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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ChibiOS/RT
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ChibiOS/RT
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ChibiOS/RT is a compact and fast real-time operating system supporting multiple architectures and released under a mix of the GNU General Public License version 3 (GPL3) and the Apache License 2.0 (depending on module). It is developed by Giovanni Di Sirio.
Commercial licenses are available from ChibiOS. Additional products include ChibiOS/HAL, a hardware abstraction layer compatible with ChibiOS/RT, and ChibiStudio, a free integrated development environment based on Eclipse, the GNU Compiler Collection, and the OpenOCD Joint Test Action Group (JTAG) debugging pod.
Metrics
ChibiOS/RT is designed for embedded applications on microcontrollers of 8-, 16-, and 32-bits. Size and execution efficiency are the main project goals. As reference, the kernel size can range from a minimum of 1.2 KiB up to a maximum of 5.5 KiB with all the subsystems activated on a STM32 Cortex-M3 processor. The kernel can achieve over 220,000 created/terminated threads per second and can perform a context switch in 1.2 microseconds on an STM32 @ 72 MHz. Similar metrics for all the supported platforms are included in the source code distribution as test reports.
Features
The ChibiOS/RT microkernel supports:
Preemptive multithreading
128 priority queue levels
Round-robin scheduling for threads at the same priority level
Software timers
Counting semaphores
Mutexes with support for the priority inheritance algorithm
Condition variables
Synchronous and asynchronous Messages
Event flags and handlers
Queues
Synchronous and asynchronous I/O with timeout capability
Thread-safe memory heap and memory pool allocators.
Hardware Abstraction Layer with support for ADC, CAN, GPT (general-purpose timer), EXT, I²C, ICU, MAC, MMC/SD, PAL, PWM, RTC, SDC, Serial, SPI, and USB drivers.
Support for the LwIP and uIP TCP/IP stacks.
Support for the FatFs file system library.
All system objects, such as threads, semaphores, timers, etc., can be created and deleted at runtime. There is no upper limit except for the available memory. To increase system reliability, the kernel architecture is entirely static, a memory allocator is not needed (but is available as an option), and there are no data structures with upper size limits like tables or arrays. The system application programming interfaces (APIs) are designed to not have error conditions such as error codes or exceptions.
The RTOS is designed for applications on embedded systems (devices) and includes demo applications for various microcontrollers:
STMicroelectronics – STM32F1xx, STM32F2xx, STM32F3xx, STM32F4xx, STM32L1xx, STM32F0xx; STM8S208x, STM8S105x, STM8L152x; ST/Freescale SPC56x, MPC56xx
NXP Semiconductors – LPC11xx, LPC11Uxx, LPC13xx, LPC2148
Atmel – AT91SAM7S, AT91SAM7X, megaAVR
Texas Instruments (TI) – MSP430x1611; TM4C123G, TM4C1294
Microchip Technology – PIC32MX
Contributed ports are also available for the Coldfire and H8S families.
ChibiOS/RT has also been ported to the Raspberry Pi and the following device drivers have been implemented: Port (GPIO), Serial, GPT (General-Purpose Timer), I2C, SPI and PWM.
It is also possible to run the kernel in a Win32 process in a software I/O emulation mode, allowing easy application development without the need for physical hardware. An example is included for MinGW compiler.
uGFX
ChibiOS/RT is fully supported by the graphical user interface (GUI) toolkit µGFX, formerly named ChibiOS/GFX.
See also
Comparison of open-source operating systems
A detailed explanation of multithreading in ChibiOS/RT
References
External links
ChibiOS/RT project page and support
Real-time operating systems
Embedded operating systems
Free software operating systems
ARM operating systems
Microkernel-based operating systems
Microkernels
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997189
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenovo
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Lenovo
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Lenovo Group Limited, often shortened to Lenovo ( , Chinese: ), is a Chinese-American multinational technology company specializing in designing, manufacturing, and marketing consumer electronics, personal computers, software, business solutions, and related services. Products manufactured by the company include desktop computers, laptops, tablet computers, smartphones, workstations, servers, supercomputers, electronic storage devices, IT management software, and smart televisions. Its best-known brands include IBM's ThinkPad business line of laptop computers, the IdeaPad, Yoga, and Legion consumer lines of laptop computers, and the IdeaCentre and ThinkCentre lines of desktop computers. As of January 2021, Lenovo is the world's largest personal computer vendor by unit sales.
Lenovo was founded in Beijing on 1 November 1984 as Legend by a team of engineers from the Chinese Academy of Sciences. Initially specializing in televisions, the company migrated towards manufacturing and marketing computers. Lenovo grew to become the market leader in China and raised nearly US$30 million in an initial public offering on the Hong Kong Stock Exchange (SEHK). Since the 1990s, Lenovo has increasingly diversified from the personal computer market and made a number of corporate acquisitions, with the most notable being acquiring and integrating most of IBM's personal computer business and its x86-based server business as well as creating its own smartphone.
Lenovo has operations in over 60 countries and sells its products in around 180 countries. Its main and global headquarters are located in Hong Kong and Beijing respectively. It also has research centers in Beijing as well as in other Chinese cities such as Chengdu, Shanghai, Shenzhen, as well as internationally in Yamato, Kanagawa, Japan, Lorong Chuan, Singapore and Morrisville, North Carolina, United States. Lenovo identifies its facilities in Beijing, China, Morrisville, U.S., and Lorong Chuan, Singapore as its "key location addresses", where its principal operations occur. There is also Lenovo NEC Holdings, a joint venture with Japan's NEC that produces personal computers for the Japanese market.
History
1984–1993: Founding and early history
Liu Chuanzhi, along with a group of ten experienced engineers, officially founded Lenovo in Beijing on November 1, 1984, with 200,000 yuan. The Chinese government approved Lenovo's incorporation on the same day. Jia Xufu (贾续福), one of the founders of Lenovo, indicated that the first meeting in preparation for starting the company was held on October 17 the same year. Eleven people, the entirety of the initial staff, attended. Each of the founders was a member of the Institute of Computing Technology of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS). The 200,000 yuan used as start-up capital was approved by Zeng Maochao (曾茂朝). The name for the company agreed upon at this meeting was the Chinese Academy of Sciences Computer Technology Research Institute New Technology Development Company.
The organizational structure of the company was established in 1985 after the Chinese New Year. It included a technology, engineering, administrative, and office departments. The group first attempted to import televisions but failed. It rebuilt itself as a company doing quality checks on computers. It also tried and failed to market a digital watch. In 1990, Lenovo started to manufacture and market computers using its own brand name.
In May 1988, Lenovo placed its first recruitment advertisement on the front page of the China Youth News. Such ads were quite rare in China at the time. Out of the 500 respondents, 280 were selected to take a written employment exam. 120 of these candidates were interviewed in person. Although interviewers initially only had authority to hire 16 people, 58 were given offers. The new staff included 18 people with graduate degrees, 37 with undergraduate degrees, and three students with no university-level education. Their average age was 26. Yang Yuanqing, the current chairman and CEO of Lenovo, was among that group.
Liu Chuanzhi received government permission to form a subsidiary in Hong Kong and to move there along with five other employees. Liu's father, already in Hong Kong, furthered his son's ambitions through mentoring and facilitating loans. Liu moved to Hong Kong in 1988. To save money during this period, Liu and his co-workers walked instead of taking public transportation. To keep up appearances, they rented hotel rooms for meetings.
Some of the company's early successes included the KT8920 mainframe computer. It also developed a circuit board that allowed IBM-compatible personal computers to process Chinese characters.
1994–1998: IPO, second offerings and bond sales
Lenovo (known at the time as Legend) became publicly traded after a 1994 Hong Kong IPO that raised nearly US$30 million. Prior to the IPO, many analysts were optimistic about Lenovo. On its first day of trading, the company's stock price hit a high of HK$2.07 and closed at HK$2.00. Proceeds from the offering were used to finance sales offices in Europe, North America and Australia, to expand and improve production and research and development, and to increase working capital.
By 1996, Lenovo was the market leader in China and began selling its own laptop. By 1998 it held 43 percent of the domestic computer market share in China, selling approximately one million computers.
Lenovo released its Tianxi () computer in 1998. Designed to make it easy for inexperienced Chinese consumers to use computers and access the internet, one of its most important features was a button that instantly connected users to the internet and opened the Web browser. It was co-branded with China Telecom and it was bundled with one year of Internet service. The Tianxi was released in 1998. It was the result of two years of research and development. It had a pastel-colored, shell-shaped case and a seven-port USB hub under its screen. As of 2000, the Tianxi was the best-selling computer in Chinese history. It sold more than 1,000,000 units in 2000 alone.
1999–2010: IBM purchase and sale of smartphone division
To fund its continued growth, Lenovo issued a secondary offering of 50 million shares on the Hong Kong market in March 2000 and raised about US$212 million. It rebranded to the name Lenovo in 2003 and began making acquisitions to expand the company.
Lenovo acquired IBM's personal computer business in 2005, including the ThinkPad laptop and tablet lines. Lenovo's acquisition of IBM's personal computer division accelerated access to foreign markets while improving both Lenovo's branding and technology. Lenovo paid US$1.25 billion for IBM's computer business and assumed an additional US$500 million of IBM's debt. This acquisition made Lenovo the third-largest computer maker worldwide by volume.
Lenovo's purchase of the Think line from IBM also led to the creation of the IBM/Lenovo partnership which works together in the creation of Think-line of products sold by Lenovo
About the purchase of IBM's personal computer division, Liu Chuanzhi said in 2012: "We benefited in three ways from the IBM acquisition. We got the ThinkPad brand, IBM's more advanced PC manufacturing technology and the company's international resources, such as its global sales channels and operation teams. These three elements have shored up our sales revenue in the past several years." The employees of the division, including those who developed ThinkPad laptops and Think Centre desktops, became employees of Lenovo.
Despite Lenovo acquiring the "Think" brand from IBM, IBM still plays a key indirect, background role in the design and production of the Think line of products. IBM today is responsible for overseeing servicing and repair centers and is considered an authorized distributor and refurbisher of the Think line of products produced by Lenovo.
IBM also acquired a 50% share of Lenovo in 2005 as part of Lenovo's purchase of IBM's personal computing division.
Mary Ma, Lenovo's chief financial officer from 1990 to 2007, was in charge of investor relations. Under her leadership, Lenovo successfully integrated Western-style accountability into its corporate culture. Lenovo's emphasis on transparency earned it a reputation for the best corporate governance among mainland Chinese firms. All major issues regarding its board, management, major share transfers, and mergers and acquisitions were fairly and accurately reported. While Hong Kong-listed firms were only required to issue financial reports twice per year, Lenovo followed the international norm of issuing quarterly reports. Lenovo created an audit committee and a compensation committee with non-management directors. The company started roadshows twice per year to meet institutional investors. Ma organized the first-ever investor relations conference held in mainland China. The conference was held in Beijing in 2002 and televised on China Central Television (CCTV). Liu and Ma co-hosted the conference and both gave speeches on corporate governance.
Lenovo sold its smartphone and tablet division in 2008 for US$100 million in order to focus on personal computers and then paid US$200 million to buy it back in November 2009. , the mobile division ranked third in terms of unit share in China's mobile handset market. Lenovo invested CN¥100 million in a fund dedicated to providing seed funding for mobile application development for its LeGarden online app store. As of 2010, LeGarden had more than 1,000 programs available for the LePhone. At the same time, LeGarden counted 2,774 individual developers and 542 developer companies as members.
2011–2013: Re-entering smartphone market and other ventures
On January 27, 2011, Lenovo formed a joint venture to produce personal computers with Japanese electronics firm NEC. The companies said in a statement that they would establish a new company called Lenovo NEC Holdings, to be registered in the Netherlands. NEC received US$175 million in Lenovo stock. Lenovo was to own a 51% stake in the joint venture, while NEC would have 49%. Lenovo has a five-year option to expand its stake in the joint venture.
This joint venture was intended to boost Lenovo's worldwide sales by expanding its presence in Japan, a key market for personal computers. NEC spun off its personal computer business into the joint venture. As of 2010, NEC controlled about 20% of Japan's market for personal computers while Lenovo had a 5% share. Lenovo and NEC also agreed to explore cooperating in other areas such as servers and tablet computers.
Roderick Lappin, chairman of the Lenovo–NEC joint venture, told the press that the two companies will expand their co-operation to include the development of tablet computers.
In June 2011, Lenovo announced that it planned to acquire control of Medion, a German electronics manufacturing company. Lenovo said the acquisition would double its share of the German computer market, making it the third-largest vendor by sales (after Acer and Hewlett-Packard). The deal, which closed in the third quarter of the same year, was claimed by The New York Times as "the first in which a Chinese company acquired a well-known German company."
This acquisition will give Lenovo 14% of the German computer market. Gerd Brachmann, chairman of Medion, agreed to sell two-thirds of his 60 percent stake in the company. He will be paid in cash for 80 percent of the shares and will receive 20 percent in Lenovo stock. That would give him about one percent of Lenovo.
In September 2012, Lenovo agreed to acquire the Brazil-based electronics company Digibras, which sells products under the brand-name CCE, for a base price of 300 million reals (US$148 million) in a combination of stock and cash. An additional payment of 400 million reals was made dependent upon performance benchmarks. Prior to its acquisition of CCE, Lenovo already established a $30 million factory in Brazil, but Lenovo's management had felt that they needed a local partner to maximize regional growth. Lenovo cited their desire to take advantage of increased sales due to the 2014 World Cup that would be hosted by Brazil and the 2016 Summer Olympics and CCE's reputation for quality. Following the acquisition, Lenovo announced that its subsequent acquisitions would be concentrated in software and services.
In September 2012, Lenovo agreed to acquire the United States-based software company Stoneware, in its first software acquisition. The transaction was expected to close by the end of 2012; no financial details have been disclosed. Lenovo said that the company was acquired in order to gain access to new technology and that Stoneware is not expected to significantly affect earnings. More specifically, Stoneware was acquired to further Lenovo's efforts to improve and expand its cloud-computing services. For the two years prior to its acquisition, Stoneware partnered with Lenovo to sell its software. During this period Stoneware's sales doubled. Stoneware was founded in 2000. As of September 2012, Stoneware is based in Carmel, Indiana and has 67 employees.
Lenovo re-entered the smartphone market in 2012 and quickly became the largest vendor of smartphones in mainland China. Entry into the smartphone market was paired with a change of strategy from "the one-size-fits-all" to a diverse portfolio of devices. These changes were driven by the popularity of Apple's iPhone and Lenovo's desire to increase its market share in mainland China. Lenovo surpassed Apple Inc. to become the No. 2 provider of smartphones in the domestic Chinese market in 2012. However, due to there being about 100 smartphone brands sold in China, this second only equated to a 10.4% market share.
In May 2012, Lenovo announced an investment of US$793 million in the construction of a mobile phone manufacturing and R&D facility in Wuhan, Hubei.
In 2013, Lenovo created a joint venture with EMC named LenovoEMC. The venture took over Iomega's business and rebranded all of Iomega's products under the LenovoEMC brand, and designed products for small and medium-sized businesses that could not afford enterprise-class data storage. Lenovo has since retired all of the LenovoEMC products on their product page advising that the products are no longer available for purchase on lenovo.com.
2014–present: Purchase of IBM server lines and other acquisitions
IBM sold its x86-based server lines, including IBM System x and IBM BladeCenter, to Lenovo in 2014. Lenovo says it will gain access to more enterprise customers, improve its profit margins, and develop a closer relationship with Intel, the maker of most server processors, through its acquisition of IBM's x86-based server business. On 1 October 2014, Lenovo closed its acquisition of IBM's server division, with the final price put at $2.1 billion. Lenovo said this acquisition came in at a price lower than the previously announced $2.3 billion partially because of a change in the value of IBM inventories. The deal has been already approved by Europe, China and the United States. The United States Department of Treasury Committee on Foreign Investment in the United States (CFIUS) was reportedly the last hurdle for Lenovo, since the United States has the strictest policies. According to Timothy Prickett-Morgan from Enterprise Tech, the deal still awaits "approval of regulators in China, the European Commission, and Canada".
After closing, Lenovo said that its goal was to become the world's largest maker of servers. Lenovo also announced plans to start integrating IBM's workforce. The acquisition added about 6,500 new employees to Lenovo. Lenovo said that it has no immediate intent to cut jobs. Lenovo said that positions in research and development and customer-facing roles such as marketing would be "100% protected", but expected "rationalization" of its supply chain and procurement.
On 29 January 2014, Google announced it would sell Motorola Mobility to Lenovo for US$2.91 billion. As of February 2014, Google owned about 5.94% of Lenovo's stock. The deal included smartphone lines like the Moto X, Moto G, Droid Turbo, and the future Motorola Mobility product roadmap, while Google retained the Advanced Technologies & Projects unit and all but 2,000 of the company's patents. Lenovo received royalty free licenses to all the patents retained by Google. Lenovo received approval from the European Union for its acquisition of Motorola in June 2014. The acquisition was completed on 30 October 2014. Motorola Mobility remained headquartered in Chicago, and continued to use the Motorola brand, but Liu Jun, president of Lenovo's mobile device business, became the head of the company.
In April 2014, Lenovo purchased a portfolio of patents from NEC related to mobile technology. These included over 3,800 patent families in countries around the world. The purchase included standards-essential patents for 3G and LTE cellular technologies and other patents related to smartphones and tablets.
In May 2015, Lenovo revealed a new logo at Lenovo Tech World in Beijing, with the slogan "Innovation Never Stands Still" (). Lenovo's new logo, created by Saatchi, can be changed by its advertising agencies and sales partners, within restrictions, to fit the context. It has a lounging "e" and is surrounded by a box that can be changed to use a relevant scene, solid color, or photograph. Lenovo's Chief Marketing Officer David Roman said, "When we first started looking at it, it wasn't about just a change in typography or the look of the logo. We asked 'If we really are a net-driven, customer-centric company, what should the logo look like?' We came up with the idea of a digital logo first [...] designed to be used on the internet and adaptable to context."
In early June 2015, Lenovo announced plans to sell up to US$650 million in five-year bonds denominated in Chinese yuan. The bonds were sold in Hong Kong with coupon ranging from 4.95% to 5.05%. This is only the second sale of bonds in Lenovo's history. Financial commentators noted that Lenovo was paying a premium to list the bonds in yuan given relatively low costs for borrowing in US dollars.
Lenovo said that its x86 servers will be available to all its channel partners. Lenovo plans to cut prices on x86 products in order to gain market share. This goes in alliance with IBM's vision of the future around cloud technologies and their own POWER processor architecture.
Lenovo's acquisition of IBM's businesses is arguably one of the greatest case studies on merging massive international enterprises. Though this acquisition in 2005 ultimately resulted in success, the integration of the businesses had a difficult and challenging beginning. Lenovo had employees from different cultures, different backgrounds, and different languages. These differences caused misunderstandings, hampering trust and the ability to build a new corporate culture. At the end of its first two years, Lenovo Group had met many of its original challenges, including integrating two disparate cultures in the newly formed company, maintaining the Think brand image for quality and innovation, and improving supply chain and manufacturing efficiencies. However, Lenovo had failed to meet a key objective of the merger: leveraging the combined strength of the two companies to grow volume and market share. In order to achieve success, Lenovo embraced diversify at multiple levels- business model, culture, and talent. By 2015, Lenovo grew into the world's number 1 PC maker, number 3 smartphone manufacturer and number 3 in the production of tablet computers.
In March 2017, Lenovo announced it was partnering with Fort Lauderdale, Florida-based software storage virtualization company DataCore to add DataCore's parallel I/O-processing software to Lenovo's storage devices. The servers were reportedly designed to outperform Storage Area Network (SAN) SAN arrays.
In 2017, Lenovo formed a joint venture with Fujitsu and the Development Bank of Japan (DBJ). In the joint venture, Fujitsu would sell Lenovo a 51% stake in Fujitsu Client Computing Limited. DBJ would acquire a 5% stake.
In September 2018, Lenovo and NetApp announced about strategic partnership and joint venture in China. As part of strategic partnership Lenovo started two new lines of storage systems: DM-Series and DE-Series. Both storage systems using Lenovo hardware and NetApp software: DM-Series using ONTAP OS and DE-Series SANtricity OS.
In 2018, Lenovo became the world's largest provider for the TOP500 supercomputers.
In 2020, Lenovo became a preferred data center innovation provider for DreamWorks Animation starting with Trolls World Tour.
Name
"Lenovo" is a portmanteau of "Le-" (from Legend) and "novo", Latin ablative for "new". The Chinese name () means "association" (as in "association of ideas"), "associative thinking", or "connected thinking". It also implies creativity. "Lianxiang" was first used to refer to a layout of Chinese typewriters in the 1950s organized into groups of common words and phrases rather than the standard dictionary layout.
For the first 20 years of its existence, the company's English name was "Legend". In 2002, Yang Yuanqing decided to abandon the Legend English name to expand beyond the Chinese home market. "Legend" was already in use worldwide by many businesses whose products and services may or may not have to do with technology, making it impossible to register in many jurisdictions outside China. In April 2003, the company publicly announced its new English name, "Lenovo", with an advertising campaign including huge billboards and primetime television ads. Lenovo spent 18 million RMB on an eight-week television advertising campaign. The billboards showed the Lenovo logo against blue sky with a slogan that read, "Transcendence depends on how you think." By the end of 2003, Lenovo had spent a total of 200 million RMB on rebranding.
Products and services
Lenovo is a manufacturer of personal computers, smartphones, televisions, and wearable devices. Some of the company's earliest products included the KT8920 mainframe computer and a circuit board that allowed IBM-compatible personal computers to process Chinese characters. One of its first computers was the Tianxi (), released in 1998 in the Chinese market. It became the best selling computer in Chinese history in 2000.
Personal and business computing
Lenovo markets the ThinkPad, IdeaPad, Yoga, Legion and Xiaoxin (; Chinese market only) lines of laptops, as well as the IdeaCentre and ThinkCentre lines of desktops. It expanded significantly in 2005 through its acquisition of IBM's personal computer business, including its ThinkPad and ThinkCentre lines. As of January 2013, shipments of THINK-branded computers have doubled since Lenovo's takeover of the brand, with profit margins thought to be above 5%. Lenovo aggressively expanded the THINK brand away from traditional laptop computers in favor of tablets and hybrid devices such as the ThinkPad Tablet 2, ThinkPad Yoga, ThinkPad 8, ThinkPad Helix, and ThinkPad Twist; the shift came as a response to the growing popularity of mobile devices, and the release of Windows 8 in October 2012. Lenovo achieved significant success with this high-value strategy and in 2013 controlled more than 40% of the market for Windows computers priced above $900 in the United States.
ThinkPad
The ThinkPad is a line of business-oriented laptop computers known for their boxy black design, modeled after a traditional Japanese bento. The ThinkPad was originally an IBM product developed at the Yamato Facility in Japan by ; they have since been developed, manufactured and sold by both IBM and Lenovo after early 2005, following its acquisition of IBM's personal computer division. The ThinkPad has been used in space and were the only laptops certified for use on the International Space Station.
ThinkCentre
The ThinkCentre is a line of business-oriented desktop computers which was introduced in 2003 by IBM and since has been produced and sold by Lenovo since 2005. ThinkCentre computers typically include mid-range to high-end processors, options for discrete graphics cards, and multi-monitor support. Similar to the ThinkPad line of computers, there have been budget lines of ThinkCentre branded computers in the past. Some examples of this include: M55e series, A50 series, M72 series. These "budget" lines are typically "thin clients" however, meaning they are not standalone computers, rather, they are access points to a central server.
ThinkServer, followed by ThinkSystem
The ThinkServer product line began with the TS100 from Lenovo. The server was developed under agreement with IBM, by which Lenovo would produce single-socket and dual-socket servers based on IBM's xSeries technology. An additional feature of the server design was a support package aimed at small businesses. The focus of this support package was to provide small businesses with software tools to ease the process of server management and reduce dependence on IT support.
On June 20, 2017, Lenovo's Data Center Group relaunched the ThinkServer product line as ThinkSystem, which consisted of 17 new machine type models, in the catalog formate containing form factors such as Tower, 1U/2U, Blades, Dense and 4U Mission Critical Intel-based servers. Also within this relaunch contained a portfolio of Storage Arrays and of Fibre Channel SAN Switches and Directors. To further incorporate industry-leading partnerships into its portfolio, Lenovo struck an agreement with the processor company, AMD, to be able to supply customers with a choice of options between both Intel and AMD powered appliances. In August, 2019, the first two ThinkSystem platforms were introduced to the market containing a single AMD EPYC processor, the SR635 (1U) and the SR655 (2U). Again, in May 2020, Lenovo DCG further expanded its AMD offerings to incorporate 2-proc systems, the SR645 and the SR665, continuing tio exemplify its approach to being the Most Trusted Data Center Advisor in the market.
ThinkStation
Lenovo ThinkStations are workstations designed for high-end computing. In 2008, IBM/Lenovo expanded the focus of its THINK brand to include workstations, with the ThinkStation S10 being the first model released.
ThinkVision displays
High-end monitors are marketed under the ThinkVision name. ThinkVision displays share a common design language with other THINK devices such as the ThinkPad line of laptop computers and ThinkCentre line of desktop computers. At the 2014 International CES, Lenovo announced the ThinkVision Pro2840m, a 28-inch 4K display aimed at professionals. Lenovo also announced another 28-inch 4K touch-enabled device running Android that can function as an all-in-one PC or an external display for other devices.
At the 2016 International CES, Lenovo announced two displays with both USB-C and DisplayPort connectivity. The ThinkVision X24 Pro monitor is a 24-inch 1920 by 1080 pixel thin-bezel display that uses an IPS LCD panel. The ThinkVision X1 is a 27-inch 3840 by 2160 pixel thin-bezel display that uses a 10-bit panel with 99% coverage of the sRGB color gamut. The X24 includes a wireless charging base for mobile phones. The X1 is the first monitor to receive the TUV Eye-Comfort certification. Both monitors have HDMI 2.0 ports, support charging laptops, mobile phones, and other devices, and have Intel RealSense 3D cameras in order to support facial recognition. Both displays have dual-array microphones and 3-watt stereo speakers.
IdeaPad
The IdeaPad line of consumer-oriented laptop computers was introduced in January 2008. The IdeaPad is the result of Lenovo's own research and development; Unlike the ThinkPad line, its design and branding were not inherited from IBM nor are they designed/developed by IBM.
The IdeaPad's design language differs markedly from the ThinkPad and has a more consumer-focused look and feel.
On September 21, 2016, Lenovo confirmed that their Yoga series is not meant to be compatible with Linux operating systems, that they know it is impossible to install Linux on some models, and that it is not supported. This came in the wake of media coverage of problems that users were having while trying to install Ubuntu on several Yoga models, including the 900 ISK2, 900 ISK For Business, 900S, and 710, which were traced back to Lenovo disabling and removing support for the AHCI storage mode for the device's Solid State Drive in the computer's BIOS, in favor of a RAID mode that is only supported by Windows 10 drivers that come with the system. Lenovo has since released an alternative firmware that has restored the AHCI mode to the drive controller to allow installation of Linux operating systems.
IdeaCentre
All IdeaCentres are all-in-one machines, combining processor and monitor into a single unit. The desktops were described by HotHardware as being "uniquely designed". The first IdeaCentre desktop, the IdeaCentre K210, was announced by Lenovo on 30 June 2008. While the IdeaCentre line consists only of desktops, it shares design elements and features with the IdeaPad line. One such feature was Veriface facial recognition technology.
At CES 2011, Lenovo announced the launch of four IdeaCentre desktops: the A320, B520, B320, and C205. In the autumn of 2012, the firm introduced the more powerful IdeaCentre A720, with a 27-inch touchscreen display and running Windows 8. With a TV tuner and HDMI in, the A720 can also serve as a multimedia hub or home theater PC.
In 2013, Lenovo added a table computer to the IdeaCentre line. The Lenovo IdeaCentre Horizon Table PC, introduced at the 2013 International CES is a 27-inch touchscreen computer designed to lay flat for simultaneous use by multiple people. Thanks to its use of Windows 8, the Horizon can also serve as a desktop computer when set upright.
Legion
Legion is a series of laptop from Lenovo targeting gaming performance. The first Legion brand laptops was revealed at CES 2017, the Legion Y520 and the Legion Y720. On June 6, 2017, a high-performance model, the Legion Y920, equipped with Intel's seventh-generation quad-core i7-7820HK and Nvidia GTX 1070 discrete graphics, was launched.
At E3 2018, Lenovo announced three new laptops with new redesigned chassis, Y530, Y730 and Y7000.
In 2020, Lenovo launched Legion 3, 5, and 7, where Legion 7 is the highest specification of the series.
In 2021, Lenovo launched Legion 5 pro with AMD 5th series CPU and Nvidia 30,s GPU.
Smartphones
As of January 2013, Lenovo only manufactured phones that use the Android operating system from Google. Numerous press reports indicated that Lenovo planned to release a phone running Windows Phone 8, According to J. D. Howard, a vice president at Lenovo's mobile division, the company would release a Windows Phone product if there is market demand.
Lenovo has implemented an aggressive strategy to replace Samsung Electronics as Mainland China market's top smartphone vendor. It has spent $793.5 million in Wuhan in order to build a plant that can produce 30 to 40 million phones per year. Data from Analysys International shows that Lenovo experienced considerable growth in smartphone sales in China during 2012. Specifically, it saw its market share increase to 14.2% during 2012's third quarter, representing an increase when compared to 4.8% in the same quarter of 2011. IDC analysts said that Lenovo's success is due to its "aggressive ramping-up and improvements in channel partnerships." Analysys International analyst Wang Ying wrote, "Lenovo possesses an obvious advantage over rivals in terms of sales channels." The company's CEO, Yang Yuanqing, said, "Lenovo does not want to be the second player ... we want to be the best. Lenovo has the confidence to outperform Samsung and Apple, at least in the Chinese market."
According to IHS iSuppli, Lenovo was a top-three smartphone maker in China with a 16.5% market share in the first quarter of 2012. According to a May report released by IDC Lenovo ranks fourth in the global tablet market by volume. As of November 2012, Lenovo was the second largest seller of mobile phones in China when measured by volume.
In May 2013, Lenovo CEO Yang Yuanqing indicated that the company had aimed to release smartphones in the United States within the next year. Later in October, Lenovo expressed interest in acquiring the Canadian smartphone maker BlackBerry Ltd. However, its attempt was reportedly blocked by the Government of Canada, citing security concerns due to the use of BlackBerry devices by prominent members of the government. An official stated that "we have been pretty consistent that the message is Canada is open to foreign investment and investment from China in particular but not at the cost of compromising national security".
In January 2014, Lenovo announced a proposed deal to acquire Motorola Mobility to bolster its plans for the U.S. market. Microsoft officially announced that Lenovo had become the hardware partner of Windows Phone platform at the Mobile World Congress 2014. In January 2016, Lenovo announced at CES that the company would be producing the first Project Tango phone.
Lenovo plus Motorola was the 3rd largest producer of smartphones by volume in the world between 2011 and 2014. Since Lenovo's acquisition of Motorola Mobility, the combined global market share of Lenovo plus Motorola has fallen from 7.2% in 2014 to 3.9% in the third quarter of 2016. A number of factors have been cited as the cause of this reduced demand, including the fact that Lenovo relied heavily on carriers to sell its phones, its phones lacked strong branding and unique features to distinguish them in the competitive Chinese market where a weak economy and saturated market is slowing demand and the culture clash between a more hierarchical PC company and the need to be nimble to sell rapidly-evolving smartphones. In response to the weak sales, Lenovo announced in August 2015 that it would lay off 3,200 employees, mostly in its Motorola smartphone business.
In the reorganization which followed, Lenovo was uncertain how to brand its Motorola smartphones. In November 2015, members of Lenovo management made statements that Lenovo would use the Motorola brand for all its smartphones. Then, in January 2016, Lenovo announced that it would be eliminating the Motorola brand in favor of "Moto by Lenovo". The company reversed course in March 2017 and announced that the Motorola brand name would be used in all regions in future products. "In 2016, we just finished transforming ourselves," Motorola Chairman and President Aymar de Lencquesaing said in an interview, "We have clarity on how we present ourselves."
Smart televisions
In November 2011, Lenovo said it would soon unveil a smart television product called LeTV, expected for release in the first quarter of 2012. "The PC, communications and TV industries are currently undergoing a 'smart' transformation. In the future, users will have many smart devices and will desire an integrated experience of hardware, software and cloud services." Liu Jun, president of Lenovo's mobile-Internet and digital-home-business division. In June 2013 Lenovo announced a partnership with Sharp to produce smart televisions. In March 2014, Lenovo announced that it projected smart television sales surpassing one million units for 2014. The same month Lenovo released its flagship S9 Smart TV.
Wearables
Rumors that Lenovo was developing a wearable device were confirmed in October 2014 after the company submitted a regulatory finding to the Federal Communications Commission. The device, branded a "Smartband", has a battery life of seven days. It has an optical heart-rate monitor and can be used to track distance and time spent running and calories burned. It can also notify the user of incoming calls and texts. It can also unlock computers without the use of a password. The Smartband went on sale in October 2014. Lenovo started offering the device for sale on its website without a formal product announcement.
IoT / Smart Home
In 2015 Lenovo launched a strategic cooperation with IngDan (), a subsidiary of Chinese electronics e-commerce company Cogobuy Group, to penetrate into the intelligent hardware sector. Lenovo wanted to procure High-Tech hardware in the then newly emerging Internet of Things (IoT) economy and formed a strategic partnership with Cogobuy in which it previously primarily bought IC components from. Cogobuy's supply chain was utilised by Lenovo to procure consumer devices and bridge gaps in their proprietary hardware and software development. At the IFA 2018, Lenovo launched several smart home products.
Lenovo Connect
At the Mobile World Congress in 2016, Lenovo introduced Lenovo Connect, a wireless roaming service. This service works across devices, networks, and borders for customers in China and EMEA (Europe, the Middle East and Africa). Lenovo Connect eliminates the need to buy new SIM cards when crossing borders. Lenovo Connect started service for phones and select ThinkPad laptops in China in February 2016.
Operations
Lenovo's principal facilities are in Beijing, China; Morrisville, North Carolina, United States; and Lorong Chuan], Singapore; with research centers in Beijing, Morrisville, Shanghai, Shenzhen, Xiamen, Chengdu, Nanjing, Wuhan and Yamato (Kanagawa Prefecture, Japan). Lenovo operates manufacturing facilities in Chengdu and Hefei in China, and in Japan. A global flagship store opened in Beijing in February 2013.
Lenovo's manufacturing operations are a departure from the usual industry practice of outsourcing to contract manufacturers. Lenovo instead focuses on vertical integration in order to avoid excessive reliance on original equipment manufacturers and to keep down costs. Speaking on this topic, Yang Yuanqing said, "Selling PCs is like selling fresh fruit. The speed of innovation is very fast, so you must know how to keep up with the pace, control inventory, to match supply with demand and handle very fast turnover." Lenovo benefited from its vertical integration after flooding affected hard-drive manufacturers in Thailand in 2011, as the company could continue manufacturing operations by shifting production towards products for which hard drives were still available.
Lenovo began to emphasize vertical integration after a meeting in 2009 in which CEO Yang Yuanqing, and the head of Lenovo's supply chain, analyzed the costs versus the benefits of in-house manufacturing, and decided to make at least 50% of Lenovo's manufacturing in-house. Lenovo Chief Technology Officer George He said that vertical integration is having an important role in product development. He stated, "If you look at the industry trends, most innovations for" PCs, smartphones, tablets and smart TVs are related to innovation of key components—display, battery and storage. Differentiation of key parts is so important. So we started investing more ... and working very closely with key parts suppliers." Previously, lack of integration due to numerous foreign acquisitions and an excessive number of "key performance indicators" (KPIs) was making Lenovo's expansion expensive and creating unacceptably slow delivery times to end-customers. Lenovo responded by reducing the number of KPIs from 150 to 5, offering intensive training to managers, and working to create a global Lenovo culture. Lenovo also doubled-down on vertical integration and manufacturing near target markets in order to cut costs at time when its competitors were making increased use of outsourcing off-shoring. By 2013, Lenovo ranked 20th on Gartner's list of top 50 supply chains, whereas in 2010 the company was unranked.
In 2012, Lenovo partially moved production of its ThinkPad line of computers to Japan. ThinkPads will be produced by NEC in Yamagata Prefecture. , president of Lenovo Japan, said, "As a Japanese, I am glad to see the return to domestic production and the goal is to realize full-scale production as this will improve our image and make the products more acceptable to Japanese customers."
In October 2012, Lenovo announced that it would start assembling computers in Whitsett, North Carolina. Production of desktop and laptop computers, including the ThinkPad Helix began in January 2013. , 115 workers were employed at this facility. Lenovo has been in Whitsett since 2008, where it also has centers for logistics, customer service, and return processing.
In 2015, Lenovo and Hong Kong Cyberport Management Company Limited, a government-sponsored business park for technology firms, reached a deal to "jointly build a cloud service and product research and development center". Lenovo's Asia Pacific data center will also be housed in Cyperport.
Lenovo assembles smartphones in Chennai, India through a contract manufacturing agreement with Flextronics. In November 2015, Lenovo announced that it would start manufacturing computers in Pondicherry.
Accusations of slave labor by supplier
In August 2020, The Intercept reported that Lenovo imported about 258,000 laptops from the Chinese manufacturer Hefei Bitland Information Technology, a company, among others, accused by the Australian Strategic Policy Institute of using Uyghur forced labor. In July 2020, the United States Commerce Department added 11 companies, including Hefei Bitland, implicated in human rights abuses on the Entity List. Lenovo took some shipments out of the distribution, but other shipments were distributed to consumers.
In late July, Lenovo informed its customers it had stopped manufacturing with Bitland and was moving production of related devices to other suppliers.
Corporate affairs
Alongside Beijing and Singapore, the company also has an executive headquarters in Morrisville, North Carolina, near Raleigh in the Research Triangle metropolitan area, in the United States to focus on its North American bussinesses.. As of October 2012, the facility has about 2,000 employees. Lenovo identifies its facilities in Morrisville, Beijing, and Singapore as its "key location addresses", where its principal operations occur. The company stated that "by foregoing a traditional headquarters model and focusing on centers of excellence around the world, Lenovo makes the maximum use of its resources to create the best products in the most efficient and effective way possible". The company registered office is on the 23rd floor of the Lincoln House building of the Taikoo Place in Quarry Bay, Hong Kong.
Previously the company's U.S. headquarters were in Purchase, Harrison, New York. About 70 people worked there. In 2006, Lenovo announced that it was consolidating its U.S. headquarters, a logistics facility in Boulder, Colorado, and a call center in Atlanta, Georgia, to a new facility in Morrisville. The company received offers of over $11 million in incentive funds from the local Morrisville, North Carolina, area and from the State of North Carolina on the condition that the company employs about 2,200 people.
In early 2016, Lenovo carried out a comprehensive restructuring of its business units.
Financials and market share
In the third quarter of 2020, Lenovo commands a leading market share of 25.7 percent of all PCs sold in the world.
In March 2013, Lenovo was included as a constituent stock in the Hang Seng Index. Lenovo replaced the unprofitable Aluminum Corporation of China, a state-owned enterprise, on the list of 50 key companies on the Hong Kong stock exchange that constitute the Hang Seng Index. The inclusion of Lenovo and Tencent, China's largest internet firm, significantly increased the weight of the technology sector on the index. Being added to the Hang Seng Index was a significant boon for Lenovo and its shareholders as it widened the pool of investors willing to purchase Lenovo's stock. For instance, index funds pegged to the Hang Seng and pension funds that consider index inclusion now have the opportunity to invest in Lenovo. In November 2013 Lenovo reported that they had achieved double-digit market share in the United States for the first time.
Ownership
In 2009, China Oceanwide Holdings Group, a private investment firm based in Beijing, bought 29% of Legend Holdings, the parent company of Lenovo, for 2.76 billion yuan. , 65% of Lenovo stock was held by the general public, 29% by Legend Holdings, 5.8% by Mr. Yang, and 0.2% by other directors.
Responding to claims that Lenovo is a state-owned enterprise CEO Yang Yuanqing said: "Our company is a 100% market oriented company. Some people have said we are a state-owned enterprise. It's 100% not true. In 1984 the Chinese Academy of Sciences only invested $25,000 in our company. The purpose of the Chinese Academy of Sciences to invest in this company was that they wanted to commercialize their research results. The Chinese Academy of Sciences is a pure research entity in China, owned by the government. From this point, you could say we're different from state-owned enterprises. Secondly, after this investment, this company is run totally by the founders and management team. The government has never been involved in our daily operation, in important decisions, strategic direction, nomination of the CEO and top executives and financial management. Everything is done by our management team."
As of 2014, the Chinese Academy of Sciences, owns 11.7% of Lenovo. and IBM owns 37.8%
In early 2006, the U.S. State Department was harshly criticized for purchasing 16,000 computers from Lenovo. Critics argued that Lenovo was controlled by the Chinese government and a potential vehicle for espionage against the United States. Yang spoke out forcefully and publicly to defend Lenovo. He said, "We are not a government-controlled company." He pointed out that Lenovo pioneered China's transition to a market economy and that in the early 1990s had fought and beaten four state-owned enterprises that dominated the Chinese computer market. Those firms had the full backing of the state while Lenovo received no special treatment. The State Department deal went through. Yang worried that fears about Lenovo's supposed connections to the Chinese government would be an ongoing issue in the United States. Yang worked to ease worries by communicating directly with Congress.
Yang dramatically increased his ownership stake by acquiring 797 million shares in 2011. As of June 2011, Yang owned an 8 percent stake in Lenovo. He previously owned only 70 million shares. In a statement, Yang said, "While the transaction is a personal financial matter, I want to be very clear that my decision to make this investment is based on my strong belief in the company's very bright future. Our culture is built on commitment and ownership – we do what we say, and we own what we do. My decision to increase my holdings represents my steadfast belief in these principles."
Corporate culture
Lenovo's senior executives rotate between the three head offices at Beijing, Morrisville, and Singapore, as well as Lenovo's research and development center in Japan.
Leadership
Yang Yuanqing
Yang Yuanqing is the chairman and chief executive officer of Lenovo. One of his major achievements was leading Lenovo to become the best-selling personal computer brand in China since 1997. In 2001, Business Week named him one of Asia's rising stars in business. Yang was president and CEO of Lenovo until 2004, when Lenovo closed its acquisition of IBM's PC division, after which Yang was succeeded as Lenovo CEO by IBM's Stephen M. Ward, Jr. Ward was succeeded by Bill Amelio on 20 December 2005. In February 2009, Yang replaced Amelio as CEO and has served in that capacity ever since. Yang was chairman of Lenovo's board from 2004 to 2008, and returned as chairman in 2012 alongside his role as CEO.
In 2012, Yang received a $3 million bonus as a reward for record profits, which he in turn redistributed to about 10,000 of Lenovo's employees. According to Lenovo spokesman, Jeffrey Shafer, Yang felt that it would be the right thing to, "redirect [the money] to the employees as a real tangible gesture for what they done." Shafer also said that Yang, who owns about eight percent of Lenovo's stock, "felt that he was rewarded well simply as the owner of the company." The bonuses were mostly distributed among staff working in positions such as production and reception who received an average of 2,000 yuan or about US$314. This was almost equivalent to a monthly salary of an average worker in China. Yang made a similar gift of $3.25 million again in 2013.
According to Lenovo's annual report, Yang earned $14 million, including $5.2 million in bonuses, during the fiscal year that ended in March 2012.
In 2013, Barron's named Yang one of the "World's Best CEOs".
Liu Chuanzhi
Liu Chuanzhi is the founder and chairman of Lenovo. Liu was trained as an engineer at a military college and later went on to work at the Chinese Academy of Sciences. Like many young people during the Cultural Revolution, Liu was denounced and sent to the countryside where he worked as a laborer on a rice farm. Liu claims Hewlett-Packard as a key source of inspiration. In an interview with The Economist he stated that "Our earliest and best teacher was Hewlett-Packard." For more than ten years, Lenovo was Hewlett-Packard's distributor in China. In reference to Lenovo's later acquisition of IBM's personal computer unit Liu said, "I remember the first time I took part in a meeting of IBM agents. I was wearing an old business suit of my father's and I sat in the back row. Even in my dreams, I never imagined that one day we could buy the IBM PC business. It was unthinkable. Impossible."
Board of directors
In early 2013, Lenovo announced the addition of Yahoo founder Jerry Yang to its board. Lenovo's CEO Yang Yuanqing said, "Jerry's appointment as an observer to our board furthers Lenovo's reputation as a transparent international company." Just prior to the appointment of Jerry Yang, Tudor Brown, the founder of British semiconductor design firm ARM, was also appointed to Lenovo's board. Speaking of both men Yang Yuanqing said, "We believe that they will add a great deal to our strategic thinking, long-term direction and, ultimately, our ability to achieve our aspirations in the PC plus era."
Marketing and sponsorships
In 2009, Lenovo became the first personal computer manufacturer to divide countries into emerging markets and mature markets. Lenovo then developed a different set of strategies for each category. Lenovo's competitors have widely adopted the same approach In 2012, Lenovo made a major effort to expand its market share in developing economies such as Brazil and India through acquisitions and increased budgets for marketing and advertising.
Celebrity sponsorships and endorsements
In October 2013, Lenovo announced that it had hired American actor Ashton Kutcher as a product engineer and spokesman. David Roman, Lenovo's chief marketing officer, said, "His partnership goes beyond traditional bounds by deeply integrating him into our organization as a product engineer. Ashton will help us break new ground by challenging assumptions, bringing a new perspective and contributing his technical expertise to Yoga Tablet and other devices." Kobe Bryant became an official ambassador for Lenovo smartphones in China and Southeast Asia in early 2013. Bryant appeared in a social campaign titled "The Everyday Kobe Challenge" for the launch of Lenovo IdeaPhone K900 in Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia and the Philippines in the same year.
Sporting sponsorship
Lenovo was an official computer sponsor of the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin, Italy, and the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing. When asked about Lenovo's brand Yang Yuanqing said, "The Beijing Olympics were very good for brand awareness in countries like the US and Argentina, but not good enough." The NFL has been a Lenovo customer since 2007. In July 2012, Lenovo and the National Football League (NFL) announced that Lenovo had become the NFL's "Official Laptop, Desktop and Workstation Sponsor." Lenovo said that this was its largest sponsorship deal ever in the United States. NFL stars Jerry Rice, DeAngelo Williams, and Torry Holt were on hand for the announcement and a celebration with 1,500 Lenovo employees. Lenovo's sponsorship will last at least three years.
Lenovo also become technology partner for Ducati Corse in MotoGP since 2018. And for the 2021 MotoGP it will become main sponsor for the Bolognese.
Lenovo is also an official partner of the NHL's Carolina Hurricanes who play in nearby Raleigh, North Carolina.
Lenovo and FC Internazionale, in 2019, have signed a multi-year sponsorship agreement that makes Lenovo the Global Technology Partner of the Nerazzurri company. In May 2021, Lenovo and Motorola Mobility decided to celebrate with a limited edition of Razr 5G totally customized and produced in 2021 numbered pieces, to honor Inter who won their 19th Scudetto. In July 2021 there was the launch of the new Inter Home shirt for the 2021-22 season, they unveiled the introduction of Lenovo as a sponsor on the back of the shirt.
Television, internet, and other media
Lenovo used a short-film entitled The Pursuit in its "For Those Who Do" campaign launched in 2011. The film depicted a mysterious young woman using the IdeaPad Yoga 13 to stay one-step-ahead of her evil pursuers. Martin Campbell, who previously worked on action movies and James Bond films such as GoldenEye and the remake of Casino Royale, shot this film. Lenovo was the first Chinese company to make use of such marketing techniques.
In May 2015, Lenovo hosted its first ever "Tech World" conference in Beijing. ZUK, a separate company formed by Lenovo in 2014, announced several products at Tech World, These included slim power banks, 3D printers that can print food such as chocolate, an outdoor sound box, and a Wi-Fi based control system for home automation.
China
In its home market China, Lenovo has a vast distribution network designed to make sure that there is at least one shop selling Lenovo computers within 50 kilometers of nearly all consumers. Lenovo has also developed close relationships with its Chinese distributors, who are granted exclusive territories and only carry Lenovo products.
As of July 2013, Lenovo believes that urbanization initiatives being pushed by Premier Li Keqiang will allow it to sustain sales growth in China for the foreseeable future. Speaking at Lenovo's annual general meeting in Hong Kong in 2013, Yang Yuanqing said: "I believe urbanisation will help us further increase the overall [domestic] PC market." Yang also stressed the opportunity presented by the China's relatively low penetration rate of personal computers. Lenovo previously benefited from the Chinese government's rural subsidies, part of a wider economic stimulus initiative, designed to increase purchases of appliances and electronics. That program, which Lenovo joined in 2004, ended in 2011. Lenovo enjoys consistent price premiums over its traditional competitors in rural markets and a stronger local sales and service presence.
India
Lenovo has gained significant market share in India through bulk orders to large companies and government agencies. For example, the government of Tamil Nadu ordered a million ThinkPad's from IBM/Lenovo in 2012 and single-handedly made the firm a market leader. Lenovo distributes most of the personal computers it sells in India through five national distributors such as Ingram Micro and Redington.
Given that most smartphones and tablets are sold to individuals Lenovo is pursuing a different strategy making use of many small state-centric distributors. Amar Babu, Lenovo's managing director for India, said, "To reach out to small towns and the hinterland, we have tied up with 40 regional distributors. We want our distributors to be exclusive to us. We will, in turn, ensure they have exclusive rights to distribute Lenovo products in their catchment area." As of 2013, Lenovo had about 6,000 retailers selling smartphones and tablets in India. In February 2013, Lenovo established a relationship with Reliance Communications to sell smartphones. The smartphones carried by Reliance have dual-SIM capability and support both GSM and CDMA. Babu claims that the relative under penetration of smartphones in India represents an opportunity for Lenovo.
Lenovo has assembled a team of senior managers familiar with the Indian market, launched mobile phones at all price points there, and worked on branding to build market share. As of February 2014, Lenovo claims that its sales of smartphones in India have been increasing 100% per quarter while the market is only growing 15–20% over the same period. Lenovo did marketing tests of its smartphones in November 2012 in Gujarat and some southern cities, where Lenovo already had a strong presence. Lenovo's strategy has been to create awareness, maintain a broad selection of phones at all price points, and develop distribution networks. Lenovo partnered with two national distributors and over 100 local distributors. As of February 2014, more than 7,000 retail outlets in India sold Lenovo smartphones. Lenovo has also partnered with HCL in order to set up 250 service centres in 110 cities.
In India, Lenovo grants distributors exclusive territories but allows them to sell computers from other companies. Lenovo uses its close relationships with distributors to gain market intelligence and speed up product development.
Lenovo reported a year-on-year increase of about 951% in tablet sales in India for the first quarter of 2014. Canalys, a market research firm, said Lenovo took market share away from Apple and Samsung in the country.
Africa
Lenovo first started doing business in South Africa, establishing a sales office, and then expanded to East African markets such as Kenya, Tanzania, Ethiopia, Uganda, and Rwanda. West Africa followed when Lenovo set-up a Nigerian legal office and then expanded to Ghana, Zimbabwe, Mozambique and Botswana.
According to Lenovo's general manager for Africa, Graham Braum, Lenovo's strategy is to put "great emphasis on products that sell well in Africa" and roll out "products alongside different African governments' rolling out of wireless technology". Products such as the Lenovo Yoga series are popular in Africa because of their long battery life, as many areas have unreliable electrical supply. Other popular products include the Lenovo netbooks, which were introduced in 2008.
Lenovo picked Nigeria in 2013 to release its smartphone because unlike South Africa and other African countries, there is no requirement to partner with a local telecom firm to sell its phones.
In the long term, according to Braum, "Lenovo in Africa will focus on continuing to consistently supply personal computer products and allow this market to grow, while moving into new territory such as mobile and enterprise."
Singapore
Lenovo has had a presence in Singapore as early as its foundation, and it is the location of one of its three operational centres. Registered as Lenovo (Singapore) Pte. Ltd., it is located at the New Tech Park in the Lorong Chuan district of the North-East Region of Singapore.
United States
In the United States, Lenovo began the "For Those Who Do" marketing campaign in 2010, created by the ad agency Saatchi & Saatchi. It was part of Lenovo's first-ever global branding campaign, beyond its domestic market in China. "For Those Who Do" was designed to appeal to young consumers in the 18- to 25-year-old demographic by stressing its utility to creative individuals that Lenovo's advertising refers to as "doers". Lenovo began manufacturing products in North Carolina, United States for the American market in 2013.
Goodweird
Lenovo launched a multi-year advertising campaign called "Goodweird" in the last half of 2015. Goodweird is designed to convey the idea that designs that seem strange initially often become familiar and widely accepted. The Goodweird campaign includes a video with famous images of early attempts to fly with the aid of homemade wings and a bicycle that transitions to a modern-day shot of a man soaring across mountains in a wingsuit before transitioning again to a shot of the Stealth Bomber. Lenovo worked with three agencies on Goodweird: London-based DLKW Low, We Are Social, and Blast Radius. Goodweird is part of Lenovo's wider strategy to appeal to millennials with an emphasis on design trendsetters. A portion of the funding for Goodweird is being directed to prominent YouTubers and Viners. BuzzFeed has been engaged to create relevant content.
Security and privacy incidents
Superfish
In February 2015, Lenovo became the subject of controversy for having bundled software identified as malware on some of its laptops. The software, Superfish Visual Discovery, is a web browser add-on that injects price comparison advertising into search engine results pages. To intercept HTTPS-encrypted communications, the software also installed a self-signed digital certificate. When the Superfish private key was compromised, it was also discovered that the same private key was used across all installations of the software, leaving users vulnerable to security exploits utilizing the key. Lenovo made between US$200,000 to US$250,000 on its deal with Superfish. In 2017 Lenovo agreed to pay $3.5 million as part of a settlement with the US Federal Trade Commission. and announced an apology to its customers and stock holders
The head of Superfish responded to security concerns by saying the vulnerability was "inadvertently" introduced by Komodia, which built the application. In response to the criticism, Lenovo detailed that it would cease further distribution and use of the Superfish software, and offered affected customers free six-month subscriptions to the McAfee LiveSafe software. Lenovo issued a promise to reduce the amount of "bloatware" it bundles with its Windows 10 devices, promising to only include Lenovo software, security software, drivers, and "certain applications customarily expected by users". Salon tech writer David Auerbach compared the Superfish incident to the Sony DRM rootkit scandal, and argued that "installing Superfish is one of the most irresponsible mistakes an established tech company has ever made."
Lenovo Service Engine
From October 2014 through June 2015, the UEFI firmware on certain Lenovo models had contained software known as "Lenovo Service Engine", which Lenovo says automatically sent non-identifiable system information to Lenovo the first time Windows is connected to the internet, and on laptops, automatically installs the Lenovo OneKey Optimizer program (software considered to be bloatware) as well. This process occurs even on clean installations of Windows. It was found that this program had been automatically installed using a new feature in Windows 8, Windows Platform Binary Table, which allows executable files to be stored within UEFI firmware for execution on startup, and is meant to "allow critical software to persist even when the operating system has changed or been reinstalled in a 'clean' configuration"; specifically, anti-theft security software. The software was discontinued after it was found that aspects of the software had security vulnerabilities, and did not comply with revised guidelines for appropriate usage of WPBT. On 31 July 2015, Lenovo released instructions and UEFI firmware updates meant to remove Lenovo Service Engine.
Lenovo Customer Feedback program
At a third time in 2015, criticism arose that Lenovo might have installed software that looked suspicious on their commercial Think-PC lines. This was discovered by Computerworld writer Michael Horowitz, who had purchased several Think systems with the Customer Feedback program installed, which seemed to log usage data and metrics. Further analysis by Horowitz revealed however that this was mostly harmless, as it was only logging the usage of some pre-installed Lenovo programs, and not the usage in general, and only if the user allowed the data to be collected. Horowitz also criticized other media for quoting his original article and saying that Lenovo preinstalled spyware, as he himself never used that term in this case and he also said that he does not consider the software he found to be spyware.
Lenovo Accelerator
As of June 2016, a Duo Labs report stated that Lenovo was still installing bloatware, some of which leads to security vulnerabilities as soon as the user turns on their new PC. Lenovo advised users to remove the offending app, "Lenovo Accelerator". According to Lenovo, the app, designed to "speed up the loading" of Lenovo applications, created a man-in-the-middle security vulnerability.
U.S. Marine network security breach
In February 2021, Bloomberg Business reported that U.S. investigators found in 2008 that military units in Iraq were using Lenovo laptops in which the hardware had been altered. According to a testimony from the case in 2010, "A large amount of Lenovo laptops were sold to the U.S. military that had a chip encrypted on the motherboard that would record all the data that was being inputted into that laptop and send it back to China".
See also
List of computer system manufacturers
Lists of Chinese companies
References
Further reading
External links
Official Website
Chinese brands
Chinese companies established in 1984
Companies based in Beijing
Companies listed on the Hong Kong Stock Exchange
Computer companies established in 1984
Computer companies of Hong Kong
Computer hardware companies
Consumer electronics brands
Display technology companies
Electronics companies established in 1984
Mobile phone manufacturers
Multinational companies headquartered in China
Netbook manufacturers
Supercomputing in China
Videotelephony
Zhongguancun
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messenger%20Plus%21
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Messenger Plus!
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Messenger Plus! (formerly known as Messenger Plus! Live, commonly abbreviated MsgPlus, Plus!, or incorrectly as MSN Plus) is an add-on for Windows Live Messenger and Skype. The software provides additional functionality to Microsoft's Instant messaging client, Windows Live Messenger, by adding its own controls to the main interface. These controls affect Messenger's behaviour and appearance, often through additional dialog boxes.
The add-on was first released in May 2001 under the name "The Messenger Plus! Extension" for MSN Messenger and Windows Messenger. It later changed its name to "Messenger Plus!" and then, for the release of the new Windows Live Messenger client, "Messenger Plus! Live" was chosen. In 2011 the name was changed back to "Messenger Plus!" again. It has become one of the most widely used add-ons for Microsoft's IM clients, citing over 62 million users as of February 2010.
Volunteers from the Messenger Plus! community around the world develop skins and scripts for submission into the database of the website for the software.
Features
Messenger Plus! generally expands the features of Windows Live Messenger 2009 (9.0) and 2011. Notable features include:
A set of text formatting codes similar to BBCode (people who don't use Messenger Plus! will still see standard unformatted text with the BBCode still in place).
Custom status tags.
Running multiple instances of Windows Live Messenger with different accounts.
Event logging and chat logging in either plain text or HTML with optional encryption.
Chat log viewer. For browsing and searching all saved logs.
Contacts on desktop. Small windows always on top which show a specific contact.
Auto-reply messages, usually activated when away from keyboard.
Emotion sounds. Custom sounds which can be sent to other Messenger Plus! users.
Tabbed chatting (all the conversations in the same window). This feature existed in Messenger Plus! before Windows Live Messenger 2011 added native support for tabbed chatting.
Messenger locking (Boss Mode).
Contact list clean-up. Showing statistics about the user's contacts and allowing him to remove people who removed him or he never talks to.
Skinning Windows Live Messenger without the user having to physically edit the program's resource files.
JScript scripting allowing users to add their own functionality.
Languages
Messenger Plus! is available in 22 languages:
Arabic
Chinese Simplified
Chinese Traditional
Danish
Dutch
English
Estonian
Finnish
French
German
Hebrew
Hungarian
Italian
Japanese
Norwegian
Portuguese-Brazil
Portuguese-Portugal
Russian
Spanish
Swedish
Thai
Turkish
Creator
Messenger Plus! was originally created in 2001 by Cyril Paciullo, who is better known by the pseudonym "Patchou". He was born in France and currently resides in Canada. He started developing Plus! as a hobby next to his day job as a developer, but soon maintaining the Messenger Plus! software became a full-time job.
In Q4 of 2009 Paciullo announced he is no longer in full control of the product and Messenger Plus! is now owned by Yuna Software Limited.
In Q1 of 2011 Paciullo officially declared he had left the company and that this chapter of his professional life was closed.
Financial details or names of the people behind the new company are not disclosed. Yuna Software has offices in several places in the world and has an office in Montreal, also known as Kimahri Software, where a development team continued to develop Messenger Plus!.
Adware
When developing Messenger Plus! became a full-time job, a form of revenue was added to keep the software free. Formerly, the software came bundled with optional adware software developed by Circle Development Ltd.
Issues with Windows Defender
As of August 17, 2005, the Messenger Plus! website contained a petition to Microsoft's anti-spyware division regarding Windows Defender's (known as Microsoft AntiSpyware at the time) detection of the Messenger Plus! executable as spyware and subsequent warning that Messenger Plus! would attempt to install spyware at runtime (post-installation), rather than the setup program itself that contained the installer for the threat detected.
The petition, which had 401,683 signatures and was 10,137 pages long in total, was sent to Redmond on September 20, 2005 stating that Messenger Plus! should not be labeled as being a threat.
On September 23, 2005, just 3 days after the petition was mailed to Redmond from Canada, Microsoft released new definitions for Windows Defender that fixed the false threat detection affecting the Messenger Plus! executable together with other detection improvements. Recent versions of Windows Defender also stopped detecting the Messenger Plus! installer as being potentially dangerous.
Sponsorship agreement criticism
Some software review websites criticized the user agreement, stating that the 'sponsorship agreement', which authorized the installation of the optional adware software, was misleading because it looked like a standard EULA, and was only available in English. The user does get the option to not install the 'sponsor' program, however, even if slightly unorthodoxly.
Since Messenger Plus! 3.60 was released (on September 27, 2005), the setup includes a separate sponsor license agreement in addition to a traditional EULA. Both agreements have also been translated in several languages. A separate adware uninstallation program was provided by Circle Development Ltd. which appears when users attempt to uninstall the sponsor program of Messenger Plus!.
Discontinuation of the Circle Development package
As of early 2010, Messenger Plus! versions 4.84 and later no longer contain the sponsor program from Circle Development Ltd.
Yuna Software currently uses more conventional methods. Messenger Plus! bundles an optional toolbar, custom search page and custom home page all branded as the Messenger Plus! Network. Yuna Software also launched sites in 2010 affiliated with Messenger Plus!, including Plus! Games, Plus! Sports, Plus! Image and Plus! Network.
Links on the old website to earlier Messenger Plus! versions caused sites such as McAfee SiteAdvisor to warn that the website www.msgpluslive.net was linked with adware Adware-Lop/Swizzor.
However, SiteAdvisor has tested the current website www.msgplus.net and found downloads to be free of adware, spyware, and other potentially unwanted programs. Other sites have already found the site safe. For example, Norton Safe Web has found no issues with this site, stating 0 computer threats, 0 identity threats and 0 annoyance factors.
Non-Optional
In February 2013 Yuna Software released a new installer for Messenger Plus that required the user to install at least one of the bundled options in order to install the software.
Note that this may no longer be a requirement as more recent updates do not appear to require that any of the bundled options be installed. This has not been confirmed on a clean install.
Renaming
To coincide with the newly branded Windows Live Messenger, in 2006 new versions of Messenger Plus! were called Messenger Plus! Live. It was rebuilt from the ground up and included a new user interface design which was intended to blend more with the user interface of Windows Live Messenger.
Since 2011 versions 5.0 and later are called Messenger Plus! again. Messenger Plus! 5 is completely compatible with Windows Live Messenger 2011.
Backwards compatibility
The latest version of Messenger Plus! no longer supports any Messenger version older than 2009. Older Messenger Plus! versions are no longer officially supported.
However, the last version of Messenger Plus! (version 3.63, before it was renamed to Messenger Plus! Live) will still be available for download on the official website. This version supports MSN Messenger and Windows Messenger 4.7, 5, 6 and 7.
Additionally the last version of Messenger Plus! Live (version 4.90.392, before the name was changed back again) is also still available from the official website. This version supports Windows Live Messenger 8.0 up to 14.0 (2009).
Messenger Plus! for Skype
Messenger Plus! for Skype was released in English on January 12, 2012. This adware adds video and audio recording capabilities to Skype conversations and lets users send flash animations to other users.
The subsequent version, Messenger Plus! for Skype 1.2 was released on March 28, 2012 . which introduced 16 additional languages, video and voice transformation effects and ring tones. Version 1.5 was released on June 18, 2012 . which included the ability to stream movies and overlay images in video conversations viewable on all Skype-enabled devices including mobile phones and tablets. Version 1.8 followed on March 3, 2013 . This release was developed after Microsoft's announcement. about discontinuing its Windows Live Messenger service and integrated custom sounds from the united Messenger Plus! for Windows Live Messenger/Skype sound archive, and also introduced a new default design for the add-on.
Features for Skype
Messenger Plus! for Skype is an application for Skype that adds video and audio recording capabilities for Skype. Notable features include:
Free video and audio call recording of unlimited duration.
3 different levels of video quality
Flash video animation (winks) that can be sent in conversations and previewed.
Chat logs that can be searched and categorized by dates, sessions or by contacts
Preview and print of chat logs
LogViewer that consults with chat logs
Multilanguage support
Mouse over scrollable toolbar
Display recording animated status in the video feed
Video effects: overlay text, mosaic, threshold, mirror, emboss, lens shrink and bulging, invert color effects
Display chat conversation on video conversation
Adjust Video Chat Text font, color, transparency and position
Display date, time and conversation duration a video conversation
Select a user define ringtone per contact for incoming call
Toolbar follow active window
3 levels of noise
Voice transformation effects: chorus, flanger, gain, reverb, tremolo
Built-in Emotion sounds
Custom sounds from united Windows Live Messenger/Skype sound server
Skype Desktop API concerns
Skype has announced its intention to discontinue the desktop API which is used by Messenger Plus! for Skype.
Note that the date which this is to happen (originally in December 2013) is now unknown as Skype tries to come up with new methods to support a small subset of the Desktop API functionality.
There is currently no information available on the Yuna website that mentions the plans to handle the Desktop API being discontinued by Skype at some point in the future.
Current Development
Version 3.0.0.180 of Messenger Plus for Skype was available for automatic download around January 15, 2014. It was built on January 8th, 2014 and has some updated components from December 2013.
In the first version this year there is a "feature" that seem not to be mentioned anywhere: It sends an ad for Messenger plus as a chat message to random contacts. This feature makes more or less the extension unusable.
In the second version this year (3.0.0.185) released in February 2014, this feature is mentioned and can now be turned off.
Yuna Software Website
Is Messenger Plus! dead?
Apparently, Messenger Plus is still being supported as noted above despite the fact that
Yuna software's website gives the impression that this software is no longer under active development due to the following factors:
Forums
As noted above, the forums are no longer accessible to the public. They may not even exist, as all links to them redirect back to Yuna's website. An archive of the forums does exist, hosted by a third party.
References
External links
Messenger Plus! Website
Windows Internet software
Adware
2001 software
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719388
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weak%20key
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Weak key
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In cryptography, a weak key is a key, which, used with a specific cipher, makes the cipher behave in some undesirable way. Weak keys usually represent a very small fraction of the overall keyspace, which usually means that, if one generates a random key to encrypt a message, weak keys are very unlikely to give rise to a security problem. Nevertheless, it is considered desirable for a cipher to have no weak keys. A cipher with no weak keys is said to have a flat, or linear, key space.
Historical origins
Virtually all rotor-based cipher machines (from 1925 onwards) have implementation flaws that lead to a substantial number of weak keys being created. Some rotor machines have more problems with weak keys than others, as modern block and stream ciphers do.
The first stream cipher machines were also rotor machines and had some of the same problems of weak keys as the more traditional rotor machines. The T52 was one such stream cipher machine that had weak key problems.
The British first detected T52 traffic in Summer and Autumn of 1942. One link was between Sicily and Libya, codenamed "Sturgeon", and another from the Aegean to Sicily, codenamed "Mackerel". Operators of both links were in the habit of enciphering several messages with the same machine settings, producing large numbers of depths.
There were several (mostly incompatible) versions of the T52: the T52a and T52b (which differed only in their electrical noise suppression), T52c, T52d and T52e. While the T52a/b and T52c were cryptologically weak, the last two were more advanced devices; the movement of the wheels was intermittent, the decision on whether or not to advance them being controlled by logic circuits which took as input data from the wheels themselves.
In addition, a number of conceptual flaws (including very subtle ones) had been eliminated. One such flaw was the ability to reset the keystream to a fixed point, which led to key reuse by undisciplined machine operators.
Weak keys in DES
The block cipher DES has a few specific keys termed "weak keys" and "semi-weak keys". These are keys that cause the encryption mode of DES to act identically to the decryption mode of DES (albeit potentially that of a different key).
In operation, the secret 56-bit key is broken up into 16 subkeys according to the DES key schedule; one subkey is used in each of the sixteen DES rounds. DES weak keys produce sixteen identical subkeys. This occurs when the key (expressed in hexadecimal) is:
Alternating ones + zeros (0x0101010101010101)
Alternating 'F' + 'E' (0xFEFEFEFEFEFEFEFE)
'0xE0E0E0E0F1F1F1F1'
'0x1F1F1F1F0E0E0E0E'
If an implementation does not consider the parity bits, the corresponding keys with the inverted parity bits may also work as weak keys:
all zeros (0x0000000000000000)
all ones (0xFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFF)
'0xE1E1E1E1F0F0F0F0'
'0x1E1E1E1E0F0F0F0F'
Using weak keys, the outcome of the Permuted Choice 1 (PC-1) in the DES key schedule leads to round keys being either all zeros, all ones or alternating zero-one patterns.
Since all the subkeys are identical, and DES is a Feistel network, the encryption function is self-inverting; that is, despite encrypting once giving a secure-looking cipher text, encrypting twice produces the original plaintext.
DES also has semi-weak keys, which only produce two different subkeys, each used eight times in the algorithm: This means they come in pairs K1 and K2, and they have the property that:
where EK(M) is the encryption algorithm encrypting message M with key K. There are six semi-weak key pairs:
0x011F011F010E010E and 0x1F011F010E010E01
0x01E001E001F101F1 and 0xE001E001F101F101
0x01FE01FE01FE01FE and 0xFE01FE01FE01FE01
0x1FE01FE00EF10EF1 and 0xE01FE01FF10EF10E
0x1FFE1FFE0EFE0EFE and 0xFE1FFE1FFE0EFE0E
0xE0FEE0FEF1FEF1FE and 0xFEE0FEE0FEF1FEF1
There are also 48 possibly weak keys that produce only four distinct subkeys (instead of 16). They can be found in a NIST publication.
These weak and semi-weak keys are not considered "fatal flaws" of DES. There are 256 (7.21 × 1016, about 72 quadrillion) possible keys for DES, of which four are weak and twelve are semi-weak. This is such a tiny fraction of the possible keyspace that users do not need to worry. If they so desire, they can check for weak or semi-weak keys when the keys are generated. They are very few, and easy to recognize. Note, however, that currently DES is no longer recommended for general use since all DES keys can be brute-forced it's been decades since the Deep Crack machine was cracking them on the order of days, and as computers tend to do, more recent solutions are vastly cheaper on that time scale. Examples of progress are in Deep Crack's article.
List of algorithms with weak keys
DES, as detailed above.
RC4. RC4's weak initialization vectors allow an attacker to mount a known-plaintext attack and have been widely used to compromise the security of WEP.
IDEA. IDEA's weak keys are identifiable in a chosen-plaintext attack. They make the relationship between the XOR sum of plaintext bits and ciphertext bits predictable. There is no list of these keys, but they can be identified by their "structure".
Blowfish. Blowfish's weak keys produce bad S-boxes, since Blowfish's S-boxes are key-dependent. There is a chosen plaintext attack against a reduced-round variant of Blowfish that is made easier by the use of weak keys. This is not a concern for full 16-round Blowfish.
GMAC. Frequently used in the AES-GCM construction. Weak keys can be identified by the group order of the authentication key H (for AES-GCM, H is derived from the encryption key by encrypting the zero block).
RSA and DSA. August 2012 Nadia Heninger, Zakir Durumeric, Eric Wustrow, J. Alex Halderman found that TLS certificates they assessed share keys due to insufficient entropy during key generation, and were able to obtain DSA and RSA private keys of TLS and SSH hosts knowing only the public key.
No weak keys as a design goal
The goal of having a 'flat' keyspace (i.e., all keys equally strong) is always a cipher design goal. As in the case of DES, sometimes a small number of weak keys is acceptable, provided that they are all identified or identifiable. An algorithm that has unknown weak keys does not inspire much trust.
The two main countermeasures against inadvertently using a weak key:
Checking generated keys against a list of known weak keys, or building rejection of weak keys into the key scheduling.
When the number of weak keys is known to be very small (in comparison to the size of the keyspace), generating a key uniformly at random ensures that the probability of it being weak is a (known) very small number.
A large number of weak keys is a serious flaw in any cipher design, since there will then be a (perhaps too) large chance that a randomly generated one will be a weak one, compromising the security of messages encrypted under it. It will also take longer to check randomly generated keys for weakness in such cases, which will tempt shortcuts in interest of 'efficiency'.
However, weak keys are much more often a problem where the adversary has some control over what keys are used, such as when a block cipher is used in a mode of operation intended to construct a secure cryptographic hash function (e.g. Davies–Meyer).
See also
Authentication factors
Strong authentication
Multifactor authentication
References
Cryptographic attacks
Key management
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7164580
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zenoss
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Zenoss
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Zenoss Community Edition is a free and open-source application, server, and network management platform based on the Zope application server.
It provides a web interface that allows system administrators to monitor availability, inventory/configuration, performance, and events.
Originally called Zenoss Core, it was released under the GNU General Public License version 2.
The company Zenoss, Inc. was founded in 2005 and is headquartered in Austin, Texas. The company develops hybrid IT monitoring and analytics software.
History
Zenoss Community Edition (formerly known as Zenoss Core) was developed by Zenoss Inc., a software technology company specializing in IT monitoring and Artificial Intelligence for IT Operations (AIOps). The company was co-founded and incorporated in November 2005 in Austin, Texas by Bill Karpovich (CEO) and Erik Dahl (CTO), two former employees of USinternetworking (USi). As TechCrunch notes, "Dahl had started developing some ideas for an open source IT management system in 2002 after he left USi... The first version of Zenoss Core was released in 2006 and the company raised a $4.8 million series A lead by Boulder Ventures and Intersouth Partners. The commercial product followed in 2007."
Later, the company opened a satellite office in Coventry, the United Kingdom to expand its presence in the European technology markets.
While Zenoss Community Edition is still maintained by Zenoss Inc., the company switched its focus on other commercial products such as Zenoss Cloud (SaaS infrastructure for IT environments) and Zenoss Service Dynamics (IT monitoring software), among others. The company mainly operates in the domain of full-stack monitoring analytics software and AIOps in North America, EMEA and other regions.
The company changed the name of the product from Zenoss Core to Zenoss Community Edition circa 2018 with the new 6.2.1 release. As of 2022, it is both supported by Zenoss Inc. and the Zenoss User Community. Since 2014, Greg Stock has been serving as the company's CEO.
Technology overview
Zenoss combines original programming and several open source projects to integrate data storage and data collection processes with a web-based user interface.
Zenoss is built upon the open-source software technologies such as:
Zope Application server: An object-oriented web server written in Python.
Python: Extensible programming language.
Net-SNMP: Monitoring protocol that collects systems status information.
RRDtool: Graph and log time series data.
MySQL: A popular open source database.
Twisted: An event-driven networking engine written in Python.
Lucene: A full text search library written in Java.
OpenTSDB: Time series database (from Zenoss Core 5).
Docker (software): Container virtualization (from Zenoss Core 5).
D3.js: Interactive graphic Javascript library (from Zenoss Core 5).
Zenoss provides the following capabilities:
Monitoring availability of network devices using SNMP, SSH, WMI
Monitoring of network services (HTTP, POP3, NNTP, SNMP, FTP)
Monitoring of host resources (processor, disk usage) on most network operating systems.
Time-series performance monitoring of devices
Extended Microsoft Windows monitoring via WS-Management and Zenoss open source extensions
Event management tools to annotate system alerts
Automatically discovers network resources and changes in network configuration
Alerting system provides notifications based on rule sets and on-call calendars
Supports Nagios plug-in format
Platform
Zenoss Inc. lists the following operating systems for Zenoss Core on their download page:
Zenoss versions 5.1 support
Red Hat Enterprise Linux / CentOS (7)
Centos (7)
Zenoss version 4.2 support
Red Hat Enterprise Linux / CentOS (5, 6)
Centos (5, 6)
Ubuntu (via community build script)
A web-based portal provides operating system agnostic access to configuration and administration functions. Chrome, Firefox, and Internet Explorer/Edge are supported.
ZenPacks
ZenPacks provide a plug-in architecture that allows community members to extend Zenoss's functionality. The authors are free to choose how they license their individual ZenPacks. ZenPacks are encapsulated in Python eggs and provide instrumentation and reports for monitored infrastructure components.
Currently there are over 400 ZenPacks available for various versions of Zenoss.
Enterprise
The enterprise version builds on the core version by providing commercial support and additional features, such as synthetic web transactions and global dashboards. "In the enterprise edition," writes Sean Michael Kerner, "Zenoss is adding something it calls end-user experience monitoring which is intended to more accurately simulate end-user application activity." Kerner continues, "Enterprise users also get certified application monitors specifically geared for Microsoft SQL and Exchange."
Related products
Zenoss competes with other open source and proprietary enterprise systems management products. Open source systems management products are available from GroundWork Inc., Hyperic and Opsview. In an interview with Jack Loftus of SearchEnterpriseLinux.com, Bill Karpovich explains what makes Zenoss different: "Companies like GroundWork are similar to the Red Hat approach, where a company gathers up the pieces and puts support behind it. Our approach is we have always had the code and we are in control of its roadmap and indemnification. The Hyperic model is where a company comes from a commercial background and makes some of the code open source."
Industry reviews
In a Network Computing review, Jeff Ballard singles out the Zenoss Core 2.0 user interface and event management system as highlights. Of the event management system, Ballard says, "By aggregating all events through a single rules-processing engine, Zenoss Core eliminates duplication, making for a manageable user interface."
In his review, Ballard finds the installation troubling. "Unfortunately, getting started was challenging as Zenoss provided no context-sensitive help to guide us through a truly staggering number of configuration options."
In the "Clear Choice Tests" Network World reviewer Barry Nance offers the following praise for Zenoss Core 2, "Even more impressive than its discovery of our network is its remediation features, which can automatically execute start or stop operations for a Windows service, for example." Nance's review finds that "Zenoss Core doesn’t support as many diverse devices as HP OpenView or Argent Extended Technologies, nor does it monitor Microsoft Exchange or SQL Server as closely as a commercial tool does."
SYS-CON Media awards Zenoss Core the 2007 Enterprise Open Source Reader's choice award for best Linux systems management software. Reader choice awards are nominated and voted on by the community of Enterprise Open Source Magazine readers.
Books
See also
Comparison of network monitoring systems
Notes
External links
Zenoss Inc. Home Page
References
Network management
Free network management software
Free software programmed in Python
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27206168
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen%20Costello
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Stephen Costello
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Stephen John Costello (born September 29, 1981 in Philadelphia) is an American operatic tenor and a recipient of the 2009 Richard Tucker Award. Costello has performed in noted opera houses around the world including Covent Garden, Metropolitan Opera, and Lyric Opera of Chicago. In 2010, Costello originated the role of Greenhorn (Ishmael) in the world premiere of Jake Heggie's Moby-Dick at the Dallas Opera.
Education and vocal training
A native of Philadelphia, Costello is a 2007 graduate of that city's Academy of Vocal Arts, where he performed the Duke in Rigoletto, Rodolfo in La bohème, Nemorino in L'elisir d'amore, Ferrando in Così fan tutte, Fritz in L'amico Fritz, Roberto in Le villi, and Des Grieux in Massenet’s Manon. He studied with voice teacher Bill Schuman.
Professional operatic career
While still in school, Costello made his professional debut as Rodolfo in La bohème with the Fort Worth Opera in March 2006, and his European debut with Opéra National de Bordeaux as Nemorino in L'elisir d'amore in September 2006. Also in 2006, he made debuts with the Dallas Opera as Leicester in Maria Stuarda and with Opera Orchestra of New York as the Fisherman in Guillaume Tell (his Carnegie Hall debut).
Costello made his debut at the Metropolitan Opera on the opening night of its 2007-2008 season, as Arturo in Lucia di Lammermoor He portrayed Cassio in Verdi's Otello at the Salzburg Festival in 2008. He made his debut at Covent Garden in 2009 as Carlo in Linda di Chamounix. That same season, he debuted at Lyric Opera of Chicago as Camille in The Merry Widow and at the Tchaikovsky Concert Hall in Moscow as Roméo in Roméo et Juliette, the role of his subsequent San Diego Opera debut. Other notable roles include Christian in Cyrano with Opera Company of Philadelphia, the title role of Roberto Devereux at The Dallas Opera and Rinuccio in Gianni Schicchi at the Spoleto Festival conducted by James Conlon.
On April 30, 2010, Costello originated the role of Greenhorn (Ishmael) in the world premiere of Jake Heggie's Moby-Dick at The Dallas Opera (with Ben Heppner as Captain Ahab). In 2010, he also appeared as Rodolfo in La bohème at Deutsche Oper Berlin and Cincinnati Opera, and at the Salzburg Festival in Roméo et Juliette. In November 2010, he portrayed Percy in Anna Bolena, and thereby portrayed the 3 lead tenor characters in each of Donizetti's Tudor Operas within a 4-season span at the Dallas Opera. His debut at the Santa Fe Opera was as Roméo in Roméo et Juliette in July 2016.
Honors
In addition to the 2009 Richard Tucker Award, Costello received a 2007 Career Grant from the Richard Tucker Music Foundation, as well as a 2006 Sara Tucker Study Grant. He won First Prize in the 2006 George London Foundation For Singers Competition, First Prize and Audience Prize in the Giargiari Bel Canto Competition at the Academy of Vocal Arts, and First Prize in the Licia Albanese Puccini Foundation Competition.
References
Sources
Cappelletto, Sandro, "Quel padrino di Puccini", La Stampa, July 4, 2009
De Butts, Lucy, "Review: Linda di Chamounix, Royal Opera House", The Independent, September 15, 2009
Midgette, Anne, "Moby-Dick premieres in Dallas", Washington Post, May 3, 2010
Philadelphia Inquirer, "Philadelphia native tenor wins Richard Tucker Award", April 17, 2009, p. B8
Oshinsky, Matthew "Rising tenor returns to Ocean Grove, where his career began", The Star-Ledger, July 17, 2009
Taylor, Kate, "Tenors in Training: The Next Generation", New York Sun, August 18, 2008
External links
Stephen Costello - official website
McHugh, Dominic, Interview: Tenor Stephen Costello on his Royal Opera debut in Linda di Chamounix, MusicalCriticism.com, September 4, 2009
Living people
Musicians from Philadelphia
1982 births
American operatic tenors
Academy of Vocal Arts alumni
Richard Tucker Award winners
Singers from Pennsylvania
21st-century American opera singers
Classical musicians from Pennsylvania
21st-century American male singers
21st-century American singers
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594286
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cooperative%20Linux
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Cooperative Linux
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Cooperative Linux, abbreviated as coLinux, is software which allows Microsoft Windows and the Linux kernel to run simultaneously in parallel on the same machine.
Cooperative Linux utilizes the concept of a Cooperative Virtual Machine (CVM). In contrast to traditional virtual machines, the CVM shares resources that already exist in the host OS. In traditional VM hosts, resources are virtualized for every (guest) OS. The CVM gives both OSs complete control of the host machine while the traditional VM sets every guest OS in an unprivileged state to access the real machine.
Overview
The term "cooperative" is used to describe two entities working in parallel. In effect Cooperative Linux turns the two different operating system kernels into two big coroutines. Each kernel has its own complete CPU context and address space, and each kernel decides when to give control back to its partner.
However, while both kernels theoretically have full access to the real hardware, modern PC hardware is not designed to be controlled by two different operating systems at the same time. Therefore, the host kernel is left in control of the real hardware and the guest kernel contains special drivers that communicate with the host and provide various important devices to the guest OS. The host can be any OS kernel that exports basic primitives that allow the Cooperative Linux portable driver to run in CPL0 mode (ring 0) and allocate memory.
History
Dan Aloni originally started the development of Cooperative Linux as a research project based on similar work with User-mode Linux. He announced the development on 25 Jan 2004. In July 2004 he presented a paper at the Linux Symposium. The source was released under the GNU General Public License. Other developers have since contributed various patches and additions to the software.
Comparisons
Cooperative Linux is significantly different from full x86 virtualization, which generally works by running the guest OS in a less privileged mode than that of the host kernel, and having all resources delegated by the host kernel. In contrast, Cooperative Linux runs a specially modified Linux kernel that is Cooperative in that it takes responsibility for sharing resources with the NT kernel and not instigating race conditions.
Distribution
Most of the changes in the Cooperative Linux patch are on the i386 tree—the only supported architecture for Cooperative at the time of this writing. The other changes are mostly additions of virtual drivers: cobd (block device), conet (network), and cocon (console). Most of the changes in the i386 tree involve the initialization and setup code. It is a goal of the Cooperative Linux kernel design to remain as close as possible to the standalone i386 kernel, so all changes are localized and minimized as much as possible.
The coLinux package installs a port of the Linux kernel and a virtual network device and can run simultaneously under a version of the Windows operating system such as Windows 2000 or Windows XP. It does not use a virtual machine such as VMware.
Debian, Ubuntu, Fedora and Gentoo are especially popular with the coLinux users.
Due to the rather unusual structure of the virtual hardware, installing Linux distributions under coLinux is generally difficult. Therefore, users in most cases use either an existing Linux installation on a real partition or a ready made filesystem image distributed by the project. The filesystem images are made by a variety of methods, including taking images of a normal Linux system, finding ways to make installers run with the strange hardware, building up installs by hand using the package manager or simply upgrading existing images using tools like yum and apt. An easier way to get an up-to-date filesystem image is to use QEMU to install Linux and "convert" the image by stripping off the first 63 512-byte blocks as described in the coLinux wiki.
Since coLinux does not have access to native graphics hardware, X Window or X Servers will not run under coLinux directly, but one can install an X Server under Windows, such as Cygwin/X or Xming and use KDE or GNOME and almost any other Linux application and distribution. All of these issues are fixed by using coLinux based distributions such as andLinux, based on Ubuntu, or TopologiLinux, based on Slackware.
Emulated hardware
Ethernet network via TAP, PCAP, NDIS and SLiRP.
Limitations
Does not yet support 64-bit Windows or Linux (nor utilize more than 4GB memory), but a port is under development by the community. A sponsor was willing to complete the port, but the job got cancelled.
No multi-processor (SMP) support. Linux applications and the underlying kernel are able to use only one CPU.
See also
WinLinux
Win32-loader
Topologilinux, a Slackware-based coLinux distribution
andLinux, an Ubuntu-based coLinux distribution
Platform virtualization
Comparison of platform virtualization software
Cygwin
MSYS
Wubi
Longene
Chroot
Windows Subsystem for Linux
References
External links
coLinux on GitHub
Free virtualization software
Virtualization software
Windows-only free software
Linux kernel variant
Virtualization-related software for Linux
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7205330
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kings%20of%20Alba%20Longa
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Kings of Alba Longa
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The kings of Alba Longa, or Alban kings (Latin: reges Albani), were a series of legendary kings of Latium, who ruled from the ancient city of Alba Longa. In the mythic tradition of ancient Rome, they fill the 400-year gap between the settlement of Aeneas in Italy and the founding of the city of Rome by Romulus. It was this line of descent to which the Julii claimed kinship. The traditional line of the Alban kings ends with Numitor, the grandfather of Romulus and Remus. One later king, Gaius Cluilius, is mentioned by Roman historians, although his relation to the original line, if any, is unknown; and after his death, a few generations after the time of Romulus, the city was destroyed by Tullus Hostilius, the third King of Rome, and its population transferred to Alba's daughter city.
Background
The city of Alba Longa, often abbreviated Alba, was a Latin settlement in the montes Albani, or Alban Hills, near the present site of Castel Gandolfo in Latium. Although the exact location remains difficult to prove, there is archaeological evidence of Iron Age settlements in the area traditionally identified as the site. In Roman mythology, Alba was founded by Ascanius, the son of Aeneas, as a colony of Lavinium, the original settlement of Trojan refugees and native Latins, which it quickly eclipsed. There is some uncertainty in the tradition as to Ascanius' mother; in some accounts he was the son of Lavinia, and grandson of Latinus, the native king who welcomed Aeneas and the Trojans; his elder half brother, Iulus, was the son of Creusa, Aeneas' first wife, who died in the sack of Troy. This was the account favoured by Livy; in other versions, Ascanius was the son of Creusa; Dionysius and Virgil follow this account. However, the two differ where Vergil claims Ascanius and Iulus were the same; Dionysius, on the other hand, makes Iulus the son of Ascanius. In all accounts, Ascanius was the founder and first king of Alba Longa, while Iulus was claimed as the ancestor of the Julian gens.
Eratosthenes, the most influential of the ancient chronologists, reckoned that the sack of Troy occurred in 1184 BC, more than four centuries before the traditional founding of Rome, in 753. The history of the Alban kings conveniently filled that gap with a continuous line leading from Aeneas to Romulus, thus serving as a mythical justification for the close ties between Rome and the rest of Latium, and enhancing the status of Roman and Latin families who claimed descent from the original Trojan settlers or their Alban descendants. Such was the eagerness in the late Republic to claim a Trojan pedigree that fifteen different lists of the Alban kings from Aeneas to Romulus survive.
History
Kings of Latium
When Aeneas and the Trojan refugees landed on the shores of the Laurentian plain, they encountered the Latins, led by their eponymous king, Latinus. The Latins were aborigines; that is, the original inhabitants of Latium, a title sometimes used to refer to the Latins before the arrival of Aeneas. Latinus was the son of Faunus, and grandson of Picus, the first king of Latium, who was in turn the son of Saturn. This was the most usual account, followed by Virgil in the Aeneid, and by Eusebius, but there were also several other versions. Picus was also said to be the son of Mars, rather than Saturn. According to Justin, Faunus was Latinus' maternal grandfather, and was the son of Jupiter, rather than Picus; in this account Saturn was the first king of the Latins. According to Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Latinus was the son of Hercules, and merely pretended to be the son of Faunus; Aeneas arrived in the thirty-fifth year of his reign over the Aborigines.
