed, this time with the use of the Penguin's classic trick umbrellas. Attempting to stay ahead of their foe, Terry and Bruce search out the Calendar Man, Julian Gregory Day; upon confronting Day, Terry is suddenly ambushed by "Hush".
During Terry's fight with "Hush," it is revealed that he is not only capable of matching Terry, but is also aware it is not Bruce Wayne. "Hush" reveals his plan while regarding Terry as an 'imposter', and states he will 'orphan' Batman all over again by killing Batman's rogues gallery. "Hush" escapes, leaving Terry to decide whether or not to pursue him or rescue Calendar Man, who is bound with a bomb attached to him. Choosing the latter, Terry arrives too late as a bomb detonates, killing Day. After he returns to the cave, Terry receives a talk from Bruce about commitment to Batman. Meanwhile, Amanda Waller talks with Doctor Reid about reports of the murders; Reid insists that they report their role in this, but Waller shoots down the option.
Terry returns home and lives a normal life for the day, meeting up with his girlfriend, Dana. Unhappy about their lack of time together, she asks whether anything long term will ever come out of his working for Wayne. Terry soon after returns to the cave and confronts Bruce but finds no one around and investigates Bruce's secret new "gadgets". The "gadgets" turn out to be Bat-Wraiths, robotic drones created to help assist Terry in his duties. Terry decides that he will prove himself to Bruce, without the drones and sets out to capture "Hush" once and for all. Terry's first lead is to check on Tim Drake, confirming that Tim has been under constant physical and psychological observation since his time as the Joker. Terry then proceeds to confront and question Dick Grayson. We see "Hush" hired the new Catwoman to plant a tracking device on Batman so that he can monitor his whereabouts, before proceeding to betray and strangle her to death as part of his 'vendetta'.
Using a Bat-Wraith, Bruce attempts to apprehend Hush, allowing Catwoman an opportunity to escape. The attack fails as Hush attempts to hack the Drone, forcing Bruce to activate the Wraith's self-destruct. Meanwhile, Terry talks with Dick Grayson, who now runs an athletics training center. Dick explains that he retired as Nightwing after he was shot, resulting in losing an eye while aiding Batman. He then retired in disgust at Bruce's lack of concern for Dick's health after the shooting. As Terry leaves, Dick warns Terry but Terry disregards it. At Cadmus, Waller learns that Doctor Reid has gone missing. Attempting to lure Hush into a trap, Terry uses a hologram to pose as a villain, only to be hit by Hush using Shriek's Tech. Mocking Terry, Hush unmasks himself and reveals himself to be Dick Grayson, determined to replace Bruce Wayne once and for all.
In an alley, Reid is preparing to provide information to Commissioner Barbara Gordon regarding Hush's origin and motives. However, she is being pursued by Cadmus' security, under Waller's orders, but Reid manages to escape. Dick Grayson arrives and saves the doctor, however Reid is terrified and faints after seeing Grayson's face. Elsewhere, the other Dick savors the moment over an incapacitated Terry, and spares him so that he can witness his plan. Catwoman arrives after the second Grayson departs, and saves Terry's life from his wounds. Bruce deduces Catwoman's true identity as the daughter of supervillain Multiplex. In the Batcave, all of the Bat-Wraiths have been activated and controlled by Hush after developing his own remote sparing Bruce as the drones leave. At Cadmus, more inmates have escaped, including Killer Croc and Waller deduces that Hush must have done it.
At Gotham Central, Reid reveals that Hush is a clone of Grayson created by Cadmus, due to Waller insisting that "the world must always have a Batman." Waller believed that Bruce's psyche was too unstable, and Grayson was seemingly the next best candidate, as he shares Bruce's passion, as well as other factors. However, the clone escaped before he was ready, believing himself to be the real Dick Grayson and wanting to replace Batman as Gotham's champion. Reid also reveals that she is a granddaughter of Thomas Elliot, and is seeking to atone for her family's sins by working for Waller. In the Batcave, Bruce begins treating Terry's wounds, he monologues that he has been making faults in Terry's actions where none existed. Terry had regained consciousness during his monologue, to which Bruce confirms to Terry that everything he heard is true. Hush reveals by transmission that he, inspired by Gotham's last earthquake, will save the city by performing mercy killings of its corrupt, by a mass of explosives at the epicenter to set off another quake.
The wounded Terry, aided by Dick Grayson and Catwoman, confronts the clone, with Grayson unable to convince Hush that he is merely a clone. The group defeats Hush when Bruce temporarily overrides Hush's control of the Bat-Wraiths, resulting in the clone being accidentally impaled on a Bat-Wraith. Catwoman departs quickly and Grayson departs despite Bruce's attempts to offer an apology for how things ended between them. Terry returns to Bruce where they discuss the ideals of heroism. Bruce offers Terry a chance to step down as Batman, Terry refuses, stating that it is better than anything else he could do. Unknown to them, Waller has escaped blame for her role in Grayson's cloning by claiming that Reid was acting alone, and is now aided by a new geneticist, Doctor Thawne. Waller has begun research into a new line of clones, stating that recent events have merely confirmed her belief that the world will always need a Batman.
Reception
The first issue of the series was well received and met favorable reviews for both writing and art. Ian Robinson of Craveonline.com noted the series was both blended well with and matured from the animated series. Jesse Schedeen of IGN provided a favorable review, but commented that while the writing transitioned well from small screen to comic, the art was 'haphazard' and 'inconsistent.'
Batman Beyond (vol. 4) (2011)
Batman Beyond was published as an ongoing series that lasted for eight issues. It featured two major storylines, the first of which featured the Justice League Beyond and a person who would become the Matter Master of the future. The second storyline featured the return of Blight, Terry's original nemesis. Two issues also provided an in-depth exploration of characters Max Gibson and Inque, whose origins were revealed. Several plot threads were not resolved and left for the 2012 relaunch. Also in 2011, a comic book one-shot titled Superman Beyond #0 was released, set in the "Beyond" timeline and featured a cameo of Terry McGinnis.
Batman Beyond Unlimited and Batman Beyond Universe digital comics (2012–2015)
The Batman Beyond universe returned as tri-weekly digital issues, which were published on a monthly basis in print as the Batman Beyond Unlimited ongoing 48-page comic book. This monthly title included Batman Beyond, Justice League Beyond and Superman Beyond.
Superman Beyond ceased publication with its 20th digital release, in June 2013. Justice League Beyond then ceased publication with its 25th digital issue, in June 2013. Batman Beyond eventually ceased publication with its 29th digital issue, in July 2013.
After the cancellation of Batman Beyond Unlimited, the Batman Beyond line was relaunched. Starting in August 2013, Batman Beyond 2.0 and Justice League Beyond 2.0 began publication, with each digital title receiving new creative teams. The print release was relaunched as Batman Beyond Universe, The new series takes place a year after Batman Beyond Unlimited. Terry is now a freshman at Gotham University and now has more experience as Batman. One of his classmates is Melanie Walker. Terry is no longer working with Bruce; instead it is Dick Grayson sitting at the computer. The Justice League also must deal with Superman when his powers go out of control and an old foe from his past also returns. After the final story arc, 'Justice Lords Beyond', the series concluded in 2014.
Plot
10,000 Clowns (Prelude)
Bruce and Barbara have noticed an influx of Jokerz lately that have all gathered to Gotham from around the globe. Meanwhile, Terry goes to Dana's house and meets her brother, Doug. Dana tells Terry that she broke up with him because she has increasingly felt like less of a priority in his life and is open to him making it up to her in the future, but still thinks they should still keep their distance. Later, Bruce sends Terry to the park when he and Barbara suspect a large group of Jokerz. Batman is attacked by a small group of hammer-wielding Jokerz and easily defeats them. Bruce tells Terry to leave as he realizes they are just being tested by the leader of the Jokerz, who is revealed to be Doug.
The Trigger Man
A group of Russians that formerly made frequent deals with Mad Stan (who is thought to be dead) host an arms deal with a group of British Jokerz, who are aware that they have a device that can set off any remote explosives. Mad Stan and his dog, Boom-Boom, arrive and bust the deal as revenge for the Russians using his houseboat without permission, taking the device in the process.
Back at Dana's home, her father confronts Doug in the bathroom and orders him to take his medication. Doug fractures his father's skull and runs off while Dana witnesses the ordeal in shock.