Evander and Janus are also sometimes described as ancient kings of the Aborigines; but Livy describes Evander as a king of the Arcadians, as does Virgil, who makes him an ally of Aeneas in the war against the Rutuli. In his Saturnalia, Macrobius describes Janus as sharing Latium with another king, known as Camese.
The Latins were alarmed by the arrival of the Trojans, and rushed to arms; according to some accounts, a battle was fought, in which Latinus was defeated, and a peace concluded between the two groups, cemented by the marriage of Aeneas and Lavinia, daughter of the Latin king; in other versions battle was narrowly averted when the two leaders chose to parley before hostilities could begin, and Aeneas impressed his host with his noble bearing and woeful story, leading to an alliance. Aeneas then established the town of Lavinium, named after his young bride, with a mixed population of Trojans and Latins.
But the new settlers and their alliance with Latinus soon encountered threats from two neighboring peoples. First the Rutuli, whose prince, Turnus, had previously been betrothed to Lavinia, marched against them. The new allies defeated the Rutuli, but Latinus was slain in the fighting, whereupon Aeneas assumed the leadership of both Trojans and Latins, declaring that henceforth all of his followers should be known as Latins. Subsequently, Mezentius, king of the Etruscan city of Caere, led an army against the Latins; he too was defeated after fierce fighting, but Aeneas fell in battle, or died soon afterward, and was buried on the banks of the Numicus, where he was later regarded as Jupiter Indiges, the local god.
Because Ascanius was still a child, Lavinia acted as regent until he came of age. Livy describes her as a woman of great character, who was able to maintain the peace between the Latins and their Etruscan neighbors to the north; he also describes the boundary between Latium and Etruria, fixed by treaty after the battle between Aeneas and Mezentius as the river Albula, subsequently known as the Tiber.
The Silvian Dynasty
About thirty years after the founding of Lavinium, when the original Trojan settlement was flourishing and populous, Ascanius decided to establish a colony in the Alban Hills, which, as it was initially spread out along a ridge, became known as Alba Longa. Nothing further is written of Ascanius, who was succeeded by his son, Silvius, according to Livy. Silvius' name was reportedly derived from his having been born in the woods, and Dionysius records a different tradition, whereby he was not the son of Ascanius, but his half-brother, the son of Aeneas and Lavinia. In this account, Lavinia feared that Ascanius, already a young man upon the death of his father, would harm her or her child, as threats to his bloodline, and therefore hid in the woods, where she was sheltered by Tyrrhenus, the royal swineherd and a friend of her father, Latinus. She and her son emerged from hiding when the Latins accused Ascanius of having done away with his stepmother. Silvius then succeeded Ascanius as king of the Latins, in preference to Ascanius' son, Iulus, whom Dionysius identifies as the ancestor of the Julii. According to Dionysius, Ascanius died in the thirty-eighth year of his reign, counting from the death of Aeneas, rather than the founding of Alba Longa.
Livy records that Silvius founded several colonies, later known as the Prisci Latini, or "Old Latins". According to Dionysius, he reigned for twenty-nine years. He was succeeded by his son, Aeneas Silvius, who assumed his father's name as a cognomen, or surname; henceforth all of his descendants bore the name "Silvius" in addition to their personal names. This was the same process by which the nomen gentilicium later developed throughout Italy. Aeneas reigned for thirty-one years, and was succeeded by Latinus Silvius, who reigned for fifty-one years. The next king, Alba, reigned for thirty-nine years; according to Livy, he was succeeded by Atys, who reigned for twenty-six years, followed by Capys, who reigned twenty-eight years, and Capetus, who ruled for thirteen years.
Capetus' successor, Tiberinus, was drowned crossing the river Albula, which was henceforth known as the Tiber in his memory; Dionysius says that he was slain in battle, and his body carried away by the river, after a reign of eight years. Tiberinus was followed by Agrippa, who ruled for forty-one years, and was succeeded by his son, Romulus Silvius, whom Dionysius calls Allocius. Livy states simply that he was struck by lightning, but Dionysius describes him as tyrannical and contemptuous of the gods; he imitated thunder and lightning, so as to appear like a god before the people, whereupon he and his whole household were destroyed by thunder and lightning, and overwhelmed by the waters of the adjoining lake, after a reign of nineteen years. He bequeathed his throne to Aventinus, who reigned for thirty-seven years, and was buried on the hill that bears his name. He was followed by Proca, who reigned for twenty-three years.
Proca had two sons, Numitor and Amulius; his will was that he be succeeded by the elder son, Numitor, but Amulius drove out his brother, claiming the throne for himself. He had his brother's sons put to death, and appointed Numitor's daughter, Rhea Silvia, a Vestal Virgin, supposedly to do her honour, but in fact to ensure her perpetual virginity and prevent any further issue in her father's line. But Rhea was raped, and gave birth to twin sons, Romulus and Remus; she claimed that their father was Mars himself. Amulius had her thrown in prison, and ordered the infants thrown into the Tiber. But as the Tiber was swollen and its banks unreachable, the boys were exposed at the base of a fig tree, where they were suckled by a she-wolf, and then discovered by the shepherd Faustulus, who raised them with the aid of his wife, Acca Larentia. When they had grown to manhood, Romulus and Remus contrived to assassinate their wicked uncle, and restored their grandfather to the throne. According to Dionysius, Amulius reigned forty-two years.
The following year, which Dionysius makes the four hundred and thirty-second since the fall of Troy (i.e. 751 BC, only two years later than the era of Varro), Romulus and Remus set out to establish an Alban colony, which ultimately became the city of Rome. As Numitor had no further issue, the Silvian dynasty of Alba Longa ends with him.
After the Silvii
Nothing further is reported of Alba Longa or its kings until the time of Tullus Hostilius, the third King of Rome, who according to tradition reigned from approximately 673 to 642 BC. During his reign, a series of cattle raids between Roman and Alban territory led to a declaration of war by Hostilius. At that time, the Alban king was Gaius Cluilius, whose relationship to the Silvii, if any, is entirely unknown. He set about arming the Alban populace and preparing for war, and constructed a large trench around the perimeter of Rome. However, he died before the two sides could engage in battle. It is not known whether he had any sons to succeed him in the kingship; the ancient historians report only that the military command was entrusted to Mettius Fufetius, who negotiated that the war be decided by a contest of champions; victory fell to Rome when the Horatii defeated the Curiatii, and peace was restored.
Later, Fufetius arranged to join Fidenae in a revolt against Roman authority, aided by the Etruscan city of Veii. At a crucial point in the battle between the Roman and Fidenate armies, Fufetius, in command of the Alban forces ostensibly allied with Rome, withdrew from the field. After this betrayal, Hostilius determined to revenge himself upon both Fufetius and Alba Longa. By a ruse he induced the surrender of the Albans, and had Fufetius torn asunder by horses; he then forcibly relocated the entire Alban populace to Rome, and razed the city of Alba Longa to the ground.
Development
The traditions relating to the origins of Rome and the Latins belong to the realm of Roman mythology. This is not to say that the persons or events related in such traditions did not exist, or were solely the product of deliberate invention by later generations. But the earliest surviving records and accounts postdate the period of the Alban kings by several centuries, leaving little basis upon which to evaluate their historicity. In particular, the tradition connecting the founding of Alba Longa with the flight of Aeneas from Troy was only one of a number of stories about the origins of Rome, and although doubtless ancient, it shows the hallmarks of having developed over a long period.
The first literary suggestions that the Romans were descended from survivors of the Trojan War are found among the Greek writers, many of whom considered the Romans descendants of the Achaeans, rather than the Trojans. At the conclusion of the Theogony, Hesiod mentions Latinus and Agrius as sons of Odysseus and Circe; Agrius ruled over the Tyrrhenians, originally a somewhat vague term for the inhabitants of central Italy, which in later times was applied specifically to the Etruscans. This passage reveals Hellenic interest in the peoples of Italy dating to at least the eighth century BC. In this account, the Romans are descended from Odysseus, one of the Achaeans, rather than his contemporary, the Trojan prince Aeneas. Writing in the fourth century BC, Heraclides Ponticus, a pupil of Plato, referred to Rome as a "Greek city". About the same time, Aristotle related a tradition that Achaean warriors returning home after the Trojan War were driven to Italy by a storm. Stranded on the Italian shores with a number of captive Trojan women, they built a settlement called "Latinium".
The Etruscans were particularly interested in the myth of Aeneas and Anchises from at least the late sixth century BC. Perhaps influenced by Hesiod, they originally considered the Greek Odysseus to be their founder-hero, but later embraced Aeneas as their founder due to their growing rivalry with the Greek city-states of Italy; increasingly they perceived the Greek colonists as their enemies, rather than partners in trade. Aeneas is depicted on a number of black-figure and red figure vases unearthed in southern Etruria, dating from the end of the sixth century to the middle of the fifth century BC.
Beginning in the late seventh century BC, Roman culture was heavily influenced by the Etruscans. Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, the fifth king of Rome, and his grandson, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, the seventh and last king, were Etruscans, and it may have been during this period that the Etruscan interest in Aeneas was transmitted to Rome. Writing toward the end of the third century BC, Quintus Fabius Pictor, the father of Roman history, related the story that the Romans were descended from Aeneas, via his son Ascanius, the founder of Alba Longa. In his account of Roman origins, Pictor described a continuous history of Greek exports to Italy, including the landing of Heracles and the establishment of a colony on the Palatine Hill by the Arcadians under Evander, to whom he attributed the introduction of the alphabet.
In the second century BC, Marcus Porcius Cato, better known as Cato the Elder, composed his own history of Roman origins, following the existing traditions relating to Aeneas and his descendants; but to Cato, the Aborigines were themselves Greeks, and Romulus received the Aeolic tongue from Evander.
Later influence
In the Iliad, the god Poseidon prophesied that the descendants of Aeneas (the Aeneadae), would survive the Trojan War and rule their people forever, but also that the rule of the Aeneadae would never happen in Troy. Virgil provided the imperial legacy of the Aeneadae by making Iulus the divine ancestor of Augustus in the Aeneid. From this divine connection the line of Aeneas stretched through Romulus, Augustus, and the Julio-Claudian emperors down to Nero.
The Julii
It was popular in the late Roman republic for the more distinguished families to claim divine origin, and it was believed that Iulus (Ascanius) was the mythical ancestor of the gens Julia. A notable member of the family, Julius Caesar, is said to have gone to Mount Alba to preside over the Feriae Latinae, Latin rites originally celebrated by the kings of Alba Longa. This confused many Romans, who hailed him as king upon his return to Rome. Mindful of the Republic's ancient traditions, including one by which any person claiming to be King of Rome was to be put to death, he rejected this honour.
In the Forum of Augustus, statues of the kings of Alba Longa and members of the Julian family were placed with Aeneas in the northwest hemicycle. In that hemicycle were the statues of Aeneas, the kings of Alba Longa, and M. Claudius Marcellus, C. Julius Caesar Strabo, and Julius Caesar (the adoptive father of Augustus) among others. The northeast hemicycle had summi viri placed with Romulus. Augustus' funerary procession reflects the same kind of propaganda as his "Hall of Heroes" and included many of the same statues, with one headed by Aeneas and the other by Romulus. In propagating his apotheosis, Augustus chose to include his adoptive father Julius Caesar who had recently achieved divinity himself, whereas Aeneas and Romulus are included for their divinity was well established.
Roman mythology
Kings of Alba Longa would have claimed to be descendants of Jupiter as Virgil demonstrates in the Aeneid. He represents the Alban kings as being crowned with a civic oak-leaf crown. The Roman kings then adopted the crown, becoming personifications of Jupiter on earth. Latinus was thought to have become Jupiter Latiaris after "vanishing" during a battle with Mezentius (king of Caere). So too, Aeneas disappeared from a battle with Mezentius or with Turnus, and became Jupiter Indiges. Romulus (not unlike his Alban predecessors) became Quirinus, the "Oak-god", when he was called up to heaven.
Medieval Europe
Geoffrey of Monmouth, a Benedictine monk living in the 12th century AD, wrote a fabricated history of the kings of Britain (Historia Regum Britanniae). In this history Britain is said to receive its name from Brutus, the first of its kings. According to him, Brutus was the son of Silvius and the grandson of Aeneas. While on a hunting trip with his father he accidentally shoots him and so flees Italy. First, Brutus goes to Greece and gathers Trojan companions who join him on his journey to Britain, where he takes the island from a race of giants.
Benoît de Saint-Maure names Charlemagne as a descendant of the mythical Francus, thus linking the Plantagenet family to Aeneas. Francus, like Aeneas, survived the destruction of Troy and traveled to find a new home. He installed a territory with other Trojans comprising the entire Rhine and the Danube and founded a powerful village named Sicambri.
Historicity
The ancient historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus is believed to have invented the Alban chronology to fill the gap of centuries between the fall of Troy and the founding of Rome. This could have been achieved by him taking the Roman history as it was, comparing it with the Greek, and inserting Greek Olympiads or Athenian archons. This method would have made the Greek histories seem contemporary with the people and events in the Roman history of his time.
The names of the kings are often based on places around Rome, such as Tiberinus, Aventinus, Alba, and Capetus. Others are rationalizations of mythical figures, or pure inventions to provide notable ancestors for status-seeking families. In the Aeneid, Virgil invents characters into living beings not unlike the heroes of Homer. The events described toward the end of the Aeneid were a nationalistic interpretation of perceived historical events in Roman history. However, despite being a later invention, the Silvian house or gens Silvia likely did exist.
In literature
In Dante's Paradiso, Canto VI, the soul of Eastern Roman Emperor Justinian I describes a brief history of the Romans to Dante. He begins with Aeneas arriving in Italy and avenging the death of Pallas (whom ancient writers credit for settling the Palatine hill of Rome). Justinian claims Alba Longa held the Imperial eagle for three centuries until its defeat by Rome following the duel between the three Horatii and the three Curiatii.
In the Nuremberg Chronicle (Hartmann Schedel, 1493), the kings of Alba Longa are listed as according to Livy, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, and Ovid. They are used in comparison to date the time in which various Biblical figures were alive.
In Historia regum Britanniae (Geoffrey of Monmouth), the reigns of several kings of Alba Longa are used to provide context for many Biblical events and the lifetimes of historical persons. This links the early kings of Britain to the House of Silvius.
Family tree
See also
Kings of Rome
Aborigines
Albani people
Translatio imperii
Inscriptions
Notes
References
Sources
Dionysius of Halicarnassus; Ernest Cary (Translator); William Thayer (Editor) (1937-1950, 2007). Roman Antiquities. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge, Chicago: Harvard University, University of Chicago. Retrieved 13 July 2009.
Livius, Titus; D. Spillan (Translator) (1853, 2006). The History of Rome, Books 1 to 8. Project Gutenberg. Retrieved 13 July 2009.
Origo Gentis Romanae; Kyle Haniszewski, Lindsay Karas, Kevin Koch, Emily Parobek, Colin Pratt, Brian Serwicki (Translators); Thomas M. Banchich (Supervisor). The Origin of the Roman Race Canisius College Translated Texts, Number 3 Canisius College, Buffalo, New York 2004.
Barthold Georg Niebuhr; Julius Charles Hare, Connop Thirlwall (Translators).The History of Rome, Volume 1 Fellows of Trinity College, Cambridge.
12th-century BC establishments
7th-century BC disestablishments
Roman mythology
fr:Albe la Longue#Rois d’Albe la Longue
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Cornell%20University%20alumni%20%28natural%20sciences%29
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List of Cornell University alumni (natural sciences)
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This list of Cornell University alumni includes notable graduates, non-graduate former students, and current students of Cornell University, an Ivy League university located in Ithaca, New York, in the field of natural sciences and related subjects.
For other disciplines, see: List of Cornell University alumni.
Alumni
Mathematics, statistics and operations research
John B. Bell (M.S. 1977, Ph.D. 1979) – mathematician and the head of the Center for Computational Sciences and Engineering at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory; recipient of the Sidney Fernbach Award (2005) and SIAM/ACM prize (2003), member of the National Academy of Sciences (2012) and fellow of SIAM (2009)
James O. Berger (Ph.D. 1974) – statistician, professor of statistics at Duke University and director of the Statistical and Applied Mathematical Sciences Institute since 2002; Fellow of the American Statistical Association and member of the National Academy of Sciences (2002); recipient of the Guggenheim Fellowship, the COPSS Presidents' Award (1985) and the R. A. Fisher Lectureship
Robert E. Bixby (Ph.D. 1972) – Noah Harding Professor Emeritus of Computational and Applied Mathematics at Rice University; member of the National Academy of Engineering (1997)
Maury D. Bramson (Ph.D. 1977 mathematics) – mathematician at University of Minnesota; member of the National Academy of Sciences (2017)
Lawrence D. Brown (Ph.D. 1964; professor) – statistician, Miers Busch Professor of Statistics at the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania; member of National Academy of Sciences (1990) and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences; president of Institute of Mathematical Statistics (1992–1993)
T. Tony Cai (Ph.D. 1996) – statistician; Dorothy Silberberg Professor at the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania; Fellow of Institute of Mathematical Statistics (2006); recipient of COPSS Presidents' Award (2008)
George F. Carrier (M.A. 1939, Ph.D. 1944) – mathematician, known for the modeling of fluid mechanics, Combustion, and Tsunamis, T. Jefferson Coolidge Professor of Applied Mathematics Emeritus at Harvard University, recipient of the National Medal of Science (1990), Otto Laporte Award (1976), Theodore von Karman Medal (1977), Timoshenko Medal (1978), Fluid Dynamics Prize (APS) (1984); member of the National Academy of Sciences (1967) and of the National Academy of Engineering (1974)
Chia-Kun Chu (M.M.E. 1950) – applied mathematician, Fu Foundation Professor Emeritus of Applied Mathematics at Columbia University
Julian Cole (B.S. engineering) – applied mathematician who was on faculty at Caltech, UCLA and RPI and served as department chair at UCLA; member of the National Academy of Sciences (1976) and of the National Academy of Engineering (1976); fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and of the American Physical Society
Gérard Cornuéjols (Ph.D. 1978) – IBM University Professor of Operations Research at the Carnegie Mellon University and former editor-in-chief of Mathematics of Operations Research; recipient of Frederick W. Lanchester Prize (1977)， the Fulkerson Prize (2000), the George B. Dantzig Prize (2009) and the John von Neumann Theory Prize (2011), member of the National Academy of Engineering (2016)
Elbert Frank Cox (Ph.D. 1925 mathematics) – first black person in the world to receive a Ph.D. in mathematics; professor and department head at Howard University
Brenda L. Dietrich (Ph.D. 1986) – member of the National Academy of Engineering (2014); IBM Fellow and Fellow of the Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences (INFORMS)
Benson Farb (B.A.) – mathematician at the University of Chicago and a fellow of the American Mathematical Society (2012)
William F. Friedman (B.S. 1914 genetics) – cryptologist, member of the Military Intelligence Hall of Fame
Stephen Gelbart (B.A. 1967, professor) – American-Israeli mathematician; Nicki and J. Ira Harris Professorship at the Weizmann Institute of Science, president of the Israel Mathematical Union (1994–1996), fellow of the American Mathematical Society (2013)
Arthur Geoffrion (B.M.E. 1960, M.I.E. 1961) – James A. Collins Chair in Management Emeritus at University of California, Los Angeles, president (1997) and Fellow (2002) of the Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences; member of the National Academy of Engineering (1998)
Robert Ghrist (M.A. 1994, Ph.D. 1995) – mathematician known for his work on topological methods in applied mathematics; the Andrea Mitchell Penn Integrating Knowledge Professor at the University of Pennsylvania (2008–)
Donald Goldfarb (B.Ch.E. 1963) – Alexander and Hermine Avanessians Professor of Industrial Engineering and Operations Research at Columbia University (1982–); John von Neumann Theory Prize recipient (2017)
Roger Horn (B.A. 1963) – co-developed the Bateman-Horn conjecture and wrote the standard-issue Matrix Analysis textbook with Charles Royal Johnson
Alston Scott Householder (M.A. 1927) – mathematician and inventor of the Householder transformation and of Householder's method; president of the Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics (SIAM) and of the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM)
Donald L. Iglehart (B.A. 1956) – professor of engineering-economic systems & operations research, emeritus at Stanford University; recipient of John von Neumann Theory Prize (2002), member of the National Academy of Engineering (1999)
Iain M. Johnstone (Ph.D. 1981) – statistician, Stanford University Statistics Professor and president of the Institute of Mathematical Statistics, recipient of the Guy Medal (silver 2010, bronze 1995) and COPSS Presidents' Award (1995), member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and the National Academy of Sciences (2005)
Harry Kesten (Ph.D. 1958) – mathematician best known for his work in probability, most notably on random walks and percolation theory; recipient of the Brouwer Medal (1981), the George Pólya Prize (1994) and the Steele Prize (2001), member of the National Academy of Sciences (1983) and of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences and fellow of the American Mathematical Society
Nancy Kopell (A.B. 1960) – studies dynamics of the nervous system; MacArthur Fellow (1990), Guggenheim Fellowship (1984); member of the National Academy of Sciences (1996) and fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Jon Lee (B.A. 1981, Ph.D. 1986) – mathematician and operations researcher, the G. Lawton and Louise G. Johnson Professor of Engineering at the University of Michigan
Lee Lorch (B.A. 1935) – mathematician, contributed to fields of summability theory and Fourier analysis; early civil rights activist
William L. Maxwell (B.M.E. 1957, Ph.D. 1961) – Andrew Schultz Jr. Professor Emeritus of Industrial Engineering at Cornell University; member of the National Academy of Engineering (1998) and fellow of the Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences (2002)
Colm Mulcahy (Ph.D. 1985) – mathematician, columnist and book author; serves on the Advisory Council of the Museum of Mathematics in New York City; vice-president of Gathering 4 Gardner
Henry Louis Rietz (Ph.D. 1902) – mathematician, actuarial scientist, and statistician who served as the president of the Institute of Mathematical Statistics and of the Mathematical Association of America
Gerald Sacks (Ph.D. 1961, assistant and associate professor 1962–67) – mathematical logician; holds a joint appointment at Harvard University as a Professor of Mathematical Logic and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology as a professor emeritus; known for his contributions in recursion theory
Neil Sloane (Ph.D. 1967) – mathematician; creator and maintainer of the On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences; AT&T Fellow (1998), IEEE Fellow, American Mathematical Society Fellow; member of the National Academy of Engineering; recipient of Lester R. Ford Award (1978), the Chauvenet Prize (1979), the IEEE Richard W. Hamming Medal (2005), the Mathematical Association of America's David P. Robbins award (2008)
Robert J. Vanderbei (Ph.D. 1981 applied mathematics) – mathematician and Professor of Operations Research and Financial Engineering at Princeton University; fellow of the American Mathematical Society (2013)
Cornelia Strong (B.A. 1903) - mathematician, astronomer, and professor at the Woman's College of the University of North Carolina
Samuel S. Wagstaff, Jr. (Ph.D. 1970) – mathematician and computer scientist known for the Wagstaff prime; professor of computer science and mathematics at Purdue University
Grace Wahba (B.A. 1956) – statistician at the University of Wisconsin–Madison; member of the National Academy of Sciences (2000), fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the American Statistical Association, and the Institute of Mathematical Statistics
Lawrence M. Wein (B.S. 1979) – Jeffrey S. Skoll Professor of Management Science at Stanford University; member of the National Academy of Engineering (2009)
Ward Whitt (Ph.D. 1969 operations research) – Wai T. Chang Professor of IEOR at Columbia University; was on the faculty of Stanford University and Yale University; member of the National Academy of Engineering, recipient of John von Neumann Theory Prize (2001) and Frederick W. Lanchester Prize (2003)
Norbert Wiener (graduate study 1910–1911, transferred) – mathematician; founder of the study of cybernetics; recipient of Bôcher Memorial Prize (1933) and National Medal of Science (1963)
John Wesley Young (A.M. 1901, Ph.D. 1904)) – professor, head (1911–1919) and chair (1923–1925) of the Mathematics Department at Dartmouth College, president of the Mathematical Association of America (1929–1930); known for axioms of projective geometry and the Veblen–Young theorem
Physics
Richard L. Abrams (B.Eng., Ph.D. applied physics) – chief scientist of Hughes Research Laboratories; president of The Optical Society (1990)
Andreas J. Albrecht (B.A. 1979) – distinguished professor and chair of the Physics Department at the University of California, Davis; Fellow of the American Physical Society, of the Institute of Physics (UK), and of the American Association for the Advancement of Science
Thomas Appelquist (Ph.D. 1968) – theoretical particle physicist at Yale University; recipient of the Sakurai prize (1997), fellow of American Academy of Arts and Sciences and of the American Physical Society
David Awschalom (Ph.D. 1982) – condensed matter experimental physicist known for his work in spintronics in semiconductors; Liew Family Professor in Molecular Engineering at the University of Chicago; member of the National Academy of Sciences (2007) and the National Academy of Engineering; fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences; recipient of Oliver E. Buckley Condensed Matter Prize (2005) and Agilent Europhysics Prize by the European Physical Society (2005)
William A. Bardeen (A.B. 1962) – theoretical physicist at Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory; recipient of the Sakurai prize (1996), fellow of the American Physical Society (1984) and of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1998), member of the National Academy of Sciences (1999)
Samuel Jackson Barnett (Ph.D. 1898) – physicist, known for Barnett effect in electromagnetism; professor of physics and department chairman at University of California at Los Angeles; repeated nominee of the Nobel Prize in Physics; fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Gordon Baym (B.A. 1956) – professor emeritus at University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign; Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and member of the National Academy of Sciences (1982), recipient of the Hans A. Bethe Prize (2002) and Lars Onsager Prize (2008)
Malcolm Beasley (B.E.P. 1962, Ph.D. 1968) – physicist and president of the American Physical Society (2014); Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and member of the National Academy of Sciences (1993); dean of the Stanford University School of Humanities and Sciences (1998–2001)
Carl M. Bender (B.A. 1964) – Wilfred R. and Ann Lee Konneker Distinguished Professor of Physics at Washington University in St. Louis; Fellow of the American Physical Society
Allen Boozer (Ph.D. 1970) – theoretical plasma physicist at the Department of Applied Physics and Applied Mathematics, Columbia University; recipient of the Hannes Alfvén Prize (2010) and fellow of the American Physical Society (1982)
Kenneth Bowles (PhD 1955) – Jicamarca Radio Observatory, UCSD Pascal
Gilles Brassard (Ph.D. 1979 computer science) – Wolf Prize in Physics recipient (2018), known for Quantum cryptography, Quantum teleportation, Quantum entanglement, Quantum pseudo-telepathy
Peter A. Carruthers (Ph.D. 1961; professor) – physicist, leader of the theoretical division of Los Alamos National Laboratory (1973 – 1980), professor of physics and department chairman at the University of Arizona; co-founder of Santa Fe Institute
David Ceperley (Ph.D. 1976 physics) – theoretical physicist at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign; member of the National Academy of Sciences (2006), fellow of the American Physical Society (1992) and of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1999)
Moses H. W. Chan (M.S. 1969, Ph.D. 1974) – Evan Pugh Professor at Pennsylvania State University; recipient of the Fritz London Memorial prize (1996), member of the National Academy of Sciences (2000) and fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (2004)
Susan Coppersmith (M.S. 1981, Ph.D. 1983 physics) – Robert E. Fassnacht and Vilas Professor of Physics at the University of Wisconsin–Madison and Professor of Physics at the University of Chicago; member of the National Academy of Sciences (2009), fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (2006) and of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (1999)
Predrag Cvitanović (Ph.D. 1973) – nonlinear dynamics theoretical physicist; Fellow of the American Physical Society and recipient of the Alexander von Humboldt Prize (2009)
Mandar Madhukar Deshmukh (Ph.D. 2002) – Indian physicist specialising in nanoscale and mesoscopic physics; received the India's highest science and technology award, Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize for Science and Technology, in 2015
Gerald J. Dolan (Ph.D. 1973) – solid state physicist who received the Oliver E. Buckley Condensed Matter Prize in 2000
Herbert Grove Dorsey (Ph.D. 1908; professor) – physicist; invented the first practical fathometer, a water depth measuring instrument for ships
Mildred Dresselhaus (postdoc) – applied physicist; Institute professor and professor of physics and electrical engineering (emerita) at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology; recipient of National Medal of Science (1990), Enrico Fermi Award (2012), Kavli Prize in Nanoscience (2012), Presidential Medal of Freedom (2014), IEEE Medal of Honor (2015), Oliver E. Buckley Condensed Matter Prize (2008); member of the National Academy of Sciences (1985) and the National Academy of Engineering (1974)
Freeman Dyson (Commonwealth Fellow 1947–1948) – professor emeritus at the Institute for Advanced Study; recipient of the Harvey Prize (1977), Wolf Prize in Physics (1981), Templeton Prize (2000); member of the National Academy of Sciences (1964)
Helen T. Edwards (B.S. 1957, M.S., Ph.D. 1966 physics) – leading scientist for the design and construction of the Tevatron at the Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory; member of the National Academy of Engineering; recipient of the USPAS Prize for Achievement in Accelerator Physics and Technology (1985), E. O. Lawrence Award (1986), MacArthur Foundation Fellowship (1988), the National Medal of Technology and Innovation (1989)
Martin M. Fejer (B.A. Physics) – applied physicist at Stanford University, known for his work on nonlinear and guided-wave optics; member of the National Academy of Sciences (2016) and fellow of the Optical Society of America and of the IEEE
Daniel S. Fisher (B.A. 1975 mathematics and physics) – applied physicist at Stanford University; member of the National Academy of Sciences (2015)
Matthew P. A. Fisher (B.S. 1981 engineering physics) – theoretical condensed matter physicist at the University of California, Santa Barbara; recipient of the Alan T. Waterman Award (1995) and Oliver E. Buckley Condensed Matter Prize (2015); fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (2003) and member of the National Academy of Sciences (2012)
Roswell Clifton Gibbs (B.A. 1906, M.A. 1908, Ph.D. 1910, chairman of the Department of Physics 1934–1946) – president of the Optical Society of America (1937–1938) and Fellow of the American Physical Society
Ursula Gibson (M.S. 1978, Ph.D. 1982) – professor of physics at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology, president of The Optical Society (2019)
Paul Ginsparg (Ph.D. 1981 physics) – professor of physics and computing & information science at Cornell University, known for the development of the arXiv e-print archive; fellow of the American Physical Society, MacArthur Fellow (2002)
Laura Greene (M.S. 1980, Ph.D. 1984) – experimental condensed matter physicist; president of the American Physical Society (2017), member of the National Academy of Sciences (2006) and fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1997), the American Association for the Advancement of Science (1996) and the American Physical Society (1993)
Kenneth Greisen (Ph.D. 1942; professor emeritus of physics) – pioneer in the study of cosmic rays; Manhattan Project participant; first chair of High Energy Astrophysics Division of the American Astronomical Society; member of the National Academy of Sciences (1974)
Marshall G. Holloway (Ph.D. 1938 physics) – member of the National Academy of Engineering (1967) for design, construction, and testing of nuclear weapons
David A. Huse (Ph.D. 1983) – Cyrus Fogg Brackett Professor of Physics at Princeton University; member of the National Academy of Sciences (2017)
Roman Jackiw (Ph.D. 1966) – professor at the MIT Center for Theoretical Physics, known for Adler–Bell–Jackiw anomaly and Jackiw–Teitelboim gravity; member of the National Academy of Sciences (1998), Guggenheim Fellow and Fellow of the American Physical Society; Dirac Medallist
Deane B. Judd (Ph.D. 1926) – physicist in the fields of colorimetry, color discrimination, color order, and color vision; president of The Optical Society (1953–1955)
William L. Kraushaar (Ph.D. 1949) – high-energy astronomy pioneer, physics professor at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (1949–1965) and University of Wisconsin–Madison (1965–1985); member of the National Academy of Sciences (1973)
Harry Kroger (Ph.D. 1962) – physicist and electrical engineer
James A. Krumhansl (Ph.D. 1943; professor) – physicist; president of the American Physical Society (1989–1990)
Harry J. Lipkin (1942) – Israeli theoretical physicist specializing in nuclear physics and elementary particle physics; received the Wigner Medal in 2002
Andrea Liu (Ph.D. 1989) – Hepburn Professor of Physics at the University of Pennsylvania; fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science and member of the National Academy of Sciences (2016)
Franklin Ware Mann (B.S. 1878) – pioneering ballistics researcher and inventor of the Mann rest adopted by the National Institute of Standards and Technology and Aberdeen Proving Ground
Robert E. Marshak (Ph.D. 1939) – physicist, known for his contributions in weak interaction; he and his student George Sudarshan were the first to propose the V-A theory of Weak Interactions; served as chairperson of Physics Department at Rochester University, president of City College of New York, and the university distinguished professor at Virginia Tech; president of American Physical Society (1982–1983); fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and member of the National Academy of Sciences (1958); recipient of three Guggenheim Fellowships, the Humboldt Award of the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation, and J. Robert Oppenheimer Memorial Prize
Boyce McDaniel (Ph.D. 1943, professor 1946–1985) – Manhattan Project physicist and synchrotron designer; member of the National Academy of Sciences
Ernest Merritt (B.S. mechanical engineering, M.A. Physics; Professor, Dean of Graduate School 1909–1914, chair of the Physics Department 1919–1935) – physicist, co-founder (1893) and co-editor (1893–1913) of the journal Physical Review, first secretary, then president (1914–1916) of the American Physical Society, member of the National Academy of Sciences (1914)
Francis Charles Moon (Ph.D. 1967 mechanical engineering) – Joseph C. Ford Professor of Engineering Emeritus at Cornell University; member of the National Academy of Engineering (1996) for his experimental research in chaotic and nonlinear dynamics and development of superconducting levitation devices
David Robert Nelson (A.B., 1972, M.S., 1974, Ph.D., 1975, physics) – Arthur K. Solomon Professor of Biophysics and Professor of Physics and Applied Physics at Harvard University; MacArthur Fellow (1984), recipient of Guggenheim Fellowship and Oliver E. Buckley Condensed Matter Prize (2004), member of the National Academy of Sciences, fellow of the American Physical Society, the American Association for the Advancement of Science, and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Edward Leamington Nichols (B.S. 1875, professor) – founder of the Physical Review, member of the National Academy of Sciences (1901), president of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (1907) and the American Physical Society (1907–08)
Perley G. Nutting (Ph.D. 1903) – founder of Optical Society of America and its first president (1916–1917)
Gerard K. O'Neill (Ph.D. 1954) – physicist and space activist
John Perdew (M.S., Ph.D.) – theoretical condensed matter physicist; member of the National Academy of Sciences (2011)
Michael Peskin (Ph.D. 1978) – theoretical physicist and Professor in the theory group at the SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory; known for Peskin–Takeuchi parameter; fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Ward Plummer (Ph.D. 1967) – professor of physics at Louisiana State University; member of the National Academy of Sciences (2006)
Mohit Randeria (PhD 1987) – condensed matter physicist, fellow of the American Physical Society, Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar laureate
Hubert Reeves (Ph.D. 1960) – astrophysicist
Floyd K. Richtmyer (A.B. in 1904, Ph.D. 1910; Professor of Physics) – president of Optical Society of America (1920); recipient of the Louis E. Levy Medal of the Franklin Institute for the study of X-rays (1929); member of the National Academy of Sciences (1932)
Albert Rose (A.B. 1931, Ph.D. 1935) – physicist, known for his contributions to TV video camera tubes and originating the concept of Detective quantum efficiency; Fellow of IEEE and of the American Physical Society and member of the National Academy of Engineering (1975); recipient of SMPTE's David Sarnoff Gold Medal(1958), IEEE Morris N. Liebmann Memorial Award (1946), IEEE Edison Medal (1979)
Michael Roukes (Ph.D. 1985) – experimental physicist, nanoscientist, and the Robert M. Abbey Professor of Physics, Applied Physics, and Bioengineering at the California Institute of Technology
Stephen Shenker (Ph.D. 1980) – theoretical physicist on string theory and a professor at Stanford University, former director of the Stanford Institute for Theoretical Physics; MacArthur Fellow (1987), Fellow of American Physical Society (2003), the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (2006), member of the National Academy of Sciences (2015), recipient of Lars Onsager Prize (2010)
Ernest J. Sternglass (B.S. 1944, Ph.D. 1948) – physicist, alerted the world to dangers of nuclear war
J. J. Sakurai (Ph.D. 1958) – Japanese-American particle physicist and theorist who independently discovered the V-A theory of weak interactions while as graduate student at Cornell; the Sakurai Prize of the American Physical Society is named in his honor
George W. Stewart (Ph.D. 1901 physics) – physicist who served as department head (1909–1946) at the University of Iowa and as president of the American Physical Society (1941); member of the National Academy of Sciences (1938)
Daniel F. Styer (Ph.D. 1983) - professor of physics at Oberlin College
Leonard Susskind (Ph.D. 1965) – theoretical physicist, Felix Bloch professor of theoretical physics at Stanford University, and director of the Stanford Institute for Theoretical Physics; "father of string theory"; member of the National Academy of Sciences (2000) and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences; recipient of the Sakurai Prize (1998), Pomeranchuk Prize (2008)
C. Bruce Tarter (Ph.D.) – theoretical physicist; director emeritus of the University of California Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory who led the Laboratory between 1994–2002; fellow of the American Physical Society and the American Association for the Advancement of Science, recipient of the Roosevelts Gold Medal Award for Science (1998), National Nuclear Security Administration Gold Medal for Distinguished Service (2002), the U.S. Department of Energy Secretary's Gold Award (2004)
Ted Taylor (Ph.D. 1956 theoretical physics) – director of Project Orion and designer of many small nuclear weapons
Maury Tigner (Ph.D. 1964) – Hans A. Bethe Professor of Physics Emeritus at Cornell University; fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and member of the National Academy of Sciences (1993)
Donald L. Turcotte (M.S. 1955 aerospace engineering) – distinguished professor emeritus at the University of California, Davis; member of the National Academy of Sciences (1986)
Steven Weinberg (B.A. 1954) – professor of physics at University of Texas at Austin; Nobel laureate (1979)
Steven R. White (Ph.D. 1987 physics) – professor of physics at the University of California, Irvine; fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (2008) and of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (2016), member of the National Academy of Sciences (2018)
Ralph Walter Graystone Wyckoff (Ph.D. 1919) – crystallographer, pioneer of X-ray crystallography; member of the National Academy of Sciences (1949) and foreign member of the Royal Society
Astronomy, astrophysics and space physics
Lars Bildsten (Ph.D. 1991) – sixth director of the Kavli Institute for Theoretical Physics at the University of California, Santa Barbara (UCSB); member of the National Academy of Sciences (2018)
Joseph A. Burns (Ph.D. 1966, professor) – planetary scientist; fellow of the AGU and the AAAS
Christopher Chyba (Ph.D. 1991) – professor of astrophysical sciences and international affairs at the Woodrow Wilson School, Princeton University; MacArthur Fellow (2001)
William Coblentz (M.S. 1901, Ph.D. 1903) – physicist notable for his contributions to infrared radiometry and spectroscopy; member of the National Academy of Sciences (1930)
Anita Cochran (B.S. 1976) – astronomer/planetary scientist who has worked on comet missions and served as chair of the AAS Division for Planetary Sciences
Bruce T. Draine (M.S. 1975, Ph.D. 1978) – astrophysicist at Princeton University who also served as chair of the Princeton's Department of Astrophysical Sciences from 1996 to 1998; recipient of Dannie Heineman Prize for Astrophysics (2004); member of the National Academy of Sciences (2007)
Frank Drake (B.A. 1952 engineering physics; professor of astronomy, 1964–84) – SETI researcher and president (1984–2000), known for the Drake equation; member of the National Academy of Sciences (1972)
Lennard A. Fisk (A.B. 1965 physics) – Thomas M. Donahue Distinguished University Professor of Space Science at the University of Michigan; member of the National Academy of Sciences (2003)
William E. Gordon (Ph.D. 1953 EE; faculty member, 1953–1965) – "father of the Arecibo Observatory"; physicist and astronomer; member of the National Academy of Sciences (1968) and National Academy of Engineering (1975); Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1986); recipient of Arctowski Medal from the National Academy of Sciences; dean of science and engineering, dean of natural sciences, and provost and vice president of Rice University
Peter Goldreich (B.S. 1960, Ph.D. 1963) – astrophysicist, Lee A. DuBridge Professor of Astrophysics & Planetary Physics at Caltech; member of the National Academy of Sciences (1972) and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences; numerous awards and honors including Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society (1993), National Medal of Science (1995), Grande Médaille (2006), and Shaw Prize (2007); Asteroid 3805 Goldreich is named after him
Carl E. Heiles (B.S. engineering physics) – professor of astronomy at the University of California, Berkeley, known for Hénon–Heiles Equation; member of the National Academy of Sciences (1990)
Renu Malhotra (Ph.D. 1988 physics) – Louise Foucar Marshall Science Research Professor and Regents’ Professor at the University of Arizona; Harold C. Urey Prize recipient (1997), member of the National Academy of Sciences (2015) and of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (2015), Asteroid 6698 named “Malhotra”
Jean-Luc Margot (Ph.D. 1999, faculty member 2004–2008) – professor and chair of earth, planetary, and space sciences, and professor of physics and astronomy at the University of California, Los Angeles; Harold C. Urey Prize recipient (2004), Asteroid 9531 Jean-Luc named in his honor
Isabel Martin Lewis (A.B. 1903, A.M. 1905) – eclipse expert, popularizer of astronomy; first woman hired by the United States Naval Observatory
Gerry Neugebauer (B.A. 1954 physics) – astronomer, one of the founders of the infrared astronomy, co-discoverer of the Becklin-Neugebauer Object; Robert Andrews Millikan Professor of Physics, Emeritus at Caltech; director of the Palomar Observatory (1980–1994); member of National Academy of Sciences (1973), the American Philosophical Society, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society, California Scientist of the Year (1986); recipient of the Rumford Prize (1986), Henry Norris Russell Lectureship (1996), the Herschel Medal (1998), the Bruce Medal (2010)
Marcia Neugebauer (B.A. 1954 physics) – space physicist, Senior Research Scientist at Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), known for direct measurements of the solar wind; president of the American Geophysical Union (AGU) and editor-in-chief of its journal Reviews of Geophysics; fellow of American Geophysical Union, recipient of Arctowski Medal (2010)
Stanton J. Peale (M.S. 1962, Ph.D. 1965) – astrophysicist, planetary scientist; recipient of Newcomb Cleveland Prize (1979), James Craig Watson Medal (1982) and Brouwer Award (1992), member of the National Academy of Sciences (2009)
Judith Pipher (Ph.D. 1971) – astrophysicist and observational astronomer known for her contributions in infrared astronomy for the development of infrared detector arrays in space telescopes; an inductee of the National Women's Hall of Fame (2007)
Vera Rubin (M.A. 1951) – astronomer known for contributions to the study of dark matter; member of the National Academy of Sciences; recipient of numerous of awards and honorary D.Sc. degrees for her achievements, including the National Medal of Science
Paul L. Schechter (B.A. 1968) – astrophysicist and observational cosmologist, known for Schechter Luminosity Function and Press–Schechter formalism; William A. M. Burden Professor of Astrophysics at MIT; member of the National Academy of Sciences (2003)
Gerald Schubert (B.E.P and M.A.E. 1961, engineering physics and aeronautical engineering) – geophysicist and professor emeritus of Earth, Planetary, and Space Sciences at UCLA; member of the National Academy of Sciences (2002), fellow of the American Geophysical Union (1975) and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (2001)
Irwin I. Shapiro (B.A. Mathematics) – astrophysicist, known for Shapiro time delay and 3832 Shapiro; Timken University Professor at Harvard University, director of the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics (1982–2004); member of the National Academy of Sciences (1974) and Guggenheim Fellow; recipient of numerous awards including Albert Einstein Medal from the Albert Einstein Society (1994)
Steven Soter (Ph.D. 1971) – astrophysicist; recipient of 2014 Primetime Emmy Award (for writing Cosmos)
Steven Squyres (B.A. 1978 geology, Ph.D. 1981 Planetary Science; Goldwin Smith Professor of Astronomy) – astronomer, principal science investigator for the Mars rovers Spirit and Opportunity, fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, recipient of Harold C. Urey Prize from the American Astronomical Society, the Benjamin Franklin Medal, Carl Sagan Memorial Award, the Wernher von Braun Award from National Space Society, the Space Science Award from American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
David J. Stevenson (M.S. 1972, Ph.D. 1976) – Marvin L. Goldberger Professor of Planetary Science at Caltech; fellow of the Royal Society and a member of the National Academy of Sciences (2004); recipient of H. C. Urey Prize (1984)
Jill Tarter (B.E.P 1965) – astronomer, former director of the Center for SETI Research
Chemistry
John D. Baldeschwieler (B.S. 1956 chemical engineering) – chemist, known for molecular structure and spectroscopy; J. Stanley Johnson Professor and Professor of Chemistry, Emeritus at Caltech; member of the National Academy of Sciences (1970), the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and the American Philosophical Society; recipient of National Medal of Science (2000)
Stephen J. Benkovic (Ph.D. 1963) – chemist, known for the discovery of enzyme inhibitors; Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1984); member of the National Academy of Sciences (1985) and the American Philosophical Society (2002); recipient of Christian B. Anfinsen Award (2000), Benjamin Franklin Medal in Life Science (2009), Ralph F. Hirschmann Award in Peptide Chemistry(2010), National Medal of Science (2010), NAS Award in Chemical Sciences (2011)
Eric Betzig (M.S. 1985; Ph.D. applied and engineering physics 1988) – recipient of the 2014 Nobel Prize in chemistry
Arthur M. Bueche (Ph.D. 1947 physical chemistry) – member of the National Academy of Sciences (1971) and of the National Academy of Engineering (1974) for contributions to polymer chemistry and leadership of highly significant scientific projects; the Arthur M. Bueche Award of the National Academy of Engineering is named in his honor
Cynthia J. Burrows (Ph.D. 1982) – distinguished professor of chemistry and chair of the Department of Chemistry at the University of Utah; editor-in-chief of Accounts of Chemical Research; member of the National Academy of Sciences (2014) and fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (2009)
Orville L. Chapman (Ph.D. 1957) – organic chemist at the University of California, Los Angeles; member of National Academy of Sciences (1974)
Harry Coover (M.S. 1943, Ph.D. 1944) – prolific product inventor, notably cyanoacrylate adhesives (Super Glue); member of the National Inventors Hall of Fame and of the National Academy of Engineering (1983); recipient of National Medal of Technology and Innovation (2010)
F. Fleming Crim (Ph.D. 1974) – John E. Willard and Hilldale Professor at the University of Wisconsin–Madison; member of the National Academy of Sciences (2001), fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (1995) and of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1998); recipient of Irving Langmuir Award (2006)
Christopher C. Cummins (A.B. 1989 chemistry) – Henry Dreyfus Professor of Chemistry at Massachusetts Institute of Technology; member of the National Academy of Sciences (2017)
Paul G. Gassman (Ph.D. 1960) – chemist best known for his research in the field of organic chemistry and his service as president of the American Chemical Society (1990); member of the National Academy of Sciences (1989) and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1992)
William Francis Hillebrand (studied between 1870–1872) – chemist who served as president of the American Chemical Society in 1906 and was an elected member of the National Academy of Sciences (1908)
Klaus Hofmann (research associate 1940–1942) – chemist and medical researcher at the University of Pittsburgh; member of the National Academy of Sciences (1963)
Daniel Kahne (B.A. 1981) – Higgins Professor of chemistry and chemical biology at Harvard University; member of the National Academy of Sciences (2019)
Udayan Mohanty (B.S. 1975 engineering physics) – theoretical physical chemist and professor of chemistry at the Boston College; known for work on polyelectrolyte behavior of nucleic acids and glass-forming liquids; fellow of the American Physical Society and of American Association for the Advancement of Science, fellow of the Royal Society Chemistry, and John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation Fellowship;
Walter Kauzmann (B.A. 1937) – chemist and professor emeritus of Princeton University; fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1963) and member of the National Academy of Sciences (1964)
Neil L. Kelleher (M.S., Ph.D. 1997) – biochemist, known for mass spectrometry, top-down proteomics and the development of the fragmentation technique of wlectron-capture dissociation; Walter and Mary Elizabeth Glass Professor of Chemistry, Molecular Biosciences, and Medicine at Northwestern University
Martha L. Ludwig (B.A, Ph.D.) – biochemist, recipient of Garvan–Olin Medal of the American Chemical Society (1984) and Distinguished Faculty Achievement Award from the University of Michigan (1986), Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (2001), member of the National Academy of Sciences (2003) and the Institute of Medicine (2006), J. Lawrence Oncley Distinguished University Professor of Biological Chemistry at the University of Michigan
Walter McCrone (B.S. 1938 chemistry, Ph.D. 1942 organic chemistry) – leading expert in microscopy, best known for work on the Shroud of Turin and the Vinland map
Fred McLafferty (Ph.D. 1950; Peter J. W. Debye Professor of Chemistry) – chemist, known for McLafferty rearrangement reaction observed with mass spectrometry; member of the National Academy of Sciences
Alexander Dounce (Ph.D. 1935) – biochemist, inventor of the Dounce homogenizer
Thomas Midgley, Jr. (M.E. 1911) – inventor of Freon and tetraethyllead; member of the National Academy of Sciences (1942)
Samuel Wilson Parr (M.S. 1895) – chemist, known for his discovery of alloy illium; president of the American Chemical Society (1928); founder of Parr Instrument Company
Sarah Ratner ('24 Chemistry) – biochemist who received Garvan–Olin Medal in 1961; member of the National Academy of Sciences (1974) and fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1974)
Lester J. Reed (post-doctoral fellow 1946–1948) – biochemist, Ashbel Smith Professor Emeritus at University of Texas at Austin; member of the National Academy of Sciences (1973)
Eugene G. Rochow (B.S. 1931, Ph.D. 1935) – inorganic chemist; awarded the Perkin Medal
Peter J. Rossky (B.A. 1971 chemistry) – Harry C. & Olga K. Wiess Professor of Chemistry and Professor of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, dean of Wiess School of Natural Sciences at Rice University; member of the National Academy of Sciences (2011) and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, fellow of the American Physical Society and of the American Association for the Advancement of Science
Sofia Simmonds (Ph.D. 1942) – biochemist at Yale University; Garvan–Olin Medal recipient in 1969
Thressa Stadtman (B.S. 1940, M.S. 1942) – biochemist known for the discovery of selenocysteine; member of the National Academy of Sciences (1981) and of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1982)
Ching W. Tang (Ph.D. 1975) – physical chemist and the Doris Johns Cherry Professor of Chemical Engineering at the University of Rochester, known for his work on Organic LED; inductee to the National Inventors Hall of Fame (2018), member of the National Academy of Engineering and recipient of the Wolf Prize in Chemistry (2011)
Edward C. Taylor (B.A. 1946, Ph.D. 1949) – chemist and author of over 450 scientific papers and 52 U.S. patents; A. Barton Hepburn Professor of Organic Chemistry and department chairman at Princeton University; inventor of the most successful new and broadly effective anticancer drug pemetrexed (brand name Alimta); recipient of numerous awards including the 2006 Heroes of Chemistry Award from the American Chemical Society for his work on the discovery and development of Alimta "that has led to the welfare and progress of humanity"
Benjamin Widom (Ph.D. 1953; Goldwin Smith Professor of Chemistry 1954–) – physical chemist; awarded the Boltzmann Medal; member of the National Academy of Sciences (1974) and fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Computer science and computer engineering
Scott Aaronson (B.S. 2000 computer science) – theoretical computer scientist and faculty member in electrical engineering and computer science at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology; recipient of Alan T. Waterman Award (2012) and PECASE (2010)
Chandrajit Bajaj (M.S. 1983, Ph.D. 1984 computer science) – professor of computer science at the University of Texas at Austin; ACM Fellow (2009), Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (2008)
Regina Barzilay (postdoctoral fellow) – professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology; MacArthur Fellow (2017)
Richard Blahut (Ph.D. 1972) – former chair of the Electrical and Computer Engineering Department at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign; fellow of the IEEE (1981) and member of the National Academy of Engineering (1981), recipient of the IEEE Alexander Graham Bell Medal (1998)
Allan Borodin (Ph.D. 1969 computer science) – Canadian-American computer scientist who has been on faculty since 1969, served as department chair from 1980 to 1985, and became University Professor in 2011 at the University of Toronto; member of the Royal Society of Canada, recipient of CRM-Fields-PIMS prize; fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (2011) and ACM (2014)
Jennifer Tour Chayes (postdoctoral fellow 1985–1987) – member of the National Academy of Sciences (2019)
Edmund M. Clarke (M.S. 1974, Ph.D. 1976) – winner of the 2007 Association for Computing Machinery A.M. Turing Award; winner of the IEEE Computer Society Harry H. Goode Memorial Award and the Bower Award and Prize for Achievement in Science (2014); member of the National Academy of Engineering (2005) and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (2011)
Richard W. Conway (B.S. 1954 BME, Ph.D. 1958 mathematics genealogy) – Emerson Electric Company Professor of Manufacturing Management Emeritus at Cornell University; known for his contributions and leadership in the area of scheduling theory, simulation methodology, and simulation software for manufacturing; member of the National Academy of Engineering (1992)
Robert L. Cook (M.S. 1981 computer graphics) – Academy Award for creation of RenderMan rendering software; member of the National Academy of Engineering (2009) and fellow of the Association for Computing Machinery (1999)
Frederick J. Damerau (B.A. 1953) – pioneer of natural language processing and data mining, known for Damerau–Levenshtein distance
Susan B. Davidson (B.A. 1978 mathematics) – Weiss Professor of Computer and Information Science at University of Pennsylvania; ACM Fellow (2001)
Tom DeMarco (B.E.E.) – software engineer and early developer of structured analysis in the 1970s; member of the ACM and fellow of the IEEE; recipient of the Warnier Prize for "Lifetime Contribution to the Field of Computing" (1986), and the Stevens Award for "Contribution to the Methods of Software Development" (1999); author of over nine books and 100 papers on project management and software development
Cynthia Dwork (Ph.D. 1983 computer science) – distinguished computer scientist at Microsoft Research; fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, member of the National Academy of Engineering and the National Academy of Sciences (2014); recipient of Dijkstra Prize (2007), the PET Award for Outstanding Research in Privacy Enhancing Technologies (2009)
Lauren Elliott (attended 3 years, transferred) – video game designer, internet entrepreneur, publisher and inventor; co-designer of the Carmen Sandiego series, which remains the best-selling edutainment game in history
Pedro Felipe Felzenszwalb (B.S. 1999 computer science) – ACM Grace Murray Hopper Award winner (2013)
Zvi Galil (Ph.D. 1975) – computer scientist, specialized in design and analysis of algorithms, graph algorithms and string matching; fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and ACM, member of the National Academy of Engineering; honorary Doctor of Mathematics from the University of Waterloo
Sanjay Ghemawat (B.S. 1987) – Google Senior Fellow; member of the National Academy of Engineering (2009), recipient of ACM-Infosys Foundation Award in the Computing Sciences (2012)
Andrew C. Greenberg (B.S. 1979) – co-creator of the massively successful early computer game Wizardry
Donald P. Greenberg (B.C.E. 1958, Ph.D. 1968) – computer graphics pioneer and educator; member of the National Academy of Engineering (1991), fellow of ACM (1995)
Barbara J. Grosz (B.S. 1969) – Higgins Professor of Natural Sciences and former dean of Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study at Harvard University; member of the American Philosophical Society (2003), the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (2004), and the National Academy of Engineering (2008), fellow of the Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence (1990), the American Association for the Advancement of Science (1990), and the Association for Computing Machinery (2004)
Jerrier A. Haddad (B.S. 1945 electrical engineering) – Fellow of IEEE and of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, member of the National Academy of Engineering (1968)
Morton Heilig (1943) – early virtual reality pioneer, inventor
William Higinbotham (graduate study) – developer of Tennis for Two, 1958, one of the earliest video games
Neil Immerman (Ph.D. 1980) – theoretical computer scientist, recipient of Gödel Prize for Immerman–Szelepcsényi theorem (1995), ACM Fellow and Guggenheim Fellow
Ravindran Kannan (Ph.D.) – computer scientist, principal researcher at Microsoft Research India; William K. Lanman Jr. Professor of Computer Science and Professor of Applied Mathematics at Yale University; recipient of Knuth Prize (2011)
Randy Katz (B.A. 1976) – computer scientist, developed the redundant array of inexpensive disks (RAID) concept for computer storage; distinguished professor of electrical engineering and computer science, vice chancellor for research (2018–) at University of California, Berkeley; fellow of the ACM and the IEEE, member of the National Academy of Engineering and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences; recipient of IEEE James H. Mulligan, Jr. Education Medal (2010)
Dan Klein (B.A. 1998 mathematics, CS, linguistics) – computer scientist at the University of California, Berkeley; recipient of the Grace Murray Hopper Award (2006)
Jon Kleinberg (B.S. 1993, professor of computer science) – MacArthur Fellow (2005), researcher of combinatorial network structure; member of the National Academy of Engineering (2008) and the National Academy of Sciences (2011); recipient of Nevanlinna Prize (2006), ACM-Infosys Foundation Award (2008), Harvey Prize (2013),
Dexter Kozen (Ph.D. 1977 computer science; Joseph Newton Pew, Jr. Professor in Engineering) – theoretical computer scientist who was elected the ACM fellow (2003), Guggenheim Fellow (1991) and fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (2008)
Susan Landau (M.S. 1979) – Guggenheim Fellow and cybersecurity specialist
Ruby B. Lee (B.A. 1973) – Forrest G. Hamrick Professor in Engineering at Princeton University; fellow of the ACM (2001) and of the IEEE (2002)
Roy Levien (graduate studies 1986–1989 in Neurobiology and Behavior) – among the top 60 all-time most prolific inventors in the world, with over 380 issued US patents and more than 1,260 US patent applications
Marc Levoy (B.Arch. 1976, M.S. 1978 architecture) – developed technology and algorithms for digitizing 3D objects that led to the Digital Michelangelo Project
Steven H. Low (B.S. 1987 electrical engineering) – professor of the Computing and Mathematical Sciences Department and the Electrical Engineering Department at the California Institute of Technology; IEEE Fellow (2008)
Douglas McIlroy (B.E.P. 1954) – inventor of the pipes and filters architecture of Unix and the concept of software componentry; member of the National Academy of Engineering (2006)
Marshall Kirk McKusick (B.S. electrical engineering) – computer scientist, known for his extensive work on BSD
Kurt Mehlhorn (Ph.D. 1974) – theoretical computer scientist; vice president of the Max Planck Society and director of the Max Planck Institute for Computer Science; foreign member of the National Academy of Engineering, ACM Fellow; recipient of numerous other awards and honors including Leibniz Prize (1987), Konrad Zuse Medal (1995), EATCS Award (2010), Paris Kanellakis Award (2010), and so on
Jai Menon (M.S. 1989, Ph.D. 1992) – winner of InformationWeek Global CIO 50 (USA, 2009), NASSCOMM IT Innovation Award 2006, director of technology, Bharti Enterprises, 30+ patents (Rich Media), Implemented innovative S1 contract with IBM for Bharti Airtel
Robert Tappan Morris (graduate study 1988–89, suspended) – author of the Morris Worm (1988) and co-founder of Viaweb; professor at Massachusetts Institute of Technology; fellow of the ACM and member of the National Academy of Engineering (2019)
Cherri M. Pancake (bachelor's degree, environmental design) – elected Fellow (2001) and president (2018–) of the ACM
Thomas W. Parks (B.S., M.S., Ph.D. electrical engineering) – professor emeritus of electrical and computer engineering at Cornell University, known for his contributions to digital signal processing; member of the National Academy of Engineering (2010)
Christopher Ré (B.S. 2001) – computer scientist on the faculty of Stanford University; MacArthur Fellow (2015)
Edward Reingold (Ph.D.) – computer scientist in the fields of algorithms, data structures, and calendrical calculations who was elected a Fellow of the ACM (1996)
Michael Reiter (M.S. 1991, Ph.D. 1993 computer science) – Lawrence M. Slifkin Distinguished Professor of Computer Science at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill; former professor of electrical & computer engineering and computer science at Carnegie Mellon University; ACM Fellow (2008) and IEEE Fellow (2014)
Jason Rohrer (B.S. 2000) – independent video game designer
Tim Roughgarden (Ph.D. 2002) – computer scientist at Stanford University; recipient of the Grace Murray Hopper Award (2009) and the Gödel Prize (2012)
Daniela L. Rus (Ph.D.) – Andrew and Erna Viterbi Professor of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science (EECS) at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology; former Professor of the Computer Science at Dartmouth College; MacArthur Fellow (2002), Fellow of the ACM (2014), IEEE (2009), and AAAI (2009), member of the National Academy of Engineering
Sartaj Sahni (Ph.D. 1973) – computer scientist at the University of Florida; fellow of IEEE (1988) and of the ACM (1996); fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science
Robert B. Schnabel (M.S. 1975, Ph.D. 1977) – CEO of the ACM (2015–), dean and professor of the school of informatics and computing at Indiana University (2007–2015), ACM Fellow (2010)
Fred B. Schneider (B.S. 1975 computer science and electrical engineering) – Samuel B Eckert Professor of Computer Science at Cornell University; fellow of the American Association for Advancement of Science (1992), the ACM (1995) and the IEEE (2008), member of the National Academy of Engineering (2011)
Raimund Seidel (Ph.D. 1987) – German and Austrian theoretical computer scientist known for the Kirkpatrick–Seidel algorithm, who is serving as the director of Leibniz Center for Informatics at Schloss Dagstuhl (2014–)
Scott Shenker (postdoctoral fellow 1983–1984) – computer scientist at UC Berkeley; member of the National Academy of Sciences (2019)
Amit Singhal (Ph.D. 1996) – Google search guru who heads Google's core ranking team and is a senior vice president at Google Inc.; Google Fellow, Fellow of the ACM; member of the National Academy of Engineering
Steven Sinofsky (B.S. 1987) – Microsoft computer engineer, president of Windows division, 2009–2012
George Stibitz (Ph.D. 1930 mathematical physics) – one of the "fathers" of the modern first digital computer; member of the National Academy of Engineering, inductee to the National Inventors Hall of Fame; recipient of Harry H. Goode Memorial Award (1965), IEEE Emanuel R. Piore Award (1977), IEEE's Computer Pioneer Award for First Remote Computation (1982)
Padmasree Warrior (M.S., chemical engineering) – Chief Technical Officer at Cisco
Jennifer Widom (M.S. 1985, Ph.D. 1987) – dean of the school of engineering (2017–), Fletcher Jones Professor of Computer Science and Electrical Engineering at Stanford University; member of the National Academy of Engineering (2005) and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (2009), ACM Fellow (2005)
Robert Woodhead – co-creator of the massively successful early computer game Wizardry; co-founder of AnimEigo
Engineering, material science
Mark G. Adamiak (B.S., M.S. electrical engineering) – chief application architect at GE Digital Energy; member of the National Academy of Engineering (2012) and a fellow of the IEEE
John F. Ahearne (B.S. 1957, M.S. 1958 engineering physics) – former commissioner and chairman of the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission; member of the National Academy of Engineering (1996) and fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and of the American Physical Society
David T. Allen (B.S. 1979 chemical engineering) – Melvin H. Gertz Regents Chair in Chemical Engineering, McKetta Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Texas at Austin; member of the National Academy of Engineering (2017)
Arsham Amirikian (1923 civil engineering) – member of the National Academy of Engineering (1980) for "Contributions to the design and construction of floating structures, dry docks, shore installations, and other facilities for the U.S. Navy"
Erik K. Antonsson (B.S. 1976 mechanical engineering) – professor of mechanical engineering at California Institute of Technology (1984–2009), corporate director of technology for Northrop Grumman (2013–2017); member of the National Academy of Engineering (2019)
Kenneth E. (Ken) Arnold (B.S. 1964 civil engineering) – member of the National Academy of Engineering (2005)
William Howard Arnold (B.A. 1951 chemistry and physics) – nuclear physicist and former president of Westinghouse Nuclear International, Westinghouse Electric Corporation; member of the National Academy of Engineering (1974)
Nora Stanton Barney (B.C.E. 1905) – first woman in the United States to obtain a degree in civil engineering; civil engineer, architect, and suffragist
Manson Benedict (B.S. Chemistry) – nuclear engineering pioneer and chemist on Manhattan Project and MIT Professor, recipient of William H. Walker Award (1947), Perkin Medal (1966), Robert E. Wilson Award (1968), Enrico Fermi Award (1972), National Medal of Science (1975), John Fritz Medal (1975), fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1952), member of the National Academy of Sciences (1956) and of the National Academy of Engineering (1967)
Joel S. Birnbaum (B.S. engineering physics) – member of the National Academy of Engineering (1989) and the Royal Academy of Engineering; fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the IEEE, and the ACM
David J. Bishop (Ph.D. 1978) – professor, head of the division of materials science & engineering and director of the CELL-MET engineering research center at Boston University; fellow of the National Academy of Inventors (2018) and member of the National Academy of Engineering (2019)
Ralph Bown (M.E., M.M.E., Ph.D.) – electrical engineer, radar expert; recipient of IEEE Medal of Honor (1949) and IEEE Founders Medal (1961)
Joseph E. Burke (Ph.D. Ceramic Science) – ceramics scientist at General Electric; member of the National Academy of Engineering (1976)
Oliver Ellsworth Buckley (Ph.D. 1914) – electrical engineer known for his contributions to the field of submarine telephony, president (1940–1951) and chairman (1951–1952) of Bell Labs; member of the National Academy of Sciences (1937) and fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the American Physical Society and the American Institute of Electrical Engineers; recipient of the IEEE Edison Medal (1954); the Oliver E. Buckley Condensed Matter Prize is named in his honor
Jack E. Cermak (Ph.D. 1959 engineering mechanics) – wind tunnel innovator and pioneer of wind engineering, University Distinguished Professor Emeritus at Colorado State University; member of the National Academy of Engineering (1973)
William J. Chancellor (M.S. and Ph.D.) – professor emeritus at the University of California, Davis and member of the National Academy of Engineering (2005)
Young-Kai Chen (Ph.D. 1988) – director of the Communication Science Research Department at Bell Laboratories, Alcatel-Lucent; member of the National Academy of Engineering (2004) and fellow of IEEE (1998) and of Optical Society of America (2011)
Hsien K. Cheng (M.S. 1950, Ph.D. 1952 aeronautical engineering) – distinguished professor emeritus of aerospace and mechanical engineering at the University of Southern California; member of the National Academy of Engineering (1988)
Andrew R. Chraplyvy (M.S. 1975, Ph.D. 1978) – known for his contributions to the development of high-capacity optical fiber communication systems; member of the National Academy of Engineering (2002), Marconi Prize recipient (2009)
Walker Lee Cisler (Class of 1922, mechanical engineering) – president of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (1960–1961), founding member of the National Academy of Engineering; fellow of the IEEE; recipient of Hoover Medal (1962), IEEE Edison Medal (1965) and John Fritz Medal (1967)
Frederick J. Clarke (M.S. 1940 civil engineering) – Chief of Engineers of the United States Army Corps of Engineers (1969–1973), member of the National Academy of Engineering
Robert E. Cohen (B.S. 1968) – Raymond A. (1921) and Helen E. St. Laurent Professor of Chemical Engineering at Massachusetts Institute of Technology; member of the National Academy of Engineering (2010), fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (2015) and of the American Physical Society (2004)
Harold Craighead (Ph.D. 1980) – Charles W. Lake Professor of Engineering at Cornell University; member of the National Academy of Engineering (2007)
John P. Craven (1946 civil engineering) – pioneer of spying at sea who served as Chief Scientist of the Special Projects Office of the United States Navy; member of the National Academy of Engineering (1970)
Philip Dalton (B.S. 1924) – US Naval Reserve officer and inventor of the E6B analog computer
Edward Andrew Deeds (graduate studies) – engineer, inventor and industrialist, co-founded Delco
Gregory Deierlein (B.S. 1981) – John A. Blume Professor of Engineering at Stanford University; member of the National Academy of Engineering (2013)
Jackson L. Durkee (M.S. 1947 civil engineering) – member of the National Academy of Engineering (1995) for origination and development of innovations in fabrication and erection engineering of long-span bridges
Lester F. Eastman (B.S. 1953, M.S. 1955, Ph.D. 1957 electrical and computer engineering) – John L. Given Professor Emeritus of Engineering at Cornell University; member of the National Academy of Engineering (1986) and fellow of the American Physical Society and IEEE
Daniel C. Edelstein (B.S., M.S., Ph.D.) – IBM Fellow and member of the National Academy of Engineering (2011)
Heinz Erzberger (Ph.D. electrical engineering) – senior advisor (IPA) at NASA Ames Research Center; member of the National Academy of Engineering (2010)
William Littell Everitt (E.E. 1922) – electrical engineer and radar pioneer; fellow and president (1945) of Institute of Radio Engineers, fellow of AIEE, founding member of the National Academy of Engineering, member of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the American Society for Engineering Education, the Acoustical Society of America; recipient of IEEE Medal of Honor (1954), IEEE James H. Mulligan, Jr. Education Medal (1957)
Herbert S. Fairbank (B.S. civil engineering 1910) – helped plan and design the United States Interstate Highway System
James A. Fay (Ph.D. 1951) – professor emeritus of mechanical engineering at Massachusetts Institute of Technology; member of the National Academy of Engineering (1998)
Gerard F. Fox (B.S. 1948 civil engineering) – structural engineer; member of the National Academy of Engineering (1976)
George Georgiou (M.S. 1983, Ph.D. 1987 chemical engineering) – Laura Jennings Turner Chair in Engineering at the University of Texas, Austin; member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (2015), National Academy of Inventors (2015), National Academy of Medicine (2011), National Academy of Engineering (2005), fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (2004)
Bancroft Gherardi, Jr. (M.E. 1893, M.M.E 1894) – electrical engineer, known for pioneering work in developing the early telephone systems in the United States; member of National Academy of Sciences (1933), fellow of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers and served as its president from (1927 – 1928); recipient of IEEE Edison Medal (1932)
Tom Giallorenzi (B.S. engineering physics, M.S., Ph.D. applied physics) – senior scientist at Naval Research Laboratory; member of the National Academy of Engineering (1992)
James Gillin (B.S. 1947, Ph.D. 1951 chemical engineering) – chemical engineer and president of MSD-AGVET Division of Merck and Co.; member of the National Academy of Engineering (1991)
Richard J. Goldstein (B.S. 1948, mechanical engineering) – Regents' and James J. Ryan Professor at the University of Minnesota; member of the National Academy of Engineering (1985)
Richard E. Goodman (B.S. 1955 geology, M.S. 1958 civil engineering and economic geology) – professor emeritus of geological engineering at the University of California, Berkeley, member of the National Academy of Engineering (1991)
David Goodyear (B.S. 1973 civil engineering, M.S. 1974 structural engineering) – chief bridge engineer and senior vice president at T.Y. Lin International; member of the National Academy of Engineering (2013)
Meredith Gourdine (B.S. 1953) – Olympic silver medalist (1952), engineer and physicist, known for air pollution control, non-contact printing; member of the National Academy of Engineering (1991), inductee into the Engineering and Science Hall of Fame (1994)
Carol K. Hall (B.A. 1967) – Camille Dreyfus Distinguished University Professor at the North Carolina State University; member of the National Academy of Engineering (2005)
R. John Hansman Jr. (B.A. 1976 physics) – T. Wilson Professor of Aeronautics and Astronautics at Massachusetts Institute of Technology; member of the National Academy of Engineering (2013)
Edwin L. Harder (B.S. 1926 electrical engineering) – former senior consultant and manager at Westinghouse Electric Corporation and inventor with 66 approved patents; member of the National Academy of Engineering (1976)
Howard R. Hart, Jr. (B.S. 1952 engineering physics) – former staff member at GE Corporate Research and Development; member of the National Academy of Engineering (1991)
Abraham Hertzberg (M.S. 1949) – professor emeritus of Aeronautics and Astronautics at University of Washington; member of the National Academy of Engineering (1976)
George R. Hill III (Ph.D. 1946 chemistry) – chemist; a world authority on coal; served as dean of the College of Mines and Mineral Industries at the University of Utah from 1966–1972; member of the National Academy of Engineering (1989)
Clarence Floyd Hirshfeld (M.A. 1905 mechanical engineering) – John Fritz Medal recipient (1940)
Raymond J. Hodge (M.S. 1948 civil engineering) – member of the National Academy of Engineering (1983)
David A. Hodges (B.E.E. 1960) – professor, Department Chair, and dean, professor emeritus at the University of California, Berkeley; member of the National Academy of Engineering; IEEE Fellow; recipient of ASEE's Benjamin Garver Lamme Award (1999), IEEE's James H. Mulligan, Jr. Education Medal (1997), and IEEE Morris N. Liebmann Memorial Award (1983)
Emerson C. Itschner (graduate degree 1926, civil engineering) – lieutenant general and Chief of Engineers of the United States Army Corps of Engineers (1956–1961)
Dugald C. Jackson (postgraduate student and instructor in electrical engineering 1885–1887) – professor and department chair of electrical engineering of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology from 1907–1935; recipient of IEEE Edison Medal (1938); president of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1937–1939)
Stephen M. Jenks (B.S. 1923 mechanical engineering) – executive vice-president for engineering and research (1959–1966) at U.S. Steel; member of the National Academy of Engineering (1968)
William C. Jordan (Ph.D. 1982) – member of the National Academy of Engineering (2019)
James C. Keck (B.S. 1947, Ph.D. 1951) – Ford Professor of Engineering at Massachusetts Institute of Technology; member of the National Academy of Engineering (2002)
Thomas J. Kelly (B.S. 1951 mechanical engineering) – known as the "father of the Lunar Module"; member of the National Academy of Engineering (1991)
Edward J. Kramer (B.S. 1962 chemical engineering) – Samuel B. Eckert Professor of Material Science and Engineering at Cornell University and professor of materials and chemical engineering at the University of California, Santa Barbara; member of the National Academy of Engineering (1989)
Viswanathan Kumaran (Ph.D.1991) – recipient of Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize for Science and Technology (2000) and Infosys Prize (engineering and computer science) (2016)
Robert S. Langer (B.S. 1970 chemical engineering) – leading figure in biochemical engineering and science, David H. Koch Institute Professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology; author of over 1060 granted or pending patents and 1,300 scientific papers; founder of multiple technology companies; member of the National Academy of Sciences (1992), the National Academy of Engineering and the Institute of Medicine, recipient of more than 220 major awards including Gairdner Foundation International Award (1996), Charles Stark Draper Prize (2002), Harvey Prize (2003), John Fritz Medal (2003), National Medal of Science (2006), National Medal of Technology and Innovation (2011), Kyoto Prize (2014), Queen Elizabeth Prize for Engineering (2015), Wolf Prize in Chemistry (2013), $3 million Breakthrough Prize in Life Sciences (2014)
David M. Lederman (B.S., M.S. and Ph.D. aerospace engineering) – pioneer of the artificial heart; member of the National Academy of Engineering (2002)
Ann L. Lee (B.S. chemical engineering) – senior vice president at Genentech; member of the National Academy of Engineering (2007)
Sidney Leibovich (Ph.D. 1965 theoretical and applied mechanics) – Samuel B. Eckert Professor Emeritus of Mechanical Engineering at Cornell University; member of the National Academy of Engineering (1993)
George W. Lewis (B.S. 1908, M.S. 1910 mechanical engineering) – director of Aeronautical Research at the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA); member of the National Academy of Sciences (1945); recipient of Daniel Guggenheim Medal (1936), ASME Spirit of St. Louis Medal (1944); Medal for Merit (1948)
Edwin N. Lightfoot (B.S., Ph.D. chemical engineering) – known for his research in transport pfhenomena, member of the National Academy of Engineering (1979) and of the National Academy of Sciences (1995), E. V. Murphree Award (1994), recipient of the National Medal of Science (2004)
William Littlewood (B.S. 1920 Mechanical Nngineering) – aeronautical engineer, former vice–president of American Airlines, president of both SAE and AIAA; recipient of Wright Brothers Medal (1935) and Daniel Guggenheim Medal (1958)
Joseph C. Logue (B.S. 1944, M.S. 1949 electrical engineering) – retired IBM Fellow and director of Packaging Technology at IBM Thomas J. Watson Research Center; member of the National Academy of Engineering (1983)
James J. Markowsky (M.S. thermal engineering, Ph.D. mechanical engineering) – executive vice president-power generation at American Electric Power Service Corporation; member of the National Academy of Engineering (1999) for development and deployment of high-efficiency, low-emissions coal technologies including pressurized, fluidized bed plants
William McGuire (professor) (M.S. 1947 civil engineering) – professor emeritus of civil and environmental engineering at Cornell University; member of the National Academy of Engineering (1994)
Larry V. McIntire (B.S. 1966, M.S. 1966 chemical engineering) – Wallace H. Coulter Chair Emeritus at Georgia Institute of Technology; member of the National Academy of Engineering (2001)
Harold Mirels (Ph.D. 1953 aeronautical engineering) – member of the National Academy of Engineering (1986) and fellow of the American Physical Society
Umesh Mishra (Ph.D. 1984) – professor of electrical & computer engineering at the University of California, Santa Barbara; member of the National Academy of Engineering (2009) and the National Academy of Inventors (2015), fellow of IEEE
Linn F. Mollenauer (B.S. 1959 engineering physics) – Bell Labs Fellow at Lucent Technologies; fellow of the Optical Society of America, the American Physical Society, IEEE, and the American Association for the Advancement of Science, member of the National Academy of Inventors (1993) for his contributions to the realization of soliton-based, ultra-high-capacity lightwave communication
L. David Montague (B.S. 1956 mechanical engineering) – member of the National Academy of Engineering (1991) for his engineering leadership in the development of offensive and defensive missile systems
Franklin Kingston Moore (B.S. 1944 mechanical engineering, Ph.D. 1949 aeronautical engineering) – Joseph C. Ford Professor Emeritus of Mechanical Engineering at Cornell University; member of the National Academy of Engineering (1984)
Richard Moore (Ph.D. 1951) – remote sensing pioneer; fellow of American Association for the Advancement of Science (1993); Life Fellow of IEEE; member of National Academy of Engineering (1989); recipient of Australia Prize for Remote Sensing (1995), Remote Sensing Award from Italian Center (1995); IEEE Centennial Medal (1984); Distinguished Achievement Award of IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Society (1982) and Outstanding Technical Achievement Award of IEEE Oceanic Engineering Society (1978)
Yasuo Mori (Fulbright scholar 1959–1960) – professor emeritus at Tokyo Institute of Technology; Max Jakob Memorial Award recipient and member of the National Academy of Engineering (1986)
A. Stephen Morse (B.S. 1962 electric engineering) – Dudley Professor of distributed control and adaptive control in electrical engineering at Yale University; member of the National Academy of Engineering (2002)
Edward I. Moses (B.S., Ph.D.) – member of the National Academy of Engineering (2009) and fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science
Sanford Alexander Moss (Ph.D.) – aviation engineer and inventor; the first to use a turbocharger on an aircraft engine; an inductee to the National Aviation Hall of Fame (1976); recipient of Howard N. Potts Medal (1946) and Collier Trophy (1940)
Paul M. Naghdi (B.S. 1946 mechanical engineering) – former professor of mechanical engineering at the University of California, Berkeley and member of the National Academy of Engineering (1984)
Venkatesh Narayanamurti (Ph.D. 1965 physics) – Benjamin Peirce Professor of Technology and Public Policy, former dean (1998–2008) of the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences at Harvard University; member of the National Academy of Engineering (1992) and of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (2007)
Priscilla Nelson (Ph.D. 1983 geotechnical engineering) – professor of civil and environmental engineering, provost and senior vice president for Academic Affairs (2005–2008) of New Jersey Institute of Technology; fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science
James J. O'Brien (B.S. 1951 civil and environmental engineering) – member of the National Academy of Engineering (2012) for development of standards of practice for computerized scheduling of construction projects and capital programs
John Ochsendorf (B.S. 1996) – professor of civil and environmental engineering at Massachusetts Institute of Technology; MacArthur Fellow (2008)
Franklin F. Offner (B.A. 1933 chemistry) – professor emeritus of biomedical engineering and biophysics at Northwestern University; member of the National Academy of Engineering (1990)
Arthur A. Oliner (Ph.D. 1946 physics) – professor emeritus of Electrophysics at Polytechnic Institute of New York University; member of the National Academy of Engineering (1991) for contributions to the theory of guided electromagnetic waves and antennas
Thomas D. O'Rourke (B.S. 1970 civil engineering; Thomas R. Biggs Professor, Civil & Environmental Engineering) – geotechnical engineer; president of Earthquake Engineering Research Institute (2002–2004); fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, member of the National Academy of Engineering
Jorj O. Osterberg (Ph.D. 1940) – Stanley F. Pepper Professor of Civil Engineering, Emeritus at Northwestern University; member of the National Academy of Engineering (1975)
Alfred L. Parme (civil engineering graduate) – structural engineer; member of the member of the National Academy of Engineering (1974)
Stephen M. Pollock (B.S. 1957 engineering physics) – Herrick Emeritus Professor of Manufacturing at the University of Michigan; member of the National Academy of Engineering (2002)
John Prausnitz (B.S. 1950) – applied physical chemist, known for developed molecular thermodynamics; chemical engineering professor at UC Berkeley since 1955; member of the National Academy of Sciences (1973), the National Academy of Engineering and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences; recipient of the National Medal of Science
Rowland W. Redington (Ph.D. 1951) – member of the National Academy of Engineering (1986) for pioneering development of advanced computed tomography scanners and magnetic resonance imaging systems for medical applications
Eli Reshotko (M.S. 1951 mechanic engineering) – Kent H. Smith Professor Emeritus of Engineering at Case Western Reserve University; member of the National Academy of Engineering (1984)
Paul V. Roberts (Ph.D. 1966 chemical engineering) – environmental engineer, former C.L. Peck, Class of 1906 Professor in the School of Engineering at Stanford University; member of the National Academy of Engineering and the Swiss Academy of Sciences
Harris J. Ryan (Class of 1887) – electrical engineer; professor, first at Cornell University (1888–1905) and later at Stanford University (1905–1931); known for his contributions to high voltage power transmission; president of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers (1923–1924); member of the National Academy of Sciences (1920) and recipient of IEEE Edison Medal (1925)
Harvey W. Schadler (B.S. 1954 physical metallurgy) – Technical Director at GE Corporate Research and Development; member of the National Academy of Engineering (1991)
Judith A. Schwan (M.S. 1950 physical chemistry) – member of the National Academy of Engineering (1982) for innovations in the development of color photographic films and processes, and leadership in the development of photographic products
Al Seckel – creator of the Darwin Fish
David N. Seidman (post-doctoral student 1964–1965, faculty member 1966–1985) – Walter P. Murphy Professor of materials science and engineering at Northwestern University (1985–); member of the National Academy of Engineering (2018)
Surendra P. Shah (Ph.D.) – Walter P. Murphy Professor Emeritus of Civil and Environmental Engineering at Northwestern University; member of the National Academy of Engineering (2006)
David H. Shepard (B.E.E. 1945) – inventor, known for the first optical character recognition device, first voice recognition system and the Farrington B numeric font used on credit cards
Kang G. Shin (M.S. 1976, Ph.D. 1978 electrical engineering) – Kevin and Nancy O'Connor Professor of Computer Science at the University of Michigan; fellow of the IEEE, and the ACM, recipient of Ho-Am Prize in Engineering (2006)
Arthur M. Squires (Ph.D. 1947 physical chemistry) – university distinguished professor, emeritus at Virginia Tech; member of the National Academy of Engineering (1977)
George W. Sutton (B.S. 1952 mechanic engineering) – member of the National Academy of Engineering (1994) for his contributions to ballistic missile re-entry, lasers, medical devices, imaging systems, and aero-optics
Peter Swerling (A.B. 1949 economics) – radar theoretician known for Swerling Target Models; member of the National Academy of Engineering and fellow of Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
James M. Symons (B.S. 1954 civil engineering) – Cullen Distinguished Professor of Civil Engineering Emeritus at the University of Houston; member of the National Academy of Engineering (1994)
Robert W. Tkach (M.S. 1979, Ph.D. 1982) – known for his contributions to research and development of terabit/second optical-fiber communication systems and networks; member of the National Academy of Engineering (2009), Marconi Prize recipient (2009)
Edwin L. Thomas (Ph.D. 1974) – former head of the Department of Materials Science and Engineering at MIT, dean of the George R. Brown School of Engineering at Rice University; member of the National Academy of Engineering (2009)
James S. Thorp (B.S. 1959, M.S. 1961, Ph.D. 1962) – Hugh P. and Ethel C. Kelly Professor Emeritus & Research Professor at Virginia Tech; recipient of Benjamin Franklin Medal (2008), member of the National Academy of Engineering (1996)
Neil E. Todreas (B.S. 1957, M.S. 1958 mechanical engineering) – Korea Electric Power Company (KEPCO) Professor of Nuclear Engineering & professor of mechanical engineering, emeritus at MIT; member of the National Academy of Engineering (1988)
A. Galip Ulsoy (M.S. 1975 mechanical engineering) – C.D. Mote Jr. Distinguished University Professor Emeritus of Mechanical Engineering at the University of Michigan; member of the National Academy of Engineering (2006)
William J. Wilgus (correspondence student, 1883–1885) – designer and chief engineer for the building of Grand Central Terminal, 1902–1913
George Winter (professor) (Ph.D. 1940) – Class of 1912 Professor Emeritus of Engineering and chairman (1948–1970) of Structural Engineering Department at Cornell University; member of the National Academy of Engineering (1970)
David C. Wisler (M.S. 1965 aerospace engineering) – member of the National Academy of Engineering (2004) "For advancing the understanding of multistage compressor flows and improving product blading designs"
Bertram Wolfe (Ph.D. 1954 nuclear physics) – vice president of GE and manager of its Nuclear Energy Division, 32nd president (1986–1987) and fellow of the American Nuclear Society; member of the National Academy of Engineering (1980)
Jerry Woodall (Ph.D. 1982) – inventor and scientist, best known for his invention of the first commercially viable heterojunction material GaAlAs for red LEDs used in automobile brake lights and traffic lights, CD and DVD players, TV remote controls and computer networks; recipient of National Medal of Technology and Innovation (2001); member of the National Academy of Engineering (1989)
Shu Yang - fellow of the Royal Society of Chemistry, American Physical Society, National Academy of Inventors and Materials Research Society
Joseph A. Yura (M.S. 1961) – professor emeritus at the University of Texas at Austin; member of the National Academy of Engineering (2000)
Industrial and labor relations
Francine D. Blau (B.S. 1966 industrial and labor relations) – Cornell University economics professor and affiliate of the National Bureau of Economic Research, first woman to receive the IZA Prize in Labor Economics
Sara Horowitz (B.A. 1984 ILR) – labor lawyer; MacArthur Fellow (1999)
Randi Weingarten (B.S. 1980 labor relations) – president of the United Federation of Teachers (1998–2008) and of the American Federation of Teachers (2008–)
Biological sciences (biology, ecology, botany, nutrition, biophysics, biochemistry)
Margaret Altmann – biologist
Bruce Ames (B.A. 1950 chemistry/biochemistry) – biochemist, Professor of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology at the University of California, Berkeley; inventor of Ames test; member of National Academy of Sciences (1972), fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences; recipient of Charles S. Mott Prize (1983), Gairdner Foundation International Award (1983), Tyler Prize for Environmental Achievement (1985), AIC Gold Medal (1981), Japan Prize (1997), National Medal of Science (1998), Thomas Hunt Morgan Medal (2004)
Rudolph John Anderson (Ph.D.) – biochemist and professor at Cornell University (1920–1926) and Yale University (1926–1948); member of the National Academy of Sciences (1946)
George W. Archibald (Ph.D. 1975) – ornithologist, co–founder of the International Crane Foundation; MacArthur Fellow (1984), inaugural winner of the 2006 Indianapolis Prize
George Francis Atkinson (B.A. 1885) – botanist and mycologist, president of the Botanical Society of America (1907) and member of the National Academy of Sciences (1918)
Stephen Moulton Babcock, developed the "single-grain experiment" (in 1907–11) which led to the development of nutrition as a science
Fred Baker (B.S. 1870, civil engineering) – macalologist, founder of the Scripps Institution of Oceanography
Robert C. Baker (B.S. 1943; professor) – inventor of the chicken nugget
Ian T. Baldwin (Ph.D. 1989) – ecologist; founding director of the Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology; member of the National Academy of Sciences (2013)
Harlan Parker Banks (Ph.D. 1940) – paleobotanist who served as president of the Botanical Society of America (1969); member of the National Academy of Sciences (1980)
Nathan Banks (B.S. 1889, M.S. 1890) – entomologist noted for his work on neuroptera, megaloptera, hymenoptera, and acarina; Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1922)
May Berenbaum (Ph.D. 1980) – entomologist, fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and member of the National Academy of Sciences (1994), recipient of the Tyler Prize for Environmental Achievement (2011) and the National Medal of Science (2014)
Adam Bogdanove (Ph.D. 1997) – plant pathologist, known for discovering the modularity of TAL effectors in 2009 and since revolutionizing DNA targeting
Frank E. Buck – Canadian horticulturalist
Paul Rufus Burkholder (Ph.D. 1929) – microbiologist at Yale University; member of the National Academy of Sciences (1949)
Donald Caspar (B.A. 1950) – structural biologist known for his works on the structures of biological molecules, particularly of the tobacco mosaic virus; Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and of the Biophysical Society (2000), member of National Academy of Sciences (1994)
Ralph Vary Chamberlin (Ph.D. 1905) – prolific taxonomist, fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science
T. T. Chang (M. Sc. 1954) – prominent Chinese agricultural and environmental scientist who was a recipient of the Tyler Prize for Environmental Achievement (1999) and member of the National Academy of Sciences (1994)
Vera Charles (B.A. 1903) – pioneer USDA mycologist
Xuemei Chen (Ph.D. 1995) – professor of plant cell and molecular biology at the University of California, Riverside; fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (2011) and member of the National Academy of Sciences (2013)
Jonathan J. Cole (Ph.D. 1982) – limnologist; member of the National Academy of Sciences (2014) and fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (2010), the American Geophysical Union (2011) and the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) (2001)
Kenneth Stewart Cole (Ph.D. 1926) – biophysicist who was a pioneer in the application of physical science to biology, recipient of National Medal of Science (1967); member of the National Academy of Sciences (1956)
Anna Botsford Comstock (1885, natural history) – illustrator and naturalist
John Henry Comstock (B.S. 1874; professor) – pioneer in entomology research and education
Martha Constantine-Paton (Ph.D. 1976) – neuroscientist at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology; fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (2013)
Art Cooley (B.S., M.S.) – environmentalist; co-founder of Environmental Defense Fund
Robert Corey (Ph.D. 1924) – biochemist known for his role in discovery of the α-helix and the β-sheet, professor of structural chemistry at Caltech (1949–1968); recipient of Guggenheim Fellowship, member of the National Academy of Sciences (1970)
Raymond B. Cowles (Ph.D. 1928) – herpetologist who studied thermal ecology of reptiles
Nancy L. Craig (Ph.D. 1980 biochemistry) – professor of molecular biology and genetics in the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine and investigator with the Howard Hughes Medical Institute; member of the National Academy of Sciences (2010)
Roy Curtiss (B.S. 1956) – professor (1983–2005) and chairman (1983–1993) of Department of Biology, Washington University, St. Louis, Professor of Genomics, Evolution, & Bioinformatics at Arizona State University (2005–2015); member of the National Academy of Sciences (2001)
Robert E. Davis (Ph.D. 1967 plant pathology) – plant pathologist at United States Department of Agriculture; member of the National Academy of Sciences (2005)
Jane Eleanor Datcher (B.S. 1891) – botanist and first African-American woman to earn an advanced degree from Cornell.
Milislav Demerec (Ph.D. 1923 genetics) – geneticist and long serving director of the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory; member of the National Academy of Sciences (1946)
Winfried Denk (Ph.D. 1989 physics) – director of the Max Planck Institute of Neurobiology; recipient of the Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Prize (2003), the Kavli Prize (2012) and The Brain Prize (2015), member of the National Academy of Sciences (2013) and of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters
Raymond J. (Ray) Deshaies (B.S. 1983) – professor of biology at Caltech; member of National Academy of Sciences (2016); fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (2011) and the American Association for the Advancement of Science (2007)
Keith Downey (Ph.D. 1961) – inventor of canola oil
Benjamin Minge Duggar (Ph.D. 1898) – plant physiologist; member of the National Academy of Sciences (1927)
Arthur Rose Eldred (B.S. 1916 agriculture) – America's first Eagle Scout (1912), agriculturalist
Alfred E. Emerson (B.S., M.S., Ph.D.) – biologist who was Professor of Zoology at the University of Chicago (1929–1962) and served as president of the Ecological Society of America (1941) and of the Society of Systematic Zoology (1958); member of the National Academy of Sciences (1962)
Sterling Howard Emerson (B.S. 1922) – professor of genetics at California Institute of Technology; member of the National Academy of Sciences (1970)
Erwin Engst (B.S. 1941) – agricultural specialist who assisted in developing China's agriculture and social economy
W. Hardy Eshbaugh (B.A.) – botanist, known for his research on chili peppers and the discovery and description of a new species, Capsicum tovarii; professor emeritus of Botany at Miami University; Fellow of American Association for the Advancement of Science
Alice Catherine Evans (B.S. 1909, bacteriology) – microbiologist, known for demonstrating that bacillus abortus caused Brucellosis; first female president of the Society of American Bacteriologists; Inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame, 1993
Howard Ensign Evans (M.S., Ph.D.) – entomologist; fellow of the National Academy of Sciences, recipient of the William J. Walker Prize of the Boston Museum of Science (1967) and the Daniel Giraud Elliot Medal from the National Academy of Sciences (1976)
Margaret Clay Ferguson (Ph.D. 1901) – first female president of the Botanical Society of America (1929) who served as professor of botany and head of the department at Wellesley College
Millicent S. Ficken (B.S. 1951) – ornithologist who specialized in birds' vocalizations and their social behaviors, the first woman to be elected a fellow of both the American Ornithologists' Society and the Animal Behavior Society.
Robert J. Fletterick (Ph.D. 1970 physical chemistry) – structural biologist at the University of California, San Francisco; member of the National Academy of Sciences (2010)
Adriance S. Foster (B.S. 1923) – first plant anatomist at the University of California, Berkeley, two-time recipient of a Guggenheim Fellowship and president of the Botanical Society of America (1954)
Herbert Friedmann (Ph.D. 1923) – ornithologist at the Smithsonian Institution; member of the National Academy of Sciences (1962)
Louis Agassiz Fuertes (B.A. 1897; lecturer 1923–?) – ornithologist and illustrator
Douglas J. Futuyma (B.S. 1963) – evolutionary biologist and a distinguished professor of Ecology and Evolution at Stony Brook University; fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (1985) and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, member of the National Academy of Sciences (2006)
Jorge E. Galán (Ph.D. 1986) – Lucille P. Markey Professor of Microbial Pathogenesis and Professor of Cell Biology; chair, Department of Microbial Pathogenesis at Yale University; Robert Koch Prize recipient (2011), member of the National Academy of Sciences (2012) and the National Academy of Medicine (2019)
Arthur Galston (B.S. 1940 botany) – botanist and bioethicist; fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Mary Lou Guerinot (B.S. 1975 biology) – molecular geneticist at Dartmouth College; member of the National Academy of Sciences (2016)
Irwin Gunsalus (B.A. 1933, M.A. 1937, Ph.D. 1940) – biochemist known for discovery of lipoic acid; fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and the American Academy of Microbiology, member of the National Academy of Sciences (1965), recipient of the Selman A. Waksman Award in Microbiology
Jo Handelsman (B.S. 1979) – Howard Hughes Medical Institute Professor and Frederick Phineas Rose Professor of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology at Yale; pioneer in metagenomics (a term she coined)
Alan Hastings (B.S. 1973, M.S. 1975, Ph.D. 1977) – theoretical ecologist at the University of California, Davis; Robert H. MacArthur Award recipient (2006), fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and member of the National Academy of Sciences (2015)
Sheng-Yang He (Ph.D. 1991) – plant biologist at Michigan State University; member of the National Academy of Sciences (2015)
George H. Hepting (B.S. 1929, Ph.D. 1933 forestry) – forest scientist and plant pathologist; first forester elected to the National Academy of Sciences (1969)
Alan G. Hinnebusch (postdoctoral fellow) – geneticist; member of the National Academy of Sciences (2015) and fellow of the American Academy of Microbiology, the American Association for the Advancement of Science, and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Richard L. Hoffman (M.S. Entomology, 1959) – internationally recognized expert of millipedes and Appalachian natural history
John Hopfield (Ph.D. 1958) – biophysicist and neuroscientist, known for his invention of Hopfield network; faculty member at University of California, Berkeley (physics), Princeton University (physics), California Institute of Technology (Chemistry and Biology), Howard A. Prior Professor of Molecular Biology at Princeton, president of the American Physical Society (2006); member of the National Academy of Sciences (1973), the American Philosophical Society, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences; recipient of the Oliver E. Buckley Condensed Matter Prize (1969), Harold Pender Award (2002), Dirac Medal (2002), Albert Einstein World Award of Science (2005); MacArthur Fellow (1983)
James G. Horsfall (Ph.D. 1929 plant pathology) – biologist, pathologist and agriculturist known for the discovery of organic fungicides; the National Academy of Sciences (1953)
Romeyn Beck Hough – botanist famous for his specimens of American trees
Leland Ossian Howard (B.S. 1877) – entomologist; member of the National Academy of Sciences (1916)
Richard L. Huganir (Ph.D. 1982) – neuroscientist at Johns Hopkins University; member of the National Academy of Sciences (2004) and the National Academy of Medicine (2011), fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (2001) and of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (2004)
Otto Frederick Hunziker (B.S. 1900, M.S. 1901 agriculture) – pioneer in the American and international dairy science and industry, as both an educator and a technical innovator
André Jagendorf (B.A. 1948, faculty 1966–) – plant physiologist; member of the National Academy of Sciences (1980)
Alison Jolly (B.A. 1955) – primatologist, pioneer in study of the lemur
Fotis Kafatos (B.A. 1961 zoology) – biologist; founding president of the European Research Council; recipient of Robert Koch Prize (Gold, 2010), member of the National Academy of Sciences (1982) and of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts (2007), fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1980) and of the Royal Society of London (2003)
Peter Kareiva (Ph.D. 1981) – evolutionary biologist; director of the Institute of the Environment and Sustainability at the University of California, Los Angeles; member of the National Academy of Sciences (2011) and fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (2007)
Mollie Katzen (attended but dropped out) – an American chef, cookbook author and artist, one of the best-selling cookbook authors of all time
William Tinsley Keeton (Ph.D. 1958) – zoologist; became a well-known and popular professor at Cornell, namesake of William Keeton House
Peter S. Kim (A.B. 1979 chemistry) – professor of biochemistry at Stanford University (2014–present); president of Merck Research Laboratories (2003–2013); member of the National Academy of Sciences, the Institute of Medicine, the National Academy of Engineering (2016) and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences; fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the American Academy of Microbiology, the Biophysical Society
Flemmie Pansy Kittrell (M.S. 1930, Ph.D. 1936 nutrition) – first African American to gain a PhD in nutrition, and the first African-American woman PhD from Cornell University
Harris Lewin (B.S. 1979 animal science, M.S. 1981 animal breeding and genetics) – biologist and vice-chancellor of research at the University of California, Davis; recipient of the Wolf Prize in Agriculture (2011), member of the National Academy of Sciences (2012)
C. C. Li (Ph.D. 1940) – Chinese-American population geneticist and human geneticist who was elected Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science and of the American Statistical Association, and served as president of the American Society of Human Genetics (1960)
Jiayang Li (postdoctoral fellow 1991–1994) – botanical molecular geneticist who served as vice-president of Chinese Academy of Sciences, president of the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, and Vice Minister of Agriculture in China; member of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (2001), foreign associate of the National Academy of Sciences (2011), National Academy of Germany (2012)
Haifan Lin (Ph.D. 1990) – Eugene Higgins Chair Professor of Cell Biology, Professor of Genetics, of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Reproductive Sciences, and of Dermatology at Yale University; member of the National Academy of Sciences (2018)
Zachary Lippman ( B.S. 2000 plant sciences) – MacArthur Fellow (2019)
Jan Low (M.S. 1985, Ph.D. 1994) – recipient of the World Food Prize (2016)
Terry Magnuson (Ph.D. 1978) – Sarah Graham Kenan Professor and founding chair of department of genetics, vice chancellor for research at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill; member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and the National Academy of Medicine (2012)
Susan Marqusee (B.A. 1982 physics and chemistry) – Eveland Warren Endowed Chair Professor of Biochemistry, Biophysics, and Structural Biology at the University of California, Berkeley; member of the National Academy of Sciences (2016)
Leonard A. Maynard (Ph.D. 1915 chemistry) – nutritionist who served as a faculty member at Cornell for his entire career; member of the National Academy of Sciences (1944)
A. Colin McClung (M.S. 1949 and Ph.D. 1950 soil science) – recipient of the World Food Prize (2006)
Susan McCouch (Ph.D. 1990) – professor of plant breeding and genetics at Cornell member of the National Academy of Sciences (2018)
L. David Mech (B.S. 1958 conservation) – wolf expert, a senior research scientist for the United States Department of the Interior
Alton Meister (M.D. 1945) – biochemist who pioneered in the study of glutathione metabolism and served as president of the American Society of Biological Chemists (1977); member of the National Academy of Sciences (1969) and fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Robert L. Metcalf (Ph.D. 1942) – entomologist who served as president of the Entomological Society of America (1958); member of the National Academy of Sciences (1967); fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Emmeline Moore (B.A. 1905, Ph.D. 1916) – pioneer biologist and fisheries scientist who was first woman to be elected as president of the American Fisheries Society (AFS); the Emmeline Moore Prize of AFS was established in her honor
Veranus Alva Moore (B.S. 1887; professor of veterinary medicine 1896–1908, dean of Vet School, 1908–29) – bacteriologist and pathologist; president of the American Society for Microbiology (1910)
Roger Morse (B.S. 1950, M.S. 1953, Ph.D. 1955; professor) – apiculture author, teacher, researcher
June B. Nasrallah (Ph.D.) – plant biologist at Cornell University; member of the National Academy of Sciences (2003)
Karen E. Nelson (Ph.D.) – microbiologist who is the current president of the J. Craig Venter Institute (JCVI); member of the National Academy of Sciences (2017)
John Niederhauser (B.S. 1939, Ph.D. 1943 plant pathology) – agricultural scientist known as "Mr. Potato” internationally for his contributions in potato development programs and for his innovations and achievements in providing food to the world; recipient of the World Food Prize (1990)
Stephen J. O'Brien (Ph.D. 1971 genetics) – member of the National Academy of Sciences (2018)
Roger Payne (Ph.D. 1961) – biologist and environmentalist, known for the discovery of whale song among humpback whales; founder and president of Ocean Alliance; MacArthur Fellow (1984)
Erika L. Pearce (B.A. 1998 biological sciences) – professor and director of the Max Planck Institute of Immunobiology and Epigenetics in Freiburg (2015–),Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Prize recipient (2018)
Ronald L. Phillips (postdoctoral fellow) – biologist and Regents Professor Emeritus at the University of Minnesota; recipient of the Wolf Prize in Agriculture (2006/2007); member of the National Academy of Sciences (1991)
Catherine J. Personius, food sciences
Hermann Rahn (Class of 1933) – environmental physiologist, president of the American Physiological Society (1963–1964); member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1966) and the National Academy of Sciences (1968)
Mila Rechcigl (B.S., M.N.S, Ph.D.) – biochemist, nutritionist, cancer researcher; past president of the Czechoslovak Society of Arts and Sciences; Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) and of the American Institute of Chemists (AIC)
Peter B. Reich (Ph.D. 1983) – recipient of the BBVA Foundation Frontiers of Knowledge Award in Ecology and Conservation Biology (2009), member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (2011) and of the National Academy of Sciences (2018)
Marcus Morton Rhoades (Ph.D. 1932) – cytogeneticist; member of the National Academy of Sciences (1946)
Lynn M. Riddiford (Ph.D. 1961) – biologist at the University of Washington; member of the National Academy of Sciences (2010)
Gene E. Robinson (B.S. 1977, Ph.D. 1986) – entomologist and director of the Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign; member of the National Academy of Sciences (2005) and of the National Academy of Medicine (2018), fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science and of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Wolf Prize in Agriculture recipient (2018)
William Jacob Robbins (Ph.D. 1915) – botanist and physiologist, director of the New York Botanical Garden (1937–1957) and president of the Botanical Society of America (1943); member of the National Academy of Sciences (1940)
C. Richard Robins (Ph.D. 1955) - ichthyologist, University of Miami and Professor Emeritus at the University of Kansas.
Pamela Ronald (postdoctoral fellow 1990–1992) – plant pathologist and geneticist; member of the National Academy of Sciences (2019)
A. Catharine Ross (M.S. 1972 nutritional science, Ph.D. 1976) – professor and occupant of Dorothy Foehr Huck Chair and Department Head at Pennsylvania State University; member of the National Academy of Sciences (2003)
Rodney Rothstein (postdoctoral fellow 1977–1979) – geneticist at Columbia University; fellow of the American Society for Microbiology (2007), the American Association for the Advancement of Science (2008) and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (2011), member of the National Academy of Sciences (2015)
Glenn W. Salisbury (Ph.D. 1934, professor 1934–1947) – recipient of the Wolf Prize in Agriculture (1981); member of the National Academy of Sciences (1974)
Pedro A. Sanchez (B.S. 1962, M.S. 1964, Ph.D. 1968 Soil Science) – recipient of the World Food Prize (2002), MacArthur Fellow (2003), fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the American Association for the Advancement of Science, and member of the National Academy of Sciences (2012)
Joseph Schlessinger (postdoctoral fellow 1974–1976) – William H. Prusoff Professor and chairman of the Department of Pharmacology at Yale School of Medicine; member of the National Academy of Sciences (2000), the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (2001), and the National Academy of Medicine (2005); recipient of the BBVA Foundation Frontiers of Knowledge Award (2014)
William H. Schlesinger (Ph.D. 1976 Ecology and Systematics) – biogeochemist, president of Cary Institute; dean of the Environment and Earth Sciences at Duke University; president of the Ecological Society of America (2003–2004); member of the National Academy of Sciences (2003), fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the American Geophysical Union, the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), the Ecological Society of America, and the Soil Science Society of America
Karl Patterson Schmidt (B.A. 1916) – herpetologist; Guggenheim Fellowship recipient (1932) and member of the National Academy of Sciences (1956)
Petra Schwille (postdoctoral fellow 1997–1999) – director of Max Planck Institute of Biochemistry (2011–); Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Prize recipient (2010)
Amita Sehgal (Ph.D. 1983 cell biology and genetics) – molecular biologist and chronobiologist at the University of Pennsylvania; member of the National Academy of Sciences (2016)
George E. Seidel, Jr. (M.S., Ph.D.) – university distinguished professor at Colorado State University; member of the National Academy of Sciences (1992)
Robert Shope (B.A. 1951 zoology, MD 1954) – arbovirologist who discovered hundreds of viruses and advised on emerging infectious diseases
Florence Wells Slater (B.A. 1900 biology) - entomologist and schoolteacher
Theobald Smith (B.Phil. 1881) – microbiologist and pathologist who discovered the causes of several infectious and parasitic diseases, and anaphylaxis; member of the National Academy of Sciences (1908)
Philip Edward Smith (Ph.D. 1912, anatomy) – endocrinologist who demonstrated function of pituitary gland by performing hypophysectomies in rats; member of the National Academy of Sciences (1939)
George F. Sprague (Ph.D. 1930 genetics) – geneticist who served as president of the American Society of Agronomy (1960) and was inducted into the Agricultural Research Service (ARS) Science Hall of Fame (1990); Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science and member of the National Academy of Sciences (1968), recipient of the Wolf Prize in Agriculture (1978)
Lewis Stadler (graduate student 1919–1920, postdoctoral fellow 1925–1926) – geneticist; member of the National Academy of Sciences (1938)
George Streisinger (B.S. 1950) – molecular biologist known as first person to clone a vertebrate (zebra fish); Guggenheim Fellowship recipient and member of the National Academy of Sciences (1975)
Royal D. Suttkus (Ph.D. 1951) - ichthyologist, founder of a major research collection of fishes
Karel Svoboda (B.A. 1988 physics) – neuroscientist at Howard Hughes Medical Institute; member of the National Academy of Sciences (2015), The Brain Prize recipient (2015)
David W. Tank (Ph.D. 1983 physics) – Henry L. Hillman Professor in Molecular Biology at Princeton University; The Brain Prize recipient (2015); member of the National Academy of Sciences (2001)
Stanley Temple (B.S. 1968, M.S. 1970, Ph.D. 1972) – avian ecologist
Charles Thom (graduate assistant 1902–1904) – microbiologist and mycologist, president of the American Society for Microbiology (1940); member of the National Academy of Sciences (1937)
James Tiedje (M.S. 1966, Ph.D. 1968) – distinguished professor and the director of the NSF Center for Microbial Ecology (CME) at Michigan State University, president of the American Society for Microbiology (2004–2005); member of the National Academy of Sciences (2003)
William Trelease (B.S. 1880) – botanist, entomologist, explorer, writer and educator who served as the founding president of the Botanical Society of America (1894) and as president for a second time (1918); member of the National Academy of Sciences (1902)
Jayant B. Udgaonkar (PhD 1986) – molecular biologist and Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar laureate
Douglas C. Wallace (B.S. 1968) – geneticist and evolutionary biologist at the University of Pennsylvania known for his pioneering work in using human mitochondrial DNA as a molecular marker; member of the National Academy of Sciences (1995) and recipient of Gruber Prize in Genetics (2012)
Robert H. Wasserman (B.S. 1949, Ph.D. 1953) – professor of physiology, emeritus at Cornell University; member of the National Academy of Sciences (1980)
Judith Weis (B.S. 1962 zoology) — marine biologist, professor emerita of marine biology at Rutgers University
Susan R. Wessler (Ph.D. 1980 biochemistry) – distinguished professor of genetics at the University of California, Riverside; member of the National Academy of Sciences (1998), fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Cynthia Westcott (Ph.D. 1932, plant pathology) – plant pathologist, author, and rose expert; fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science
Reed Wickner (B.A. 1962) – member of the National Academy of Sciences (2000) and of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences; Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science
Robley C. Williams (B.S. 1931, Ph.D. 1935 physics) – biophysicist and virologist, known for his work in Tobacco mosaic virus; first president of the Biophysical Society; member of the National Academy of Sciences
Arthur Winfree (Bachelor of Engineering Physics 1965) – theoretical biologist at the University of Arizona; MacArthur Fellow (1984); recipient of Norbert Wiener Prize in Applied Mathematics (2000)
Cynthia Wolberger (B.A. 1979) – structural biologist at Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine; fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (2019) and of the National Academy of Sciences (2019)
Mariana F. Wolfner (B.A. 1974) – Goldwin Smith Professor of molecular biology and genetics at Cornell University; National Academy of Sciences (2019)
Albert Hazen Wright (B.A., Ph.D. 1908; professor) – herpetologist, honorary member of the International Ornithological Congress, recipient of the Eminent Ecologist Award (1955)
Xiangzhong Yang (M.S. 1986, Ph.D. 1990) – Chinese-American biotechnology scientist and cloning pioneer; credited with creating the first cloned farm animal in the United States, a cow called "Amy"
Virginia Zakian (A.B. 1970) – Harry C. Wiess Professor in Life Sciences at Princeton University; Fellow of the American Academy of Microbiology (1993) and of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (1992), member of the National Academy of Sciences (2018) and of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (2019)
Medicine
Adaora Adimora (B.A. 1977) – epidemiologist at the University of North Carolina School of Medicine, member of the National Academy of Medicine (2019)
Mary Amdur (Ph.D. 1946 biochemistry) – toxicologist, public health researcher and a pioneer in air pollution toxicology
Carol Remmer Angle – pediatrician, nephrologist, and toxicologist
Robert Atkins (M.D. 1955) – creator of the Atkins Diet; author on health and nutrition
Ellen S. Baker (M.D. 1978) – astronaut
Emily Dunning Barringer (B.S. 1897) – first female ambulance surgeon in the U.S.
Joshua B. Bederson (B.A. 1979) – Chief of Neurosurgery at Mount Sinai Medical Center in New York City; author of Treatment of Carotid Disease: A Practitioner's Manual
Jeffrey Bluestone (Ph.D. 1980) – immunologist who served as executive vice chancellor and provost of University of California, San Francisco (2010–2015); member of the National Academy of Medicine and Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Lewis C. Cantley (Ph.D. 1975) – cell biologist and biochemist, known for discovery and study of the enzyme PI-3-kinase, now known to be important to understanding cancer and diabetes mellitus, and the discovery of Phosphatidylinositol (3,4,5)-trisphosphate; former professor of Systems Biology and Medicine at Harvard Medical School, currently director of the Cancer Center, Professor of Cancer Biology at Weill Cornell Medical College; member of the National Academy of Sciences (2001) and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences; recipient of numerous awards and honors including $3 million Breakthrough Prize in Life Sciences (2013), Gairdner Foundation International Award (2015), Wolf Prize in Medicine (2016)
Francis V. Chisari (M.D. 1968) – professor emeritus at the Scripps Research Institute; member of the National Academy of Sciences (2002)
Mandy Cohen, MD, MPH – Chief Medical Officer, Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services
Carlos Cordon-Cardo (Ph.D. 1985) – physician and scientist known for his pioneering research in experimental pathology and molecular oncology
John Allen Clements (M.D. 1947) – physician known for his role in the study of pulmonary surfactant; professor at the University of California, San Francisco; recipient of the Gairdner Foundation International Award (1983); member of the National Academy of Sciences (1974)
Mary Gage Day (1884), physician, medical writer
Park Dietz (A.B. 1970) – forensic psychiatrist and criminologist known for consulting or testifying in many of the highest profile US criminal cases including Jeffrey Dahmer, the Unabomber, the Beltway sniper attacks, and Jared Lee Loughner
Dean Edell (B.A. 1963 zoology, M.D. 1967) – physician and media personality
Anthony S. Fauci (M.D. 1966) – immunologist, known for HIV and the progression to AIDS; member of the National Academy of Sciences (1992), the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the Institute of Medicine (Council Member), the American Philosophical Society, and the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters; recipient of Maxwell Finland Award (1989), Ernst Jung Prize (1995), National Medal of Science (2005), Lasker Award (2007), Presidential Medal of Freedom (2008), Robert Koch Prize (Gold, 2013), Gairdner Foundation International Award (2016)
Joseph Fins (M.D. 1986) – physician and medical ethicist; member of the National Academy of Medicine (2010) and fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (2012)
Gerald Fischbach (M.D. 1965) – neuroscientist; professor at Harvard University Medical School (1973–1981, 1990–1998) and the Washington University School of Medicine (1981–1990), vice president and dean of the Health and Biomedical Sciences, of the Faculty of Medicine, and of the Faculty of Health Sciences at Columbia University (2001–2006), director of the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS) (1998–2001); member of the National Academy of Sciences, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and the Institute of Medicine
Alfred Freedman (B.S. 1937) – psychiatrist who led move to destigmatize same sex orientation; former president of American Psychiatry Association
Jeffrey M. Friedman (postgraduate fellow 1980–1981) – known for discovery of the hormone leptin and its role in regulating body weight; recipient of the Gairdner Foundation International Award (2005), Shaw Prize (2009), Albert Lasker Award for Basic Medical Research (2010), BBVA Foundation Frontiers of Knowledge Award (2012); member of the National Academy of Sciences (2001) and of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (2013), Wolf Prize in Medicine (2019), Breakthrough Prize in Life Sciences (2020)
Wilson Greatbatch (B.E.E. 1950) – engineer and inventor who advanced the development of early implantable pacemakers and lithium ion batteries and held more than 350 patents; member of the National Inventors Hall of Fame and of the National Academy of Engineering (1988); recipient of Lemelson–MIT Prize, Russ Prize (2001) and National Medal of Technology and Innovation (1990)
Connie Guion (M.D. 1917) – physician and medical educator
Henry Heimlich (B.A. 1941, M.D. 1943) – inventor of the Heimlich maneuver
Dr. Mark Hyman, MD, chairman of the Functional Medicine Institute and founder of the UltraWellness Center
Arthur H. Hayes Jr. (M.D. 1964) – pharmacologist; Commissioner of the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) (1981–1983); dean and provost of New York Medical College
Gerald Klerman (B.A. 1950) – psychiatrist who served as chief of the US national mental health agency (1977–1980)
Ernst Knobil (B.S. 1948, Ph.D. 1951) – endocrinologist and physiologist; recipient of the Dickson Prize (1990); member of the National Academy of Sciences (1986), the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and the French Academy of Science
Shiriki Kumanyika (Ph.D. 1978 human nutrition) – former president of the American Public Health Association, member of the National Academy of Medicine (2003)
John F. Kurtzke (M.D. 1952) – pioneering neuroepidemiologist
Cato T. Laurencin (Clinical Fellowship in Sports Medicine and Shoulder Surgery 1993–1994) – recipient of the National Medal of Technology and Innovation (2015); member of the National Academy of Engineering (2011)
Beth Levine (M.D. 1986) – Charles Cameron Sprague Distinguished Chair in Biomedical Science at the University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center; member of the National Academy of Sciences (2013)
Philip Levine (M.D. 1923) – immunohematologist; discovered the Rh factor in blood in 1939; member of the National Academy of Sciences (1966)
Frank Lilly (Ph.D. 1965) – geneticist; fellow of the New York Academy of Sciences, the American Association for the Advancement of Science and member of the National Academy of Sciences (1983)
Pamela Lipkin – physician, early proponent of cosmetic Botox
Richard Lower (M.D. 1955) – pioneer of cardiac surgery; known for organ transplantation (particularly in the field of heart transplantation) and Ciclosporin
Martha MacGuffie (1946) – pioneer female reconstructive and plastic surgeon
Bonnie Mathieson (Ph.D. 1976) – scientist and pioneer in HIV/AIDS vaccine research at the NIH
Robert Millman (undergrad; Saul P. Steinberg Distinguished Professor of Psychiatry and Public Health, Medical College) – drug abuse expert, former Medical Director for Major League Baseball
Cecilia Mettler (Ph.D. 1938) – medical historian
Maria New (B.A. 1950) – pediatrician; member of the National Academy of Sciences (1996)
Irvine Page (B.A. 1921 chemistry, M.D. 1926) – physiologist at Cleveland Clinic; recipient of Albert Lasker Award (1958), Gairdner Foundation International Award (1963), member of the National Academy of Sciences (1971)
Lt. Gen. James Peake, US Army (ret.) (M.D. 1972) – former Surgeon General of the United States Army and the United States Secretary of Veterans Affairs
Gregory Goodwin Pincus (B.S. 1924) – co-inventor of the combined oral contraceptive pill; member of the National Academy of Sciences (1965)
Alvin F. Poussaint (M.D. 1960) – child-rearing expert
Jeffrey V. Ravetch (M.D. 1979) – Theresa and Eugene M. Lang Professor at the Rockefeller University; member of the National Academy of Sciences (2006); recipient of Gairdner Foundation International Award (2012) and the Wolf Prize in Medicine (2015)
Arnold S. Relman (B.A.) – physician; editor of the New England Journal of Medicine (1977–1991); professor at Boston University School of Medicine; then Frank Wister Thomas professor of medicine and chair of the department of medicine at the University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine; finally a professor at Harvard School of Medicine
Jacob Robbins (B.S. 1944, M.D. 1947) — endocrinologist at the National Institutes of Health
John Ross (cardiologist), Jr. (M.D. 1955) – cardiologist, pioneer of acute myocardial infarction and heart failure treatments
Harry Rubin (D.V.M. 1947) – professor emeritus of Cell and Developmental Biology at the University of California, Berkeley; recipient of the Albert Lasker Award for Basic Medical Research (1964), member of the National Academy of Sciences (1978)
Daniel Elmer Salmon (B.S. 1872, D.V.M. 1872) – namesake of salmonella; first D.V.M. in the United States
Myron G. Schultz (D.V.M) – infectious disease expert who helped identity he AIDS epidemic in the early 1980s, after noting a cluster of pneumocystis cases in adult males
Ida S. Scudder (M.D. 1899) – medical missionary in India; founder of Christian Medical College & Hospital, Vellore, Tamilandu
Michael J. Sofia (B.A. chemistry) - recipient of Lasker-Debakey Award in Clinical Medical Research (2016); Sofosbuvir (a medication used to treat hepatitis C) is named in his honor
Hee-Sup Shin (Ph.D. 1983) – Korean neuroscientist; member of the National Academy of Sciences (2009)
Benjamin Spock (medical residency; Professor of Pediatrics, Medical College, 1933–47) – Author of The Common Sense Book of Baby and Child Care, one of the best selling books of all time
Kevin J. Tracey (neurosurgery residency, 1992) – president of the Feinstein Institute for Medical Research, neurosurgeon and immunologist who discovered the inflammatory reflex
Robert J. Winchester (M.D. 1963) – professor of pediatrics, medicine and pathology at Columbia University; recipient of Crafoord Prize (2013)
Owen Witte (B.S. 1971 microbiology) – Physician-scientist at the University of California, Los Angeles; member of the National Academy of Sciences (1997) and of the Institute of Medicine, fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1996)
Environmental studies and environmental science
James H. Brown (A.B. 1963 zoology) – ecologist and Distinguished Professor of Biology at the University of New Mexico; member of the National Academy of Sciences (2005), fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (1988) and of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1995)
Charles T. Driscoll Jr. (M.S. 1976, Ph.D. 1980 environmental engineering) – distinguished professor and University Professor at Syracuse University; member of the National Academy of Engineering (2007)
Annie Leonard (Masters in City and Regional Planning) – proponent of sustainability and a critic of excessive consumerism; executive director for Greenpeace USA (2014–)
Daniel Peter Loucks (Ph.D. 1965 environmental engineering) – professor of civil and environmental engineering at Cornell University, known for his leadership in the application of systems analysis to the fields of water resources and environmental engineering; member of the National Academy of Engineering (1989)
M. Granger Morgan (M.S. 1965) – university professor at Carnegie Mellon University; member of the National Academy of Sciences (2007), fellow of the AAAS and of the IEEE
Norman R. Scott (Ph.D. 1962) – professor emeritus of biological & environmental engineering at Cornell University; member of the National Academy of Engineering (1990)
David L. Sedlak (B.S. 1986 environmental science) – Plato Malozemoff Professor of Civil & Environmental Engineering at the University of California, Berkeley; member of the National Academy of Engineering (2016)
Daniel Sperling (B.S. 1973 environmental engineering and urban planning) – recipient of Heinz Award (2010) and Blue Planet Prize (2013)
NASA astronauts
Ellen S. Baker (M.D. 1978) – Lead Astronaut for Medical Issues, Johnson Space Center
Daniel T. Barry (B.S.E.E. 1975) – astronaut, contestant on CBS reality program Survivor: Exile Island
Jay C. Buckey, Jr. (B.S.E.E. 1977, M.D. 1981) – astronaut
Martin J. Fettman (B.S. 1976 animal nutrition, M.S. 1980 nutrition, D.V.M 1980; Spencer T. and Ann W. Olin Lecturer 1994) – payload specialist
Mae Jemison (M.D. 1981; A.D. White Professor-at-Large 1999–2005) – first African-American woman to travel in space; member of National Women's Hall of Fame; chemical engineer, physician, teacher
G. David Low (B.S.M.E. 1980) – astronaut
Edward T. Lu (B.S.E.E. 1984) – astronaut and physicist
Donald A. Thomas (M.S. 1980 materials science, Ph.D. 1982 materials science) – astronaut
See also
List of Cornell University faculty
List of Nobel laureates by university affiliation
List of Quill and Dagger members
Notable alumni of the Sphinx Head Society
Notes
References
External links
Cornell in professional sports
Lists of people by university or college in New York (state)
, Natural sciences
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texture%20mapping
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Texture mapping
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Texture mapping is a method for defining high frequency detail, surface texture, or color information on a computer-generated graphic or 3D model. The original technique was pioneered by Edwin Catmull in 1974.
Texture mapping originally referred to diffuse mapping, a method that simply mapped pixels from a texture to a 3D surface ("wrapping" the image around the object). In recent decades, the advent of multi-pass rendering, multitexturing, mipmaps, and more complex mappings such as height mapping, bump mapping, normal mapping, displacement mapping, reflection mapping, specular mapping, occlusion mapping, and many other variations on the technique (controlled by a materials system) have made it possible to simulate near-photorealism in real time by vastly reducing the number of polygons and lighting calculations needed to construct a realistic and functional 3D scene.
Texture maps
A is an image applied (mapped) to the surface of a shape or polygon. This may be a bitmap image or a procedural texture. They may be stored in common image file formats, referenced by 3d model formats or material definitions, and assembled into resource bundles.
They may have 1-3 dimensions, although 2 dimensions are most common for visible surfaces. For use with modern hardware, texture map data may be stored in swizzled or tiled orderings to improve cache coherency. Rendering APIs typically manage texture map resources (which may be located in device memory) as buffers or surfaces, and may allow 'render to texture' for additional effects such as post processing or environment mapping.
They usually contain RGB color data (either stored as direct color, compressed formats, or indexed color), and sometimes an additional channel for alpha blending (RGBA) especially for billboards and decal overlay textures. It is possible to use the alpha channel (which may be convenient to store in formats parsed by hardware) for other uses such as specularity.
Multiple texture maps (or channels) may be combined for control over specularity, normals, displacement, or subsurface scattering e.g. for skin rendering.
Multiple texture images may be combined in texture atlases or array textures to reduce state changes for modern hardware. (They may be considered a modern evolution of tile map graphics). Modern hardware often supports cube map textures with multiple faces for environment mapping.
Creation
Texture maps may be acquired by scanning/digital photography, designed in image manipulation software such as GIMP, Photoshop, or painted onto 3D surfaces directly in a 3D paint tool such as Mudbox or zbrush.
Texture application
This process is akin to applying patterned paper to a plain white box. Every vertex in a polygon is assigned a texture coordinate (which in the 2d case is also known as UV coordinates).
This may be done through explicit assignment of vertex attributes, manually edited in a 3D modelling package through UV unwrapping tools. It is also possible to associate a procedural transformation from 3d space to texture space with the material. This might be accomplished via planar projection or, alternatively, cylindrical or spherical mapping. More complex mappings may consider the distance along a surface to minimize distortion.
These coordinates are interpolated across the faces of polygons to sample the texture map during rendering.
Textures may be repeated or mirrored to extend a finite rectangular bitmap over a larger area, or they may have a one-to-one unique "injective" mapping from every piece of a surface (which is important for render mapping and light mapping, also known as baking).
Texture space
Texture mapping maps the model surface (or screen space during rasterization) into texture space; in this space, the texture map is visible in its undistorted form. UV unwrapping tools typically provide a view in texture space for manual editing of texture coordinates. Some rendering techniques such as subsurface scattering may be performed approximately by texture-space operations.
Multitexturing
Multitexturing is the use of more than one texture at a time on a polygon. For instance, a light map texture may be used to light a surface as an alternative to recalculating that lighting every time the surface is rendered. Microtextures or detail textures are used to add higher frequency details, and dirt maps may add weathering and variation; this can greatly reduce the apparent periodicity of repeating textures. Modern graphics may use more than 10 layers, which are combined using shaders, for greater fidelity. Another multitexture technique is bump mapping, which allows a texture to directly control the facing direction of a surface for the purposes of its lighting calculations; it can give a very good appearance of a complex surface (such as tree bark or rough concrete) that takes on lighting detail in addition to the usual detailed coloring. Bump mapping has become popular in recent video games, as graphics hardware has become powerful enough to accommodate it in real-time.
Texture filtering
The way that samples (e.g. when viewed as pixels on the screen) are calculated from the texels (texture pixels) is governed by texture filtering. The cheapest method is to use the nearest-neighbour interpolation, but bilinear interpolation or trilinear interpolation between mipmaps are two commonly used alternatives which reduce aliasing or jaggies. In the event of a texture coordinate being outside the texture, it is either clamped or wrapped. Anisotropic filtering better eliminates directional artefacts when viewing textures from oblique viewing angles.
Texture streaming
Texture streaming is a means of using data streams for textures, where each texture is available in two or more different resolutions, as to determine which texture should be loaded into memory and used based on draw distance from the viewer and how much memory is available for textures. Texture streaming allows for rendering engine to use low resolution textures for objects far away from the viewer's camera, and resolve those into more detailed textures, read from a data source, as the point of view nears the objects.
Baking
As an optimization, it is possible to render detail from a complex, high-resolution model or expensive process (such as global illumination) into a surface texture (possibly on a low-resolution model). Baking is also known as render mapping. This technique is most commonly used for light maps, but may also be used to generate normal maps and displacement maps. Some computer games (e.g. Messiah) have used this technique. The original Quake software engine used on-the-fly baking to combine light maps and colour maps ("surface caching").
Baking can be used as a form of level of detail generation, where a complex scene with many different elements and materials may be approximated by a single element with a single texture, which is then algorithmically reduced for lower rendering cost and fewer drawcalls. It is also used to take high-detail models from 3D sculpting software and point cloud scanning and approximate them with meshes more suitable for realtime rendering.
Rasterisation algorithms
Various techniques have evolved in software and hardware implementations. Each offers different trade-offs in precision, versatility and performance.
Forward texture mapping
Some hardware systems e.g. Sega Saturn and the NV1 traverse texture coordinates directly, interpolating the projected position in screen space through texture space and splatting the texels into a frame buffer. (in the case of the NV1, quadratic interpolation was used allowing curved rendering). Sega provided tools for baking suitable per-quad texture tiles from UV mapped models.
This has the advantage that texture maps are read in a simple linear fashion.
Forward texture mapping may also sometimes produce more natural looking results than affine texture mapping if the primitives are aligned with prominent texture directions (e.g. road markings or layers of bricks). This provides a limited form of perspective correction. However, perspective distortion is still visible for primitives near the camera (e.g. the Saturn port of Sega Rally exhibited texture-squashing artifacts as nearby polygons were near clipped without UV coordinates).
This technique is not used in modern hardware because UV coordinates have proved more versatile for modelling and more consistent for clipping.
Inverse texture mapping
Most approaches use inverse texture mapping, which traverses the rendering primitives in screen space whilst interpolating texture coordinates for sampling. This interpolation may be affine or perspective correct. One advantage is that each output pixel is guaranteed to only be traversed once; generally the source texture map data is stored in some lower bit-depth or compressed form whilst the frame buffer uses a higher bit-depth. Another is greater versatility for UV mapping. A texture cache becomes important for buffering reads, since the memory access pattern in texture space is more complex.
Affine texture mapping
Affine texture mapping linearly interpolates texture coordinates across a surface, and so is the fastest form of texture mapping. Some software and hardware (such as the original PlayStation) project vertices in 3D space onto the screen during rendering and linearly interpolate the texture coordinates in screen space between them ("inverse texture mapping"). This may be done by incrementing fixed point UV coordinates, or by an incremental error algorithm akin to Bresenham's line algorithm.
In contrast to perpendicular polygons, this leads to noticeable distortion with perspective transformations (see figure: the checker box texture appears bent), especially as primitives near the camera. Such distortion may be reduced with the subdivision of the polygon into smaller ones.
Perspective correctness
Perspective correct texturing accounts for the vertices' positions in 3D space, rather than simply interpolating coordinates in 2D screen space. This achieves the correct visual effect but it is more expensive to calculate.
To perform perspective correction of the texture coordinates and , with being the depth component from the viewer's point of view, we can take advantage of the fact that the values , , and are linear in screen space across the surface being textured. In contrast, the original , and , before the division, are not linear across the surface in screen space. We can therefore linearly interpolate these reciprocals across the surface, computing corrected values at each pixel, to result in a perspective correct texture mapping.
To do this, we first calculate the reciprocals at each vertex of our geometry (3 points for a triangle). For vertex we have . Then, we linearly interpolate these reciprocals between the vertices (e.g., using Barycentric Coordinates), resulting in interpolated values across the surface. At a given point, this yields the interpolated , and . Note that this cannot be yet used as our texture coordinates as our division by altered their coordinate system.
To correct back to the space we first calculate the corrected by again taking the reciprocal . Then we use this to correct our : and .
This correction makes it so that in parts of the polygon that are closer to the viewer the difference from pixel to pixel between texture coordinates is smaller (stretching the texture wider) and in parts that are farther away this difference is larger (compressing the texture).
Affine texture mapping directly interpolates a texture coordinate between two endpoints and :
where
Perspective correct mapping interpolates after dividing by depth , then uses its interpolated reciprocal to recover the correct coordinate:
3D graphics hardware typically supports perspective correct texturing.
Various techniques have evolved for rendering texture mapped geometry into images with different quality/precision tradeoffs, which can be applied to both software and hardware.
Classic software texture mappers generally did only simple mapping with at most one lighting effect (typically applied through a lookup table), and the perspective correctness was about 16 times more expensive.
Restricted camera rotation
The Doom engine restricted the world to vertical walls and horizontal floors/ceilings, with a camera that could only rotate about the vertical axis. This meant the walls would be a constant depth coordinate along a vertical line and the floors/ceilings would have a constant depth along a horizontal line. A fast affine mapping could be used along those lines because it would be correct. Some later renderers of this era simulated a small amount of camera pitch with shearing which allowed the appearance of greater freedom whilst using the same rendering technique.
Some engines were able to render texture mapped Heightmaps (e.g. Nova Logic's Voxel Space, and the engine for Outcast) via Bresenham-like incremental algorithms, producing the appearance of a texture mapped landscape without the use of traditional geometric primitives.
Subdivision for perspective correction
Every triangle can be further subdivided into groups of about 16 pixels in order to achieve two goals. First, keeping the arithmetic mill busy at all times. Second, producing faster arithmetic results.
World space subdivision
For perspective texture mapping without hardware support, a triangle is broken down into smaller triangles for rendering and affine mapping is used on them. The reason this technique works is that the distortion of affine mapping becomes much less noticeable on smaller polygons. The Sony PlayStation made extensive use of this because it only supported affine mapping in hardware but had a relatively high triangle throughput compared to its peers.
Screen space subdivision
Software renderers generally preferred screen subdivision because it has less overhead. Additionally, they try to do linear interpolation along a line of pixels to simplify the set-up (compared to 2d affine interpolation) and thus again the overhead (also affine texture-mapping does not fit into the low number of registers of the x86 CPU; the 68000 or any RISC is much more suited).
A different approach was taken for Quake, which would calculate perspective correct coordinates only once every 16 pixels of a scanline and linearly interpolate between them, effectively running at the speed of linear interpolation because the perspective correct calculation runs in parallel on the co-processor. The polygons are rendered independently, hence it may be possible to switch between spans and columns or diagonal directions depending on the orientation of the polygon normal to achieve a more constant z but the effort seems not to be worth it.
Other techniques
Another technique was approximating the perspective with a faster calculation, such as a polynomial. Still another technique uses 1/z value of the last two drawn pixels to linearly extrapolate the next value. The division is then done starting from those values so that only a small remainder has to be divided but the amount of bookkeeping makes this method too slow on most systems.
Finally, the Build engine extended the constant distance trick used for Doom by finding the line of constant distance for arbitrary polygons and rendering along it.
Hardware implementations
Texture mapping hardware was originally developed for simulation (e.g. as implemented in the Evans and Sutherland ESIG image generators), and professional graphics workstations such as Silicon Graphics, broadcast digital video effects machines such as the Ampex ADO and later appeared in Arcade cabinets, consumer video game consoles, and PC video cards in the mid 1990s. In flight simulation, texture mapping provided important motion cues.
Modern graphics processing units (GPUs) provide specialised fixed function units called texture samplers, or texture mapping units, to perform texture mapping, usually with trilinear filtering or better multi-tap anisotropic filtering and hardware for decoding specific formats such as DXTn. As of 2016, texture mapping hardware is ubiquitous as most SOCs contain a suitable GPU.
Some hardware combines texture mapping with hidden-surface determination in tile based deferred rendering or scanline rendering; such systems only fetch the visible texels at the expense of using greater workspace for transformed vertices. Most systems have settled on the Z-buffering approach, which can still reduce the texture mapping workload with front-to-back sorting.
Applications
Beyond 3D rendering, the availability of texture mapping hardware has inspired its use for accelerating other tasks:
Tomography
It is possible to use texture mapping hardware to accelerate both the reconstruction of voxel data sets from tomographic scans, and to visualize the results
User interfaces
Many user interfaces use texture mapping to accelerate animated transitions of screen elements, e.g. Exposé in Mac OS X.
See also
2.5D
3D computer graphics
Mipmap
Materials system
Parametrization
Texture synthesis
Texture atlas
Texture splatting – a technique for combining textures
Shader (computer graphics)
References
Software
TexRecon — open-source software for texturing 3D models written in C++
External links
Introduction into texture mapping using C and SDL (PDF)
Programming a textured terrain using XNA/DirectX, from www.riemers.net
Perspective correct texturing
Time Texturing Texture mapping with bezier lines
Polynomial Texture Mapping Interactive Relighting for Photos
3 Métodos de interpolación a partir de puntos (in spanish) Methods that can be used to interpolate a texture knowing the texture coords at the vertices of a polygon
3D Texturing Tools
Computer graphics
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22617727
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abantes
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Abantes
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The Abantes or Abantians (, Ábantes) were an ancient Greek tribe. Their home was Euboea.
Origins
The Abantes were a Proto-Greek tribe, which settled in the island of Euboea. When the Trojan War concluded, the Abantes wandered around for a while, and finally settled in the region of Thesprotia. Herodotus states that many Abantes from Euboea had established colonies in Chios and Asia Minor.
The Iliad
In the Iliad, Homer mentions the Abantes among the Greek allies in the Trojan War. Their leader was Elephenor the son of Chalkodon. The Trojan warrior Agenor killed Elephenor.
Colonies
Pausanias writes that they contributed to a colony from Thronium in Thesprotis. The local area became known as Abantis. Eventually it was conquered by Apollonia with the help of Corinth.
Another colony was sent to Chios, but eventually it was defeated and the survivors forced to flee.
References
Ionians
Ancient tribes in Euboea
Greek tribes
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software%20crisis
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Software crisis
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Software crisis is a term used in the early days of computing science for the difficulty of writing useful and efficient computer programs in the required time. The software crisis was due to the rapid increases in computer power and the complexity of the problems that could now be tackled. With the increase in the complexity of the software, many software problems arose because existing methods were inadequate.
The term "software crisis" was coined by some attendees at the first NATO Software Engineering Conference in 1968 at Garmisch, Germany. Edsger Dijkstra's 1972 Turing Award Lecture makes reference to this same problem:
The causes of the software crisis were linked to the overall complexity of hardware and the software development process. The crisis manifested itself in several ways:
Projects running over-budget
Projects running over-time
Software was very inefficient
Software was of low quality
Software often did not meet requirements
Projects were unmanageable and code difficult to maintain
Software was never delivered
The main cause is that improvements in computing power had outpaced the ability of programmers to effectively use those capabilities. Various processes and methodologies have been developed over the last few decades to improve software quality management such as procedural programming and object-oriented programming. However, software projects that are large, complicated, poorly specified, or involve unfamiliar aspects, are still vulnerable to large, unanticipated problems.
See also
AI winter
List of failed and overbudget custom software projects
Fred Brooks
System accident
Technological singularity
References
External links
Edsger Dijkstra: The Humble Programmer (PDF file, 473kB)
Brian Randell: The NATO Software Engineering Conferences
Markus Bautsch: Cycles of Software Crises in: ENISA Quarterly on Secure Software (PDF file; 1,86MB)
Hoare 1996, "How Did Software Get So Reliable Without Proof?"
Software quality
Crisis
Edsger W. Dijkstra
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275883
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symyx%20Technologies
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Symyx Technologies
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Symyx Technologies, Inc. was a company that specialized in informatics and automation products. Symyx provided software solutions for scientific research, including Enterprise Laboratory Notebooks and products for combinatorial chemistry. The software part of the business became part of Accelrys, Inc. in 2010 and then in 2014 this company merged with Dassault Systèmes. Symyx also offered laboratory robotics systems for performing automated chemical research, which in 2010 was spun out as Freeslate, Inc.
Products
Symyx offered high-speed combinatorial technologies for the discovery of new materials. Using proprietary technologies - including instruments, software and methods - Symyx was able to generate hundreds to thousands of unique materials at a time and screen those materials rapidly and automatically for desired properties. This approach was said to deliver results hundreds to thousands of times faster than traditional research methods, at a fraction of the cost. Symyx applied this technology to revolutionize materials discovery in the life sciences, chemical, and electronics industries.
History
Founded in 1994 by Dr. Alejandro Zaffaroni and Dr. Peter G. Schultz, Symyx' conceptual basis drew from Affymax, Inc. and Affymetrix, Inc., which commercialized the use of high-speed combinatorial methods for pharmaceutical and genetic research, respectively. Dr. Eric McFarland, professor at UCSB, was the founding director. Symyx screens about a million materials a year and has produced a product pipeline with several materials that have the potential to be commercialized in the next few years. Examples of their discovery efforts include X-ray storage phosphors for radiography, polymers to speed DNA research and catalysts for the manufacture of pharmaceuticals, chemicals and plastics.
In 2004, Symyx Technologies acquired Intellichem, a software manufacturer for electronic laboratory notebooks and, in 2007 Symyx Technologies acquired MDL Information Systems (originally Molecular Design Limited, Inc.), a provider of R&D informatics in the chemistry and life sciences industries, which had been launched as a computer-aided drug design firm in January 1978. With this purchase came the purveyorship of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention-NIOSH Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances (RTECS, www.cdc.gov/niosh/rtecs), a database of basic toxicity information on household chemical substances, food additives, drugs, solvents, biocides, and chemical waste components which as of first quarter of 2012 contained ≈170,000 entries. In 2008, Symyx sold non-RTECS portions of the occupational health and safety (OHS) component of the MDL business to ChemAdvisor, Inc., of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Subsequent innovations derived from these business components included an enterprise electronic laboratory notebook (ELN) capable of supporting multiple scientific disciplines.
In 2010 Symyx spun off their laboratory robotics business as Freeslate, Inc. Freeslate developed high throughput systems for automating chemical research. In 2010, the remaining Symyx software business merged with Accelrys, with the combined company being known simply as Accelrys. In 2014, Accelrys in turn merged with Dassault Systèmes, who announced the creation of the BIOVIA brand to supply software for scientific applications.
Business model considerations
The concept of combinatory chemistry (outside of bio-tech area) was the focus of Symyx. The initial Symyx business model was to provide contract research for large chemical companies at a contract size from $0.5 Million to $200 Million. The company had initial success in gaining enough contracts to reach profitability, with small deals with few initial customers which led to large deals, such as with Exxon. Symyx then started to sell equipment.
One other key point was the company had to develop new tools and hire new people when a new project came up because the contract was in a brand new research area and required different expertise. Therefore, the research contract business was not scalable. This is seen as the reason for company failure, even though the company had over 500 patents. Other companies followed Symyx's path. Intermolecular licensed Symyx patents on electronic materials and is developing tools for the electronic materials companies.
References
External links
Official website as BIOVIA/Dassault Systèmes
Chemical companies of the United States
Software companies based in California
Technology companies based in the San Francisco Bay Area
Companies based in Santa Clara, California
Software companies established in 1994
1994 establishments in California
American companies established in 1994
Software companies of the United States
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46789059
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natron%20%28software%29
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Natron (software)
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Natron is a free and open-source node-based compositing application. It has been influenced by digital compositing software such as Avid Media Illusion, Apple Shake, Blackmagic Fusion, Autodesk Flame and Nuke, from which its user interface and many of its concepts are derived.
Natron supports plugins following the OpenFX 1.4 API. Most open-source and commercial OpenFX plug-ins are supported.
Origin of the name
Natron is named after Lake Natron in Tanzania which, according to Natron lead programmer Alexandre Gauthier, provides "natural visual effects" by preserving its dead animals.
History
Natron was started by Alexandre Gauthier in June of 2012 as a personal project. The project was the winner of the 2013 Boost Your Code contest by Inria. The prize was a 12-month employment contract to develop Natron as a free and open-source software within the institute.
The first widely available public release was 0.92 (June 6th, 2014), which brought rotoscoping and chroma keying functionalities. Subsequent beta releases brought additional features such as motion blur, color management through OpenColorIO, and video tracking.
Version 1.0 was released on December 22nd, 2014, together with a large sample project by François "CoyHot" Grassard, a professional computer graphics artist and teacher, demonstrating that Natron could execute interactively graphs with more than 100 nodes. In January 2015, the Art and Technology of Image (ATI) department in Paris 8 University announced that they would switch to professional-quality free and open-source software for teaching computer graphics to students and artists, including Blender, Krita and Natron.
Licensing
Before version 2.0, Natron was licensed under the Mozilla Public License version 2.0, which allowed redistributing it with closed-source plug-ins.
Since version 2.0, the software was relicensed under the GNU General Public License version 2 or later to allow better commercialization. All plugins that are distributed with binaries of Natron 2.0 or later have thus to be compatible with the GPLv2. Closed-source plug-ins, including commercial ones, can still be used with Natron, although the GPL according to the FSF does not allow loading and linking closed-source plug-ins, or plug-ins that are not distributed under a GPL compatible license, but they have to be distributed separately.
Data produced by Natron, or any software distributed under the GPL, is not covered by the GPL: the copyright on the output of a program belongs to the user of that program.
Features
Hardware
Low hardware requirements: a 64 bits processor, at least 3GB of RAM (8GB recommended)
A graphic card that supports OpenGL 2.0 or OpenGL 1.5 with a few commonly available extensions (ARB_texture_non_power_of_two, ARB_shader_objects, ARB_vertex_buffer_object, ARB_pixel_buffer_object).
Render engine
32 bits floating point linear color processing pipeline : all frames are represented as floating-point RGBA samples with premultiplied alpha, permitting the use of alpha compositing operators defined by Thomas Porter and Tom Duff.
Support for multi-core architectures: all processing is multithreaded using a thread pool pattern.
Color management is handled by the OpenColorIO library, including support for the ACES color encoding system proposed by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences.
Support for many image formats, using OpenImageIO, including multi-layer OpenEXR. Additional image layers can be used to store several color layers, or for non-color information such as depth, optical flow, binocular disparity, or masks.
Support for reading and writing video files through the FFmpeg library, including digital intermediate formats such as DNxHD and Apple ProRes.
Full support of the OpenFX 1.4 API, enabling use of open source or commercial plug-ins.
Support for low-resolution rendering for previewing the output of computing-intensive visual effects.
Tools
Image transform (position, rotation, scale, skew).
Video tracking functionalities.
Keying: Keyer, Chroma Keyer, Difference Keyer, Hue Keyer, PIK Keyer.
Paint: Solid, Pencil, Eraser, Clone, Reveal, Blur, Smear, Dodge, Burn.
Manual rotoscoping, using Bézier curves.
A wide range of additional effects (color transforms, geometric transforms, image generators...) are available.
Key frame-based parameter animation, using Bernstein polynomials (the polynomial basis behind Bézier curves) for interpolation.
Animation curves editing : Curve Editor.
Keyframes editing : Dope Sheet.
Support for stereoscopic 3D and multi-view processing.
Advanced
Support for batch-mode rendering through a command-line tool, allowing the final render to be processed on a render farm.
A project format written in XML and easily human editable.
Node presets can be imported/exported easily via XML.
Python script language (Python 2.7).
SeExpr script language (Walt Disney Animation Studios).
WebGL 1.0 script language (Shadertoy) for hardware accelerated 2D/3D visual effects development.
Customisable UI.
"PyPlug" custom node creation system (equivalent to Nuke Gizmos).
See also
List of video editing software
Comparison of video editing software
References
External links
Compositing software
Free and open-source software
Software that uses Qt
Animation software
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flexera
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Flexera
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Flexera is an American computer software company based in Itasca, Illinois.
History
On 1 April 2008, Macrovision sold its software division to the Thoma Bravo investment fund, which became Acresso Software. Macrovision subsequently changed its name to Rovi Corporation.
In October 2009, Acresso Software, Inc. became Flexera Software after a clash with a company of similar name.
Flexera acquired Australian based ManageSoft in 2010. Managesoft was OSA (Open Software Associates), which itself came out of HP's Australian Software Organisation.
On July 19, 2011, Thoma Bravo sold a majority stake in Flexera Software LLC to Teachers' Private Capital, the private investment department of the Ontario Teachers' Pension Plan. The transaction was finalized on October 3, 2011.
On September 26, 2018, Flexera acquired RightScale for an undisclosed amount.
On June 5, 2019, Flexera acquired Asheville, NC based RISC Networks for an undisclosed amount.
On February 5, 2020, Flexera acquired software usage analytics Company Revulytics. In August 2020, for the third straight year, Flexera has been ranked in the Gartner Magic Quadrant 's Leaders quadrant for Software Asset Management Tools (July 2020).
See also
FlexNet Publisher
InstallShield
References
External links
Software companies based in Illinois
Privately held companies based in Illinois
Companies based in DuPage County, Illinois
2009 establishments in Illinois
Software companies established in 2009
Year of establishment missing
Software companies of the United States
Itasca, Illinois
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual%20appliance
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Virtual appliance
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A virtual appliance is a pre-configured virtual machine image, ready to run on a hypervisor; virtual appliances are a subset of the broader class of software appliances. Installation of a software appliance on a virtual machine and packaging that into an image creates a virtual appliance. Like software appliances, virtual appliances are intended to eliminate the installation, configuration and maintenance costs associated with running complex stacks of software.
A virtual appliance is not a complete virtual machine platform, but rather a software image containing a software stack designed to run on a virtual machine platform which may be a Type 1 or Type 2 hypervisor. Like a physical computer, a hypervisor is merely a platform for running an operating system environment and does not provide application software itself.
Many virtual appliances provide a Web page user interface to permit their configuration. A virtual appliance is usually built to host a single application; it therefore represents a new way to deploy applications on a network.
File formats
Virtual appliances are provided to the user or customer as files, via either electronic downloads or physical distribution. The file format most commonly used is the Open Virtualization Format (OVF). It may also be distributed as Open Virtual Appliance (OVA), the .ova file format is interchangeable with .ovf. The Distributed Management Task Force (DMTF) publishes the OVF specification documentation. Most virtualization platforms, including those from VMware, Microsoft, Oracle, and Citrix, can install virtual appliances from an OVF file.
Grid computing
Virtualization solves a key problem in the grid computing arena – namely, the reality that any sufficiently large grid will inevitably consist of a wide variety of heterogeneous hardware and operating system configurations. Adding virtual appliances into the picture allows for extremely rapid provisioning of grid nodes and importantly, cleanly decouples the grid operator from the grid consumer by encapsulating all knowledge of the application within the virtual appliance.
Infrastructure as a service
Virtual appliances are critical resources in infrastructure as a service cloud computing. The file format of the virtual appliance is the concern of the cloud provider and usually not relevant to the cloud user even though the cloud user may be the owner of the virtual appliance. However, challenges may arise with the transfer of virtual appliance ownership or transfer of virtual appliances between cloud data centers. In this case, virtual appliance copy or export/import features can be used to overcome this problem.
Software as a service
With the rise of virtualization as a platform for hosted services provision, virtual appliances have come to provide a direct route for traditional on-premises applications to be rapidly redeployed in a software as a service (SaaS) mode – without requiring major application re-architecture for multi-tenancy. By decoupling the hardware and operating system infrastructure provider from the application stack provider, virtual appliances allow economies of scale on the one side to be leveraged by the economy of simplicity on the other. Traditional approaches to SaaS, such as that touted by Salesforce.com, leverage shared infrastructure by forcing massive change and increased complexity on the software stack.
A concrete example of the virtual appliances approach to delivering SaaS is the Amazon Elastic Compute Cloud (EC2)—a grid of Xen hypervisor nodes coupled with the availability of pre-packaged virtual appliances in the Amazon Machine Image format. Amazon EC2 reduces the cost-barrier to the point where it becomes feasible to have each customer of the hosted service provisioned with their own virtual appliance instance(s) rather than forcing them to share common instances. Prior to EC2, single-tenant hosted models were too expensive, leading to the failure of many early ASP offerings.
Furthermore, in contrast to the multi-tenancy approaches to SaaS, a virtual appliance can also be deployed on-premises for customers that need local network access to the running application, or have security requirements that a third-party hosting model does not meet. The underlying virtualization technology also allows for rapid movement of virtual appliances instances between physical execution environments. Traditional approaches to SaaS fix the application in place on the hosted infrastructure.
See also
Software appliance
Virtual backup appliance
TurnKey Linux Virtual Appliance Library
rPath
Bitnami
SUSE Studio
Software as a service
References
Further reading
Software appliances
Linux emulation software
Software distribution
Hardware virtualization
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ITIL%20security%20management
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ITIL security management
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ITIL security management describes the structured fitting of security into an organization. ITIL security management is based on the ISO 27001 standard. "ISO/IEC 27001:2005 covers all types of organizations (e.g. commercial enterprises, government agencies, not-for profit organizations). ISO/IEC 27001:2005 specifies the requirements for establishing, implementing, operating, monitoring, reviewing, maintaining and improving a documented Information Security Management System within the context of the organization's overall business risks. It specifies requirements for the implementation of security controls customized to the needs of individual organizations or parts thereof. ISO/IEC 27001:2005 is designed to ensure the selection of adequate and proportionate security controls that protect information assets and give confidence to interested parties."
A basic concept of security management is information security. The primary goal of information security is to control access to information. The value of the information is what must be protected. These values include confidentiality, integrity and availability. Inferred aspects are privacy, anonymity and verifiability.
The goal of security management comes in two parts:
Security requirements defined in service level agreements (SLA) and other external requirements that are specified in underpinning contracts, legislation and possible internal or external imposed policies.
Basic security that guarantees management continuity. This is necessary to achieve simplified service-level management for information security.
SLAs define security requirements, along with legislation (if applicable) and other contracts. These requirements can act as key performance indicators (KPIs) that can be used for process management and for interpreting the results of the security management process.
The security management process relates to other ITIL-processes. However, in this particular section the most obvious relations are the relations to the service level management, incident management and change management processes.
Security management
Security management is a continuous process that can be compared to W. Edwards Deming's Quality Circle (Plan, Do, Check, Act).
The inputs are requirements from clients. The requirements are translated into security services and security metrics. Both the client and the plan sub-process affect the SLA. The SLA is an input for both the client and the process. The provider develops security plans for the organization. These plans contain policies and operational level agreements. The security plans (Plan) are then implemented (Do) and the implementation is then evaluated (Check). After the evaluation, the plans and the plan implementation are maintained (Act).
The activities, results/products and the process are documented. External reports are written and sent to the clients. The clients are then able to adapt their requirements based on the information received through the reports. Furthermore, the service provider can adjust their plan or the implementation based on their findings in order to satisfy all the requirements stated in the SLA (including new requirements).
Control
The first activity in the security management process is the “Control” sub-process. The Control sub-process organizes and manages the security management process. The Control sub-process defines the processes, the allocation of responsibility for the policy statements and the management framework.
The security management framework defines the sub-processes for development, implementation and evaluations into action plans. Furthermore, the management framework defines how results should be reported to clients.
The meta-process model of the control sub-process is based on a UML activity diagram and gives an overview of the activities of the Control sub-process. The grey rectangle represents the control sub-process and the smaller beam shapes inside it represent activities that take place inside it.
The meta-data model of the control sub-process is based on a UML class diagram. Figure 2.1.2 shows the metamodel of the control sub-process.
Figure 2.1.2: Meta-process model control sub-process
The CONTROL rectangle with a white shadow is an open complex concept. This means that the Control rectangle consists of a collection of (sub) concepts.
Figure 2.1.3 is the process data model of the control sub-process. It shows the integration of the two models. The dotted arrows indicate the concepts that are created or adjusted in the corresponding activities.
Figure 2.1.3: Process-data model control sub-process
Plan
The Plan sub-process contains activities that in cooperation with service level management lead to the (information) Security section in the SLA. Furthermore, the Plan sub-process contains activities that are related to the underpinning contracts which are specific for (information) security.
In the Plan sub-process the goals formulated in the SLA are specified in the form of operational level agreements (OLA). These OLA's can be defined as security plans for a specific internal organization entity of the service provider.
Besides the input of the SLA, the Plan sub-process also works with the policy statements of the service provider itself. As said earlier these policy statements are defined in the control sub-process.
The operational level agreements for information security are set up and implemented based on the ITIL process. This requires cooperation with other ITIL processes. For example, if security management wishes to change the IT infrastructure in order to enhance security, these changes will be done through the change management process. Security management delivers the input (Request for change) for this change. The Change Manager is responsible for the change management process.
Plan consists of a combination of unordered and ordered (sub) activities. The sub-process contains three complex activities that are all closed activities and one standard activity.
Just as the Control sub-process the Plan sub-process is modeled using the meta-modeling technique. The left side of figure 2.2.1 is the meta-data model of the Plan sub-process.
The Plan rectangle is an open (complex) concept which has an aggregation type of relationship with two closed (complex) concepts and one standard concept. The two closed concepts are not expanded in this particular context.
The following picture (figure 2.2.1) is the process-data diagram of the Plan sub-process. This picture shows the integration of the two models. The dotted arrows indicate which concepts are created or adjusted in the corresponding activities of the Plan sub-process.
Figure 2.2.1: Process-data model Plan sub-process
Implementation
The Implementation sub-process makes sure that all measures, as specified in the plans, are properly implemented. During the Implementation sub-process no measures are defined nor changed. The definition or change of measures takes place in the Plan sub-process in cooperation with the Change Management Process.
The left side of figure 2.3.1 is the meta-process model of the Implementation phase. The four labels with a black shadow mean that these activities are closed concepts and they are not expanded in this context. No arrows connect these four activities, meaning that these activities are unordered and the reporting will be carried out after the completion of all four activities.
During the implementation phase concepts are created and /or adjusted.
The concepts created and/or adjusted are modeled using the meta-modeling technique. The right side of figure 2.3.1 is the meta-data model of the implementation sub-process.
Implementation documents are an open concept and is expanded upon in this context. It consists of four closed concepts that are not expanded because they are irrelevant in this particular context.
In order to make the relations between the two models clearer the integration of the two models is illustrated in Figure 2.3.1. The dotted arrows running from the activities to the concepts illustrate which concepts are created/ adjusted in the corresponding activities.
Figure 2.3.1: Process-data model Implementation sub-process
Evaluation
Evaluation is necessary to measure the success of the implementation and security plans. The evaluation is important for clients (and possibly third parties). The results of the Evaluation sub-process are used to maintain the agreed measures and the implementation. Evaluation results can lead to new requirements and a corresponding Request for Change. The request for change is then defined and sent to Change Management.
The three sorts of evaluation are self-assessment, internal audit and external audit.
The self-assessment is mainly carried out in the organization of the processes. Internal audits are carried out by internal IT-auditors. External audits are carried out by external, independent IT-auditors. Besides those already mentioned, an evaluation based on communicated security incidents occurs. The most important activities for this evaluation are the security monitoring of IT-systems; verify the security legislation and security plan implementation; trace and react to undesirable use of IT-supplies.
Figure 2.4.1: Process-data model Evaluation sub-process
The process-data diagram illustrated in the figure 2.4.1 consists of a meta-process model and a meta-data model. The Evaluation sub-process was modeled using the meta-modeling technique.
The dotted arrows running from the meta-process diagram (left) to the meta-data diagram (right) indicate which concepts are created/ adjusted in the corresponding activities. All of the activities in the evaluation phase are standard activities. For a short description of the Evaluation phase concepts see Table 2.4.2 where the concepts are listed and defined.
Table 2.4.2: Concept and definition evaluation sub-process Security management
Maintenance
Because of organizational and IT-infrastructure changes, security risks change over time, requiring revisions to the security section of service level agreements and security plans.
Maintenance is based on the results of the Evaluation sub-process and insight in the changing risks. These activities will produce proposals. The proposals either serve as inputs for the plan sub-process and travel through the cycle or can be adopted as part of maintaining service level agreements. In both cases the proposals could lead to activities in the action plan. The actual changes are made by the Change Management process.
Figure 2.5.1 is the process-data diagram of the implementation sub-process. This picture shows the integration of the meta-process model (left) and the meta-data model (right). The dotted arrows indicate which concepts are created or adjusted in the activities of the implementation phase.
Figure 2.5.1: Process-data model Maintenance sub-process
The maintenance sub-process starts with the maintenance of the service level agreements and the maintenance of the operational level agreements. After these activities take place (in no particular order) and there is a request for a change the request for change activity will take place and after the request for change activity is concluded the reporting activity starts. If there is no request for a change then the reporting activity will start directly after the first two activities. The concepts in the meta-data model are created/ adjusted during the maintenance phase. For a list of the concepts and their definition take a look at table 2.5.2.
Table 2.5.2: Concept and definition Plan sub-process Security management
Complete process-data model
Figure 2.6.1: Complete process-data model Security Management process
Relations with other ITIL processes
The Security Management Process, as stated in the introduction, has relations with almost all other ITIL-processes. These processes are:
IT Customer Relationship Management
Service Level Management
Availability Management
Capacity Management
IT Service Continuity Management
Configuration Management
Release Management
Incident Management & Service Desk
Problem Management
Change Management (ITSM)
Within these processes activities concerning security are required. The concerning process and its process manager are responsible for these activities. However, Security Management gives indications to the concerning process on how to structure these activities.
Example: internal e-mail policies
Internal e-mail is subject to multiple security risks, requiring corresponding security plan and policies. In this example the ITIL security Management approach is used to implement e-mail policies.
The Security management team is formed and process guidelines are formulated and communicated to all employees and providers. These actions are carried out in the Control phase.
In the subsequent Planning phase, policies are formulated. Policies specific to e-mail security are formulated and added to service level agreements. At the end of this phase the entire plan is ready to be implemented.
Implementation is done according to the plan.
After implementation the policies are evaluated, either as self-assessments, or via internal or external auditors.
In the maintenance phase the e-policies are adjusted based on the evaluation. Needed changes are processed via Requests for Change.
== See also ==
Infrastructure Management Services
ITIL v3
Microsoft Operations Framework
Information security management system
COBIT
Capability Maturity Model
ISPL
See also
Information security
References
Sources
Bon van, J. (2004). IT-Service management: een introductie op basis van ITIL. Van Haren Publishing
Cazemier, Jacques A.; Overbeek, Paul L.; Peters, Louk M. (2000). Security Management, Stationery Office.
Security management. (February 1, 2005). Microsoft
Tse, D. (2005). Security in Modern Business: security assessment model for information security Practices. Hong Kong: University of Hong Kong.
ITIL
Computer security
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catanduanes%20State%20University
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Catanduanes State University
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The Catanduanes State University (CatSU) is a research and coeducational higher education institution and a green university in Catanduanes, Philippines. It is an ISO 9001:2015 certified public university.
The main campus is located in Calatagan, Virac. This institution is categorized as SUC Level III-A. It was established on June 19, 1971, by virtue of Republic Act 6341, authored by the Catanduanes Congressman Jose M. Alberto, which converted the Virac National Agricultural and Trade School into the Catanduanes State Colleges. On July 8, 1972, Republic Act 6590 provided for the opening of additional courses at CSC. It was elevated to university status in October 2012. Catanduanes State University is a comprehensive Higher Education Institution in the island province of Catanduanes and one of the dynamic SUCs in the region, offering a wide range of academic programs.
History
The beginning of Catanduanes State University (CatSU) dates back to June 18, 1961, when the enactment of Republic Act 3398 called for the establishments of Virac National and Agricultural Trade School (VNATS).
On October 19, 2012, President Benigno S. Aquino III signed Republic Act No. 10299 converting Catanduanes State Colleges (CSC) into Catanduanes State University (CatSU).
On January 31, 2022, CatSU Board of Regents approved 11 new curricular programs to be applied with the Commission on Higher Education. The eleven academic programs are as follows: Juris Doctor, Doctor of Medicine, MA in Nursing, BS Public Health, BS Radiologic Technologist, BS Medical Technology, BS Marine Engineering and Naval Architecture, BS Marine Transportation, BS Forestry, BS Fisheries (major in Ocean Science) and BS Textile Engineering.
Timeline
June 18, 1961 - The enactment of Republic Act 3398 called for the establishments of Virac National and Agricultural Trade School (VNATS)
June 19, 1971 - Republic Act (RA) 6341 authored by Congressman Jose M. Alberto, converted VNATS into Catanduanes State Colleges (CSC)
December 1, 1971 - Started offering courses such as Associate in business education, Associate in commerce, Bachelor of Science in education, and Master of Arts in education, and Master of Arts in commerce.
July 8, 1972 - By virtue of R.A 6590 started offering additional courses
July 22, 1996 - The Tenth Congress of the Republic of the Philippines enacted and approved Republic Act No. 8292, which provides uniform composition and powers of the governing board, the manner of appointment and term of office of the President of chartered state universities and colleges, and for other purposes.
October 31, 1999 - The Catanduanes Agricultural and Industrial College (CAIC) was integrated to Catanduanes State Colleges (CSC)
March 29, 2011 - House Bill No. 4170, An act converting the Catanduanes State Colleges in the province of Catanduanes, into a State University to be known as the Catanduanes State University, and appropriating funds therefor’’ was filed by Congressman Cesar V. Sarmiento and co-authored by Congressman Juan Edgardo M. Angara.
July 14, 2011 - Dr. Minerva I. Morales was elected as the sixth and the last President of the Catanduanes State Colleges
October 19, 2012 - President Benigno S. Aquino III signed Republic Act No. 10299 converting Catanduanes State Colleges (CSC) (Virac/Main and Panganiban Campus) into Catanduanes State University (CatSU).
December 12, 2012 - March 24, 2013 - Dr. Minerva I. Morales designated by CHED as University Officer In-Charge in consonance with the provision of R.A. 10229.
March 25, 2013 - Dr. Minerva I. Morales voted as the First President of the Catanduanes State University and the first female CatSU President.
June 24, 2021 - Dr. Patrick Alain T. Azanza was elected as the Second President of CatSU. The first male President of the Catanduanes State University.
August 24, 2021 - CatSU inks Memorandum of Understanding with Kansas State University and 12 Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) plus SEARCA.
September 13, 2021 - CatSU launches Online Student and Faculty Portals.
October 8, 2021 - The Department of Trade and Industry (DTI) and the Catanduanes State University (CatSU), launched the Catanduanes Fabrication Laboratory (FabLab). It is the fourth fabrication laboratory established in the Bicol Region.
October 12, 2021 - The application for Knowledge, Innovations, Science and Technology (KIST) Park and Agro-Industrial Economic and Processing Zone for CatSU has been approved by the Philippine Economic Zone Authority (PEZA) Board.
Organization and Administration
The governance of the university is vested in the Board of Regents, abbreviated as BOR.
The Chairperson of the Commission on Higher Education (CHED) serves as the Board's Chairperson while the President of the Catanduanes State University is the vice-chairman. The Chairpersons of the Committees of Higher Education of the Senate and the House of Representatives are also members of the University Board of Regents which are concurrent with their functions as committee chairpersons.
The university students is represented by a Student Regent, which is also the President of the CatSU Federated College Student Council. While the Faculty Regent is nominated by the faculty members of the CatSU Federated Faculty Union. And the University Alumni are represented by the President of the CatSU Alumni Association.
As of 2021, the members of the Board of Regents of the Catanduanes State University are:
President of the Catanduanes State University
Dr. Patrick Alain T. Azanza
Degree Programs
Graduate School
The Catanduanes State Colleges Graduate School was formally opened in summer of 1972, initially offering courses leading to the degree Master of Arts in education with 213 students. In 1975, the offering was expanded to include Master of Science in management and in summer of 1976, Master of Arts in teaching practical arts was opened.
Doctor of Philosophy in Educational Management
Doctor of Education Major in Educational Management
Master of Arts in Educational Management
Master of Arts in Mathematics Education
Master of Arts in Filipino Education
Master of Arts in English
Master of Arts in Guidance and Counseling
Master of Arts in Teaching Biology
Master of Arts in Teaching Chemistry
Master of Arts in Teaching Physics
Master of Arts in Education
Master of Arts in Agricultural Education
Master of Arts in Industrial Education
Master of Arts in Teaching Practical Arts
Master of Science in Management Major in Agri-Business
Master in Business Administration
Master of Public Administration
Graduate Program in Education (Mathematics, Filipino, Teaching English as a Second Language, Guidance and Counseling and Home Economics)
Diploma in Public Administration
Diploma in Educational Management
Diploma in College Teaching
Graduate Certificate in College Teaching
College of Agriculture and Fisheries
Formerly College of Agriculture, it begun its operation in 1972 when Republic Act 6590, an Act amending RA 6341, which authorizes the CSC Board of Trustees to open additional courses, was implemented. A total of 113 initial enrollees posted during the 1st semester of SY 1972–1973. In 2006, the college became an accredited member of the Association of Colleges of Agriculture in the Philippines (ACAP).
Bachelor of Science in Fisheries
Bachelor of Science in Agriculture Major in Animal Husbandry, Crop Science
Bachelor of Science in Agribusiness
Certificate in Agriculture
College of Arts and Sciences
The College of Arts and Sciences is one of the pioneer colleges of the CSC when Republic Act No. 6341 converting the Virac National Agricultural and Trade School to Catanduanes State Colleges, was passed by Congress on June 19, 1971.
Bachelor of Arts in Political Science
Bachelor of Arts in Economics
Bachelor of Public Administration
Bachelor of Science in Biology
Bachelor of Science in Environmental Science
Bachelor of Science in Mathematics
College of Business and Accountancy
The College of Business and Accountancy, formerly the College of Business Administration was one of the pioneer colleges of the CSC during its inception in 1972. The college continues to be an active member of the Philippine Association of Collegiate School of Business (PACSB), Philippine Council of Deans and Educators in Business (PCEDEB), Association of Marketing Educators (AME), Council of Management Educators (COME), and Philippine Association of Educators in Office Administration Foundation, Inc. (ENEDA).
Accountancy and Accounting Related Courses
Bachelor of Science in Accountancy
Bachelor of Science in Internal Auditing
Bachelor of Science in Accounting and Information System
Business Education and Management
Bachelor of Science in Business Administration
Majors in: Financial Management, Human Resource Management, Marketing Management
Bachelor of Science in Entrepreneurship
Bachelor of Science in Office Administration
College of Education
The College of Education was one of the three pioneering colleges when the Virac National Agricultural and Trade School was converted to the Catanduanes State Colleges by virtue of RA 6341 in 1972.
Bachelor of Secondary Education major in English, Filipino, Mathematics, Biological Science Music, Arts, Physical Education, and Social Studies
Bachelor of Elementary Education
Bachelor of Technical Teacher Education (Major in Electronics, Food and Service Managements)
Laboratory Schools
K to 12
College of Engineering
Provide engineering education needed for personal growth, provincial and national development, as well as global competitiveness.
Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering
Bachelor of Science in Computer Engineering
College of Health Sciences
Bachelor of Science in Nursing
Bachelor of Science in Nutrition and Dietetics
Diploma in Midwifery Education
Realigned Laddered Program leading to Bachelor of Science in Nursing
College of Information & Communication Technology
Bachelor of Science in Information Technology
Bachelor of Science in Computer Science
Bachelor of Science in Information Systems
College of Industrial Technology
The College of Industrial Technology (formerly the College of Arts and Trades) was among the original colleges included in the charter of RA 6341, an Act creating the Catanduanes State Colleges. At present, the college is offering only the Ladderized Bachelor of Science in industrial technology approved per Board Resolution No. 63, s. 2012.
Ladderized Bachelor of Science in Industrial Technology
Bachelor of Science in Automotive Technology
Bachelor of Science in Drafting Technology
Bachelor of Science in Electrical Technology
Bachelor of Science in Electronics Technology
Bachelor of Science in Food Technology
Bachelor of Science in Garments, Fashion and Design
Bachelor of Science in Mechanical Technology
Bachelor of Science in Architecture
Catanduanes State University – Panganiban Campus
Bachelor of Elementary Education
Bachelor of Technical Vocational Teacher Education (Major in Food and Service Management)
Bachelor of Science in Agriculture (Majors in General Science, Animal Science, & Crop Science)
Bachelor of Technology and Livelihood Education (Majors in Agri-Fisheries Arts, & Industrial Arts)
Two-Year Certificate in Agricultural Science
Laboratory Schools
K to 12
Accredited Programs
Center of Development
Level III – Reaccredited
Level II – Reaccredited
Level I
Catanduanes State University – Panganiban Campus
Campuses
Main Campus
Located in Calatagan, Virac, Catanduanes. The campus houses the Graduate School, College of Agriculture and Fisheries, College of Arts and Sciences, College of Business and Accountancy, College of Education, College of Health Sciences, College of Engineering, University College of Education - Integrated Laboratory School-Elementary and Laboratory School-High School Department, College of Information and Communications Technology, College of Industrial Technology and The university Research Extension Program Center.
Panganiban Campus
Located in Sta. Ana, Panganiban, Catanduanes. Courses offered in this campus are Bachelor of Science in Elementary Education, Secondary Education, Industrial Education, Technical Teacher Education, Agriculture, Industrial Education and Two-Year Certificate in Agricultural Science. It manages Laboratory High school that specializes Science and Mathematics.
Recognition and Distinctions
The Catanduanes State University (CSU) was categorized as SUC Level III-A and one of PASUC-AIM Philippines’ Top 19 State Universities and Colleges in the Country with High Business Potential in Land and Equipment Assets, Human Resources, and Technological Capital. The university was also the recipient of Center of Development in Teacher Education award. The province of Catanduanes declared the university as Provincial Institute of Agriculture.
Recognition
CatSU was accorded the status of Center of Development (COD) in Business Administration by the Commission on Higher Education (CHED).
University Library
Library Services
It caters mostly to students of the tertiary level, but it also renders service to secondary and elementary students who have their own respective mini libraries. It is also open to researchers from other institutions/agencies.
Student Services
Admission and Registration – This office facilitates the admission and registration of students during the enrollment period. Other services such as the preparation and issuance of transcript of records, certifications, clearances, honorable dismissals and evaluation of student records are also undertaken by the admission and registration Office (ARO).
Guidance and Testing Services – This office has a wide range of services such as conducting the CSU College Entrance Examinations (CSUCET), administering English Placement Tests, academic advising and career counseling.
Placement and Alumni Services – This office informs student and graduates of the Colleges regarding possible employment opportunities. It keeps close contact with CSU graduates and awards annually the most outstanding alumni of the school. It also coordinates the organization of the CSU Alumni Association, the holding of jobs fair and the Special Program for Employment of Students (SPES).
CatSU Multi-Purpose Cooperative – The CSU Multi-Purpose Cooperative provides wholesome snacks and nutritious meals to students and employees of the CatSU. Catering Services are also rendered upon request. Various items are available at the canteen such as school supplies, groceries, cosmetics and other commodities.
Cashiering Services – Facilitates collection of school fees and release of scholarship benefits.
Catanduanes Internet Network (CATNET) – The Catanduanes Internet Network (CATNET) is a test-bed project under the Government Information Sharing Technology Network (GISNET) which is a program within the telecommunications component of the National Information Technology Plan (NITP) 2000. Envisioned to provide the students of Catanduanes improved access to information, the CATNET is managed and operated by the CSU. At present, CATNET serves as the laboratory of CSU Students in the Information Management and Information Technology programs. It is also open to all students conducting research works.
Hablon Dawani Theater – Formerly the HRD Building of the Colleges.
Speech Laboratory
CatSU Multi-Purpose Covered Court – Situated at the back of the CSU Administration Building. It is also an arena for PE classes, induction balls, election rallies, similar related activities and even graduation ceremonies.
Student Center – The CSU Student Center provides accommodation to the offices of the Supreme Student Council (SSC) and the Office of the Student Services, respectively.
Students
Organizations, fraternities and sororities
CENTRAL ORGANIZATIONS
CatSU Federated College Student Council (CSU Main)
The CSU Statesman (Official Tertiary Student Publication)
Central English Club
Samahang Sentral ng Filipino
Mathematics Circle
Kabataang Pangarap ni Rizal (KAPARIZ)
Natural Science Society (NATUSSOC)
Central PE Club
Central Women's Circle (CWC)
COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND FISHERIES
College of Agriculture Fisheries & Student Body Organization (CAFSBO)
Agriculture Student Organization (ASO)
Student's Task is to be an Environmentalist Working Against Resources Destruction (STEWARD) Society
CAF-English Club
College of Agriculture and Fisheries Women's Club (CAFWC)
COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES
College of Arts and Sciences Student Body Organization (CASSBO)
Organization of Future Public Servants (OFPS)
Nutrition and Dietetics Association (NDA)
Economics Society (ECOSOC)
Biological Science Society (BIOSOC)
Mathematics Society
CatSU Debating Society
Political Science Society (PSS)
College of Arts and Sciences English Club (CASEC)
College of Arts and Sciences Women's Club (CASWC)
COLLEGE OF BUSINESS AND ACCOUNTANCY
College of Business & Accountancy Student Body Organization (CBASBO)
Marketing Management Association (MMA)
Junior Philippine Institute of Accountants (JPIA)
Bus. Education and Office Administration League of Students (BEOALS)
Young Entrepreneurs Society (YES)
College of Business and Accountancy English Club (CBAEC)
PANGANIBAN CAMPUS
CatSU-PC Student Body Organization
Future Teachers Student Body Organization (FTSBO)
College of Agriculture Student Body Organization (CASBO)
University Publication
HERALD
The CSU Statesman
Abacatanduanes (Literary Folio)
Affiliations
Catanduanes State University is a member of the Philippine Association of State Universities and Colleges (PASUC) and its athletic Association, the State Colleges and Universities Athletic Association (SCUAA) and participates in all events.
References
Universities and colleges in Bicol Region
Universities and colleges in Catanduanes
Education in Catanduanes
Educational institutions established in 1961
State universities and colleges in the Philippines
1961 establishments in the Philippines
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10151632
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASCEND
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ASCEND
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ASCEND is an open source, mathematical modelling chemical process modelling system developed at Carnegie Mellon University since late 1978. ASCEND is an acronym which stands for Advanced System for Computations in Engineering Design. Its main uses have been in the field of chemical process modelling although its capabilities are general.
ASCEND includes nonlinear algebraic solvers, differential/algebraic equation solvers, nonlinear optimization and modelling of multi-region 'conditional models'. Its matrix operations are supported by an efficient sparse matrix solver called mtx.
ASCEND differs from earlier modelling systems because it separates the solving strategy from model building. So domain experts (people writing the models) and computational engineers (people writing the solver code) can work separately in developing ASCEND. Together with a number of other early modelling tools, its architecture helped to inspire newer languages such as Modelica. It was recognised for its flexible use of variables and parameters, which it always treats as solvable, if desired
The software remains as an active open-source software project, and has been part of the Google Summer of Code programme in 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013 (under the Python Software Foundation) and has been accepted for the 2015 programme as well.
See also
Art Westerberg
AMPL
APMonitor
EMSO
JModelica.org
Modelica
List of chemical process simulators
References
External links
Simulation programming languages
Mathematical optimization software
Free simulation software
Free software programmed in Tcl
Declarative programming languages
Object-oriented programming
Free software programmed in Python
Software that uses Tk (software)
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7287059
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/64b/66b%20encoding
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64b/66b encoding
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In data networking and transmission, 64b/66b is a line code that transforms 64-bit data to 66-bit line code to provide enough state changes to allow reasonable clock recovery and alignment of the data stream at the receiver. It was defined by the IEEE 802.3 working group as part of the IEEE 802.3ae-2002 amendment which introduced 10 Gbit/s Ethernet. At the time 64b/66b was deployed, it allowed 10 Gb Ethernet to be transmitted with the same lasers used by SONET OC-192, rather than requiring the 12.5 Gbit/s lasers that were not expected to be available for several years.
The protocol overhead of a coding scheme is the ratio of the number of raw payload bits to the number of raw payload bits plus the number of added coding bits. The overhead of 64b/66b encoding is 2 coding bits for every 64 payload bits or 3.125%. This is a considerable improvement on the 25% overhead of the previously-used 8b/10b encoding scheme, which added 2 coding bits to every 8 payload bits.
The overhead can be reduced further by doubling the payload size to produce the 128b/130b encoding used by PCIe 3.0.
Function
As its scheme name suggests, 64 payload bits are encoded as a 66-bit entity. The 66-bit entity is made by prefixing one of two possible 2-bit preambles to the 64 payload bits.
If the preamble is 01, the 64 payload bits are data.
If the preamble is 10, the 64 payload bits hold an 8-bit Type field and 56 bits of control information and/or data.
The preambles 00 and 11 are not used and indicate an error if seen.