Meanwhile, Bruce uses his new power as Wayne Incorporated CEO to provide the police with upgraded weaponry. Bruce also introduces Terry to the two new Chief Liaisons to the Police Department: Lucius Fox Jr. and Tim Drake. Shortly after, they get word of a gunfight near the boathouses between Mad Stan and the Russians. Batman primarily goes after Stan and lets the Russians escape. Stan defeats Batman and is determined to go after the Russians as they've kidnapped Boom-Boom, threatening to blow up Gotham in the process. After interrogating some criminals, Terry is requested by Max to meet her at a diner, where she plans to tell him about Undercloud. Before she can, a distraught Dana arrives and tells Terry about Doug's past and what he did to their father. Afraid of what her brother will do, she requests Terry to use his connections to Bruce to find and stop Doug. Terry agrees to help her, but decides to focus on taking down Mad Stan first.
Mad Stan and the Russians agree to an exchange between the device and Boom-Boom at an old supermarket. Stan learns about the device's functions and prepares to use it to activate nearby bombs, but he and the Russians are stopped by Batman. Bruce agrees to make finding Doug the top priority. At prison, Stan's lawyer convinces the judge to let Stan see Boom-Boom twice a month.
Legends of the Dark Knight: Jake
This side story focuses on the great-grandnephew of Joe Chill, Jake. Jake is an alcoholic who lives in the lower streets of downtown Gotham through government checks wracked with guilt. He was formerly a security guard at Wayne-Powers Industries before being upgraded to a special security that Derek Powers called his "Quiet Squad" under the command of Powers' right-hand man, Mister Fixx. He enjoyed upgrading his weaponry and the benefits he got from the job until he was ordered to kill Warren McGinnis.
After Warren's death, Jake became depressed after watching Warren's funeral on television and seeing the family that Warren left behind. He descended into alcoholism and was fired after Batman defeated Powers and Fixx and the temporary management at Wayne-Powers discovered the Quiet Squad's existence. He did not look for another job and was evicted from his apartment, which led him to the lower streets. During the night Jake is narrating this, he finds a group of thieves ransacking his house and lashes out at them, using his combat experience to gain the upper hand. After defeating the criminals, he finds a new purpose in life and takes out his old armor from his Quiet Squad days. Jake begins planning on upgrading his equipment and becoming a new hero in Gotham to atone for his sins.
10,000 Clowns
The Jokerz have launched several attacks all over the city, taking over the Ostrander, the Water Treatment Plant, and St. Caspian's Middle School. Bruce has Terry go to the Middle School since the police have the Ostrander under control and there are other power plants to make up for any damage done to one of them. After checking on Dana in the hospital, Terry returns to Wayne Manor, where he finds Bruce under critical condition. Bruce is quickly rushed to Gotham Mercy Hospital, where he is in the final stages of liver failure due to his over usage of painkillers and injuries from his days as Batman. The doctor tells Terry that Bruce is at the top of the organ donor recipient list, hinting that he has known about this for a long time. In a suburban graveyard, Doug has gathered all the Jokerz from around the world for a common goal of chaos, and has now dubbed himself "the Joker King."
Bruce wakes up after two days in the hospital. Terry and the doctors refuse to have him leave. Bruce was aware of his impending liver failure well before he met Terry and has made a large effort behind the scenes to figure out a way to fix it. After Terry storms out, the doctors start panicking as one of them tells Terry that there was a suicide bomber on one of their floors. Terry puts on his Batman suit and heads outside, where he sees another explosion that kills dozens of people. When he tries looking for someone responsible on the scene, he finds an armored man and attacks him. The man calls himself "Vigilante" and claims to be on Batman's side as he is trying to find the mastermind of the attack.
Batman and Vigilante track down another bomber and fail to stop her from blowing up near a skyscraper. With the Justice League off-planet and Max kidnapped by Overcloud, Batman's only allies are the police force, Vigilante, Catwoman, and Dick Grayson. With few options left, Batman is forced to ask Tim Drake to operate the Batcomputer to aid them, requesting him to use the device he got from Mad Stan to deactivate the explosions and send drones with an antidote to rid the other Jokerz of any mind control.
Back at the hospital, Bruce requests to stay behind with Dana's family as the other patients are prioritized and evacuated. Doug arrives and throws Bruce out the window as he prepares to kill his family. Bruce barely manages to contact Terry to come to the hospital. Batman arrives just in time to stop Doug from harming Dana or her parents as Bruce escorts them out. Doug shoots Batman with a projectile that nauseates him, gaining an upper hand in the fight. However, Dick, Catwoman, and Vigilante return to save Batman after they defeated the remaining Jokerz. When Dana shows up to confront her brother, he grabs her, but she elbows him which causes the two to fall off the building. Batman rescues Dana while Doug catches his foot in a large rope and slams his head against the building, killing him instantly.
In the fallout of the Jokerz attack, Dana reflects on her life as she and her mother are in the lobby of the hospital telling the police about Doug while being there for her father. Terry and his family are also there for support. After walking with Terry to talk to her father, she takes him to see Bruce. Dana reveals she figured out that Terry is Batman after Batman called out her name during the rescue, causing her to recall a lot of changes Terry went through after his father's death and that he was supported by the original Batman, Bruce Wayne. Bruce confirms Dana's suspicions and she tells them that she is ready for any consequence that will come from knowing Batman's secret identity. Bruce is then taken away for surgery, as Dana's parents have agreed for Doug's liver to be transplanted into Bruce. Dana tells Terry that they cannot hold any more secrets from each other and the two share a kiss.
Undercloud
While the Jokerz incident was going on, Max was investigating an underground hacking agency called Undercloud as she was taken in by the unknown female leader named Rebel One. When Max outranked all the other hackers of the organization, Rebel One takes Max to her laboratory and reveals her master plan is to bring giant robot made of large, flexible metals with unknown origins to life and destroy Gotham City. Rebel One threatens to kill Max's friends and family if she does not comply.
After checking on Bruce in the hospital, Batman is requested by Commissioner Gordon to stop a bomb threat at a music concert. Batman discovers the villain behind the threat is Shriek, who was sent by Rebel to distract Batman. While finishing up the robot, Max purposefully overloads the resonator to cause a temporary blackout in the Batcave, allowing her to alert Terry without Rebel's knowledge. Knowing the risks of the blackout, Rebel activates the robot she calls "Alloy" to annihilate Gotham.
After taking her and Max outside, Rebel plans to destroy Gotham and rebuild it from the ground up, citing her blames on how Gotham treats the underprivileged poorly. Batman arrives to take care of Alloy, who starts following him despite Rebel's commands and blows up the Batmobile. Max and Batman encounter the creature in a moment of vulnerability, in which it's split up into six parts and appears to know Batman's name. Batman and Max manage to separate the six creatures by using the electricity in Batman's suit and Max rewiring Rebel's remote control to six units instead of one. The six are reformed and are revealed to be Doc Magnus' old creations, the Metal Men. Batman uses the aid of the Metal Men to prevent the Reed buildings that Alloy was smashing from collapsing. Rebel tries smashing her hover car into the building with Max on it, but the Metal Men form a large net to stop her.
During this, Dick Grayson helps Commissioner Gordon evacuate the building and says that he is being more active in the superhero community lately because he does not want Bruce to lead Terry down a dark path. Bruce returns from the hospital to Wayne Manor while Terry and the Metal Men contain the crumbling buildings.
After Batman and the Metal Men succeed, they return to Wayne Manor, where Bruce explains that the creator of the Metal Men, Will Magnus, has been missing and presumed dead for years. To protect the Metal Men from the government and CADMUS, he erased their records, deactivated all of them, reformed them into different objects, and gave them to friends and acquaintances who had no idea what they were holding. To give them a purpose in this new world, Bruce told them they could continue Magnus' plans for them to protect the people of Earth, even providing them with the Injustice Gang's old satellite base to use as a home. The Metal Men accept this new mission and leave Bruce to talk with Terry and Max. Max thinks that they should not dismantle Undercloud, but instead redirect it to contribute to society rather than destroy it like Rebel One intended. Bruce accepts the plan and puts Max in charge of handling Undercloud and looking over the mainframe for the Metal Men's satellite. Bruce tells Terry that he thinks re-establishing old connections and making new ones is especially important with his fluctuating health. He's understanding if Terry doesn't want to continue being Batman, but he still wants Terry to remain a part of the Bat-Family, as Gotham always needs a Batman.