The use of the 01 and 10 preambles guarantees a bit transition every 66 bits, which means that a continuous stream of 0s or 1s cannot be valid data. It also allows easier clock/timer synchronization, as a transition must be seen every 66 bits.
The 64-bit payload is then scrambled using a self-synchronous scrambler function. Scrambling is not intended to encrypt the data but to ensure that a relatively even distribution of 1s and 0s are found in the transmitted data. The scrambler cannot guarantee that output data will never have a long run-length of 0s or all 1s, or other undesirable properties in communications, but does allow strong statistical bounds to be put on the probability of such events. Practical designs will choose system parameters such that a bit-error due to long run-lengths is vanishingly unlikely. This method is different from the code-book based approach of 8b/10b encoding.
The encoding and scrambling are normally implemented entirely in hardware, with the scrambler using a linear-feedback shift register. Upper layers of the software stack need not be aware that the link layer is using these methods.
Properties and application
64b/66b's design goals are clock recovery, stream alignment, DC balance, transition density and run length. 8b/10b encoding guarantees strict bounds on DC balance, transition density and run length, whereas 64b/66b provides statistical bounds on these properties.
Run length
Most clock recovery circuits designed for SONET OC-192 and 64b/66b are specified to tolerate an 80-bit run length. Such a run cannot occur in 64b/66b because transitions are guaranteed at 66-bit intervals, and in fact long runs are very unlikely. Although it is theoretically possible for a random data pattern to align with the scrambler state and produce a long run of 65 zeroes or 65 ones, the probability of such an event is equal to flipping a fair coin and having it come up in the same state 64 times in a row. At 10 Gigabits per second, the expected event rate of a 66-bit block with a 65-bit run-length, assuming random data, is 66×264÷1010÷2 seconds, or about once every 1900 years.
The run length statistics may get worse if the data consists of specifically chosen patterns, instead of being random. An earlier scrambler used in Packet over SONET/SDH ( (1994)) had a short polynomial with only 7 bits of internal state which allowed a malicious attacker to create a Denial-of-service attack by transmitting patterns in all 27−1 states, one of which was guaranteed to de-synchronize the clock recovery circuits. This vulnerability was kept secret until the scrambler length was increased to 43 bits ( (1999)) making it impossible for a malicious attacker to jam the system with a short sequence.
64b/66b avoided this vulnerability by using a scrambling polynomial with enough random internal state (58 bits) so that a dedicated attacker using a crafted Ethernet packet can only create a 64-bit run-length in the scrambler output once in about 29 years. This creates 66-bit blocks containing 65-bit runs at a rate similar to using random data.
DC balance
The DC balance of 64b/66b is not absolutely bounded. However, it can be shown that the scrambler output closely approximates a sequence of random binary bits. Passing such a sequence through an AC-coupled circuit produces a baseline wander noise that follows a Gaussian distribution, and the impact on the system error rate can be statistically quantified. In practice, a modest coupling capacitor value of 1 nF in a 100 Ω system is sufficient to guarantee that a DC drift of more than 2.5% will occur less often than once per 10 bits (about 31,700 years at 10Gbit/s). [1]:15–16
Hamming distance
10Gbit Ethernet has a strict charter requiring a Mean Time to False Packet Acceptance (MTTFPA) to be on the order of 1 billion years for a single operating link. To achieve this at normal bit error rates requires at least a 4-bit Hamming distance protection for all packet data. In other words, all combinations of 3 randomly spaced bit-flips within a packet boundary must be detected and result in an invalidated packet. Several strategies were combined to achieve the 4-bit Hamming distance for 64b/66b packets: 1) strong type fields were chosen with 4-bit Hamming distance, 2) the scrambler polynomial was chosen to be compatible with the CRC-32 used for packet protection and 3) protocol violations adjacent to the packet boundaries are required to invalidate the packet. The combination of CRC-32 and the chosen scrambler polynomial were evaluated by exhaustively enumerating all 4-bit error patterns for all possible packet sizes with an optimized C program.
Observations
The main contribution of 64b/66b is the observation that deterministic run length and transition density of 8b/10b are not always worth a 25% code overhead, and that solid robust systems could be designed using statistically bounded methods. At some point, practical risks, whether from MTBF of components such as power supplies or from phenomena such as cosmic rays or solar flares, dominate the reliability of both 8b/10b and 64b/66b systems.
Variations
The Interlaken protocol improves the DC balance further by trading off more coding bits. Its 64b/67b encoding extends 64b/66b with explicit DC balancing. This may be beneficial for some applications, such as a using smaller on-chip coupling capacitors.
PCI Express 3.0 introduced 128b/130b encoding, which is similar to 64b/66b but has a payload of 128 bits instead of 64 bits, and uses a different scrambling polynomial: x23 + x21 + x16 + x8 + x5 + x2 + 1. It is also not self-synchronous and so requires explicit synchronization of seed values, in contrast with 64b/66b.
USB 3.1 and DisplayPort 2.0 use 128b/132b encoding, which is identical to 64b/66b, but duplicates each of the preamble bits to reduce the risk of undetected errors there.
Successors
For each {n}b/{n+2}b encoding, the symbol/data ratio is always below 1. With a ratio of 0.985 for 128b/130b encoding, there is no real margin for improvement.
The following approaches are available to further increase the data rate:
Higher symbol rates combined with FEC
Very common are 512b/514b encodings combined with Reed–Solomon error correction.
The following variants are often used:
RS(528,514,7,10), adding 14 correction bits to the 512b/514b code word, allowing to correct up to 7 corrupted bits. Overhead is 3%, same as 64b/66b encoding
RS(544,514,14,10), adding 30 correction bits to the 512b/514b code word, allowing to correct up to 15 corrupted bits. Overhead is 6%.
The FEC allows symbol error rates of 2.3 · 10−5 or 2.2 · 10−4 to achieve a bit error rate of less than 10−15 in the transmitted data.
Multi-level encoding combined with FEC
Further improvements are possible by switching from PAM-2 to PAM-4 or Ensemble NRZ coding.
Multi-level Trellis modulation combined with FEC
Technologies that use 64b/66b encoding
100 Gigabit Ethernet
10G-EPON, 10 Gbit/s Ethernet Passive Optical Network
10 Gigabit Ethernet (most varieties)
Aurora, from Xilinx
Camera Link HS
Common Public Radio Interface
Fibre Channel 10GFC and 16GFC
InfiniBand
Thunderbolt
Technologies that use 128b/1xxb encoding
NVLink 1.0
PCIe 3.x
PCIe 4.x
SATA 3.2
SAS 4
USB 3.1 Gen2
DisplayPort 2.0
Technologies that use 256b/257b encoding
Fibre Channel 32GFC "Gen 6" and higher
References
External links
64b/66b low-overhead coding proposal for serial links (update 1/12/00)
Note that this is the original proposal to the IEEE, and some changes were made for the final, agreed standard. The circuit diagram for the 58-bit scrambling polynomial described in the proposal is identical to the one adopted in the standard. However, the proposal numbers the registers in reverse order such that the x58+x19+1 polynomial in the proposal is the same as the one labelled x58+x39+1 in the standard.
US Patent/US6650638: Decoding method and decoder for 64b/66b coded packetized serial data
US Patent/US6718491: Coding method and coder for packetized serial data with low overhead
US Patent/US7055073: Coding method for coding packetized serial data with low overhead
PatentView/EP1133123 Software Patent: 64b/66b decoding, for packetized serial data
ERROR CORRECTION ON 64/66 BIT ENCODED LINKS
Introduction to 10 Gigabit 64b/66b (Clause 49)
A reference design by Xilinx on 64b/66b encoding and scrambling
Aurora 64B66B IP core using 64b/66b encoding
Encodings
Line codes
Telecommunications standards
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57292428
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Designasaurus
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Designasaurus
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Designasaurus is an educational game created by Ezra Sidran and published by Britannica Software. It was released for Amiga, Apple II, Apple IIgs, Commodore 64, and MS-DOS. The game is about creating a custom dinosaur and helping it survive. It is divided into three activities: "Walk-a-Dinosaur", "Build-a-Dinosaur" and "Print-a-Dinosaur".
Development
In 1987, Ezra Sidran signed a contract with Britannica Software for the development of an educational dinosaur game. Shortly before signing the contract, Sidran graduated from Marycrest College and received a computer animation degree. Sidran insisted that Designasaurus not be looked at as a game due to it being educational and accurate. Many of Sidran's friends in the same computer animation program helped him complete the game's artwork. One of the game's developers was Edward Isenberg. Isenberg said of the game in 2012, "This was a low resolution, two dimensional game because it was in the early 90s. You'd be able to walk the dinosaur from one side of the screen to the other and see if you could avoid being eaten."
Gameplay
The game consists of three parts which is the game itself, creating a dinosaur, and printing coloring pages of dinosaurs. To create a dinosaur, a paleontologist of the Museum of Natural History allows the player to use bones from its collection to build their own dinosaur. Every design details the likelihood of the final dinosaur surviving. The game part of the software lets the player control their created dinosaur to help it survive while navigating its environment. The software includes a Dinosaur Hall of Fame certificate after the successful completion of the game and 12 dinosaur pictures which can be printed on t-shirts.
Reception
The Software Publishers Association named Designasaurus as the "best education software of 1987". In the 1988 CODiE Awards, the game won "Best Educational Program" and "Best Pre-school or Primary School Program." It was reported on November 27, 1989, that Designasaurus and UMS I together gained $5 million for the publisher Intergalactic over an 18-month period. According to the creator Sidran, the royalties were split between the employees via a "gross-sharing" plan.
Kathryn Carrington of Hartford Courant said that the game was "disappointing" and that she "expected more" due to the game winning an award from the Software Publishers Association. PC Gamer reviewer Richard Cobbett wrote, "Unlike many edutainment games, Designasaurus does at least offer a solid amount of 'tainment' with its 'edu', and it's fun to mess around with. It has a few nice features, like being able to print out your dinosaurs, and the added hilarity of later levels developing into almost bullet-hell levels of crap to wade through."
Later releases
A sequel, Designasaurus II, was released in 1990 for MS-DOS. Aided by two paleontologists, Britannica Software was able to accurately include dinosaurs in the correct time periods they once existed. Sidran and Isenberg started a funding campaign for an updated version of the game on Kickstarter in 2012.
References
External links
Designasaurus at Amiga Hall of Light
1988 video games
1990 video games
Amiga games
Apple II games
Commodore 64 games
DOS games
Dinosaurs in video games
Science educational video games
Video games developed in the United States
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7055826
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northwestern%20High%20School%20%28Rock%20Hill%2C%20South%20Carolina%29
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Northwestern High School (Rock Hill, South Carolina)
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Northwestern High School is one of three high schools in Rock Hill, South Carolina, United States. It was opened in 1971 as the city's second high school, replacing Emmett Scott High School, which had been designated for African American students during the era of segregated schools. Along with rival Rock Hill High School, it is one of the 16 largest schools in the state by enrollment, with about 1,791 students in grades 9–12.
Northwestern offers the International Baccalaureate diploma.
Presidential candidate Barack Obama spoke at Northwestern on October 6, 2007.
Athletics
The Northwestern Trojans are in Region III-AAAAA in the state of South Carolina. There are seventeen sports with thirty teams representing the school. The Trojans have a rich tradition both on and off the field. The football team is consistently ranked in the top ten in South Carolina and has played in six of the last eight state championships winning the championship in 2010, 2013, and 2015. The soccer team has been in the state championship game five out of the last six years, winning the championship in the 2006 and 2008 seasons. In 2009, they had an undefeated season.
In the 4A State Championship game, the Trojans defeated Irmo 3-1, claiming the State Championship as well as the ESPN Rise High School National Championship. The following season, the teams met up again in the 4A State Championship game. Northwestern once again proved too much for the Yellow Jackets, winning 4-2. This secured their third consecutive championship and their fourth title in five years.
The boys' cross country team won the state championship in 2005 and 2006.
In the 2009 football season, the Trojans defeated rivals South Pointe High School in the 4A state-semifinals on November 27, 2009, at the Rock Hill School District Football Stadium. This propelled them to the state championship game at Williams-Brice Stadium in Columbia where they lost to Berkeley.
On July 10, 2010 it was announced that Northwestern would play South Pointe High School, in a nationally televised double-header on ESPN August 28. Northwestern showed their power offense in that game where they beat South Pointe 42–20. The key came when they scored five touchdowns in 4 minutes and 50 seconds in the third quarter, taking a 20–7 deficit to 42–20. In the 2010 football season, the Trojans had a perfect 15–0 season and went to the state championship game at South Carolina's Williams-Brice Stadium, playing Greenwood. The Trojans defeated Greenwood 42–10 and won the state championship. In 2012 second year head coach Kyle Richardson led the Trojans back to the state championship, where they lost to Greenwood in overtime.
In 2010 QB Justin Worley was named National Gatorade Player of the Year, joining previous winners Kobe Bryant, Lebron James, and numerous other pro athletes. Worley is the first and only National Gatorade Player of Year from South Carolina.
The baseball team is consistently in the playoffs, and has produced numerous collegiate players.
Northwestern athletics have produced several collegiate student-athletes, going to such major universities as Clemson University, South Carolina, Florida State, Georgia, Notre Dame, Ohio State and The College of Charleston.
State Championships
Football: 1989, 1993, 2005, 2007, 2010, 2013, 2015
Basketball: 2005
Boys' Soccer: 2006, 2008, 2009, 2010
The Purple Regiment Marching Band: 2008
Boys' Cross Country: 2005, 2006
Baseball: 2017
National Championships
Boys' Soccer: ESPN Rise 2009 National Champions
Notable alumni
Sean Barnette, professional basketball player
Jeff Burris, former NFL player and current college football coach
Shawn Ferguson, professional soccer player
Ricky Garbanzo, professional soccer player
Brandon Hudgins, professional runner
Johnathan Joseph, NFL cornerback, 2x Pro Bowl selection
Cheslie Kryst, Miss USA 2019
Alex Martinez, professional soccer player
Enzo Martinez, professional soccer player
Cordarrelle Patterson, NFL wide receiver, 4x Pro Bowl selection and Super Bowl LIII champion with the New England Patriots
Jamie Robinson, CFL linebacker
Derek Ross, NFL cornerback
Mason Rudolph, NFL quarterback
Rick Sanford, NFL defensive back
Nate Torbett, professional soccer player
Benjamin Watson, NFL tight end, Super Bowl XXXIX champion with the New England Patriots
Justin Worley, NFL quarterback
References
External links
Buildings and structures in Rock Hill, South Carolina
Public high schools in South Carolina
Schools in York County, South Carolina
International Baccalaureate schools in South Carolina
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41132731
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KLettres
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KLettres
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KLettres is an educational program that helps the users learn the alphabet as well as pronunciation. It is free and open source software, licensed under the terms of the GPL. The software is part of the KDE Education Project, and is meant to teach very young children aged 2 to 6 years the alphabet. There are currently 4 levels in the game and supports 25 different languages.
Levels
KLettres features four levels, with settings for adult ("grown up") and children ("kid").
In level 1, the letter is displayed and the user hears it.
In level 2, the letter is not displayed and the user only hears it.
In level 3, the syllable is displayed and the user hears it.
In level 4, the syllable is not displayed and the user only hears it.
Languages supported
Arabic, Czech, Brazilian Portuguese, Danish, Dutch, British English, English, English Phonix, French, German, Hebrew, Hungarian, Italian, Kannada, Hebrew, Hindi Romanized, Low Saxon, Luganda, Malayalam, Norwegian Bokmål, Punjabi, Spanish, Slovak, Ukrainian and Telugu.
Release history
May 13, 2004: v1.3, added Italian and special characters.
March 8, 2005: Code refactoring, open usability review.
March 14, 2005: 3 themes included (classroom, arctic and desert).
March 15, 2005: Added Spanish and Romanized Hindi sounds.
April 15, 2005: Support for Lunganda.
July 15, 2006: German sounds added.
September 23, 2006: Hebrew added.
February 9, 2007: Low Saxon is added.
November 2, 2007: 3 languages - Telugu, Kannada and Brazilian Portuguese is added with sound from a 9 year old.
April 13, 2011: Milestone of 25 languages supported in KLettres.
External links
KLettres Project Page
References
Free science software
Free software programmed in C++
Educational software for MacOS
Educational software for Windows
Educational software for Linux
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46687602
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maptitude
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Maptitude
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Maptitude is a mapping software program created by Caliper Corporation that allows users to view, edit and integrate maps. The software and technology are designed to facilitate the geographical visualization and analysis of either included data or custom external data.
Maptitude is intended for business users but competes at all levels of the GIS market in many different sectors. It encapsulates the core GIS functionality of the Caliper mapping software suite of products, and integrates with Microsoft Office, data mapping from various sources including Microsoft Excel, and includes a proprietary BASIC-like programming language (Caliper Script) within a development interface (GISDK) that allows automation of the Maptitude environment.
Maptitude geocodes addresses and maintains the geocode precision (the method used to locate the address) in a column in the attribute table. Maptitude provides route planning tools for route optimization that provide route directions for optimal routes for travel and deliveries. Maptitude calculates the distance and the direction of single or multiple routes. Routes are optimized based on the shortest route, fastest route, ordered route, or other route types based on costs other than time or distance.
The Caliper technology is used in the following end-user desktop software:
Maptitude (for international users, with primary markets in, and tailored add-ons for, the USA, United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, and Brazil; with additional versions for Argentina, Chile, Colombia, France, Germany, India, Ireland, Italy, Mexico, Netherlands, New Zealand, Spain, and South Africa)
Maptitude for Redistricting (for redistricting professionals)
Maptitude for Precinct and Election Management (for county and state election offices)
Political Maptitude (for political campaign strategists) [Discontinued in 2008]
TransCAD (for transportation professionals)
TransModeler (for traffic simulation)
Caliper technology is also used in the following web-based software:
Maptitude for the Web
TransCAD for the Web
The Web development platform uses application source code that can be edited using JavaScript, HTML, and ASP.NET. Application templates (Mapplications) are used to create a web application or service. The default templates include Ajax applications and mashups that use Google Maps via the Google Maps API.
Product history
The standard Maptitude product is typically released every year as both an upgrade and as a full packaged product; the current version is Maptitude 2020. Maptitude, which was first released as Maptitude 3.0 in 1995, and numbered to agree with TransCAD 3.0, the first Microsoft Windows version of that software. The Community 2020 edition was released in 1997, a product developed for the U.S. Dept. of Housing and Urban Development (HUD). Maptitude 4.0 was released later that same year (1997) and subsequent versions included 2000 U.S. Census data and additional capabilities. Version 5.0, was released on January 29, 2008. The MAF/TIGER Partnership Software (MTPS) edition was released in 2008, a product developed for the U.S. Census Bureau. Version 6.0, was released in early 2011.
Maptitude 2012, Maptitude 2013, and Maptitude 2014 included updated maps, data, demographics and features. For example, for the USA, the 2010 US Census Data, ACS demographics, and Nokia HERE Map data were all refreshed. Maptitude 2014 focused on improvements to output, with the inclusion of 3-D maps, reports, and live tiled imagery.
Maptitude 3.0 (1995), initial release as a commercial product
Community 2020 (1997), for the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development
Maptitude 4.0 (1997), significantly updated features
Maptitude 4.1 (1999), first version with 2000 US Census Data
Maptitude 4.2 (2000), first version to include the GISDK rather than offer it as an option
Maptitude 4.5 (2001), significantly updated features
Maptitude 4.6 (2003), very similar to 4.5; more of a Census data update
Maptitude 4.7 (2004), new features and data
Maptitude 4.8 (2006), first version to support aerial photo downloads
Maptitude 5.0 (2008), major release
MTPS (2008), for the U.S. Census Bureau
Maptitude 6.0 (2011), first version to include commercial grade street data
Maptitude 2012 (2012), updated software, data, and demographics. Features provide improved drive-time and routing capabilities.
Maptitude 2013 (2013), updated software, data, and demographics. Features provide further international capabilities. First 64-bit version.
Maptitude 2014 (2014), updated software, data, and demographics. Features provide improved output.
Maptitude 2015 (2015), updated software, data, and demographics. Features provide improved reporting.
Maptitude 2016 (2016), updated software, data, and demographics. Features provide tools targeted at usability and the discontinued Microsoft MapPoint audience.
Maptitude 2017 (2017), updated software, data, and demographics. Redesigned menus and buttons to streamline the map making process. Features provide tools for logistics/operations and the discontinued Microsoft MapPoint audience.
Maptitude 2018 (2018), updated software, data, and demographics. Tools allow updating and linking of data from applications such as Excel. A site selection/facility location-allocation tool was also added
Maptitude 2019 (2019), updated software, data, and demographics. File management changed from a layer model to a document model.
Maptitude 2020 (2020), updated software, data, and demographics. Performance improvements.
Maptitude 2021 (2021), updated software, data, and demographics. Online publishing and sharing added.
New versions have sometimes been released before the equivalent TransCAD releases, and have been identically numbered, but recent versions have always followed the release date of the TransCAD software. Maptitude 2012 represented a shift in the version numbering, from a sequential release value to a year number.
The software is available for Microsoft Windows.
See also
TransModeler Traffic simulation mapping software
Caliper Corporation
References
External links
Caliper Mapping Software - official website
GIS software
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48647484
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High%20Efficiency%20Image%20File%20Format
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High Efficiency Image File Format
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High Efficiency Image File Format (HEIF) is a container format for storing individual images and image sequences. The standard covers multimedia files that can also include other media streams, such as timed text, audio and video.
HEIF can store images encoded with multiple coding formats, for example both SDR and HDR images. A HEIF image using HEVC requires less storage space than the equivalent quality JPEG.
HEIF files are a special case of the ISO Base Media File Format (ISOBMFF, ISO/IEC 14496-12), first defined in 2001 as a shared part of MP4 and JPEG 2000. Introduced in 2015, it was developed by the Moving Picture Experts Group (MPEG) and is defined as Part 12 within the MPEG-H media suite (ISO/IEC 23008-12).
HEIF was adopted by Apple in 2017 with the introduction of iOS 11.
History
The requirements and main use cases of HEIF were defined in 2013.
The technical development of the specification took about one and a half years and was finalized in the middle of 2015.
Apple was the first major adopter of the format in 2017 with the introduction of iOS 11 using HEIC variant.
On some systems, pictures stored in the HEIC format are converted automatically to the older JPEG format when they are sent outside of the system.
Features
HEIF files can store the following types of data:
Image items Storage of individual images, image properties and thumbnails.
Image derivations Derived images enable non-destructive image editing, and are created on the fly by the rendering software using editing instructions stored separately in the HEIF file. These instructions (rectangular cropping, rotation by one, two or three quarter-turns, timed graphic overlays, etc.) and images are stored separately in the HEIF file, and describe specific transformations to be applied to the input images. The storage overhead of derived images is small.
Image sequencesStorage of multiple time-related and/or temporally predicted images (like a burst-photo shot or cinemagraph animation), their properties and thumbnails. Different prediction options can be used in order to exploit the temporal and spatial similarities between the images. Hence, file sizes can be drastically reduced when many images are stored in the same HEIF file.
Auxiliary image items Storage of image data, such as an alpha plane or a depth map, which complements another image item. These data are not displayed as such, but used in various forms to complement another image item.
Image metadata Storage of EXIF, XMP and similar metadata which accompany the images stored in the HEIF file.
Variants
As HEIF is a container format, it can contain still images and image sequences that are coded in different formats.
The main filename extensions are .heif for still images and .heifs for sequences, which can both be used with any codec. Generic HEIF image files are typically stored with filename extensions .heif, but they may use a different extension to indicate the specific codec used.
MIAF
The Multi-Image Application Format (MIAF) is a restricted subset of HEIF specified as part of MPEG-A.
It defines a set of additional constraints to simplify format options, specific alpha plane formats, profiles and levels as well as metadata formats and brands, and rules for how to extend the format.
HEIC: HEVC in HEIF
High Efficiency Video Coding (HEVC, ITU-T H.265) is an encoding format for graphic data, first standardized in 2013.
It is the primarily used and implied default codec for HEIF as specified in the normative Annex B to ISO/IEC 23008-12 HEVC Image File Format.
While not introduced formally in the standard, the acronym HEIC (High-Efficiency Image Container) is used as a brand and in the MIME subtypes image/heic and image/heic-sequence. If the content conforms to certain HEVC profiles, more specific brands can be used: HEIX for Main 10 of HEVC, HEIM for (Multiview) Main profile and HEIS for (Scalable) Main (10) profile of L-HEVC.
A HEIC photo takes up about half the space of an equivalent quality JPEG file. The initial HEIF specification already defined the means of storing HEVC-encoded intra images (i-frames) and HEVC-encoded image sequences in which inter prediction is applied in a constrained manner.
HEVC image players are required to support rectangular cropping and rotation by one, two and three quarter-turns. The primary use case for the mandatory support for rotation by 90 degrees is for images where the camera orientation is incorrectly detected or inferred. The rotation requirement makes it possible to manually adjust the orientation of a still image or an image sequence without needing to re-encode it. Cropping enables the image to be re-framed without re-encoding. The HEVC file format also includes the option to store pre-derived images.
Samples in image sequence tracks must be either intra-coded images or inter-picture predicted images with reference to only intra-coded images. These constraints of inter-picture prediction reduce the decoding latency for accessing any particular image within a HEVC image sequence track.
The .heic and .heics file name extensions are conventionally used for HEVC-coded HEIF files. Apple products, for instance, will only produce files with these extensions, which indicate clearly that the data went through HEVC encoding.
AVCI: AVC in HEIF
Advanced Video Coding (AVC, ITU-T H.264) is an older encoding format for video and images, first standardized in 2003.
It is also specified as a codec to be supported in HEIF in normative Annex 5 to ISO/IEC 23008-12.
The registered MIME types are image/avci for still images and image/avcs for sequences. The format is simply known as AVCI.
Apple products support playback of AVC-encoded .avci still image files and .avcs image sequence files, but will only generate .heic files.
AVIF: AV1 in HEIF
AV1 is a video encoding format that is intended to be royalty free developed by the Alliance for Open Media (AOMedia). AV1 Image File Format (AVIF) is an image format based on this codec.
The registered MIME types are image/avif for still images which usually carry an .avif file name extension and image/avif-sequence for sequences which use .avifs file name extension.
This may be confusable with the classic AVI Windows multimedia format which typically uses .avi.
JPEG compression formats in HEIF files
The original JPEG standard is the most commonly used and widely supported lossy image coding format, first released in 1992 by ITU-T and ISO/IEC. Although Annex H to ISO/IEC 23008-12 specifies JPEG (and indirectly Motion JPEG) as a possible format for HEIF coded image data, it is used in HEIF only for thumbnails and other secondary images. Therefore, neither a dedicated MIME subtype nor a special file extension is available for storage of JPEG files in HEIF container files.
Several other compression formats defined by the JPEG group can be stored in HEIF files:
Part 16 of the JPEG 2000 standard suite (ISO/IEC 15444-16 and ITU-T Rec. T.815) defines how to store JPEG 2000 images in HEIF container files. Part 2 of the JPEG 2000 suite (ISO/IEC 15444-2 and ITU-T Rec. T.801) also defines a different format for storing JPEG 2000 images in files that is also based on ISOBMFF.
Annex F of the JPEG XR image coding standard (ISO/IEC 29199-2 and ITU-T Rec. T.832) defines how to store JPEG XR images in HEIF container files. Annex A of JPEG XR also defines a different file format for storing JPEG XR images in files that is TIFF-based, and Part 2 of the JPEG 2000 suite (ISO/IEC 15444-2 and ITU-T Rec. T.801) also supports a third file format for storing JPEG XR images in files that is based on ISOBMFF.
JPEG XS has its HEIF container support defined in ISO/IEC 21122-3.
In 2017, Apple announced that it would adopt HEIC as the default image format in its new operating systems, gradually replacing JPEG.
Both AVIF and HEIC are currently being considered as possible replacements for the universal JPEG format because, among other technical contributions, both can reduce file size by about 50% while maintaining equivalent quality.
WXAM, SharpP
The proprietary image format WXAM or wxHEPC developed by Tencent and used e.g. within WeChat is apparently based upon HEVC, as is SharpP, also known as TPG (Tiny Portable Graphics), which was developed by their SNG division.
However, their container format may not be HEIF-compatible.
TPG may also use AVS2.
Support
Nokia provides an open source Java HEIF decoder.
The open source library "libheif" supports reading and writing HEIF files, as of version 1.8.0 both reading and writing HEIC and AVIF are supported.
A free image codec called CopyTrans HEIC, available for Windows versions 7 through 10, supports opening HEIF files in Windows Photo Viewer without the Microsoft codec installed. (The Microsoft HEIC codec is only available for Windows 10, version 1803 and up in the Photos UWP app.)
Operating systems
Windows 10 version 1803 and later (HEIC), version 1903 and later (AVIF): HEIF Image Extension is needed to read and write files that use the HEIF format. HEVC Video Extensions is needed to play and produce HEVC-encoded video content. A small amount of money is charged for the use of the HEVC codec, whereas support for the generic HEIF format and the AVC and AV1 extensions are free.
macOS High Sierra and later (HEIC only) Since macOS Mojave, Apple uses HEIF in creating the Dynamic Desktop feature.
iOS 11 and later (HEIC only)
Apple supports playback of .heif for still image files and .heifs for image sequence files created on other devices that are encoded using any codec, provided that codec is supported by the operating system.
Android 8 (Oreo) and later (HEIC), Android 12 and later (AVIF)
Ubuntu 20.04 and later (HEIC)
Web browsers
, no browser supports HEIC format natively.
For AVIF, Chrome, Firefox and Opera for Desktop and Android already support it by default. However, no Browser even as Safari on iOS and iPadOS supports AVIF format.
Image editing software
Adobe Lightroom (macOS 10.13+, iOS 11+, Windows 10+, and Android 9+)
Adobe Photoshop (Note that Photoshop for Windows requires the installation of both the HEIF and HEVC CODECs available from Microsoft.)
Affinity Photo
GIMP recognizes and treats HEIF files since version 2.10.2, released in May 2018.
Paint.NET
ImageMagick
Krita
Zoner Photo Studio X
Pixelmator (version 3.7 and above)
GraphicConverter
Hardware
The Canon EOS-1D X Mark III, Canon EOS R5, and Canon EOS R6 cameras are using the HEIF format to capture images in an HDR display format that use the PQ tone curve, BT.2100 color primaries and 10-bit. "We've moved on to HEIF files," Canon said in 2019.
The Sony α1 and Sony α7 IV offer capturing images in 10-bit HEIF format with an HDR format that uses HLG.
Multiple Qualcomm Snapdragon SoCs support capturing images in HEIC format (e.g. Snapdragon 888, Snapdragon 662). Some of their latest SoCs also support capturing in HEIC with HDR (e.g. Snapdragon 8 Gen 1, Snapdragon 780).
The iPhone 7 and later devices from Apple can capture media in HEIF or HEVC format.
Android smartphones like Xiaomi 12, OPPO Reno 7 5G, Samsung Galaxy S21 5G can capture images in HEIF format.
Websites
During May 2020, online Advanced Placement exams allowed students to submit photos of handwritten responses. Because the website was unable to process HEIF images, students whose phones defaulted to this image format were considered to have not submitted any response and often failed to complete the exam. College Board, which administers the exams, later provided a system for users to submit photos of answers via e-mail. Because the iOS Mail app automatically converts HEIF images to JPEG, this mitigated the problem.
Facebook supports the upload of HEIC but converts to JPEG or WEBP on display.
Patent licensing
HEIF itself is a container that may not be subject to additional royalty fees for commercial ISOBMFF licensees. Note however that Nokia also grants its patents on a royalty-free basis for non-commercial purposes. When containing images and image sequences encoded in a particular format (e.g. HEVC or AVC) its use becomes subject to the licensing of patents on the coding format.
See also
Better Portable Graphics (BPG) – another image file format using HEVC encoding, published by Fabrice Bellard in 2014
Free Lossless Image Format (FLIF) – FOSS image format released in 2015, claiming to outperform PNG, WebP, BPG and JPEG 2000 for lossless encoding at least
WebP – an image file format based on the VP8 and VP9 video formats
References
External links
HEIF – MPEG Image File Format standard site
HEIF – format site at Nokia with source code at GitHub
libheif – source code at GitHub
Computer-related introductions in 2015
Graphics file formats
Graphics standards
Image compression
MPEG-H
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laura%20DeNardis
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Laura DeNardis
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Laura DeNardis is an American author and a scholar of Internet governance and technical infrastructure. She is a tenured Professor and the Interim Dean in the School of Communication at American University. DeNardis is an affiliated Fellow of the Yale Information Society Project at Yale Law School and served as its Executive Director from 2008-2011. She previously served as a Senior Fellow of the Centre for International Governance Innovation (CIGI) and the Director of Research for the Global Commission on Internet Governance. With a background in information technology engineering and a doctorate in Science and Technology Studies (STS), her research studies the social and political implications of Internet technical architecture and governance. Domestically, she served as an appointed member of the U.S. Department of State Advisory Committee on International Communications and Information Policy (ACICIP) during the Obama Administration. She has more than two decades of experience as an expert consultant in Internet Governance to Fortune 500 companies, foundations, and government agencies.
In 2020, Wired UK listed DeNardis as one of "32 Global Innovators Who Are Building a Better Future." Her expertise and scholarship have been featured in Science Magazine, The Economist, NPR, New York Times, ABC news, Bloomberg, Time Magazine, Christian Science Monitor, Slate, Reuters, Forbes, The Atlantic, the Globe and Mail, Investor's Business Daily, and The Wall Street Journal.
In 2015 Laura DeNardis was elected as a member of the Cosmos Club in Washington, DC.
Early life and education
Laura DeNardis was born in New Haven, CT, in 1966. She is married to a finance executive Deborah Smith. DeNardis and Smith's was one of the first same sex marriages in Connecticut in 2008.
DeNardis earned a PhD in Science and Technology Studies from Virginia Tech, an MEng from Cornell University, an AB in Engineering Science from Dartmouth College, and was awarded a postdoctoral fellowship from Yale Law School.
She resides in Washington, DC.
Books
The Internet in Everything (Yale University Press, 2020)
Researching Internet Governance: Methods, Frameworks, Futures (MIT Press 2020)
The Turn to Infrastructure in Internet Governance (Palsgrave, 2016)
The Global War for Internet Governance (Yale University Press, 2014)
Opening Standards: The Global Politics of Interoperability (MIT Press, 2011)
Protocol Politics: The Globalization of Internet Governance (MIT Press, 2009)
Information Technology in Theory (Thompson, 2007)
Areas of Expertise
Research Concentration in Global Internet Governance
U.S. Cyber Policy and International Cybersecurity
Cyber Cooperation
Technology, Media and World Politics
Geopolitics of Technical Architecture Design
Civil Liberties Online
Cyber Institutions
Privatized Governance
Intellectual property
Technical Expertise: Internet Protocols and Architecture
Applied Mathematical Programming
Domain Name System and Critical Internet Resources
Telecommunications Engineering
Information and Communication Technology Strategy
Internet Interoperability
Involvement with the Global Commission on Internet Governance
DeNardis served as the Research Director of the Global Commission on Internet Governance ourinternet.org (2014–2016).
She is also the Senior Fellow of the Centre for International Governance Innovation (CIGI) (2013–present).
Major Lectures and Presentations
European Consortium for Political Research Global Conference. Referred panel presentation "The Global Internet Governance Trajectory: Actors and States of Play," Montreal, Canada, August 27–29, 2015.
United States Internet Governance Forum, Panel on Multistakeholder Governance, George Washington University, Washington, DC, July 16, 2015.
Microsoft Research Faculty Summit 2015. Invited presentation, "Research Challenges in Internet Governance," Redmond, WA, July 7, 2015.
Center for Democracy and Technology (CDT). Workshop on Standards and Human Rights, Washington, DC, June 19, 2015
Columbia SIPA, Invited plenary panel talk, "Conference on Internet Governance and Cybersecurity," New York, NY, May 14, 2015.
Brookings Institution, Invited presentation at "Global Governance Futures 2025," Washington, DC, May 6, 2015.
Keynote Address at National Cybersecurity Centre One Conference, The Hague, Netherlands, April 13, 2015.
"The Future of Internet Regulation," Invited presentation at the Ohio State University Moritz School of Law Symposium, I/S: A Journal of Law & Policy, March 27, 2015.
Book talk on "The Global War for Internet Governance," New America Foundation, Washington, D.C. April 3, 2014
Presentation on "The Global War for Internet Governance," Motion Picture Association of American (MPAA), Washington, D.C. April 2, 2014.
Book talk on "The Global War for Internet Governance," The Carnegie Council, New York City, NY. February 26, 2014.
Panel presentation on "The Internet's Top-Level Domain Expansion: Implications for Internet Freedom and Innovation," Beyond the Dot Conference, The Newseum, Washington, D.C. February 19, 2014.
Book talk on "The Global War for Internet Governance," Yale Law School, Information Society Project, New Haven, CT. February 13, 2014.
Book talk on "The Global War for Internet Governance," Annenberg School for Communication, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA. February 12, 2014.
Panel presentation on "The Paradox of Multistakeholder Internet Governance," 10th Annual State of the Net Conference, The Newseum, Washington, DC. January 28, 2014.
Panel presentation on “Internet Governance 2020: Geopolitics and the Future of the Internet,” Center for Strategic and International Studies, Washington, D.C. January 23, 2014.
Panel presentation on Developing a Strategic Vision for Internet Governance,” Eight Annual United Nations Internet Governance Forum, Bali, Indonesia. October 22, 2013.
Presentation on "Thinking Clearly about Multistakeholder Internet Governance," Global Internet Governance Academic Network Annual Conference, Bali, Indonesia. October 21, 2013.
Footnotes
External links
Home pages
Home Page of Laura DeNardis
MIT Press Author Profile for Laura DeNardis
Yale Information Society Project
American University School of Communication
Audio and video
Radio interview on Canada's CBC discussing "What Will the Internet Look Like with 5 Billion Users," April 17, 2015.
United States Department of State video "The Internet Belongs to Everyone," September 17, 2014.
Inaugural CIGI Lecture "The Global War for Internet Governance," Waterloo, Ontario, Canada, September 9, 2014.
ABC News Radio interview on Internet fracturing, KTRS 550 "Is This the End of the Internet," July 24, 2014.
Keynote Address at WebScience 2014, "The Global War for Internet Governance," Bloomington, Indiana, U.S., June 24, 2014.
Radio Interview on "The Diane Rehm Show" on NPR, "The Worldwide Debate for New Rules for the World Wide Web," April 7, 2014.
Video of Oxford University Keynote Address, "Technologies of Dissent" at "A Decade in Internet Time" conference on September 3, 2011.
KZSU-FM/Stanford University Radio Interview on "Protocol Politics," July 21, 2010 with Dave Levine at Hearsay Culture Radio.
Living people
American University faculty and staff
Dartmouth College alumni
Yale Information Society Project Fellows
1966 births
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In%20the%20Groove%202
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In the Groove 2
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In the Groove 2 is the sequel to Roxor Games' 2004 arcade game In the Groove. It was released to arcades officially on June 18, 2005. It was available as an upgrade kit and as a dedicated cabinet developed by Andamiro. The price for a dedicated cabinet was $9,999 USD and the upgrade kit (sometimes referred to as a "BoXoR") was US$2,999.
There are a total of 137 songs available in the arcade version. This includes all 72 from the original arcade game, the three new songs in the home version, and 65 brand new songs, four of which are hidden and unlockable.
A lawsuit filed by Konami on May 9, 2005, asked for an injunction against the sale of the upgrade kit version. October 23, 2006 Konami and Roxor reached an out-of-court settlement, which resulted in Konami acquiring the intellectual property rights to the In The Groove franchise and thus effectively terminating the distribution of the game in North America.
In development, it was known solely as In the Groove 2. On June 18, 2005, Roxor Games officially announced the release of the game, and announced that it would add the name of Andamiro's Pump It Up line, becoming Pump It Up: In the Groove 2. However, "Pump It Up" only appears on the marquee of the dedicated cabinets developed by Andamiro. The name also appears on the title screen of an un-updated Andamiro made cabinet. The name appears nowhere on an upgraded cabinet.
The game also features a modified interface, based on the first version but recolored red and incorporating other changes. The interface also features a new font; the first version used a generic font.
USB memory card support has been expanded on In the Groove 2, with the ability to now install revision updates stored downloaded from the internet saved onto the memory card. Several revisions have been released, most of them adjusting timing windows, fixing sync issues with songs, and fixing other bugs. However, only "r2" machines have the ability to install revision patches. Some early ITG2 machines contain "r1", which does not contain the Machine Update option. The biggest addition of functionality added with the patches was contained in "r21", which added the ability to load custom songs from the memory card.
New features
The Novice difficulty level is a feature added to the home version of In the Groove, carried over to In the Groove 2. On this difficulty level, all songs are rated as ones (including the hardest and fastest songs on other difficulties), and play in Novice mode places a traffic light graphic on the screen that tells players when to step. As always, two players can select different difficulty levels for the same song, but if one selects Novice, then the traffic light always appears instead of the normal backgrounds. It is also worth noting that on ITG2, Novice always forces a constant speed of 120 BPM (a "C120" mod). As a result, since C-mods disqualify scores from appearing on the scoreboards if the song played has pauses or speed changes, those songs will never have any Novice scores saved.
Rolls are a new feature. They look like spiky hold notes and usually come in pairs. The player must continually tap the corresponding arrows until the end of the roll, much like the drum roll notes in Namco's Taiko no Tatsujin. Regardless of the song's speed, rolls must be tapped at least once every 0.3 seconds.
Survival Mode is another course-based gameplay mode. The player must play a five-song course, where each song has a time limit less than the song's length. Time left over after each song is carried over to the next, and missteps deplete the time remaining - time is only added for Fantastics, with no change for Excellents and detractions for anything lower. The lifebar in this mode is not used to determine whether the player passes. Instead, it serves as a visual indicator of how much time is remaining. The game ends when the remaining time is fully depleted.
Fitness Mode is a common home version feature on dance games that is included in the arcade version of ITG2. This gameplay mode allows users to keep track of time spent dancing and calories burned.
Three previously Marathon-only modifiers - Bumpy, Beat, and Robot (a metallic gray Flat arrow type) - have also been added to the regular modifier list. In addition, a multi-colored arrow type, Vivid, has been added for colorblind players. It resembles the default arrow color scheme used in Dance Dance Revolution.
"Excellent", "Great" and "Decent" judgments are now prefixed or suffixed with a dash. A prefix (-Excellent, -Great or -Decent) indicates that the player stepped too early; a suffix (Excellent-, Great- or Decent-) indicates that the player stepped too late. In novice mode, "Way Off" becomes "Way Early" and "Way Late" respectively; in other modes, the dash system still applies.
"Stretch Jumps" have been included in double play, a jump that requires a player to hit two panels simultaneously that are farther away from each other than normal jumps, such as 1PU+2PD or 1PL+2PL.
Songs
In the Groove 2 includes more than 60 new songs in addition to the entire songlist from the previous version, In the Groove. The sequel includes new songs from established artists like ZiGZaG, Kid Whatever, Inspector K, Nina, Digital Explosion, and Machinae Supremacy. It also introduces songs from newcomers like Tekno Dred, Affinity, Hybrid, Lynn, and Onyx.
As with the original game, several artists that have released songs for Dance Dance Revolution games appear on ITG2. These include Bambee, Missing Heart, Spacekats (known as Bus Stop in DDR, with the exclusion of one member), Ni-Ni, Triple J, E-ROTIC and Lynn (Papaya in DDR). In fact, three songs appear on ITG2 that have been on Dance Dance Revolution games, though with different step charts: Typical Tropical and Bumble Bee from Bambee and Sunshine (originally Follow The Sun) from Triple J.
Of note, Wanna Do ~Hardhouse Mix~ is the only song in ITG to have a dedicated music video in-game, as it also serves as the theme song for the game.
Machine Updates (Revisions)
As In The Groove 2 matured as an arcade game, Roxor released patches, called "revisions", that could be applied to the machine in order to update it, fix bugs, adjust timing window errors, and other issues as they were discovered. This list contains only changes that were officially published by Roxor Games.
Their website discussing these Machine Updates, and their respective downloads are still available on the In The Groove subdomain of Roxor Games' website.
Revision 1
This is the first version of In The Groove 2, and is considered to be a beta. This is the only revision of the arcade that is not capable of performing updates.
Revision 2
Released: July 11, 2005
Changes:
add serial number to title screen
add coin debounce time to fix "some coin drops register multiple times"
Revision 5
Released: November 2, 2005
Changes:
Changed volume mixing from 90% to 85% to fix clipping problems.
Service button must be held down briefly, to prevent accidental triggering due to electrical noise.
Debounce all input, to fix spurious input problems (fixes extra way offs, mine explosions).
In diagnostics, show the serial number of the drive in red.
Fixed holding left and tapping right allows changing songs after selecting chance.
Fixed pressing left/right while holding select to change difficulty also moves the wheel.
Improved power selection for USB devices; may improve compatibility with iPod Shuffles.
Fixed logo splash sound ignores Attract Sound Frequency setting.
Improved memory card backup logic to reduce chance of corruption.
Fixed pen drive "edit" icons in double play showing edits for single play.
Default "premium" option is "double for one credit".
Increased music wheel time.
Fixed mods stored on memory card cause Disqualification in Survival mode.
Fixed step errors on the following songs:
Vertex^2 (double expert), Baby Don't You Want Me (double medium), Bumble Bee (single novice), Get Happy (double medium), Birdie Birdie (double medium), Reactor (double medium), Vorsprung Durch Techno (double medium), Life of a Butterfly double medium (multiple), Oasis (multiple), Out of the Dark (double medium), Monolith (single expert)
Corrected sync on the following songs:
Delirium, Xuxa, Queen of Light, Disconnected -Hyper-, Monolith, Hardcore Symphony, Typical Tropical, Amore, Agent Blatant, Incognito, Robotix, Clockwork Genesis, Destiny
Includes all fixes in Revision 2.
Revision 8
Released: November 17, 2005
Changes:
Fix coins don't register during loads.
Fix spurious coin drop on startup on some conversion kit machines.
Fix need to hold both Service and Test to enter the Service Menu (dedicated cabinets only) (bug introduced in R5).
Includes all fixes from Revision 5 and earlier.
Revision 16
Released: August 28, 2006
Changes:
Fix sync on the latest batch of dedicated cabinets.
Fix support for iPod Shuffle.
Includes all fixes from Revision 8 and earlier.
Revision 21
Released: October 11, 2006
Changes:
Fix delayed input issue on some upgrade kits.
Add support for Custom Songs. This is disabled by default, and can be enabled in the service menu.
Includes all fixes from Revision 16 and earlier.
Revision 23
Released: January 26, 2007
Changes:
Fix inaccurate input on some kits.
End all Custom Songs at 120 seconds, even if the music runs for longer. This prevents players from playing for longer than 120 seconds when using .ogg music with inaccurate metadata length values.
Includes all fixes from Revision 21 and earlier.
Custom Songs on Revision 21
On October 11, 2006 (a week prior to the official announcement of Konami's acquisition of the intellectual property rights to In The Groove), Roxor released Revision 21 (also referred to as r21). The patch adds a feature that allows players to bring custom songs from home and play them on the machine. Songs were created using StepMania, and the song files and accompanying audio files are stored on the player's USB card. When the player inserts their USB card into the machine they can then select the song from the game menu.
The feature had some intentional limitations:
The music file can be no more than 120 seconds (2 minutes) long.
The music file must be in Ogg Vorbis format.
Ogg music files must be less than 5 MB in size.
Banners and song samples aren't loaded, and are thus absent from the song selection screen.
Background images (whether still or video) aren't loaded; instead, random background videos run during play. However, background scripts that use In the Groove's background videos do work within r21.
A maximum of 50 songs are loaded from each player's USB card. Time limits in the game's loading screens sometimes caused fewer songs to be loaded.
An unofficial patch was later discovered online to circumvent the song length limit. Players could manipulate the metadata in the header of the OGG file to make the game think the song is only 1:45 long. The program which performs this patch is commonly referred to as the Ogg Length Patch program. This allows songs of any length to be played on the machine as long as the music file is still under 5 MB in size. Playing songs that are longer than 3 minutes is looked down upon by some arcade operators due to the possibility of losing money, and in some cases bans have even been issued on players who excessively play long songs when others are waiting in line to play. The Ogg Length Patch vulnerability as well as other bugs and timing issues were fixed in R23. While R23 has timing corrections and bug fixes, it forces all custom songs to end at 120 seconds of play regardless of the use of the Ogg Length Patch.
Despite the timing fixes, Revision 23 is unpopular with the majority of ITG players. Even though some professional players prefer r23 due to the timing fixes, the strict time limit of 120 seconds was looked down upon since some official Dance Dance Revolution songs and even some official songs on the In The Groove 2 cabinet itself go beyond this time limit. Some players feel that RoXor should have implemented a system similar to Dance Dance Revolution 5th Mix (and already implemented in StepMania) in which songs longer than 150 seconds (2½ minutes) are deemed a "long version" song, which takes up two stages (two songs' worth) of the player's credit, instead of blocking the songs from being played entirely.
Machine Hacking
General Information
Some technologically savvy players have found methods of hacking the game and loading additional content onto an "In the Groove 2" machine. The In The Groove 2 arcade machine has a regular computer inside that runs a distribution of Debian Linux and a modified version of the open-source StepMania software. Players who can gain access to the data on the hard drive of the computer can modify configuration files, add new features, load new songs, change graphics or artwork, or modify the behavior of the StepMania engine running in the game.
The most popular methods of hacking involve booting the machine into a rogue operating system (usually a live Linux distribution such as SLAX Frodo). From there, additional songs and data can be downloaded from the USB card plugged into the Player 1 USB port, while a USB keyboard is plugged in to the Player 2 USB port to type commands at the Linux console.
Most of these hacks utilize an option in one of StepMania's configuration files, Static.ini, to load songs and content from additional locations on the hard drive where the hacker can store songs and other data.
OpenITG and NotITG
Due to the popularity of the franchise, some players modified the game to be played on home computers, which in 2009 became released as OpenITG, based on the code for Stepmania 3.95. In 2016, an internet user known as Taro4012 released NotITG, a fork of OpenITG which is "designed to make it easier for mod file creators to implement their ideas. It aims to preserve compatibility with all existing StepMania 3.95 and In The Groove mod files, and be the definitive environment for creating and enjoying that content.". This was released in 2016 alongside the reveal of the tournament he hosts simply called the "UKSRT" (United Kingdom Sight Reading Tournament) of which players are forced to read mod-charts that they've never seen before.
Tournaments
In The Groove 2 tournaments are held at arcades throughout the world. Some of the most notable tournaments are NAT05 and the ITG World Cup, in which first place received an ITG2 dedicated cabinet. Most tournaments are scored on a player's dance percentage. There have been few others that have involved the use of mods, double, and even some that make use of custom songs with the R21 feature. After the lawsuit, the tournament scene began to die down, in part because Roxor could no longer sponsor local tournaments with small prizes and In The Groove paraphernalia such as T-shirts and posters. Still, there are tournaments held throughout the Americas and as of recently, Europe such as the Slippers Hurricane Summer Speed event (France), today that give out cash prizes and other various gifts, such as arcade tokens, coupons, and other video games.
Home version
Due to the Konami lawsuit, a PlayStation 2 port of In The Groove 2 was not released. However, a non-final beta version of the game was leaked onto the internet. A patch is available for the PC version of In The Groove that adds the new songs and theme from In The Groove 2 to the game. It is referred to as "Song Pack A".
See also
Dance pad
Dance pad video games
Roxor Games
In the Groove (video game)
References
External links
Official RoXoR Games Website
Official StepMania Website
Custom Songs with In The Groove 2 Arcade
2005 video games
Arcade video games
Arcade-only video games
In the Groove (video game series)
Video games developed in the United States
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris%20Verhoef
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Chris Verhoef
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Christopher (Chris) Verhoef (born 1962) is a Dutch computer scientist, and Professor of Computer Science at the Vrije Universiteit in Amsterdam.
Biography
Born in Kedichem in 1962, Verhoef received his PhD in computer science at the University of Amsterdam in 1992 under supervision of Jan Bergstra with the thesis "Linear unary operators in process algebra."
Verhoef had done his graduate work at the Programming Research Group of the University of Amsterdam, where in 1990 he had published his first report "On the register operator." Early 1990s he joined the Department of Mathematics and Computing Science of Eindhoven University of Technology. One of his first research interests was the Algebra of Communicating Processes, an "algebraic theory to describe processes that can communicate." This field was initially developed by Jan Bergstra and Jan Willem Klop in 1982. With Alban Ponse and Bas van Vlijmen, Verhoef initiated the first two International Workshops on the Algebra of Communicating Processes in 1994 and 1995.
In 1996/97 he returned to Programming Research Group of the University of Amsterdam, where he started focussing on Reverse engineering, the "theory and practice of recovering information from existing software and systems." In 1997 he co-chaired the Fourth IEEE Computer Society Working Conference on Reverse Engineering.
Since early 2000s Verhoef is Professor of Computer Science at the Vrije Universiteit in Amsterdam. His research interests further extend in the fields of the structured operational semantics, and IT Portfolio Management.
Selected publications
Articles, a selection.
Verhoef, Chris. "A congruence theorem for structured operational semantics with predicates and negative premises." Nordic Journal of Computing 2.2 (1995): 274-302.
Aceto, Luca, Wan Fokkink, and Chris Verhoef. Structural operational semantics. BRICS, Department of Computer Science, University of Aarhus, 1999.
Lämmel, Ralf, and Chris Verhoef. "Semi‐automatic grammar recovery." Software: Practice and Experience 31.15 (2001): 1395-1438.
Klint, Paul, Ralf Lämmel, and Chris Verhoef. "Toward an engineering discipline for grammarware." ACM Transactions on Software Engineering and Methodology (TOSEM) 14.3 (2005): 331-380.
Eveleens, J. Laurenz, and Chris Verhoef. "The rise and fall of the chaos report figures." IEEE software 27.1 (2010): 30-36.
References
External links
Chris Verhoef at uva.nl
Homepage (with many articles).
Dutch computer scientists
1962 births
Living people
University of Amsterdam alumni
Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam faculty
Eindhoven University of Technology faculty
People from Leerdam
20th-century Dutch scientists
21st-century Dutch scientists
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United%20States%20congressional%20staff%20edits%20to%20Wikipedia
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United States congressional staff edits to Wikipedia
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Some edits to the online encyclopedia Wikipedia by staff of the United States Congress have created controversy, notably in early to mid-2006. Several such instances, such as those involving Marty Meehan, Norm Coleman, Conrad Burns, and Joe Biden, received significant media attention. Others, such as those involving Gil Gutknecht, were reported but received less widespread coverage.
Biographical information on various politicians was edited by their own staff to remove undesirable information (including pejorative statements quoted, or broken campaign promises), add favorable information or "glowing" tributes, add negative information to opponents' biographies, or replace the article in part or whole by staff-authored biographies.
Background
On January 27, 2006, The Sun of Lowell, Massachusetts, published an article entitled "Rewriting history under the dome", which revealed the editing by Congressional staff members of Representative Marty Meehan's Wikipedia entry.
Further investigation by Wikipedia editors discovered over a thousand edits by IP addresses allocated to either the House of Representatives or the Senate. Wikipedia editors found that most of the edits were considered to be in good faith, but a minority of edits were considered improper. At least one of the addresses involved was prohibited from further editing.
Incidents
Norm Coleman
Later in January 2006, Senator Norm Coleman's chief of staff, Erich Mische, verified that Coleman's staffers had edited his page "to correct inaccuracies and delete information." Mische stated: "What's to stop someone from writing in that Norm Coleman was 7 feet 10 inches, with green hair and one eye smack dab in the middle of his head? That's about as silly as this gets [...] When you put 'edia' in there, it makes it sound as if this is a benign, objective piece of information."
Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales said, "It appears to be a major rewrite of the article to make it more favorable."
Joe Biden
The Wikipedia investigation found that Biden staffers had removed and modified descriptions of incidents of alleged plagiarism and had recast discussion of a possible Biden 2008 presidential candidacy in a more favorable light. In February 2006, The Washington Post quoted Biden spokesperson Norm Kurz as saying that the changes that were "made to Biden's site by this office were designed to make it more fair and accurate."
Gil Gutknecht
On August 16, 2006, the Minneapolis-St. Paul Star Tribune reported that the office of Representative Gil Gutknecht tried twice—on July 24 and August 14, 2006—to remove a 128-word section in the Wikipedia article on him, replacing it with a more flattering 315-word entry from his official congressional biography. Gutknecht's office used the account "Gutknecht01" for the first edits on July 24, which was then notified of Wikipedia policies against self-editing. For the second set of edits on August 16, his office used an anonymous Congressional IP address.
Most of the removed text was about the 12-year term limit Gutknecht imposed on himself in 1995, as Gutknecht had run for re-election in 2006. He broke his promise and was subsequently defeated, though not specifically as a result of this pledge. A spokesman for Gutknecht did not dispute that his office tried to change his Wikipedia entry, but questioned the reliability of the encyclopedia.
U.S. Rep. David Davis and Tennessee Rep. Matthew Hill
In August 2007, U.S. Rep. David Davis's press secretary Timothy Hill at first denied—and later acknowledged, during a second press interview with the Knoxville News Sentinel—that he had used a congressional office computer and resources to edit Wikipedia in June 2007. His edits were to delete blocks of information about his employer and his brother Tennessee Representative Matthew Hill from their respective Wikipedia biographies. The information that was deleted "concerned political contributions to both his brother and Davis by former King Pharmaceuticals CEO John Gregory, as well as other ties to the Gregory family."
U.S. Rep. Mike Pence
In August 2011, The Huffington Post reported that the office of then-Indiana representative Mike Pence appeared to have edited Pence's Wikipedia page to make the representative look more flattering.
Edward Snowden
On August 2, 2013, an editor using an IP address linked to the U.S. Senate edited the Wikipedia page of whistleblower Edward Snowden to change his description from "dissident" to "traitor".
On August 5, 2014, an editor using an IP address linked to the U.S. House of Representatives edited the Wikipedia page of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, Navi Pillay, to describe Edward Snowden as an "American traitor."
Laverne Cox
On August 21, 2014, an editor using an IP address linked to the U.S. House of Representatives edited the page on the Netflix original series Orange Is the New Black to describe actress Laverne Cox as a "real man pretending to be a woman."
Senate Intelligence Committee report on CIA torture
On December 9 and 10, 2014, an anonymous user using an IP address registered to the U.S. Senate edited the article on the Senate Intelligence Committee report on CIA torture, removing a sentence characterizing the CIA's "enhanced interrogation techniques" as "torture."
Kavanaugh hearings
In September 2018, an anonymous editor from Congress posted the personal information of several Republican senators into their articles, leading to CongressEdits, a bot which posts edits to Wikipedia from IP addresses located in Congressional offices, being banned from Twitter.
On September 27, the disambiguation page for "Devil's Triangle" was edited from a House of Representatives IP address to describe it as a drinking game, matching the testimony of Kavanaugh.
Congressional edits
The Wikimedia system has responded in at least three ways to questionable edits. The most obvious response is case-by-case, based on the "watch" button at the top of each article: A user who sets that switch can get emails when that article is changed. Another is an occasional (usually temporary) block. At least some of these are documented in Wikipedia:Congressional staffer edits.
For edits from IP addresses associated with the U.S. Congress, Ed Summers also created a Twitter feed to notify the world of any changes made from those addresses: @congressedits was an automated Twitter account from 2014 to 2018 that tweeted anonymous changes to Wikipedia articles that originated from IP addresses belonging to the United States Congress. The changes were presumed to have been made by the staffs of US elected representatives and senators.
Prior to the Twitter feed, the best information about what congressional staffers were editing was found in the present article on U.S. Congressional staff edits to Wikipedia and in the Wikipedia project page for congressional staffer edits, both of which are manually updated.
Proponents
In August 2014, the Cato Institute suggested that Congressional staffers should spend spare time editing Wikipedia. A panel hosted by the institute endorsed the idea so that congressional staffers could use their time to write neutral and informative articles about proposed legislation to better educate the public. Experts on the panel considered the two main obstacles to doing this as being skepticism towards Wikipedia and the history of biased editing from Congressional staffers. The Cato Institute suggested one way to overcome these issues would be for the staffers to create user accounts and user profile pages disclosing their connections with Congress.
See also
CongressEdits, a former Twitter bot account which tweeted edits made by users in congressional IP ranges
Wikipedia coverage of American politics
References
External links
David Mehegan Bias, sabotage haunt Wikipedia's free world The Boston Globe, February 12, 2006
2000s controversies in the United States
2010s controversies in the United States
2000s in American politics
2010s in American politics
Conflict-of-interest editing on Wikipedia
Wikipedia
Employees of the United States Congress
History of Wikipedia
Wikipedia controversies
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingston%20Wildcats
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Kingston Wildcats
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Kingston Wildcats School of Basketball is a community basketball development club originating from Kingston that compete in the Surrey League and Basketball England National League. The club acts as "school of basketball" for players in the Royal Borough of Kingston and Surrey with teams for players between the ages of 8 and 16. The club also runs a senior men's team and its practices and home fixtures take place at Chessington School.
History
The team was founded in 1983 and played as Tolworth Reckers in the Surrey League until 1994 when as Chessington Wildcats they moved up to the regional NBL Division Three South. In 1996 they were promoted to the national NBL Division 2.
The team changed their name to Kingston Wildcats in an attempt to improve its profile in 1998 and this coupled with some shrewd recruiting culminated in winning the Division Two Play off final at Wembley beating the highly fancied Manchester Magic. An automatic place in Division One was initially denied due to the capacity at Chessington Sports Centre being below the 500 stipulated for the division.
In 2000 to take their place in Division One they moved to Tolworth Recreation Centre. TRC had hosted top flight basketball in the 70's and 80's when Kingston Kings were one of the best teams in the country, however a large investment by both Kingston Council and Kingston Wildcats was required to get the centre's equipment up to the required standard.
The club withdrew from the EBL prior to the 2006/07 season due to financial problems, and returned to the Surrey League. In 2007/08 the club entered the National Founders Cup, getting to the final where they lost by one point to London Lithuanians. In 2008/09 a win against King's Lynn Ironwolf in the final of same competition gave the club their second trophy on the national stage. In 2009/10 an injury depleted team lost in the final once again to London Lithuanians this time by one point. In 2010/11 Kingston reached the final again, but lost 79 -70 to London Rocco's Raiders.
Season-by-season National League records
DNQ denotes Did Not Qualify.
National Founders Cup
The Founders Cup is a national cup competition for clubs not playing in the national leagues. We first entered as Chessington Wildcats whilst in a regional league in 1994. There was then a long break while we were in the full national league. In 2007 Steve Rich and Mark Bottiglia organised a return to this competition. Coached by Phil Gunner the team made four finals in a row from 2008 to 2011.
Trojans Wildcats Trophy
In 2009 club president Steve Burnett instigated the Trojans Wildcats Trophy. This was to become an annual game between Kingston Wildcats and Tile Hill Trojans from the Warwickshire League. The 2009 game was played at Warwick University, moving to Chessington Sports Centre in 2010. The series which is currently sponsored by Alto Clothing Ltd, now alternates between Surrey and Warwickshire venues.
External links
Official Kingston Wildcats website
Surrey Basketball League
Basketball England National League
Basketball teams in England
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borko%20Furht
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Borko Furht
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Borko Furht, Ph.D. is an American scientist, academician, author, consultant, and speaker in the field of computer science and engineering. He is a professor in the Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering and Computer Science (CEECS) at Florida Atlantic University in Boca Raton, Florida. He is also Director of the NSF Industry/University Cooperative Research Center for Advanced Knowledge Enablement at FAU. In 2019 he was inducted in Academia Europaea, which is The Academy of Europe.
Career
Furht served as a senior researcher in the Institute Boris Kidric-Vinca, Yugoslavia (1970–82), an associate professor at University of Miami in Coral Gables, Florida (1982–87), he was a vice president of research and a senior director of development at MODCOMP (1987–92). He was Senior Assistant Vice President for Engineering and Technology at FAU (2006–08), Chair of Computer Science and Engineering Department at FAU (2002–09) and Chair of the Department of Computer & Electrical Engineering and Computer Science (2009–13).
In 2013 and 2019, Furht named Researcher of the Year at Florida Atlantic University.
He was founding Editor-in-Chief of Springer's journals: Journal of Multimedia Tools and Applications, and Journal of Big Data. He has published over 40 books and 300 research papers in scientific journals and conferences.
References
External links
Borko Furht publications
Living people
University of Miami faculty
Year of birth missing (living people)
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2873012
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pe%20%28text%20editor%29
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Pe (text editor)
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Pe, short for Programmer's Editor, is an open source text editor for the Be Operating System (BeOS), Haiku and other BeOS-like operating systems. It is targeted towards source-code editing, and features syntax highlighting for a large number of programming languages. It also works as a basic source-level HTML editor, with some HTML auto-completion support, automatic updating of files included within other files, and direct FTP integration. It is conceptually based on the Macintosh Programmer's Workshop and BBEdit, both of which are editing programs for the Mac OS.
Pe was written by the Dutch programmer Maarten Hekkelman, who also wrote BDB, the source-level debugger for the BeOS, and the spreadsheet Sum-It!, first for classic Mac OS and later BeOS where it was packaged by Beatware as half of BeBasics; a lightweight office suite, which was also open-sourced.
Pe was used to write the BeOS Bible and possible other similar-era Scot Hacker works, as well as In the Beginning... Was the Command Line by Neal Stephenson; both of which works mention it.
Features
Pe boasts features such as function auto-completion, powerful search-and-replace options, and syntax highlighting for several programming languages. Pe was then ported to Mac OS X, Linux and Windows under the name Pepper, and the original BeOS code was open-sourced. It has been included in the early builds of Haiku. Code from Pe was also incorporated into PalEdit, the editing component of the Paladin IDE.
General features include:
Drag-and-drop
Find and Replace (Multiple File Search)
Zooming
Split screen editing and synchronized scrolling
Open and Save directly from/to Server
Find Functions
Change Encoding
Go to line (By line number)
References
External links
Pe at Haiku
See also
Comparison of operating systems
List of BeOS programs
BeOS
BeOS text editors
Free software programmed in C++
Free text editors
Software using the MIT license
Text editors
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dharma%20Initiative
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Dharma Initiative
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The Dharma Initiative, also written DHARMA (Department of Heuristics and Research on Material Applications), is a fictional research project featured in the television series Lost. It was introduced in the second season episode "Orientation". In 2008, the Dharma Initiative website was launched. Dharma's interests were directly connected with fringe science. Dharma is a Sanskrit term used in Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism. The logo is an octagon with the word "dharma" inside, all inscribed inside a bagua.
Background
The Dharma Initiative and its origins are first explored in the episode "Orientation" by an orientation film in the Swan Station. Dr. Pierre Chang (Francois Chau), under the alias of Dr. Marvin Candle, explains that the project began in 1970, created by two doctoral candidates from the University of Michigan, Gerald and Karen DeGroot (Michael Gilday and Courtney Lavigne), and was funded by Alvar Hanso (Ian Patrick Williams) of the Hanso Foundation. They imagined a "large-scale communal research compound", where scientists and free thinkers from around the globe could research meteorology, psychology, parapsychology, zoology, electromagnetism, and a sixth discipline that the film begins to identify as "utopian social-" before being cut off.
The episodes "LaFleur" and "He's Our You" indicate that mathematician Horace Goodspeed was in charge of Dharma Initiative operations on the Island, at least from the very early 1970s through the time of "the Incident". Key decisions that needed to be made on the Island were taken by a committee, which included all department heads, including Head of Research Stuart Radzinsky and security head LaFleur (the name the time-traveling Sawyer was assuming). They, in turn, answer to the Dharma Initiative HQ based at the University of Michigan, as evidenced when Radzinsky threatens to call the University to override a key decision by Goodspeed. In the episode "The Variable", Daniel Faraday confirmed that Dharma Initiative Headquarters, at least through 1977, was located at Ann Arbor, Michigan.
The "Lost Experience", an alternate reality game which took place in 2006, revealed that the objective of the Dharma Initiative was to alter any of the six factors of the Valenzetti Equation, an equation which "predicts the exact number of years and months until humanity extinguishes itself," to allow humans to exist for longer by changing their doomsday. These factors are represented as numbers in the Valenzetti Equation and are also the numbers frequently mentioned in the show: 4, 8, 15, 16, 23 and 42.
In 1977, the Dharma workers based on the Island drilled into a huge electromagnetic pocket, releasing a catastrophically dangerous amount of electromagnetic energy. This is referred to as "the Incident" and is frequently alluded to in other Dharma Initiative sources. Radzinsky insisted on drilling despite warnings from Dr. Chang about the danger. In the Swan Station orientation film, recorded in 1980, Dr. Marvin Candle insists that the computer at the Swan Station not be used for any other purpose, specifically to communicate with other stations. When the Oceanic 815 survivors travel back in time to 1977, they attempt to negate the release of this energy by detonating the plutonium core of a hydrogen bomb, causing a massive explosion that returns all of the time travelers back to 2007. The future remains unchanged, supporting Miles' assertion that the bomb is the very cause of the Incident. The actions of the survivors in the past cause a temporal causality loop, in which their own actions in the past were in fact the cause of the events of the future.
After the Incident, according to notes on the blast door map painted by Stuart Radzinsky in the Swan Station, the Dharma Initiative's facilities on the Island seemed to fall into disrepair. The blast door map has been annotated about destroyed access tunnels, a breakdown in the Cerberus Security System and mentions facilities being abandoned or destroyed via other incidents or accidents, specifically one happening on October 28, 1984, another in 1985, and a final one on December 7, 1987. By the time Danielle Rousseau and her crew shipwrecked on the Island, in 1988, many of the facilities on the Island had been abandoned, including the radio tower. At no point between then and the eventual purge of its members did the Dharma Initiative attempt a search and rescue for Danielle or her crew, despite Danielle broadcasting her own distress signal on a continuous loop from the tower for sixteen years.
When the Dharma Initiative arrived on the Island, they fought with the Island's natives, known to them as the Hostiles and to the survivors of Flight 815 as the "Others". The "Hostiles" had been living on the Island long before the Initiative arrived. The Arrow Station was eventually given a mission to observe and formulate strategies to counter the Hostiles. When Ben Linus (Michael Emerson) arrived on the Island in 1970, there was still an open conflict between the Hostiles and the Dharma Initiative. At some point prior to 1974, a truce of some kind was brokered with the Hostiles. A series of protocols were put into place between the Hostiles and the Initiative. Several episodes mention that there was a "line" and that certain parts of the Island were considered to be the "territory" of each group. This conflict ended in 1992, when Linus joined the Hostiles, who killed the Initiative, an event which became known as "The Purge". The bodies were buried in a mass grave.
In 2001, after Stuart Radzinsky's alleged suicide in The Swan, Kelvin Inman, a man who found Desmond adrift on the beach, was still working for the Dharma Initiative in the Swan station. Lost producer Carlton Cuse confirms in a podcast that Kelvin was indeed a member of the Dharma Initiative. In the "Lost Experience", an actor portraying fictional Hanso Foundation executive Hugh McIntyre appeared on Jimmy Kimmel Live!, where he stated that the Foundation had stopped funding the Dharma Initiative in 1987. However, in season 2, an air drop of supplies arrived for the Swan station. This drop was made by a drone launched from the Dharma Logistics Warehouse located on the Orote Peninsula on the island of Guam. Two of the last known living members of the Dharma Initiative, known only as Hector and Glenn, had been sending regular supply drops to The Island for over twenty years. This indicates a financial structure had been left in place by the Hanso Foundation, hinted to in the Sri Lanka video, to pay the two workers and keep them supplied with packaged foodstuffs and equipment sufficient to continue sending pallets to The Island in perpetuity. They were regularly given the coordinates of The Island via a teletype link to the still-working Lamp Post station, allowing them to program the drones with the exact drop locations for their cargo. In the epilogue short video "The New Man in Charge", Ben Linus arrives at the warehouse and, after answering Hector and Glenn's questions, shuts it down, correctly telling the Dharma workers that there's a new man in charge (Hurley) and their work is no longer needed (as people are now allowed to leave The Island).
At the 2008 San Diego Comic-Con, a new ARG began with a booth recruiting new members to the Initiative. At the Lost panel, Hans van Eeghen, a Dharma executive, revealed that the results from the booth were "abysmal", and a few people had been selected to view a video that had been sent from thirty years in the past. In the video, Pierre Chang said that the work on the Island is valid, and it is essential that the Dharma Initiative is restarted. Following this a website was launched, which allowed users to join the Dharma Initiative.
Research stations
The Dharma Initiative placed nine known research stations around the Island (as well as the off-island Lamp Post), most of which take the form of hidden underground facilities or bunkers. After Oceanic Flight 815 crashes on the Island in September 2004, the survivors encounter several of these stations. The first to be discovered is "The Swan" which they refer to informally as "the hatch". Nine additional stations have since been visited over the series, each with its own particular logo associated with it: an octagon, similar to the bagua design, with a differing symbol at the center.
On the blast door map, there are 6 structures depicted, and at least 4 of them are labeled by name and icon like DHARMA stations: The Swan, The Flame, The Staff and The Arrow. The other structures are labeled by question marks or numbers. Two of the alleged stations are drawn with dotted lines. The 6 structures all surround a big circled question mark in the center of the map. At the top left, there is another structure (a 7th structure) which is scribbled out. The Swan Station's blast door map makes reference to a light manufacturing facility, a meteorological research station, station "CVII", and others that were never shown on the series.
Among the hatches on the southeast side of the map, there are 4 rectangular structures/labels that have "CVI","CVII","CVIII", and "CVIV" written on them. CV stands for Cerberus Vent, which was revealed in secret writing on the back of one of the Lost jigsaw puzzles. The Swan station's blast door map claims that there was, at one time, a tunnel network that connected many of the stations. Notations on the map suggest that the tunnels started falling into disrepair in the early 1980s, soon after the incident occurred.
Station 1: The Hydra
The Hydra is a zoological research station located on a small island roughly two miles off-shore from the main island. It is described as being about twice the size of Alcatraz Island. The Hydra facility has cages outside the station in the jungle where polar bears used to be kept. An underwater complex was once used as an aquarium, which housed sharks and dolphins. The facility also features living and research quarters. The symbol for this station is the usual Dharma Initiative logo with a hydra in the middle, which can be seen on a large canopy behind Kate and Sawyer's cages in season 3.
At the start of season three, Jack, Kate, and Sawyer are held captive on the Hydra island by the Others. Kate and Sawyer are forced to build a runway, until they manage to escape. In season two, a shark has the Dharma symbol branded on its tail. Also in season three episode "A Tale of Two Cities", Tom comments that the polar bears that used to be housed in the cage Sawyer was being held in figured out the "food" puzzle in two hours. A leather collar bearing the Dharma Hydra symbol is found near a polar bear skeleton in the Tunisian desert. In the fifth season, Ajira Airways Flight 316 makes a forced but overall safe landing on the Hydra island, landing on the runway built by the Others. In the fifth-season episode "Some Like It Hoth", Dr. Chang threatens to send an over-inquisitive Hurley to the Hydra Station to participate in their "ridiculous experiments" if he mentions a body delivered to Dr. Chang by Miles Straume.
Station 2: The Arrow
The Arrow station is first seen in "...And Found". In "Because You Left", a flashback shows Chang doing the initial recording for the orientation film, where he explains that it is a station for monitoring the Hostiles and formulating strategies to combat them. He is interrupted before he can finish. In "The Man Behind the Curtain", flashbacks of the Dharma Initiative in operation on the Island show one of the members, Horace Goodspeed (Doug Hutchison), wearing a jumpsuit bearing the Arrow station logo with "mathematician" written below it. When rediscovered in 2004, the word "quarantine" appears on the inside of the station's door. In "LaFleur", Horace gives the order to notify the Arrow to "prepare the heavy ordnance" when he believes there is an imminent danger from the Hostiles.
When the tail section survivors come across the Arrow Station in "The Other 48 Days", it has apparently been converted into a storage room. Within, they find a radio, a glass eye, and part of the Swan station's orientation film hidden inside a Bible. Producers Carlton Cuse and Damon Lindelof stated on a podcast that each object is significant, and not randomly chosen.
Station 3: The Swan
The Swan was planned to be a laboratory used by the Dharma Initiative for research on electromagnetism. In the episode "The Incident", Dharma Initiative member Radzinsky claimed when complete, the Swan Station would allow manipulation of electromagnetism that "would change the world". According to the feature "Access Granted" on the third season Blu-ray, Dharma drilled into the earth and hit an area containing a large electromagnetic buildup, which their drilling released. The Swan was built over this area to act as a cork. Dharma then came up with a scheme to "dam" the leak but with the drawback that the field built up behind the dam and would eventually break it. A failsafe key could be used to permanently "seal" the leak. The specific event happened in July 1977, as revealed in "The Incident", and necessitated the evacuation of the island.
On the station's orientation film, Doctor Marvin Candle explains that an "incident" occurred early in the station's experiments. An edit to the film, which according to Inman was made by Radzinsky, removed specific details of this incident. This event required the entire Swan station area to be sealed with a large amount of concrete "like Chernobyl" (according to Sayid and Daniel Faraday) to contain the dangerous energy. This caused a consistent build-up of electromagnetic energy, which resulted in a change of the station's focus: a two-member crew, replaced every 540 days, were instructed to enter a numeric code into a microcomputer terminal every 108 minutes. The station is equipped with a split-flap display timer, which is interfaced to a microcomputer terminal and connected to an alarm system.
The station is stocked with food, a record player with a collection of old LPs, a small library, an armory, a shower, and bunk beds. There is also a brand new washer/dryer and one of the books in the library is "Rainbow Six" by Tom Clancy, published in 1998. It is almost entirely underground, except for an entrance shaft and a concealed door (possibly due to being hidden in the Hostiles territory). The station also has several internal blast doors, with a map in invisible ink on one of them. This map has been worked on by, at a minimum, Kelvin Inman and Radzinsky. Analysis of the map suggests no less than five unique handwriting styles, and thus five different contributors. The map has direct revision dates on it, and as well as the obvious map entry, also seems to serve as some sort of history to happenings on the island, as there are many annotations that seem to suggest the writers were attempting to locate and ascertain the status of many stations on the Island. There are sections that are written in Latin. Kelvin Inman is seen writing in the lower right hand part of the map in "Live Together, Die Alone", near a revision dated for 6.26.2002. There are also acrylic based paints and several murals painted in different portions of the hatch by unknown people as well as tick marks on the wall derived from them.
In the episode "Some Like It Hoth", set in 1977, the Swan Station is shown to be under construction in an area designated as the Hostiles' territory, a violation of the truce Dharma had brokered with them, under the primary authority of Radzinsky. In the episode "The Incident", Dharma hits the pocket, releasing the energy and drawing all metallic objects into the hole. The plutonium core of a hydrogen bomb is detonated by the survivors in an attempt to negate the energy. In "Live Together, Die Alone", Desmond Hume (Henry Ian Cusick) shipwrecks on the Island in 2001 and is taken to the Swan station. Here Kelvin Inman explains about entering the numeric code then pushing the button to save the world. In September 2004, Kelvin and Desmond get into a fight, resulting in Kelvin's death. Desmond enters the numbers too late, resulting in an electromagnetic build-up, which causes the crash of Oceanic Flight 815. Two of the survivors, Locke (Terry O'Quinn) and Boone (Ian Somerhalder), discover the Swan accidentally. Locke manages to open it in the first-season finale "Exodus". Inside they find Desmond, who flees after they break the computer. The survivors manage to fix the computer, and begin pushing the button every 108 minutes.
After discovering the Pearl orientation film, Locke believes pushing the button is a psychological test, and with Desmond's help decides to find out what will happen if the button is not pushed. Desmond tries to convince Locke that the station is real, with data from the Pearl, but Locke breaks the computer anyway so he can't stop the countdown. This causes all the metal objects in the Swan to fly about, and the ground begins to shake. Realizing the importance of the button Locke accepts he was wrong, and Desmond turns the failsafe key. The sky turns violet temporarily, and the Swan is destroyed. The electromagnetic burst released by the destruction of the Swan Station renders the island momentarily visible to the outside world. The energy signature is detected by a monitoring station under the control of Penelope Widmore, which reported to her that they had "found it."
The Incident Room
In the video game Lost: Via Domus, the Incident Room is the abandoned laboratory revealed to be on the other side of the concrete wall in the Swan. The room was accessed by a tunnel and a large locked door. The room contains a large reactor and other severely damaged equipment. The reactor is tilted to one side and discharging electricity as well as coolant fluid. It has the appearance of two large electromagnetic coils suspended over a drilled shaft into the Island surrounded by severely damaged concrete. The Incident Room has its own computer much like the Swan's. This section of the Swan appeared on the blast door map as a blocked off section of the station ("Lockdown"), but was never seen in the show itself.
The Incident Room has been mentioned several times in Lost. When Sayid first visited the Swan he tried to find a way past the concrete wall, but it was just too thick to get through. Sayid told Jack that "The last time I heard of concrete being poured over everything in this way was Chernobyl", ("Everybody Hates Hugo").
The look and design for the "Incident Room" came from never before seen blueprints given to the developers by the Lost crew for the game. Although the game has been stated to be non-canon, the designs are the creators' intended layout for the blocked sections of the Swan station.
Station 4: The Flame
The Flame is the Dharma Initiative's communication station. It uses sonar and satellite technologies to communicate with the outside world and other stations on the Island, and can also be used to order food deliveries. Unlike the other stations, the Flame is not an underground bunker, but rather a wood-frame bungalow with a large satellite dish on the roof. Inside the station is a living area, a kitchen, and a computer room. Below the building is a large basement containing supplies, including a library of Dharma Initiative operations manuals. The facility also boasts several gardens, as well as chickens, cows, and goats roaming the area.
On the day Oceanic Flight 815 crashes on the Island, Mikhail Bakunin (Andrew Divoff) uses the station to access news feeds to gather information about the survivors. At Ben's request he alters one of the feeds to allow Juliet to see her sister and nephew alive and well off the Island. At some point after this, communication off the Island is no longer possible, as the Looking Glass is blocking all signals. In "Enter 77", Kate Austen (Evangeline Lilly), Sayid Jarrah (Naveen Andrews), and Locke discover the station. Locke uses the computer to send a message saying the Hostiles have invaded the station, and by doing so he unintentionally destroys it by causing the C4 lining the basement to go off. As shown in "LaFleur", Radzinsky was stationed at the Flame in 1977, where he designed the model for the future Swan Station.
Station 5: The Pearl
The Pearl is where the Dharma Initiative studied psychology. It primarily serves as a monitoring station, to which surveillance feeds from the other stations are sent. Its orientation film asserts that the Swan is a psychological experiment, and that the purpose of those stationed in the Pearl is to monitor the participants in that station. The station consists of a three-by-three bank of television sets, two chairs with writing surfaces, and a computer hooked to a printer. A pneumatic tube is installed in the room, which the orientation film states is used to transport notebooks to another Dharma location. According to the orientation film that features Dr Mark Whickman, two-person teams, working eight-hour shifts over a three-week period, were to watch the video displays and take notes on their observations. Every action, regardless of how trivial, was to be recorded into notebooks by the Pearl's team members.
After Oceanic Flight 815 crashes on the Island, Nikki and Paulo (Kiele Sanchez and Rodrigo Santoro) are the first survivors to encounter the Pearl, while searching for diamonds. Several weeks later, Locke and Mr. Eko (Adewale Akinnuoye-Agbaje) enter the Pearl and watch the orientation video. Locke believes this means pushing the button in the Swan is a psychological test, and resolves to discover what will happen if it is not pushed. However, Desmond postulates in "Live Together, Die Alone" that the Pearl participants were the true test subjects without knowing it. This is supported when the survivors discover that the pneumatic tube dumps the notebooks into an open field; the contents of the notebooks indicate that they had been dumped there long before the station closed. During season three, some of the survivors visit the Pearl in hope of finding a way to communicate with the Others, but discover that the station is only capable of receiving data, not sending them.
Station 6: The Orchid
Introduced in the three-part finale of the fourth season, "There's No Place Like Home", the Orchid station appears at first to be an abandoned greenhouse. Hidden below the greenhouse is a second level of the station, a furnished laboratory similar to the Swan station. The Orchid features a small chamber adjacent to an exotic matter anomaly, which can be used to warp time and space. An outtake from the orientation film was shown at the 2007 San Diego Comic-Con, where Doctor Edgar Halliwax explains that, contrary to Dharma's statements that the station was for botanical research, the station is used for researching a "Casimir effect" exhibited by the Island. The producers have confirmed that the video is canon, and holds relevance to the show itself.
Below the Orchid station is a room which consists of pillars and stones with unknown hieroglyphs that have been seen in a few other places on the Island, and ends with a room consisting of a giant frozen wheel built horizontally into the wall. As shown in "This Place is Death", the chamber was in place well before the construction of the Orchid. A well was connected to it at one point before the Orchid was built, but the chamber itself predates it. Despite being under the Orchid, it has nothing to do with the DHARMA Initiative, nor did any member of DHARMA ever set foot in the room or touch the wheel. Ben and Locke enter the station and Ben travels to this room, where he turns the wheel. As he pushes it, the gap containing the wheel glows and the Island vanishes. Ben is transported to the Tunisian Desert as a consequence of using it. As a result of turning the wheel, the survivors of Flight 815 and the freighter crew members on the Island (who are all candidates to replace Jacob) begin to jump randomly through time. When Locke returns to the wheel in "This Place is Death", it is shown to be bouncing erratically and still glowing. Locke turns the wheel back to its original position, transporting himself off the Island to the same place Ben ended up. The time jumps also stop, stranding the survivors in 1974. Charles Widmore would later tell Locke that the Tunisian Desert is the "exit point" for anyone who uses the wheel.
In a flashback in "Because You Left", Dr. Chang is called to investigate an incident at the Orchid. A construction worker is shown bleeding from his eyes and mouth, and six drill bits have been melted drilling into the future site of the chamber. Scans of the wall reveal the presence of the chamber with the wheel behind it. Chang refuses to use explosives to clear the wall, since it might release a limitless energy source. He believes that they will be able to control time if the energy can be harnessed properly.
Station ?: The Staff
The Staff is a medical research station, later designed to house pregnant women who were taken there to give birth and/or die. It consists of a long corridor, at the end of which is an operating room, as well as a nursery and a locker room. Hidden inside one of the lockers is a switch that unlocks a hidden vault that contains medical equipment and nursery furniture. There is also another hidden room, where the Others take women who have become pregnant on the Island to die.
After Claire Littleton (Emilie de Ravin) is kidnapped by the Others in season one, she is taken to the Staff station. Here she has a drug administered to her fetus. A renegade Other, Alex (Tania Raymonde), helps Claire to escape when she learns that they are planning to steal Claire's baby. When it is found by Claire and Kate later on, Kate discovers costumes, a fake beard, and some theatrical glue in the Staff locker room. In season three, Sun-Hwa Kwon (Yunjin Kim) and Juliet Burke (Elizabeth Mitchell) visit the Staff station to perform an ultrasound to discover when Sun's baby was conceived. In season four, Faraday, Charlotte, Jin and Sun visit the station to get some medical supplies for Jack's operation.
This station is also where people come when they get "sick".
Station ?: The Looking Glass
The Looking Glass is located on the sea-bed at approximately 60 feet (18m) depth, some 600 feet (182m) from the beach. The station is used to jam communications going to and from the Island, as well as generating a beacon to guide the submarine to the Island. When the Dharma Initiative was still active, the Looking Glass was used to resupply the submarine. The station receives power from the cable that Sayid discovered in the episode "Solitary". The station's logo is a rabbit, a reference to the White Rabbit from Alice in Wonderland (the sequel to which is Through the Looking-Glass). Its logo can be seen in the episode "Greatest Hits" when Charlie swims down to it. The Others were under the impression that the station was flooded. Only Ben knew that the station was still in operation and there were people working there.
In the season three finale, "Through the Looking Glass", Charlie Pace discovers that the rescue boat linked to Naomi, the parachute woman, was not sent out by Desmond Hume's ex-girlfriend Penny Widmore. Charlie locks the door to the control room when Mikhail shatters the porthole window, subsequently flooding the room. This prevents Desmond from getting to Charlie, thereby fulfilling Desmond's latest "premonition" (Charlie was meant to drown in the control room after disabling the jamming equipment). He quickly writes "Not Penny's Boat" on his hand and shows Desmond through the glass on the door.
Station 9: The Tempest
The Tempest is a chemical weapons development station on the Island, first seen in the episode "The Other Woman". It is used to control the release of poisonous gases over the Island. In "The Other Woman", it was revealed that part of Daniel Faraday's and Charlotte Lewis' primary missions were to disable the gases at the station. They said they needed to press the button to save everyone, although they may have wanted to disable the station's gases to prevent Benjamin Linus from using the Tempest as a weapon of last resort against the Island's enemies.
Station ?: The Lamp Post
The Lamp Post is the only known off-island Dharma station. It is located in Los Angeles under a church, built on top of a pocket of electromagnetic energy similar to that on the island. This station was used by the DHARMA Initiative to find the Island. As the island can move and is hard to locate, the researchers developed an equation to predict where the island would be in the future, thereby providing a window of opportunity to reach it. A large pendulum (resembling a Foucault pendulum) hangs from the ceiling making chalk marks on a map on the floor beneath, making a pattern with lines crossing a central point from almost every direction except up and down. Many computers surround the pendulum, along with a panel on the wall that marks latitude and longitude. The inside of the station first appears in the second episode of season five, "The Lie", though no explanation of its purpose (or that it is, in fact, a DHARMA station) is revealed until the following episode, "316". The computers also seem to be able to find data regarding the Island, for example how long the people who left the Island have to return before an unspecified catastrophe occurs (70 hours). It is unknown how these data are calculated or received. Eloise Hawking is currently in charge of the station, and uses it to help the Oceanic 6 return to the island with the assistance of Ben Linus.
The station's logo includes the traditional Dharma octagon-shape with a picture of what appears to be a lamp post emitting light to either side. This picture can also refer to the pendulum within the station as evidenced by the pointed tip in the picture.
Mysteries of the Universe
Starting on July 23, 2009, ABC's official Lost website started posting a five-part documentary from lost footage from a short-lived 1980s television series "Mysteries of the Universe". The brand and its episodes were created by ABC and the Lost team in 2009 as a promotion for the final season of the show. A documentary series with a similar name was made in the 1980s, which may provide documentary with an appearance of being factual – although the presentation contains humor. The videos contain new revelations about the DHARMA Initiative and the conspiracies that surround it.
Appearances in Lost
Hanso Foundation
The Hanso Foundation, founded by Danish arms dealer Alvar Hanso, is depicted as the major benefactor of the Dharma Initiative. Nearly all information about the Foundation is drawn from its Web site, thehansofoundation.org, with further background revealed as part of the alternate reality game, the Lost Experience.
During the Lost Experience, documents and other information were released to suggest that the management of the Foundation was scandalous and, in some cases, criminal. For example, some executives were revealed to have falsely reported the extent of their education in their biographies. One executive was caught in an extramarital affair. Others defended tobacco companies, nuclear power plants and an oil company that dumped chemical waste in Florida. Another executive was sentenced to eight years for insider trading which he subsidized through a retirement fund for a health care union.
In popular culture
In Half-Life 2: Episode Two, players can find an Easter egg in the sixth chapter, "Our Mutual Fiend". In another twist which connects the two media, Our Mutual Friend is a book that Desmond was saving to read just before his suicide in the Swan station on Lost. In Uriah's lab, there is an inaccessible room containing a computer terminal with the numbers shown on the screen and a Dharma-style octagon with a pine tree symbol for the White Forest base on the wall. This easter egg was added at the request of Gabe Newell, who promised to insert a reference to Lost in response to Half-Life references in Losts first season episode "The Greater Good".
In 2009, The Fringemunks released a song called "DHARMA Initiative" (a parody of Culture Club's "Karma Chameleon").
In the 30 Rock episode, "The Beginning of the End", which is also the name of a Lost episode, Kenneth Parcell has Dharma Initiative Ice Cream, calling it Government Ice Cream.
The character of Joculine in Psycholonials has a Dharma Initiative tattoo on her shoulder.
Further reading
"Research Ethics and the Dharma Initiative" by Deborah R. Barnbaum, in Lost and Philosophy: The Island Has Its Reasons, Blackwell Publishing (2008)
"Strangers in a Strange Land: Evading Environmental Apocalypse Through Human Choice" by Carlos A. Tairn and Stacey K. Sowards, in Looking for Lost: Critical Essays on the Enigmatic Series, McFarland & Company (2011)
Lost Humanity: The Mythology and Themes of Lost by Pearson Moore, Lulu (2012)
"Lost Spirituality" in Unlocking the Meaning of Lost: An Unauthorized Guide by Lynette Porter & David Lavery, Sourcebooks (2006)
Lost: It Only Ends Once by Robert Dougherty, iUniverse (2010)
References
Fictional secret societies
Fictional scientists
Fictional soldiers
Fictional laboratories
Lost (TV series)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solium
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Solium
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Solium Capital, now known as Shareworks by Morgan Stanley, is a Software-as-a-Service (SaaS) company headquartered in Calgary, Alberta, Canada. It is best known for Shareworks, software used by public and private companies to manage their employee stock options and/or cap tables. It also does 409A valuations (see Internal Revenue Code section 409A). The company has ~3,000 clients and has offices in Canada, the United States, the UK, Europe and Australia. Morgan Stanley announced a definitive agreement to acquire Solium in February 2019 for approximately CAD$1.1 billion (US$900 million), a 40% premium over the recent trading price.
History
Solium was founded 1999 by two Calgary-based financial advisers, John Kenny and Mark Van Hees. In 2001, the company made its initial public offering (IPO) on the TSX Venture Exchange. Early clients included TransAlta, Encana Corp., and Shell Canada Ltd. In 2004, Solium became profitable.
In 2010, Solium acquired Computershare's Transcentive business. In this transaction, Solium acquired the Express Options software platform, which UBS white-labeled.
In 2011, Solium opened an office in London, UK.
In 2012, Solium acquired the CapMx business from Silicon Valley Bank.
In 2013, Barclays Corporate and Employer Solutions announced a partnership with Solium to white-label Shareworks.
In 2014, Solium opened an office in Sydney, Australia. Later that year, BHP Billiton became a client.
In 2016, Morgan Stanley announced that it would use Shareworks to serve its U.S. clients.
In 2017, UBS began to white-label Shareworks to run its Equity Plan Advisory Services.
In 2017, Solium acquired Capshare and let it continue to run as an independent entity.
in 2018, Solium acquired Advanced-HR, a U.S. company that provides compensation data and compensation planning software for private and venture backed companies.
In 2019, Solium was acquired by Morgan Stanley at a price of CAD$19.15 per Common Share. The total transaction was valued at approximately CAD$1.1 billion (US$900 million).
References
External links
Official website
Companies based in Calgary
Software companies of Canada
Software companies established in 1999
Canadian companies established in 1999
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37922760
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predictprotein
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Predictprotein
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PredictProtein (PP) is an automatic service that searches up-to-date public sequence databases, creates alignments, and predicts aspects of protein structure and function. Users send a protein sequence and receive a single file with results from database comparisons and prediction methods. PP went online in 1992 at the European Molecular Biology Laboratory; since 1999 it has operated from Columbia University and in 2009 it moved to the Technische Universität München. Although many servers have implemented particular aspects, PP remains the most widely used public server for structure prediction: over 1.5 million requests from users in 104 countries have been handled; over 13000 users submitted 10 or more different queries. PP web pages are mirrored in 17 countries on 4 continents. The system is optimized to meet the demands of experimentalists not experienced in bioinformatics. This implied that we focused on incorporating only high-quality methods, and tried to collate results omitting less reliable or less important ones.
Attempt to simplify output by incorporating a hierarchy of thresholds
The attempt to ‘pre-digest’ as much information as possible to simplify the ease of interpreting the results is a unique pillar of PP. For example, by default PP returns only those proteins found in the database that are very likely to have a similar structure to the query protein. Particular predictions, such as those for membrane helices, coiled-coil regions, signal peptides and nuclear localization signals, are not returned if found to be below given probability thresholds.
Each request triggers the application of over 20 different methods
Users receive a single output file with the following results. Database searches: similar sequences are reported and aligned by a standard, pairwise BLAST, an iterated PSI-BLAST search. Although the pairwise BLAST searches are identical to those obtainable from the NCBI site, the iterated PSI-BLAST is performed on a carefully filtered database to avoid accumulating false positives during the iteration,. A standard search for functional motifs in the PROSITE database. PP now also identifies putative boundaries for structural domains through the CHOP procedure. Structure prediction methods: secondary structure, solvent accessibility and membrane helices predicted by the PHD and PROF programs, membrane strands predicted by PROFtmb, coiled-coil regions by COILS, and inter-residue contacts through PROFcon, low-complexity regions are marked by SEG and long regions with no regular secondary structure are identified by NORSp,. The PHD/PROF programs are only available through PP. The particular way in which PP automatically iterates PSI-BLAST searches and the way in which we decide what to include in sequence families is also unique to PP. The particular aspects of function that are currently embedded explicitly in PP are all somehow related to sub-cellular localization: we detect nuclear localization signals through PredictNLS, we predict localization independent of targeting signals through LOCnet; and annotations homology to proteins involved in cell-cycle control.
Availability
Web Service
The PredictProtein web service is available at www.predictprotein.org. Users can submit an amino acid sequence, and get in return a set of automatic annotations for the submitted sequence. The service is supported by a database of pre-calculated results that speed up the interaction time.
Cloud Solution
The PredictProtein cloud solution builds upon the open source operating system Debian, and provides its functionality as a set of free Debian software packages. Bio-Linux is an operating system for bioinformatics and computational biology. Its latest release 7 provides more than 500 bioinformatics programs on an Ubuntu Linux base. Ubuntu is a Debian derivative, an operating system that is based on Debian with its own additions. Cloud BioLinux is a comprehensive cloud solution that is derived from Bio-Linux and Ubuntu. Debian derivatives can easily share packages between each other. For example, Debian packages are automatically incorporated in Ubuntu, and are also usable in Cloud BioLinux (the procedure is described in ).
See also
Protein structure prediction
Protein structure prediction software
References
Protein engineering
Proteomics
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4054664
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NT%20LAN%20Manager
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NT LAN Manager
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In a Windows network, NT (New Technology) LAN Manager (NTLM) is a suite of Microsoft security protocols intended to provide authentication, integrity, and confidentiality to users. NTLM is the successor to the authentication protocol in Microsoft LAN Manager (LANMAN), an older Microsoft product. The NTLM protocol suite is implemented in a Security Support Provider, which combines the LAN Manager authentication protocol, NTLMv1, NTLMv2 and NTLM2 Session protocols in a single package. Whether these protocols are used or can be used on a system which is governed by Group Policy settings, for which different versions of Windows have different default settings.
NTLM passwords are considered weak because they can be brute-forced very easily with modern hardware.
Protocol
NTLM is a challenge–response authentication protocol which uses three messages to authenticate a client in a connection-oriented environment (connectionless is similar), and a fourth additional message if integrity is desired.
First, the client establishes a network path to the server and sends a NEGOTIATE_MESSAGE advertising its capabilities.
Next, the server responds with CHALLENGE_MESSAGE which is used to establish the identity of the client.
Finally, the client responds to the challenge with an AUTHENTICATE_MESSAGE.
The NTLM protocol uses one or both of two hashed password values, both of which are also stored on the server (or domain controller), and which through a lack of salting are password equivalent, meaning that if you grab the hash value from the server, you can authenticate without knowing the actual password. The two are the LM hash (a DES-based function applied to the first 14 characters of the password converted to the traditional 8-bit PC charset for the language), and the NT hash (MD4 of the little endian UTF-16 Unicode password). Both hash values are 16 bytes (128 bits) each.
The NTLM protocol also uses one of two one-way functions, depending on the NTLM version; NT LanMan and NTLM version 1 use the DES-based LanMan one-way function (LMOWF), while NTLMv2 uses the NT MD4 based one-way function (NTOWF).
NTLMv1
The server authenticates the client by sending an 8-byte random number, the challenge. The client performs an operation involving the challenge and a secret shared between client and server, specifically one of the two password hashes described above. The client returns the 24-byte result of the computation. In fact, in NTLMv1 the computations are usually made using both hashes and both 24-byte results are sent. The server verifies that the client has computed the correct result, and from this infers possession of the secret, and hence the authenticity of the client.
Both the hashes produce 16-byte quantities. Five bytes of zeros are appended to obtain 21 bytes. The 21 bytes are separated in three 7-byte (56-bit) quantities. Each of these 56-bit quantities is used as a key to DES encrypt the 64-bit challenge. The three encryptions of the challenge are reunited to form the 24-byte response. Both the response using the LM hash and the NT hash are returned as the response, but this is configurable.
C = 8-byte server challenge, random
K1 | K2 | K3 = NTLM-Hash | 5-bytes-0
response = DES(K1,C) | DES(K2,C) | DES(K3,C)
NTLMv2
NTLMv2, introduced in Windows NT 4.0 SP4 (and natively supported in Windows 2000), is a challenge-response authentication protocol. It is intended as a cryptographically strengthened replacement for NTLMv1, enhancing NTLM security by hardening the protocol against many spoofing attacks and adding the ability for a server to authenticate to the client.
NTLMv2 sends two responses to an 8-byte server challenge. Each response contains a 16-byte HMAC-MD5 hash of the server challenge, a fully/partially randomly generated client challenge, and an HMAC-MD5 hash of the user's password and other identifying information. The two responses differ in the format of the client challenge. The shorter response uses an 8-byte random value for this challenge. In order to verify the response, the server must receive as part of the response the client challenge. For this shorter response, the 8-byte client challenge appended to the 16-byte response makes a 24-byte package which is consistent with the 24-byte response format of the previous NTLMv1 protocol. In certain non-official documentation (e.g. DCE/RPC Over SMB, Leighton) this response is termed LMv2.
The second response sent by NTLMv2 uses a variable-length client challenge which includes (1) the current time in NT Time format, (2) an 8-byte random value (CC2 in the box below), (3) the domain name and (4) some standard format stuff. The response must include a copy of this client challenge, and is therefore variable length. In non-official documentation, this response is termed NTv2.
Both LMv2 and NTv2 hash the client and server challenge with the NT hash of the user's password and other identifying information. The exact formula is to begin with the NT hash, which is stored in the SAM or AD, and continue to hash in, using HMAC-MD5, the username and domain name. In the box below, X stands for the fixed contents of a formatting field.
SC = 8-byte server challenge, random
CC = 8-byte client challenge, random
CC* = (X, time, CC2, domain name)
v2-Hash = HMAC-MD5(NT-Hash, user name, domain name)
LMv2 = HMAC-MD5(v2-Hash, SC, CC)
NTv2 = HMAC-MD5(v2-Hash, SC, CC*)
response = LMv2 | CC | NTv2 | CC*
NTLM2 Session
The NTLM2 Session protocol is similar to MS-CHAPv2. It consists of authentication from NTLMv1 combined with session security from NTLMv2.
Briefly, the NTLMv1 algorithm is applied, except that an 8-byte client challenge is appended to the 8-byte server challenge and MD5-hashed. The least 8-byte half of the hash result is the challenge utilized in the NTLMv1 protocol. The client challenge is returned in one 24-byte slot of the response message, the 24-byte calculated response is returned in the other slot.
This is a strengthened form of NTLMv1 which maintains the ability to use existing Domain Controller infrastructure yet avoids a dictionary attack by a rogue server. For a fixed X, the server computes a table where location Y has value K such that Y=DES_K(X). Without the client participating in the choice of challenge, the server can send X, look up response Y in the table and get K. This attack can be made practical by using rainbow tables.
However, existing NTLMv1 infrastructure allows that the challenge/response pair is not verified by the server, but sent to a Domain Controller for verification. Using NTLM2 Session, this infrastructure continues to work if the server substitutes for the challenge the hash of the server and client challenges.
NTLMv1
Client<-Server: SC
Client->Server: H(P,SC)
Server->DomCntl: H(P,SC), SC
Server<-DomCntl: yes or no
NTLM2 Session
Client<-Server: SC
Client->Server: H(P,H'(SC,CC)), CC
Server->DomCntl: H(P,H'(SC,CC)), H'(SC,CC)
Server<-DomCntl: yes or no
Availability and use of NTLM
Since 2010, Microsoft no longer recommends NTLM in applications:
Implementers should be aware that NTLM does not support any recent cryptographic methods, such as AES or SHA-256. It uses cyclic redundancy checks (CRC) or MD5 for integrity, and RC4 for encryption.
Deriving a key from a password is as specified in RFC1320 and FIPS46-2. Therefore, applications are generally advised not to use NTLM.
Despite these recommendations, NTLM is still widely deployed on systems. A major reason is to maintain compatibility with older systems. However, it can be avoided in some circumstances.
Microsoft has added the NTLM hash to its implementation of the Kerberos protocol to improve interoperability (in particular, the RC4-HMAC encryption type). According to an independent researcher, this design decision allows Domain Controllers to be tricked into issuing an attacker with a Kerberos ticket if the NTLM hash is known.
Microsoft adopted Kerberos as the preferred authentication protocol for Windows 2000 and subsequent Active Directory domains. Kerberos is typically used when a server belongs to a Windows Server domain. Microsoft recommends developers neither to use Kerberos nor the NTLM Security Support Provider (SSP) directly.
Your application should not access the NTLM security package directly; instead, it should use the Negotiate security package. Negotiate allows your application to take advantage of more advanced security protocols if they are supported by the systems involved in the authentication. Currently, the Negotiate security package selects between Kerberos and NTLM. Negotiate selects Kerberos unless it cannot be used by one of the systems involved in the authentication.
Use of the NTLM Security Support Provider
The NTLM SSP is used in the following situations:
The client is authenticating to a server that doesn't belong to a domain or no Active Directory domain exists (commonly referred to as "workgroup" or "peer-to-peer")
The server must have the "password-protected sharing" feature enabled, which is not enabled by default and which is mutually exclusive with HomeGroup on some versions of Windows.
When server and client both belong to the same HomeGroup, a protocol similar to Kerberos, Public Key Cryptography based User to User Authentication will be used instead of NTLM. HomeGroup is probably the easiest way to share resources on a small network, requiring minimal setup, even compared to configuring a few additional users to be able to use password-protected sharing, which may mean it is used much more than password-protected sharing on small networks and home networks.
If the server is a device that supports SMB, such as NAS devices and network printers, the NTLM SSP may offer the only supported authentication method. Some implementations of SMB or older distributions of e.g. Samba may cause Windows to negotiate NTLMv1 or even LM for outbound authentication with the SMB server, allowing the device to work although it may be loaded with outdated, insecure software regardless of whether it were a new device.
If the server is a member of a domain but Kerberos cannot be used.
The client is authenticating to a server using an IP address (and no reverse name resolution is available)
The client is authenticating to a server that belongs to a different Active Directory forest that has a legacy NTLM trust instead of a transitive inter-forest trust
Where a firewall would otherwise restrict the ports required by Kerberos (typically TCP 88)
Use of protocol versions
After it has been decided either by the application developer or by the Negotiate SSP that the NTLM SSP be used for authentication, Group Policy dictates the ability to use each of the protocols that the NTLM SSP implements. There are five authentication levels.
Send LM & NTLM responses: Clients use LM and NTLM authentication, and never use NTLMv2 session security; DCs accept LM, NTLM, and NTLMv2 authentication.
Send LM & NTLM - use NTLMv2 session security if negotiated: Clients use LM and NTLM authentication, and use NTLMv2 session security if server supports it; DCs accept LM, NTLM, and NTLMv2 authentication.
Send NTLM response only: Clients use NTLM authentication only, and use NTLMv2 session security if server supports it; DCs accept LM, NTLM, and NTLMv2 authentication.
Send NTLMv2 response only: Clients use NTLMv2 authentication only, and use NTLMv2 session security if server supports it; DCs accept LM, NTLM, and NTLMv2 authentication.
Send NTLMv2 response only\refuse LM: Clients use NTLMv2 authentication only, and use NTLMv2 session security if server supports it; DCs refuse LM (accept only NTLM and NTLMv2 authentication).
Send NTLMv2 response only\refuse LM & NTLM: Clients use NTLMv2 authentication only, and use NTLMv2 session security if server supports it; DCs refuse LM and NTLM (accept only NTLMv2 authentication).
DC would mean Domain Controller, but use of that term is confusing. Any computer acting as server and authenticating a user fulfills the role of DC in this context, for example a Windows computer with a local account such as Administrator when that account is used during a network logon.
Prior to Windows NT 4.0 Service Pack 4, the SSP would negotiate NTLMv1 and fall back to LM if the other machine did not support it.
Starting with Windows NT 4.0 Service Pack 4, the SSP would negotiate NTLMv2 Session whenever both client and server would support it. Up to and including Windows XP, this used either 40- or 56-bit encryption on non-U.S. computers, since the United States had severe restrictions on the export of encryption technology at the time. Starting with Windows XP SP3, 128-bit encryption could be added by installing an update and on Windows 7, 128-bit encryption would be the default.
In Windows Vista and above, LM has been disabled for inbound authentication. Windows NT-based operating systems up through and including Windows Server 2003 store two password hashes, the LAN Manager (LM) hash and the Windows NT hash. Starting in Windows Vista, the capability to store both is there, but one is turned off by default. This means that LM authentication no longer works if the computer running Windows Vista acts as the server. Prior versions of Windows (back as far as Windows NT 4.0 Service Pack 4) could be configured to behave this way, but it was not the default.
Weakness and vulnerabilities
NTLM remains vulnerable to the pass the hash attack, which is a variant on the reflection attack which was addressed by Microsoft security update MS08-068. For example, Metasploit can be used in many cases to obtain credentials from one machine which can be used to gain control of another machine. The Squirtle toolkit can be used to leverage web site cross-site scripting attacks into attacks on nearby assets via NTLM.
In February 2010, Amplia Security discovered several flaws in the Windows implementation of the NTLM authentication mechanism which broke the security of the protocol allowing attackers to gain read/write access to files and remote code execution. One of the attacks presented included the ability to predict pseudo-random numbers and challenges/responses generated by the protocol. These flaws had been present in all versions of Windows for 17 years. The security advisory explaining these issues included fully working proof-of-concept exploits. All these flaws were fixed by MS10-012.
In 2012, it was demonstrated that every possible 8-character NTLM password hash permutation can be cracked in under 6 hours.
In 2019, this time was reduced to roughly 2.5 hours by using more modern hardware. Also, Rainbow tables are available for eight- and nine-character NTLM passwords. Shorter passwords can be recovered by brute force methods.
Note that the password-equivalent hashes used in pass-the-hash attacks and password cracking must first be "stolen" (such as by compromising a system with permissions sufficient to access hashes). Also, these hashes are not the same as the NTLMSSP_AUTH "hash" transmitted over the network during a conventional NTLM authentication.
Compatibility with Linux
NTLM implementations for Linux include Cntlm and winbind (part of Samba). These allow Linux applications to use NTLM proxies.
FreeBSD also supports storing passwords via Crypt (C) in the insecure NT-Hash form.
See also
LAN Manager
NTLMSSP
Integrated Windows Authentication
Kerberos
References
External links
Online NTLM hash crack using Rainbow tables
NT LAN Manager (NTLM) Authentication Protocol Specification
Cntlm – NTLM, NTLMSR, NTLMv2 Authentication Proxy and Accelerator Personal HTTP(S) and SOCKS5 proxy for NTLM-unaware applications (Windows/Linux/UNIX)
The NTLM Authentication Protocol and Security Support Provider A detailed analysis of the NTLM protocol.
MSDN article explaining the protocol and that it has been renamed
MSDN page on NTLM authentication
Libntlm – a free implementation.
NTLM Authorization Proxy Server software that allows users to authenticate via an MS Proxy Server.
Installing NTLM authentication – NTLM set-up instructions for Samba and Midgard on Linux
NTLM version 2 (NTLMv2) and the LMCompatibilityLevel setting that governs it
Jespa – Java Active Directory Integration Full NTLM security service provider with server-side NETLOGON validation (commercial but free up to 25 users)
EasySSO - NTML Authenticator for JIRA NTLM Authenticator utilising Jespa library to provide IWA for Atlassian products.
ntlmv2-auth NTLMv2 API and Servlet Filter for Java
A ntlm message generator tool
WAFFLE – Java/C# Windows Authentication Framework
objectif-securite (Rainbow tables for ophcrack)
Px for Windows - An HTTP proxy server to automatically authenticate through an NTLM proxy
Microsoft Windows security technology
Computer network security
Computer access control protocols
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48918767
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NOBUS
|
NOBUS
|
NOBUS ("Nobody But Us") is a term used by the United States National Security Agency (NSA) to describe a known security vulnerability that it believes the United States (US) alone can exploit. As technology and encryption advance, entities around the globe are gravitating towards common platforms and systems, such as Microsoft, Linux, and Apple. This convergence in usage creates a conflict between patching system vulnerabilities to protect one's own information, and exploiting the same system vulnerabilities to discover information about an adversary. To handle this conflict, the NSA developed the NOBUS system in which they evaluate the likelihood that an adversary would be able to exploit a known vulnerability in a system. If they determine the vulnerability is only exploitable by the NSA for reasons such as computational resources, budget, or skill set, they label it as NOBUS and will not move to patch it, but rather leave it open to exploit against current or future targets. Broadly, the concept of NOBUS refers to the gap in signals intelligence (SIGINT) capabilities between the US and the rest of the world. Critics believe that this approach to signals intelligence poses more of a threat to the US than an advantage as the abilities of other entities progress and the market for buying vulnerabilities evolves.
History
During the early 1900’s, protecting one’s own communications while intercepting the communications of adversaries was not in conflict. World War I (WWI) and World War II (WWII) signals intelligence contained a mixture of eavesdropping on radio communications, and breaking target cipher messages, actions that did not weaken the security of one's own information. The Allies' Operation Ultra during WWII was responsible for breaking Enigma, the German cipher device used to transmit military messages. By breaking Enigma, the security of the Allies cipher machine, SIGABA, was not influenced, since they were separate systems using separate technology.As technology advanced, this separation between offensive SIGINT, the act of intercepting adversaries communications, and defensive SIGINT, the act of protecting one's own messages, began to disappear. The advancement of telecommunications, the internet, and large corporations such as Microsoft and Apple, meant that often times both sides of a conflict use the same system.As such, if a group discovers a vulnerability in a target's system, it also likely means they've discovered a vulnerability in their own system. Disclosing the vulnerability for fixing weakens intelligence, while withholding information about the vulnerability weakens security, making the decision of what to do with a discovered exploit incredibly complicated.
The intelligence alliance group known as the Five Eyes, consisting of the US, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom, became uniquely situated in the world to take advantage of the progress of technology for their SIGINT abilities. Almost all of the communications across the globe physically pass through one of the Five Eyes, allowing for a physical advantage in their eavesdropping abilities. This geographical positioning was one of the reasons that the US was leading the SIGINT charge early on.
In addition, many technology companies were US companies, giving the US legal power over the corporations that other entities and governments lacked. An example of this NOBUS advantage is the NSA program known as PRISM, which gives them the ability to demand information from companies such as Google, Apple, Microsoft, and others, about their targets.
Former NSA Director Michael Hayden has since acknowledged the concept of NOBUS:You look at a vulnerability through a different lens if even with the vulnerability it requires substantial computational power or substantial other attributes and you have to make the judgment who else can do this? If there's a vulnerability here that weakens encryption but you still need four acres of Cray computers in the basement in order to work it you kind of think "NOBUS" and that's a vulnerability we are not ethically or legally compelled to try to patch – it's one that ethically and legally we could try to exploit in order to keep Americans safe from others.
The commoditization of the Zero-Day exploit market changed the landscape of SIGINT in the 2000's. A Zero-Day (or 0-day) exploit is a software vulnerability that the software developer is not aware of and therefore has no immediate fix. In other words, when the exploit is used to steal information or corrupt a system, the developers have zero-days to fix it. Zero-day exploits were being developed and sold by a few individuals in the 1990's, but in the early 2000s companies dedicated to buying exploits of hackers around the world began popping up. This grey-market for zero-day exploits allowed anyone in the world with enough funds to buy exploits to commonly used systems.
In 2013, American whistleblower Edward Snowden leaked NSA documents that revealed that the NSA was spending considerable money in the zero-day market to accumulate exploits, likely the biggest buyer in the field. The ability to spend top dollar for exploits is considered a NOBUS capability since many other entities often cannot spend that much on an exploit. By 2012, a single iOS bug could earn as much as $250,000 on the grey market. In 2021, it is known that the NSA spends 10 times as much on offensive SIGINT than defensive, with 100 employees working on offense for every 1 employee on defense.
The Snowden leaks also revealed an NSA program in cooperation with its British counterpart Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ) known as Muscular. This program involved tapping into the underwater internet cables of companies including Google and Yahoo. This collection of information as it travels unencrypted between internal company servers is known as "upstream" collection and the corporations affected were completely unaware of it. Muscular took place on British territory, exemplifying a NOBUS capability given that the NSA and GCHQ were allies and working together on the program.
US government response
Following the Edward Snowden leaks, in 2014 United States President Obama addressed the SIGINT tactics of the NSA. In his address he announces that he will be strengthening executive oversight of intelligence with the hope that individual security, foreign relations, and the intentions of corporations can all be considered. He also announced that he will be appointing a new senior official at the White House responsible for implementing new privacy safeguards. However, the usage of zero-day exploits was not directly discussed, with the focus of the address being on the NSA's collection of phone records within the US.
In 2014, a few months after President Obama's SIGINT address, a bug in popular encryption tool OpenSSL was discovered. This exploit, known as Heartbleed, permeated software around the world, including the US Pentagon. Following the discovery of Heartbleed, Michael Daniel, cybersecurity coordinator of the Obama administration, publicly addressed the procedure used by the NSA to determine what vulnerabilities to keep and what to disclose. Daniel listed numerous points that the agency took into consideration, namely how much harm the exploit could cause if disclosed and whether the intelligence could be gathered in another way. In addition, Daniel highlights that if the vulnerability was kept to be used, it would only be temporary and would be turned over to be patched after a short period of use by the agency. This was the first time the US government publicly acknowledged the use of zero-day exploits in SIGINT. This protocol outlined by Daniel in 2014 is known as the Vulnerabilities Equities Process (VEP).
Criticism
Critics argue that the NSA, and therefore the US, is no longer as significantly ahead of the rest of the world in SIGINT as it once was. Thus, it is dangerous for the NSA to leave security vulnerabilities open just because it is believed to be NOBUS. A leaked NSA memo from 2012 is quoted saying "it is becoming apparent that other nation-states are honing their skill[s] and joining the scene", evidence that the NSA is aware of the ever closing gap in capabilities. In August of 2016, a group of still unknown hackers known as the Shadow Brokers leaked NSA code that revealed the exact tools of the agency, effectively giving NOBUS capabilities to anyone who got their hands on the code. In April of 2017, the Shadow Brokers went further and leaked twenty of the most effective zero-day exploits the agency had developed and collected. Following this leak, former NSA director Michael Hayden, who stood by the agency through the Snowden leaks in 2013, said he could not "defend an agency having powerful tools if it cannot protect the tools and keep them in its own hands".
By leaking the NSA's cyber arsenal, the Shadow Brokers also revealed that the NSA was keeping low level vulnerabilities that did not require extensive equipment or experience. Some of the tools were reportedly so easy to use they were essentially "point and shoot". These vulnerabilities are, by definition, not NOBUS, and keeping them in the NSA cyber arsenal rather than disclosing them so they could be fixed threatens the security of innocent people around the world who used the vulnerable software. The discovery that the NSA was withholding low level exploits for years directly contradicted the VEP outlined in 2014 by then cyber security coordinator Michael Daniel.
The Zero-Day exploit market has also caused the NSA to come under fire. Vulnerabilities purchased on the grey-market are distinctly not NOBUS since anyone with the funds has the ability to purchase them. There is also no way to ensure if an entity sells a vulnerability to one group, it won't turn around and sell it to another. Critics are therefore concerned that keeping the vulnerabilities open instead of patching them threatens the security of innocent people who use the system, since it cannot be confirmed who has access to them.
Another common criticism of the NOBUS system is that since the NSA is exploiting vulnerabilities in systems used by US citizens and harvesting data from servers hosted in the US, there are ethical and legal concerns about the ability of the agency to avoid collecting data from US citizens.
Critics have also commented that there is no evidence that NOBUS strategy keeps people safe. In the past it has been reported that NOBUS has stopped 50 terrorist attacks, and that number was then amended to 1 or 2. In 2017, a study funded by the Office of the Director of National Intelligence (ODNI) recommended that the Intelligence Community shift away from signals intelligence as a source of information. Encryption methods are quickly becoming too advanced to break and laws in the US are prioritizing the privacy of American citizens over intelligence collection, meaning that the NSA and other intelligence agencies are facing an uphill battle for signals intelligence.
References
National Security Agency
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24046059
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heather%20Murren
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Heather Murren
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Heather Hay Murren (born May 30, 1966) is an American businesswoman. She is a private investor, former Wall Street securities analyst. She served as a Congressional appointed commissioner on the Financial Crisis Inquiry Commission in 2009 and the President's Commission on Enhancing National Cybersecurity in 2016.
Career
Murren began her career on Wall Street at Salomon Brothers in 1988 as a securities analyst and ultimately retired in 2002 as a managing director, Global Securities Research and Economics of Merrill Lynch.
Murren was chosen six consecutive years as a member of Institutional Investor's All-American Research Team. Her multi-year inclusion in the Greenwich survey and repeated designations by the Wall Street Journal as an all-star analyst underscore her other notable achievements in the economic and financial services community. She was profiled in FORTUNE magazine as one of Wall Street's all-star analysts while at Merrill Lynch.
Post-Career
After retiring from Wall Street, in 2002 and seeing the extreme need for quality medical care in the State of Nevada, she and her then husband co-founded the first non-profit cancer research and treatment center in Las Vegas, the Nevada Cancer Institute (NVCI) where she served as Chairman and CEO until 2009. The 140,000 square foot flagship facility was constructed between 2002 and 2005 when it opened to patients and researchers with fully integrated wet and dry laboratories, imaging, radiation and clinical oncology practices and patient support services. The NVCI carried out the first-ever first-in-man clinical trials in the state of Nevada as well as seminal clinical trials making previously unavailable early-stage clinical trial therapies available to the over 15,000 patients served. The research center-clinic flagship facility was acquired by the University of California San Diego Health Systems in January 2012 and subsequently the NVCI Foundation was then merged into Roseman University in December 2013 after reorganization. Through a partnership with the Cure4TheKids Foundation, nearly 100 pediatric cancer patients are seen daily, and cumulatively, over 50,000 patients have been treated regardless of their ability to pay. Cure4TheKids Foundation also conducts interventional and observational research in genetics, neuron psychology, and oncology.
Murren was appointed in 2009 by Congress to serve on the Financial Crisis Inquiry Commission (FCIC), a 10-member Federal commission established to examine the domestic and global cause of the financial crisis. The commission, to which subpoena powers were granted, examined and held hearings on more than 20 specific areas of inquiry, including the role of fraud and abuse in the financial sector; state and federal regulatory enforcement; tax treatment of financial products; lending practices and securitization; and corporate governance and executive compensation. The commission reported its finding in January 2011. The published book "The Financial Crisis Inquiry Report" was listed on the New York Times bestseller list and was critically acclaimed.
On April 13, 2016, President Barack Obama announced Murren's appointment to the President's Commission on Enhancing National Cybersecurity.
On May 3, 2017, Fidelity National Financial, Inc. announced that its board of directors adopted a resolution increasing the size of the company's board of directors to thirteen and elected Murren to serve on its board of directors. "We are excited to welcome Heather Murren as a member of our board," said Chairman William P. Foley, II. "Heather has extensive financial markets experience and has been appointed to investigate some of the most pressing issues in our country by Congress and the President. She brings a wealth of talent, leadership and knowledge of Wall Street, the financial crisis and cybersecurity that will serve our board and company well."
On May 11, 2017, Murren along with her former husband James Murren were presented with the Distinguished Woodrow Wilson Award For Corporate Citizenship. The award is given to those who, by their example and business practices, have demonstrated a profound concern for the common good beyond the bottom line, acting as a force for positive change.
She is a member of the board of trustees of the Johns Hopkins University (JHU), Johns Hopkins Medicine (JHM) and the Chairman of the JHU Applied Physics Laboratory. The Applied Physics Laboratory is a not-for-profit university-affiliated research center - providing research and development in the areas of cybersecurity, undersea and air defense, space, national security analysis, special operations and strategic defense to our nation. She was appointed Co-Chair of the "Rising To The Challenge" Capital Campaign, where she was instrumental in the campaign exceeding its four billion-dollar goal, by over 2 billion dollars. This raised a total of $6.015 Billion for JHU and Johns Hopkins Medical. She has previously held a gubernatorial appointment to the Nevada Academy of Health and the Board of Economic Development for the state of Nevada.
Murren is a graduate of Johns Hopkins University and a Chartered Financial Analyst. Fluent in Spanish and French, she has served as a translator and medical assistant for Volunteers in Medicine of Southern Nevada, a nonprofit organization that provides healthcare to the community regardless of the patient's ability to pay, she is a board member of the Murren Family Foundation, which focuses grants on education, security, healthcare and military veterans.
References
External links
1966 births
Living people
American business executives
Johns Hopkins University alumni
People from Baltimore
People from the Las Vegas Valley
American women business executives
Bryn Mawr School people
CFA charterholders
Merrill (company) people
American women philanthropists
21st-century American women
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31400666
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89cole%20nationale%20sup%C3%A9rieure%20d%27%C3%A9lectronique%2C%20informatique%2C%20t%C3%A9l%C3%A9communications%2C%20math%C3%A9matique%20et%20m%C3%A9canique%20de%20Bordeaux
|
École nationale supérieure d'électronique, informatique, télécommunications, mathématique et mécanique de Bordeaux
|
Bordeaux Institute of Technology - ENSEIRB-MATMECA School of Engineering (in French: Bordeaux INP - ENSEIRB-MATMECA) is a French Engineering Grande École located in Bordeaux and specialized in Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Computer Science, Telecommunications, Mechanical Engineering and Mathematics.
The majority of the admitted students are selected among candidates from the French Preparatory Classes for Engineering Schools which is a 2 to 3-year undergraduate level program in Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry and Engineering Sciences. After admission, the standard curriculum is a 3-year program resulting in the French Diplôme d'Ingénieur, considered as a Master's degree of the European Higher Education Area.
History
École Nationale Supérieure d’Électronique, d’Informatique et de Radiocommunications de Bordeaux (ENSEIRB)
1920 : The "Telegraphy School of Bordeaux" is established. At this stage, the school trains engineers to become radio operators.
1936 : The school becomes "School of Radioelectricity of Bordeaux".
1940 : The name changes again for "School of modern applications of radio of Bordeaux".
1975 : The school becomes a national engineering school and is renamed to "École Nationale Supérieure d’Électronique et de Radioélectricité de Bordeaux"
1986 : The Computer Science department is created.
2000 : The Telecommunications department is created, and the name changes to "École Nationale Supérieure d’Électronique, d’Informatique et de Radiocommunications de Bordeaux" (ENSEIRB).
2002 : The Networks and Telecommunications track is created.
2008 : The Embedded Electronic Systems track is created
École d’Ingénieurs en Modélisation Mathématique et Mécanique (MATMECA)
1986 : MATMECA is created as a Magister degree of the University of Bordeaux 1.
1997 : The "École Nationale d’Ingénieurs en Modélisation Mathématique et Mécanique" becomes a University of Bordeaux 1's school.
Institut Polytechnique de Bordeaux (Bordeaux Institute of Technology)
2009
ENSEIRB and MATMECA merge with other Grandes Ecoles to create the Institut Polytechnique de Bordeaux (Bordeaux Institute of Technology).
ENSEIRB and MATMECA merge to become ENSEIRB-MATMECA.
2010 : ENSEIRB-MATMECA is among the Mines-Telecom institute network.
2011 : The school confirms its membership to the AEROTECH network with other French Grandes Ecoles such as ENAC, Arts et Métiers ParisTech, Centrale Lyon and Centrale Nantes.
Admissions
As a Grande École, the school recruits the majority of the students after the selection made by the competitive examination which is the final step of two years of intensive Classes Préparatoires aux Grandes Écoles. Each department has its own required admission rank that is determined by the number of candidates that want to integrated the department. Other ways to integrate the school exist, some students are admitted to the school after the university or after two years of specific integrated preparatory classes at the Cycle Préparatoire Intégré de Bordeaux.
Research and teaching
Engineering Cursus
Electronic Track
The objective of the Electronic track is to train general electronics engineers, able to control electronic modules as well as design hardware and software systems.
Computer Science Track
This track is covering all aspects of Computer Science, both in its theoretical and fundamental aspects.
Telecommunications
Covers all subjects related to telecommunications systems (design and development of hardware devices and software for telecommunications and networks, control of appropriate telecommunications and network systems, control architectures and distributed applications).
The first year in this sector is a core discovery of Telecommunications systems.
The second year is offering a panel of effective courses to define a coherent professional project.
The third year is divided into four telecommunications main options : software engineering of telecommunication, networks and communicating embedded systems, digital systems engineering, communication systems.
Mathematical and mechanical specialty
Specialty mathematical modeling in mechanics (MATMECA) trains engineers in controlling large numerical simulation tools and computer. In the world of industry, many phenomenas from backgrounds or complex systems can be described using systems of equations with partial derivatives. Engineers are able to develop the necessary tools for this type of study and mastery of their use because they would have a good understanding of the physical and mechanical phenomena. They have also a very good knowledge of the great mathematical modeling approaches continuum ( solid mechanics and structures, fluid mechanics, waves and vibrations).
Ranking
ENSEIRB-MATMECA has a A rating among French Grandes Ecoles.
Double degree
The school offers several opportunities to achieve a Double Degree with international universities including Illinois Institute of Technology, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Tomsk State University of Control Systems and Radio-electronics, University of Brasília.
Robotics association
EIRBOT is the robotics association of ENSEIRB-MATMECA. The school's four departments create an ideal setting to build robots. EIRBOT's main goal is to participate to the French Robotics Cup, which is part of the Eurobot Open. The association has been designing and building robots from scratch since 2003 (before that, EIRBOT was known as the Robotics Club of ENSEIRB-MATMECA). Knowledge sharing between members is an essential value of the association. EIRBOT is also a cradle of ideas and projects. Loïc Dauphin, president of the association in 2013–2014, was recently awarded a price from INRIA for his Aversive++ project
, a generic multi microcontroller API, which he started as a project within the association with the help of Clément Lansmarie and some other members to program robots. This project is now supported by INRIA.
In 2015/2016, EIRBOT's sponsors are: ENSEIRB-MATMECA Bordeaux Graduate School, Elsys Design, Bear and Armadeus.
References
External links
Bordeaux
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49343792
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capybara%20%28software%29
|
Capybara (software)
|
Capybara is a web-based test automation software that simulates scenarios for user stories and automates web application testing for behavior-driven software development. It is written in the Ruby programming language.
Capybara can mimic actions of real users interacting with web-based applications. It can receive pages, parse the HTML and submit forms.
Background and motivation
During the software development process (especially in the Agile and Test-driven Development environments), as the size of the tests increase, it becomes difficult to manage tests which are complex and not modular.
By extending the human-readable behavior-driven development style of frameworks such as Cucumber and RSpec into the automation code itself, Capybara aims to develop simple web-based automated tests.
Anatomy of Capybara
Capybara is a Ruby library (also referred to as a gem) that is used with an underlying web-based driver. It consists of a user-friendly DSL (Domain Specific Language) which describe actions that are executed by the underlying web driver.
When the page is loaded using the DSL (and underlying web driver), Capybara will attempt to locate the relevant element in the DOM (Document Object Model) and execute an action such as click button, link, etc.
Drivers
By default, Capybara uses the :rack_test driver which does not have any support for executing JavaScript. Drivers can be switched in Before and After blocks. Some of the web drivers supported by Capybara are mentioned below.
RackTest
Written in Ruby, Capybara's default driver RackTest does not require a server to be started since it directly interacts with Rack interfaces. Consequently, it can only be used for Rack applications.
Selenium
Selenium-webdriver, which is mostly used in web-based automation frameworks, is supported by Capybara. Unlike Capybara's default driver, it supports JavaScript, can access HTTP resources outside of application and can also be set up for testing in headless mode which is especially useful for CI scenarios.
Capybara-webkit
Capybara-webkit driver (a gem) is used for true headless browser testing with JavaScript support. It uses QtWebKit and it is significantly faster than Selenium as it does not load the entire browser.
Matchers
Capybara locates an element either using Domain-specific language or XPath/CSS Selectors. Partial matches can lead to unexpected results. Two or more matches can even result in a failure with an Ambiguous match error. The following are the matching strategies supported by Capybara:
first: Pick the first element which matches. Not advisable to use.
one: Allow only one element match. Error raised if more than one match.
smart: If Capybara.exact is true, it behaves like the above option (one). If Capybara.exact is false, it will first try to find an exact match. Ambiguous exception is raised if more than one match is found. If no element is found, a new search for inexact matches is commenced. Again, an ambiguous exception is raised if more than one match is found.
prefer_exact: Finds all matching (exact and which are not exact) elements. If multiple matches are found then the first exactly matching element is returned discarding other matches.
Usage
User-registration process
Here is an example of how user registration test is done using Capybara. There is a test to see if the user can continue with the registration process or if there are any holds on him. If he has the requisite credentials, he will be registered and then redirected to the 'Welcome' page. describe 'UserRegistration' do
it 'allows a user to register' do
visit new_user_registration_path
fill_in 'First name', :with => 'New'
fill_in 'Last name', :with => 'User'
fill_in 'Email', :with => '[email protected]'
fill_in 'Password', :with => 'userpassword'
fill_in 'Password Confirmation', :with => 'userpassword'
click_button 'Register'
page.should have_content 'Welcome'
end
end
Capybara with Cucumber
An example of a Capybara feature used with Cucumber:When /^I want to add/ do
fill_in 'a', :with => 100
fill_in 'b', :with => 100
click_button 'Add'
end
Capybara with RSpec
Some minute integration is required in order to use Capybara with RSpec
describe 'go to home page' do
it 'opens the home page' do
visit (get_homepage)
expect(page).to have_content('Welcome')
end
end
Similar tools
Watir
Selenium (software)
See also
Acceptance testing
Acceptance test-driven development
Behavior-driven development
Test automation
HtmlUnit
List of web testing tools
Regression testing
Given-When-Then
References
Software testing tools
Software using the MIT license
Graphical user interface testing
Load testing tools
Unit testing frameworks
Web development software
Web scraping
Free software programmed in Ruby
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1511862
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meanings%20of%20minor%20planet%20names%3A%2011001%E2%80%9312000
|
Meanings of minor planet names: 11001–12000
|
11001–11100
|-
| 11001 Andrewulff || 1979 MF || André Wulff (born 1958), German amateur astronomer † ||
|-id=002
| 11002 Richardlis || || Richard J. Lis, M.D. (born 1951), an orthopedist and surgeon with the Orthopedic Institute of Pasadena for over 15 years. ||
|-id=003
| 11003 Andronov || || Ivan Leonidovich Andronov (born 1960), professor at Odessa National University, is a prominent Ukrainian stellar astrophysicist known for his research on double and symbiotic stars. ||
|-id=004
| 11004 Stenmark || || Lars Stenmark (born 1944), a Swedish nanotechnology specialist ||
|-id=005
| 11005 Waldtrudering || || Waldtrudering, a residential area in Trudering-Riem, borough of Munich, Germany, home of Danish discoverer Richard Martin West ||
|-id=006
| 11006 Gilson || || Jewett Castello Gilson (1844–1926), Californian teacher, author and superintendent of schools, was determined to secure an astronomical observatory for the schools and people of Oakland. ||
|-id=007
| 11007 Granahan || || James C. Granahan (born 1965) is a scientist at Leidos Inc. whose research includes spectroscopic analysis of asteroids Gaspra and Ida using data from the Galileo spacecraft mission. ||
|-id=008
| 11008 Ernst || || Carolyn M. Ernst (born 1979) is a planetary scientist at the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory specializing in impact physics of asteroids and other solar system objects. ||
|-id=009
| 11009 Sigridclose || || Sigrid Close (born 1971) is a professor at Stanford University whose research includes meteoroid plasma detection using radar and space weather measurements using spacecraft. ||
|-id=010
| 11010 Artemieva || || Natalia A. Artemieva (born 1959) is a Russian planetary scientist known for her theoretical work on impacts of interplanetary bodies into planets and planetary satellites. ||
|-id=011
| 11011 KIAM || || KIAM is the English abbreviation for the Keldysh Institute of Applied Mathematics of the Russian Academy of Sciences, which played an exceptionally important part in theoretical research and computation for the astrodynamics and cosmonautics of the Soviet space program. ||
|-id=012
| 11012 Henning || || John Henning (born 1947) assisted with the control software development during the conversion of the Palomar 1.2-m Oschin telescope. ||
|-id=013
| 11013 Kullander || || Sven Kullander (1936–2014), Swedish physicist ||
|-id=014
| 11014 Svätopluk || || Svätopluk (d. 894) was a famous king of the ancient Slavs and prince of Great Moravia from 871 to 894. ||
|-id=015
| 11015 Romanenko || || Boris Ivanovich Romanenko (born 1912) is a veteran of the group studying jet propulsion in Moscow in the 1930s. For many years he worked at the Lavochkin scientific production association. He participated in designing and launching automatic space missions for investigations of the moon, Venus, the Earth and the Sun. ||
|-id=016
| 11016 Borisov || || Vladimir Aleksandrovich Borisov (1809–1862), regional ethnographer in the town of Shuya and a member of Russian Geography Society. ||
|-id=017
| 11017 Billputnam || 1983 BD || William L. Putnam (1924–2014), the Trustee of the Lowell Observatory. ||
|-id=019
| 11019 Hansrott || 1984 HR || Hans Rott (1858–1884), Austrian composer and organist ||
|-id=020
| 11020 Orwell || 1984 OG || George Orwell (1903–1950), a British writer best known for his novels Animal Farm and Nineteen Eighty-Four ||
|-id=021
| 11021 Foderà || || Giorgia Foderà (born 1942) teaches history of astronomy at Palermo University. Curator of the Palermo Observatory museum. ||
|-id=022
| 11022 Serio || || Salvatore Serio (born 1941) teaches astronomy at Palermo University, specializing in x-ray observations and modeling of solar and stellar coronae. ||
|-id=026
| 11026 Greatbotkin || || The Botkin Hospital in Moscow is a clinic performing about 70 000 surgical operations and serving more than 100 000 patients every year. In 2020 the Great Botkin Hospital celebrated 110 years since its foundation. ||
|-id=027
| 11027 Astaf'ev || || Victor Petrovich Astaf'ev (1924–2001), a prominent Russian writer. ||
|-id=033
| 11033 Mazanek || || Dan Mazanek (born 1966) is a space systems engineer at NASA Langley Research Center specializing in the development of asteroid mission concepts. ||
|-id=037
| 11037 Distler || || Hugo Distler (1908–1942), a composer, organist and director of renowned choirs. ||
|-id=039
| 11039 Raynal || || Guillaume-Thomas Raynal (1713–1796) wrote a six-volume history of the European colonies in India and America. His condemnation of the efforts of the colonists resulted in his condemnation by the Catholic church. In the French revolution he was elected to the States general, but he refused to serve, because he opposed violence. ||
|-id=040
| 11040 Wundt || || Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920), German physiologist and psychologist ||
|-id=041
| 11041 Fechner || || Gustav Fechner (1801–1887), German experimental psychologist ||
|-id=042
| 11042 Ernstweber || || Ernst Heinrich Weber (1795–1878), German physiologist and anatomist ||
|-id=043
| 11043 Pepping || || Ernst Pepping (1901–1981), German composer ||
|-id=050
| 11050 Messiaën || || Olivier Messiaen (1908–1992), a French organist at Ste. Trinité in Paris, as well as a composer and teacher of a whole generation of young composers ||
|-id=051
| 11051 Racine || || Jean-Baptiste Racine (1639–1699), a dramatic poet. ||
|-id=055
| 11055 Honduras || || Honduras, in the northern part of the Central American isthmus, is a country of rugged mountains and steep river gorges and dense forest. ||
|-id=056
| 11056 Volland || || Sophie Volland (1720–1784) was the primary correspondent of Dénis Diderot, who met her in 1755 near Vitry-le-François. Their friendship, based on common interests and natural sympathy, lasted for 30 years. ||
|-id=059
| 11059 Nulliusinverba || 1991 RS || "Nullius in verba", variously translated as "On the words of no one", "Nothing in words" or "Respect the facts", is the motto of The Royal Society of London for the Improvement of Natural Knowledge. This minor planet is being named on the occasion of the 350th anniversary of the founding of The Royal Society in 1660. ||
|-id=061
| 11061 Lagerlöf || || Selma Lagerlöf (1858–1940), a Swedish author. ||
|-id=063
| 11063 Poynting || || John Henry Poynting (1852–1914), an English physicist. ||
|-id=064
| 11064 Dogen || 1991 WB || The Japanese priest Dogen Zenji (1200–1253) built Eiheiji Temple in Fukui prefecture in 1243 in order to preach Zen Buddhism, and he fostered many disciples there. In Eiheiji Temple, over 200 monks still practise asceticism. ||
|-id=066
| 11066 Sigurd || || Sigurd, the most famous of all Norse heroes and played the principal part in the Volsungasaga. ||
|-id=067
| 11067 Greenancy || || Boston-born Nancy Green (born 1952) studied violoncello at the Juilliard School, made her debut at Lincoln Center, studied in London with Jacqueline du Pré and taught 'cello at London's Guildhall School. ||
|-id=069
| 11069 Bellqvist || || Sven Bellqvist (1915–2008) was for many years in charge of the workshop at the astronomical observatory in Uppsala. During this time the Schmidt telescopes at Kvistaberg and at Mount Stromlo Observatory were built ||
|-id=072
| 11072 Hiraoka || 1992 GP || Hiroyuki Hiraoka (born 1957), an elementary-school teacher and amateur astronomer, active in the Hiroshima Astronomical Society. ||
|-id=073
| 11073 Cavell || || Edith Cavell (1865–1915), an English nurse who in 1907 was appointed to the Berkendael Institute in Brussels, where she greatly improved the standard of nursing. In 1915 she was sentenced to death and shot by the Germans, because she had helped Allied soldiers escape from Belgium. ||
|-id=074
| 11074 Kuniwake || || Ryoku Kuniwake (born 1957), a longtime member of the Hiroshima Astronomical Society. ||
|-id=075
| 11075 Dönhoff || || Countess Marion Dönhoff (1909–2002), German journalist and Hitler resistance participant ||
|-id=079
| 11079 Mitsunori || 1993 AJ || Mitsunori Kaneko (born 1957) is an elementary-school teacher and was secretary of the Fukuoka Astronomical Society from 1981 to 1989. ||
|-id=081
| 11081 Persäve || || Per Arvid Säve (1811–1887) was a teacher in Visby who dedicated most of his spare time to research on the dialects and folklore of Gotland. He also founded a museum in Visby, Fornsalen ||
|-id=082
| 11082 Spilliaert || 1993 JW || Léon Spilliaert (1881–1946), a Belgian symbolist painter and graphic artist ||
|-id=083
| 11083 Caracas || || Caracas, Venezuela ||
|-id=084
| 11084 Giò || || Giuseppe Schilirò (1991–2000), an Italian student ||
|-id=085
| 11085 Isala || || Isala Van Diest (1842–1916), first female doctor in Belgium authorized to exercise her profession. She had to move to Switzerland and study medicine at the University of Bern, because women were not allowed to study at the Catholic University of Leuven. ||
|-id=086
| 11086 Nagatayuji || || Yuji Nagata (born 1953), former director of the Fukuoka Astronomical Society. ||
|-id=087
| 11087 Yamasakimakoto || || Makoto Yamasaki (born 1953), director of the Fukuoka Astronomical Society from 1977 to 1982. ||
|-id=090
| 11090 Popelin || || Marie Popelin (1846–1913), a Belgian feminist, who became the first Belgian woman to receive a doctorate in law ||
|-id=091
| 11091 Thelonious || 1994 DP || Thelonious Monk (1917–1982), American jazz pianist and composer ||
|-id=092
| 11092 Iwakisan || 1994 ED || Mount Iwaki, a composite volcano with a beautiful contour, dubbed the Tsugaru Fuji. ||
|-id=094
| 11094 Cuba || || Cuba is an island state in the Caribbean Sea, consisting of one large island and numerous smaller islands, islets and cays. ||
|-id=095
| 11095 Havana || || Havana, Cuba ||
|-id=098
| 11098 Ginsberg || || Allen Ginsberg (1926–1997), an American lyric poet and teacher. ||
|-id=099
| 11099 Sonodamasaki || 1995 HL || Masaki Sonoda (born 1954), an associate president of the Saga Astronomical Society since 1989. ||
|-id=100
| 11100 Lai || 1995 KC || Luciano Lai (born 1948), Italian observer and discoverer of minor planets at Madonna di Dossobuono Observatory, Italy. ||
|}
11101–11200
|-
| 11101 Českáfilharmonie || 1995 SH || Czech Philharmonic Orchestra. ||
|-id=102
| 11102 Bertorighini || || Alberto Righini (born 1942), a professor of astronomy at the University of Florence and Arcetri Observatory ||
|-id=103
| 11103 Miekerouppe || || Mieke Rouppe, member of the Dutch resistance in The Hague in World War II † ||
|-id=104
| 11104 Airion || 1995 TQ || Evelyn Airion Enyart (born 1952) teaches seminars in healing techniques. She was born in Louisiana, raised in Guatemala and educated at the University of New Mexico, receiving degrees in both Communications and Sign Language. She presents workshops around the world, writes books and produces videos on healing techniques. ||
|-id=105
| 11105 Puchnarová || || Dana Puchnarová (born 1938), Czech painter and graphic artist ||
|-id=107
| 11107 Hakkoda || || Hakkōda Mountains a Japanese mountain range in northernmost Honshu. ||
|-id=108
| 11108 Hachimantai || || Hachimantai is a beautiful highland. Some 1600 m high, it forms a part of the Ohu-Mountains located in northern Honshu. It is named as one of the 100 most celebrated mountains of Japan. ||
|-id=109
| 11109 Iwatesan || || Mount Iwate (Iwate-san) is a Japanese volcano with a peak of 2041 m that erupted a few years ago. It is located on the east of Mount Hachimantai. ||
|-id=111
| 11111 Repunit || 1995 WL || A repunit ("repeated unity") is a number consisting solely of the digit 1. The term was coined by Albert H. Beiler in his 1964 book Recreations in the Theory of Numbers ||
|-id=112
| 11112 Cagnoli || || Antonio Cagnoli (1743–1816) an Italian astronomer, who helped establish the Società Italiana ("Italian Society"), a.k.a. the Società dei XL ("Society of the Forty"), ancestor of the Accademia Nazionale delle Scienze detta dei XL ("National Academy of Sciences known as the Forty") ||
|-id=115
| 11115 Kariya || || Kariya City, located in the center of Aichi Prefecture, Japan. The discoverer, Akimasa Nakamura, had lived there for some time. ||
|-id=118
| 11118 Modra || 1996 PK || Astronomické observatórium Modra-Piesok (Astronomical Observatory of Modra-Piesok), near Modra, Slovakia † ||
|-id=119
| 11119 Taro || || Soutaro Ito (born 1925) has contributed much to the popularization of astronomy and established the Nanyo Astronomical Lovers Club in 1983. He was central to the establishment in 1986 of the society's observatory, the Nanyo Civil Astronomical Observatory. ||
|-id=120
| 11120 Pancaldi || || Enelio Pancaldi (born 1947), an Italian amateur astronomer. ||
|-id=121
| 11121 Malpighi || || Marcello Malpighi (1628–1694) holds a prominent position in the history of medicine and biology, working in Pisa, Bologna, Messina and Rome. A pioneer in the use of the microscope in anatomy, he made fundamental studies of the lungs. He later made contributions in hematology and embryology. ||
|-id=122
| 11122 Eliscolombini || || Elis Colombini (born 1957) is the editor of publications on the local history of his birthplace of Modena and the surrounding province. ||
|-id=123
| 11123 Aliciaclaire || || Alicia Claire Contrite (born 1966) is an extraordinarily devoted mother, wife and daughter. She is a prosecuting attorney for the city of Santa Monica, California, primarily concerned with the plight of abused women. The citation was prepared by M. Hibbs, Alicia's mother, at the request of E. Helin of the NEAT team. ||
|-id=124
| 11124 Mikulášek || || Zdeněk Mikulášek (born 1947), Czech astronomer and director of the Nicholas Copernicus Observatory and Planetarium in Brno ||
|-id=126
| 11126 Doleček || || Josef ("Jožka") Doleček (born 1912) had a principal role in building the public observatory of Valašské Meziříčí and was its first director. His work gave a basis for the observatory's success in astronomy popularization in the Czech Republic. ||
|-id=127
| 11127 Hagi || || The name Hagi-Lespedeza is derived from the flower in the symbol of Sendai City, Japan. ||
|-id=128
| 11128 Ostravia || 1996 VP || Latin name for Ostrava, Czech Republic ||
|-id=129
| 11129 Hayachine || || Mount Hayachine is located in the Kitakami highlands of Japan ||
|-id=132
| 11132 Horne || 1996 WU || Johnny Horne (born 1953), an American amateur astronomer since age 10 from North Carolina ||
|-id=133
| 11133 Kumotori || 1996 XY || Mount Kumotori, the highest peak in the Tokyo Metropolis, Japan ||
|-id=134
| 11134 České Budějovice || || České Budějovice, a city in the Czech Republic ||
|-id=135
| 11135 Ryokami || || Mount Ryōkami is located at the northern part of the Kanto plain. It is known for its exceptionally unique shape that looks like the blade of a saw. The stunning landscape it outlines in the Kanto mountains makes it one of the 100 most celebrated mountains of Japan. ||
|-id=136
| 11136 Shirleymarinus || || Shirley Marinus (born 1921) served during a third of a century as secretary in the Lunar and Planetary Laboratory for the Polariscope program, the Imaging Photopolarimeters on Pioneers 10 and 11, the Space Science Series textbooks, and the Spacewatch survey of comets and minor planets. ||
|-id=137
| 11137 Yarigatake || || Mount Yari (Yari-ga-take) has a characteristic pear-shaped peak. A difficult and challenging 3180-meter climb, it is one of the 100 most celebrated mountains in Japan. ||
|-id=138
| 11138 Hotakadake || || Mount Hotakadake is the generic name of several mountain peaks, some of them more than 3000 meters high, in central Japan. ||
|-id=140
| 11140 Yakedake || || Mount Yake volcano, Japan ||
|-id=141
| 11141 Jindrawalter || || Jindřich Walter (born 1941), Czech physicist ||
|-id=142
| 11142 Facchini || || Renato Facchini (born 1917), a well-known Italian amateur astronomern. ||
|-id=144
| 11144 Radiocommunicata || || Radio communication, in honour of the Kleť broadcasting tower staff ||
|-id=145
| 11145 Emanuelli || || Pio Emanuelli (1888–1946), an Italian astronomer at the Vatican Observatory and teaching astronomy and history of astronomy at Rome University Img ||
|-id=146
| 11146 Kirigamine || || Mount Kirigamine, one of the 100 Famous Japanese Mountains ||
|-id=147
| 11147 Delmas || || Robert Delmas (born 1955), a French aeronautical engineer. ||
|-id=148
| 11148 Einhardress || || Einhard Ress (born 1936), an engineer and scientist at the German Aerospace Center (DLR). ||
|-id=149
| 11149 Tateshina || || Mount Tateshina volcano, one of the 100 Famous Japanese Mountains ||
|-id=150
| 11150 Bragg || || Sir William Henry Bragg (1862−1942), British physicist, chemist and mathematician, who received the Nobel prize in physics in 1915. ||
|-id=151
| 11151 Oodaigahara || || Mount Ōdaigahara, one of the "100 Famous Japanese Mountains", in the National Park of Yoshino-Kumano and a UNESCO World Heritage Site ||
|-id=152
| 11152 Oomine || || Mount Ōmine, in the middle of the Kii peninsula, in the National Park of Yoshino-Kumano, one of the 100 Famous Japanese Mountains, a UNESCO World Heritage Site ||
|-id=154
| 11154 Kobushi || || Mount Kobushi, one of the 100 Famous Japanese Mountains, in the Oku-Chichibu area, stretching over the three states of Kōshū, Bushu, and Shinshu ||
|-id=155
| 11155 Kinpu || || Mount Kinpu, one of the 100 Famous Japanese Mountains, in the Oku-Chichibu area ||
|-id=156
| 11156 Al-Khwarismi || || Muhammad ibn Musa Al-Khwarismi (fl. c. 825) was an Arab mathematician and astronomer whose books, translated into Latin, were the main source through which Indian numerals and Arabic algebra came into Western Europe. ||
|-id=158
| 11158 Cirou || || Alain Cirou (born 1958) is editor of Ciel et Espace magazine. ||
|-id=159
| 11159 Mizugaki || || Mount Mizugaki is located at the western end of the Oku-Chichibu mountain chain. It has a particularly strange appearance, composed of large, humped rocks. ||
|-id=161
| 11161 Daibosatsu || || Daibosatu mountain, which has a 2057-m peak, is located on the northern end of the Koganesawa mountain chain in Japan ||
|-id=163
| 11163 Milešovka || 1998 CR || Milešovka, the highest mountain in the Bohemian Highlands (Czech České středohoří), on the occasion of 100 years of observations from the meteorological observatory there ||
|-id=166
| 11166 Anatolefrance || || Anatole France (1844–1924), French writer ||
|-id=167
| 11167 Kunžak || || Kunžak is a picturesque village in South Bohemia, Czech Republic ||
|-id=169
| 11169 Alkon || || Andy L. Alkon (born 1986), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=173
| 11173 Jayanderson || || Jay S. Anderson (born 1985), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=174
| 11174 Carandrews || || Carolyn Marie Andrews (born 1984), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=176
| 11176 Batth || || Sukhjeet Singh Batth (born 1985), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=184
| 11184 Postma || || Sep Postma (1921–1944), member of the Dutch resistance in World War II † ||
|-id=187
| 11187 Richoliver || || Richard C. Oliver (born 1948), an electronics specialist at the Lowell Observatory. ||
|-id=189
| 11189 Rabeaton || || Rachael Lynn Beaton (born 1985), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=190
| 11190 Jennibell || || Jennifer Marie Bell (born 1984), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=191
| 11191 Paskvić || || Ivan Paskvić (1754–1829), Croatian founder and director of the Buda Observatory ||
|-id=193
| 11193 Mérida || || Mérida, a Venezuelan city, named in 1558 by Juan Rodriguez Suarez, is also known as "the city of the gentlemen" for its hospitality; "the city of the snowing mountains" for the surrounding Andes; and "the university city" for its famous Universidad de Los Andes. ||
|-id=194
| 11194 Mirna || 1998 YE || Mirna river, Croatia ||
|-id=195
| 11195 Woomera || || Woomera, Aboriginal for spear thrower, is a village in the Australian outback founded in 1947 as a rocket rangehead. ||
|-id=196
| 11196 Michanikos || || Heron of Alexandria, also known as "Michanikos, the machine man" (c. 10-75), invented many automatic contrivances long before the age of the computer. ||
|-id=197
| 11197 Beranek || || Benjamin Charles Beranek (born 1984), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|}
11201–11300
|-
| 11201 Talich || || Václav Talich (1883–1961), a well-known Czech conductor. ||
|-id=202
| 11202 Teddunham || || Edward W. Dunham (born 1952), an astronomer at the Lowell Observatory. ||
|-id=203
| 11203 Danielbetten || || Daniel Price Betten (born 1987), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=206
| 11206 Bibee || || Kristin Page Bibee (born 1984), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=207
| 11207 Black || || Maribeth Joanne Black (born 1984), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=212
| 11212 Tebbutt || 1999 HS || John Tebbutt (1834–1916) was an Australian astronomer whose observations included many comets and the 1874 transit of Venus. His name is particularly associated with the great comets of 1861 and 1881. He was the first president of the New South Wales branch of the British Astronomical Association. ||
|-id=216
| 11216 Billhubbard || || William B. Hubbard (born 1940) is a planetary scientist studying interiors and atmospheres at the Lunar and Planetary Laboratory of the University of Arizona, where he was also director during 1977–1981. His studies include the structure and evolution of Jupiter, Saturn and extrasolar giant planets ||
|-id=219
| 11219 Benbohn || || Benjamin Josef Bohn (born 1985), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=225
| 11225 Borden || || Timothy Calvin Borden (born 1985), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=227
| 11227 Ksenborisova || || Ksenia V. Borisova (born 1983), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=228
| 11228 Botnick || || Aaron Michael Botnick (born 1984), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=229
| 11229 Brookebowers || || Brooke Nacole Bowers (born 1986), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=238
| 11238 Johanmaurits || 2044 P-L || Count John Maurice, Prince of Nassau-Siegen (1604–1679), governor of Dutch Brazil (1637–1644), was the founder of the first astronomical observatory and meteorological station by a non-American in the Americas. During his reign he stimulated the arts, science and freedom of religion and created local councils to govern Dutch Brazil. ||
|-id=239
| 11239 Marcgraf || 4141 P-L || Georg Marcgrave (1610–1643), German-Dutch astronomer, mathematician and naturalist, made the first serious study of the southern sky during his stay in Dutch Brazil. He is also known for his zoological and cartographic work during the reign of Johan Maurits in Dutch Brazil. Marcgraf died in 1643 in Luanda (then Dutch Angola). ||
|-id=240
| 11240 Piso || 4175 P-L || Willem Piso (1610–1678), Dutch doctor of medicine, together with Georg Marcgraf wrote the first book about the flora, fauna and the local customs of the Brazilians. Their book was and is a unique example of Brazilian society during the reign of the Dutch in Brazil. ||
|-id=241
| 11241 Eckhout || 6792 P-L || Albert Eckhout (1610–1666), Dutch painter who took part in an expedition to Brazil, made portraits of the people who inhabited Dutch Brazil during the reign of Johan Maurits, count of Nassau-Siegen in the 17th century. ||
|-id=242
| 11242 Franspost || 2144 T-1 || Frans Post (1612–1680), a Dutch painter who was one of the first European-trained artists to paint in the Americas. He recorded various aspects of life and the local atmosphere of Dutch Brazil, or Nieuw Holland, in his paintings. ||
|-id=243
| 11243 de Graauw || 2157 T-1 || Matthijs W. M. de Graauw (born 1942), a Dutch astronomer who is known for his tireless enthusiasm in pushing Dutch and European infrared and submillimeter astronomy forward, both on the ground and in space. ||
|-id=244
| 11244 Andrékuipers || 4314 T-2 || André Kuipers (born 1958), a Dutch physician and ESA astronaut who has had an inspiring role in promoting space among young people. ||
|-id=245
| 11245 Hansderijk || 3100 T-3 || Johannes A. F. de Rijk (born 1926) is a gifted Dutch science writer. Better known under the pseudonym Bruno Ernst, he has made contributions to astronomy, mathematics, physics, art and natural science, sundials and the art of M. C. Escher. ||
|-id=246
| 11246 Orvillewright || 4250 T-3 || Orville Wright (1871–1948), American aviator, generally credited with the assistance of his brother as being the first pilot of a heavier-than-air flying machine. ||
|-id=247
| 11247 Wilburwright || 4280 T-3 || Wilbur Wright (1867–1912), American aviator who participated with his brother in the first successful flights of a heavier-than-air flying machine at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, on 17 December 1903. ||
|-id=248
| 11248 Blériot || 4354 T-3 || Louis Blériot (1872–1936), French aviator and airplane designer, made the first airplane crossing of the English Channel from France to England on 25 July 1909. ||
|-id=249
| 11249 Etna || 1971 FD || Mount Etna is a stratovolcano above the Sicilian city of Catania in Italy. Its height is 3350 meters, and the last eruption was 2003. Etna's eruptions have been known since antiquity. ||
|-id=251
| 11251 Icarion || || Icarion, from Greek mythology, the son of Ebalus of Sparta. By the nymph Periboea, Icarion was the father of Penelope. ||
|-id=252
| 11252 Laërtes || || Laërtes, king of Ithaca, was the son of Arcisius, who in turn was a son of Zeus. Laërtes was the husband of Anticleia and father of Odysseus. ||
|-id=253
| 11253 Mesyats || || Gennadij Andreevich Mesyats (born 1936), a Russian physicist. ||
|-id=254
| 11254 Konkohekisui || || Konko Hekisui (1909–1989) was a Japanese poet and sometime director of the library in Konko, Okayama prefecture. ||
|-id=255
| 11255 Fujiiekio || || Fujii Ekio (1910–1990), an amateur astronomer and sometime director of the Okayama Astronomy Museum. ||
|-id=256
| 11256 Fuglesang || || Christer Fuglesang, the first Swedish astronaut ||
|-id=257
| 11257 Rodionta || || Tatiana Vladimirovna Rodionova (born 1964) is an engineer in Orenburg, wife of Igor' Victorovich Rodionov, building engineer, and the discoverer's friend. ||
|-id=258
| 11258 Aoyama || || Aoyama Gakuin, a Christian educational institute founded in 1874, is the discoverer's Alma Mater. ||
|-id=259
| 11259 Yingtungchen || || Ying-Tung "Charles" Chen (born 1981) is a post-doctoral fellow at the Academia Sinica Institute of Astronomy and Astrophysics (Taiwan) where he uses data from large surveys to study outer solar system objects. ||
|-id=260
| 11260 Camargo || || Julio Ignacio Bueno de Camargo (born 1967) is a researcher at the Observatorio Nacional (Brazil) who specializes in astrometry of solar system bodies and reference frames, particularly in the prediction and observation of stellar occultations. ||
|-id=261
| 11261 Krisbecker || 1978 XK || Kris Jay Becker (born 1959), a senior computer scientist at the United States Geological Survey Astrogeology Science Center. ||
|-id=262
| 11262 Drube || || Line Drube (born 1980) is a postdoctoral researcher at the German Aerospace Center (DLR-Berlin) whose investigations include the thermal properties of asteroids and the properties of Martian airborne dust using data from the Phoenix Lander. ||
|-id=263
| 11263 Pesonen || 1979 OA || Lauri Pesonen (born 1944), an emeritus professor of geophysics at the University of Helsinki. ||
|-id=264
| 11264 Claudiomaccone || || Claudio Maccone, Italian scientist at the Alenia Spazio in Turin, participant in the design of several scientific space missions † ||
|-id=265
| 11265 Hasselmann || || Pedro Henrique Aragão Hasselmann (born 1987) completed his PhD at Observatório Nacional do Rio de Janeiro researching the photometric properties and phase functions of asteroids. ||
|-id=266
| 11266 Macke || || Robert J. Macke SJ (born 1974) is a research scientist and meteorite curator at the Vatican Observatory, whose fundamental contributions include studying the relationship between shock state and porosity in carbonaceous chondrites. ||
|-id=267
| 11267 Donaldkessler || || Donald J. Kessler (born 1940), American astrophysicist and founder of the modern field of orbital debris, who was the head of NASA's orbital debris office ||
|-id=268
| 11268 Spassky || || Igor' Dmitrievich Spassky (born 1926), a specialist on shipbuilding and a great authority on creation of ice-resistant oil-and-gas production platforms and high-speed railway transport. He is an honored citizen of Saint Petersburg. ||
|-id=269
| 11269 Knyr || || Igor' Ivanovich Knyr (born 1963), an engineer and specialist on the introduction of new techniques in industry and a friend of the discoverer's family. ||
|-id=274
| 11274 Castillo-Rogez || || Julie Castillo-Rogez (born 1974) is a planetary scientist at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory who has performed extensive thermal and geochemical modeling of Ceres to interpret its interior structure based on Dawn Spacecraft data. ||
|-id=277
| 11277 Ballard || || Robert Ballard (born 1942), a marine scientist. ||
|-id=278
| 11278 Telesio || || Bernardino Telesio (1509–1588), an Italian philosopher and natural scientist. ||
|-id=280
| 11280 Sakurai || || Yukio Sakurai (born 1953), a local government official and an amateur astronomer in Japan. ||
|-id=282
| 11282 Hanakusa || || Kiyotaka Hanakusa (born 1956), director of the Seiwa Kogen Observatory since 1995, is an astronomy scholar and popularizer of astronomy in Kumamoto Prefecture. ||
|-id=284
| 11284 Belenus || 1990 BA || Belenus, husband of Belisana, is the Gaulish god of light, with responsibilities also to sheep and cattle. ||
|-id=288
| 11288 Okunohosomichi || 1990 XU || Oku no Hosomichi ("The Narrow Road to the Interior") is a Haikai travel journal written by Matsuo Basho, master Haikai poet, when he traveled the Northern Provinces of Honshu in 1689, accompanied by his apprentice Kawai Sora ||
|-id=289
| 11289 Frescobaldi || || Girolamo Frescobaldi, Italian composer. ||
|-id=292
| 11292 Bunjisuzuki || || Bunji Suzuki (born 1955), a high-school teacher and an amateur astrophysicist specializing in comets. ||
|-id=294
| 11294 Kazu || 1992 CK || Kazumasa Imai (born 1955) is a Japanese radio astronomer at Kochi National College of Technology. ||
|-id=295
| 11295 Gustaflarsson || || Carl Gustaf Larsson (1893–1985), born in Norrlanda, Gotland, was originally a carpenter but started to write poems in the local language spoken on Gotland. He is also well known for his photographs describing daily life on Gotland ||
|-id=296
| 11296 Denzen || 1992 KA || Aoudou Denzen (1748–1822) was a western-style painter of the Edo period born in Sukagawa in Oshu (now Sukagawa city, Fukushima prefecture). He was the first artist in Japan to perfect elaborate western-style copper plate engraving. The name was suggested by H. Sato. ||
|-id=298
| 11298 Gide || || André Gide (1869–1951), a French writer, humanist and moralist. ||
|-id=299
| 11299 Annafreud || || Anna Freud (1895–1982), the youngest daughter of Sigmund Freud, escaped with her father in 1938 Austria and settled in London. In 1936 she published Das Ich und die Abwehrmechanismen. She is considered the founder of child psychoanalysis. ||
|}
11301–11400
|-id=302
| 11302 Rubicon || || The Rubicon (Latin Rubico) was a small river that separated ancient Cisalpine Gaul from Italy. ||
|-id=304
| 11304 Cowra || 1993 DJ || Cowra in New South Wales, Australia, is a tourist destination. ||
|-id=305
| 11305 Ahlqvist || || David Ahlqvist (1900–1988) was an artist, author, musician and for many years a leading personality in the cultural life on Gotland ||
|-id=306
| 11306 Åkesson || || Sonja Åkesson (1926–1977), born in Buttle on Gotland, was well known for her characteristic poetic style describing the struggles of daily life. She was also a songwriter ||
|-id=307
| 11307 Erikolsson || || Erik Olsson (1919–2007) was an artist who also worked with restoration of churches. He initiated the foundation of a museum in Kovik that reflects the history of fishing on Gotland ||
|-id=308
| 11308 Tofta || || Tofta is a parish on Gotland with one of the most popular beaches on the island. It is the site of a 47-m stoneship, the longest to be found on Gotland ||
|-id=309
| 11309 Malus || || Étienne-Louis Malus (1775–1812), a French physicist. ||
|-id=311
| 11311 Peleus || || Peleus, king of the Myrmidons in Thessaly, helped Heracles conquer Troy. He was married to the goddess Thetis. ||
|-id=313
| 11313 Kügelgen || || Gerhard von Kügelgen (1772–1820) and his son Wilhelm von Kügelgen (1802–1867), prominent German painters. ||
|-id=314
| 11314 Charcot || || Jean-Martin Charcot (1825–1893), one of France's greatest medical clinicians. ||
|-id=315
| 11315 Salpêtrière || || "Salpêtrière Hospital", a famous neurological clinic. ||
|-id=316
| 11316 Fuchitatsuo || || Tatsuo Fuchi (born 1952), a computer technology specialist and amateur astronomer. ||
|-id=317
| 11317 Hitoshi || || Hitoshi Hasegawa (born 1957), a computer programmer and an amateur planetary scientist. ||
|-id=321
| 11321 Tosimatumoto || || Tosikazu Matumoto (born 1941), a comet hunter in Takefu, Fukui prefecture. ||
|-id=322
| 11322 Aquamarine || 1995 QT || Aquamarine is the name of a Japanese duo group, Sachiko (born 1975) and Mimas (born 1971). They sing of stars and the universe. Their COSMOS is the main theme song of the "Star Week" event, produced by the National Astronomical Observatory of Japan. ||
|-id=323
| 11323 Nasu || || Eiichi Nasu (born 1955) was chief editor of the newsletter Astro Oita of the Astronomical Society of Oita for more than ten years, beginning in 1979. He is now the director of this society. ||
|-id=324
| 11324 Hayamizu || || Tsutomu Hayamizu (born 1962), associate director of the Sendai Space Hall and Observatory since 1997. ||
|-id=325
| 11325 Slavický || 1995 SG || Klement Slavický (1910–1999), an outstanding Czech composer. ||
|-id=326
| 11326 Ladislavschmied || 1995 SL || Ladislav Schmied (born 1927), a Czech amateur astronomer, known for his systematic observations of the sun. He has made more than 10,000 plots of the solar photosphere during the last 50 years. The name was suggested by P. Spurný. ||
|-id=328
| 11328 Mariotozzi || 1995 UL || Mario Tozzi, Italian geologist, author, and president of the Arcipelago Toscano National Park ||
|-id=332
| 11332 Jameswatt || || James Watt, Scottish mathematician and engineer. ||
|-id=333
| 11333 Forman || 1996 HU || Milos Forman (born 1932), a Czech films director. ||
|-id=334
| 11334 Rio de Janeiro || || Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. ||
|-id=335
| 11335 Santiago || || Santiago, Chile. ||
|-id=336
| 11336 Piranesi || || Giambattista Piranesi, 18th-century Venetian architect and etcher, one of the main inspirers of neoclassicism ||
|-id=337
| 11337 Sandro || || Sandro Bartolini (born 1974), the elder son of the first discoverer. ||
|-id=338
| 11338 Schiele || || Egon Schiele, Austrian painter ||
|-id=339
| 11339 Orlík || || Orlík, castle in South Bohemia, Czech Republic ||
|-id=341
| 11341 Babbage || || Charles Babbage, a British mathematician. ||
|-id=348
| 11348 Allegra || || Allegra Noccioli (born 1999) is the daughter of Fabrizio Noccioli, an amateur astronomer in the Montelupo Group. ||
|-id=349
| 11349 Witten || || Edward Witten (born 1951), a physicist at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton and one of the premier theoretical physicists of our time. ||
|-id=350
| 11350 Teresa || || Teresa Chercoles (born 1951), wife of Rafael Pacheco, passes many nights at home while Pacheco and his colleagues are at the observatory enjoying the minor planets. ||
|-id=351
| 11351 Leucus || || Leucus, a character in Homer's Iliad, was an Achaean warrior and companion of Odysseus. ||
|-id=352
| 11352 Koldewey || || Eberhard Koldewey (born 1937), at the DLR Institute of Space Sensor Technology and Planetary Exploration, contributed to the upgrade of the Bochum telescope at the European Southern Observatory, where he participated in many observing campaigns on minor planets. The naming is on the occasion of his retirement. ||
|-id=353
| 11353 Guillaume || || Guillaume Scholl (born 1987) tested early versions of an automatic code for detecting minor planets developed by his father, astronomer Hans Scholl of the Observatoire de la Côte d´Azur. As a result, recent versions of the code are more user friendly. ||
|-id=356
| 11356 Chuckjones || 1997 YA || Charles Martin "Chuck" Jones, American animator, artist, screenwriter, producer, and director of animated films. ||
|-id=359
| 11359 Piteglio || || Piteglio, a village in Tuscany ||
|-id=360
| 11360 Formigine || || Formigine, a small Italian town located 10 km south of Modena. ||
|-id=361
| 11361 Orbinskij || || Artemij Robertovitch Orbinskij (1862–1927) was a Russian astronomer on the staff of the Odessa department of the Pulkovo Observatory. He made important contributions especially in the field of positional astronomy. The name was suggested by E. Kato ||
|-id=363
| 11363 Vives || || Juan Luis Vives (1492–1540), a Spanish humanist. ||
|-id=364
| 11364 Karlštejn || || The Gothic castle at Karlstejn was built in 1348 by Charles IV in the Kingdom of Bohemia, 27 km from the capital, Prague, to guard the crown jewels and state charters. The castle has survived well preserved to the present day, and it symbolizes Czech statehood within Europe. ||
|-id=365
| 11365 NASA || || NASA (the National Aeronautics and Space Administration). ||
|-id=369
| 11369 Brazelton || || Mary Augusta Brazelton (born 1986), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=370
| 11370 Nabrown || || Nachelle Diane Brown (born 1985), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=371
| 11371 Camley || || Brian Andrew Camley (born 1985), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=373
| 11373 Carbonaro || || Nicole Jean Carbonaro (born 1984), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=374
| 11374 Briantaylor || || Brian W. Taylor (born 1964), a Lowell Observatory instrumentation software specialist, designed the controller for LONEOS and other observatory CCD cameras. ||
|-id=376
| 11376 Taizomuta || || Taizo Muta (born 1937) is a physicist. His main interest is in the application of quantum field theory to particle physics. He is a discoverer of the MS-bar scheme in quantum chromodynamics. An amateur astronomer, he is currently serving as president of Hiroshima University. ||
|-id=377
| 11377 Nye || || Ralph A. Nye (born 1945), Lowell Observatory's instrument designer. ||
|-id=378
| 11378 Dauria || || Florida amateur astronomer Tippy D´Auria (born 1935) is founder of the Winter Star Party. ||
|-id=379
| 11379 Flaubert || || Gustave Flaubert, French author. ||
|-id=384
| 11384 Sartre || || Jean-Paul Sartre, French writer and philosopher. ||
|-id=385
| 11385 Beauvoir || || Simone de Beauvoir, French author, philosopher, and feminist. ||
|-id=392
| 11392 Paulpeeters || || Paul Peeters, Belgian amateur astronomer. ||
|-id=395
| 11395 Iphinous || || Iphinous, from Greek mythology. He was killed by Glaukos in hand-to-hand combat. ||
|-id=400
| 11400 Raša || || Raša river, Croatia ||
|}
11401–11500
|-
| 11401 Pierralba || || Pierre Albanese (born 1992) showed a great interest in the sky, being able to recognize the major planets while he was only four years old. He made drawings inspired by the images obtained by his father, Caussols astronomer Dominique Albanese. ||
|-id=404
| 11404 Wittig || || Sigmar Wittig (born 1940), chairman of the Executive Board of the German Aerospace Center during 2002–2007, has been head of the Institute for Thermal Turbomachinery at the University of Karlsruhe, vice president of the German Research Foundation and chair of the European Space Agency Council. ||
|-id=406
| 11406 Ucciocontin || || Aurelio (Uccio) Contin (1923–2002) was a professional pharmacist, amateur scientist, diver and naturalist. He is well known for his educational and social work. ||
|-id=408
| 11408 Zahradník || || Rudolf Zahradník, Czech chemist, co-founder of the Czech school of quantum chemistry, founding father and first president of the Učená společnost České republiky (Learned Society of the Czech Republic), and first president of the Akademie věd České republiky (Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic) ||
|-id=409
| 11409 Horkheimer || || Jack Horkheimer, American popularizer of astronomy † ||
|-id=413
| 11413 Catanach || || Therese Anne Catanach (born 1985), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=414
| 11414 Allanchu || || Allan Chu (born 1984), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=417
| 11417 Chughtai || || Asma Latif Chughtai (born 1986), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=419
| 11419 Donjohnson || || Donald Joe Johnson II (1959–2001) went from the field of aerospace to that of a testing engineer working towards the future. He was best known for his kindness, imagination and creativity in storytelling. In his stories he took friends and comrades to the stars in adventures with a brighter future for humanity. ||
|-id=421
| 11421 Cardano || || Gerolamo Cardano (1501–1576), prototypical Renaissance man, physician, mathematician, astrologer, inventor and gambler. ||
|-id=422
| 11422 Alilienthal || || Alfred Lilienthal (1889–1970) studied in England and was a businessman in Berlin during the 1930s. He spent the 1940s in Shanghai. ||
|-id=423
| 11423 Cronin || || Kevin Michael Cronin (born 1984), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=425
| 11425 Wearydunlop || 1999 MF || Sir Edward 'Weary' Dunlop, an Australian Army surgeon prisoner-of-war on the Burma railway. ||
|-id=426
| 11426 Molster || 2527 P-L || Lucia Glen Molster (26–27 April 2007) was the beloved daughter of Dutch astronomers Frank and Nathalie Molster. ||
|-id=427
| 11427 Willemkolff || 2611 P-L || Willem Johan Kolff, Dutch-born American internist, inventor of the kidney dialysis machine ||
|-id=428
| 11428 Alcinoös || 4139 P-L || Alcinous, King of Phaiacians and father of Nausicaa in Homer's Odyssey ||
|-id=429
| 11429 Demodokus || 4655 P-L || Demodocus, blind minstrel in Homer's Odyssey. ||
|-id=430
| 11430 Lodewijkberg || 9560 P-L || Lodewijk van den Berg, Dutch-born American astronaut ||
|-id=431
| 11431 Karelbosscha || 4843 T-1 || Karel Albert Rudolf Bosscha (1865–1928), a Dutch tea planter, co-founder of the Lembang Observatory near Bandung in the Dutch East Indies, uncle of Rudolf Albert Kerkhoven. ||
|-id=432
| 11432 Kerkhoven || 1052 T-2 || Rudolf Albert Kerkhoven (1879–1940) was a notable Dutch tea planter in Malabar, West Java, who, with his uncle Karel Albert Rudolf Bosscha, greatly contributed to the establishment of the Lembang Observatory. His legacy continues to support astronomical research in Indonesia and Holland. ||
|-id=433
| 11433 Gemmafrisius || 3474 T-3 || Gemma Frisius (a.k.a. Gemma Phrysius, Gemma Reyneri), 16th-century Dutch geographer, scientist, and physician, teacher of Mercator ||
|-id=434
| 11434 Lohnert || || Karl Lohnert (1885–1944) worked from 1905 to 1907 as an assistant of Max Wolf and discovered four now-numbered minor planets. Lohnert studied psychology in Leipzig and earned his doctorate under Wilhelm Wundt, honoring his mentor by the naming of . ||
|-id=437
| 11437 Cardalda || 1971 SB || Carlos Cardalda (1883–1961), Argentine amateur astronomer, cofounder of the Argentinian Association of Amateur Astronomers and instrumental in founding the Asociación de Aficionados a la Astronomía Uruguay ||
|-id=438
| 11438 Zeldovich || || Yakov Borisovich Zel'dovich, Soviet physicist. ||
|-id=440