Batgirl Beyond
Commissioner Barbara Gordon finds herself in a lower part of Gotham called Crown Point handling a riot. She starts to get overwhelmed by the rioters until she is assisted by a young woman dressed as Batgirl. The mysterious vigilante criticizes Gordon and the police force for aiding more of the richer parts of Gotham and informs her that someone has been poisoning them for the last couple of weeks.
Gordon talks with a forensic pathologist of the GCPD and finds out that there's been an increased number of individuals who had a strong poison going through their systems before they died. The poison acts as a super steroid that causes the citizens to anger more easily and grow muscles at an exponential rate, similar to Bane's Venom. She goes to the Roake corporation and interrogates the head of the company, Randolph Westley-Smythe. After testing the water and knowing that the citizens of Crown Point are not taking any drugs, she concludes that the Roake corporation is slowly killing them as they have control over all of Crown Point's food division. Randolph confirms her suspicions and tells her that he's killing off most of the citizens to clear the area and make a profit, and they can not stop him thanks to his lawyers. When Barbara leaves, he sends his security to kill her, but she is rescued by Batgirl.
After getting a warrant for Randolph's arrest, Gordon and Batgirl go to his office and defeat him. Batgirl figures out that Gordon was testing her when she nearly lets Randolph go. Randolph was bailed out of jail by his competition, hinting at a larger conspiracy. While Gordon does not approve of or sanction Batgirl, she decides not to take action against the vigilante unless she steps over the line. When Batgirl doubts Gordon's ability to do so, Gordon is quickly able to find out she is secretly a teenager named Nissa and shows up at her high school to negotiate their terms.
Rewired
Nearly a year after the Joker bombings, Mayor William Dusk dies of a sudden heart attack while showcasing the updated Arkham Institute. Despite seeming like a natural cause, Commissioner Gordon and the Mayor's family suspect he was killed by an unseen force. Since the previous year, Terry has enrolled in Neo-Gotham University, broken up with Dana, and now works closely with Barbara and the police with Dick Grayson as his new mentor after a falling out he had with Bruce. Gordon tells Batman that all the inmates claimed they killed the Mayor with the exception of Ghoul. Batman interrogates the criminal, but doesn't get any useful information. Gordon receives info from the coroner that someone killed Dusk by pumping his phone with electricity through the air. The electricity in Arkham then shuts down, leading to a massive prison break. Batman contains the breakout as best as he can as Dick receives a call from Bruce with more information about Dusk's death. Dick ignores Bruce and tells him they have everything under control.
Greg Hoffman is sworn in as replacement mayor and expresses his distrust of Gordon as Commissioner. Terry struggles to maintain his social, academic, and family life due to his duties as Batman. While talking to his mother about his situation, Dusk's killer appears on television and demands Batman to meet him at the offshore rig alone, threatening to overload other peoples' cell phones for every minute he does not show. On the rig, Terry is seemingly pitted against the original Batman, Nightwing, Batgirl, and Robin. However, he breaks the illusion and finds three of his recurring rogues (Spellbinder, Shriek, and Inque) with the unknown criminal that killed Dusk. Batman easily takes out his familiar foes, but the electrical powers of the fourth villain are too much and nearly kill him. The criminal calls himself Rewire and boasts to the GCPD that he killed Batman. Dick shows up at the rig and saves Batman from Rewire and rescues the rest of the police as Rewire recharges with Ghoul's assistance. When Dick returns to his jet ski, he finds Batman missing. Meanwhile, Gordon and her men find out that Mayor Dusk was transferring credits to a blind account for a long time, but stopped two months before his death. His wife claims that they were for therapy from Doctor Bennett. Bennett disappeared shortly afterwards, but is found by Gordon in a hidden compartment in his laboratory. Bennett reveals that the funding Dusk put towards therapy and the Arkham project was for his son, Davis, who is secretly Rewire and became a villain due to his hatred for his father's hunger for power and obsession with the city. Davis increases his power by using his father's machine that created renewable power through gravity.
Following Batman's disappearance, the freed criminals wreak havoc on Gotham. Bennett reveals to Gordon that Dusk put funding towards a machine in Arkham that could contain Davis and his electrical powers as a last resort. Terry wakes up in the Batcave and finds his wounds patched, his costume fixed, and all the information regarding the case. He leaves the Batcave without speaking a word to Bruce and returns to Dick's hideout, expressing his frustration that Bruce had everything about the case figured out without leaving Wayne Manor. Dick tells Terry that he might never be as good as Bruce, but he should stop pushing his loved ones away and embrace his own life rather than replicate Bruce's. Rewire uses his new power to attack the GCPD and Mayor Hoffman. Batman lures him into the containment machine by having Dick use Spellbinder's orb to disguise himself as the Davis' father, giving Davis enough of a distraction for Batman to knock him into the machine to defeat him. Afterwards, Terry follows Dick's advice and takes a few days off to spend with his family and friends. Back at Arkham, Davis' mother is reading a story to the incarcerated Rewire, who shows hints of his powers resurfacing.
The Bat Men
After Terry loses his hearing in a fight with Shriek, Dick provides him with hearing aid headphones. The next day, Terry discovers that his former crush and supervillain Melanie is attending Neo-Gotham University part-time. Despite her attempts to start a normal life on her own, Terry is still hesitant to talk with her after the last two times they tried to get together. When Batman helps her take down a couple of criminals, she angrily tells him not to see her again, as she has dropped all connections with the Royal Flush Gang.
Meanwhile, city assessment workers Sam Byers and Edward Sears are kidnapped by an elderly Kirk Langstrom, who is now a bearded Man-Bat capable of human speech. He has turned their sonar scanner into a long-range weapon in the Historical District that could kill thousands of residents, and demands three pounds of kanium from Gordon and the police in 24 hours in exchange for their freedom. Mayor Hoffman plans to wipe out the Historical District by calling in the Bureau, but allows Gordon ten (later seven) hours to break into the district, save the hostages, and disable the weapon. She pairs Terry up with Bruce due to the latter's history with Langstrom. Batman and Bruce sneak in the sewer systems to get to the device. Bruce tells Terry that Dick is not the best partner for him since they did not take the influx of Man-Bats as a sign, but Terry still trusts Dick more than Bruce. Before they continue arguing, they are attacked by a large group of Man-Bats. They find the formula to be much stronger than Kirk's previous designs and are defeated by Kirk and his new lover as well as the new She-Bat, Tey.
The two are imprisoned, where Bruce tells Terry what happened to Kirk and his family after their last encounter in "Terror in the Sky" from Batman: The Animated Series. After Batman and Kirk stopped Francine's She-Bat transformations, the Langstroms swore off genetic research. Thanks to a grant from Wayne Enterprises, they became industry pioneers in the study of sonics and had two children, Max and Michelle. However, Francine was eventually diagnosed with an aggressive form of Parkinson's disease and was given a year to live. Determined to save her, Kirk returned to studying the Man-Bat formula to find a breakthrough that would allow Francine not to lose her mind to the beast. Though he eventually succeeded, he was too late, as Francine died after falling off her chair and breaking her hip in the living room when no one was present. Kirk's children left him in anger after discovering what he had been doing during Francine's final months. When real life proved too much for him, Kirk became the Man-Bat again. They learn from Kirk that three years prior, he rescued Tey from the Jokerz and gave her the Man-Bat formula to help her survive. She became the new She-Bat and the two fell in love and formed the Cult of the Bat to give Kirk a second chance at having a family. He plans to use the kanium to help the other Man-Bats gain more control over their transformations like him.
Tey convinces Kirk to start the weapon when she thinks they are not going to get the kanium. Bruce and Terry escape using Terry's headphones, which Bruce reveals that Dick got from him. Batman gives the Bureau air support while Bruce goes to talk to Kirk at the weapon. Bruce deactivates the Bureau's satellite and tries to reason with Kirk. Convinced that both him and Bruce are monsters, Kirk redirects the weapon into a bomb to just kill them both. Batman manages to get to the building in time to save Bruce. Kirk tells Bruce to use his second chance wisely as he uses the device kill himself. Terry decides to give Melanie another chance, and goes to the diner she works at to talk to her.
Dick and Barbara eventually meet at the diner Melanie works at to catch up with each other. Barbara thinks that Dick has held Sam against her will and feels that she ruined his life, but Dick responds that he just wants the best for her. Barbara wants them to be friends again, but thinks it is best if they just focused on their work and Terry for now. Dick snaps an old batarang in half that the two share, a specific batarang that he gave Barbara to save her father, that he was going to propose to her with, and gave to her on her the day of her wedding to Sam.