| 11440 Massironi || || Matteo Massironi (born 1967) is a professor at the University of Padova whose research includes the geology of (21) Lutetia and the surface layering of 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko using Rosetta spacecraft data. ||
|-id=441
| 11441 Anadiego || 1975 YD || Ana Teresa Diego, an outstanding undergraduate student at La Plata Astronomical. ||
|-id=442
| 11442 Seijin-Sanso || || Seijin-Sanso, near Kurashiki, Okayama prefecture, is the observing station where famed comet and nova hunter Minoru Honda discovered four of his 12 novae. He was observing there in 1990 on the last night of his life. ||
|-id=443
| 11443 Youdale || 1977 CP || Jack Youdale (1932–2017) was a British amateur astronomer, telescope maker and public outreach advocate. He was Honorary President of the Cleveland and Darlington Astronomical Society from 1979 until his death, and he had a monthly astronomy slot on local radio for over 20 years. ||
|-id=444
| 11444 Peshekhonov || || Vladimir Grigor'evich Peshekhonov (born 1934), director of the Central Scientific Research Institute "Electropribor", St. Petersburg, is a prominent specialist in naval and space navigation. He has developed a number of high-precision inertial navigation systems for sea vessels and mobile gravimeters for use on the sea shelf. ||
|-id=445
| 11445 Fedotov || || Victor Andreevich Fedotov (1933–2001), the brilliant conductor of performances in Mariinskij Theatre for more than 35 years. ||
|-id=446
| 11446 Betankur || || Avgustin Avgustinovich Betankur (1758–1824), a civil engineer who built a gun foundry in Kazan, many bridges and several remarkable buildings, in particular a riding-house in Moscow. ||
|-id=448
| 11448 Miahajduková || || Mária (Mia) Hajduková Jr. (born 1967) is a research scientist at the Slovak Academy of Science investigating meteoroid orbits, particularly the critical analysis of observational errors leading to apparently hyperbolic orbits. ||
|-id=449
| 11449 Stephwerner || 1979 QP || Stephanie C. Werner (born 1974), a German geophysicist, has investigated the chronostratigraphy and geologic evolutionary history of Mars. ||
|-id=450
| 11450 Shearer || || Andrew Shearer (born 1953) an astrophysicist and professor at NUI Galway in Ireland, leads the group working in the field of high-time-resolution astrophysics and image processing. He was responsible for the measurements of the pulsed optical emission from PSR B0656+14 and Geminga (Src). ||
|-id=451
| 11451 Aarongolden || || Aaron Golden (born 1969), of the National University of Ireland, Galway, works in the field of high-time resolution astrophysics and image processing. He participated in the discovery of optical pulsations from two pulsars. ||
|-id=453
| 11453 Cañada-Assandri || || Marcela Cañada-Assandri (born 1976) is an astronomer at the El Leoncito Observatory in San Juan, Argentina, where she has worked on polarimetry of main-belt asteroids and the dynamics of the Hungaria group. ||
|-id=454
| 11454 Mariomelita || || Mario Daniel Melita (born 1964) is a professor at the Instituto de Astronomía y Física del Espacio (IAFE) of the Universidad de Buenos Aires, specializing in dynamical and physical properties of small solar system bodies. ||
|-id=455
| 11455 Richardstarr || || Richard Starr (born 1950) of the Catholic University of America is an expert in planetary X-ray, gamma-ray, and neutron spectroscopy, including their application to asteroid missions. ||
|-id=456
| 11456 Cotto-Figueroa || || Desiree Cotto-Figueroa (born 1984) is a professor at the University of Puerto Rico, Humacao whose research includes shape and spin evolution of near-Earth asteroids in response to re-radiation of solar flux. ||
|-id=457
| 11457 Hitomikobayashi || || Hitomi Kobayashi (born 1984) is a Japanese researcher who studies formation and evolution of cometary organic volatiles based on observations and laboratory experiments. ||
|-id=458
| 11458 Rosemarypike || || Rosemary E. Pike (born 1984) is a postdoctoral fellow at the Institute of Astronomy and Astrophysics, Academia Sinica (Taiwan) who studies complex resonances in the Kuiper belt, particularly the stability of the 5:1 resonance with Neptune. ||
|-id=459
| 11459 Andráspál || || András Pál (born 1981) is a researcher at the Konkoly Observatory in Budapest who develops computer tools for the processing and interpretation of small body visual and infrared observations. ||
|-id=460
| 11460 Juliafang || || Julia Fang (born 1987) completed her PhD work at UCLA using observational data and numerical integrations in the dynamical study of multiple asteroid systems, both in the near-Earth and main belt populations. ||
|-id=461
| 11461 Wladimirneumann || || Wladimir Neumann (born 1981) is a researcher at the German Aerospace Center (DLR-Berlin) who studies water-rock differentiation of icy bodies applicable to interpreting Ceres data from the Dawn mission. ||
|-id=462
| 11462 Hsingwenlin || || Hsing-Wen "Edward" Lin (born 1982) is a postdoctoral researcher at the National Central University of Taiwan whose research spans from trans-Neptunian objects, to Centaurs, Neptune Trojans and main-belt asteroids. ||
|-id=463
| 11463 Petrpokorny || || Petr Pokorný (born 1986) is a Czech astrophysicist specializing in numerical models of the solar system dust complex and observational interpretation of meteor radar measurements. ||
|-id=464
| 11464 Moser || || Danielle Moser (born 1980) is a scientist working for the NASA Meteoroid Environment Office whose research includes meteor shower forecasting and estimating the energies of lunar impactors. ||
|-id=465
| 11465 Fulvio || || Daniele Fulvio (born 1979) is a professor of physics at the Pontificia Universidade Católica do Rio de Janeiro performing laboratory simulation of asteroid space weathering through ion irradiation of meteorite samples. ||
|-id=466
| 11466 Katharinaotto || || Katharina A. Otto (born 1984) is a scientist at the German Aerospace Center (DLR-Berlin) studying the effects of Coriolis force in shaping surface features on Vesta through analysis of Dawn spacecraft images. ||
|-id=467
| 11467 Simonporter || || Simon B. Porter (born 1984) is a postdoctoral researcher at Southwest Research Institute (Boulder, Colorado) whose studies include tidal dissipation and stability in trans-Neptunian binary systems. ||
|-id=468
| 11468 Shantanunaidu || || Shantanu Naidu (born 1985) is a postdoctoral researcher at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory who combines dynamical theory and radar observations for asteroid physical studies, including spin-orbit coupling interactions in binary asteroid systems. ||
|-id=469
| 11469 Rozitis || || Benjamin Rozitis (born 1984) is a research fellow at the Open University (UK) studying the physical and dynamical characterization of asteroid surfaces through spacecraft data, modeling, and microgravity experiments. ||
|-id=470
| 11470 Davidminton || || David Minton (born 1976) is a professor at Purdue University investigating the dynamical history of the main asteroid belt and its connection with terrestrial impacts. ||
|-id=471
| 11471 Toshihirabayashi || || Masatoshi Hirabayashi (born 1983) is a postdoctoral researcher at Purdue University specializing in modeling structural stresses experienced by rotating asteroids and comet nuclei. ||
|-id=473
| 11473 Barbaresco || 1982 SC || Barbaresco is a beautiful little Italian town in the Langhe region of Piedmont. ||
|-id=475
| 11475 Velinský || 1982 VL || Jaroslav Velinský (1932–2012), nickname Kapitán Kid, was a Czech science fiction and detective novel writer, publisher, songwriter and musician. He was one of the founders of the Czech folk festival, Porta. ||
|-id=476
| 11476 Stefanosimoni || || Stefano Simoni (born 1974) is an Italian amateur astronomer. He created and maintains a very popular non-profit Italian blog devoted to the dissemination of astronomy and astrophysics. ||
|-id=480
| 11480 Velikij Ustyug || || Veliky Ustyug, Russia. ||
|-id=481
| 11481 Znannya || || Znannya, a scientific society founded in Kiev in 1948 by Ukrainian astronomer Sergej Konstantinovich Vsekhsvyatskij and other scientists. It propagates knowledge in astronomy, physics, history and other sciences in Ukraine and elsewhere. ||
|-id=484
| 11484 Daudet || || Alphonse Daudet (1840–1897), a French novelist who is remembered as a writer of sentimental tales, believed that the world was misrepresented by novelists, who concentrated only on its uglier aspects. His Lettres de mon Moulin (1869) can therefore be considered a more joyful interpretation of the mystery of things and of individuals. ||
|-id=485
| 11485 Zinzendorf || || Nikolaus Ludwig, Graf von Zinzendorf (1700–1760), a counsellor at the court of his native town of Dresden (1721–1727). ||
|-id=492
| 11492 Shimose || || Nobuo Shimose (born 1944) is well known in Yamaguchi prefecture as a professional cameraman of the first order, as well as an amateur astronomer. He is also the leader of the Yamaguchi Astronomical Society and the Hagi Astronomical Club. ||
|-id=494
| 11494 Hibiki || || The Sea of Hibiki, an open-sea region between the Fukuoka and Yamaguchi prefectures. The asteroid's name was selected from candidates proposed by children who attended the Fureai Space Festival, held in the city of Kitakyushu on the Japanese Space Day in 2005 (also see citation for 11933 Himuka). ||
|-id=495
| 11495 Fukunaga || 1988 XR || Yasutoshi Fukunaga (born 1951) is a well-known amateur astronomer in Yamaguchi prefecture, the site of frequent star parties. He is the head of the astronomy club in his home in the Syunan area. ||
|-id=496
| 11496 Grass || || Günter Grass (1927–2015), a German writer, sculptor and graphic artist, is a critic of both the immediate postwar years and the present. His passionate writing received only partial recognition in Germany but great acclaim elsewhere. He won the 1999 Nobel Prize for literature. ||
|-id=498
| 11498 Julgeerts || || Julien Armand Geerts (born 1909) is a well-known commercial artist in Belgium. He was for many years a good friend of the discoverer's parents. ||
|-id=499
| 11499 Duras || 1989 RL || Marguerite Duras (1914–1996), was a French novelist who became internationally known for the screenplay of Hiroshima mon amour (1959). Her semi-autobiographical novel L'Amant was nominated for the Prix Goncourt in 1984. ||
|-id=500
| 11500 Tomaiyowit || 1989 UR || Tomaiyowit, Earth Mother in the Luiseno creation story; together with Tukmit, she gave birth to the First People ||
|}
11501–11600
|-id=504
| 11504 Kazo || 1990 BT || Kazo, a Japanese city in Saitama prefecture, near Tokyo ||
|-id=506
| 11506 Toulouse-Lautrec || || Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec (1864–1901), a French painter ||
|-id=507
| 11507 Danpascu || 1990 OF || Dan Pascu (born 1938), astronomer and astrometrist U.S. Naval Observatory, who he rediscovered and co-discovered Janus and Calypso, two moons of Saturn, respectively ||
|-id=508
| 11508 Stolte || || Dieter Stolte (born 1934) served for 20 years as director general of ZDF, the public German TV net and one of the largest European TV stations. A professor of media research, Stolte initiated international TV channels (ARTE, 3SAT) in a European cooperation. ||
|-id=509
| 11509 Thersilochos || || Thersilochus, a Trojan warrior from the rich valleys of Paeonia. He showed up, together with Hector, at the battle for the dead body of Patrocles, and was later killed by Achilles. ||
|-id=510
| 11510 Borges || || Jorge Luis Borges (1899–1986), an Argentine poet and short-story writer ||
|-id=514
| 11514 Tsunenaga || || Hasekura Tsunenaga (1571–1622), who, in 1613, led the first Japanese mission across the Pacific to the Americas (in Mexico), and he continued across the Atlantic to Europe, where he met with king Philip III of Spain and pope Paul V. His portrait was designated a national treasure for the first time in Sendai in June 2001. ||
|-id=515
| 11515 Oshijyo || || Oshijyo, the symbol of Gyoda Ichi, is located in the central part of that city and dates from the Muromachi period ||
|-id=516
| 11516 Arthurpage || 1991 ED || Arthur Page (born 1922), an Australian astronomer and founder of the Astronomical Association of Queensland ||
|-id=517
| 11517 Esteracuna || || Maria Ester Acuna Castillo (born 1951), a longtime caretaker at the Manuel Foster Observatory in Santiago, Chile ||
|-id=518
| 11518 Jung || || Carl Gustav Jung (1875–1961), a Swiss psychiatrist ||
|-id=519
| 11519 Adler || || Alfred Adler (1870–1937), an Austrian physician and psychiatrist ||
|-id=520
| 11520 Fromm || || Erich Fromm (1900–1980), a German psychoanalyst ||
|-id=521
| 11521 Erikson || || Erik H. Erikson (1902–1994), a German-American psychoanalyst. ||
|-id=524
| 11524 Pleyel || || Ignaz Pleyel (1757–1831), an Austrian-born French composer and piano builder ||
|-id=528
| 11528 Mie || 1991 XH || Mie Nagata (born 1963), a lecturer at the Gotoh Planetarium and Astronomical Museum in Tokyo from 1988 to 1994 ||
|-id=530
| 11530 d'Indy || || Vincent d'Indy (1851–1931), a French composer ||
|-id=532
| 11532 Gullin || || Lars Gullin (1928–1976), a Swedish jazz musician and composer, known for his style of playing the baritone saxophone ||
|-id=533
| 11533 Akebäck || || Akebäck, a small socken located on the Swedish island of Gotland ||
|-id=537
| 11537 Guericke || || Otto von Guericke (1602–1686), a German physicist and inventor of the air pump and centrifuge ||
|-id=538
| 11538 Brunico || || Bruneck (Brunico), an Italian town in South Tirol ||
|-id=542
| 11542 Solikamsk || || Solikamsk, a Russian city in the Perm region near the Ural Mountains ||
|-id=545
| 11545 Hashimoto || || Kunihiko Hashimoto (born 1951), a Japanese amateur astronomer and member of the Fukuoka Astronomical Society ||
|-id=546
| 11546 Miyoshimachi || || Miyoshi, a Japanese town located in Saitama Prefecture ||
|-id=547
| 11547 Griesser || || Markus Griesser (born 1949), a Swiss amateur astronomer at Eschenberg Observatory ||
|-id=548
| 11548 Jerrylewis || || Jerry Lewis (born 1926), an American comedian ||
|-id=552
| 11552 Boucolion || || Boucolion a character from Greek mythology. He is the father of the Trojan warriors Pedasos and Aesopos, who both died near the River Scamander. ||
|-id=553
| 11553 Scheria || || Scheria (Corfu), one of the Greek Ionian islands, which was first mentioned in Homer's Odyssey ||
|-id=554
| 11554 Asios || || Asios, a Trojan warrior and one of the leaders in the assault on the Greek wall. He challenged Idomeneos and was killed by him. ||
|-id=569
| 11569 Virgilsmith || || The design and construction abilities of Virgil Smith (born 1941), of Corona, Arizona, have resulted in the successful completion of the Jarnac Observatory, located at the home of the second discoverer. ||
|-id=571
| 11571 Daens || || Adolf Daens (1839–1907), a Flemish priest from Aalst, Belgium ||
|-id=572
| 11572 Schindler || || Oskar Schindler (1905–1974), a German industrialist ||
|-id=573
| 11573 Helmholtz || || Hermann von Helmholtz (1821–1894), a German doctor, physiologist and physicist. ||
|-id=574
| 11574 d'Alviella || || Eugène Goblet d'Alviella (1846–1925), a senator of Belgium, lawyer, Professor of the history of religions, and rector of the Universite Libre de Bruxelles ||
|-id=577
| 11577 Einasto || || Jaan Einasto (born 1929), and Estonian astronomer and one of the discoverers of dark matter ||
|-id=578
| 11578 Cimabue || 1994 EB || Cimabue (1240–1302), an Italian painter and designer of mosaics from Florence ||
|-id=579
| 11579 Tsujitsuka || 1994 JN || Takashi Tsujitsuka (born 1961), a Japanese elementary school teacher and amateur astronomer. His main interests lie in observing stellar occultations at his private observatory, where he also indulges in his favorite pastime of polishing mirrors for reflecting telescopes. ||
|-id=580
| 11580 Bautzen || || Bautzen, a German town in eastern Saxony ||
|-id=581
| 11581 Philipdejager || || Philip de Jager (born 1969), a Belgian percussionist ||
|-id=582
| 11582 Bleuler || || Eugen Bleuler (1857–1939), Swiss psychiatrist ||
|-id=583
| 11583 Breuer || || Jozef Breuer (1842–1925), an Austrian physician ||
|-id=584
| 11584 Ferenczi || || Sándor Ferenczi (1873–1933), a Hungarian psychoanalyst ||
|-id=585
| 11585 Orlandelassus || || Orlande de Lassus (1532–1594), a Franco-Flemish composer ||
|-id=588
| 11588 Gottfriedkeller || || Gottfried Keller (1819–1890), a Swiss author ||
|-id=592
| 11592 Clintkelly || || Clint Kelly, senior vice president for Advanced Technology Development at Science Applications International Corporation since 1988. ||
|-id=593
| 11593 Uchikawa || 1995 HK || Yoshihisa Uchikawa (born 1947) is one of the leading amateur astronomers from Saga prefecture and the Kyushu district. ||
|-id=595
| 11595 Monsummano || 1995 KN || Monsummano Terme, an Italian village in Northern Tuscany ||
|-id=596
| 11596 Francetic || || Daniel Francetic (1933–2014), American director and space science educator of the Euclid High School Planetarium in Euclid, Ohio. Past president of the Great Lakes Planetarium Association and founding member of the Cleveland Regional Association of Planetariums, his passion for teaching astronomy touched innumerable students ||
|-id=598
| 11598 Kubík || 1995 OJ || Jakub Šaroun (born 1974), brother of Czech discoverer Lenka Kotková ||
|-id=600
| 11600 Cipolla || || Carlo Cipolla (born 1925), an Italian chemist and amateur astronomer ||
|}
11601–11700
|-id=602
| 11602 Miryang || || Miryang, South Korea, birthplace of the discovery team leader's wife, Chung-hi Koh (Helen) Weber ||
|-id=604
| 11604 Novigrad || || Novigrad, also known as Novigrad Istarski and Cittanova d'Istria, a town and a municipality in Istria, Croatia. The city is located close to the mouth of the river Mirna, on a small island that was connected with the mainland in the eighteenth century. ||
|-id=605
| 11605 Ranfagni || || Piero Ranfagni (born 1949) worked for many years as a technician at Arcetri Astrophysical Observatory. He is on the technical staff of the TIRGO Telescope and in the project office of LBT. He has also been very active in the history of astronomy and in popular astronomy. ||
|-id=606
| 11606 Almary || || Alfred and Mary Tholen, the parents of the discoverer, David Tholen, on the occasion of their 50th wedding anniversary. ||
|-id=612
| 11612 Obu || || The Japanese city of Ōbu, located in the center of Aichi Prefecture, where the discoverer Akimasa Nakamura lived for six and a half years. ||
|-id=614
| 11614 Istropolitana || || Universitas Istropolitana in Bratislava, was the first university in present-day Slovakia and an ancient predecessor of Comenius University. ||
|-id=615
| 11615 Naoya || || Naoya Matsumoto (born 1952) is a Japanese amateur astronomer and president of the Nagasaki Astronomical Society. ||
|-id=620
| 11620 Susanagordon || || Susana Gordon (born 1958) has dedicated most of her adult life as a dialysis caregiver at the Good Samaritan Hospital in New York. She moved to Tucson, Arizona, in the late 1990s, where she is a massage therapist. Her interests include gems and minerals, photography and dancing ||
|-id=621
| 11621 Duccio || || Duccio Bartolini (born 1976) is the younger son of the first discoverer. ||
|-id=622
| 11622 Samuele || || Samuele Marconi (born 1975), an active Italian amateur astronomer at the San Marcello Observatory who spends much of his time giving public lectures on astronomy. at the Pistoia Mountains Astronomical Observatory in San Marcello Pistoiese. ||
|-id=623
| 11623 Kagekatu || || Kagekatu Uesugi (1555–1623) was a military commander during the Japanese feudal period. He was lord of Echigo Kasugayama castle from 1578, of Mutu Aizu castle from 1598 and of Dewa Yonezawa castle from 1601. ||
|-id=625
| 11625 Francelinda || || Francesca and Linda Tesi, granddaughters of the co-discoverer Luciano Tesi ||
|-id=626
| 11626 Church Stretton || || The small town of Church Stretton is set amidst the South Shropshire hills of western England. It is the location of the Church Stretton Observatory, where this minor planet was discovered. ||
|-id=628
| 11628 Katuhikoikeda || || Katuhiko Ikeda (born 1958) is a Japanese amateur astronomer and professional engineer. As a developer and repairer of electrical devices, he helps maintain the Moriyama Observatory . ||
|-id=636
| 11636 Pezinok || || Pezinok, a small town near Bratislava. ||
|-id=637
| 11637 Yangjiachi || || Yang Jiachi (1919–2016), an expert in automatic control and space technology, devoted himself to the development of artificial earth satellites in China. ||
|-id=652
| 11652 Johnbrownlee || || John W. Brownlee (born 1973) was the system administrator, principal programmer and an observer on the Catalina Sky Survey team during 1998–2000.Src ||
|-id=656
| 11656 Lipno || || The Lipno dam in South Bohemia, Czech Republic. It was built on the Vltava river in 1959 as the largest Czechoslovak dam. It is important for the water supply, as a source of power and also as a well-known South Bohemian holiday area. ||
|-id=657
| 11657 Antonhajduk || || Anton Hajduk (born 1933) is a professor of astronomy at the Slovak Academy of Sciences. His research centers on the structure of meteor streams and radio studies of meteor head echoes and the secondary ozone layer. ||
|-id=664
| 11664 Kashiwagi || || Shuji Kashiwagi (born 1952) is a junior high school teacher and associate president of the Astronomical Society of Oita. ||
|-id=665
| 11665 Dirichlet || || Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet (1805–1859) was the successor of Gauss and the predecessor of Riemann at Göttingen. He made important contributions in both pure and applied mathematics and gave the first rigorous proof of the convergence of Fourier series. ||
|-id=666
| 11666 Bracker || || Steve Bracker (born 1942) is a renaissance man – particle physicist, harpsichordist, astronomer, naturalist and software guru. The very first programmer with the Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory in Chile, he continued his involvement in astronomy with the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. ||
|-id=667
| 11667 Testa || || Augusto Testa (born 1950), Italian amateur astronomer and discoverer of minor planets at the Sormano Astronomical Observatory in northern Italy. Over the past few years he has developed a lot of software dedicated to the observation of minor planets, and these are widely used by the Italian community of astrometric observers. ||
|-id=668
| 11668 Balios || || Balius (in Latin: Balios) was one of the two immortal horses of the Greek hero Achilles who took them to draw his chariot during the Trojan War. ||
|-id=669
| 11669 Pascalscholl || || Pascal Scholl (born 1994) is the younger son of astronomer Hans Scholl. ||
|-id=670
| 11670 Fountain || || Glen Harold Fountain (born 1942) is the project manager of the New Horizons Pluto Kuiper Belt mission. ||
|-id=672
| 11672 Cuney || || Husband and wife team Bruce (born 1947) and Dana (born 1950) Cuney work at Palomar and were responsible for the remodeling of the old 1.2-m Schmidt dome interior. ||
|-id=673
| 11673 Baur || || Johann M. Baur (1930–2007), was a German amateur astronomer, discoverer of minor planets and founder of the Chaonis Observatory in northern Italy. ||
|-id=675
| 11675 Billboyle || || William Boyle (born 1924), co-invented the CCD while at Bell Laboratories in 1969. ||
|-id=678
| 11678 Brevard || || Brevard County, Florida. ||
|-id=679
| 11679 Brucebaker || || Bruce Baker (born 1949) fabricated and installed the mechanical portions of the slip rings and assisted in the fabrication of many small mechanical assemblies needed throughout the upgrade of the 1.2-m Schmidt at Palomar. ||
|-id=681
| 11681 Ortner || || Johannes Ortner (born 1933) is founder and unique director of the Summer School Alpbach. Held annually since 1975, Alpbach provides in-depth teaching on all aspects of space science and technology for European students, culminating in the design of innovative space-mission proposals. ||
|-id=682
| 11682 Shiwaku || || Hideaki Shiwaku (born 1963) is one of promoters of the Matsue Astronomical Club, an amateur astronomers group in the Matsue area of Japan, and a good friend of the discoverer, Hiroshi Abe. ||
|-id=685
| 11685 Adamcurry || || Adam Michael Curry (born 1984), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=688
| 11688 Amandugan || || Amanda Dyann Dugan (born 1986), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=690
| 11690 Carodulaney || || Caroline Ann DuLaney (born 1985), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=691
| 11691 Easterwood || || Jeffrey Michael Easterwood (born 1985), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=693
| 11693 Grantelliott || || Grant A. Elliott (born 1984), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=694
| 11694 Esterhuysen || || Stephanus Albertus Esterhuysen (born 1983), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=695
| 11695 Mattei || || Janet Akyüz Mattei (1943–2004), was a Turkish–American astronomer and promoter of the observation of variable stars by amateurs, and long-time director of the American Association of Variable Star Observers from 1973 to 2004. ||
|-id=696
| 11696 Capen || || Charles ("Chick") Franklin Capen (1926–1986) was best known for his observations of the planets, particularly Mars. ||
|-id=697
| 11697 Estrella || || Allan Noriel Estrella (born 1984), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=698
| 11698 Fichtelman || || Jon Roger Fichtelman (born 1986), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|}
11701–11800
|-id=702
| 11702 Mifischer || || Michael Henry Fischer (born 1985), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=703
| 11703 Glassman || || Elena Leah Glassman (born 1986), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=704
| 11704 Gorin || || Michael Adam Gorin (born 1985), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=706
| 11706 Rijeka || || Rijeka, the principal seaport of Croatia, located on Kvarner Bay, an inlet of the Adriatic Sea. ||
|-id=707
| 11707 Grigery || || Chelsea Nicole Grigery (born 1986), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=709
| 11709 Eudoxos || || Eudoxos of Knidos (c. 408-355 B.C.) was the prime mover behind two major developments in Greek mathematical thought: the theory of proportions that overcame the crisis caused by the discovery of irrational numbers, and the method of exhaustion for the calculation of areas and volumest. ||
|-id=710
| 11710 Nataliehale || || Natalie Adele Hale (born 1986), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=711
| 11711 Urquiza || || Luis Urquiza del Valle (1906–2000) was the much-loved grandfather of LONEOS observer L. Levy. ||
|-id=712
| 11712 Kemcook || || Kem H. Cook (born 1949), of Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, is a founding member of the Massive Compact Halo Objects (MACHO) Project, which used a refurbished, 120-year-old telescope (The Great Melbourne Telescope) to survey the Magellanic Clouds for gravitational microlensing by baryonic, halo dark matter. ||
|-id=713
| 11713 Stubbs || || Christopher Stubbs (born 1958), of the University of Washington, has pursued a variety of projects in experimental physics and observational astrophysics, including searching for dark matter, measuring the rate of expansion of the universe with supernovae and testing the equivalence principle. ||
|-id=714
| 11714 Mikebrown || || Michael E. Brown (born 1965), assistant professor of astronomy at the California Institute of Technology. ||
|-id=715
| 11715 Harperclark || || Elizabeth Dee Pauline Harper-Clark (born 1984), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=716
| 11716 Amahartman || || Amanda Nicole Hartman (born 1987), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=718
| 11718 Hayward || || Nicholas Mark Edward Alexander Hayward (born 1984), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=719
| 11719 Hicklen || || Rachel Scarlett Hicklen (born 1984), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=720
| 11720 Horodyskyj || || Ulyana N. Horodyskyj (born 1986), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=724
| 11724 Ronaldhsu || || Ronald Hsu (born 1985), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=725
| 11725 Victoriahsu || || Victoria Hsu (born 1987), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=726
| 11726 Edgerton || 1998 JA || Harold "Doc" Eugene Edgerton (1903–1990), born in Fremont, Nebraska, was professor of electrical engineering at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology during 1928–1966. ||
|-id=727
| 11727 Sweet || || During the 1.2-m Schmidt conversion Merle Sweet (born 1942), assistant superintendent at the Palomar Observatory, assisted in overseeing the details in the layout and construction of the slip-ring trolleys. He also worked in the rewiring of the dome. ||
|-id=728
| 11728 Einer || || Steve Einer (born 1955), a Palomar Observatory technician. ||
|-id=730
| 11730 Yanhua || || Yan Hua (born 1984), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=736
| 11736 Viktorfischl || || Viktor Fischl Avigdor Dagan (born 1912) is a frequently translated Czech-Israeli writer who put ethical values into literature through his stylistic and linguistic mastery, in which he emphasizes responsibility for interpersonal relations, love, tolerance and respect. ||
|-id=739
| 11739 Baton Rouge || || Baton Rouge, Louisiana. ||
|-id=740
| 11740 Georgesmith || || George Smith (born 1930) co-invented the CCD while at Bell Laboratories in 1969. ||
|-id=743
| 11743 Jachowski || || Matthew Douglas Apau Jachowski (born 1985), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=746
| 11746 Thomjansen || || Thomas Scott Jansen (born 1986), an ISEF awardee in 2002 ||
|-id=752
| 11752 Masatakesagai || || Masatake Sagai (born 1950) became a member of the Nanyo Astronomical Club in 1985 and is an active popularizer of astronomy. ||
|-id=753
| 11753 Geoffburbidge || 2064 P-L || Geoffrey Ronald Burbidge, British-American physicist. ||
|-id=754
| 11754 Herbig || 2560 P-L || George Herbig (1920–2013), American astronomer and co-discoverer of the Herbig–Haro objects ||
|-id=755
| 11755 Paczynski || 2691 P-L || Bohdan Paczyński, Polish astronomer. ||
|-id=756
| 11756 Geneparker || 2779 P-L || Eugene Parker, American astronomer. ||
|-id=757
| 11757 Salpeter || 2799 P-L || Edwin Ernest Salpeter, Austrian astronomer. ||
|-id=758
| 11758 Sargent || 4035 P-L || Wallace Sargent, a British astrophysicist. ||
|-id=759
| 11759 Sunyaev || 4075 P-L || Rashid Sunyaev, Uzbek astrophysicist. ||
|-id=760
| 11760 Auwers || 4090 P-L || Arthur Auwers (Georg Friedrich Julius Arthur von Auwers), 19th–20th-century German astronomer, director of the Potsdam Observatory from 1881, author of the first reference catalogue of fundamental star positions ||
|-id=761
| 11761 Davidgill || 4868 P-L || David Gill, 19th–20th-century British astronomer and instrument designer, director of the Cape Observatory ||
|-id=762
| 11762 Vogel || 6044 P-L || Hermann Carl Vogel (1841–1907) was a German astronomer and spectroscopist. He invented an early scheme to classify stellar spectra and confirmed the sun's rotation. He directed the Potsdam Astrophysical Observatory from 1882 to 1907. ||
|-id=763
| 11763 Deslandres || 6303 P-L || Henri-Alexandre Deslandres (1853–1948) was a French astrophysicist and observatory director. An independent inventor of the spectroheliograph, he investigated molecular spectra in the laboratory and observed the solar chromosphere. ||
|-id=764
| 11764 Benbaillaud || 6531 P-L || Édouard Benjamin Baillaud19th–20th-century French director of the Toulouse (1878–1907) and Paris (1907–1926) observatories, founder of the Observatoire du Pic du Midi, first president of the International Astronomical Union ||
|-id=765
| 11765 Alfredfowler || 9057 P-L || Alfred Fowler, 19th–20th-century British astrophysicist, first general secretary of the International Astronomical Union ||
|-id=766
| 11766 Fredseares || 9073 P-L || Frederick H. Seares, 19th–20th-century American astronomer, standardizer of the stellar magnitude system ||
|-id=767
| 11767 Milne || 3224 T-1 || E. Arthur Milne, 20th-century British mathematician and astrophysicist ||
|-id=768
| 11768 Merrill || 4107 T-1 || Paul W. Merrill, 20th-century American spectroscopist, first to detect a short-lived isotope of technetium in the atmospheres of stars, thus confirming stellar nucleosynthesis ||
|-id=769
| 11769 Alfredjoy || 2199 T-2 || Alfred H. Joy, 20th-century American astronomer, inventor of the T Tauri classification ||
|-id=770
| 11770 Rudominkowski || 3163 T-2 || Rudolph Minkowski, 20th-century German-American astronomer ||
|-id=771
| 11771 Maestlin || 4136 T-2 || Michael Maestlin (1550–1631), professor of astronomy at Tübingen. ||
|-id=772
| 11772 Jacoblemaire || 4210 T-2 || Jacob Le Maire, Dutch explorer, after whom the Straits of Lemaire are named; he was, along with Schouten, one of the first westerners to visit Tonga † ||
|-id=773
| 11773 Schouten || 1021 T-3 || Willem Schouten, Dutch explorer who discovered Cape Horn † ||
|-id=774
| 11774 Jerne || 1128 T-3 || Niels Kaj Jerne, British-born (of Danish parentage) immunologist, joint winner of the 1984 Nobel Prize for Medicine and Physiology. ||
|-id=775
| 11775 Köhler || 3224 T-3 || Georges J. F. Köhler, German biologist, joint winner of the 1984 Nobel Prize for Medicine and Physiology. ||
|-id=776
| 11776 Milstein || 3460 T-3 || César Milstein, Argentinian biochemist, joint winner of the 1984 Nobel Prize for Medicine and Physiology. ||
|-id=777
| 11777 Hargrave || 3526 T-3 || Lawrence Hargrave (1850–1915), Australian astronomer and aviation pioneer. ||
|-id=778
| 11778 Kingsford Smith || 4102 T-3 || Sir Charles Edward Kingsford Smith, Australian aviator. ||
|-id=779
| 11779 Zernike || 4197 T-3 || Frits Zernike, Dutch physicist, winner of the 1953 Nobel Prize for Physics † ||
|-id=780
| 11780 Thunder Bay || 1942 TB || Thunder Bay, located on the shores of Lake Superior, is the most populous municipality in Northwestern Ontario, Canada. Formed in 1970 as the amalgamation of two cities, Thunder Bay is known as "the Lakehead" because it is Canada's westernmost port on the Great Lakes and the end of Great Lakes Navigation. ||
|-id=781
| 11781 Alexroberts || 1966 PL || Alexander William Roberts, Scottish-South African astronomer ||
|-id=782
| 11782 Nikolajivanov || || Nikolaj Mikhajlovich Ivanov (born 1937), a specialist in ballistics, is head of the Russian Ballistic Center, which controls missions of crewed and uncrewed spacecraft in near, middle and deep space. He is the author of many scientific articles, monographs and popular scientific brochures. ||
|-id=785
| 11785 Migaic || || Moscow State University of Geodesy and Cartography (formerly Moscow Institute of Geodesy, Air-Photography and Cartography) is the only educational institution in Russia that trains specialists in geodesy, geodynamics, astronomy, cosmic geodesy and the making of optical and electronic devices. ||
|-id=786
| 11786 Bakhchivandji || 1977 QW || Grigorij Yakovlevich Bakhchivandji (1909–1943) was a Soviet test pilot and pioneer in rocket flights who in 1942 piloted the first flight on the rocket-propelled experimental aircraft BI-1 of Bolkhovitinov and Isaev. ||
|-id=787
| 11787 Baumanka || || Bauman Moscow Technical University, founded in 1830, is a well-known higher education and research institution in Russia that trains specialists in many branches of technology and science. ||
|-id=788
| 11788 Nauchnyj || || Nauchnyj, Crimea, Ukraine, created at the same time as the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory in 1945 ||
|-id=789
| 11789 Kempowski || 1977 RK || Walter Kempowski (born 1929), one of the most important contemporary German writers. ||
|-id=790
| 11790 Goode || 1978 RU || Philip R. Goode (born 1943), a professor at the New Jersey Institute of Technology and director of Big Bear Solar Observatory. ||
|-id=791
| 11791 Sofiyavarzar || || Sofiya Mikhajlovna Varzar (1878–1957), an expert on the dynamics of minor planets. ||
|-id=792
| 11792 Sidorovsky || || Lev Isaevich Sidorovsky (born 1934) is a well-known St. Petersburg journalist whose initiatives on rehabilitation of historical truth and creation of new cultural traditions, in particular the annual celebration of Pushkin's Lyceum Day, have received public recognition. ||
|-id=793
| 11793 Chujkovia || || Elizaveta Fedorovna Chujkova (1865–1958), mother of twelve children, showed courage in preventing the demolition of a church in her home village of Serebryanye Prudy, not far from Moscow, in the 1930s. Among her descendants are writers and cultural workers. ||
|-id=794
| 11794 Yokokebukawa || || Yoko Kebukawa (born 1981) is a Professor in the Faculty of Engineering of the Yokohama National University who specializes in the cosmochemistry of meteorites. ||
|-id=795
| 11795 Fredrikbruhn || || Fredrik Bruhn is a specialist in miniaturized multifunctional system architecture for satellites and robotics. ||
|-id=796
| 11796 Nirenberg || || Louis Nirenberg (1925–2020), a Canadian-American mathematician, is an expert in the theory of differential equations, mathematical physics and functional analysis. ||
|-id=797
| 11797 Warell || || Johan Warell (born 1970) is well known for his high-resolution imaging and spectroscopy of the planet Mercury with the Swedish solar telescope and the Nordic optical telescope on La Palma. ||
|-id=798
| 11798 Davidsson || || The Ph.D. work of Björn Davidsson (born 1974) at Uppsala University opened up new insights about the outgassing mechanism and splitting mechanics of cometary nuclei. ||
|-id=799
| 11799 Lantz || || Cateline Lantz (born 1989) is a postdoctoral researcher at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology whose investigations include the processes of space weathering on carbonaceous asteroids. ||
|-id=800
| 11800 Carrozzo || || Filippo Giacomo Carrozzo (born 1978) is a researcher at Istituto di Astrofisica e Planetologia Spaziali (IAPS-Rome) whose work includes mineralogical mapping of Vesta and Ceres using Dawn spacecraft data. ||
|}
11801–11900
|-
| 11801 Frigeri || || Alessandro Frigeri (born 1973) is a researcher at the Istituto di Astrofisica e Planetologia Spaziali (IAPS-Rome) who has created spectral parameter maps of Vesta using data from the Dawn spacecraft mission. ||
|-id=802
| 11802 Ivanovski || || Stavro Lambrov Ivanovski (born 1977) is a scientist at Istituto di Astrofisica e Planetologia Spaziali (IAPS-Rome) whose research includes the dynamics of aspherical dust grains in cometary atmospheres. ||
|-id=803
| 11803 Turrini || || Diego Turrini (born 1979) is a scientist at the Istituto di Astrofisica e Planetologia Spaziali (IAPS-Rome) whose work includes modeling the source of olivine on Vesta as detected by the Dawn spacecraft mission. ||
|-id=804
| 11804 Zambon || || Francesca Zambon (born 1981) is a researcher at the Istituto di Astrofisica e Planetologia Spaziali (IAPS-Rome) who uses Dawn spacecraft spectral data to map the mineralogy of both Vesta and Ceres. ||
|-id=805
| 11805 Novaković || || Bojan Novaković (born 1976) is a professor at the University of Belgrade who has performed analyses of asteroid collisional families and their association with active asteroids. ||
|-id=806
| 11806 Thangjam || || Guneshwar Thangjam (born 1985) is a researcher at the Max-Planck Institute (Göttingen) performing spectral analyses of Vesta's compositional heterogeneity using Dawn spacecraft data. ||
|-id=807
| 11807 Wannberg || || Asta Pellinen-Wannberg (born 1953) is a Swedish geophysicist and astronomer at Umeå University known for radar observation of meteors. She studies interaction of small meteoroids with the atmosphere using high-power large-aperture radars. ||
|-id=808
| 11808 Platz || || Thomas Platz (born 1975) is a researcher at the Max Planck Institute and member of the Dawn mission framing camera team studying surface ice deposits on Ceres. ||
|-id=809
| 11809 Shinnaka || || Yoshiharu Shinnaka (born 1986) is a Japanese astronomer studying the physicochemical evolution of the early solar nebula through measurements of isotopic ratios of molecules in comets. ||
|-id=810
| 11810 Preusker || || Frank Preusker (born 1975) is a geologist at the German Aerospace Center (DLR-Berlin) whose work includes digital terrain models of both Vesta and Ceres using Dawn spacecraft images. ||
|-id=811
| 11811 Martinrubin || || Martin Rubin (born 1977) is a researcher at the Physikalisches Institut, Universität Bern (Switzerland) who specializes in the detection of molecules in comets and served as a member of the Rosetta mission team. ||
|-id=812
| 11812 Dongqiao || || Dong Qiao (born 1979) is a professor at the Beijing Institute of Technology whose work includes target selection and trajectory design for the Chang'e-2 flyby mission of (4179) Toutatis. ||
|-id=813
| 11813 Ingorichter || || Ingo Richter (born 1964) is a scientist at the Braunschweig University of Technology (Germany) whose research includes detection and analysis of asteroid magnetic fields and comet solar wind interactions using spacecraft measurements. ||
|-id=814
| 11814 Schwamb || || Megan E. Schwamb (born 1984), a discoverer of minor planets and scientist at the Gemini Observatory in Hilo, Hawaii, whose research includes the search for TNOs. ||
|-id=815
| 11815 Viikinkoski || || Matti Viikinkoski (born 1976) is a postdoctoral researcher at the Tampere University of Technology (Finland) who develops mathematical methods and algorithms for asteroid shape and spin modeling. ||
|-id=816
| 11816 Vasile || || Massimiliano Vasile (born 1970) is a professor at the University of Strathclyde (UK) whose work includes design and optimization of space flight trajectories. ||
|-id=817
| 11817 Oguri || || Junko Oguri (born 1977) is a librarian at the National Astronomical Observatory of Japan. She is also a renowned paper cutout artist whose subjects include asteroids and comets. ||
|-id=818
| 11818 Ulamec || || Stephan Ulamec (born 1966) is a researcher at the German Aerospace Center (DLR-Berlin) who served as the project manager of Philae, the lander carried aboard ESA's Rosetta mission. ||
|-id=819
| 11819 Millarca || || Millarca Valenzuela (born 1977) is a geologist at the Pontificia Universidad Catolica de Chile, and a specialist in meteorites, undertaking many search expeditions in the Atacama Desert. ||
|-id=820
| 11820 Mikiyasato || || Mikiya Sato (born 1967) is a Japanese amateur astronomer who studies dust trails of meteor showers, notably the Phoenicids. ||
|-id=821
| 11821 Coleman || || Paul Henry Ikaika Coleman (1955–2018) was the first Native Hawaiian to earn a doctorate in astrophysics for his study of distant galaxies. He was a passionate advocate for astronomy and was dedicated to increasing Native Hawaiian participation in the sciences. Me ou mau k\={u}puna e Paul e ho`okele aku ai i n\=a moana h\={o}k\={u} \=akea. ||
|-id=823
| 11823 Christen || 1981 VF || Roland W. Christen, an optician and maker of affordable apochromatic refractors at the forefront of mechanical and optical design. ||
|-id=824
| 11824 Alpaidze || || Galaktion Yeliseyevich Alpaidze, Russian chief of the Plesetsk Cosmodrome (1963–1975) ||
|-id=826
| 11826 Yurijgromov || || Yurij Iosifovich Gromov, professor of humanities and social sciences at St. Petersburg University. ||
|-id=827
| 11827 Wasyuzan || || Wasyuzan, a hill commanding a fine view of the Inland Sea, in Kurashiki, Okayama prefecture. ||
|-id=828
| 11828 Vargha || 1984 DZ || Magda Vargha (1931–2010), librarian of Konkoly Observatory, Budapest, was the author of several books on the history of astronomy ||
|-id=829
| 11829 Tuvikene || || Tõnu Tuvikene (1952–2010) was an Estonian astronomer and staff member of Tartu Observatory who studied variable stars ||
|-id=830
| 11830 Jessenius || 1984 JE || Jan Jesenius, Czech physician ||
|-id=832
| 11832 Pustylnik || || Izold Pustylnik (1938–2008), native of the Ukrainian city of Odessa, was a staff member of Tartu Observatory who authored numerous scientific publications and served as editor of the Central European Journal of Physics ||
|-id=833
| 11833 Dixon || 1985 RW || Roger Dixon (born 1947) is a staff physicist at the Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory in Batavia, Illinois, and Project Manager for the Cryogenic Dark Matter Search. He is in charge of and teaches in the Saturday morning physics program for high school students. ||
|-id=836
| 11836 Eileen || 1986 CB || Eileen Collins, astronaut, became in Feb. 1995 the first woman to pilot a shuttle mission. ||
|-id=842
| 11842 Kap'bos || || Kap'bos is a small village, about 20 km east of the city of Antwerp. ||
|-id=844
| 11844 Ostwald || || Friedrich Wilhelm Ostwald, 19th–20th-century Latvian-German chemist, founder of the Zeitschrift für Physikalische Chemie, Nobelist ||
|-id=846
| 11846 Verminnen || || Johan Verminnen, Flemish artist and songwriter. ||
|-id=847
| 11847 Winckelmann || || Johann Joachim Winckelmann, the German art historian. ||
|-id=848
| 11848 Paullouka || || Vital-Paul Delporte (born 1936) alias Paul Louka, is a Wallonian artist who expresses himself in composing, poetry, songs and painting. Following an encounter with Jacques Brel, he spent three years in Paris, where he performed in cabarets and theaters. He was director of the artists' organization Sabam for several years. ||
|-id=849
| 11849 Fauvel || || Charles Fauvel, a French aviator. ||
|-id=852
| 11852 Shoumen || 1988 RD || Shoumen University, successfully to develop education in astronomy, largely as a result of contributions by the first discoverer. ||
|-id=853
| 11853 Runge || || Philipp Otto Runge, German painter and graphic artist. ||
|-id=854
| 11854 Ludwigrichter || || Adrian Ludwig Richter, German artist. ||
|-id=855
| 11855 Preller || || Friedrich Preller the Elder, German painter and etcher. ||
|-id=856
| 11856 Nicolabonev || || Nicola Bonev (1898–1979) was for 40 years the head of the astronomy department at Sofia University and founder and director of the Institute of Astronomy of the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences. He was known for his research in celestial mechanics, theoretical astronomy, solar activity, lunar studies and cosmology ||
|-id=858
| 11858 Devinpoland || || Devin Patrick Poland (born 1986) is the Mission Operations Manager of the Lucy spacecraft. ||
|-id=859
| 11859 Danngarcia || || Dann Garcia (born 1977) is the deputy lead of L'SPACE, the "Lucy Student Collaboration" for the Lucy mission. ||
|-id=860
| 11860 Uedasatoshi || 1988 UP || Satoshi Ueda (born 1954) is the astronomical head of the Kagoshima Municipal Science Hall and is also a well-known amateur astronomer. His main activities include a continuous search for supernovae at his private observatory as well as the organizing of local star parties. ||
|-id=861
| 11861 Teruhime || || Teruhime (1552–1627), wife and supporter of Kuroda Kanbe, who was instrumental in helping Japan end the Age of Civil Wars. ||
|-id=868
| 11868 Kleinrichert || 1989 TY || Michelle Kleinrichert Binzel (born 1959) is an adjunct professor of business at Bentley College who also raises and trains guide dogs for the blind. She is the wife of the discoverer. ||
|-id=870
| 11870 Sverige || || Sverige (Sweden) is a nation in northern Europe, located on the Scandinavian peninsula together with Norway. ||
|-id=871
| 11871 Norge || || Norway (Norge) is a nation in northern Europe, well known for its beautiful coast. ||
|-id=873
| 11873 Kokuseibi || || "Kokuseibi" is another name for The National Museum of Western Art. It opened in 1959 to introduce Western arts to the Japanese public. The core of the collection was the Matsukata Collection of Impressionist-school paintings and Rodin sculptures. ||
|-id=874
| 11874 Gringauz || || Konstantin Gringauz (1918–1993) became involved in ionospheric studies early in his career. He participated in the launching of Sputnik 1 by constructing the beep-beep transmitter. During 1982–1986 he was responsible for designing and implementing plasma experiments aboard VEGA 1 and 2. ||
|-id=875
| 11875 Rhône || || The Rhône, a major river in France, has been an important highway for the transportation of merchandise since the time of the Greeks and Romans. Rising in the Swiss Alps, the river flows through Lake Geneva and the cities of Lyon, Valence and Avignon, reaching the Mediterranean Sea at Marseille after 813 km. ||
|-id=876
| 11876 Doncarpenter || || For the past 42 years, Don Carpenter (born 1938) has been associated with the Stanford research group devoted to passive and active whistler-mode probing of the earth's ionosphere and magnetosphere. In 1966 he discovered the plasmapause in the electron-density distribution of the magnetosphere. ||
|-id=878
| 11878 Hanamiyama || 1990 HJ || Hanamiyama, Japanese mountain. ||
|-id=881
| 11881 Mirstation || || The Russian space station Mir, launched in 1986, remained in service for more than 15 years as a laboratory for a wealth of scientific experiments performed on board by international crews. ||
|-id=885
| 11885 Summanus || 1990 SS || Summanus was the Etruscan or Roman deity responsible for nocturnal lightning and thunder, as Jupiter was in daytime. This was the first earth-approacher discovered automatically by software and (lightning-fast) electronic computer; J. V. Scotti used D. L. Rabinowitz's Moving Object Detection Program at the telescope ||
|-id=886
| 11886 Kraske || || Konrad Kraske (born 1926) served as a member of the supervisory board of the public German TV net ZDF since its foundation in 1962---the last decade as its chairman. Kraske was primarily engaged in the development of highly demanding TV channels. The name was suggested by the first discoverer. ||
|-id=887
| 11887 Echemmon || || The Trojan hero Echemmon, son of the King Priam, who was killed together with his brother Chromius by Diomedes, king of Argos. ||
|-id=895
| 11895 Dehant || || Véronique Dehant, head of the section for time, Earth rotation and space geodesy at the Royal Observatory, Uccle. She is currently involved with the NEIGE project, which plans a soft landing of a geodetic instrument on Mars. In 1999 she was awarded the Bomford prize for her work on the earth's nutation. ||
|-id=896
| 11896 Camelbeeck || || Thierry Camelbeeck (born 1956), a seismologist at the Royal Observatory, Uccle. ||
|-id=897
| 11897 Lemaire || || Joseph F. Lemaire (born 1939), head of the Fundamental Dynamics section at the Belgian Institute for Space Aeronomy, Uccle. ||
|-id=898
| 11898 Dedeyn || || Peter Paul De Deyn (born 1957), head of the Laboratory of Neurochemistry and Behavior at the Born-Bunge Foundation of the University of Antwerp. ||
|-id=899
| 11899 Weill || || Kurt Weill, German-American composer. ||
|-id=900
| 11900 Spinoy || || Constant Spinoy (1924–1997) was a famous Belgian artist and engraver who specialised in the design of postage stamps, of which he engraved more than 100. These include Vielsalm, Towers of Ghent and Double astrograph at the Royal Observatory of Uccle. In 1977 he was honored with the Prize of Europe for his Jeugdfilatelie. ||
|}
11901–12000
|-id=905
| 11905 Giacometti || || Alberto Giacometti (1901–1966), a Swiss sculptor whose work is often compared to that of the Existentialists, contrasted with the avant-garde in that it attempted to equal reality so that a sculpture, like Observing Head (1927), would be perceived as if it were alive. Other masterpieces are The Palace at 4 a.m. and 1 + 1 = 3. ||
|-id=907
| 11907 Näränen || || Jyri Näränen (born 1979) is a Finnish astronomer who works on the surface composition and structure of Mercury and the Moon ||
|-id=908
| 11908 Nicaragua || || Nicaragua is the largest country in the Central American isthmus. ||
|-id=911
| 11911 Angel || 1992 LF || Founder and director of Steward Observatory's mirror lab at the University of Arizona, Tucson, Roger Angel (born 1941) has spearheaded the development of telescope mirrors as large as eight meters in diameter by a process called spin-casting. His work and ideas have resulted in an enormous increase in telescope light-gathering power ||
|-id=912
| 11912 Piedade || || Serra de Piedade in the Brazilian state of Minas Gerais, east of the capital of Belo Horizonte, is the location of the Piedade Observatory. During the 1970s the discoverer spent many hours there observing variable stars ||
|-id=913
| 11913 Svarna || || Anneta Svarna (born 1951) is a mathematical logician who works on information theory for the European Union. The author of many publications on mathematical logic, in 1998 she published (with D. Sinachopoulos) an important paper on Greek philosophy: Why Plato was against observational astronomy ||
|-id=914
| 11914 Sinachopoulos || || Dimitrios Sinachopoulos (born 1951) is an astrophysicist at the National Observatory of Athens who conducts observational and theoretical work on galactic lenses. In 1991 he wrote (with A. Svarna) The Teachings of Astronomy in Plato's Republic. He has often helped the discoverer with the treatment of CCD frames ||
|-id=915
| 11915 Nishiinoue || || Tsuyoshi Nishiinoue (born 1954) studied at the Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences at the Western Australian Museum in 1991. Upon his return to Japan, he became director of Kihoku Observatory, in Kagoshima prefecture, in 1995. He remains a scholar and popularizer of astronomy. ||
|-id=916
| 11916 Wiesloch || || Wiesloch, a German city in northern Baden-Württemberg. It celebrates the 1200th anniversary of its first documented mention in mid–2001. Situated some 16 km south of the famous Heidelberg-Königstuhl Observatory, it became the home town of the first discoverer more than 30 years ago. ||
|-id=921
| 11921 Mitamasahiro || || Masahiro Mita (born 1948) is a well-known writer. In 1977 he won the Akutagawa Prize, which is one of the most important prizes in Japan for a novelist ||
|-id=925
| 11925 Usubae || || Usubae at Cape Ashizuri in western Kochi prefecture is a beautiful beach featuring many strange rock formations. It is a famous spot for fishing and well known as the first place in the Japanese archipelago that the Kuroshio ocean current reaches ||
|-id=926
| 11926 Orinoco || || The Orinoco, a river in the extreme northern part of South America, has its source in the Parima mountain range on the Venezuelan-Brazilian border. Draining 880~000 km 2 of the Colombian and Venezuelan region, it forms an enormous delta before reaching the Atlantic Ocean near the island of Trinidad ||
|-id=927
| 11927 Mount Kent || 1993 BA || Mount Kent Observatory is a facility for astronomical education, research and outreach operated by the University of Southern Queensland. It provides remote and robotic observing, in partnership with the University of Louisville, the University of Queensland and Automated Patrol Telescopes Australia. ||
|-id=928
| 11928 Akimotohiro || || Hiroyuki Akimoto (born 1967) is editor-in-chief of the Japanese monthly astronomical magazine Gekkan Tenmon Guide. He has edited many books on astronomy ||
|-id=929
| 11929 Uchino || || Satoshi Uchino (born 1935), for many years the chief secretary of the Kawasaki Astronomical Association, has greatly contributed to the popularization of astronomy ||
|-id=930
| 11930 Osamu || || Oshima Osamu (born 1959) is a leading amateur astronomer and science teacher in Gunma prefecture and volunteer science instructor in great favor with children. His interests in astronomy are wide, currently CCD imaging of planetary nebulae ||
|-id=933
| 11933 Himuka || 1993 ES || Himuka is an old Japanese name for the Miyazaki prefecture region. The name was selected among other candidates proposed by children who attended the Fureai Space Festival, held in Miyazaki city on the 2004 Space Day in Japan ||
|-id=934
| 11934 Lundgren || || Kjell Lundgren (b.~1950) who has studied red giants in the LMC and the Fornax dwarf galaxy, is now working as an engineer at Uppsala Astronomical Observatory ||
|-id=935
| 11935 Olakarlsson || || Ola Karlsson (born 1973) has for several years been studying Jupiter Trojans, both by physical observations and by numerical integrations resulting in his thesis A Study of Jupiter Trojans. ||
|-id=936
| 11936 Tremolizzo || || Elena Tremolizzo (born 1972) is an attitude and orbit control systems engineer at the European Space Agency, involved in the SMART-1 mission to the Moon and the European global navigation satellite system, Galileo. ||
|-id=941
| 11941 Archinal || || Brent Archinal, American astronomer ||
|-id=942
| 11942 Guettard || 1993 NV || Jean-Étienne Guettard (1715–1786) was a French geologist and mineralogist. From the evidence of fossils found in the volcanic hills of the Puy de Dôme, in south-central France, he concluded correctly that they conflicted with the time scheme of the Old Testament. ||
|-id=943
| 11943 Davidhartley || || David Hartley (1705–1757) was an English physician and philosopher who attempted to explain how thought processes occur. His major work, Observations on Man, His Frame, His Duty and His Expectations, is important in the history of psychology for suggesting that body and mind function in concert. ||
|-id=944
| 11944 Shaftesbury || || Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury (1671–1713), an English politician, philosopher and writer ||
|-id=945
| 11945 Amsterdam || || Amsterdam, the Netherlands ||
|-id=946
| 11946 Bayle || || Pierre Bayle (1647–1706), a French philosopher who wrote the Historical and Critical Dictionary. Because it deliberately tried to destroy orthodox Christian beliefs, he aroused the ire of many of his colleagues. In 1682 he published some reflections on the comet of 1680, deriding the superstition that comets presage catastrophes. ||
|-id=947
| 11947 Kimclijsters || || Kim Clijsters, Belgian tennis player † ||
|-id=948
| 11948 Justinehénin || || Justine Hénin-Hardenne, Belgian tennis player † ||
|-id=949
| 11949 Kagayayutaka || || Yutaka Kagaya (born 1968) is a well-known Japanese space artist who received the Gold Medal in the American Digital Art Contest in 2000 ||
|-id=950
| 11950 Morellet || || André Morellet (1727–1819), a French economist, philosopher, and writer, left his Mémoires sur le XVIIIesiècle et la Révolution (1821), a precious document about the eighteenth century. Besides several articles for Diderot's Encyclopédie, he refuted, in 1770, Galiani's Dialogues sur le commerce des blés. ||
|-id=955
| 11955 Russrobb || || Russell M. Robb (born 1952), astronomer at the University of Victoria, played the leading role in automating the university's 0.5-m telescope and equipping it with a CCD camera. The telescope has been used extensively in the university's observational programs, including astrometric work on comets and minor planets. ||
|-id=956
| 11956 Tamarakate || || Tamara Kate Peiser (born 2001) is the second daughter of Gillian and Benny Peiser. Her father, an anthropologist at Liverpool John Moores University, is known the world over for the Cambridge Conference network ||
|-id=958
| 11958 Galiani || || Abbé Ferdinando Galiani (1728–1787), secretary at the Neapolitan Embassy in Paris from 1759 to 1769, is well known for his witty Dialogues sur le commerce des blés (1768), in which he attacked the doctrine of free market of the physiocrates. He was much esteemed by d´Holbach ||
|-id=959
| 11959 Okunokeno || || Keno Okuno (born 1932), an amateur astronomer and a member of the Kawasaki Astronomical Association, has greatly contributed to the popularization of astronomy ||
|-id=963
| 11963 Ignace || || Ignace Van der Gucht (born 1959) is a graduate in electronics and chief of construction at the Royal Observatory at Uccle, where he places his abilities at the disposal of his colleagues, particularly when they have problems with configuring and upgrading their computers ||
|-id=964
| 11964 Prigogine || || Ilya Prigogine (1917–2003), a Belgian-Russian chemist, was honored with the 1977 Nobel Prize in chemistry for his work on non-equilibrium thermodynamics. He was born in Moscow but moved to Belgium in 1929, where he studied and worked at the Université Libre de Bruxelles, especially on dissipative structures. ||
|-id=965
| 11965 Catullus || || Gaius Valerius Catullus, 1st-century B.C. Roman poet ||
|-id=966
| 11966 Plateau || || Joseph Antoine Ferdinand Plateau (1801–1883) was a Belgian physicist who stated the so-called "Plateau-problem". The proof of the existence of a minimal surface (of least area) bounded by a simple closed curve in space was solved in 1930 by means of variational analysis ||
|-id=967
| 11967 Boyle || || Robert Boyle (1627–1691) was an Anglo-Irish physicist and philosopher well known for his experiments with gases, leading to the discovery that the volume of a gas is inversely proportional to its pressure. In 1661 he developed the concept of primary particles (the critical chymist). ||
|-id=968
| 11968 Demariotte || || Edmé de Mariotte (1620–1684) was a French physicist who discovered independently of Boyle that the volume of a gas varies inversely with pressure. He proposed the word "barometer" for the instrument measuring the pressure of air and stated that Boyle's law holds only if there is no change in temperature ||
|-id=969
| 11969 Gay-Lussac || || Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac (1778–1850) was a French chemist and physicist, one of the founders of meteorology. In 1802 he showed that all gases expand by the same fraction of their volume with temperature. However, he is primarily known for his law stating that "gases combine in very simple proportions". ||
|-id=970
| 11970 Palitzsch || 1994 TD || Johann Georg Palitzsch (1723–1788) was a German farmer by profession and an astronomer by vocation. He recovered comet 1P/Halley on its first predicted return in 1758 and observed further comets, as well as variable stars such as Mira and Algol. The citation was prepared by P. Brosche. ||
|-id=974
| 11974 Yasuhidefujita || 1994 YF || Yasuhide Fujita (born 1961) is a Japanese amateur astronomer and discoverer of minor planets. He is a staff member at the Board of Education in Kuma Town. He worked as a researcher at the Kuma Kogen Astronomical Observatory for eight years (1992–1999) and independently discovered the supernova 1994I. ||
|-id=976
| 11976 Josephthurn || 1995 JG || Count Joseph Thurn (1761–1831), an admiral in the Borbonic fleet, was in command of the Austrian emperor's troops. He spent part of his life in Gorizia, where in 1831 was founded the Monte di Pietá and Cassa di Risparmio ||
|-id=977
| 11977 Leonrisoldi || 1995 OA || Leon Risoldi (born 2009), the first grandson of one of the discoverers at Santa Lucia observatory. ||
|-id=978
| 11978 Makotomasako || || Makoto Shima (born 1923) and his wife Masako Shima (born 1930) are both experts in the study of meteorites. Makoto published many books on meteorites and cosmic dust, and Masako's specialties are the chemical composition and origin of meteorites, especially the analysis of cosmic-ray-produced nuclides ||
|-id=980
| 11980 Ellis || || Kerry Ellis (born 1965) a Canadian physicist, wrote a thesis at the University of Western Ontario in electrical engineering and specialized in meteor burst communication. ||
|-id=981
| 11981 Boncompagni || || Baldassarre Boncompagni (1821–1894) was an Italian aristocrat, historian of mathematics, and editor of 20 volumes of Bullettino di Bibliografia e Storia delle Scienze Matematiche e fisiche. This monumental work, published in Rome during 1868–1887, was fundamental in the history of the mathematical and physical sciences, with many articles on the history of astronomy. ||
|-id=984
| 11984 Manet || || Édouard Manet (1832–1883), a French painter who was a pivotal figure in the transition of realism to impressionism. He is well known for his The Luncheon on the Grass (1863), Olympia (1863) and Folies-Bergère (1882) ||
|-id=987
| 11987 Yonematsu || || Yonematsu Shiono (born 1947) is an investigator of traditional life in Japan and has published many articles and books on it. He also published many books on outdoor life, including astronomical observations ||
|-id=997
| 11997 Fassel || || Deborah Elizabeth Fassel (born 1950) and Charles Sebastian Fassel (born 1955) are Canadian amateur astronomers who live in St. Catharines, Ontario. ||
|-id=998
| 11998 Fermilab || || Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory, USA ||
|}
References
011001-012000
|
30049367
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison%20of%20ADC%20software
|
Comparison of ADC software
|
Advanced Direct Connect for a computer network is a peer-to-peer file-sharing protocol. This page compares the features of a number of software implementations of the protocol.
Hub software
General
.
Operating system support
.
Interface and programming
Features
.
Client software
General
Operating system support
.
Interface and programming
.
Features
.
Other software
General
.
Operating system support
.
Interface and programming
Features
.
References
File sharing software
ADC Software
|
6867588
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achille%20et%20Polyx%C3%A8ne
|
Achille et Polyxène
|
Achille et Polyxène (Achilles and Polyxena) is a tragédie lyrique containing a prologue and five acts based on Virgil's Aeneid with a French libretto by Jean Galbert de Campistron. The opera's overture and first act were composed by Jean-Baptiste Lully, who died from a conducting injury before he could complete the score. The prologue and the remaining acts are the work of his pupil Pascal Collasse who finished the work, eight months after Lully's death on 22 March 1687. Acts 1 and 4 of the ballet was created by Louis Lestang, and the ballet to the prologue and acts 2 and 3 were by Louis-Guillaume Pécour. The opera was first performed on 7 November 1687, by the Paris Opera at the Théâtre du Palais-Royal in Paris.
Analysis of the libretto and music
The libretto for this opera differs from those of Lully's earlier works with Philippe Quinault. Typically, Lully would begin his operas with a lively prologue, but this work has a somber prologue in which the Muses lament the king's desire for military expansion. Another difference is the tragic and somber ending of this opera in Act V. Lully usually ended his operas with a rousing ensemble number but this opera closes with the suicide of the heroine. The end of Act IV, the wedding scene, does contain a vibrant ensemble number at its close which would be more in keeping with a typical finale of one of Lully's operas.
Roles
Plot
The Prologue is set in "A place once designed for spectacle, now only a shell of its former self." Mercure, messenger of the Gods, questions the Muses to find out why their spirits are downcast. Melpomene replies that the king (i.e. Louis XIV), in his desire for conquest, has plunged the country into war and ignored the Muses and their feasts. The other Muses agree and add: "he does not approve of anything we do; we are not worthy in his eyes." Mercure interrupts and insists that they put aside worry and concentrate on the charming spectacle to be performed before them. The scene is transformed, "as though its former glory had been restored." The Muses agree to pay careful attention to the forthcoming play and to try especially hard to enjoy it despite their misgivings. Jupiter descends and urges their particular contemplation of the Greek hero, Achille. The Muses agree and await the tale of the invincible Achille and his famous battles.
Act I opens on the Isle of Tenedos, Achille's refuge after a quarrel with Agamemnon. Patrocle asks Achille if Hector's bravery in past battles has made him jealous. Achille responds that only the losses sustained by the Greeks give him pleasure: Agamemnon, king of the Greeks, is the focus of his rage. In a rousing aria ("Je cours asseurer ma memoire"), Patrocle declares that he will defeat Hector. Achille, though concerned for his friend's safety, agrees, saying, "if your heart is strong, so too will be your arms." After Patrocle exits, Achille, left alone, entreats the gods to protect his friend in a moving soliloquy. Diomede approaches and announces that without Achille's help, the Greeks will not overcome the Trojans. Achille insists that he is happy here, out of contact with the quarrelsome Greeks. Diomede chastises the hero, suggesting that his bravery is shallow and that he loves vain pleasure. Venus and the Graces, descending from the heavens, remind Achille of the pleasure he experienced with them when he was not in battle. The act concludes as Arcas rushes in to announce that Patrocle is dead. Achille swears vengeance on Hector in an impassioned aria ("Manes de ce Guerrier, dont je pleure le sort").
Act II takes place in a Greek camp on the eve of battle with the Trojans. Diomede is certain that, with Achille's help, the Greeks under Agamemnon will be victorious. Agamemnon remains uncertain and, seeing the advancing Achille, decides to move back. A chorus of soldiers sing the praises of the victorious Achille. Arcas assures the Trojan prisoners that Achille is not without compassion--hope should replace their fears. King Priam of Troy, his daughter Polixene and his daughter-in-law Andromaque conspire to soften Achille's heart. Each appeals to Achille with stories of their losses suffered in the war with Greece. But it is the beautiful Polixene who breaks Achille's heart with her moving aria, "Vous le sçavez, Dieux que j'atteste!" The great warrior pledges eternal peace with the Greeks.
The Act III curtain rises on Achille's camp. Achille confesses his love for Polixene to Arcas, who reminds the hero that his original intent was to avenge their dead friend Patrocle. Achille counters that it is only Hector who deserves his wrath; the rest of the Trojans are not to blame. Agamemnon enters and also questions Achille's allegiance. Achille reminds him that it is for Patrocle, not the Greeks, that he engaged the Trojans. Agamemnon, realizing that Achille has fallen in love with the enemy princess, introduces the great hero to Briseis, a Greek princess whom he hopes will win Achille back to the side of the Greeks. Briseis confides to Achille the story of her capture and the loss of all she loved. Achille, as gallantly as possible, explains that he cannot love her. Furious, Briseis calls on the goddess Juno to avenge her broken heart. Juno accepts and promises that before the day is over, Briseis will see the result of her request. The act concludes with a chorus of shepherds offering thanks for the peace established by the "generous conqueror."
Priam's Palace provides the setting for Act IV. Polixene, alone and confused, questions the wisdom of marrying Achille, so recently the enemy of her people. She resigns herself to the inevitable, however, and awaits the ceremony. Andromaque, recognizing Polixene's despair, tries to comfort the bride-to-be, swearing "I will make my fidelity [to you] as famous as his [Achille's] glory." Priam enters and calls for his subjects to begin the wedding celebrations. Choirs of Trojans sing the praises of the beautiful princess and the heroic conqueror.
Act V takes place in Apollo's temple. As the Act opens, Achille asks his new bride why she turns away from him when he approaches. She replies, "the more I see you, the more I am troubled." Priam enters before the troops of Greeks and Trojans and commands that everyone, for the sake of peace, should surrender himself to love. He charges the lovers to swear an oath of tender and devoted love. Briseis is beside herself with anger when she witnesses the marriage of Achille and Polixene. She demands to know why Juno has not exacted revenge. The chorus of Greeks warn Achille to flee a certain death. He is struck down and Arcas rushes to his side, blaming the Trojan Paris for the treasonous act. Briseis allies herself with Polixene and swears that she will lead the forces to avenge Achille's death. Polixene sends everyone away, and, in "C'en est fait," a grief-stricken soliloquy, declares that she is unable to live without her husband. The opera ends with her suicide.
Recordings
To date, this opera has not yet been recorded, although individual selections have been recorded by various artists.
Sources
The New Grove French Baroque Masters (Macmillan, 1986): article on Lully by Graham Sadler
The Viking Opera Guide ed. Holden (Viking, 1993)
Le magazine de l'opéra baroque by Jean-Claude Brenac (in French)
Footnotes
External links
Operas by Jean-Baptiste Lully
Operas by Pascal Collasse
French-language operas
Unfinished operas
Operas
Opera world premieres at the Paris Opera
Tragédies en musique
1687 operas
Operas based on classical mythology
Operas based on the Aeneid
|
11916618
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information%20rights%20management
|
Information rights management
|
Information rights management (IRM) is a subset of digital rights management (DRM), technologies that protect sensitive information from unauthorized access. It is sometimes referred to as E-DRM or Enterprise Digital Rights Management. This can cause confusion, because digital rights management (DRM) technologies are typically associated with business-to-consumer systems designed to protect rich media such as music and video. IRM is a technology which allows for information (mostly in the form of documents) to be ‘remote controlled’.
This means that information and its control can now be separately created, viewed, edited and distributed. A true IRM system is typically used to protect information in a business-to-business model, such as financial data, intellectual property and executive communications. IRM currently applies mainly to documents and emails.
Features
IRM technologies typically have a number of features that allow an owner to control, manage and secure information from unwanted access.
Information encryption
Information rights management solutions use encryption to prevent unauthorized access. A key or password can be used to control access to the encrypted data.
Permissions management
Once a document is encrypted against unauthorized users, an IRM user can apply certain access permissions that permit or deny a user from taking certain actions on a piece of information. Some of these standard permissions are included below.
Strong in use protection, such as controlling copy & paste, preventing screenshots, printing, editing.
A rights model/policy which allows for easy mapping of business classifications to information.
Offline use allowing for users to create/access IRM sealed documents without needing network access for certain periods of time.
Full auditing of both access to documents as well as changes to the rights/policy by business users.
It also allows users to change or revoke access permissions without sharing the document again.
Examples
An example of IRM in use would be to secure a sensitive engineering document being distributed in an environment where the document's recipients could not necessarily be trusted.
Alternatively, an e-mail could be secured with IRM. If an email is accidentally forwarded to an untrusted party, only authorized users can gain access. A well designed IRM system will not limit the ability for information to be shared. Rules are enforced only when people attempt to gain access. This is important as often people share sensitive information with users who should legitimately have access but don't. Technology must facilitate control over sensitive information in such a situation.
IRM is far more secure than shared secret passwords. Key management is used to protect the information whilst it is at rest on a hard disk, network drive or other storage device. IRM continues to protect and control access to the document when it is in use. Functionality such as preventing screen shots, disallowing the copying of data from the secure document to an insecure environment and guarding the information from programmatic attack, are key elements of an effective IRM solution.
Naming conventions
Information rights management is also known by the following names:
Enterprise Rights Management
Enterprise DRM or Enterprise Digital Rights Management
Document Rights Management
Intelligent Rights Management
See also
Digital rights management
Always-on DRM
Copyright infringement
Encryption
Advanced Encryption Standard
Rpmsg
References
Digital rights management
|
52695639
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocket%20Kitten
|
Rocket Kitten
|
Rocket Kitten or the Rocket Kitten Group is a hacker group thought to be linked to the Iranian government. The threat actor group has targeted organizations and individuals in the Middle East, particularly Israel, Saudi Arabia, Iran as well as the United States and Europe.
Origins
Cybersecurity firm FireEye first identified the group as Ajax Security Team, writing that the group appears to have been formed in 2010 by the hacker personas "Cair3x" and "HUrr!c4nE!". By 2012, the threat actor group turned their focus to Iran's political opponents. Their targeted attack campaigns, dubbed "Rocket Kitten", have been known since mid-2014. By 2013 or 2014, Rocket Kitten had shifted its focus to malware-based cyberespionage.
Security firm Check Point describes Rocket Kitten as an "attacker group of Iranian origin."
Rocket Kitten's code uses Persian language references. The group's targets are involved in defense, diplomacy, international affairs, security, policy research, human rights, and journalism. According to Check Point, the group has targeted Iranian dissidents, the Saudi royal family, Israeli nuclear scientists and NATO officials. Security researchers found that they carried out a "common pattern of spearphishing campaigns reflecting the interests and activities of the Iranian security apparatus." Other researchers determined that Rocket Kitten's attacks bore a similarity to those attributed to Iran's Revolutionary Guards. Intelligence officials from the Middle East and Europe linked Rocket Kitten to the Iranian military establishment. Rocket Kitten favours a Remote Access Trojan, and by 2015, researchers found it was using customised malware.
History
Operation Saffron Rose
Cybersecurity firm FireEye released a report in 2013 finding that Rocket Kitten had conducted several cyberespionage operations against United States defense industrial base companies. The report also detailed the targeting of Iranian citizens who use anti-censorship tools to bypass Iran's Internet filters.
Operation Woolen-Goldfish
Trend Micro identified the Operation Woolen-Goldfish campaign in a March 2015 paper. The campaign included improved spearphishing content.
Oyun
In November 2015, security errors by Rocket Kitten allowed the firm Check Point to gain password-less root access to "Oyun", the hackers' back-end database. They discovered an application that was able to generate personalized phishing pages and contained a list of over 1,842 individual targets. Among Rocket Kitten's spearphishing targets from June 2014 to June 2015, 18% were from Saudi Arabia, 17% were from the United States, 16% were from Iran, 8% were from the Netherlands, and 5% were from Israel. Analysts used credentials to access key logs of the group's victims and found that Rocket Kitten had apparently tested their malware on their own workstations and failed to erase the logs from the data files. Check Point identified an individual named Yaser Balaghi, going by Wool3n.H4t, as a ringleader of the operation.
Telegram hack
In August 2016, researchers identified Rocket Kitten as being behind a hack of Telegram, a cloud-based instant messaging service. The hackers exploited Telegram's reliance on SMS verification, comprising over a dozen accounts and stealing the user IDs and telephone numbers of 15 million Iranians who use the software. Opposition organizations and reformist political activists were among the victims.
References
External links
The Spy Kittens Are Back: Rocket Kitten 2, Trend Micro.
Cybercrime
Cyberwarfare
Hacker groups
Hacking in the 2010s
Military units and formations established in the 2000s
Science and technology in Iran
Iranian advanced persistent threat groups
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10171712
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small%20Satellite%20Program%20%28United%20States%20Naval%20Academy%29
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Small Satellite Program (United States Naval Academy)
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The United States Naval Academy (USNA) Small Satellite Program (SSP) was founded in 1999 to actively pursue flight opportunities for miniature satellites designed, constructed, tested, and commanded or controlled by Midshipmen. The Naval Academy's aerospace laboratory facilities are some of the most advanced and extensive in the country. These facilities include structures labs, propulsion and rotor labs, simulation labs, wind tunnels with flow velocities ranging from subsonic to supersonic, computer labs, and the Satellite Ground Station. The SSP provides funds for component purchase and construction, travel in support of testing and integration, coordination with The US Department of Defense or National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) laboratories or with universities for collaborative projects, and guides Midshipmen through the Department of Defense (DoD) Space Experiments Review Board (SERB) flight selection process.
The satellite development process is a multi-semester effort requiring the contributions of Midshipmen from two distinct groups: 1) Senior Capstone Design Team involving several consecutive graduating classes and 2) Extra Curricular Activity open to all four classes and any majors program. In the senior capstone class, First Class Midshipmen studying aerospace engineering/astronautical track, take a Spacecraft Design and initiate the satellite building process in the fall semester with the identification of the mission and determination of requirements followed by development of the conceptual design. In the spring semester the graduating midshipmen will conduct assembly, testing, and final preparations of the satellite for launch. An extra curricular group consisting of all classes and open to all majors also contribute to SSP and is designed to further develop midshipmen interaction with space rated projects. The group often aids and assists the senior capstone team, however they design, build, construct and test their own platforms.
The scope of the projects supported by SSP is limited by the resources of the USNA Department of Aerospace Engineering. The Midshipmen participating in SSP-sponsored projects are predominantly drawn from First Class (senior) majors in aerospace engineering who have chosen to concentrate on astronautics.
List of Satellites
PCSat
PCsat, or Prototype Communication Satellite, was the United States Naval Academy's first space operating system. Launched in 2001 from Kodiak, Alaska, PCSat provided 2-way hand held communications for students and APRS travelers within the Amateur Satellite Service. PCSat remains the oldest surviving midshipmen built satellite in space. See http://aprs.org/pcsat.html
PCSat-2 & PCSat-3
Both subsequent PCSats were repetitive designs from the first successful PCSat. These two satellites were launched to the ISS on 26 July 2005 and activated 8 days later in an external "suitcase" installed by an astronaut during a spacewalk. It was opened to expose the solar cells and to activate the data transponder. In addition to supporting the communications experiments, PCSat-2/3 also provided telemetry, command and control, and a NRL solar cell experiment (http://aprs.org/pcsat2.html).
Sapphire
In 2001 Naval Academy midshipmen paired with students from Stanford University and George Washington University to launch and operate a second satellite dubbed Sapphire. Sapphire was initially equipped with a camera, voice synthesizer, and an infrared Earth Sensor and later was modified to also support the APRS network in support of PCSat. Sapphire was also launched in 2001 on Kodiak Star, out of Kodiak, Alaska.
ANDE
The Atmospheric Neutral Density Experiment (ANDE) was another PCSat follow-on payload that flew inside a Navy Research Lab sphere launched to study the density of the atmosphere. ANDE had no solar panels, instead ANDE used 112 "D" sized Lithium cells. No external antennas were installed either. Each of the two halves of the sphere was insulated and used as a dipole antenna (http://aprs.org/ande.html).
RAFT/MARScom
RAFT/MARScom was a USNA's 6th built satellite and was a combination of two small 5 inch cube shaped satellites. The Radar Fence Transponder (RAFT) was cube one and used to explore the Navy's Space Surveillance System. The second cube dubbed MarsCom contained a transponder which also continued to support follow-on PCSat transponder type communications and voice synthesizer (DoD Volunteer Emergency Communicators) (http://aprs.org/raft.html).
MIDSTAR
MIDSTAR was the largest USNA satellite and was composed of several minor payloads for the Space Test Program that operated in S-Band. The satellite was only capable of communicating with the USNA Ground Station. MIDSTAR II was a follow up to the first; however, it never flew.
DRAGONSat
DRAGONSat was the first 1U Cubesat built by midshipmen. The primary payload was a gravity-gradient boom that extended a tip mass 1.5 meters from the satellite.
USS Langley
This 3U Colony-1 Cubesat was designed to provide a Linux-based file server in space operating on S-Band. It launched on the ULTRA mission in spring 2015. Communications were never established with the satellite.
BRICSat
BRICSat-1
BRICSat-1 is a 1.5 U Cubesat with a primary payload of micro-arch thrusters built by George Washington University to experiment with attitude control. It was launched on the ULTRA mission in the spring of 2015 and is still active. BRICSat-1 also continues support of the Amateur radio operators via a PSK-31 multi-user text messaging transponder similar to PSAT, an updated version of PCSAT. The thruster experiment was a success; however, communication issues prevent the retrieval of the data from the satellite. See http://aprs.org/bricsat-1.html
BRICSat-2
Manifest on the STP-2 launch of SpaceX heavy lift vehicle in September 2017, this 1.5U CubeSat continues flight testing of the George Washington University thrusters. BRICSat-2 will conduct similar tests as BRICSat-1 but with the redesigned radio also being flown on PSAT-2. See http://aprs.org/bricsat-2.html
PSAT
PSAT-1
PSAT or ParkinsonSat is the upgraded version of PCSat and operates using the APRS network. PSAT also houses a PSK-31 transponder. Launched with BRICSat and USS Langley on 20 May 2015, PSAT-1 has had non mission critical failures, and continues to operate today. See http://aprs.org/psat.html
PSAT-2
Manifest on the STP-2 launch of SpaceX heavy lift vehicle in September 2017, this communications satellite has integrated all of the APRS command and control as well as APRS user transponder onto a single circuit card as the baseline of future USNA CubeSat missions. It combines all of the APRS data relay netweok pioneered by USNA since PCSat in 2001 and includes the PSK-31 and TouchTone Texting experiments of QIKCOM-2 all into a single satellite. See http://aprs.org/psat-2.html
QIKCOM
QIKCOM-1
QIKCom-1 is an amateur radio payload built to take advantage of the previously developed APRS network. Because it flies on a host spacecraft (SIMPL), there were no solar panels or attitude control systems developed (as in previous designs). It continues the PCSat and PSAT missions containing APRS packet radio communications transponders for relaying remote telemetry, sensor and user data from remote users and amateur radio environmental experiments. The data transponder also includes all the telemetry and command and control for a complete CubeSat.
QUICOM-1 has arrived on the ISS and is awaiting deployment. Currently SIMPL / QIKCOM-1 is being held from release due to a SNAFU over radio licensing. Once released, the expected lifetime is very short, lasting for only a couple weeks. See http://aprs.org/qikcom-1.html
QIKCOM-2
QIKCOM-2 is another USNA built payload flying on the eXCITe mission scheduled for launch in late 2016. The payload continues the APRS missions of prior USNA space systems, but also adds a simpler touch-tone up-link capability so that users worldwide can use existing radios with key pads instead of the more expensive specialized APRS radios from past satellites. QIKCOM-2 allows position reporting and text messaging from anywhere on earth using simple $90 radios. Delivered in November 2015 to the spacecraft integrator, QIKCOM-2 is being held as a hot-backup and will be launched at the earliest opportunity. See http://aprs.org/qikcom-2.html
HFSat
HFSat is designed to be a HF SATCOM (High Frequency Satellite Communications) experiment to demonstrate the use of HF radios for simple backup HF SATCOM. The concept would allows every unit from the largest Naval warships to a single Marine infantryman to be equipped with HF radios to access SATCOM without needing special radios. The detailed designed began late summer of 2016 and initial tests will use HF Satellite allocations in the Amateur Satellite services as well as amateur experiments worldwide.
NSAT
NSAT is a planned 1.5U CubeSat designed to house two experiments and will be the first USNA Satellite to use DoD Command and Control system licensed via NTIA. The first of the payloads will test the use of simplified encryption techniques in the space environment. The second experiment will fly an experimental distributed power system for NASA.
TUGSat
TUGSat is a planned 3U CubeSat with electric propulsion (similar to BRICSat) specifically designed for attitude control and maneuvering capability. It will be designed to work with follow on RSAT modules with docking capabilities.
RSat-P
RSat-P, or Repair Satellite Prototype, is a 3U CubeSat and the first USNA robotics mission that launched on 16 December 2018. RSat-P features two robotic arms for robotic investigations and manipulations in the space environment. Future RSat models will be attached to a TUGSAT which will provide the needed maneuvering capabilities.
References
External links
http://aprs.org/qikcom-1.html
http://aprs.org/qikcom-2.html
http://aprs.org/pcsat.html
http://aprs.org/ariss.html
http://aprs.org/psat.html
http://aprs.org/psat-2.html
http://aprs.org/bricsat-1.html
http://aprs.org/bricsat-2.html
http://aprs.org/astars.html
United States Naval Academy
Military space program of the United States
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5323748
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert%20W.%20Franke
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Herbert W. Franke
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Herbert W. Franke (born 14 May 1927 in Vienna) is an Austrian scientist and writer. Die Zeit calls him "the most prominent German writing Science Fiction author".
He is also one of the important early computer artists (and collectors), creating computer graphics and early digital art since the late 1950s. Franke is also active in the fields of future research as well as speleology. He uses his pen name Sergius Both as this Avatar name in Active Worlds and Opensimulator grids. The Sergius Both Award is given for creative scripting in Immersionskunst by Stiftung Kunstinformatik, first time issued at Amerika Art 2022.
Biography
Franke studied physics, mathematics, chemistry, psychology and philosophy in Vienna. He received his doctorate in theoretical physics in 1950 by writing a dissertation about electron optics.
Since 1957, he has worked as a freelance author. From 1973 to 1997 he held a lectureship in "Cybernetical Aesthetic" at Munich University (later computer graphics - computer art). In 1979, he co-founded Ars Electronica in Linz/Austria. In 1979 and 1980, he lectured in "introduction to perception psychology" at the Art & Design division of the Bielefeld University of Applied Sciences. Also in 1980 he became a selected member of the German PEN club.
A collection of short stories titled "The Green Comet" was his first publication. In 1998, Franke attended a SIGGRAPH computer graphics conference in Orlando and was a juror at the "VideoMath Festival" Berlin. He also took part in innumerable performances and presentations.
Publications
1963 "Planet der Verlorenen" (Planet of the lost) as Sergius Both.
1964 The Magic of Molecules (Magie der Moleküle, 1958)
1973 The Orchid Cage (Der Orchideenkäfig, 1961)
1974 The Mind Net (Das Gedankennetz, 1961)
1974 Zone Null (Zone Null, 1970)
1979 Ypsilon minus (Ypsilon Minus, 1976)
1971 Computer Graphics: Computer Art (Computergraphik - Computerkunst, 1971)
2003 "Vorstoß in die Unterwelt - Abenteuer Höhlenforschung" (Approach to the Underworld - Adventure Cave Research) was published.
2004 "Sphinx_2" released.
2005 "Cyber City Süd" released.
2006 "Auf der Spur des Engels" released.
2007 "Flucht zum Mars" released.
Awards and honours
1985 and 1991: Deutscher Science Fiction Preis (best novel)
1985, 1986, 2007: Kurd Lasswitz prize
1987 Computer art award of the German software manufacturer Association
1989 Phantastik-Preis der Stadt Wetzlar
1992 Karl Theodor Vogel Prize for technology journalism
2002 Dr. Benno-Wolf-Preis by VdHK (German Speleological Federation) - for merits in speleology
2007 Austrian Cross of Honour for Science and Art, 1st class
2007 Collection of projects in honor of Herbert W. Franke's 80's birthday on May 14th
2016 Life Time Award of the European Science Fiction Society "European Grand Master of Science Fiction"
Museum collections and exhibitions
Abteiberg Museum
ZKM Center for Art and Media Karlsruhe
Kunsthalle Bremen
Victoria and Albert Museum
References
External links
Franke at the AVA International agency
Franke's home page at the University of Munich
1927 births
Living people
Writers from Vienna
Austrian artists
Digital artists
Austrian digital artists
Austrian male writers
Computer graphics researchers
Austrian scientists
Austrian science fiction writers
Scientists from Vienna
Recipients of the Austrian Cross of Honour for Science and Art, 1st class
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14732091
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instituto%20de%20Investigaciones%20en%20Matem%C3%A1ticas%20Aplicadas%20y%20Sistemas
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Instituto de Investigaciones en Matemáticas Aplicadas y Sistemas
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The Instituto de Investigaciones en Matemáticas Aplicadas y en Sistemas, or IIMAS ("Applied Mathematics and Systems Research Institute") is the research institute of the UNAM in Mexico City which focuses on computer science, applied mathematics, and robotics and control engineering.
History
The IIMAS was founded as the Centro de Cálculo Electrónico (Electronic Calculation Center) in 1958 under the auspices of UNAM rector Nabor Carrillo Flores with the purpose of housing and operating the first mainframe acquired by the university. In 1973 the institute acquired its current name and refocused its primary activities from computing services to applied mathematics and computer science research. In the early nineties the IIMAS moved to its current home.
Staff
The IIMAS has an average of 60 researchers aided by 40 technical staff. It is currently headed by Héctor Benítez Pérez, Ph.D.
Location and facilities
The IIMAS is located in Ciudad Universitaria in Mexico City, nearby the Engineering School and the Science School.
It consists in two buildings, the second one built later on to host the graduate programs and the new library.
Graduate studies
The institute currently offers graduate programs in four areas conjointly with the schools of science and engineering, as well as with the Earth Sciences Institute. Graduates students may focus on engineering, computer science, applied mathematics, or Earth sciences.
Current research
Research is divided among six departments:
Mathematics and mechanics
Mathematical physics
Mathematical modeling of social systems
Probability and statistics
Computer science
Computer systems and automation engineering
References
External links
IIMAS homepage
National Autonomous University of Mexico
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198671
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultrix
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Ultrix
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Ultrix (officially all-caps ULTRIX) is the brand name of Digital Equipment Corporation's (DEC) discontinued native Unix operating systems for the PDP-11, VAX, MicroVAX and DECstations.
History
The initial development of Unix occurred on DEC equipment, notably DEC PDP-7 and PDP-11 (Programmable Data Processor) systems. Later DEC computers, such as their VAX, also offered Unix. The first port to VAX, UNIX/32V, was finished in 1978, not long after the October 1977 announcement of the VAX, for which – at that time – DEC only supplied its own proprietary operating system, VMS.
DEC's Unix Engineering Group (UEG) was started by Bill Munson with Jerry Brenner and Fred Canter, both from DEC's Customer Service Engineering group, Bill Shannon (from Case Western Reserve University), and Armando Stettner (from Bell Labs). Other later members of UEG included Joel Magid, Bill Doll, and Jim Barclay recruited from DEC's marketing and product management groups.
Under Canter's direction, UEG released V7M, a modified version of Unix 7th Edition (q.v.).
In 1988 The New York Times reported Ultrix Posix-compliant.
BSD
Shannon and Stettner worked on low-level CPU and device driver support initially on UNIX/32V but quickly moved to concentrate on working with the University of California, Berkeley's 4BSD. Berkeley's Bill Joy came to New Hampshire to work with Shannon and Stettner to wrap up a new BSD release. UEG's machine was the first to run the new Unix, labeled 4.5BSD as was the tape Bill Joy took with him. The thinking was that 5BSD would be the next version - university lawyers thought it would be better to call it 4.1BSD. After the completion of 4.1BSD, Bill Joy left Berkeley to work at Sun Microsystems. Shannon later moved from New Hampshire to join him. Stettner stayed at DEC and later conceived of and started the Ultrix project.
Shortly after IBM announced plans for a native UNIX product, Stettner and Bill Doll presented plans for DEC to make a native VAX Unix product available to its customers; DEC-founder Ken Olsen, agreed.
V7m
DEC's first native UNIX product was V7M (for modified) or V7M11 for the PDP-11 and was based on version of UNIX 7th Edition from Bell Labs. V7M, developed by DEC's original Unix Engineering Group (UEG), Fred Canter, Jerry Brenner, Stettner, Bill Burns, Mary Anne Cacciola, and Bill Munson – but the work of primarily Canter and Brenner. V7M contained many fixes to the kernel including support for separate instruction and data spaces, significant work for hardware error recovery, and many device drivers. Much work was put into producing a release that would reliably bootstrap from many tape drives or disk drives. V7M was well respected in the Unix community. UEG evolved into the group that later developed Ultrix.
First release of Ultrix
The first native VAX UNIX product from DEC was Ultrix-32, based on 4.2BSD with some non-kernel features from System V, and was released in June 1984. Ultrix-32 was primarily the brainchild of Armando Stettner. It provided a Berkley-based native VAX Unix on a broad array of hardware configurations without the need to access kernel sources. A further goal was to enable better support by DEC's field software and systems support engineers through better hardware support, system messages, and documentation. It also incorporated several modifications and scripts from Usenet/UUCP experience. Later, Ultrix-32 incorporated support for DECnet and other proprietary DEC protocols such as LAT. It did not support VAXclustering. Given Western Electric/AT&T Unix licensing, DEC (and others) were restricted to selling binary-only licenses. A significant part of the engineering work was in making the systems relatively flexible and configurable despite their binary-only nature.
DEC provided Ultrix on three platforms: PDP-11 minicomputers (where Ultrix was one of many available operating systems from DEC), VAX-based computers (where Ultrix was one of two primary OS choices) and the Ultrix-only DECstation workstations and DECsystem servers. Note that the DECstation systems used MIPS processors and predate the much later Alpha-based systems.
Later releases of Ultrix
The V7m product was later renamed to Ultrix-11 to establish the family with Ultrix-32, but as the PDP-11 faded from view Ultrix-32 became known simply as Ultrix. When the MIPS versions of Ultrix was released, the VAX and MIPS versions were referred to as VAX/ULTRIX and RISC/ULTRIX respectively. Much engineering emphasis was placed on supportability and reliable operations including continued work on CPU and device driver support (which was, for the most part, also sent to UC Berkeley), hardware failure support and recovery with enhancement to error message text, documentation, and general work at both the kernel and systems program levels. Later Ultrix-32 incorporated some features from 4.3BSD and optionally included DECnet and SNA in addition to the standard TCP/IP, and both the SMTP and DEC's Mail-11 protocols.
Notably, Ultrix implemented the inter-process communication (IPC) facilities found in System V (named pipes, messages, semaphores, and shared memory). While the converged Unix from the Sun and AT&T alliance (that spawned the Open Software Foundation or OSF), released late 1986, put BSD features into System V, DEC, as described in Stettner's original Ultrix plans, took the best from System V and added it to a BSD base.
Originally, on the VAX workstations, Ultrix-32 had a desktop environment called UWS, Ultrix Workstation Software, which was based on X10 and the Ultrix Window Manager. Later, the widespread version 11 of the X Window System (X11) was added, using a window manager and widget toolkit named XUI (X User Interface), which was also used on VMS releases of the time. Eventually Ultrix also provided the Motif toolkit and Motif Window Manager.
Ultrix ran on multiprocessor systems from both the VAX and DECsystem families. Ultrix-32 supported SCSI disks and tapes and also proprietary Digital Storage Systems Interconnect and CI peripherals employing DEC's Mass Storage Control Protocol, although lacking the OpenVMS distributed lock manager it did not support concurrent access from multiple Ultrix systems. DEC also released a combination hardware and software product named Prestoserv which accelerated NFS file serving to allow better performance for diskless workstations to communicate to a file serving Ultrix host. The kernel supported symmetric multiprocessing while not being fully multithreaded based upon pre-Ultrix work by Armando Stettner and earlier work by George H. Goble at Purdue University. As such, there was liberal use of locking and some tasks could only be done by a particular CPUs (e.g. the processing of interrupts). This was not uncommon in other SMP implementations of that time (e.g. SunOS). Also, Ultrix was slow to support many then new or emerging Unix system capabilities found on competing Unix systems (e.g. it never supported shared libraries or dynamically linked executables; and a delay in implementing bind, 4.3BSD system calls and libraries.
Last release
As part of its commitment to the OSF, Armando Stettner went to DEC's Cambridge Research Labs to work on the port of OSF/1 to DEC's RISC-based DECstation 3100 workstation. Later, DEC replaced Ultrix as its Unix offering with OSF/1 for the Alpha, ending Unix development on the MIPS and VAX platforms. OSF/1 had previously shipped in 1991 with a Mach-based kernel for the MIPS architecture.
The last major release of Ultrix was version 4.5 in 1995, which supported all previously supported DECstations and VAXen. There were some subsequent Y2K patches.
Application software
WordMARC, a scientifically-oriented word processor, was among the application packages available for Ultrix.
The following shells were provided with Ultrix:
C Shell
BSD Bourne Shell
System V Bourne Shell
Korn Shell
See also
Comparison of BSD operating systems
Ultrix Window Manager
References
Further reading
Ultrix/UWS Release Notes V4.1, AA-ME85D-TE
Ultrix-32 Supplementary Documents, AA-MF06A-TE
The Little Gray Book: An ULTRIX Primer, AA-MG64B-TE
Guide to Installing Ultrix and UWS, AA-PBL0G-TE
External links
Ultrix FAQ
Info on Ultrix from OSdata (version as of Jan 11 2006)
Ultrix 2.0, 4.2, and 4.3 source code
Ultrix system manuals
Ultrix man pages
Berkeley Software Distribution
DEC operating systems
Discontinued operating systems
MIPS operating systems
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4753069
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BASICODE
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BASICODE
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BASICODE was a computer project intended to create a unified standard for the BASIC programming language. BASIC was available on many popular home computers, but there were countless variants that were mostly incompatible with each other. The project was initiated in 1980 by Hobbyscoop, a radio program of the Dutch broadcasting organisation Nederlandse Omroep Stichting (NOS).
The basic implementation were architecture-specific utility applications that executed calls of subroutines for text, audio and sound defined in the BASICODE language standard according to the abilities of the computer in question. These applications, called Bascoders, also enabled the sharing of data and programs across different computer platforms by defining a data format for the Compact Cassettes that were regularly used as storage media in the 1980s. A BASICODE program stored on cassette could be loaded and run on any computer supporting the language. BASICODE was often called "Esperanto for computers" for that reason.
BASICODE
The situation at the beginning of the 1980s
From the late 1970s to the late 1980s home computers based on 8 bit processors were very popular. Among the most well-known models were the TRS-80 by Tandy, the PET 2001, VIC-20, C64, C128 and the Plus/4 by Commodore, the Atari 400/800 (XL/XE), the Sinclair Research computers (ZX80, ZX81, ZX Spectrum) and the KC85 family popular in the German Democratic Republic. All these computers had a CPU of the MOS Technology 6502 or Zilog Z80 type, 16 to 64 kilobyte RAM, connectors for a cassette drive or a built-in one for data storage, and finally a BASIC interpreter that was generally stored in ROM. The flat learning curve of BASIC, which had been designed with newcomers to programming in mind, and the instant availability of the language on all these computers led to many users writing and sharing their own programs.
A problem was that sharing programs and data across computers by different manufacturers was difficult because the various BASIC dialects were totally incompatible in some areas. They used different BASIC commands to make the same action (like clearing the screen, drawing a pixel or playing a sound), so that a BASIC program written for the C64 did not work on an Atari XL without modification and vice versa. Another difficulty was the fact that while these computers were similar, they still differed in key hardware aspects like screen resolution, available color palette or audio abilities. Finally, the data formats used for storing data on cassette were incompatible as well.
The first standard
Around 1980 the Dutch broadcaster NOS began transmitting computer programs by radio. Because programs and data were stored as audio on compact cassettes, it was possible to record such a broadcast on tape and load it into the computer later. However, because of the problems mentioned earlier, the program had to be adapted for nearly all popular types of computers and broadcast multiple times as well. Because the compact cassette has a very low data density compared to today's storage media, the recording of the programs took quite a long time, and only a limited number of programs could be broadcast per show. So, the additional broadcasting of different versions of the same programs was a great inconvenience.
In 1982 the executives at NOS decided to develop a unified data format. An application that was specific for each computer model, called Bascoder, managed the recall and storage of programs and data in this unified format from tape. The Bascoders were broadcast by NOS as well, but could also be bought from NOS on cassette and shared among friends and acquaintances. The format, which was very well-protected against interference, could be read and written by all popular home computer hardware. The robustness of the format also made broadcasting via mediumwave radio possible, which increased the range and in turn the number of potential users. For example, data broadcast by the Dutch radio station Hilversum could be received in large parts of the German Democratic Republic.
BASICODE 2
The standard solved one of the aforementioned problems, the incompatible data formats. However, programs still had to be adapted to each computer's BASIC dialect and hardware capabilities. Limiting the programs to only use instructions common across all dialects meant big limitations in terms of functionality, for example completely refraining from using graphics and sound and only uncomfortable methods to input data using the keyboard and to control character output on the screen. For this reasons, in 1984 the enhanced standard BASICODE 2 was created. Bascoders using this standard did not only contain routines for input and output of data to tape. In addition to a set of about 50 BASIC commands, functions and operators that were common across all BASIC dialects, the language standard of BASICODE 2 defined a library of subroutines that emulated the same capabilities across all supported computers.
To achieve this, all program lines below 1000 were reserved for the Bascoder, and BASICODE programs could only start at line number 1000. The subroutines of the Bascoder in the lines below 1000 were called with a GOSUB command. Necessary arguments were passed to the Bascoder by using special predefined variables that were reserved for use by the Bascoder. The standard contained a number of additional rules that were made necessary by the limitations of some computer models. For example, on the ZX-81 a line of code could only contain a single BASIC command, a behaviour that almost no other computer shared. On a KC series computer, a line of code could not be longer than 60 characters. These limitations had to be enforced for all BASICODE programs to guarantee platform independence, because the Bascoder was interpreted by the same computer specific BASIC interpreter as the BASICODE program itself.
Thus, the Bascoders were loaded on the various computers like normal programs and provided the additional routines for the common standard and cassette I/O afterwards. Programs written in BASICODE were only usable after the Bascoder had been loaded and started. However, on some computers the BASICODE programs could be merged with the routines of the Bascoders and saved in the native data format. The resulting program was not platform independent any longer, but due to the higher data density of most native formats it could be loaded much faster than the same program in BASICODE format. Also, because it was not necessary to load the complete Bascoder to run the program, more RAM remained available at run time.
There were BASICODE 2 Bascoders for the Exidy Sorcerer, Colour Genie, Commodore PET, VIC-20, C64, Amiga, Sinclair ZX81, ZX Spectrum, QL, Acorn Atom, BBC Micro, Electron, Tandy TRS-80, MSX, Oric Atmos, P2000T, Grundy NewBrain, Amstrad CPC, IBM PC, Apple II, Texas Instruments TI-99/4A, Mattel Aquarius and others. Additionally, advanced users were able to write their own Bascoder for their system of choice, since the language standard and data format were open and well-documented. The BASICODE 2 standard made the development of platform independent programs with advanced capabilities (for the time) possible. In addition, BASICODE was used to transmit and share information like computer scene news via radio in the form of so-called "journals". A BASICODE coding tutorial and other documentation was transmitted this way as well.
BASICODE 3 / 3C
In 1986, the new BASICODE 3 standard was developed. The most important additions were routines for simple monochrome graphics, reading and writing data from within programs and sound output. BASICODE 3 made BASICODE popular in the computer scene of the GDR, and from 1989 onward BASICODE programs were transmitted via radio throughout the GDR. Also, a book was published which included a vinyl record with Bascoders for all computers common in the GDR. The last revision of BASICODE, which featured color graphics, was released as BASICODE 3C in 1991.
The end of BASICODE
From about 1990 onward the popularity of BASICODE declined rapidly due to the rise of 16- and 32-bit computers, especially IBM-PC variants and compatible systems. Even though there were Bascoders for these machines, BASICODE was too limited to make use of the resources that that generation of computers provided. Additionally, because of the much fewer common architectures in the 16- and 32-bit era, the main reason for the development and use of BASICODE became moot. As the hardware and software of the new systems became more and more complex, most users became unable or disinclined to write programs. The rise of graphical user interfaces contributed to the decline in popularity of 8-bit computers and consequently BASICODE as well.
The successor of the GDR's state broadcaster, the Deutschlandsender Kultur (which later became part of the new Deutschlandradio), continued to broadcast BASICODE programs until about 1992. A planned standard called BASICODE 4 never became reality, because NOS stopped supporting the project shortly after BASICODE 3C was released. BASICODE is still used by enthusiasts, in particular 8-bit computer fans, for nostalgic value, but is not of any practical relevance.
Historical significance
BASICODE was an early attempt at creating a standard for the exchange of programs and data across mutually incompatible home computer architectures. It is roughly contemporary to the MSX standard developed by Microsoft, which specified a shared hardware platform in addition to a common BASIC dialect. These computers were sold by multiple companies and directly competed with other popular home computers. MSX was successful mostly in the home markets of the manufacturers, for example Japan, South Korea, the Netherlands and Brasil. Unlike MSX, BASICODE defined no hardware, but a language standard for the programming language BASIC, which was near-ubiquitous in home computers, plus a data format for Compact Cassettes which could be read and written on all computers for which BASICODE was available. As a result, the implementation of BASICODE was exclusively dependent on additional software and thus was not limited to computers by specific manufacturers. The installed base of BASICODE is hard to estimate, because both the Basicoders and the programs written in BASICODE were freely available. There was a Bascoder for nearly every home computer sold during this era. Commercially, BASICODE was of no importance because it was always shared for free.
It must be stated that BASICODE was, by design, unable to use the capabilities of the host computers to their full extent. The language standard defined by BASICODE was the lowest common denominator of all relevant computer systems. This concept was partially abandoned only with BASICODE3/3C, as some computers or computer variants like the ZX80/ZX81 and the KC87 were not capable of graphics and color and the new sections of BASICODE using these capabilities were not usable on them. Especially for applications that relied on timing and graphics or sound, for example video games, BASICODE was clearly inferior to programs written in "native" BASIC or machine code. The strengths of BASICODE were in the areas of application design, education software and data sharing. The BASICODE format was also used for Pascal programs. Pascal was a much more consistent language across systems, but compilers were available only for very few types of home computers.
The underlying concept of BASICODE, which is the definition of a language standard for platform-independent software development and the implementation of said standard as system-specific runtimes (Bascoder) was later revisited in the programming language Java, in the form of the operating system-specific Java Virtual Machines which execute Java programs. Additionally, the distribution of data and information in the BASICODE data format is reminiscent of current platform-agnostic document types like the Portable Document Format (PDF) and the PDF reader applications it necessitates.
The BASICODE data format
In the BASICODE format, the recording of programs is analogous to the recording of data. So, when recording programs, the commands are not read and written in the form of single byte units (tokens), but character by character.
A data block begins with the character 02 (STX, start of text), and ends with the character 03 (ETX, end of text). After ETX, a check byte made up of the previous bytes including STX and ETX by binary addition (XOR), is transmitted. A 0D character (decimal 13) marks the end of a line during transmission. Data files created by programs are able to use all characters as data and must contain no control characters. They are read and written in blocks of 1024 bytes.
Each byte is transmitted in the sequence "1 start bits - 8 data bits - 2 stop bits". The data bits are sent with the least significant bit first. The most significant bit is transmitted inverted and is always 0 (transmitted as 1) because BASICODE uses only ASCII characters. So another way to describe the transmit sequence is "1 start bit - 7 data bits - 3 stop bits". The resulting redundancy is intended for maximising compatibility with different computers.
For the audio signals, square waves in the form of a 1200 Hz wave for a "0" bit and two 2400 Hz waves for a "1" bit are used, resulting in a time of 1/1200 seconds for each bit. A pause longer than 1/1800 seconds between waves marks the beginning of a byte, making the following wave the start bit. After the start bit and before the eight data bits is another pause of at least 1/1800 seconds. A 2400 Hz signal with a length of five seconds marks the beginning of a transmission and is used for synchronization of the reading program. At the end of the transmission, a 2400 Hz signal with a length of one second is sent.
The theoretical data rate of this format is 1200 bits per second. Considering the transmission of three additional bits per data byte and the pauses before and after the start bit, this results in a usable data rate of 102 bytes per second, and about 6 kilobytes per minute.
Decoding Audio Cassettes
On a modern computer, Basicode audio cassettes can be decoded using minimodem, a freely available software modem. If the cassette has been converted into a wav file called basicode.wav, the following command will decode it into its corresponding data bytes into a file called basicode.txt.
minimodem --rx 1200 -S 1200 -M 2400 --startbits 1 -7 --stopbits 3 -f basicode.wav >basicode.txt
See also
Hardware abstraction
Library (computing)
Virtual machine
Kansas City standard
Further reading
Michael Wiegand, Manfred Fillinger: BASICODE. Mit Programmkassette. Ravensburger Buchverlag, Ravensburg 1986,
Hermine Bakker, Jaques Haubrich (authors), Stichting BASICODE (publisher): Het BASICODE-3 boek. 3. Auflage. Kluwer Technische Boeken B.V., Deventer/ Antwerpen 1988,
Horst Völz: Basicode mit Programmen auf Schallplatte für Heimcomputer. Verlag Technik, Berlin 1990,
External links
Official Dutch Hobbyscoop-site, the original development group of BASICODE
BASICODE: an example of Dutch computer folklore - Historical information
BasiCode – Software für alle - Information about history and programming
downloadable tape images downloads are with permission of Hobbyscoop
A collection of BASICODE programs by various authors Various BASICODE programs
BASIC programming language family
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682415
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CDfs
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CDfs
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CDfs is a virtual file system for Unix-like operating systems; it provides access to data and audio tracks on Compact Discs. When the CDfs driver mounts a Compact Disc, it represents each track as a file. This is consistent with the Unix convention "everything is a file".
CDfs supports the following track types:
Red Book Compact Disc Digital Audio (CD-DA): Appears as a WAV file; reading from it initiates DAE ripping.
White Book Video CD or Super Video CD video: Appears as a playable MPEG-1 file containing audio and video streams.
Yellow Book CD-ROM data:
Hierarchical File System: Appears as a mountable HFS file system disk image (sans partition table).
ISO 9660: Each session appears as a mountable ISO image file.
El Torito boot file: Appears as a single bootable disk image file.
Implementations
The Linux version of the CDfs driver is not part of the mainline Linux kernel.
In the implementation for the operating system Plan 9 from Bell Labs, cdfs is a server that runs in user space via the 9P protocol. It represents the mounted disc as a directory of files named by track number. Plan 9's CDfs can also write to the disc.
External links
CDfs patches
Plan 9 cdfs manual page
Free special-purpose file systems
File systems supported by the Linux kernel
Third-party Linux kernel modules
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8025006
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KZII-FM
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KZII-FM
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KZII-FM (102.5 FM), known as "102-5 Kiss FM" is a Top 40 (CHR) formatted radio station serving Lubbock, Texas. The station is owned by Townsquare Media. Its studios and transmitter are located in south Lubbock.
History
KZII went on air on April 15, 1948 as KFYO-FM. According to Jack Dale, it signed off a few years later (in 1950) after limited use. From the 1950 edition of Broadcasting Yearbook KFYO-FM broadcast on 99.5 FM (now the present-day KQBR-FM, Lonestar 99.5) at 13,000 watts of power. Then in mid-March 1982 the station was back on the air as KRUX. Studios were on the third floor of the Plains Bank building at 5010 50th, and the transmitter was at 98th and University (the KJTV tower). Station featured "six packs" of country music. It was owned by Rex Broadcasting Corporation of owner of KCUB (AM) and KIIM (FM) in Tucson, Az, and KROD (AM) and KLAQ (FM) in El Paso, Texas.
Rex was owned by Jim Sloane, and had filed for the station on 102.5 in 1977. A couple of other local stations (580 KDAV and 1590 KEND) also filed for the channel. The original engineering had been prepared by Guy Smith at the Ray Moran stations (Albuquerque and Roswell). Moran filed for 101.1 in 1973 and received it unopposed in 1973, went on air in 1974. Sloane delayed filing until the later seventies and ended up in a comparative hearing for the station.
KRUX was sold to the owners of crosstown 790 KFYO in mid-1985. Studios were consolidated at the KFYO Transmitter Site at 4322 82nd Street (present-day Kingsgate North shopping center). Then, in 1986 the Z102/KFYO studios and KFYO 790 AM transmitter site were moved to 143rd Street & South Slide Road, south of Lubbock, south of FM 1585. The studios were then moved again in the Fall of 1996 to the then Gulfstar (later Capstar, then AM/FM, then Clear Channel in 2001, then GAP and now Townsquare Media) studios at 4413 82nd Street (82nd and Quaker).
By year end in 1985, the 102.5 transmitter had been relocated to a temporary location in north Lubbock, and in 1985-1986 the transmitter was moved to a new tower at 82nd and Avenue P (The Lubbock Tower) shared by then 94.5 KFMX, 96.3 KLLL, 99.5 KRLB (now KQBR), and 102.5 KFYO-FM. In the late 1990s ('98 or '99) 98.1 KKCL moved on to The Lubbock Tower, with 95.5 KAIQ-FM moving onto The Lubbock Tower in 2004.
After Gulfstar's parent company, Capstar, merged with Chancellor Broadcasting, these stations were eventually sold to one of the Hicks family controlled groups that were later rolled up into Clear Channel Communications.
In 2006, Clear Channel announced they were going private, and later announced they would sell many of their smaller market stations, including their cluster in Lubbock. GAP Broadcasting purchased these stations, including KZII-FM.
On Tuesday, March 17, 2009 at midnight, GAP Broadcasting dropped the Z102 format in favor of the "Kiss FM" branding. The station became 102.5 Kiss FM at 5 p.m. on March 20, 2009.
What eventually became Gap Central Broadcasting (following the formation of GapWest Broadcasting) was folded into Townsquare Media on August 13, 2010.
Programming
Kiss FM's current format is Mainstream CHR which is a variant of Top 40, although the station has shifted between Mainstream CHR and Rhythmic CHR over the past 10 years, as different stations entered the Lubbock market to compete.
From the 1990s through mid-2001, Z102 was the home of Jay (Shannon), Chris (Kelly) and Dina (Morales) in the Morning. The show was regionally syndicated throughout West Texas in the late 1990s, 2000 & 2001. Affiliate stations included Power 98.7 in Amarillo, 103.3 KCRS-FM Midland/Odessa and 100.7 FM in Abilene. The show (and Texas syndication) briefly moved to 96.7 KHFI-FM, in Austin, in 2001. Before the end of 2001, Chris & Dina moved back to Lubbock to host "Chris & Dina in the Morning" which was exclusively heard on Z102. Jay Shannon then went on to serve two separate stints as OM/PD for KHFI from 2001 to 2014. In his time at KHFI, Shannon found a DJ named Bobby Bones and eventually created a morning show centered on him. The present-day Bobby Bones Show was originally patterned after "Jay, Chris & Dina in the Morning" with Bobby filling the role that Jay served, Lunchbox filling the antagonist Chris Kelly role and Amy taking Dina's role.
For a number of years in the 2000s, into the early 2010s, on Saturdays from 8 to 11PM KISS FM broadcast live from Heaven Nightclub called "Saturday Night Heaven". The remote broadcast was ended in 2011. In March 2016, assistant program director Boleo brought back the weekend party with Turn Up Friday's which originates from Lubbock's Club Pink. It would later move to Saturday nights in a sporadic fashion.
The 5 O'Clock Bomboocha began on KISS FM in February 2017. The original host was Tommy the Hacker simulcasting from Townsquare sister station 96.9 KXSS FM, Tommy the Hacker would do the show from Wild 104.3 - KQFX-FM Amarillo - after his departure from KXSS. In late March 2017, DJ Lopez would take over hosting and DJ duties on the Bomboocha. As of June 2018 hosting duties were split between DJ Lopez, Tommy the Hacker and Local DJ Ricky Ri. The Bomboocha was discontinued in July 2019 by Townsquare Corporate despite local outrage for the cancellation.
On air, Z102's positioning included "Hot Hitz, 102.5 Z102"; "H - I - T - Z102" (How you spell Hits); "Continuous Hit Music, 102.5 Z102"; "Your #1 Hit Music Station, 102.5 Z102"; and was "Lubbock's #1 Hit Music Station, Z102" prior to changing to the "Kiss FM" branding. Current branding is All The Hits, 102.5 KISS FM.
Personalities
Current on-air personalities include - The Jubal Show, Midday Michelle, E, and PopCrush Nights with Kayla Thomas.
Former on-air personalities include - Boleo (Who is still with Townsquare Media as an engineer in Abilene, Midland, and San Angelo Texas.), DJ Ricky Ri, Renee Raven (Who is currently on Townsquare's KFMX.), 'E' aka The Heathen formerly part of The Rockshow on FMX, Big (who died in September 2019), Lisa Paige, Jess, Steve Sever, Jay Shannon, Chris Kelly, Dina Morales, Bobby Ramos, DJ Lopez, Tommy the Hacker, Kelli D'Angelo, Cory Austin, The Jammer
References
External links
ZII-FM
Contemporary hit radio stations in the United States
Townsquare Media radio stations
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274099
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient%20Greek%20religion
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Ancient Greek religion
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Ancient Greek religion encompasses the collection of beliefs, rituals, and mythology originating in ancient Greece in the form of both popular public religion and cult practices. The application of the modern concept of "religion" to ancient cultures has been questioned as anachronistic. The ancient Greeks did not have a word for 'religion' in the modern sense. Likewise, no Greek writer known to us classifies either the gods or the cult practices into separate 'religions'. Instead, for example, Herodotus speaks of the Hellenes as having "common shrines of the gods and sacrifices, and the same kinds of customs."
Most ancient Greeks recognized the twelve major Olympian gods and goddesses—Zeus, Hera, Poseidon, Demeter, Athena, Ares, Aphrodite, Apollo, Artemis, Hephaestus, Hermes, and either Hestia or Dionysus—although philosophies such as Stoicism and some forms of Platonism used language that seems to assume a single transcendent deity. The worship of these deities, and several others, was found across the Greek world, though they often have different epithets that distinguished aspects of the deity, and often reflect the absorption of other local deities into the pan-Hellenic scheme.
The religious practices of the Greeks extended beyond mainland Greece, to the islands and coasts of Ionia in Asia Minor, to Magna Graecia (Sicily and southern Italy), and to scattered Greek colonies in the Western Mediterranean, such as Massalia (Marseille). Early Italian religions such as the Etruscan religion were influenced by Greek religion and subsequently influenced much of the ancient Roman religion.
Beliefs
"There was no centralization of authority over Greek religious practices and beliefs; change was regulated only at the civic level. Thus, the phenomenon we are studying is not in fact an organized “religion.” Instead we might think of the beliefs and practices of Greeks in relation to the gods as a group of closely related “religious dialects” that resembled each other far more than they did those of non-Greeks."
Theology
Ancient Greek theology was polytheistic, based on the assumption that there were many gods and goddesses, as well as a range of lesser supernatural beings of various types. There was a hierarchy of deities, with Zeus, the king of the gods, having a level of control over all the others, although he was not almighty. Some deities had dominion over certain aspects of nature. For instance, Zeus was the sky-god, sending thunder and lightning, Poseidon ruled over the sea and earthquakes, Hades projected his remarkable power throughout the realms of death and the Underworld, and Helios controlled the sun. Other deities ruled over abstract concepts; for instance Aphrodite controlled love. All significant deities were visualized as "human" in form, although often able to transform themselves into animals or natural phenomena.
While being immortal, the gods were certainly not all-good or even all-powerful. They had to obey fate, known to Greek mythology as the Moirai, which overrode any of their divine powers or wills. For instance, in mythology, it was Odysseus' fate to return home to Ithaca after the Trojan War, and the gods could only lengthen his journey and make it harder for him, but they could not stop him.
The gods acted like humans and had human vices. They would interact with humans, sometimes even spawning children with them. At times certain gods would be opposed to others, and they would try to outdo each other. In the Iliad, Aphrodite, Ares and Apollo support the Trojan side in the Trojan War, while Hera, Athena and Poseidon support the Greeks (see theomachy).
Some gods were specifically associated with a certain city. Athena was associated with the city of Athens, Apollo with Delphi and Delos, Zeus with Olympia and Aphrodite with Corinth. But other gods were also worshipped in these cities. Other deities were associated with nations outside of Greece; Poseidon was associated with Ethiopia and Troy, and Ares with Thrace.
Identity of names was not a guarantee of a similar cultus; the Greeks themselves were well aware that the Artemis worshipped at Sparta, the virgin huntress, was a very different deity from the Artemis who was a many-breasted fertility goddess at Ephesus. Though the worship of the major deities spread from one locality to another, and though most larger cities boasted temples to several major gods, the identification of different gods with different places remained strong to the end.
Ancient sources for Greek religion tell a good deal about cult but very little about creed, in no small measure because the Greeks in general considered what one believed to be much less importance than what one did.
Afterlife
The Greeks believed in an underworld where the spirits of the dead went after death. One of the most widespread areas of this underworld was ruled over by Hades, a brother of Zeus, and was itself also known as Hades (originally called 'the place of Hades'). Other well known realms are Tartarus, a place of torment for the damned, and Elysium, a place of pleasures for the virtuous. In the early Mycenaean religion all the dead went to Hades, but the rise of mystery cults in the Archaic age led to the development of places such as Tartarus and Elysium.
A few Greeks, like Achilles, Alcmene, Amphiaraus Ganymede, Ino, Melicertes, Menelaus, Peleus, and a great number of those who fought in the Trojan and Theban wars, were considered to have been physically immortalized and brought to live forever in either Elysium, the Islands of the Blessed, heaven, the ocean, or beneath the ground. Such beliefs are found in the most ancient of Greek sources, such as Homer and Hesiod. This belief remained strong even into the Christian era. For most people at the moment of death there was, however, no hope of anything but continued existence as a disembodied soul.
Some Greeks, such as the philosophers Pythagoras and Plato, also embraced the idea of reincarnation, though this was only accepted by a few. Epicurus taught that the soul was simply atoms which were dissolved at death, so one ceased to exist on dying.
Mythology
Greek religion had an extensive mythology. It consisted largely of stories of the gods and how they interacted with humans. Myths often revolved around heroes and their actions, such as Heracles and his twelve labors, Odysseus and his voyage home, Jason and the quest for the Golden Fleece and Theseus and the Minotaur.
Many species existed in Greek mythology. Chief among these were the gods and humans, though the Titans (who predated the Olympian gods) also frequently appeared in Greek myths. Lesser species included the half-man-half-horse centaurs, the nature based nymphs (tree nymphs were dryads, sea nymphs were Nereids) and the half man, half goat satyrs. Some creatures in Greek mythology were monstrous, such as the one-eyed giant Cyclopes, the sea beast Scylla, whirlpool Charybdis, Gorgons, and the half-man, half-bull Minotaur.
There was not a set Greek cosmogony, or creation myth. Different religious groups believed that the world had been created in different ways. One Greek creation myth was told in Hesiod's Theogony. It stated that at first there was only a primordial deity called Chaos, after which came various other primordial gods, such as Gaia, Tartarus and Eros, who then gave birth to more gods, the Titans, who then gave birth to the first Olympians.
The mythology largely survived and was added to in order to form the later Roman mythology. The Greeks and Romans had been literate societies, and much mythology, although initially shared orally, was written down in the forms of epic poetry (such as the Iliad, the Odyssey and the Argonautica) and plays (such as Euripides' The Bacchae and Aristophanes' The Frogs). The mythology became popular in Christian post-Renaissance Europe, where it was often used as a basis for the works of artists like Botticelli, Michelangelo and Rubens.
Morality
One of the most important moral concepts to the Greeks was the fear of committing hubris. Hubris constituted many things, from rape to desecration of a corpse, and was a crime in the city-state of Athens. Although pride and vanity were not considered sins themselves, the Greeks emphasized moderation. Pride only became hubris when it went to extremes, like any other vice. The same was thought of eating and drinking. Anything done to excess was not considered proper. Ancient Greeks placed, for example, importance on athletics and intellect equally. In fact many of their competitions included both. Pride was not evil until it became all-consuming or hurtful to others.
Sacred texts
The Greeks had no religious texts they regarded as "revealed" scriptures of sacred origin, but very old texts including Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, and the Homeric hymns (regarded as later productions today), Hesiod's Theogony and Works and Days, and Pindar's Odes were regarded as having authority and perhaps being inspired; they usually begin with an invocation to the Muses for inspiration. Plato even wanted to exclude the myths from his ideal state described in the Republic because of their low moral tone.
While some traditions, such as Mystery cults, did uphold certain texts as canonic within their own cult praxis, such texts were respected but not necessarily accepted as canonic outside their circle. In this field, of particular importance are certain texts referring to Orphic cults: multiple copies, ranging from 450 BC–250 AD, have been found in various locations of the Greek world. Even the words of the oracles never turned into a sacred text. Other texts were specially composed for religious events, and some have survived within the lyric tradition; although they had a cult function, they were bound to performance and never developed into a common, standard prayer form comparable to the Christian Pater Noster. An exception to this rule were the already named Orphic and Mystery rituals, which, in this, set themselves aside from the rest of the Greek religious system. Finally, some texts called () (sacred texts) by the ancient sources, originated from outside the Greek world, or were supposedly adopted in remote times, representing yet more different traditions within the Greek belief system.
Practices
Ceremonies
The lack of a unified priestly class meant that a unified, canonic form of the religious texts or practices never existed; just as there was no unified, common sacred text for the Greek belief system, there was no standardization of practices. Instead, religious practices were organized on local levels, with priests normally being magistrates for the city or village, or gaining authority from one of the many sanctuaries. Some priestly functions, like the care for a particular local festival, could be given by tradition to a certain family. To a large extent, in the absence of "scriptural" sacred texts, religious practices derived their authority from tradition, and "every omission or deviation arouses deep anxiety and calls forth sanctions".
Greek ceremonies and rituals were mainly performed at altars. These were typically devoted to one or a few gods, and supported a statue of the particular deity. Votive deposits would be left at the altar, such as food, drinks, as well as precious objects. Sometimes animal sacrifices would be performed here, with most of the flesh taken for eating, and the offal burnt as an offering to the gods. Libations, often of wine, would be offered to the gods as well, not only at shrines, but also in everyday life, such as during a symposium.
One ceremony was pharmakos, a ritual involving expelling a symbolic scapegoat such as a slave or an animal, from a city or village in a time of hardship. It was hoped that by casting out the ritual scapegoat, the hardship would go with it.
Sacrifice
Worship in Greece typically consisted of sacrificing domestic animals at the altar with hymn and prayer. The altar was outside any temple building, and might not be associated with a temple at all. The animal, which should be perfect of its kind, was decorated with garlands and the like, and led in procession to the altar; a girl with a basket on her head containing the concealed knife led the way. After various rituals, the animal was slaughtered over the altar. As it fell, all of the women present "[cried] out in high, shrill tones". Its blood was collected and poured over the altar. It was butchered on the spot and various internal organs, bones and other inedible parts burnt as the deity's portion of the offering, while the meat was removed to be prepared for the participants to eat; the leading figures tasted it on the spot. The temple usually kept the skin to sell to tanners. That the humans got more use from the sacrifice than the deity had not escaped the Greeks, and was often the subject of humor in Greek comedy.
The animals used were, in order of preference, bulls or oxen, cows, sheep (the most common sacrifice), goats, pigs (with piglets being the cheapest mammal), and poultry (but rarely other birds or fish). Horses and asses are seen on some vases in the Geometric style (900–750 BC), but are very rarely mentioned in literature; they were relatively late introductions to Greece, and it has been suggested that Greek preferences in this matter were established earlier. The Greeks liked to believe that the animal was glad to be sacrificed, and interpreted various behaviors as showing this. Divination by examining parts of the sacrificed animal was much less important than in Roman or Etruscan religion, or Near Eastern religions, but was practiced, especially of the liver, and as part of the cult of Apollo. Generally, the Greeks put more faith in observing the behavior of birds.
For a smaller and simpler offering, a grain of incense could be thrown on the sacred fire, and outside the cities farmers made simple sacrificial gifts of plant produce as the "first fruits" were harvested. The libation, a ritual pouring of fluid, was part of everyday life, and libations with a prayer were often made at home whenever wine was drunk, with just a part of the cup's contents, the rest being drunk. More formal ones might be made onto altars at temples, and other fluids such as olive oil and honey might be used. Although the grand form of sacrifice called the hecatomb (meaning 100 bulls) might in practice only involve a dozen or so, at large festivals the number of cattle sacrificed could run into the hundreds, and the numbers feasting on them well into the thousands.
The evidence of the existence of such practices is clear in some ancient Greek literature, especially in Homer's epics. Throughout the poems, the use of the ritual is apparent at banquets where meat is served, in times of danger or before some important endeavor to gain the favor of the gods. For example, in Homer's Odyssey Eumaeus sacrifices a pig with prayer for his unrecognizable master Odysseus. However, in Homer's Iliad, which partly reflects very early Greek civilization, not every banquet of the princes begins with a sacrifice.
These sacrificial practices share much with recorded forms of sacrificial rituals known from later. Furthermore, throughout the poem, special banquets are held whenever gods indicated their presence by some sign or success in war. Before setting out for Troy, this type of animal sacrifice is offered. Odysseus offers Zeus a sacrificial ram in vain. The occasions of sacrifice in Homer's epic poems may shed some light onto the view of the gods as members of society, rather than as external entities, indicating social ties. Sacrificial rituals played a major role in forming the relationship between humans and the divine.
It has been suggested that the Chthonic deities, distinguished from Olympic deities by typically being offered the holocaust mode of sacrifice, where the offering is wholly burnt, may be remnants of the native Pre-Hellenic religion and that many of the Olympian deities may come from the Proto-Greeks who overran the southern part of the Balkan Peninsula in the late third millennium BC.
Festivals
Various religious festivals were held in ancient Greece. Many were specific only to a particular deity or city-state. For example, the festival of Lykaia was celebrated in Arcadia in Greece, which was dedicated to the pastoral god Pan. Like the other Panhellenic Games, the ancient Olympic Games were a religious festival, held at the sanctuary of Zeus at Olympia. Other festivals centered on Greek theatre, of which the Dionysia in Athens was the most important. More typical festivals featured a procession, large sacrifices and a feast to eat the offerings, and many included entertainments and customs such as visiting friends, wearing fancy dress and unusual behavior in the streets, sometimes risky for bystanders in various ways. Altogether the year in Athens included some 140 days that were religious festivals of some sort, though varying greatly in importance.
Rites of passage
One rite of passage was the amphidromia, celebrated on the fifth or seventh day after the birth of a child. Childbirth was extremely significant to Athenians, especially if the baby was a boy.
Sanctuaries and temples
The main Greek temple building sat within a larger precinct or temenos, usually surrounded by a peribolos fence or wall; the whole is usually called a "sanctuary". The Acropolis of Athens is the most famous example, though this was apparently walled as a citadel before a temple was ever built there. The tenemos might include many subsidiary buildings, sacred groves or springs, animals dedicated to the deity, and sometimes people who had taken sanctuary from the law, which some temples offered, for example to runaway slaves.
The earliest Greek sanctuaries probably lacked temple buildings, though our knowledge of these is limited, and the subject is controversial. A typical early sanctuary seems to have consisted of a tenemos, often around a sacred grove, cave, rock (baetyl) or spring, and perhaps defined only by marker stones at intervals, with an altar for offerings. Many rural sanctuaries probably stayed in this style, but the more popular were gradually able to afford a building to house a cult image, especially in cities. This process was certainly under way by the 9th century, and probably started earlier.
The temple interiors did not serve as meeting places, since the sacrifices and rituals dedicated to the respective deity took place outside them, at altars within the wider precinct of the sanctuary, which might be large. As the centuries passed both the inside of popular temples and the area surrounding them accumulated statues and small shrines or other buildings as gifts, and military trophies, paintings and items in precious metals, effectively turning them into a type of museum.
Some sanctuaries offered oracles, people who were believed to receive divine inspiration in answering questions put by pilgrims. The most famous of these by far was the female priestess called the Pythia at the Temple of Apollo at Delphi, and that of Zeus at Dodona, but there were many others. Some dealt only with medical, agricultural or other specialized matters, and not all represented gods, like that of the hero Trophonius at Livadeia.
Cult images
The temple was the house of the deity it was dedicated to, who in some sense resided in the cult image in the cella or main room inside, normally facing the only door. The cult image normally took the form of a statue of the deity, typically roughly life-size, but in some cases many times life-size. In early days these were in wood, marble or terracotta, or in the specially prestigious form of a chryselephantine statue using ivory plaques for the visible parts of the body and gold for the clothes, around a wooden framework. The most famous Greek cult images were of this type, including the Statue of Zeus at Olympia, and Phidias's Athena Parthenos in the Parthenon in Athens, both colossal statues, now completely lost. Fragments of two chryselephantine statues from Delphi have been excavated. Bronze cult images were less frequent, at least until Hellenistic times. Early images seem often to have been dressed in real clothes, and at all periods images might wear real jewelry donated by devotees.
The acrolith was another composite form, this time a cost-saving one with a wooden body. A xoanon was a primitive and symbolic wooden image, perhaps comparable to the Hindu lingam; many of these were retained and revered for their antiquity, even when a new statue was the main cult image. Xoana had the advantage that they were easy to carry in processions at festivals. The Trojan Palladium, famous from the myths of the Epic Cycle and supposedly ending up in Rome, was one of these. The sacred boulder or baetyl is another very primitive type, found around the Mediterranean and Ancient Near East.
Many of the Greek statues well known from Roman marble copies were originally temple cult images, which in some cases, such as the Apollo Barberini, can be credibly identified. A very few actual originals survive, for example, the bronze Piraeus Athena ( high, including a helmet). The image stood on a base, from the 5th century often carved with reliefs.
It used to be thought that access to the cella of a Greek temple was limited to the priests, and it was entered only rarely by other visitors, except perhaps during important festivals or other special occasions. In recent decades this picture has changed, and scholars now stress the variety of local access rules. Pausanias was a gentlemanly traveller of the 2nd-century AD who declares that the special intention of his travels around Greece was to see cult images, and usually managed to do so.
It was typically necessary to make a sacrifice or gift, and some temples restricted access either to certain days of the year, or by class, race, gender (with either men or women forbidden), or even more tightly. Garlic-eaters were forbidden in one temple, in another women unless they were virgins; restrictions typically arose from local ideas of ritual purity or a perceived whim of the deity. In some places visitors were asked to show they spoke Greek; elsewhere Dorians were not allowed entry. Some temples could only be viewed from the threshold. Some temples are said never to be opened at all. But generally Greeks, including slaves, had a reasonable expectation of being allowed into the cella. Once inside the cella it was possible to pray to or before the cult image, and sometimes to touch it; Cicero saw a bronze image of Heracles with its foot largely worn away by the touch of devotees. Famous cult images such as the Statue of Zeus at Olympia functioned as significant visitor attractions.
Role of women
The role of women in sacrifices is discussed above. In addition, the only public roles that Greek women could perform were priestesses: either hiereiai, meaning "sacred women" or , a term for lesser attendants. As a priestess, they gained social recognition and access to more luxuries than other Greek women that worked or typically stayed in the home. They were mostly from local elite families; some roles required virgins, who would typically only serve for a year or so before marriage, while other roles went to married women. Women who voluntarily chose to become priestesses received an increase in social and legal status to the public, and after death, they received a public burial site. Greek priestesses had to be healthy and of a sound mind, the reasoning being that the ones serving the gods had to be as high-quality as their offerings. This was also true for male Greek priests.
It is contested whether there were gendered divisions when it came to serving a particular god or goddess, who was devoted to what god, gods and/or goddesses could have both priests and priestesses to serve them. Gender specifics did come into play when it came to who would perform certain acts of sacrifice or worship were determined by the significance of the male or female role to that particular god or goddess, a priest would lead the priestess or the reverse. In some Greek cults priestesses served both gods and goddesses, such examples as the Pythia, or female Oracle of Apollo at Delphi, and that at Didyma were priestesses, but both were overseen by male priests. The festival of Dionosyus was practiced by both and the god was served by women and female priestesses, they were known as the Gerarai or the venerable ones.
There were segregated religious festivals in Ancient Greece; the Thesmophoria, Plerosia, Kalamaia, Adonia, and Skira were festivals that were only for women. The Thesmophoria festival and many others represented agricultural fertility, which was considered to be closely connected to women by the ancient Greeks. It gave women a religious identity and purpose in Greek religion, in which the role of women in worshipping goddesses Demeter and her daughter Persephone reinforced traditional lifestyles. The festivals relating to agricultural fertility were valued by the polis because this is what they traditionally worked for, women-centered festivals that involved private matters were less important. In Athens the festivals honoring Demeter were included in the calendar and promoted by Athens, they constructed temples and shrines like the Thesmophorion, where women could perform their rites and worship.
Mystery religions
Those who were not satisfied by the public cult of the gods could turn to various mystery religions which operated as cults into which members had to be initiated in order to learn their secrets.
Here, they could find religious consolations that traditional religion could not provide: a chance at mystical awakening, a systematic religious doctrine, a map to the afterlife, a communal worship, and a band of spiritual fellowship.
Some of these mysteries, like the mysteries of Eleusis and Samothrace, were ancient and local. Others were spread from place to place, like the mysteries of Dionysus. During the Hellenistic period and the Roman Empire, exotic mystery religions became widespread, not only in Greece, but all across the empire. Some of these were new creations, such as Mithras, while others had been practiced for hundreds of years before, like the Egyptian mysteries of Osiris.
History
Origins
Mainstream Greek religion appears to have developed out of Proto-Indo-European religion and although very little is known about the earliest periods there are suggestive hints that some local elements go back even further than the Bronze Age or Helladic period to the farmers of Neolithic Greece. There was also clearly cultural evolution from the Late Helladic Mycenaean religion of the Mycenaean civilization. Both the literary settings of some important myths and many important sanctuaries relate to locations that were important Helladic centers that had become otherwise unimportant by Greek times.
The Mycenaeans perhaps treated Poseidon, to them a god of earthquakes as well as the sea, as their chief deity, and forms of his name along with several other Olympians are recognizable in records in Linear B, although Apollo and Aphrodite are absent. Only about half of the Mycenaean pantheon seem to survive the Greek Dark Ages though. The archaeological evidence for continuity in religion is far clearer for Crete and Cyprus than the Greek mainland.
Greek religious concepts may also have absorbed the beliefs and practices of earlier, nearby cultures, such as Minoan religion, and other influences came from the Near East, especially via Cyprus. Herodotus, writing in the 5th century BC, traced many Greek religious practices to Egypt.
The Great Goddess hypothesis, that a Stone Age religion dominated by a female Great Goddess was displaced by a male-dominated Indo-European hierarchy, has been proposed for Greece as for Minoan Crete and other regions, but has not been in favor with specialists for some decades, though the question remains too poorly-evidenced for a clear conclusion; at the least the evidence from Minoan art shows more goddesses than gods. The Twelve Olympians, with Zeus as sky father, certainly have a strong Indo-European flavor; by the time of the epic works of Homer all are well-established, except for Dionysus. However, several of the Homeric Hymns, probably composed slightly later, are dedicated to him.
Archaic and classical periods
Archaic and Classical Greece saw the development of flourishing cities and of stone-built temples to the gods, which were rather consistent in design across the Greek world. Religion was closely tied to civic life, and priests were mostly drawn from the local elite. Religious works led the development of Greek sculpture, though apparently not the now-vanished Greek painting. While much religious practice was, as well as personal, aimed at developing solidarity within the polis, a number of important sanctuaries developed a "Panhellenic" status, drawing visitors from all over the Greek world. These served as an essential component in the growth and self-consciousness of Greek nationalism.
The mainstream religion of the Greeks did not go unchallenged within Greece. As Greek philosophy developed its ideas about ethics, the Olympians were bound to be found wanting. Several notable philosophers criticized a belief in the gods. The earliest of these was Xenophanes, who chastised the human vices of the gods as well as their anthropomorphic depiction. Plato wrote that there was one supreme god, whom he called the "Form of the Good", and which he believed was the emanation of perfection in the universe. Plato's disciple, Aristotle, also disagreed that polytheistic deities existed, because he could not find enough empirical evidence for it. He believed in a Prime Mover, which had set creation going, but was not connected to or interested in the universe.
Hellenistic period
In the Hellenistic period between the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC and the Roman conquest of Greece (146 BC) Greek religion developed in various ways, including expanding over at least some of Alexander's conquests. The new dynasties of diadochi, kings and tyrants often spent lavishly on temples, often following Alexander in trying to insinuate themselves into religious cult; this was much easier for the Ptolemaic dynasty of Egypt, where the traditional ancient Egyptian religion had long had deified monarchs. The enormous raised Pergamon Altar (now in Berlin) and the Altar of Hieron in Sicily are examples of unprecedentedly large constructions of the period.
New cults of imported deities such as Isis from Egypt, Atargatis from Syria, and Cybele from Anatolia became increasingly important, as well as several philosophical movements such as Platonism, stoicism, and Epicureanism; both tended to detract from the traditional religion, although many Greeks were able to hold beliefs from more than one of these groups. Serapis was essentially a Hellenistic creation, if not devised then spread in Egypt for political reasons by Ptolemy I Soter as a hybrid of Greek and local styles of deity. Various philosophical movements, including the Orphics and Pythagoreans, began to question the ethics of animal sacrifice, and whether the gods really appreciated it; from the surviving texts Empedocles and Theophrastus (both vegetarians) were notable critics. Hellenistic astrology developed late in the period, as another distraction from the traditional practices. Although the traditional myths, festivals and beliefs all continued, these trends probably reduced the grip on the imagination of the traditional pantheon, especially among the educated, but probably more widely in the general population.
Roman Empire
When the Roman Republic conquered Greece in 146 BC, it took much of Greek religion (along with many other aspects of Greek culture such as literary and architectural styles) and incorporated it into its own. The Greek gods were equated with the ancient Roman deities; Zeus with Jupiter, Hera with Juno, Poseidon with Neptune, Aphrodite with Venus, Ares with Mars, Artemis with Diana, Athena with Minerva, Hermes with Mercury, Hephaestus with Vulcan, Hestia with Vesta, Demeter with Ceres, Hades with Pluto, Tyche with Fortuna, and Pan with Faunus. Some of the gods, such as Apollo and Bacchus, had earlier been adopted by the Romans. There were also many deities that existed in the Roman religion before its interaction with Greece that were not associated with a Greek deity, including Janus and Quirinus.
The Romans generally did not spend much on new temples in Greece, other that those for their Imperial cult, which were placed in all important cities. Exceptions include Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161 AD), whose commissions include the Baalbec Temple of Bacchus, arguably the most impressive survival from the imperial period (though the Temple of Jupiter-Baal next to it was larger). It could be said the Greek world was by this time well furnished with sanctuaries. Roman governors and emperors often pilfered famous statues from sanctuaries, sometimes leaving contemporary reproductions in their place. Verres, governor of Sicily from 73 to 70 BC, was an early example who, unusually, was prosecuted after his departure.
After the huge Roman conquests beyond Greece, new cults from Egypt and Asia became popular in Greece as well as the western empire.
Decline and suppression
The initial decline of Greco-Roman polytheism was due in part to its syncretic nature, assimilating beliefs and practices from a variety of foreign religious traditions as the Roman Empire expanded. Greco-Roman philosophical schools incorporated elements of Judaism and Early Christianity, and mystery religions like Christianity and Mithraism also became increasingly popular. Constantine I became the first Roman Emperor to convert to Christianity, and the Edict of Milan in 313 AD enacted official tolerance for Christianity within the Empire. Still, in Greece and elsewhere, there is evidence that pagan and Christian communities remained essentially segregated from each other, with little cultural influence flowing between the two. Urban pagans continued to utilize the civic centers and temple complexes, while Christians set up their own, new places of worship in suburban areas of cities. Contrary to some older scholarship, newly converted Christians did not simply continue worshiping in converted temples; rather, new Christian communities were formed as older pagan communities declined and were eventually suppressed and disbanded.
The Roman Emperor Julian, a nephew of Constantine, initiated an effort to end the ascension of Christianity within the empire and re-organize a syncretic version of Greco-Roman polytheism which he termed, "Hellenism". Later known as “The Apostate”, Julian had been raised Christian but embraced the pagan faith of his ancestors in early adulthood. Taking notice of how Christianity ultimately flourished under suppression, Julian pursued a policy of marginalization but not destruction towards the Church; tolerating and at times lending state support toward other prominent faiths (particularly Judaism) when he believed doing so would be likely to weaken Christianity. Julian's Christian training influenced his decision to create a single organized version of the various old pagan traditions, with a centralized priesthood and a coherent body of doctrine, ritual, and liturgy based on Neoplatonism. On the other hand, Julian forbid Christian educators from utilizing many of the great works of philosophy and literature associated with Greco-Roman paganism. Julian believed Christianity had benefited significantly from not only access to but influence over classical education.
Julian's successor Constantinus reversed some of his reforms, but Jovian, Valentinian I, and Valens continued Julian's policy of religious toleration within the Empire, garnering them both praise from pagan writers. Official persecution of paganism in the Eastern Empire began under Theodosius I in 381 AD. Theodosius strictly enforced anti-pagan laws, had priesthoods disbanded, temples destroyed, and actively participated in Christian actions against pagan holy sites. He enacted laws that prohibited worship of pagan gods not only in public, but also within private homes. The last Olympic Games were held in 393 AD, and Theodosius likely suppressed any further attempts to hold the games. Western Empire Emperor Gratian, under the influence of his adviser Ambrose, ended the widespread, unofficial tolerance that had existed in the Western Roman Empire since the reign of Julian. In 382 AD, Gratian appropriated the income and property of the remaining orders of pagan priests, disbanded the Vestal Virgins, removed altars, and confiscated temples.
Despite official suppression by the Roman government, worship of the Greco-Roman gods persisted in some rural and remote regions into the early Middle Ages. A claimed temple to Apollo, with a community of worshipers and associated sacred grove, survived at Monte Cassino until 529 AD, when it was forcefully converted to a Christian chapel by Saint Benedict of Nursia, who destroyed the altar and cut down the grove. Other pagan communities, namely the Maniots, persisted in the Mani Peninsula of Greece until at least the 9th century.
Modern revivals
Greek religion and philosophy have experienced a number of revivals, firstly in the arts, humanities and spirituality of Renaissance Neoplatonism, which was certainly believed by many to have effects in the real world. During the period of time (14th–17th centuries) when the literature and philosophy of the ancient Greeks gained widespread appreciation in Europe, this new popularity did not extend to ancient Greek religion, especially the original theist forms, and most new examinations of Greek philosophy were written within a solidly Christian context.
Early revivalists, with varying degrees of commitment, were the Englishmen John Fransham (1730–1810), interested in Neoplatonism, and Thomas Taylor (1758–1835), who produced the first English translations of many Neoplatonic philosophical and religious texts.
More recently, a revival has begun with the contemporary Hellenism, as it is often called (a term first used by the last pagan Roman emperor Julian). In Greece, the term used is Hellenic Ethnic Religion (). Modern Hellenism reflects Neoplatonic and Platonic speculation (which is represented in Porphyry, Libanius, Proclus, and Julian), as well as classical cult practice. However, there are many fewer followers than Greek Orthodox Christianity. According to estimates reported by the U.S. State Department in 2006, there were perhaps as many as 2,000 followers of the ancient Greek religion out of a total Greek population of 11 million; however, Hellenism's leaders place that figure at 100,000 followers.
See also
Family tree of the Greek gods
Hellenistic religion
List of ancient Greek temples
Notes
References
Burkert, Walter (1972), Homo necans
Burkert, Walter (1985), Greek Religion: Archaic and Classical, Harvard University Press, . Widely regarded as the standard modern account, online at archive.org.
Miles, Margaret Melanie. A Companion to Greek Architecture. Malden, MA: John Wiley & Sons, 2016.
Stevenson, Gregory, Power and Place: Temple and Identity in the Book of Revelation, 2012, Walter de Gruyter, , 9783110880397, google books
Further reading
Cook, Arthur Bernard, Zeus: A Study in Ancient Religion, (3 volume set), (1914–1925). New York, Bibilo & Tannen: 1964. ASIN B0006BMDNA
Volume 1: Zeus, God of the Bright Sky, Biblo-Moser, June 1, 1964, (reprint)
Volume 2: Zeus, God of the Dark Sky (Thunder and Lightning), Biblo-Moser, June 1, 1964,
Volume 3: Zeus, God of the Dark Sky (earthquakes, clouds, wind, dew, rain, meteorites)
Dodds, Eric Robertson, The Greeks and the Irrational, 1951.
Mircea Eliade, Shamanism: Archaic Techniques of Ecstasy, 1951.
Lewis Richard Farnell, Cults of the Greek States 5 vols. Oxford; Clarendon 1896–1909. Still the standard reference.
Lewis Richard Farnell, Greek Hero Cults and Ideas of Immortality, 1921.
Jane Ellen Harrison, Themis: A Study of the Social Origins of Greek Religion, 1912.
Jane Ellen Harrison, Epilegomena to the Study of Greek Religion, 1921.
Karl Kerényi, The Gods of the Greeks Karl Kerényi, Dionysus: Archetypical Image of Indestructible Life Karl Kerényi, Eleusis: Archetypal Image of Mother and Daughter. The central modern accounting of the Eleusinian Mysteries.
Jennifer Larson, Ancient Greek Cults:A Guide New York: Routledge, 2007.
Jon D. Mikalson, Athenian Popular Religion. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1983. .
Martin P. Nilsson, Greek Popular Religion, 1940.
Mark William Padilla, (editor), "Rites of Passage in Ancient Greece: Literature, Religion, Society", Bucknell University Press, 1999.
Robert Parker, Athenian Religion: A History Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996. .
Andrea Purvis, Singular Dedications: Founders and Innovators of Private Cults in Classical Greece, 2003.
William Ridgeway, The Dramas and Dramatic Dances of non-European Races in special Reference to the Origin of Greek Tragedy, with an Appendix on the Origin of Greek Comedy, 1915.
William Ridgeway, Origin of Tragedy with Special Reference to the Greek Tragedians, 1910.
Xavier Riu, Dionysism and Comedy, Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, 1999. .
Erwin Rohde, Psyche: The Cult of Souls and Belief in Immortality among the Greeks, 1925 [1921].
William Smith, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, 1870.
Martin Litchfield West, The Orphic Poems, 1983.
Martin Litchfield West, Early Greek philosophy and the Orient, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1971.
Martin Litchfield West, The East Face of Helicon: west Asiatic elements in Greek poetry and myth, Oxford [England]; New York: Clarendon Press, 1997.
Walter F. Otto, The Homeric Gods: The Spiritual Significance of Greek Religion,'' New York: Pantheon, 1954
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sachin%20H.%20Jain
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Sachin H. Jain
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Sachin H. Jain (born 1980) is an American physician who held leadership positions in the Center for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) and the Office of the National Coordinator for Health Information Technology (ONC). From 2015 to 2020, he served as president and chief executive officer of the CareMore Health System. In June 2020, it was announced that he would join the SCAN Group and Health Plan as its new President and CEO. He is also adjunct professor of medicine at the Stanford University School of Medicine and a Contributor at Forbes. In 2018, he was named one of American healthcare's most 100 most influential leaders by Modern Healthcare magazine (#36).
Early life and education
Born in New York City and raised in Alpine, New Jersey, Jain attended high school at the Academy for the Advancement of Science and Technology (now part of the Bergen Academies) where he founded the debate team and the Bergen County Leaders Forum and served internships at Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center; the Office of the Bergen County Executive; and the Bergen County Department of Health Services. He was also a Governor's Scholar on Public Issues and the Future of New Jersey. Jain received his undergraduate degree with high honors in government from Harvard College; his medical degree (MD) from Harvard Medical School; and his master's degree in business administration (MBA) from Harvard Business School. At Harvard College, he was mentored by health care quality guru Donald Berwick and studied under Christopher Winship, Robert Putnam, Deborah Stone, and William Julius Wilson. At Harvard Medical School, he was president of his class and awarded the Henry Asbury Christian Award for research excellence. He and classmate Kiran Kakarala were advised by health policy department chair Barbara McNeil and received hundreds of thousands of dollars in grant support from the Commonwealth Fund to build ImproveHealthCare, an initiative to drive incorporation of healthcare policy into medical school curricula that scaled to 17 US medical schools.
Early work
Jain completed his residency in internal medicine at Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, but had been granted a two-year leave mid-residency to pursue government service. He is a founder of several nonprofit health care ventures including the Homeless Health Clinic at UniLu, the Harvard Bone Marrow Initiative, and the South Asian Healthcare Leadership Forum. He worked with DaVita-Bridge of Life to bring charity dialysis care to rural Rajasthan, India and Medical Missions for Children to bring cleft lip and palate surgery to the region through partnership with the International Human Benefit Services Trust.
While in residency, he was a researcher for Harvard Business School's Institute for Strategy and Competitiveness and worked with professors Michael Porter and Jim Yong Kim to build the emerging field of health care delivery science. He served as an expert consultant to the World Health Organization. He later partnered with the University of Pennsylvania's Amol Navathe and the publisher Elsevier to launch the field's charter journal, Healthcare: the Journal of Delivery Science and Innovation. He also collaborated with Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Business School to create the John McArthur Program for Medicine Leadership.
Early in his career Jain served internships at McKinsey & Company and the Alpha Center for Health Policy. He was also appointed a lecturer in health policy at Harvard Medical School from 2012 to 2015. He has served as guest faculty at the MIT Sloan School of Management, the University of Minnesota, the University of Virginia's Darden School, University of California San Francisco School of Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, and the University of Southern California.
Government service
In 2009, Jain joined the Office of the National Coordinator for Health Information Technology (ONC) as special assistant to David Blumenthal when he was national coordinator for health information technology. Jain worked with Blumenthal to implement the HITECH Provisions of the Recovery Act and to achieve broader alignment between health plans and federal meaningful use policies. He was also tasked with devising strategies to enhance electronic health record usability and organize private sector engagement efforts on behalf of ONC.
Jain was recruited by his college mentor Donald Berwick as a senior advisor to the administrator at the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services and was asked to help lead the launch of the Center for Medicare and Medicaid Innovation (CMMI) that was chartered by Section 3021 of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act. He served briefly as its deputy director for policy and programs under Richard Gilfillan, the center's first director. His optimistic perspective on the Center's capacity to reform payment for health care services was met with skepticism from some critics. Jain advocated within the administrator's office for speedier translation of health care delivery research into practice; an enhanced diabetes prevention benefit; and an expanded use of clinical registries.
Merck
In 2012, Jain was appointed global Chief Medical Information and Innovation Officer of Merck. At Merck, Jain built and led the company's digital health and big data group. The Merck group launched 14 partnerships with industry and academic partners around the world including the Regenstrief Institute, Harvard University, PracticeFusion, and Israel's Maccabi. Notably, it led one of the most successful demonstrations of clinical decision support to enhance vaccine prescribing rates.
CareMore
In 2015, Jain joined CareMore, an integrated health plan and delivery system that is headquartered in the Los Angeles suburb Cerritos. CareMore was founded in 1993 and rose to national prominence for its model managing chronic disease and complex patients. Jain left CareMore after leading its growth from 4 to 12 states and leading its integration of Aspire Health and joined SCAN Group and Health Plan, a $3.4b independent managed care company as its President and CEO.
SCAN Group and Health Plan
Jain joined SCAN, originally the Senior Care Action Network, in June 2020. He immediately announced a focus on growth, diversification, innovation, and leadership in serving diverse and underserved populations. In 2021, SCAN expanded operations to Arizona and Nevada. In October 2021, SCAN announced that it had achieved its 5th consecutive 4.5 Star rating from the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services. In 2021, SCAN announced the creation of new subsidiaries. Welcome Health is a home-based geriatrics provider group. Healthcare in Action serves homeless individuals through a street-based medicine model. Jain maintains a faculty appointment as an adjunct professor at Stanford University School of Medicine and continues to see patients.
Writings
Jain has authored more than 100 publications on health care delivery innovation and health care reform. His article, "Practicing Medicine in the Age of Facebook," in the New England Journal of Medicine explores the interface between social media and the practice of clinical medicine. He coined the term digital phenotype and described it in a paper in Nature Biotechnology with colleagues Brian Powers, Jared Hawkins, and John Brownstein. Two of his articles in Journal of the American Medical Association, "Societal Perspectives on Physicians: Knights, Knaves, and Pawns?" (with Christine K. Cassel) and "Are Patients Knights, Knaves, and Pawn?" (with John Rother) build on the social theories of Julien LeGrand and apply them to physician and patient motivations. The book he co-edited with Susan Pories and Gordon Harper, "The Soul of a Doctor" has received mixed reviews. His article, "The Racist Patient," was mentioned in the New York Times and generated controversy about the obligation of physicians to patients with racist attitudes towards them and critical comments directed at Jain's perspective.
Honors
Jain is the subject of a Harvard Business School case study written by dean Nitin Nohria. Jain was selected to Boston Business Journal's 40 under 40 list. He was named to Modern Healthcare’s lists of most influential minority health leaders, most influential clinical executives, and most influential leaders in healthcare.
References
External links
Profile of Sachin Jain from Harvard Magazine
Profile from Harvard Medical School Annual Report
Harvard Business School Class of 2007 Profiles
Bio from World Healthcare Congress
1980 births
Living people
American academics of Indian descent
American health care chief executives
American physicians
American physicians of Indian descent
American Jains
Harvard Business School alumni
Harvard Medical School alumni
Harvard College alumni
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eschalon%3A%20Book%20I
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Eschalon: Book I
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Eschalon: Book I is an isometric turn-based role-playing video game by Basilisk Games. In the style of classic role-playing video games, it features a large and openly explorable game world, comprehensive management of character stats and skills, and a non-linear storyline. It is the first in a trilogy of games set in the fantasy world of Eschalon.
The game was released for Windows on November 19, 2007. Customers could buy the game as a digital download or on a compact disc. The Macintosh version was only released as a digital download on December 11, 2007. The Linux version was also only released as a digital download on December 21. On January 14, 2008, Thomas Riegsecker, the owner of Basilisk Games made an announcement that CD versions sold would contain all three versions of Eschalon: Book I.
A sequel, Eschalon: Book II, was released on May 12, 2010, for Windows, with the Linux and Mac OS X versions following on May 26.
Gameplay
Eschalon: Book I is played from an isometric perspective with turn-based combat. The player controls a character that is created at the beginning of the game. The story revolves around the player character who suffers from amnesia. They discover a land that has been affected by war and begins a quest to find out who they are. At the character creation screen, the computer randomly rolls for eight attributes: Strength, Dexterity, Endurance, Speed, Intelligence, Wisdom, Perception and Concentration. The player is given some points to distribute between the attributes, and can make the computer roll the numbers again. There are five classes, 24 individual skills, and five different origins and beliefs allowing for a wide range of different characters.
Throughout the game the player encounters numerous NPCs that offer services, information, and quests.
Plot
The game begins with the player waking up in the abandoned village of Elderhollow, with no memory of who they are. They discovers a note that claims to know who they are, and compels them to head northeast to the village of Aridell and meet a man named Maddock to claim a small package he has been safeguarding. With nothing else to go on, the player arrives in Aridell and receives the package from Maddock. Inside is a small bag full of coins and another sealed note. This new note elaborates on the player's situation: his memory was erased with a special serum and they were placed into hiding for his protection. The note hints that if the player wants to know his real identity they must retrieve his amulet from Eversleep Cemetery to the north. After retrieving the amulet from the coffin of the recently deceased aristocrat Adler Keldam, the writer asks the player to find a woman called Lilith who lives in Tangletree Forest, in the "Heart of the Woods" and show her the amulet.
Talking to the locals in Aridell reveals that the player is in Eastern Thaermore, a country that is currently at war with the Orakur, a race of underground dwellers. The war is being waged due to the theft of a prized jewel known as the "Crux of Ages", stolen from Bastion Spire, the capital of Thaermore. The Chancellor has ordered all soldiers underground to find the Orakur, leaving settlements to fend for themselves. With the Commonwealth Guards away, Goblins took advantage of the situation and destroyed the village of Elderhollow. They have also captured Grimmhold, a fortress which used to provide a safe path through Tangletree Forest to the other side.
When the player finds Lilith, she is willing to explain the purpose of the amulet: it is a key to "The Underground Repository", a secret vault where important people keep their valuables. Lilith points the player towards Blackwater, where the vault is located, and shows them her amulet to prove she is not lying. Arriving in Blackwater, the player discovers a secret passageway leading to the vault. The player opens the security box to find another sealed note along with the "Crux of Ages". The writer is revealed to be the player: they found the prized jewel while scavenging a goblin battleground along with his brother. A powerful Goblin Shaman by the name of "Gramuk" is using a technique called "Temporal Linking" to find the people who found the prized jewel. This was why the player's memory was erased: to protect them from Gramuk and his goblin horde. His brother was captured by the Goblins before he could erase his memory, and is being tortured at Vela, a once prosperous port city destroyed by the Goblins. The player believes Gramuk is influencing the Chancellor into making poor war decisions, allowing the Goblins to move deeper into Thaermore.
The player arrives in the goblin infested city of Vela and finds his brother, who begs the player to warn Erubor, a powerful wizard that resides in Shadowmirk (a secluded place of study for wizards), about Gramuk and the Goblin hordes. The player's brother will ask them to kill him to stop the pain. In Shadowmirk the player finds Erubor, who reveals that the Goblins stole the "Crux of Ages" and Gramuk manipulated the Chancellor into believing the Orakur were responsible. Erubor asks the player to venture into the Crakamir barrens and enter the Goblin Citadel, the heart of the enemy to stop Gramuk. The gate to Crakamir is locked, but the player can find alternative routes to the desert. Erubor tells them about four special keys that are required to go deeper into the citadel. The wizard already has one, which he hands to the player. Erubor explains that another key resides in a community of Giants near the Goblin Citadel. They are his allies, and Erubor tells their chieftain, Omar, of the player's coming. Omar proposes to hand over the key if the player recovers their former chieftain's skull from Thorndike, an abandoned hunting ground northeast of Blackwater. The other two keys are in the possession of Goblin Warlords: one in Vela and one in Grimmhold. Before the player leaves, Erubor tells them about a portal in the Citadel that was used to steal the "Crux of Ages", and that the player can use it to return the prized jewel to Bastion Spire.
If the player aids Omar, several Giants help them assault the entrance of the Goblin Citadel. Using the four Goblin Keys, the player is allowed to venture deeper into the Citadel. When the player enters Gramuk's lair, the Goblin Shaman will make them an offer: if they hand over the "Crux of Ages" and leave Thaermore, Gramuk will give the player enough gold to last them a lifetime. If the player accepts, Gramuk keeps his word and Thaermore falls to the Goblin hordes. If the player refuses, Gramuk attacks. Mortally wounding Gramuk causes him to transform into a Dirachnid (a massive spider) and the battle continues. Gramuk falls before the player, giving access to the secret portal to Bastion Spire. Entering the portal, the player can either return the "Crux of Ages" and allow Thaermore to recover, or murder the Chancellor while he is vulnerable. If the player returns the prized jewel, the Chancellor will wake up from his nightmare and he and the player share a short conversation before the ending cinematic.
Versions
Eschalon: Book I is available as a direct download or as a CD version. The CD version of Eschalon: Book I was originally only available for Windows, and included the following extras:
High resolution digital map of Thaermore
Extended music track of the main theme
Teaser Trailer formatted for Windows Media Player and DivX
Seven unique screenshots with notes following the progress of Eschalon: Book I
Thomas Reigsecker announced on January 14, 2008, that future CD versions would include all three platforms (Windows, Macintosh and Linux). There are two differences between the new CD version and the original: a "slightly altered DVD jacket, and the disc itself has a green gradient instead of the tan gradient of the Windows-only disc". The extras remain the same.
Reception
Eschalon: Book I has generally received favorable reviews from gaming critics, scoring 75% at Metacritic from four reviews. Macworld awarded the game 3.5/5, claiming that "Eschalon: Book I is a great attempt at an 'old school' role-playing game that's worth playing, and definitely worth the download time." RPG Codex gave Book I a positive review and praised the music in particular: "It's a perfect soundtrack for the depicted locations, sets the mood properly and, while the number of tracks is quite small, manages not to become boring." A common criticism from gamers that Riegsecker himself admits is the shortness of the game, with most players finishing Book I in under twenty hours. GameBanshee selected Eschalon: Book I as runner-up for its 2007 "Independent RPG of the Year" award. In a September 2009 interview, Riegsecker revealed that sales were 25% higher than originally projected, and that about a year after the game's release they saw a profit. He also broke down the games sales by platform: 48% Windows, 42% Macintosh, and 10% Linux. Linux Format reviewed the game and gave it a score of 7/10.
Expansion
On November 24, 2007, Riegsecker mentioned the possibility of a free add-on where the player is allowed to travel to Ash Island, an inaccessible area. On February 8, 2008, Riegsecker announced that the add-on had taken a back seat to development of the next installment of the Eschalon series (Eschalon: Book II) due to technical problems. The expansion was planned to add another four to five hours of gameplay and would have been independent from the main storyline.
Notes
External links
Official Eschalon: Book I website
Teaser Trailer at Strategy Informer
2007 video games
Role-playing video games
Fantasy video games
Indie video games
Windows games
MacOS games
Linux games
Video games developed in the United States
Video games with isometric graphics
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boolean%20algebra
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Boolean algebra
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In mathematics and mathematical logic, Boolean algebra is the branch of algebra in which the values of the variables are the truth values true and false, usually denoted 1 and 0, respectively. Instead of elementary algebra, where the values of the variables are numbers and the prime operations are addition and multiplication, the main operations of Boolean algebra are the conjunction (and) denoted as ∧, the disjunction (or) denoted as ∨, and the negation (not) denoted as ¬. It is thus a formalism for describing logical operations, in the same way that elementary algebra describes numerical operations.
Boolean algebra was introduced by George Boole in his first book The Mathematical Analysis of Logic (1847), and set forth more fully in his An Investigation of the Laws of Thought (1854).
According to Huntington, the term "Boolean algebra" was first suggested by Sheffer in 1913, although Charles Sanders Peirce gave the title "A Boolean Algebra with One Constant" to the first chapter of his "The Simplest Mathematics" in 1880.
Boolean algebra has been fundamental in the development of digital electronics, and is provided for in all modern programming languages. It is also used in set theory and statistics.
History
A precursor of Boolean algebra was Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz's algebra of concepts. Leibniz's algebra of concepts is deductively equivalent to the Boolean algebra of sets.
Boole's algebra predated the modern developments in abstract algebra and mathematical logic; it is however seen as connected to the origins of both fields. In an abstract setting, Boolean algebra was perfected in the late 19th century by Jevons, Schröder, Huntington and others, until it reached the modern conception of an (abstract) mathematical structure. For example, the empirical observation that one can manipulate expressions in the algebra of sets, by translating them into expressions in Boole's algebra, is explained in modern terms by saying that the algebra of sets is a Boolean algebra (note the indefinite article). In fact, M. H. Stone proved in 1936 that every Boolean algebra is isomorphic to a field of sets.
In the 1930s, while studying switching circuits, Claude Shannon observed that one could also apply the rules of Boole's algebra in this setting, and he introduced switching algebra as a way to analyze and design circuits by algebraic means in terms of logic gates. Shannon already had at his disposal the abstract mathematical apparatus, thus he cast his switching algebra as the two-element Boolean algebra. In modern circuit engineering settings, there is little need to consider other Boolean algebras, thus "switching algebra" and "Boolean algebra" are often used interchangeably.
Efficient implementation of Boolean functions is a fundamental problem in the design of combinational logic circuits. Modern electronic design automation tools for VLSI circuits often rely on an efficient representation of Boolean functions known as (reduced ordered) binary decision diagrams (BDD) for logic synthesis and formal verification.
Logic sentences that can be expressed in classical propositional calculus have an equivalent expression in Boolean algebra. Thus, Boolean logic is sometimes used to denote propositional calculus performed in this way. Boolean algebra is not sufficient to capture logic formulas using quantifiers, like those from first order logic.
Although the development of mathematical logic did not follow Boole's program, the connection between his algebra and logic was later put on firm ground in the setting of algebraic logic, which also studies the algebraic systems of many other logics. The problem of determining whether the variables of a given Boolean (propositional) formula can be assigned in such a way as to make the formula evaluate to true is called the Boolean satisfiability problem (SAT), and is of importance to theoretical computer science, being the first problem shown to be NP-complete. The closely related model of computation known as a Boolean circuit relates time complexity (of an algorithm) to circuit complexity.
Values
Whereas expressions denote mainly numbers in elementary algebra, in Boolean algebra, they denote the truth values false and true. These values are represented with the bits (or binary digits), namely 0 and 1. They do not behave like the integers 0 and 1, for which , but may be identified with the elements of the two-element field GF(2), that is, integer arithmetic modulo 2, for which . Addition and multiplication then play the Boolean roles of XOR (exclusive-or) and AND (conjunction), respectively, with disjunction (inclusive-or) definable as and negation as . In GF(2), may be replaced by , since they denote the same operation; however this way of writing Boolean operations allows applying the usual arithmetic operations of integers (this may be useful when using a programming language in which GF(2) is not implemented).
Boolean algebra also deals with functions which have their values in the set {0, 1}.
A sequence of bits is a commonly used for such functions. Another common example is the subsets of a set E: to a subset F of E, one can define the indicator function that takes the value 1 on F, and 0 outside F. The most general example is the elements of a Boolean algebra, with all of the foregoing being instances thereof.
As with elementary algebra, the purely equational part of the theory may be developed, without considering explicit values for the variables.
Operations
Basic operations
The basic operations of Boolean algebra are conjunction, disjunction, and negation. These Boolean operations are expressed with the corresponding binary operators AND, and OR and the unary operator NOT, collectively referred to as Boolean operators.
The basic Boolean operations on variables x and y are defined as follows:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
|-
!Logical operation
!Operator
!Notation
!Alternative notations
!Definition
|-
|Conjunction
|AND
|x∧y
|x AND y, Kxy
|x∧y = 1 if x = y = 1, x∧y = 0 otherwise
|-
|Disjunction
|OR
|x∨y
|x OR y, Axy
|x∨y = 0 if x = y = 0, x∨y = 1 otherwise
|-
|Negation
|NOT
|¬x
|NOT x, Nx, x̅, x, !x
|¬x = 0 if x = 1, ¬x = 1 if x = 0
|}
Alternatively the values of x∧y, x∨y, and ¬x can be expressed by tabulating their values with truth tables as follows:
If the truth values 0 and 1 are interpreted as integers, these operations may be expressed with the ordinary operations of arithmetic (where x + y uses addition and xy uses multiplication), or by the minimum/maximum functions:
One might consider that only negation and one of the two other operations are basic, because of the following identities that allow one to define conjunction in terms of negation and the disjunction, and vice versa (De Morgan's laws):
Secondary operations
The three Boolean operations described above are referred to as basic, meaning that they can be taken as a basis for other Boolean operations that can be built up from them by composition, the manner in which operations are combined or compounded. Operations composed from the basic operations include the following examples:
These definitions give rise to the following truth tables giving the values of these operations for all four possible inputs.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
|+Secondary operations. Table 1
|-
!
!
!
!
!
|-
!0
!0
| 1 || 0 || 1
|-
!1
!0
|0 || 1 || 0
|-
!0
!1
|1 || 1 || 0
|-
!1
!1
| 1 || 0 || 1
|}
Material conditional The first operation, x → y, or Cxy, is called material implication. If x is true, then the result of expression x → y is taken to be that of y (e.g. if x is true and y is false, then x → y is also false). But if x is false, then the value of y can be ignored; however, the operation must return some boolean value and there are only two choices. So by definition, x → y is true when x is false. (relevance logic suggests this definition, by viewing an implication with a false premise as something other than either true or false.)
Exclusive OR (XOR)
The second operation, x ⊕ y, or Jxy, is called exclusive or (often abbreviated as XOR) to distinguish it from disjunction as the inclusive kind. It excludes the possibility of both x and y being true (e.g. see table): if both are true then result is false. Defined in terms of arithmetic it is addition where mod 2 is 1 + 1 = 0.
Logical equivalence The third operation, the complement of exclusive or, is equivalence or Boolean equality: x ≡ y, or Exy, is true just when x and y have the same value. Hence x ⊕ y as its complement can be understood as x ≠ y, being true just when x and y are different. Thus, its counterpart in arithmetic mod 2 is x + y. Equivalence's counterpart in arithmetic mod 2 is x + y + 1.
Given two operands, each with two possible values, there are 22 = 4 possible combinations of inputs. Because each output can have two possible values, there are a total of 24 = 16 possible binary Boolean operations. Any such operation or function (as well as any Boolean function with more inputs) can be expressed with the basic operations from above. Hence the basic operations are functionally complete.
Laws
A law of Boolean algebra is an identity such as between two Boolean terms, where a Boolean term is defined as an expression built up from variables and the constants 0 and 1 using the operations ∧, ∨, and ¬. The concept can be extended to terms involving other Boolean operations such as ⊕, →, and ≡, but such extensions are unnecessary for the purposes to which the laws are put. Such purposes include the definition of a Boolean algebra as any model of the Boolean laws, and as a means for deriving new laws from old as in the derivation of from (as treated in ).
Monotone laws
Boolean algebra satisfies many of the same laws as ordinary algebra when one matches up ∨ with addition and ∧ with multiplication. In particular the following laws are common to both kinds of algebra:
{|
|-
| Associativity of : ||style="width:2em"| ||style="text-align: right"| ||
|-
| Associativity of : || ||style="text-align: right"| ||
|-
| Commutativity of : || ||style="text-align: right"| ||
|-
| Commutativity of : || ||style="text-align: right"| ||
|-
| Distributivity of over : || ||style="text-align: right"| ||
|-
| Identity for : || ||style="text-align: right"| ||
|-
| Identity for : || ||style="text-align: right"| ||
|-
| Annihilator for : || ||style="text-align: right"| ||
|-
|}
The following laws hold in Boolean algebra, but not in ordinary algebra:
{|
|- Annihilator for : || ||style="text-align: right"| ||
|-
|Annihilator for : || ||style="text-align: right"|
|
|-
| Idempotence of : || ||style="text-align: right"| ||
|-
| Idempotence of : || ||style="text-align: right"| ||
|-
| Absorption 1: || ||style="text-align: right"| ||
|-
| Absorption 2: || ||style="text-align: right"| ||
|-
|Distributivity of over :
|
|
|
|-
| Distributivity of over : |
|}
Taking in the third law above shows that it is not an ordinary algebra law, since . The remaining five laws can be falsified in ordinary algebra by taking all variables to be 1. For example, in Absorption Law 1, the left hand side would be , while the right hand side would be 1 (and so on).
All of the laws treated thus far have been for conjunction and disjunction. These operations have the property that changing either argument either leaves the output unchanged, or the output changes in the same way as the input. Equivalently, changing any variable from 0 to 1 never results in the output changing from 1 to 0. Operations with this property are said to be monotone. Thus the axioms thus far have all been for monotonic Boolean logic. Nonmonotonicity enters via complement ¬ as follows.
Nonmonotone laws
The complement operation is defined by the following two laws.
All properties of negation including the laws below follow from the above two laws alone.
In both ordinary and Boolean algebra, negation works by exchanging pairs of elements, whence in both algebras it satisfies the double negation law (also called involution law)
But whereas ordinary algebra satisfies the two laws
Boolean algebra satisfies De Morgan's laws:
Completeness
The laws listed above define Boolean algebra, in the sense that they entail the rest of the subject. The laws Complementation 1 and 2, together with the monotone laws, suffice for this purpose and can therefore be taken as one possible complete set of laws or axiomatization of Boolean algebra. Every law of Boolean algebra follows logically from these axioms. Furthermore, Boolean algebras can then be defined as the models of these axioms as treated in .
To clarify, writing down further laws of Boolean algebra cannot give rise to any new consequences of these axioms, nor can it rule out any model of them. In contrast, in a list of some but not all of the same laws, there could have been Boolean laws that did not follow from those on the list, and moreover there would have been models of the listed laws that were not Boolean algebras.
This axiomatization is by no means the only one, or even necessarily the most natural given that we did not pay attention to whether some of the axioms followed from others but simply chose to stop when we noticed we had enough laws, treated further in . Or the intermediate notion of axiom can be sidestepped altogether by defining a Boolean law directly as any tautology, understood as an equation that holds for all values of its variables over 0 and 1.* All these definitions of Boolean algebra can be shown to be equivalent.
Duality principle
Principle: If {X, R} is a poset, then {X, R(inverse)} is also a poset.
There is nothing magical about the choice of symbols for the values of Boolean algebra. We could rename 0 and 1 to say α and β, and as long as we did so consistently throughout it would still be Boolean algebra, albeit with some obvious cosmetic differences.
But suppose we rename 0 and 1 to 1 and 0 respectively. Then it would still be Boolean algebra, and moreover operating on the same values. However it would not be identical to our original Boolean algebra because now we find ∨ behaving the way ∧ used to do and vice versa. So there are still some cosmetic differences to show that we've been fiddling with the notation, despite the fact that we're still using 0s and 1s.
But if in addition to interchanging the names of the values we also interchange the names of the two binary operations, now there is no trace of what we have done. The end product is completely indistinguishable from what we started with. We might notice that the columns for and in the truth tables had changed places, but that switch is immaterial.
When values and operations can be paired up in a way that leaves everything important unchanged when all pairs are switched simultaneously, we call the members of each pair dual to each other. Thus 0 and 1 are dual, and ∧ and ∨ are dual. The Duality Principle, also called De Morgan duality, asserts that Boolean algebra is unchanged when all dual pairs are interchanged.
One change we did not need to make as part of this interchange was to complement. We say that complement is a self-dual operation. The identity or do-nothing operation x (copy the input to the output) is also self-dual. A more complicated example of a self-dual operation is . There is no self-dual binary operation that depends on both its arguments. A composition of self-dual operations is a self-dual operation. For example, if , then is a self-dual operation of four arguments x, y, z, t.
The principle of duality can be explained from a group theory perspective by the fact that there are exactly four functions that are one-to-one mappings (automorphisms) of the set of Boolean polynomials back to itself: the identity function, the complement function, the dual function and the contradual function (complemented dual). These four functions form a group under function composition, isomorphic to the Klein four-group, acting on the set of Boolean polynomials. Walter Gottschalk remarked that consequently a more appropriate name for the phenomenon would be the principle (or square) of quaternality.
Diagrammatic representations
Venn diagrams
A Venn diagram can be used as a representation of a Boolean operation using shaded overlapping regions. There is one region for each variable, all circular in the examples here. The interior and exterior of region x corresponds respectively to the values 1 (true) and 0 (false) for variable x. The shading indicates the value of the operation for each combination of regions, with dark denoting 1 and light 0 (some authors use the opposite convention).
The three Venn diagrams in the figure below represent respectively conjunction x∧y, disjunction x∨y, and complement ¬x.
For conjunction, the region inside both circles is shaded to indicate that x∧y is 1 when both variables are 1. The other regions are left unshaded to indicate that x∧y is 0 for the other three combinations.
The second diagram represents disjunction x∨y by shading those regions that lie inside either or both circles. The third diagram represents complement ¬x by shading the region not inside the circle.
While we have not shown the Venn diagrams for the constants 0 and 1, they are trivial, being respectively a white box and a dark box, neither one containing a circle. However we could put a circle for x in those boxes, in which case each would denote a function of one argument, x, which returns the same value independently of x, called a constant function. As far as their outputs are concerned, constants and constant functions are indistinguishable; the difference is that a constant takes no arguments, called a zeroary or nullary operation, while a constant function takes one argument, which it ignores, and is a unary operation.
Venn diagrams are helpful in visualizing laws. The commutativity laws for ∧ and ∨ can be seen from the symmetry of the diagrams: a binary operation that was not commutative would not have a symmetric diagram because interchanging x and y would have the effect of reflecting the diagram horizontally and any failure of commutativity would then appear as a failure of symmetry.
Idempotence of ∧ and ∨ can be visualized by sliding the two circles together and noting that the shaded area then becomes the whole circle, for both ∧ and ∨.
To see the first absorption law, x∧(x∨y) = x, start with the diagram in the middle for x∨y and note that the portion of the shaded area in common with the x circle is the whole of the x circle. For the second absorption law, x∨(x∧y) = x, start with the left diagram for x∧y and note that shading the whole of the x circle results in just the x circle being shaded, since the previous shading was inside the x circle.
The double negation law can be seen by complementing the shading in the third diagram for ¬x, which shades the x circle.
To visualize the first De Morgan's law, (¬x)∧(¬y) = ¬(x∨y), start with the middle diagram for x∨y and complement its shading so that only the region outside both circles is shaded, which is what the right hand side of the law describes. The result is the same as if we shaded that region which is both outside the x circle and outside the y circle, i.e. the conjunction of their exteriors, which is what the left hand side of the law describes.
The second De Morgan's law, (¬x)∨(¬y) = ¬(x∧y), works the same way with the two diagrams interchanged.
The first complement law, x∧¬x = 0, says that the interior and exterior of the x circle have no overlap. The second complement law, x∨¬x = 1, says that everything is either inside or outside the x circle.
Digital logic gates
Digital logic is the application of the Boolean algebra of 0 and 1 to electronic hardware consisting of logic gates connected to form a circuit diagram. Each gate implements a Boolean operation, and is depicted schematically by a shape indicating the operation. The shapes associated with the gates for conjunction (AND-gates), disjunction (OR-gates), and complement (inverters) are as follows.
The lines on the left of each gate represent input wires or ports. The value of the input is represented by a voltage on the lead. For so-called "active-high" logic, 0 is represented by a voltage close to zero or "ground", while 1 is represented by a voltage close to the supply voltage; active-low reverses this. The line on the right of each gate represents the output port, which normally follows the same voltage conventions as the input ports.
Complement is implemented with an inverter gate. The triangle denotes the operation that simply copies the input to the output; the small circle on the output denotes the actual inversion complementing the input. The convention of putting such a circle on any port means that the signal passing through this port is complemented on the way through, whether it is an input or output port.
The Duality Principle, or De Morgan's laws, can be understood as asserting that complementing all three ports of an AND gate converts it to an OR gate and vice versa, as shown in Figure 4 below. Complementing both ports of an inverter however leaves the operation unchanged.
More generally one may complement any of the eight subsets of the three ports of either an AND or OR gate. The resulting sixteen possibilities give rise to only eight Boolean operations, namely those with an odd number of 1's in their truth table. There are eight such because the "odd-bit-out" can be either 0 or 1 and can go in any of four positions in the truth table. There being sixteen binary Boolean operations, this must leave eight operations with an even number of 1's in their truth tables. Two of these are the constants 0 and 1 (as binary operations that ignore both their inputs); four are the operations that depend nontrivially on exactly one of their two inputs, namely x, y, ¬x, and ¬y; and the remaining two are x⊕y (XOR) and its complement x≡y.