Justice Lords Beyond: Another World
In a crossover with Justice League Beyond, Batman finds himself in the Justice Lords timeline where he and the rest of the League try to find out what happened to Wonder Woman. When he is first transported to the world, he is confronted by this world's version of Dick Grayson, who has both eyes and is a commander of the Justice Lord Task Force. They use an EMP blast to disable Batman's suit, but Terry manages to escape. He finds his counterpart in this world, who is a blond Jokerz member named T. T reveals to Terry that this world's Bruce Wayne was killed years ago for standing against the other Justice Lords. Terry takes the two of them to Wayne Manor, where he finds the house destroyed. The two are cornered by the Jokerz gang, but defeat them when Terry finds an upgraded Batsuit in the Batcave. They are then confronted by Justice Lord Superman, who arrests T and supposedly kills Terry.
However it is revealed on the Task Force ship that Terry's death was a projection given by the suit (with similar technology to Spellbinder). Batman escapes from the ship and goes into the Batcave, where he retrieves the Batmobile and a message from the deceased Justice Lord Batman. He goes to the JLTF headquarters to rescue T and convinces the alternate Dick to join them by showing that Justice Lord Batman imbued the new Batsuit with a synthetic kryptonite to use against Justice Lord Superman. T chooses to stay behind while Dick and Terry go to the Watchtower to gain access to the Portal Generator under disguise. After the disguise easily breaks, Terry and Dick are rescued by T, who changed his mind and aids them transporting Terry back to his world.
Terry's kryptonite suit allows the Justice League to defeat Justice Lord Superman. He then returns to the Lords' timeline to give back the suit and talk to T one last time. T allows Terry to talk to the alive Warren McGinnis of this world as repayment. Terry gets emotional for having a chance to talk to his father again and rewatches their conversation when he gets back to Dick's headquarters. While they watch the recap through Terry's recorder, Dick gets the chance to see his Justice Lords counterpart, who is married to Barbara and has a son named Jon. Though shocked, Dick accepts that some things are bound to be different in alternate timelines. In the Justice Lord timeline, Dick and T are inspired by Terry to continue Bruce's work as T prepares to become the Batman Beyond of his world.
Mark of the Phantasm
This story takes place a year before the current events and explains what led Terry to leave Bruce. After fending off the Jokerz, Batman and Vigilante go their separate ways. During the fight, Vigilante's blood was spilled on the scene and collected by the police, who identify him as Jake Chill. While looking for Jokerz in his apartment, Jake is attacked by the Phantasm, who demands his death for the murder of Warren McGinnis. Batman manages to arrive just as Phantasm escapes and leaves behind a gas. After Jake tells Terry his role in Warren's death, Batman starts ruthlessly beating up Jake and is only stopped by Bruce's intervention. When Terry returns to the Batcave, Bruce tells him that he inhaled some of Andrea's fear toxin and started acting irrationally. Terry asks Bruce if he knew about Jake, but Bruce denies ever knowing him before the fight. Terry suspects he's lying given how Jake worked at Wayne Enterprises and was related to the killer of Bruce's parents, Joe Chill.
Terry goes to Dick and Barbara after his talk with Bruce. The two tell Terry what led to the Bat-Family falling apart. While Tim Drake was recovering from the Joker's psychological trauma (as seen in the flashbacks of Return of the Joker), Barbara quit being Batgirl and ended her relationship with Bruce. Dick returned to Gotham after hearing what happened and felt guilty that he wasn't there for Tim. Dick and Barbara rekindled their relationship, with Dick even planning to propose to Barbara at one point. However, Barbara found out that she was pregnant with Bruce's child and refused to tell Dick about it. Bruce told Dick about the pregnancy himself, leading his former sidekick to lash out at him. Barbara had a miscarriage after stopping a couple of thieves in an alley. A year later, Barbara would meet Sam at the D.A.'s office and eventually married him as she and Dick severed their ties with Bruce.
Bruce tells Terry that Vigilante and the Jokerz are in the library, where the gang injects an upgraded Joker toxin into Jake to send him into a maniacal rampage. As this is happening, Andrea reunites with Bruce in the Batcave. She tells Bruce that she needs to kill Jake as she's afraid that Terry might do it, and she's aware Bruce is also afraid of the same thing and lied to Terry about not knowing Jake prior before leaving to head to the library. Batman manages to defeat the Jokerz and prevents Phantasm from stabbing Jake, but the Joker toxin and Andrea's fear gas prove too much for Jake and he dies of a seizure.
Terry feels guilty about the whole ordeal and goes to the Batcave after finding out Bruce told Dana and Max what happened so they could comfort him. He loses his trust in Bruce after finding out what happened to Dick and Barbara and decides to end their partnership. It's revealed that Andrea was hired by Amanda Waller to take out Jake as killing goes against what Batman represents. In the Arkham Institute, Davis Dusk meets Ghoul in the middle of his father's interview with a reporter, which eventually leads him into becoming Rewire. In the present, Rewire is released from Arkham thanks to Ghoul acting as his lawyer.
All In
Terry starts making frequent visits to the Justice Lords timeline to monitor T's training as the Batman of his world and to talk to the alternate version of his father using the portal in the Batcave. He also starts dating Melanie again, who is going through some financial struggles. After one of his visits, Terry sees some files Bruce made about the new Royal Flush Gang that Queen created.
Meanwhile, Ghoul gives Davis an apartment under an unknown name and shows him a new formula to perfect his powers. However, Davis wants to get his old life back rather than going back to crime. Ghoul chooses to partner with Inque instead and gives her a formula that could take away her weakness to water. Inque makes Melanie an offer to steal from the new Royal Flush Gang by trying to gain her spot as Ten back, which would allow her enough to get through college and Inque to afford the chemical process that augments her shapeshifting that would allow her to start over as a new person. Melanie reluctantly accepts the job.
After Batman interrogates Jack and gets him arrested, he sees the Bat-Signal and discovers Melanie was the one activating it. She tells Batman that she is playing both Queen and Inque and wants his help to bring both of them down. Batman agrees to help, but is hesitant to trust her. At night, she and Inque come aboard the Royal Flush Gang submarine and take out her mother. Inque plans to leave Melanie behind while taking the most valuable prize of the vault, Two-Face's coin. Melanie and Batman manage to defeat and arrest Inque and the Royal Flush Gang. Barbara notices that Two-Face's coin is still missing and theorizes it went down with the submarine. Terry thinks Melanie stole it and confronts her about it. She is hurt by Terry's accusation and decides to break up with him.
Davis' attempts to rebuild his life fall apart, as his former friends and family hate and fear him for his actions. After hearing about the Justice Lords incident, he steals Ghoul's formula and becomes Rewire again. He electrocutes Ghoul as he plans to cross over to the Justice Lords timeline and find the alternate version of his father.
Alternating Currents
Rewire breaks into Dick's loft and kidnaps him after defeating him. When Terry arrives to the Batcave after another visit to the Justice Lords timeline, Bruce shows Terry a video of Davis holding Dick hostage and demanding usage of the portal to the timeline to see his alternate father. Bruce starts melting the portal to prevent both Terry and Davis from accessing it, citing it as Terry's weakness in the last couple of months. After Barbara tells Terry that Ghoul woke up from his coma caused by Rewire's attack, Batman interrogates Ghoul in his hospital room to get the criminal to tell him where the anti-serum for Rewire is. Batman arrives at the docks and injects the anti-serum into Rewire, but it does not work.
Barbara arrives and saves Dick from struggling with a device attached to his chest that continually electrocutes him. Batman tries tiring Rewire out to eventually short out his electrical powers, but is defeated. Dick rips the device off of his chest and attaches it to Rewire, which defeats the villain but nearly kills Dick in the process. Terry returns to the Batcave to check on the portal device and is met by T and the alternate Dick. After Terry failed to show up for a baseball game he'd promise to see with his dad, Warren went to T's apartment, where T told Warren the truth about himself and Terry. Warren was accepting of T's explanation and was eager to see both of them again. However, Terry refuses the offer as he has accepted that the alternate Warren is not his true father and encourages T to go as he should appreciate the people he has in his life before they are gone. The two say their last goodbyes before T and his trainer head back to their timeline. The series ends with Terry, Bruce, Barbara, and Dick having a meal in Dick's hospital room.
Batman Beyond (vol. 5) mainstream DCU series (2015–2016)
DC Comics announced that another ongoing Batman Beyond series will be released in June 2015. It will take place in the future of its current stories' history. Following the conclusion of The New 52: Futures End, Tim Drake was the titular character instead of Terry McGinnis, who settles in the latter's time period and helps raise McGinnis's brother Matt in his absence. The first issue is written by Dan Jurgens with art by Bernard Chang. The series concluded after 16 issues before leading into the DC Rebirth event.
Plot
Brave New Worlds
Following Tim's time displacement and Terry's death in Future's End, Tim finds himself in the future as the new Batman Beyond in Neo-Gotham. He allies himself with Terry's brother, Matt McGinnis, and his guardian, Nora Boxer. Matt has a difficult time accepting Tim filling in for his brother's shoes. Tim finds out that Neo-Gotham is the safest and one of the few inhabitable places left on Earth following Brother Eye's destruction. With his artificial intelligence A.L.F.R.E.D., Tim's first mission as the new Batman is to infiltrate Brother Eye's Lodge and rescue the older Commissioner Barbara Gordon and Terry's friend Maxine Gibson. During the rescue, he gains a new ally in the form of one of Terry's archenemies, Inque, who was allied with Brother Eye because he has her daughter, Deanna Clay, hostage on the moon. Batman and Inque escape with Barbara and a tortured Max into Neo-Gotham, but Tim finds out that Brother Eye let them escape because he downloaded himself into A.L.F.R.E.D., allowing him to pinpoint Neo-Gotham's location. Neo-Gotham is attacked by Brother Eye's forces, which included robotocized versions of Superman, Wonder Woman, and John Stewart. Due to the damage Tim's suit has taken, Barbara gives Tim the suit that her father wore when he replaced Batman. Batman manages to defeat all the robots with the help of the last surviving Justice League member, Micron. Tim is then teleported to the moon for his final showdown against Brother Eye. He manages to defeat the villain with the help of Inque, who sacrifices herself to ensure Brother Eye is destroyed and that her daughter is safe.
City of Yesterday
Tim starts settling into his new role as the Batman of the future with Barbara acting as his tech support similar to how Bruce acted for Terry. Meanwhile, Matt recovered John Stewart's arm after Terry's battle with the robots and uses the Green Lantern ring to find out more about the city of Metropolis. Matt runs away to Metropolis, forcing Tim to go after him. In Neo-Gotham, Barbara and Mayor Luke Fox have to deal with an overwhelming amount of citizens from Metropolis and other desolated cities who want to break into Neo-Gotham. Luke does not allow them in due to the limited supplies they have for the inhabiting citizens as it is, but they eventually bust the wall and start overwhelming the security. In the desolated Metropolis, Tim finds himself pitted against splicers under the order of Dr. Abel Cuvier and Tuftan, members of the Evil Factory and former allies of Brother Eye. Matt finds the Justice League imprisoned within the Watchtower in Metropolis, but when he frees them to help Tim, they do not cooperate as they have a device implanted on them to make it look like every person they see are robots created by Brother Eye. They are stopped when Tim and Matt rescue Superman (who in this reality is Clark's son, Jonathan Kent). The Justice League returns to Neo-Gotham to put the intruding citizens under control and begin working to improve the world.
Wired for Death
After the Justice League's return, Tim focuses on stopping a recurring foe during his time as Batman, Davis Dusk aka Rewire. Rewire is revealed to be an alive Terry McGinnis, who was brainwashed by the villain Spellbinder (who projects himself to Terry as an old woman named Doris Shelby) into thinking he was Davis Dusk and that Batman wanted him dead. Terry used the Rewire suit to instigate four nights of power outages, causing riots which kept the police and Batman distracted from Spellbinder's activities. After Rewire fights Barbara and she discovers his true identity, Terry knocks her out and brings her to Blackgate, where Spellbinder brainwashes her too. Tim shows up to Blackgate and faces off against the brainwashed Barbara and Rewire. After Tim knocks off Rewire's helmet and discovers that Terry's alive (which he realizes was caused by altering the timeline in the past), Matt takes the Batmobile to Blackgate and distracts Terry from Tim by trying to free him from Spellbinder's illusion. Tim ultimately defeats Spellbinder and Terry's memories are restored. The four of them return to the Batcave, where Tim gives the mantle of Batman back to Terry and leaves to learn more about this foreign world. Though saddened by Tim's departure, the group is glad that Terry is back as Batman.
Batman Beyond (vol. 6) DC Rebirth series (2016–2020)
DC Comics announced another ongoing Batman Beyond series will be released in October 2016. It will take place after the previous series, with Terry McGinnis returning as the titular character, where he must deal the Jokerz after they take over a section of the city, where they plan to resurrect the deceased Joker. The series is written by Dan Jurgens and drawn by Bernard Chang.
Plot
Escaping the Grave
Terry is back as Batman and concentrates his efforts on taking down the Jokerz gang with Commissioner Gordon. He and Matt are living together again with Max, who has recovered from Brother Eye's torture. Terry's ex-girlfriend, Dana Tan, operates as a social worker and is kidnapped by the Jokerz while working in the slums of Neo-Gotham. After Terry witnesses her kidnapping on the news, he goes to the streets to investigate only to be attacked by a Joker that is pumped up on Bane's drug, Venom. Batman struggles to defeat the man as more Jokerz come in to overwhelm him. He barely escapes the madness and blames his shortcomings on not being Batman for the last couple of months. He comes up with a new plan to rescue Dana by disguising himself as a Joker named Trey Malone, the son of "Matches" Malone.
Meanwhile, Dana is taken to the leader of the Jokerz, Carter Wilson, aka Terminal. Terminal's ultimate plan is to resurrect the Joker, who supposedly died during a showdown with Batman years ago. Terry proves his worth to Carter by seemingly destroying the Batmobile with Max and Matt's help. Dana recognizes Terry and catches up with him when the other Jokerz are not looking. However, when she shows Carter's plan to Terry, the Jokerz spot them and Carter reveals he knew that Trey was Terry all along (as they went to high school together). The Jokerz knock out Terry and tie him and Dana upside down above a vat of acid. Terry manages to escape using one of his batarangs and gets Dana to the roof, where Matt gives him an upgraded Batsuit that allows him to easily take down the Jokerz. Dana is shocked to discover that Terry is Batman and has been lying to her for years. Terminal escapes with the Joker's body before Batman can find him. By examining the fingerprints Carter used to get to Wayne Enterprises, Terry discovers that Carter's plan to resurrect the Joker is actually a ruse. The comatose body Terminal has in his possession is a disguised and drugged Bruce Wayne, who Carter is using to fund his future crimes.
Bruce was thought to have died during the attack of the cyborgs. Terminal tells his assistant that he found Bruce's body under medical alert in the triage tents after the war. He kidnapped and drugged Bruce while giving him the necessary medical attention to obtain the Keystone, the world's ultimate intel gathering device. Batman emerges from the vault and stops Terminal from stealing the Keystone. Terminal's assistant wakes Bruce up and taunts him before tossing him off the building. Terry rescues Bruce while Terminal and his assistant fly away. Matt uses a rocket launcher to take down the ship, forcing the two criminals to crash in a nearby location. After Terry rescues Bruce, he ignores Bruce's pleas to go after Terminal and his assistant whom Bruce recognizes. At the crash site, Terminal's assistant is revealed to be the real Joker, who beats Wilson to death with a crowbar before walking off into the night.
Rise of the Demon
After returning to the Batcave, Bruce becomes concerned about Terry's new suit. Meanwhile, Curare escapes the attacks of the League of Assassins and breaks into the GCPD to tell Commissioner Gordon she needs to speak with Batman. The two go on the rooftop to activate the Bat-Signal, but are ambushed by the League in the process. Terry brings Dana back to her house and tells her that he will prioritize his own life before Batman's duties and not end up like Bruce. When Barbara turns on the Bat-Signal, Terry initially chooses to ignore it. Bruce contacts Dana with footage of the fight to get Terry to help. Batman assists Barbara and Curare, though he is more brutal in his approach. After the fight, Curare shows Batman a video confirming that Ra's al Ghul is alive. Bruce orders Terry to return to the Batcave to discard the suit, as it was a prototype that Bruce built with an artificial intelligence that blocks the wearer's pain. Bruce used it in his last mission to stop a group of criminals called the Banes, and the injuries sustained from his suit ended his career as Batman. Terry refuses to return and heads to Ghul's hideout in the Himalayas with Curare's flier as she is critically wounded by the Demon's right-hand man, Koru. Bruce follows Terry, worrying about Ghul's return and the suit's effect on Terry. After Terry defeats Ghul's forces, Ra's comes out to battle Terry himself; claiming that Terry is nothing more than a pretender to Batman's legacy. During their fight, Terry knocks off Ghul's mask, revealing that the new Ra's al Ghul is actually Bruce's son and the former Robin, Damian Wayne.
Prior to Bruce's retirement, Damian spent time in Europe and discovered Ra's was planning to capitalize on Batman's absence by sending the high-tech League of Assassins to invade Gotham. Damian donned the prototype Batsuit to become the new Batman to defend the city and nearly wiped out all of Ghul's army in four hours. Bruce figured that Ra's set Damian up to cut loose with the Batsuit to gain the perfect opportunity to recruit his grandson into the fold. During the climb up the Himalayas, Bruce is overpowered by Koru (confirmed to be Ubu's son) before using his grappling hook gun on him. In the temple, Damian has the advantage over Terry thanks to his superior combat experience and knowledge of Terry's Batsuit. He lures Terry into a group of speakers that jam the suit's cyberlink. Damian doesn't kill Terry and starts arguing with his father, telling Bruce that the suit wasn't the sole reason for his departure and that he felt betrayed when he saw Bruce had recruited Terry as the new Batman. He joined Ra's Al Ghul after realizing that Bruce was too focused on Gotham rather than the world and became his grandfather's successor as Ra's could no longer use the Lazarus Pits to prolong his life. Ra's correctly predicted that Bruce's Brother Eye would lead to a global disaster and prepared a number of missiles to "purify" the Earth after Brother Eye's onslaught. When Terry continues to lose to Damian, the suit takes over his body and causes him to fight more lethally. Damian summons his bat dragon Goliath to take Batman down, but Terry seemingly chokes Goliath to death, prompting an enraged Damian to duel him once more.
Bruce attempts to stop Damian's missiles from launching, but is attacked by Koru, looking to kill Bruce to avenge his father. Damian and Terry stop fighting to save Bruce from Koru, and Terry manages to overcome the suit's control. Bruce tells Damian that he knows deep down that his destructive plan is unreasonable tries to convince him to abandon course so they can work together peacefully. Damian reconsiders after finding out that Goliath is alive thanks to Bruce giving him an Adrenalin shot. Koru launches the missiles himself, which are DNA toxins designed to eradicate the weak. Terry flies into the sky and takes down most of the missiles with pulse blasters while Max takes out the final missile using Bruce's satellite. Terry's suit runs out of power just as he exits Earth's atmosphere, but he is rescued by Bruce and Damian. Bruce offers Damian the chance to rejoin them in Gotham, but Damian chooses to stay behind as he believes there's more good that can come out of leading the League before he returns home.
Batwomen Beyond
During the "Rise of the Demon" storyline, Commissioner Barbara Gordon is kidnapped while investigating Crown Point, a crime-ridden part of Gotham that's protected by a teenager named Nissa who operates as Batgirl. Max gets an alert on Barbara's capture and heads to Crown Point to investigate while leaving Matt to guard the Batcave. Max offers to assist Batgirl and tells the hero she's one of Batman's allies, but Batgirl doesn't trust Batman since he hasn't shown up to combat the multiple criminal activities that occur in Crown Point. Max reveals that she's helped with some of their cases behind the scenes using her technological knowledge. The two team up and take down the dirty cops that captured Barbara (with Max using holograms for illusion-based tactics inspired by Zatanna). Barbara and Max offer their aid to Batgirl whenever she or Crown Point need their help.
Gotham Games
Batman is sent by Commissioner Gordon to deactivate three Gotham Aerial Defense Systems that are rigged to take down any aerial vehicle. Terry tries to get the work done as fast as possible to watch Matt and Max compete in the Gotham Games, a futuristic basketball competition. His first target is in the Gotham Transit Authority, where he is attacked by Shriek, a former super villain who is now the self-appointed protector of the people that still live in the tunnels. When Batman comes out of a manhole into Chinatown, he is attacked by a new vigilante named Hacker, a young technological genius named Bo Han who gained the ability to hack nearly any technology with his hands during Brother Eye's invasion. He drives Batman out of Chinatown, leading Terry to find another one of the sabotaged aerial defense systems. Batman is attacked by the culprit behind the attacks, Freon of the Terrific Trio. She was resurrected thanks to Dr. Hodges using experimental molecular sieves to absorb and contain her radioactive decay, but the exposure to her kills him. Blaming Batman and Gotham for the deaths of her colleagues, she's rigged the city's defense systems to make Gotham destroy itself. Batman is assisted by Shriek and Hacker to contain Freon and cancel her attack.
The Long Payback
Bruce is now in a wheelchair after his fight with Koru and allows Terry and Matt to stay in the Manor to look after him. Terry has decided to fully embrace his life as Batman while still trying to maintain a healthy relationship with Dana. Barbara calls Bruce to inform him about a new vigilante in Gotham and voice her concerns about Terry continuing the Batman legacy. Bruce sends a new Batsuit to Terry when the Royal Flush Gang (consisting of only King, Ace, and a new Jack) crash a renewal of the Gotham Museum of Fine Arts to draw Batman out for their unknown client. After Terry destroys Ace and captures King and Jack, the mysterious client sends Stalker out to capture Batman in exchange for giving his decimated village supplies needed for survival. When Terry returns to Dana's apartment, Stalker kidnaps her to lure Batman to him. Terry frees Dana from Stalker's clutches, but their fight escalates when they crash into an office tower and set it ablaze. Stalker sets up a number of cameras for the whole world to see Batman's unmasking as he disobeys his client's orders not to kill Terry.
Stalker's assassination attempt is interfered by the client, Payback, who wishes to kill Batman himself. He cuts off Stalker's mechanical legs with his plasma whip before preparing to confront Terry. Batman attempts to rescue Stalker from the fire and is suddenly assisted by Melanie Walker aka Ten of the Royal Flush Gang, who has been taking down criminals on her own lately to prove to Terry she's reformed. Payback captures Ten and sends Batman and Stalker flying out of the building. Stalker repays Batman for the earlier assist by using Ten's glider to halt Terry's fall. Payback brings Melanie to his lair to torture her before teleporting Batman into a series of traps in the room. Batman initially assumes Payback is the original, grown up Kenny Stanton, but it turns out to be Kenny's father. Kenny was placed in a rehab facility after Batman defeated him and was driven to suicide from suffering the constant bullying by the older inmates and further neglect from his father. Blaming Batman for his son's death, Dr. Stanton prepares to eliminate Terry and Melanie using his advanced weaponry.
After witnessing Terry's struggles and knowing Bruce is too injured to intervene, Matt (who's been secretly training himself with holograms of Bruce's sessions with Damian) becomes the new Robin and rides a sky cycle to Payback's hideout to destroy the power generators, freeing Terry from Dr. Stanton's traps. With Matt and Melanie's assistance, Terry manages to knock out Payback before angrily dragging Matt back to the Batcave. He and Dana are outraged at Bruce for putting Matt's life in danger, but Matt still wants to operate as Robin. Before he can figure out what to do about his younger brother, Terry uses Wayne Tech resources to deliver the necessary supplies to Stalker's village.
Target: Batman
Despite Terry's protests about Matt becoming the new Robin, Bruce encourages him to be a proper mentor towards his younger brother and has developed a prototype Robin suit for Matt with similar functions to Terry's costume. Melanie arrives at the manor to catch up with Terry and asks him if he wants to start their relationship over. Dana arrives shortly after to tell Terry that she cannot handle dealing with his responsibilities as Batman, but she instead witnesses Melanie kissing Terry and runs home in tears. Before Terry and Melanie can discuss their relationship further, Bruce and Matt bring Terry into the manor as they've received word of Jokerz member Scab holding a shootout at the police headquarters while claiming that there is a bat monster coming after him. Bruce has Terry bring Matt along to save Barbara and the other hostages. Terry defeats Scab, but is unsatisfied with Matt's performance and forbids his brother to be Robin anymore. Meanwhile, Adalyn Stern, the co-anchor to Jack Ryder on the News 52, arrives home and is confronted by a monster that looks like Batman. However, Adalyn's A.I. cube tells her that she was alone all night the next day.
Batman interrogates the Jokerz on Scab's behavior, but the criminals treat him like a demon as well. Jack meets up with Melanie, whom he is co-sponsoring in a criminal rehab program, before encountering Adalyn, who panics after seeing Batman's shadow. Terry goes to Dana's apartment to talk with her, but she also sees Batman as a monster and calls the cops. As he flies out, he sees a group of citizens and Jokerz burning down a Batman statue and chanting to kill the demon. When he goes down to dispel the chaos, both sides start to attack him with Barbara and the police joining them shortly afterwards. Realizing Batman needs assistance against the violent citizens, Bruce provides Matt with a new Robin costume and access to the Batmobile to aid Terry. The villain behind the attack is revealed to be a new version of the Scarecrow using fear to manipulate the populace against Batman and Robin. Thanks to Bruce's knockout gas, the new Dynamic Duo safely take out the citizens as Scarecrow escapes.
Meanwhile, the News 52 prepares to cover the riot, but Jack refuses to anchor it without Adalyn. He goes to her apartment and learns that she was alone all night writing down "The Bat" on hundreds of sheets of paper. Jack then goes to the Batcave to learn Adalyn's connection to Batman with Bruce's help. They find out that Bruce ruthlessly beat up Adalyn's father (who was a notorious gang leader) right in front of her when he was Batman over twenty years ago. Terry and Matt return to the Batcave just as Jack leaves and determine that the new Scarecrow does not use fear gas to brainwash the population like Jonathan Crane did. When they go back on patrol, Scarecrow ignites Gotham's fear of Batman even further, which proves strong enough to turn Robin and Bruce against Batman. Bruce turns off the visual feed so he can still help Terry via audio. Jack eventually finds Adalyn in the News 52 building, where he discovers that she is the new Scarecrow and is using the A.I. cubes in every home to instill fear in Neo-Gotham against Batman. Jack is unaffected by the cubes thanks to his days as the Creeper and relays the information to Bruce so he can jam the signal. Melanie, who is also unaffected since she didn't own an A.I. cube, suits up as Ten to help Batman fight Robin. When Robin starts overwhelming them, Terry takes off his mask to get Matt to no longer see him as the monster, revealing his identity to Melanie in the process. Bruce manages to jam Adalyn's signal and turns Neo-Gotham back to normal. Adalyn is arrested and taken to Arkham, as she sees herself only as the Scarecrow. Back at the manor, the team discuss Melanie knowing their secret and Jack expresses his anger at Bruce for ruining Adalyn's life as Batman.
The Final Joke
On the 100th birthday of Thomas Wayne, the city holds a ceremony for Bruce deeding over the Wayne Family Center of Tomorrow to Neo-Gotham. Dick Grayson, now the mayor of Blüdhaven, reunites with Bruce at the celebration with his daughter, Elainna. The ceremony is interrupted by a train that veers off track and blows up the building. Batman and Robin are barely able to save their friends from the explosion. Meanwhile, Commissioner Gordon has been investigating a trail of gruesome Jokerz deaths. When she witnesses the train attack on television, she goes to her office to contact the White House, only to find the Joker (who was behind the Jokerz' deaths) sitting in her chair. They fight, but the Joker manages to escape in a taxi while witnessing Batman and the new Robin rescuing civilians at the destroyed Wayne Tower. Barbara eventually informs the group about the Joker's return.
The Joker sends a suicide bomber to blow up a novelty store that was supplying the Jokerz. He recruits a couple of the gang members and rebrands them as "the Throwbacks", with their new goal being to make Neo-Gotham more like the old Gotham. Terry takes a break from searching the city for the Joker to catch up with Melanie. As the two reexamine their relationship, Robin arrives to inform Terry about the store explosion. Batman and Robin arrive at the site and are attacked by the Throwbacks. Robin is attacked by one member who was converted into a cyborg and controlled by the Joker known as "Joker Beyond". During the fight, the Joker overhears Terry contacting Bruce and becomes determined to find out who Terry was talking to. Robin ends up crashing in the slums and is kidnapped by the Joker. When Matt's communication and tracking device goes offline, Dick takes the Batmobile and assists Terry in destroying Joker Beyond. Their victory is short-lived as the Joker reveals to them he has Robin and plans to kill him with the same crowbar that killed Jason Todd decades ago unless Robin reveals who "Bruce" is.
As Batman and Dick search through the city for Robin, the Joker starts broadcasting Robin's torture on television. When Robin refuses to give up Bruce's identity, Joker orders his henchmen to put Matt in a casket and light it on fire. Thanks to Dick tracing the broadcast's point of origin, he and Batman locate the Joker's hideout and defeat the henchmen. However, they find the casket empty as the Joker's broadcast was prerecorded. Shortly afterwards, the Joker arrives with the captive Robin in the Batcave revealing that Matt gave up Bruce's secret. He shoots Elainna in the shoulder before taking on Bruce with his crowbar. Bruce eventually gains the upper hand by stabbing his broken cane into the Joker's arm and stealing his gun. The Joker tries goading Bruce into shooting him, but he suddenly dies of a heart attack. Days later, Matt starts suffering post-traumatic stress disorder from the ordeal. Barbara confirms to the group at the morgue that the Joker is truly dead. Matt tries to help Terry round up the last of the Jokerz as Robin, but ends up getting saved by Dick when he freezes in place after one of the Jokerz attacks him with a crowbar. Despite Matt's protests, Terry, Dick, and Bruce all agree that he should no longer be Robin. Back at the morgue, an elderly Harley Quinn steals the Joker's corpse.
Divide, Conquer and Kill
Shortly after a trip to Arkham Asylum, Bruce begins acting strangely around Matt and Terry. He starts drinking, doesn't offer any helpful advice for Batman, and doesn't show any concern for Terry's safety. As this is going on, Terry battles a new foe named Splitt, who has super speed and the ability to briefly separate into two brothers named Caden and Adam. Thanks to their overwhelming speed, they are able to escape Batman with a key they are trying to use for an unknown device. Melanie and Matt discover that during Batman's battle with Splitt, Bruce was gambling at a casino. As he starts heading back to the mansion with a date, he orders A.L.F.R.E.D. to kick Matt and Melanie out of the mansion. Terry confronts Bruce for his behavior on the Graham Tower. Bruce orders A.L.F.R.E.D. to block transmission in the Batcave as he shoots Terry with a neural shocker and tackles him off the building.
Melanie visits Arkham Asylum to find out what's wrong with Bruce. When Dr. Sheehan tells her that there was a power outage during Bruce's visit, Melanie finds the cell Bruce was close to when the lights went out and frees the current masked prisoner, who attacks her and the guards. Terry seemingly returns to the Batcave to inform Matt that Bruce was replaced by a doppelganger. As Terry overrides the fake Bruce's commands to access A.L.F.R.E.D.'s transmissions, Melanie knocks out the prisoner and unmasks him, revealing him to be the real Bruce Wayne. Dr. Sheehan informs them that the impostor is False Face, a criminal with the ability to take on the form of anyone he touches. Bruce wasn't able to tell the guards who he was because False Face can make whoever he's disguised as lose all sense of themselves. Unbeknownst to the team, False Face has already disguised himself as Terry and left the real Terry out in the streets. Terry loses his I.D. and wallet to a group of criminals and cannot remember who he is.
Days later, Bruce has regained his memories, False Face operates as a merciless Batman, and Terry lives homeless in the slums. Terry is framed for murder by a criminal and is forced to evade a group of corrupt cops. After the team locates Splitt at a Powers facility, False Face arrives and battles them as Batman before proposing an alliance with them, revealing his true identity to Bruce, Melanie, and Matt in the process. Splitt tells him that they are stealing Powers tech to permanently separate themselves and to stop their speed powers from rapidly aging them. False Face begins leading them to the Batcave so he can find a way to exploit their powers for his own benefit. Melanie suits up as Ten and borrows one of Batman's utility belts to confront them and Bruce contacts the retired Barry Allen to assist her. After defeating Splitt, Barry agrees to help them activate the stabilizer matrix Powers previously used on them to save their lives. However, as soon as he activates the machine, False Face arrives and tries to stop the process. His interference with the energy flow causes a massive explosion that kills him and makes Splitt disappear. Since False Face died disguised as Terry, Terry's memories do not return to him. Terry is left wandering the streets as a murder suspect robbing restaurants with another homeless individual. One night, a woman breaks into the Batcave and steals Terry's Batsuit, vowing to protect Neo-Gotham herself.
First Flight
Terry continues to be on the run from the police with his new acquaintance, Constance Gustinov, as Neo-Gotham is left wondering what happened to Batman. When someone wearing the Batsuit begins saving some of the citizens, Jack Ryder catches the hero in the act and finds out that a woman wearing the costume. Bruce and Matt initially believe that the new Batwoman is either Melanie or Barbara, but both women deny stealing the suit when asked. Meanwhile, Derek Powers a.k.a. Blight breaks into Powers Industries and reclaims his containment suit.
Blight breaks into Wayne Enterprises and battles Batwoman. Bruce and Matt witness their fight with the facility's security cameras, during which Matt learns that Powers murdered his father, Warren McGinnis. Batwoman finds out that Blight is slowly dying and is searching for a host body to possess. She ends the fight by using a bomb to rupture Blight's containment suit and bring the facility's roof down before escaping. Blight survives the attack, but finds his condition is worsening. Meanwhile, Terry learns that Constance was formerly the top researcher for Powers' biomechanical engineering program and developed a deadly mutagenic toxin. She became a criminal on the run after Warren reported her for unlawful research. She learns Terry's true identity through a retinal scanner, but refuses to tell him out of spite. Blight later calls her to tell her he needs a new host body for his consciousness, and she decides the amnesiac Terry is the perfect candidate as it would allow both her and Blight to get revenge on Warren.
As they prepare Terry's body for the transfer, Blight sends his men to attack Wayne Industries facilities with a doomsday device known as "Devourers". When Bruce and Matt invite Barbara and Melanie to the Batcave to determine Batwoman's identity, Blight's men arrive to unleash a Devourer on Wayne Manor. While Batwoman fights off Blight's men, Dick Grayson arrives at the manor and disarms the Devourer. Batwoman quickly flees the scene when Dick offers to help her. Dick tells Bruce he came to Gotham after his daughter Elainna went missing, leading the group to deduce that Elainna is the new Batwoman. At Powers Industries, Constance knocks out Terry and places him inside a capsule to transfer Blight's mind into his body. She restores Terry's memory in order to fully sweep his mind clean just before Batwoman arrives and cuts off the power. Elainna manages to rescue Terry and the two escape the facility just as Powers' suit ruptures further. With his only chance at survival gone, Blight kills Constance and vows to use his dying moments to get revenge on Bruce. Now knowing Bruce's secrets after going through his records, he attacks Bruce and the group in the Batcave just before Batwoman and Terry return. Terry puts on his original Batsuit to become Batman once more and teams up with Batwoman to battle Blight. After Dick manages to briefly incapacitate Blight with a substance Bruce designed for Firefly, Terry pins Powers with the Batmobile and directs it to dig a large hole into the ocean floor before self-destructing it to keep the last of Blight and his radiation contained.
The Eradication Agenda
As the Batcave under Wayne Manor is being rebuilt, Bruce relocates himself, Terry, and Matt to a Wayne Industries building in the middle of the city, where he has set up an urban Batcave hidden by holographic technology that the McGinnis brothers call "The Batsuite". Terry is then alerted of data thieves known as Slamjackers attacking a government building and leaves to defeat them as Batman. After defeating the criminals, he is approached by a distraught Goliath, who leads him to a critically wounded Damian Wayne. As they bring Damian to the new hideout to receive medical treatment, they are attacked by the League of Assassins. They manage to evade the ninjas thanks to the hideout's defensive measures and heal Damian's wounds with Bruce's recovery pod, which borrows key elements from the Lazarus Pit. After recovering, Damian tells the group that he was overthrown by one of Ra's al Ghul's top lieutenants, Zeh-Ro a.k.a. Mr. Zero, who led the League of Assassins to rebel against him and plans on creating a second Ice Age that will leave Earth devoid of life while they take refuge in space for hundreds of years.
Meanwhile, Dick is still at odds with Elainna's decision to become Batwoman, but Barbara convinces him to let his daughter become the woman she wants to be. The three go to the Batcave under Wayne Manor to gain access to a suit that Bruce initially developed for Dick. As the League of Assassins begin to destroy Gotham with their ships to find Damian, Elainna and Dick team up with Terry, Damian, and Goliath to take them out while Bruce destroys their large flying battleship with his satellite. As they regroup, they notice that a large blizzard is forming in Gotham while Bruce informs them that the League of Assassins are leaving the Earth in spaceships. Bruce finds out that the League is causing the Earth's temperatures to drop significantly by deploying small satellites from their orbiting platform to form a crystalline barrier that blocks out the sun's rays. The five of them fly to Texas to access one of Bruce's bunkers that contains a spaceship. Dick stays behind to help with the launch as Batman, Batwoman, Damian, and Goliath go into space and board the platform. After dealing with dozens of assassins, Mr. Zero traps the four of them in a room not present in his initial plans and opens the airlock to send them into space, but they manage to stay in by accessing the room's wiring.
On Earth, Bruce, Matt, and Barbara survive the temperature drops, thanks to the Batmobile. Dick gains access to a fleet of Bruce's communication satellites to take out most of the League's satellites with Batwoman as Damian overrides the rest of them. Shortly after Batman defeats Mr. Zero, they escape as the satellite explosions blows the platform out of orbit and sends Zeh-Ro and the other assassins drifting into space. As they return to Earth, the world's climate begins to return to normal. Terry convinces Damian to use the League for less destructive means, leading Damian to revive his partnership with Bruce to combine their resources to improve the world.
Cancelled by Yesterday
After one of Terry's nightly patrols, Bruce suddenly accuses Terry of trying to kill him and activates his defense protocols to attack the McGinnis brothers. Terry is rescued by Booster Gold, who informs him that Bruce has turned against him because of a post-hypnotic suggestion given to him in the past and that Matt was killed from Bruce's defense drones. Booster and Skeets take Terry back to the year 2020 on the day where Bruce received the implanted suggestion so they can prevent it from happening. They arrive at a burning neighborhood that is being attacked by the telepathic villain Blanque. As Booster and Blanque fight, Terry rescues a young boy from a burning building who turns out to be his father, Warren McGinnis. He is then suddenly confronted by the younger Bruce as Batman, who believes he is a criminal, but Booster turns his attention towards Blanque so Terry can get Warren to safety.
After Blanque knocks Bruce out, Terry and Booster manage to defeat him with help from Skeets. Before Terry leaves, he has Warren promise to keep his black and red suit a secret. He later returns to his time and is grateful to find that Bruce is seemingly back to normal and Matt is not dead. Once the Mcginnis brothers leave, Bruce meets with an older Booster Gold. It is revealed that the timeline didn't change as Bruce had faked his insanity with Matt so the younger Booster would take Terry back in time to save his father. Warren later wrote in his journal how Batman's heroics inspired him to report Derek Powers to the authorities, which would later result in his death and Terry becoming Batman.
Curtainfall
Terry is informed by Dana that Bruce and Matt were attacked and hospitalized. On his way to the hospital, Batman is pursued by the police. When he arrives, he learns from Barbara and Melanie that Bruce and Matt were attacked in the lab by an imposter Batman, who also killed a airport security guard earlier in the night. Matt arrives at the lobby with a broken arm and tells the group that Bruce suffered from a heart attack during the fight. After patching his relationship with Dana, Terry checks in on Bruce in the emergency room. When he asks Bruce who attacked them, Bruce knocks over a glass of water. Terry is then suddenly approached by Wonder Woman, who offers to help him track down the imposter.
Based on the location of the attacks and Bruce's clue, Terry and Diana deduce that the culprit is Inque and track her down to her next target, Waynetech's Research and Development. Inque is dying and has stolen a stabilizer cube and power source in a desperate attempt to save herself. Batman manages to disperse her solid form with sonics before capturing her body with the stabilizer cube so that they can keep her alive as they try to find a way to cure her. Bruce survives Inque's assault thanks to a successful heart transplant surgery, and the volume ends with Wonder Woman offering Terry the chance to join the Justice League.
Batman Beyond: Neo Year upcoming series (2022)
In September 2021, it was revealed that a new series will follow Terry McGinnis as he navigates being Batman without the guidance of the recently deceased Bruce Wayne.
Collected editions
Numerous miniseries have been reprinted under the same title as collections. This section lists only reprints from ongoing series. All were issued in trade paperback format unless noted otherwise.
References
External links
DC page: BB2010, BB2011, BB2015, BB2016, BBU2012, BBU2013
Comics
Works based on the DC Animated Universe
Batman storylines
Comics based on television series
Cyberpunk comics
Works set in the future
Comics by Christos Gage
Comics by Dan Jurgens
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