Boolean algebras
The term "algebra" denotes both a subject, namely the subject of algebra, and an object, namely an algebraic structure. Whereas the foregoing has addressed the subject of Boolean algebra, this section deals with mathematical objects called Boolean algebras, defined in full generality as any model of the Boolean laws. We begin with a special case of the notion definable without reference to the laws, namely concrete Boolean algebras, and then give the formal definition of the general notion.
Concrete Boolean algebras
A concrete Boolean algebra or field of sets is any nonempty set of subsets of a given set X closed under the set operations of union, intersection, and complement relative to X.
(As an aside, historically X itself was required to be nonempty as well to exclude the degenerate or one-element Boolean algebra, which is the one exception to the rule that all Boolean algebras satisfy the same equations since the degenerate algebra satisfies every equation. However this exclusion conflicts with the preferred purely equational definition of "Boolean algebra", there being no way to rule out the one-element algebra using only equations— 0 ≠ 1 does not count, being a negated equation. Hence modern authors allow the degenerate Boolean algebra and let X be empty.)Example 1. The power set 2X of X, consisting of all subsets of X. Here X may be any set: empty, finite, infinite, or even uncountable.Example 2. The empty set and X. This two-element algebra shows that a concrete Boolean algebra can be finite even when it consists of subsets of an infinite set. It can be seen that every field of subsets of X must contain the empty set and X. Hence no smaller example is possible, other than the degenerate algebra obtained by taking X to be empty so as to make the empty set and X coincide.Example 3. The set of finite and cofinite sets of integers, where a cofinite set is one omitting only finitely many integers. This is clearly closed under complement, and is closed under union because the union of a cofinite set with any set is cofinite, while the union of two finite sets is finite. Intersection behaves like union with "finite" and "cofinite" interchanged.Example 4. For a less trivial example of the point made by Example 2, consider a Venn diagram formed by n closed curves partitioning the diagram into 2n regions, and let X be the (infinite) set of all points in the plane not on any curve but somewhere within the diagram. The interior of each region is thus an infinite subset of X, and every point in X is in exactly one region. Then the set of all 22n possible unions of regions (including the empty set obtained as the union of the empty set of regions and X obtained as the union of all 2n regions) is closed under union, intersection, and complement relative to X and therefore forms a concrete Boolean algebra. Again we have finitely many subsets of an infinite set forming a concrete Boolean algebra, with Example 2 arising as the case n = 0 of no curves.
Subsets as bit vectors
A subset Y of X can be identified with an indexed family of bits with index set X, with the bit indexed by x ∈ X being 1 or 0 according to whether or not x ∈ Y. (This is the so-called characteristic function notion of a subset.) For example, a 32-bit computer word consists of 32 bits indexed by the set {0,1,2,...,31}, with 0 and 31 indexing the low and high order bits respectively. For a smaller example, if X = {a,b,c} where a, b, c are viewed as bit positions in that order from left to right, the eight subsets {}, {c}, {b}, {b,c}, {a}, {a,c}, {a,b}, and {a,b,c} of X can be identified with the respective bit vectors 000, 001, 010, 011, 100, 101, 110, and 111. Bit vectors indexed by the set of natural numbers are infinite sequences of bits, while those indexed by the reals in the unit interval [0,1] are packed too densely to be able to write conventionally but nonetheless form well-defined indexed families (imagine coloring every point of the interval [0,1] either black or white independently; the black points then form an arbitrary subset of [0,1]).
From this bit vector viewpoint, a concrete Boolean algebra can be defined equivalently as a nonempty set of bit vectors all of the same length (more generally, indexed by the same set) and closed under the bit vector operations of bitwise ∧, ∨, and ¬, as in 1010∧0110 = 0010, 1010∨0110 = 1110, and ¬1010 = 0101, the bit vector realizations of intersection, union, and complement respectively.
The prototypical Boolean algebra
The set {0,1} and its Boolean operations as treated above can be understood as the special case of bit vectors of length one, which by the identification of bit vectors with subsets can also be understood as the two subsets of a one-element set. We call this the prototypical Boolean algebra, justified by the following observation.
The laws satisfied by all nondegenerate concrete Boolean algebras coincide with those satisfied by the prototypical Boolean algebra.
This observation is easily proved as follows. Certainly any law satisfied by all concrete Boolean algebras is satisfied by the prototypical one since it is concrete. Conversely any law that fails for some concrete Boolean algebra must have failed at a particular bit position, in which case that position by itself furnishes a one-bit counterexample to that law. Nondegeneracy ensures the existence of at least one bit position because there is only one empty bit vector.
The final goal of the next section can be understood as eliminating "concrete" from the above observation. We shall however reach that goal via the surprisingly stronger observation that, up to isomorphism, all Boolean algebras are concrete.
Boolean algebras: the definition
The Boolean algebras we have seen so far have all been concrete, consisting of bit vectors or equivalently of subsets of some set. Such a Boolean algebra consists of a set and operations on that set which can be shown to satisfy the laws of Boolean algebra.
Instead of showing that the Boolean laws are satisfied, we can instead postulate a set X, two binary operations on X, and one unary operation, and require that those operations satisfy the laws of Boolean algebra. The elements of X need not be bit vectors or subsets but can be anything at all. This leads to the more general abstract definition.
A Boolean algebra is any set with binary operations ∧ and ∨ and a unary operation ¬ thereon satisfying the Boolean laws.
For the purposes of this definition it is irrelevant how the operations came to satisfy the laws, whether by fiat or proof. All concrete Boolean algebras satisfy the laws (by proof rather than fiat), whence every concrete Boolean algebra is a Boolean algebra according to our definitions. This axiomatic definition of a Boolean algebra as a set and certain operations satisfying certain laws or axioms by fiat is entirely analogous to the abstract definitions of group, ring, field etc. characteristic of modern or abstract algebra.
Given any complete axiomatization of Boolean algebra, such as the axioms for a complemented distributive lattice, a sufficient condition for an algebraic structure of this kind to satisfy all the Boolean laws is that it satisfy just those axioms. The following is therefore an equivalent definition.
A Boolean algebra is a complemented distributive lattice.
The section on axiomatization lists other axiomatizations, any of which can be made the basis of an equivalent definition.
Representable Boolean algebras
Although every concrete Boolean algebra is a Boolean algebra, not every Boolean algebra need be concrete. Let n be a square-free positive integer, one not divisible by the square of an integer, for example 30 but not 12. The operations of greatest common divisor, least common multiple, and division into n (that is, ¬x = n/x), can be shown to satisfy all the Boolean laws when their arguments range over the positive divisors of n. Hence those divisors form a Boolean algebra. These divisors are not subsets of a set, making the divisors of n a Boolean algebra that is not concrete according to our definitions.
However, if we represent each divisor of n by the set of its prime factors, we find that this nonconcrete Boolean algebra is isomorphic to the concrete Boolean algebra consisting of all sets of prime factors of n, with union corresponding to least common multiple, intersection to greatest common divisor, and complement to division into n. So this example while not technically concrete is at least "morally" concrete via this representation, called an isomorphism. This example is an instance of the following notion.
A Boolean algebra is called representable when it is isomorphic to a concrete Boolean algebra.
The obvious next question is answered positively as follows.
Every Boolean algebra is representable.
That is, up to isomorphism, abstract and concrete Boolean algebras are the same thing. This quite nontrivial result depends on the Boolean prime ideal theorem, a choice principle slightly weaker than the axiom of choice, and is treated in more detail in the article Stone's representation theorem for Boolean algebras. This strong relationship implies a weaker result strengthening the observation in the previous subsection to the following easy consequence of representability.
The laws satisfied by all Boolean algebras coincide with those satisfied by the prototypical Boolean algebra.
It is weaker in the sense that it does not of itself imply representability. Boolean algebras are special here, for example a relation algebra is a Boolean algebra with additional structure but it is not the case that every relation algebra is representable in the sense appropriate to relation algebras.
Axiomatizing Boolean algebra
The above definition of an abstract Boolean algebra as a set and operations satisfying "the" Boolean laws raises the question, what are those laws? A simple-minded answer is "all Boolean laws", which can be defined as all equations that hold for the Boolean algebra of 0 and 1. Since there are infinitely many such laws this is not a terribly satisfactory answer in practice, leading to the next question: does it suffice to require only finitely many laws to hold?
In the case of Boolean algebras the answer is yes. In particular the finitely many equations we have listed above suffice. We say that Boolean algebra is finitely axiomatizable or finitely based.Can this list be made shorter yet? Again the answer is yes. To begin with, some of the above laws are implied by some of the others. A sufficient subset of the above laws consists of the pairs of associativity, commutativity, and absorption laws, distributivity of ∧ over ∨ (or the other distributivity law—one suffices), and the two complement laws. In fact this is the traditional axiomatization of Boolean algebra as a complemented distributive lattice.
By introducing additional laws not listed above it becomes possible to shorten the list yet further; for instance, with the vertical bar representing the Sheffer stroke operation, the single axiom is sufficient to completely axiomatize Boolean algebra. It is also possible to find longer single axioms using more conventional operations; see Minimal axioms for Boolean algebra.
Propositional logicPropositional logic is a logical system that is intimately connected to Boolean algebra. Many syntactic concepts of Boolean algebra carry over to propositional logic with only minor changes in notation and terminology, while the semantics of propositional logic are defined via Boolean algebras in a way that the tautologies (theorems) of propositional logic correspond to equational theorems of Boolean algebra.
Syntactically, every Boolean term corresponds to a propositional formula of propositional logic. In this translation between Boolean algebra and propositional logic, Boolean variables x,y... become propositional variables (or atoms) P,Q,..., Boolean terms such as x∨y become propositional formulas P∨Q, 0 becomes false or ⊥, and 1 becomes true or T. It is convenient when referring to generic propositions to use Greek letters Φ, Ψ,... as metavariables (variables outside the language of propositional calculus, used when talking about propositional calculus) to denote propositions.
The semantics of propositional logic rely on truth assignments. The essential idea of a truth assignment is that the propositional variables are mapped to elements of a fixed Boolean algebra, and then the truth value of a propositional formula using these letters is the element of the Boolean algebra that is obtained by computing the value of the Boolean term corresponding to the formula. In classical semantics, only the two-element Boolean algebra is used, while in Boolean-valued semantics arbitrary Boolean algebras are considered. A tautology is a propositional formula that is assigned truth value 1 by every truth assignment of its propositional variables to an arbitrary Boolean algebra (or, equivalently, every truth assignment to the two element Boolean algebra).
These semantics permit a translation between tautologies of propositional logic and equational theorems of Boolean algebra. Every tautology Φ of propositional logic can be expressed as the Boolean equation Φ = 1, which will be a theorem of Boolean algebra. Conversely every theorem Φ = Ψ of Boolean algebra corresponds to the tautologies (Φ∨¬Ψ) ∧ (¬Φ∨Ψ) and (Φ∧Ψ) ∨ (¬Φ∧¬Ψ). If → is in the language these last tautologies can also be written as (Φ→Ψ) ∧ (Ψ→Φ), or as two separate theorems Φ→Ψ and Ψ→Φ; if ≡ is available then the single tautology Φ ≡ Ψ can be used.
Applications
One motivating application of propositional calculus is the analysis of propositions and deductive arguments in natural language. Whereas the proposition "if x = 3 then x+1 = 4" depends on the meanings of such symbols as + and 1, the proposition "if x = 3 then x = 3" does not; it is true merely by virtue of its structure, and remains true whether "x = 3" is replaced by "x = 4" or "the moon is made of green cheese." The generic or abstract form of this tautology is "if P then P", or in the language of Boolean algebra, "P → P".
Replacing P by x = 3 or any other proposition is called instantiation of P by that proposition. The result of instantiating P in an abstract proposition is called an instance of the proposition. Thus "x = 3 → x = 3" is a tautology by virtue of being an instance of the abstract tautology "P → P". All occurrences of the instantiated variable must be instantiated with the same proposition, to avoid such nonsense as P → x = 3 or x = 3 → x = 4.
Propositional calculus restricts attention to abstract propositions, those built up from propositional variables using Boolean operations. Instantiation is still possible within propositional calculus, but only by instantiating propositional variables by abstract propositions, such as instantiating Q by Q→P in P→(Q→P) to yield the instance P→((Q→P)→P).
(The availability of instantiation as part of the machinery of propositional calculus avoids the need for metavariables within the language of propositional calculus, since ordinary propositional variables can be considered within the language to denote arbitrary propositions. The metavariables themselves are outside the reach of instantiation, not being part of the language of propositional calculus but rather part of the same language for talking about it that this sentence is written in, where we need to be able to distinguish propositional variables and their instantiations as being distinct syntactic entities.)
Deductive systems for propositional logic
An axiomatization of propositional calculus is a set of tautologies called axioms and one or more inference rules for producing new tautologies from old. A proof in an axiom system A is a finite nonempty sequence of propositions each of which is either an instance of an axiom of A or follows by some rule of A from propositions appearing earlier in the proof (thereby disallowing circular reasoning). The last proposition is the theorem proved by the proof. Every nonempty initial segment of a proof is itself a proof, whence every proposition in a proof is itself a theorem. An axiomatization is sound when every theorem is a tautology, and complete''' when every tautology is a theorem.
Sequent calculus
Propositional calculus is commonly organized as a Hilbert system, whose operations are just those of Boolean algebra and whose theorems are Boolean tautologies, those Boolean terms equal to the Boolean constant 1. Another form is sequent calculus, which has two sorts, propositions as in ordinary propositional calculus, and pairs of lists of propositions called sequents, such as A∨B, A∧C,... A, B→C,.... The two halves of a sequent are called the antecedent and the succedent respectively. The customary metavariable denoting an antecedent or part thereof is Γ, and for a succedent Δ; thus Γ,A Δ would denote a sequent whose succedent is a list Δ and whose antecedent is a list Γ with an additional proposition A appended after it. The antecedent is interpreted as the conjunction of its propositions, the succedent as the disjunction of its propositions, and the sequent itself as the entailment of the succedent by the antecedent.
Entailment differs from implication in that whereas the latter is a binary operation that returns a value in a Boolean algebra, the former is a binary relation which either holds or does not hold. In this sense entailment is an external form of implication, meaning external to the Boolean algebra, thinking of the reader of the sequent as also being external and interpreting and comparing antecedents and succedents in some Boolean algebra. The natural interpretation of is as ≤ in the partial order of the Boolean algebra defined by x ≤ y just when x∨y = y. This ability to mix external implication and internal implication → in the one logic is among the essential differences between sequent calculus and propositional calculus.
Applications
Boolean algebra as the calculus of two values is fundamental to computer circuits, computer programming, and mathematical logic, and is also used in other areas of mathematics such as set theory and statistics.
Computers
In the early 20th century, several electrical engineers intuitively recognized that Boolean algebra was analogous to the behavior of certain types of electrical circuits. Claude Shannon formally proved such behavior was logically equivalent to Boolean algebra in his 1937 master's thesis, A Symbolic Analysis of Relay and Switching Circuits.
Today, all modern general purpose computers perform their functions using two-value Boolean logic; that is, their electrical circuits are a physical manifestation of two-value Boolean logic. They achieve this in various ways: as voltages on wires in high-speed circuits and capacitive storage devices, as orientations of a magnetic domain in ferromagnetic storage devices, as holes in punched cards or paper tape, and so on. (Some early computers used decimal circuits or mechanisms instead of two-valued logic circuits.)
Of course, it is possible to code more than two symbols in any given medium. For example, one might use respectively 0, 1, 2, and 3 volts to code a four-symbol alphabet on a wire, or holes of different sizes in a punched card. In practice, the tight constraints of high speed, small size, and low power combine to make noise a major factor. This makes it hard to distinguish between symbols when there are several possible symbols that could occur at a single site. Rather than attempting to distinguish between four voltages on one wire, digital designers have settled on two voltages per wire, high and low.
Computers use two-value Boolean circuits for the above reasons. The most common computer architectures use ordered sequences of Boolean values, called bits, of 32 or 64 values, e.g. 01101000110101100101010101001011. When programming in machine code, assembly language, and certain other programming languages, programmers work with the low-level digital structure of the data registers. These registers operate on voltages, where zero volts represents Boolean 0, and a reference voltage (often +5 V, +3.3 V, +1.8 V) represents Boolean 1. Such languages support both numeric operations and logical operations. In this context, "numeric" means that the computer treats sequences of bits as binary numbers (base two numbers) and executes arithmetic operations like add, subtract, multiply, or divide. "Logical" refers to the Boolean logical operations of disjunction, conjunction, and negation between two sequences of bits, in which each bit in one sequence is simply compared to its counterpart in the other sequence. Programmers therefore have the option of working in and applying the rules of either numeric algebra or Boolean algebra as needed. A core differentiating feature between these families of operations is the existence of the carry operation in the first but not the second.
Two-valued logic
Other areas where two values is a good choice are the law and mathematics. In everyday relaxed conversation, nuanced or complex answers such as "maybe" or "only on the weekend" are acceptable. In more focused situations such as a court of law or theorem-based mathematics however it is deemed advantageous to frame questions so as to admit a simple yes-or-no answer—is the defendant guilty or not guilty, is the proposition true or false—and to disallow any other answer. However much of a straitjacket this might prove in practice for the respondent, the principle of the simple yes-no question has become a central feature of both judicial and mathematical logic, making two-valued logic deserving of organization and study in its own right.
A central concept of set theory is membership. Now an organization may permit multiple degrees of membership, such as novice, associate, and full. With sets however an element is either in or out. The candidates for membership in a set work just like the wires in a digital computer: each candidate is either a member or a nonmember, just as each wire is either high or low.
Algebra being a fundamental tool in any area amenable to mathematical treatment, these considerations combine to make the algebra of two values of fundamental importance to computer hardware, mathematical logic, and set theory.
Two-valued logic can be extended to multi-valued logic, notably by replacing the Boolean domain {0, 1} with the unit interval [0,1], in which case rather than only taking values 0 or 1, any value between and including 0 and 1 can be assumed. Algebraically, negation (NOT) is replaced with 1 − x, conjunction (AND) is replaced with multiplication (), and disjunction (OR) is defined via De Morgan's law. Interpreting these values as logical truth values yields a multi-valued logic, which forms the basis for fuzzy logic and probabilistic logic. In these interpretations, a value is interpreted as the "degree" of truth – to what extent a proposition is true, or the probability that the proposition is true.
Boolean operations
The original application for Boolean operations was mathematical logic, where it combines the truth values, true or false, of individual formulas.
Natural language
Natural languages such as English have words for several Boolean operations, in particular conjunction (and), disjunction (or), negation (not), and implication (implies). But not is synonymous with and not. When used to combine situational assertions such as "the block is on the table" and "cats drink milk," which naively are either true or false, the meanings of these logical connectives often have the meaning of their logical counterparts. However, with descriptions of behavior such as "Jim walked through the door", one starts to notice differences such as failure of commutativity, for example the conjunction of "Jim opened the door" with "Jim walked through the door" in that order is not equivalent to their conjunction in the other order, since and usually means and then in such cases. Questions can be similar: the order "Is the sky blue, and why is the sky blue?" makes more sense than the reverse order. Conjunctive commands about behavior are like behavioral assertions, as in get dressed and go to school. Disjunctive commands such love me or leave me or fish or cut bait tend to be asymmetric via the implication that one alternative is less preferable. Conjoined nouns such as tea and milk generally describe aggregation as with set union while tea or milk is a choice. However context can reverse these senses, as in your choices are coffee and tea which usually means the same as your choices are coffee or tea (alternatives). Double negation as in "I don't not like milk" rarely means literally "I do like milk" but rather conveys some sort of hedging, as though to imply that there is a third possibility. "Not not P" can be loosely interpreted as "surely P", and although P necessarily implies "not not P" the converse is suspect in English, much as with intuitionistic logic. In view of the highly idiosyncratic usage of conjunctions in natural languages, Boolean algebra cannot be considered a reliable framework for interpreting them.
Digital logic
Boolean operations are used in digital logic to combine the bits carried on individual wires, thereby interpreting them over {0,1}. When a vector of n identical binary gates are used to combine two bit vectors each of n bits, the individual bit operations can be understood collectively as a single operation on values from a Boolean algebra with 2n elements.
Naive set theory
Naive set theory interprets Boolean operations as acting on subsets of a given set X. As we saw earlier this behavior exactly parallels the coordinate-wise combinations of bit vectors, with the union of two sets corresponding to the disjunction of two bit vectors and so on.
Video cards
The 256-element free Boolean algebra on three generators is deployed in computer displays based on raster graphics, which use bit blit to manipulate whole regions consisting of pixels, relying on Boolean operations to specify how the source region should be combined with the destination, typically with the help of a third region called the mask. Modern video cards offer all 223 = 256 ternary operations for this purpose, with the choice of operation being a one-byte (8-bit) parameter. The constants SRC = 0xaa or 10101010, DST = 0xcc or 11001100, and MSK = 0xf0 or 11110000 allow Boolean operations such as (SRC^DST)&MSK (meaning XOR the source and destination and then AND the result with the mask) to be written directly as a constant denoting a byte calculated at compile time, 0x80 in the (SRC^DST)&MSK example, 0x88 if just SRC^DST, etc. At run time the video card interprets the byte as the raster operation indicated by the original expression in a uniform way that requires remarkably little hardware and which takes time completely independent of the complexity of the expression.
Modeling and CAD
Solid modeling systems for computer aided design offer a variety of methods for building objects from other objects, combination by Boolean operations being one of them. In this method the space in which objects exist is understood as a set S of voxels (the three-dimensional analogue of pixels in two-dimensional graphics) and shapes are defined as subsets of S, allowing objects to be combined as sets via union, intersection, etc. One obvious use is in building a complex shape from simple shapes simply as the union of the latter. Another use is in sculpting understood as removal of material: any grinding, milling, routing, or drilling operation that can be performed with physical machinery on physical materials can be simulated on the computer with the Boolean operation x ∧ ¬y or x − y, which in set theory is set difference, remove the elements of y from those of x. Thus given two shapes one to be machined and the other the material to be removed, the result of machining the former to remove the latter is described simply as their set difference.
Boolean searches
Search engine queries also employ Boolean logic. For this application, each web page on the Internet may be considered to be an "element" of a "set". The following examples use a syntax supported by Google.
Doublequotes are used to combine whitespace-separated words into a single search term.
Whitespace is used to specify logical AND, as it is the default operator for joining search terms:
"Search term 1" "Search term 2"
The OR keyword is used for logical OR:
"Search term 1" OR "Search term 2"
A prefixed minus sign is used for logical NOT:
"Search term 1" −"Search term 2"
See also
Binary number
Boolean algebra (structure)
Boolean algebras canonically defined
Boolean differential calculus
Booleo
Heyting algebra
Intuitionistic logic
List of Boolean algebra topics
Logic design
Principia Mathematica Propositional calculus
Relation algebra
Three-valued logic
Vector logic
References
Sources
Further reading
Suitable introduction for students in applied fields.
Bocheński, Józef Maria (1959). A Précis of Mathematical Logic. Translated from the French and German editions by Otto Bird. Dordrecht, South Holland: D. Reidel.
Historical perspective
George Boole (1848). "The Calculus of Logic," Cambridge and Dublin Mathematical Journal III: 183–98.''
, several relevant chapters by Hailperin, Valencia, and Grattan-Guinness
, chapter 1, "Algebra of Classes and Propositional Calculus"
Burris, Stanley, 2009. The Algebra of Logic Tradition. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
External links
Boolean Algebra chapter on All About Circuits
How Stuff Works – Boolean Logic
Science and Technology - Boolean Algebra contains a list and proof of Boolean theorems and laws.
1847 introductions
Algebraic logic
Articles with example code
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stand-up%20meeting
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Stand-up meeting
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A stand-up meeting is a meeting in which attendees typically participate while standing. The discomfort of standing for long periods is intended to keep the meetings short.
Notable examples
By tradition, the Privy Council of the United Kingdom meets standing.
Software development
Some software development methodologies envision daily team meetings to make commitments to team members. The daily commitments allow participants to know about potential challenges as well as to coordinate efforts to resolve difficult or time-consuming issues. The stand-up has particular value in agile software development processes, such as scrum or Kanban, but can be utilized in context of any software-development methodology.
The meetings are usually timeboxed to between 5 and 15 minutes, and take place with participants standing up to remind people to keep the meeting short and to-the-point. The stand-up meeting is sometimes also referred to as the "stand-up" when doing extreme programming, "morning rollcall" or "daily scrum" when following the scrum framework.
The meeting should usually take place at the same time and place every working day. All team members are encouraged to attend, but the meetings are not postponed if some of the team members are not present. One of the crucial features is that the meeting is a communication opportunity among team members and not a status update to management or stakeholders. Although it is sometimes referred to as a type of status meeting, the structure of the meeting is meant to promote follow-up conversation, as well as to identify issues before they become too problematic. The practice also promotes closer working relationships in its frequency, need for follow-up conversations and short structure, which in turn result in a higher rate of knowledge transfer – a much more active intention than the typical status meeting. Team members take turns speaking, sometimes passing along a token to indicate the current person allowed to speak. Each member talks about progress since the last stand-up, the anticipated work until the next stand-up and any impediments, taking the opportunity to ask for help or collaborate.
Team members may sometimes ask for short clarifications and make brief statements, such as "Let's talk about this more after the meeting", but the stand-up does not usually consist of full-fledged discussions.
Three questions
Scrum has daily meetings (the daily scrum) for the team to reflect and assess progress towards the sprint goal. This meeting is intended to be brief – less than 15 minutes – so any in-depth discussions about impediments are deferred until after the event is complete. As some teams conduct their meetings standing up, they may refer to this event as the "daily standup"
The older Scrum Guide (2017) suggested team members briefly (a maximum of one minute per team member) address three questions as input to this planning:
What did I do yesterday that helped the development team meet the sprint goal?
What will I do today to help the development team meet the sprint goal?
Do I see any impediment that prevents me or the development team from meeting the sprint goal?
(These questions were removed from the 2020 Scrum Guide)
Whereas Kanban-style daily stand-ups focus more on:
What obstacles are impeding my progress?
(looking at the board from right to left) What has progressed?
See also
Lean software development
Five Ws
References
External links
A pocket guide for effective stand-up meetings
Patterns Of Daily Stand-up Meetings, Jason Yip
Are your standups awesome?
Article Opening Communication within a Scrum Team from Methods & Tools
Agile software development
Meetings
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athlon
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Athlon
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Athlon is the brand name applied to a series of x86-compatible microprocessors designed and manufactured by Advanced Micro Devices (AMD). The original Athlon (now called Athlon Classic) was the first seventh-generation x86 processor and was the first desktop processor to reach speeds of one gigahertz (GHz). It made its debut as AMD's high-end processor brand on June 23, 1999. Over the years AMD has used the Athlon name with the 64-bit Athlon 64 architecture, the Athlon II, and Accelerated Processing Unit (APU) chips targeting the Socket AM1 desktop SoC architecture, and Socket AM4 Zen microarchitecture. The modern Zen-based Athlon with a Radeon Graphics processor was introduced in 2019 as AMD's highest-performance entry-level processor.
Athlon comes from the Ancient Greek (athlon) meaning "(sport) contest", or "prize of a contest", or "place of a contest; arena". With the Athlon name originally used for AMD's mid-range processors with combined CPU/GPU processors with the GPU disabled, AMD currently uses Athlon for budget APUs with integrated graphics. AMD positions the Athlon against its rival, the Intel Pentium.
Brand history
K7 design and development
The first Athlon processor was a result of AMD's development of K7 processors in the 1990s. AMD founder and then-CEO Jerry Sanders aggressively pursued strategic partnerships and engineering talent in the late 1990s, working to build on earlier successes in the PC market with the AMD K6 processor line. One major partnership announced in 1998 paired AMD with semiconductor giant Motorola to co-develop copper-based semiconductor technology, resulting in the K7 project being the first commercial processor to utilize copper fabrication technology. In the announcement, Sanders referred to the partnership as creating a "virtual gorilla" that would enable AMD to compete with Intel on fabrication capacity while limiting AMD's financial outlay for new facilities. The K7 design team was led by Dirk Meyer, who had previously worked as a lead engineer at DEC on multiple Alpha microprocessors. When DEC was sold to Compaq in 1998 and discontinued Alpha processor development, Sanders brought most of the Alpha design team to the K7 project. This added to the previously acquired NexGen K6 team, which already included engineers such as Vinod Dham.
Original release
The AMD Athlon processor launched on June 23, 1999, with general availability by August 1999. Subsequently, from August 1999 until January 2002, this initial K7 processor was the fastest x86 chip in the world. Wrote the Los Angeles Times on October 5, 1999, "AMD has historically trailed Intel’s fastest processors, but has overtaken the industry leader with the new Athlon. Analysts say the Athlon, which will be used by Compaq Computer, IBM and other manufacturers in their most powerful PCs, is significantly faster than Intel’s flagship Pentium III, which runs at a top speed of 600MHz." A number of features helped the chips compete with Intel. By working with Motorola, AMD had been able to refine copper interconnect manufacturing about one year before Intel, with the revised process permitting 180-nanometer processor production. The accompanying die-shrink resulted in lower power consumption, permitting AMD to increase Athlon clock speeds to the 1 GHz range. The Athlon architecture also used the EV6 bus licensed from DEC as its main system bus, allowing AMD to develop its own products without needing to license Intel's GTL+ bus. By the summer of 2000, AMD was shipping Athlons at high volume and the chips were being used in systems by Gateway, Hewlett-Packard, and Fujitsu Siemens Computers among others.
Later Athlon iterations
The second generation Athlon, the Thunderbird, debuted in 2000. AMD released the Athlon XP the following year, and the Athlon XP's immediate successor, the Athlon 64, was an AMD64-architecture microprocessor released in 2003. While the Athlon name was originally used for combined CPU/GPU processors with the GPU disabled, after the 2007 launch of the Phenom processors, the Athlon name was also used for mid-range processors, positioned above brands such as Sempron. The Athlon 64 X2 was released in 2005 as the first native dual-core desktop CPU designed by AMD, and the Athlon X2 was a subsequent family based on the Athlon 64 X2. Introduced in 2009, Athlon II was a dual-core family of Athlon chips.
A USD$55 low-power Athlon 200GE with a Radeon graphics processor was introduced in September 2018, sitting under the Ryzen 3 2200G. This iteration of Athlon used AMD's Zen-based Raven Ridge core, which in turn had debuted in Ryzen with Radeon graphics processors. With the release, AMD began using the Athlon brand name to refer to "low cost, high volume products," in a situation similar to both Intel's Celeron and Pentium Gold. The modern Athlon 3000G was introduced in 2019, and was positioned as AMD's highest-performance entry-level processor. AMD positions the Athlon against its rival, the Intel Pentium. While CPU processing performance is in the same ballpark, the Athlon 3000G uses Radeon Vega graphics, which are rated as more powerful than the Pentium's Intel UHD Graphics.
Generations
Athlon Classic (1999)
The AMD Athlon processor launched on June 23, 1999, with general availability by August 1999. Subsequently, from August 1999 until January 2002, this initial K7 processor was the fastest x86 chip in the world. At launch it was, on average, 10% faster than the Pentium III at the same clock for business applications, and 20% faster for gaming workloads. In commercial terms, the Athlon "Classic" was an enormous success.
Features
The Athlon Classic is a cartridge-based processor, named Slot A and similar to Intel's cartridge Slot 1 used for Pentium II and Pentium III. It used the same, commonly available, physical 242 pin connector used by Intel Slot 1 processors but rotated by 180 degrees to connect the processor to the motherboard. The cartridge assembly allowed the use of higher speed cache memory modules than could be put on (or reasonably bundled with) motherboards at the time. Similar to the Pentium II and the Katmai-based Pentium III, the Athlon Classic contained 512 KB of L2 cache. This high-speed SRAM cache was run at a divisor of the processor clock and was accessed via its own 64-bit back-side bus, allowing the processor to service both front-side bus requests and cache accesses simultaneously, as compared to pushing everything through the front-side bus.
The Argon-based Athlon contained 22 million transistors and measured 184 mm2. It was fabricated by AMD in a version of their CS44E process, a 0.25 μm complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS) process with six levels of aluminium interconnect. "Pluto" and "Orion" Athlons were fabricated in a 0.18 μm process.
The Athlon's CPU cache consisted of the typical two levels. Athlon was the first x86 processor with a 128 KB split level 1 cache; a 2-way associative cache separated into 2×64 KB for data and instructions (a concept from Harvard architecture). SRAM cache designs at the time were incapable of keeping up with the Athlon's clock scalability, resulting in compromised CPU clock speeds in some computers. With later Athlon models, AMD would integrate the L2 cache onto the processor itself, removing dependence on external cache chips. The Slot-A Athlons were the first multiplier-locked CPUs from AMD, preventing users from settting their own desired clock speed. This was done by AMD in part to hinder CPU remarking and overclocking by resellers, which could result in inconsistent performance. Eventually a product called the "Goldfingers device" was created that could unlock the CPU.
AMD designed the CPU with more robust x86 instruction decoding capabilities than that of K6, to enhance its ability to keep more data in-flight at once. The critical branch predictor unit was enhanced compared to the K6. Deeper pipelining with more stages allowed higher clock speeds to be attained. Like the AMD K5 and K6, the Athlon dynamically buffered internal micro-instructions at runtime resulting from parallel x86 instruction decoding. The CPU is an out-of-order design, again like previous post-5x86 AMD CPUs. The Athlon utilizes the Alpha 21264's EV6 bus architecture with double data rate (DDR) technology.
AMD ended its long-time handicap with floating point x87 performance by designing a super-pipelined, out-of-order, triple-issue floating point unit (FPU). Each of its three units could independently calculate an optimal type of instructions with some redundancy, making it possible to operate on more than one floating point instruction at once. This FPU was a huge step forward for AMD, helping compete with Intel's P6 FPU. The 3DNow! floating point SIMD technology, again present, received some revisions and was renamed "Enhanced 3DNow!" Additions included DSP instructions and the extended MMX subset of Intel SSE.
Specifications
L1-cache: 64 + 64 KB (data + instructions)
L2-cache: 512 KB, external chips on CPU module with 50%, 40% or 33% of CPU speed
MMX, 3DNow!
Slot A (EV6)
Front-side bus: 200 MT/s (100 MHz double-pumped)
VCore: 1.6 V (K7), 1.6–1.8 V (K75)
First release: June 23, 1999 (K7), November 29, 1999 (K75)
Clock-rate: 500–700 MHz (K7), 550–1000 MHz (K75)
Athlon Thunderbird (2000-2001)
The second generation Athlon, the Thunderbird or T-Bird, debuted on June 4, 2000. This version of the Athlon had a traditional pin-grid array (PGA) format that plugged into a socket ("Socket A") on the motherboard or the slot A package. The major difference between it and the Athlon Classic was cache design, with AMD adding in 256 KB of on-chip, full-speed exclusive cache. In moving to an exclusive cache design, the L1 cache's contents were not duplicated in the L2, increasing total cache size and functionally creating a large L1 cache with a slower region (the L2) and a fast region (the L1), making the L2 cache into basically a victim cache. With the new cache design, need for high L2 performance and size was lessened, and the simpler L2 cache was less likely to cause clock scaling and yield issues. Thunderbird also moved to a 16-way associative layout.
The Thunderbird was "cherished by many for its overclockability," and proved commercially successful, as AMD's most successful product since the Am386DX-40 ten years earlier. AMD's new fab facility in Dresden increased production for AMD overall and put out Thunderbirds at a fast rate, with the process technology improved by a switch to copper interconnects. After several versions were released in 2000 and 2001 of the Thunderbird, the last Athlon processor using the Thunderbird core was released in 2001 in the summer, at which point speeds were at 1.4 GHz.
The locked multipliers of Socket A Thunderbirds could often be disabled through adding conductive bridges on the surface on the chip, a practice widely known as "the pencil trick".
Specifications
L1-cache: 64 + 64 KB (data + instructions)
L2-cache: 256 KB, full speed
MMX, 3DNow!
Slot A & Socket A (EV6)
Front-side bus: 100 MHz (Slot-A, B-models), 133 MHz (C-models) (200 MT/s, 266 MT/s)
VCore: 1.70–1.75 V
First release: June 5, 2000
Transistor count: 37 million
Manufacturing Process: 0.18 μm/180 nm
Clockrate:
Slot A: 650–1000 MHz
Socket A, 100 MHz FSB (B-models): 600–1400 MHz
Socket A, 133 MHz FSB (C-models): 1000–1400 MHz
Athlon XP (2001-2003)
Overall, there are four main variants of the Athlon XP desktop CPU: the Palomino, the Thoroughbred, the Thorton, and the Barton. A number of mobile processors were also released, including the Corvette models, and the Dublin model among others.
Palomino
On May 14, 2001, AMD released the Athlon XP processor. It debuted as the Mobile Athlon 4, a mobile version codenamed Corvette with the desktop Athlon XP released in the fall. The third-generation Athlon, code-named Palomino, came out on October 9, 2001 as the Athlon XP, with the suffix signifying extended performance and unofficially referencing Windows XP. Palomino's design used 180 nm fabrication process size. The Athlon XP was marketed using a performance rating (PR) system comparing it to the Thunderbird predecessor core. Among other changes, Palomino consumed 20% less power than the Thunderbird, comparatively reducing heat output, and was roughly 10% faster than Thunderbird. Palomino also had enhanced K7's TLB architecture and included a hardware data prefetch mechanism to take better advantage of memory bandwidth. Palomino was the first K7 core to include the full SSE instruction set from the Intel Pentium III, as well as AMD's 3DNow! Professional. Palomino was also the first socketed Athlon officially supporting dual processing, with chips certified for that purpose branded as the Athlon MP (multi processing), which had different specifications. According to HardwareZone, it was possible to modify the Athlon XP to function as an MP.
Specifications
L1-cache: 64 + 64 KB (data + instructions)
L2-cache: 256 KB, full speed
MMX, 3DNow!, SSE
Socket A (EV6)
Front-side bus: 133 MHz (266 MT/s)
VCore: 1.50 to 1.75 V
Power consumption: 68 W
First release: October 9, 2001
Clock-rate:
Athlon 4: 850–1400 MHz
Athlon XP: 1333–1733 MHz (1500+ to 2100+)
Athlon MP: 1000–1733 MHz
Thoroughbred
The fourth-generation of Athlon was introduced with the Thoroughbred core, or T-Bred, on April 17, 2002. The Thoroughbred core marked AMD's first production 130 nm silicon, with smaller die size than its predecessor. There came to be two steppings (revisions) of this core commonly referred to as Tbred-A and Tbred-B. Introduced in June 2002, the initial A version was mostly a direct die shrink of the preceding Palomino core, but did not significantly increase clock speeds over the Palomino. A revised Thoroughbred core, Thoroughbred-B, added a ninth "metal layer" to the eight-layered Thoroughbred-A, offering improvement in headroom over the A and making it popular for overclocking.
Specifications
L1-cache: 64 + 64 KB (data + instructions)
L2-cache: 256 KB, full speed
MMX, 3DNow!, SSE
Socket A (EV6)
Front-side bus: 133/166 MHz (266/333 MT/s)
VCore: 1.50–1.65 V
First release: June 10, 2002 (A), August 21, 2002 (B)
Clock-rate:
Thoroughbred "A": 1400–1800 MHz (1600+ to 2200+)
Thoroughbred "B": 1400–2250 MHz (1600+ to 2800+)
133 MHz FSB: 1400–2133 MHz (1600+ to 2600+)
166 MHz FSB: 2083–2250 MHz (2600+ to 2800+)
Barton / Thorton
Fifth-generation Athlon Barton-core processors were released in early 2003. While not operating at higher clock rates than Thoroughbred-core processors, they featured an increased L2 cache, and later models had an increased 200 MHz (400 MT/s) front side bus. The Thorton core, a blend of thoroughbred and Barton, was a later variant of the Barton with half of the L2 cache disabled. The Barton was used to officially introduce a higher 400 MT/s bus clock for the Socket A platform, which was used to gain some Barton models more efficiency. By this point with the Barton, the four-year-old Athlon EV6 bus architecture had scaled to its limit and required a redesign to exceed the performance of newer Intel processors. By 2003, the Pentium 4 had become more than competitive with AMD's processors, and Barton only saw a small performance increase over the Thoroughbred-B it derived from, insufficient to outperform the Pentium 4. The K7 derived Athlons such as Barton were replaced in September 2003 by the Athlon 64 family, which featured an on-chip memory controller and a new HyperTransport bus.
Notably, the 2500+ Barton with 11x multiplier was effectively identical to the 3200+ part other than the FSB speed it was binned for meaning seamless overlocking was possible more often than not. Early Thortons could be restored to the full Barton specification with the enabling of the other half of the L2 cache from a slight CPU surface modification but the result was not always reliable.
Specifications
Barton (130 nm)
L1-cache: 64 + 64 KB (data + instructions)
L2-cache: 512 KB, full speed
MMX, 3DNow!, SSE
Socket A (EV6)
Front-side bus: 166/200 MHz (333/400 MT/s)
VCore: 1.65 V
First release: February 10, 2003
Clockrate: 1833–2333 MHz (2500+ to 3200+)
133 MHz FSB: 1867–2133 MHz (2500+ to 2800+); uncommon
166 MHz FSB: 1833–2333 MHz (2500+ to 3200+)
200 MHz FSB: 2100, 2200 MHz (3000+, 3200+)
Thorton (130 nm)
L1-cache: 64 + 64 KB (Data + Instructions)
L2-cache: 256 KB, full speed
MMX, 3DNow!, SSE
Socket A (EV6)
Front-side bus: 133/166/200 MHz (266/333/400 MT/s)
VCore: 1.50–1.65 V
First release: September 2003
Clockrate: 1667–2200 MHz (2000+ to 3100+)
133 MHz FSB: 1600–2133 MHz (2000+ to 2600+)
166 MHz FSB: 2083 MHz (2600+)
200 MHz FSB: 2200 MHz (3100+)
Mobile Athlon XP
The Palomino core debuted in the mobile market before the PC market, where it was branded as Mobile Athlon 4 with the codename "Corvette". It distinctively used a ceramic interposer much like the Thunderbird instead of the organic pin grid array package used on all later Palomino processors. In November 2001, AMD released a 1.2 GHz Athlon 4 and a 950 MHz Duron. The Mobile Athlon 4 processors included the PowerNow! function, which controlled a laptop's "level of processor performance by dynamically adjusting its operating frequency and voltage according to the task at hand," thus extending "battery life by reducing processor power when it isn't needed by applications." Duron chips also included PowerNow! In 2002, AMD released a version of PowerNow! called Cool'n'Quiet, implemented on the Athlon XP but only adjusting clock speed frequency instead of voltage.
In 2002 the Athlon XP-M (Mobile Athlon XP) replaced the Mobile Athlon 4 using the newer Thoroughbred core, with Barton cores for full-size notebooks. The Athlon XP-M was also offered in a compact microPGA socket 563 version. Mobile XPs were not multiplier-locked, making them popular with desktop overclockers.
Athlon 64 (2003-2009)
The immediate successor to the Athlon XP, the Athlon 64 is an AMD64-architecture microprocessor produced by AMD, released on September 23, 2003. A number of variations, all named after cities, were released with 90 nm architecture in 2004 and 2005. Versions released in 2007 and 2009 utilized 65 nm architecture.
Athlon 64 X2 (2005-2009)
The Athlon 64 X2 was released in 2005 as the first native dual-core desktop CPU designed by AMD using an Athlon 64. The Athlon X2 was a subsequent family of microprocessors based on the Athlon 64 X2. The original Brisbane Athlon X2 models used 65 nm architecture, and were released in 2007.
Athlon II (2009-2012)
Athlon II is a family of central processing units. Initially a dual-core version of the Athlon II, the K-10-based Regor was released in June 2009 with 45 nanometer architecture. This was followed by a single-core version, Sargas, followed by the quad-core Propus, the triple-core Rana in November 2009, and the Llano 32 nm version released in 2011.
Zen-based Athlon (2018-present)
The Zen-based Athlon with Radeon graphics processors was launched in September 2018 with the Athlon 200GE. Based on AMD's Raven Ridge core previously used in variants of the Ryzen 3 and Ryzen 5, the Athlon 200GE had half of the cores but left SMT enabled. It also kept the same 4 MiB L3 cache, but the L2 cache was halved to 1 MiB.
In addition, the number of graphics compute units was limited to 3 in the Athlon 200GE, and the chip was multiplier-locked. Despite its limitations, the Athlon 200GE performed competitively against the 5000-series Intel Pentium-G, displaying similar CPU performance but an advantage in GPU performance.
On November 19, 2019, AMD released the Athlon 3000G, with a higher 3.5 GHz core clock and 1100 MHz graphics clock compared to the Athlon 200GE also with two cores. The main functional difference between the 200GE was the Athlon 3000G's unlocked multiplier, allowing the latter to be overclocked on B450 and X470 motherboards.
Specifications (see Zen desktop APUs for more details)
Raven Ridge (14 nm), Picasso (12 nm)
L1 Cache: 192 KiB (2x64 KiB +2x32 KiB)
L2 Cache: 1 MiB (2x512 KiB)
L3 Cache: 4 MiB
Memory: Dual-Channel DDR4-2666, 64 GiB Max
Socket AM4
TDP: 35W
First release: September 6, 2018
CPU Clockrate: 3.2 to 3.5 GHz
GPU Clockrate: 1000 to 1100 MHz
Supercomputers
A number of supercomputers have been built using Athlon chips, largely at universities. Among them:
In 2000, several American students claimed to have built the world's least expensive supercomputer by clustering 64 AMD Athlon chips together, also marking the first time Athlons had been clustered in a supercomputer.
The PRESTO III, a Beowulf cluster of 78 AMD Athlon processors, was built in 2001 by the Tokyo Institute of Technology. That year it ranked 439 on the Top 500 list of supercomputers.
In 2002, a "128-Node 256-Processor AMD Athlon Supercomputer Cluster" was installed at the Ohio Supercomputer Center at the University of Toledo.
Rutgers University, Department of Physics & Astronomy. Machine: NOW Cluster—AMD Athlon. CPU: 512 AthlonMP (1.65 GHz). Rmax: 794 GFLOPS.
See also
CPU features table
List of AMD Duron microprocessors
List of AMD Phenom microprocessors
List of AMD Opteron microprocessors
List of AMD Sempron microprocessors
References
External links
Website
Computer-related introductions in 1999
Advanced Micro Devices x86 microprocessors
Advanced Micro Devices microarchitectures
Superscalar microprocessors
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International%20Conference%20on%20Computer%20and%20Information%20Technology
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International Conference on Computer and Information Technology
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International Conference on Computer and Information Technology or ICCIT is a series of computer science and information technology based conferences that is hosted in Bangladesh since 1997 by a different university each year. ICCIT provides a forum for researchers, scientists, and professionals from both academia and industry to exchange up-to-date knowledge and experience in different fields of computer science/engineering and information and communication technology (ICT). This is a regularly held ICT based major annual conference (held typically in December) in Bangladesh now in its 25th year. ICCIT series has succeeded in engaging the most number of universities in Bangladesh from both public and private sectors. Each new university in Bangladesh have been investing in computer science, computer engineering, information systems, and related fields.
Starting 2008, the ICCIT is co-sponsored by IEEE. On average, since 2003, 31.1% manuscripts submitted are accepted for presentation and inclusion in the IEEE Xplore Digital Library, one of the largest scholarly research database containing over two million records that indexes, abstracts, and provides full-text for articles and papers on computer science, electrical engineering, electronics, information technology, and physical sciences.
History
ICCIT trace its history to 1997 when University of Dhaka organized a conference, National Conference on Computer and Information Systems (NCCIS) based on IT and Computer Science. Probably it was the first initiative to organize an IT based conference in Bangladesh with participation from multiple universities. Very next year in 1998, this conference was renamed to its current name and gained international status by opening its door to the participants from outside of Bangladesh. Since then each year a university approved by the ICCIT committee hosts this event during late December.
Areas
ICCIT is mainly focused on computer science and information technology but also covers related electronic engineering topics. Major areas of ICCIT include, but not limited to:
Algorithms
Artificial intelligence
Bengali language processing
Bio-informatics
Computer vision
Computer graphics and multimedia
Computer network and data communications
Computer based education
Database systems
Digital signal processing and image processing
Digital system and logic design
Distributed and parallel processing
E-commerce and E-governance
Human computer interaction
Information systems
Internet and World Wide Web Applications
Knowledge data engineering
Neural networks
Pattern recognition
Robotics
Software engineering
System security
Ubiquitous computing
VLSI
Wireless communications and mobile computing
Past Conferences
Starting 1997, ICCIT has had 24 successful events at 20 different universities.
1997 University of Dhaka, Dhaka (as NCCIS '97)
1998 Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology (BUET), Dhaka
1999 Shahjalal University of Science and Technology, Sylhet
2000 North South University, Dhaka
2001 University of Dhaka, Dhaka
2002 East West University, Dhaka
2003 Jahangirnagar University, Savar
2004 BRAC University, Dhaka
2005 Islamic University of Technology (IUT), Gazipur
2006 Independent University Bangladesh (IUB), Dhaka
2007 United International University (UIU), Dhaka
2008 Khulna University of Engineering and Technology (KUET), Khulna
2009 Independent University Bangladesh (IUB) and Military Institute of Science and Technology, Dhaka
2010 Ahsanullah University of Science and Technology, Dhaka
2011 American International University-Bangladesh, Dhaka
2012 Chittagong University, Chittagong
2013 Khulna University, Khulna
2014 Daffodil International University, Dhaka
2015 Military Institute of Science and Technology, Dhaka
2016 North South University, Dhaka
2017 University of Asia Pacific, Dhaka
2018 United International University, Dhaka
2019 Southeast University, Dhaka
2020 Ahsanullah University of Science and Technology, Dhaka
2021 North South University, Dhaka
International Program Committee
The key to the success of ICCIT is its International Program Committee (IPC), co-chaired by Professor Mohammad Ataul Karim, of University of Massachusetts Dartmouth and Professor Mohammad Showkat Alam of Texas A&M University-Kingsville. The IPC for ICCIT 2012, for example, is a body of eighty five (85) field experts all of whom are affiliated with either a university or a research organisation from outside of Bangladesh. The national make-up of the latest IPC is as follows: USA (43), Australia (12), Canada(6), UK (5), Malaysia (4), Japan (3), Germany (2), India (2), Korea (2), New Zealand (2), Belgium (1), China (1), Ireland (1), Norway (1), and Switzerland (1).
Journal Special Issues
Starting with ICCIT 2008, a selected number of manuscripts after further enhancement and extensive review process are being included in one of several journal special issues. ICCIT doesn't end with just conference proceedings but with those that are indexed worldwide and takes many of its better papers to its next logical level to the journals. To date, 14 journal special issues have been produced by ICCIT IPC featuring works of Bangladesh-based researchers in the fields of communications, computing, multimedia, networks, and software. This is a serious feat for Bangladesh its many researchers; the outcome from this single conference is allowing for about 30–35 team of researchers each year to be able to showcase their research through archival and indexed journals that really matter. It is a major scholarly milestone which makes ICCIT series different from all other technical conferences held in Bangladesh. In its latest iteration, 32 selected enhanced ICCIT 2011 manuscripts after having gone through extensive reviews have been accepted now for inclusion in the following international journals.
Journal of Communications
Guest Editors: M.N. Islam, SUNY Farmingdale, US; K.M. Iftekharuddin, Old Dominion University, US; M.A. Karim, Old Dominion University, US; M.A. Salam, Southern University & A&M College, Louisiana, US
Journal of Computers
Guest Editors: S.M. Aziz, University of South Australia, Australia; M.S. Alam, University of South Alabama, US; K.V. Asari, University of Dayton, US; M. Alamgir Hossain, University of Northumbria, UK; M.A. Karim, Old Dominion University, US; M. Milanova, University of Arkansas at Little Rock, US
Journal of Multimedia
Guest Editors: M. Murshed, Monash University, Australia; M.A. Karim, Old Dominion University, US; M. Paul, Monash University, Australia; S. Zhang, College of Staten Island, US
Journal of Networks
Guest Editors: S. Jabir, France Telecom, Japan; J. Abawajy, Deakin University, Australia; F. Ahmed, Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, US; M.A. Karim, Old Dominion University, US; J. Kamruzzaman, Monash University, Australia; Nurul I. Sarkar, Auckland University of Technology, New Zealand
References
External links
11th ICCIT Home page
15th ICCIT Home page
Computer science conferences
Information technology in Bangladesh
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hany%20Farid
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Hany Farid
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Hany Farid is an American university professor who specializes in the analysis of digital images, Dean and Head of School for the UC Berkeley School of Information. In addition to teaching, writing, and conducting research, Farid acts as a consultant for non-profits, government agencies, and news organizations. He is the author of the book Photo Forensics.
Career
Farid specializes in image analysis and human perception. He has been called the "father" of digital image forensics by NOVA scienceNOW. He is the recipient of a 2006 Guggenheim Fellowship and a 2002 Sloan Fellowship for his work in the field. Farid was named a lifetime fellow of the National Academy of Inventors in 2016.
University positions
In January 2021, Hany Farid is appointed Associate Dean and Head of School for the School of Information. He remains professor at the University of California, Berkeley with a joint appointment in the Department of Electrical Engineering & Computer Science and the School of Information. He is also a member of the Berkeley Artificial Intelligence Lab, the Center for Innovation in Vision and Optics, and the Vision Science program.
Prior to joining Berkeley, Farid was the Albert Bradley 1915 Third Century Professor of Computer Science at Dartmouth College and former chair of Dartmouth's Neukom Institute for Computational Science. Farid was well-known at Dartmouth for teaching the college's introductory course on programming and computer science. Joseph Helble, dean of the Thayer School of Engineering at Dartmouth, described Farid as a pioneer in the field of digital forensics. Farid joined Dartmouth's faculty in 1999. He remained at Dartmouth until 2019.
Consulting and media appearances
Farid has consulted for intelligence agencies, news organizations, courts, and scientific journals seeking to authenticate the validity of images. This is critically important because graphics programs, such as Photoshop, are frequently used to crop and to label figures in scientific publications. Such manipulations can be used to alter or disguise the data. In 2009, after digitally analyzing a photograph of Lee Harvey Oswald holding a rifle and newspaper, Farid published his findings concluding that "the photo almost certainly was not altered". When the 2013 World Press Photo of the Year was alleged as being "fake", Farid spoke out against the allegation and criticized its underlying method, error level analysis.
As of 2018, Farid was a consultant for the Associated Press, Reuters, The New York Times, and the Defense Advanced Research Project Agency.
PhotoDNA
PhotoDNA is a system that uses robust hashing technology Farid worked on with Microsoft, which is "now widely used by Internet companies to stop the spread of content showing sexual exploitation or pornography involving children." In late 2015, Farid completed improvements to PhotoDNA that made it capable of analyzing video and audio files besides still images. In 2016, Farid proposed that the technology could be used to stem the spread of terror-related imagery, but there was little interest shown initially by social media companies. In December 2016, Facebook, Twitter, Google and Microsoft announced plans to use PhotoDNA to tackle extremist content such as terrorist recruitment videos or violent terrorist imagery, which was done e.g. to automatically remove al Qaeda videos.
Counter Extremism Project
In June 2016, Farid, as a senior advisor to the Counter Extremism Project (CEP), unveiled a software tool for use by Internet and social media companies to "quickly find and eliminate extremist content used to spread and incite violence and attacks." It functions similarly to PhotoDNA.
To operationalize this new technology to combat extremism, Farid and CEP proposed the creation of a National Office for Reporting Extremism (NORex), which would house a comprehensive database of extremist content and function similar to the National Center for Missing & Exploited Children .
Truepic
In the fall of 2018, Truepic acquired Farid's start-up, Fourandsix Technologies. Farid started Fourandsix Technologies with Kevin Connor, a former vice president at Adobe Systems. The first product released by Fourandsix was called Fourmatch. Fourmatch was designed to detect alterations of digital images. The primary use of Fourmatch was to check the authenticity of images introduced as evidence in court.
As of February 2019, Farid was an advisor to Truepic.
Education
Farid received his undergraduate degree in computer science and applied mathematics from the University of Rochester in 1989. He earned a M.S. in computer science from SUNY/Albany in 1992. His Ph.D. in computer science from the University of Pennsylvania was awarded in 1997. In 1999, Farid completed a two-year post-doctoral program in Brain and Cognitive Sciences at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Family
Farid is married to the neuroscientist Emily Cooper. Cooper, also a professor at the University of California, Berkeley, studies human vision and virtual reality. Cooper met Farid when he spent a sabbatical from Dartmouth at Berkeley.
Publications
Books
H. Farid. Fake Photos, MIT Press, Essential Knowledge Series, 2019.
H. Farid. Photo Forensics, MIT Press, 2016.
Selected technical papers
Farid, H. A Survey of Image Forgery Detection, IEEE Signal Processing Magazine, 26:2 (2009) 16-25.
Farid, H. Digital Image Forensics, Scientific American, 298:6 (2008) 66-71.
Johnson, M K and H Farid, Exposing Digital Forgeries in Complex Lighting Environments, IEEE Transactions on Information Forensics and Security, 2:3 (2007) 450-461.
Johnson, M K and H Farid, Exposing Digital Forgeries Through Specular Highlights on the Eye, 9th International Workshop on Information Hiding, Saint Malo, France (2007).
Lyu, S, D Rockmore, and H Farid, A Digital Technique for Art Authentication, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 101:49 (2004) 17006-17010.
Selected opinion pieces
Deepfakes Give New Meaning to the Concept of 'fake news,' and They're Here to Stay, Fox News , 18 June 2019.
Facebook's Plan for End-to-End Encryption Sacrifices a Lot of Security for Just a Little Bit of Privacy, Fox News, June 2016.
Tech Companies Must Act to Stop Horrific Exploitation of their Platforms, The Hill, 17 April 2019
Facebook, YouTube and Social Media are Failing Society: Pull their ads until they change, USA Today, 4 March 2019
Recruiting Terrorists: We’re losing the fight against online extremism – here’s why, The Hill, 2 August 2018
Verifying BigTech Promises, EUReporter, 11 May 2018
References
External links
Farid's faculty webpage at UC Berkeley School of Information
The Neukom Institute for Computational Science
Dartmouth College faculty
American people of Egyptian descent
American computer scientists
Computer science educators
Living people
University of Pennsylvania alumni
Year of birth missing (living people)
University of Rochester alumni
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Key%20events%20of%20the%2020th%20century
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Key events of the 20th century
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Following the 19th century, the 20th century changed the world in unprecedented ways. The World Wars sparked tension between countries and led to the creation of atomic bombs, the Cold War led to the Space Race and creation of space-based rockets, and the World Wide Web was created. These advancements have played a significant role in citizens' lives and shaped the 21st century into what it is today.
Events in the 20th century
The world at the beginning of the century
From 1914 to 1918, the First World War, and its aftermath, caused major changes in the power balance of the world, destroying or transforming some of the most powerful empires.
"The war to end all wars": World War I (1914–1918)
The First World War (or simply WWI), termed "The Great War" by contemporaries, started in 1914 and ended in 1918. It was ignited by the Assassination in Sarajevo of the Austro-Hungarian Empire's heir to the throne, Erzherzog Franz Ferdinand, by Gavrilo Princip of the organization "Young Bosnia," Bosnian Serbs' liberation movement. Bound by Slavic nationalism to help the small Serbian state, the Russians came to the aid of the Serbs when they were attacked. Interwoven alliances, an increasing arms race, and old hatreds dragged Europe into the war. The Allies, known initially as "The Triple Entente", comprised the British Empire, France, Italy, and Russia. Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, and later the Ottoman Empire, were known as "The Central Powers".
In 1917, Russia ended hostile actions against the Central Powers after the fall of the Tsar. The Bolsheviks negotiated the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany, although it was at huge cost to Russia. In the treaty, Bolshevik Russia ceded the Baltic States to Germany, and its province of Kars Oblast in the south Caucasus to the Ottoman Empire. It also recognized the independence of Ukraine. Although Germany shifted huge forces from the eastern to the western front after signing the treaty, it was unable to stop the Allied advance, especially with the entrance of American troops in 1918.
The war itself was also a chance for the combatant nations to show off their military strength and technological ingenuity. The Germans introduced the machine gun, U-boats and deadly gases. The British first used the tank. Both sides had a chance to test out their new aircraft to see if they could be used in warfare. It was widely believed that the war would be short. Unfortunately, since trench warfare was the best form of defense, advances on both sides were very slow, and came at a terrible cost in lives.
When the war was finally over in 1918, the results would set the stage for the next twenty years. First and foremost, the Germans were forced to sign the Treaty of Versailles, forcing them to make exorbitant payments to repair damages caused during the War. Many Germans felt these reparations were unfair because they did not actually "lose" the war nor did they feel they caused the war (see Stab-in-the-back legend). Germany was never occupied by Allied troops, yet it had to accept a liberal democratic government imposed on it by the victors after the abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm.
Much of the map of Europe was redrawn by the victors based upon the theory that future wars could be prevented if all ethnic groups had their own "homeland". New states like Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia were created out of the former Austro-Hungarian Empire to accommodate the nationalist aspirations of these groups. An international body called the League of Nations was formed to mediate disputes and prevent future wars, although its effectiveness was severely limited by, among other things, its reluctance and inability to act.
The Russian Revolution and Communism
The Russian Revolution of 1917 (ending in the overthrow of the Tsarist regime and the brutal execution of His Imperial Majesty Nicholas II and his family) sparked a wave of communist revolutions across Europe, prompting many to believe that a socialist world revolution could be realized in the near future. However, the European revolutions were defeated, Vladimir Lenin died in 1924, and within a few years, Joseph Stalin displaced Leon Trotsky as the de facto leader of the Soviet Union. The idea of worldwide revolution was no longer in the forefront, as Stalin concentrated on "socialism in one country" and embarked on a bold plan of collectivization and industrialization. The majority of socialists and even many communists became disillusioned with Stalin's autocratic rule, his purges and the assassination of his "enemies", as well as the news of famines he imposed on his own people.
Communism was strengthened as a force in Western democracies when the global economy crashed in 1929 in what became known as the Great Depression. Many people saw this as the first stage of the end of the capitalist system and were attracted to Communism as a solution to the economic crisis, especially as the Soviet Union's economic development in the 1930s was strong, unaffected by the capitalist world's crisis.
Between the wars
Economic depression
After World War I, the global economy remained strong through the 1920s. The war had provided a stimulus for industry and for economic activity in general. There were many warning signs foretelling the collapse of the global economic system in 1929 that were generally not understood by the political leadership of the time. The responses to the crisis often made the situation worse, as millions of people watched their savings become next to worthless and the idea of a steady job with a reasonable income fading away.
Many sought answers in alternative ideologies such as communism and fascism. They believed that the capitalist economic system was collapsing, and that new ideas were required to meet the crisis. The early responses to the crisis were based upon the assumption that the free market would correct itself. This, however, did very little to correct the crisis or to alleviate the suffering of many ordinary people. Thus, the idea that the existing system could be reformed by government intervention in the economy, rather than by continuing the laissez-faire approach, became prominent as a solution to the crisis. Democratic governments assumed the responsibility to provide needed services in society, and to alleviate poverty. Thus was born the welfare state. These two politico-economic principles, the belief in government intervention and the welfare state, as opposed to the belief in the free market and private institutions, would define many political battles for the rest of the century.
The rise of dictatorship
Fascism first appeared in Italy with the rise to power of Benito Mussolini in 1922. The ideology was supported by a large proportion of the upper classes as a strong challenge to the threat of communism.
When Adolf Hitler came to power in Germany in 1933, a new variant of fascism called Nazism took over Germany and ended the German experiment with democracy. The Nazi Party in Germany was dedicated to the restoration of German honor and prestige, the unification of German-speaking peoples, and the annexation of Central and Eastern Europe as vassal states, with the Slavic population to act as slave labor to serve German economic interests. There was also a strong appeal to a mythical racial purity (the idea that Germans were the Herrenvolk or the "master race"), and a vicious anti-semitism which promoted the idea of Jews as subhuman (Untermensch) and worthy only of extermination.
Many people in Western Europe and the United States greeted the rise of Hitler with relief or indifference. They could see nothing wrong with a strong Germany ready to take on the communist menace to the east. Anti-semitism during the Great Depression was widespread as many were content to blame the Jews for causing the economic downturn.
Hitler began to put his plan in motion, annexing Austria in the Anschluss, or reunification of Austria to Germany, in 1938. He then negotiated the annexation of the Sudetenland, a German-speaking mountainous area of Czechoslovakia, in the Munich Conference. The British were eager to avoid war and believed Hitler's assurance to protect the security of the Czech state. Hitler annexed the rest of the Czech state shortly afterwards, indicating that he had ulterior motives.
Fascism was not the only form of dictatorship to rise in the post-war period. Almost all of the new democracies in the nations of Eastern Europe collapsed and were replaced by authoritarian regimes. Spain also became a dictatorship under the leadership of General Francisco Franco after the Spanish Civil War. Totalitarian states attempted to achieve total control over their subjects as well as their total loyalty. They held the state above the individual, and were often responsible for some of the worst acts in history, such as the Holocaust Adolf Hitler perpetrated on European Jews, or the Great Purge Stalin perpetrated in the Soviet Union in the 1930s.
Global war: World War II (1939–1945)
The war in Europe
This section provides a conversational overview of World War II in Europe. See main article for a fuller discussion.
Soon after the events in Czechoslovakia, Britain and France issued assurances of protection to Poland, which seemed to be next on Hitler's list. World War II officially began on September 1, 1939, when Hitler unleashed his Blitzkrieg, or lightning war, against Poland. Britain and France, much to Hitler's surprise, immediately declared war upon Germany, but the help they delivered to Poland was negligible. Sixteen days later, Poland was attacked from the East by Soviet Union, acting in a secret alliance with Nazi Germany. After only a few weeks, the Polish forces were overwhelmed, and its government fled to exile in London (see Polish government in Exile).
In starting World War II, the Germans had unleashed a new type of warfare, characterized by highly mobile forces and the use of massed aircraft. The German strategy concentrated upon the devotion of the Wehrmacht, or German army, to the use of tank groups, called panzer divisions, and groups of mobile infantry, in concert with relentless attacks from the air. Encirclement was also a major part of the strategy. This change smashed any expectations that the Second World War would be fought in the trenches like the first.
As Hitler's forces conquered Poland, the Soviet Union, under General Secretary Joseph Stalin, was acting out guarantees of territory under a secret part of a nonaggression pact between the USSR and Germany known as the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact. This treaty gave Stalin free rein to take the Baltic republics of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania, as well as Eastern Poland, all of which would remain in Soviet possession after the war. Stalin also launched an attack on Finland, which he hoped to reduce to little more than a Soviet puppet state, but the Red Army met staunch Finnish resistance in what became known as the Winter War and succeeded in gaining only limited territory from the Finns. This action would later cause the Finns to ally with Germany when its attack on the Soviet Union came in 1941.
Blitzkrieg
After the defeat of Poland, a period known as the Phony War ensued during the winter of 1939–1940, which saw only limited military land operation on the Western Front. All of this changed on May 10, 1940, when the Germans launched a massive attack on the Low Countries (Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg), most probably to surmount the Maginot Line of defenses on the Franco-German border. This witnessed the incredible fall of Eben Emael, a Belgian fort considered impregnable and guarded by 600 Belgians, to a force of only 88 German paratroopers. The worst of this was that King Leopold III of Belgium surrendered to the Germans on May 28 without warning his allies, exposing the entire flank of the Allied forces to German panzer groups. Following the conquest of the Low Countries, Hitler occupied Denmark and Norway, beginning on April 9, 1940. Norway was strategically important because of its sea routes which supplied crucial Swedish ore to the Nazi war machine. Norway held on for a few crucial weeks, but Denmark surrendered after only four days. Sweden was the only Scandinavian country to successfully maintain its neutrality throughout the war, with occasional breaches of neutrality in favor of both Germany and the Western Allies.
With the disaster in the Low Countries, France, considered at the time to have had the finest army in the world, lasted only four weeks, with Paris being occupied on June 14. Three days later, Marshal Philippe Pétain surrendered to the Germans. The debacle in France also led to one of the war's greatest mysteries, and Hitler's first great blunder, Dunkirk, where a third of a million trapped British and French soldiers were evacuated by not only British war boats, but every craft the army could find, including fishing boats. Hitler refused to "risk" his panzers on an action at Dunkirk, listening to the advice of Air Minister Hermann Göring and allowing the Luftwaffe, or German Air Force, to handle the job. The irony of this was that the escaped men would form the core of the army that was to invade the beaches of Normandy in 1944. Hitler did not occupy all of France, but about three-quarters, including all of the Atlantic coast, allowing Marshal Pétain to remain as dictator of an area known as Vichy France. However, members of the escaped French Army formed around General Charles de Gaulle to create the Free French forces, which would continue to battle Hitler in the stead of an independent France. At this moment, Italy, under Benito Mussolini, declared war on the Allies on June 10, thinking that the war was almost over, but he managed only to occupy a few hundred yards of French territory. Throughout the war, the Italians would be more of a burden to the Nazis than a boon, and would later cost them precious time in Greece.
Hitler now turned his eyes on Great Britain, which stood alone against him. He ordered his generals to draw up plans for an invasion, code named Operation Sea Lion, and ordered the Luftwaffe to launch a massive air war against the British isles, which would come to be known as the Battle of Britain. The British at first suffered steady losses, but eventually managed to turn the air war against Germany, taking down 2,698 German planes throughout the summer of 1940 to only 915 Royal Air Force (RAF) losses. The key turning point came when the Germans discontinued successful attacks against British airplane factories and radar command and coordination stations and turned to civilian bombing known as terror bombing using the distinctive "bomb" sound created by the German dive-bomber, the Stuka. The switch came after a small British bombing force had attacked Berlin. Hitler was infuriated. However, his decision to switch the attacks' focus allowed the British to rebuild the RAF and eventually force the Germans to indefinitely postpone Sea Lion.
The importance of the Battle of Britain is that it marked the first of Hitler's defeats, however its overall impact was overshadowed by his later blunders in the east. Secondly, it marked the advent of radar as a major weapon in modern air war. With radar, squadrons of fighters could be quickly assembled to respond to incoming bombers attempting to bomb civilian targets. It also allowed the identification of the type and a guess at the number of incoming enemy aircraft, as well as tracking of friendly airplanes.
Assault on the Soviet Union
Hitler, taken aback by his defeat over the skies of Britain, now turned his gaze eastward to the Soviet Union. Despite having signed the non-aggression pact with Stalin, Hitler despised communism and wished to destroy it in the land of its birth. He originally planned to launch the attack in early spring of 1941 to avoid the disastrous Russian winter. However, a pro-allied coup in Yugoslavia and Mussolini's almost utter defeat in his invasion of Greece from occupied Albania prompted Hitler to launch a personal campaign of revenge in Yugoslavia and to occupy Greece at the same time. The Greeks would have a bitter revenge of sorts; the attack caused a delay of several crucial weeks of the invasion of the USSR, potentially hampering it.
On June 22, 1941, Hitler attacked Stalin with the largest army the world had ever seen. Over three million men and their weapons were put into service against the Soviet Union. Stalin had been warned about the attack, both by other countries and by his own intelligence network, but he had refused to believe it. Therefore, the Soviet army was largely unprepared and suffered massive setbacks in the early part of the war, despite Stalin's orders to counterattack the Germans. Throughout 1941, German forces, divided into 3 army groups (Army Group A, Army Group B, and Army Group C), occupied the territories of the present day Ukraine and Belarus, laid siege to Leningrad (present day Saint Petersburg), and advanced to within 15 miles of Moscow. At this critical moment, the Soviet people stalled the German Wehrmacht to a halt at the gates of Moscow. Stalin had planned to evacuate the city, and had already moved important government functions, but decided to stay and rally the city. Recently arrived troops from the east under the command of Marshal Georgy Zhukov counterattacked the Germans and drove them from Moscow.
Mussolini had launched an offensive in North Africa from Italian-controlled Libya into British-controlled Egypt. However, the British smashed the Italians and were on the verge of taking Libya. Hitler decided to help by sending in a few thousand troops, a Luftwaffe division, and the first-rate general Erwin Rommel. Rommel managed to use his small force to repeatedly smash massively superior British forces and to recapture the port city of Tobruk and advance into Egypt. However, Hitler, embroiled in his invasion of the Soviet Union, refused to send Rommel any more troops, causing Rommel to retreat and preventing him from seizing the Middle East, where Axis-friendly regimes had taken root in Iraq and Persia (present-day Iran).
After the winter, Hitler launched a fresh offensive in the spring of 1942, with the aim of capturing the oil-rich Caucacus and the city of Stalingrad. However, he repeatedly switched his troops to where they were not needed. The offensive bogged down, and the entire 6th Army, considered the best of German troops, was trapped in Stalingrad. Hitler now refused to let 6th Army break out. He insisted that the German army would force its way in. Hermann Göring also assured Hitler that the Luftwaffe could supply the 6th Army adequately, when it could in reality only supply a minute fraction of the needed ammunition and rations. Eventually, the starved 6th Army surrendered, dealing a severe blow to the Germans. In the end, the defeat at Stalingrad was the turning point for the war in the east.
Meanwhile, the Japanese had attacked the United States at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii on December 7, 1941. This disastrous attack forced the Americans into the war. Parts of the German brass advised against declaring war on the US, arguing that since Japan was the aggressor, the Tripartite Pact didn't bound Germany to do so. However, Hitler hoped that Japan would be able to quickly defeat the US and then turn its attention on helping the effort against Russia. Both Germany and Italy declared war on the United States a few days after the attack.
Turning tides
Throughout the rest of 1942 and 1943, the Soviets began to gain ground against the Germans after some victories like the tank battle of Kursk. By this time, Rommel had been forced to abandon North Africa after a defeat by Montgomery at El Alamein in what was the first decisive victory of the Allies over the Germany army, leading Churchill to declare it "the end of the beginning". On several fronts, the Wehrmacht had encountered serious casualties that it could not replace. Hitler also insisted on a "hold at all costs" policy which forbade relinquishing any ground. He followed a "fight to the last man" policy that was completely ineffective. By the beginning of 1944, Hitler had lost all initiative in the Soviet Union, and was struggling even to hold back the tide turning against him.
From 1942 to 1944, the United States and Britain acted in only a limited manner in the European theater, much to the chagrin of Stalin. They drove out the Germans in Africa, invading Morocco and Algeria on November 8, 1942. Then, on July 10, 1943, the Allies invaded Sicily, in preparation for an advance through Italy, the "soft underbelly" of the Axis, as Winston Churchill called it. On September 9, the invasion of Italy began. By the winter of 1943, the southern half of Italy was in Allied hands. The Italians, most of whom did not really support the war, had already turned against Mussolini. In July, he had been stripped of power and taken prisoner, though the Italians feigned continued support of the Axis. On September 8, the Italians formally surrendered, but most of Italy not in Allied hands was controlled by German troops and those loyal to Mussolini's (Mussolini had been freed by German paratroopers) new Italian Social Republic, which in reality consisted of the shrinking zone of German control. The Germans offered staunch resistance, but by June 4, 1944, Rome had fallen.
The Battle of the Atlantic took place from 1942 to 1944 and was described as "longest, largest, and most complex naval battle in history". The Germans hoped to sever the vital supply lines between Britain and America, sinking many tons of shipping with U-boats, German submarines. However, the development of the destroyer and aircraft with a longer patrol range were effective at countering the U-boat threat and by December 1943, the Germans had lost the battle.
Operation Overlord
On June 6, 1944, the Western Allies finally launched the long-awaited assault on "Fortress Europe" so wanted by Stalin. The offensive, codenamed Operation Overlord, began the early morning hours of June 6. The day, known as D-day, was marked by foul weather. Rommel, who was now in charge of defending France against possible Allied attack, thought the Allies would not attack during the stormy weather, and was on holiday in Germany. Besides this, the Germans were expecting an attack, but at the natural harbor of Calais and not the beaches of Normandy; They did not know about the Allies' artificial harbours, and false leads planted by the Allies suggested Calais as the landing site.
By this time, the war was looking ever darker for Germany. On July 20, 1944, a group of conspiring German officers attempted to assassinate Hitler. The bomb they used did injure him, but the second was not used, and a table shielded Hitler in a stroke of luck. The plotters still could have launched a coup, but only the head of occupied Paris acted, arresting SS and Gestapo forces in the city. The German propaganda minister, Joseph Goebbels, rallied the Nazis and hunted down the conspirators, arresting up to 7000 people in the wake of the plot, according to some estimates.
In France, the Allies took Normandy and finally Paris on August 25. In the east, the Soviets had advanced almost to the former Polish-Soviet border. At this time, Hitler introduced the V-weapons, the V-1 flying bomb and, later, the V-2, the first rockets used in modern warfare. The V-1 was often intercepted by air pilots, but the V-2 was extremely fast and carried a large payload. However, this advance came too late in the war to have any real effect. The Germans were also on the verge of introducing a number of terrifying new weapons, including advanced jet aircraft, which were too fast for ordinary propeller aircraft, and submarine improvements which would allow the Germans to again fight effectively in the Atlantic. All this came too late to save Hitler. Although a September invasion of The Netherlands failed, the Allies made steady advances. In the winter of 1944, Hitler put everything into one last desperate gamble in the West, known as the Battle of the Bulge, which, despite an initial advance, was a failure, because the introduction of new Allied tanks and low troop numbers among the Germans prevented any real action being taken. Nevertheless, it was one of the bloodiest battles of the war and the second costliest battle in the history of the American Army.
Final days
In early February 1945, the three Allied leaders, Franklin Roosevelt, Winston Churchill, and Joseph Stalin, met at newly liberated Yalta in the Crimea in the Soviet Union in the Yalta Conference. Here, they agreed upon a plan to divide post-war Europe. Most of the east went to Stalin, who agreed to allow free elections in Eastern Europe, which he never did. The west went to Britain, France, and the U.S. Post-war Germany would be split between the four, as would Berlin. This division of spheres of influence would set up international diplomacy for Cold War that would dominate the second half of the century.
At the beginning of 1945, Hitler was on his last strings. The Soviets launched a devastating attack from Poland into Germany and Eastern Europe, intending to take Berlin. The Germans collapsed in the West, allowing the Allies to fan out across Germany. However, the Supreme Allied Commander, American general Dwight D. Eisenhower, refused to strike for Berlin, and instead became obsessed with reports of possible guerrilla activity in southern Germany, which in reality existed mainly in the propaganda of Joseph Goebbels. By April 25, the Soviets had besieged Berlin. Hitler remained in the city in a bunker under the Chancellery garden. On April 30, he committed suicide by shooting himself, after a ritual wedding with his longtime mistress Eva Braun. The Germans held out another 7 days under Admiral Doenitz, their new leader, but the Germans surrendered unconditionally on May 7, 1945, ending the war in Europe (see V-E Day).
Rivalries that had begun during the war, combined with the sense of strength in the victorious powers, laid the foundations of the Iron Curtain and of the Cold War.
The war in the Pacific
Background
The first event that is usually linked to the later Pacific conflict was the Mukden Incident of 18 September 1931, during which the Japanese military staged the bombing of the South Manchuria Railway and pinned the blame on Chinese dissidents. Japan then used this as pretext to invade northeastern China the next day and turn the region of Manchuria into the Japanese puppet state of Manchukuo. After the League of Nations commissioned the 1932 Lytton Report, which exposed the Mukden Incident as a Japanese ruse, Japan was left internationally isolated, withdrawing from the League of Nations in March 1933. In 1934 Manchukuo became a constitutional monarchy and the former Chinese Emperor Pu Yi was placed on the throne, despite the real power being held by Japan.
Despite relations between Japan and China suffering because the occupation of Manchuria, the situation did not turn into all-out war until 7 July 1937, when a dispute between Chinese and Japanese soldiers turned into a battle during the Marco Polo Bridge Incident. This, in turn, led to a further escalation of the hostilities, leading to the Second Sino-Japanese War, one of the deadliest conflicts in human history. Japan enjoyed some early major victories, capturing both Shanghai and the Chinese capital of Nanjing in 1937 and forcing the Chinese central government 's relocation to Chongqing. Following Chinese victories in Changsha and Guangxi in 1939, the war reached somewhat of a stalemate, with Japan controlling the large cities, but being unable to rule the vast countryside. On 27 September 1940, Japan became cosignatories of the Tripartite Pact, joining a military alliance with Germany and Italy.
Japanese Expansion
On December 7, 1941, Japan launched a surprise attack on the American base at Pearl Harbor as a mean of preventing the U.S. Pacific Fleet from interfering with its planned expansion in the area. The next day, following Roosevelt's Infamy Speech, the United States declared war on Japan, marking the official entry of both nations in World War 2. At the same time, Japan also launched attacks on Thailand, the British colonies of Malaya, Singapore, Hong Kong and American military bases in Guam, Wake Island and the Philippines.
The next six months were dominated by Japanese victories against the Allied forces, already war-weary and stretched thin after two years of war in Europe and North Africa. Japan managed to capture British Burma, New Guinea, the Dutch East Indies, the Solomon Islands, Bali and Timor. In March 1942, days before the surrender of the Philippines, general Douglas MacArthur, who came out of retirement to become commander of United States Army Forces in the Far East at the onset of the war, was forced to flee and narrowly escape to Australia. On 19 February 1942, Japan also launched a devastating aerial attack on the Australian city of Darwin, in what was the first attack by a foreign power on Australian soil.
The turning of the tide came in early May, during the Battle of the Coral Sea, which proved the first strategic victory of the Allies against Japanese expansion. This was followed one month later by the Battle of Midway, in which the US Navy defeated an attacking Japanese fleet, inflicting devastating damage on the attacking force. The Battle of Midway is widely considered the most important naval battle of the Pacific Campaign and has even been described as "the most stunning and decisive blow in the history of naval warfare" The reasons usually given for the resounding victory are Japanese overconfidence in their own forces, poor planning and the intercepting of Japanese battle plans by the United States. The losses suffered during this Battle of Midway, paired with the campaign of attrition that was taking place in Solomon Islands, left Japan unable to replenish its forces and turned the tides of war against it. By August 1942, the Allied forces were on the offensive, earning victories in the New Guinea campaign at Guadalcanal, Milne Bay and Buna-Gona.
Allied offensive
Over the next two years the Allies slowly captured one island base after another, trying to get closer to Japan itself, where it planned to launch massive strategic air attacks and, only if absolutely necessary, execute a ground invasion. By July 1944, the US recaptured Guam and captured Tinian, which finally put them in attacking range of mainland Japan using the new Boeing B-29 bombers. Despite the advances of the Allies, massive fighting was still taking place, both in South-East Asia with the Japanese offensive in India and in the Pacific, with the Battle of the Philippine Sea, where Japan suffered major losses and definitively lost the ability to rely on aircraft carriers. In later October, a combined attack of American and Australian forces took on the Imperial Japanese Navy during the Battle of Leyte Gulf in what was to be the largest naval battle of World War II and possibly the largest naval battle of all time. The Allied victory achieved its stated goal of further severing oil supplied to the Japanese army, which was already struggling to fuel the remainder of its naval power. The battle of Leyte Gulf is also notable as the first battle in which Japanese aircraft carried out organized kamikaze attacks.
By early 1945, the Americans set their eyes on the Japanese island of Iwo Jima, which was of great strategic importance, being situated halfway between Tokyo and the Mariana Islands. Capturing the island meant not only a better launch station for aerial attacks against mainland Japan, but also the prevention of its use as an early-warning station against air raids. The Japanese were expecting an attack and have been heavily fortifying the entire island for over a year. Despite the American troops outnumbering the Japanese to a rate of more than 3 to 1, the USA suffered heavy casualties in the 36 days of fighting, with over 6,800 Marines killed and another 20,000 wounded, leading some historians to question the strategic worth of the action. With Japan struggling to defend the homeland islands, counteroffensives in other parts of the Japanese Empire became more feasible, with important battles taking place in Burma, Borneo and China.
Continuing to come nearer the main Japanese islands, on 1 April 1945 the US Marines mounted the largest amphibious assault of the Pacific Theater on the island of Okinawa. After a long campaign of island hopping, the Allies were planning to use Kadena Air Base on the large island of Okinawa as a base for Operation Downfall, the planned invasion of the Japanese home islands which were only 340 miles away. The battle was one of the bloodiest in the Pacific, with approximately 160,000 casualties on both sides: at least 75,000 Allied and 84,166–117,000 Japanese. Around half of the island's population of 300,000 were killed, committed suicide or went missing.
Final days
The assaults on both Iwo Jima and Okinawa proves incredibly costly in terms of American lives and president Truman was horrified at the prospect of Operation Downfall, a planned boots-on-the-ground invasion of mainland Japan that was estimated to lead to over a million casualties among American soldiers. Despite a devastating campaign of fire-bombing in Tokyo and dozens of other cities, the Japanese showed no sign of planning to surrender. Following the Potsdam Declaration of July 26, where the Allies threatened "prompt and utter destruction" should Japan not surrender, the decision was made to resort to the first use of atomic bombs. On 6 August, the 393d Bombardment Squadron B-29 Enola Gay, took off from Tinian and dropped the bomb on the city of Hiroshima. Three days later, a second bomb was dropped on Nagasaki. The two bombings killed 129,000–226,000 people, most of them civilians. On 9 August, the Soviet Union also invaded Manchukuo in what was to be the last campaign of the war.
On 10 August the "sacred decision" was made by Japanese Cabinet to accept the Potsdam terms and on 15 August Emperor Hirohito broadcast to the nation and to the world at large the rescript of surrender, ending the Second World War. The formal Japanese Instrument of Surrender was signed on 2 September 1945, on the battleship USS Missouri, in Tokyo Bay. The surrender was accepted by General Douglas MacArthur as Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers.
The Holocaust
The Holocaust (which roughly means "great fire") was the deliberate, systematic murder of millions of Jews and other minorities during World War II by Hitler's Nazi regime in Europe. Several differing views exist regarding whether it was intended to occur from the war's beginning, or if the plans for it came about later. Regardless, persecution of Jews extended well before the war even started, such as in the Kristallnacht (literally "Crystal Night", Night of Broken Glass). The Nazis used propaganda to great effect to stir up anti-Semitic feelings within ordinary Germans. Many people, including politicians and historians, consider the Holocaust to be worst event in history, and have described Hitler, his followers, and his regime as evil.
After the conquest of Poland, the Third Reich, which had previously deported Jews and other "undesirables", suddenly had within its borders the largest concentration of Jews in the world. The solution was to round up Jews and place them in Nazi concentration camps or in ghettos, cordoned off sections of cities where Jews were forced to live in deplorable conditions, often with tens of thousands starving to death, and the bodies decaying in the streets. As appalling as this sounds, they were the lucky ones. After the invasion of the Soviet Union, armed killing squads of SS men known as Einsatzgruppen systematically rounded up Jews and murdered an estimated one million Jews within the country. As barbaric and inhuman as this seems, it was too slow and inefficient by Nazi standards.
In 1942, the top leadership met in Wannsee, a suburb of Berlin, and began to plan a more efficient way to slaughter the Jews. The Nazis created a system of extermination camps throughout Poland, and began rounding up Jews from the Soviet Union, and from the Ghettos. Not only were Jews shot or gassed to death en masse, but they were forced to provide slave labor and they were used in horrific medical experiments (see Human experimentation in Nazi Germany). Out of the widespread condemnation of the Nazis' medical experiments, the Nuremberg Code of medical ethics was devised.
The Nazis took a sadistic pleasure in the death camps; the entrance to the most notorious camp, Auschwitz, stated "Arbeit Macht Frei"—"Work Sets You Free". In the end, six million Jews and up to 5 million homosexuals, Jehovah's Witnesses, Roma and political prisoners were killed by various means, mainly in the death camps. An additional several million Soviet and other Allied prisoners of war died in camps and holding areas.
There is some controversy over whether ordinary Germans knew about the Holocaust. It appears that many Germans knew about the concentration camps; such things were prominently displayed in magazines and newspapers. In many places, Jews had to walk past towns and villages on their way to work as slaves in German industry. In any case, Allied soldiers reported that the smell of the camps carried for miles. A very small number of people deny the Holocaust occurred entirely, though these claims have been routinely discredited by mainstream historians.
The Nuclear Age begins
During the 1930s, innovations in physics made it apparent that it could be possible to develop nuclear weapons of incredible power using nuclear reactions. When World War II broke out, scientists and advisors among the Allies feared that Nazi Germany may have been trying to develop its own atomic weapons, and the United States and the United Kingdom pooled their efforts in what became known as the Manhattan Project to beat them to it. At the secret Los Alamos laboratory in New Mexico, scientist Robert Oppenheimer led a team of the world's top scientists to develop the first nuclear weapons, the first of which was tested at the Trinity site in July 1945. However, Germany had surrendered in May 1945, and it had been discovered that the German atomic bomb program had not been very close to success.
The Allied team produced two nuclear weapons for use in the war, one powered by uranium-235 and the other by plutonium as fissionable material, named "Little Boy" and "Fat Man". These were dropped on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki on August 6 and 9, 1945 each. This, in combination with the Soviet invasion of Japanese-controlled territory, convinced the Japanese government to surrender unconditionally. These two weapons remain the only two nuclear weapons ever used against other countries in war.
Nuclear weapons brought an entirely new and terrifying possibility to warfare: a nuclear holocaust. While at first the United States held a monopoly on the production of nuclear weapons, the Soviet Union, with some assistance from espionage, managed to detonate its first weapon (dubbed "Joe-1" by the West) in August 1949. The post-war relations between the two, which had already been deteriorating, began to rapidly disintegrate. Soon the two were locked in a massive stockpiling of nuclear weapons. The United States began a crash program to develop the first hydrogen bomb in 1950, and detonated its first thermonuclear weapon in 1952. This new weapon was alone over 400 times as powerful as the weapons used against Japan. The Soviet Union detonated a primitive thermonuclear weapon in 1953 and a full-fledged one in 1955.
The conflict continued to escalate, with the major superpowers developing long-range missiles (such as the ICBM) and a nuclear strategy which guaranteed that any use of the nuclear weapons would be suicide for the attacking nation (Mutually Assured Destruction). The creation of early warning systems put the control of these weapons into the hands of newly created computers, and they served as a tense backdrop throughout the Cold War.
Since the 1940s there were concerns about the rising proliferation of nuclear weapons to new countries, which was seen as being destabilizing to international relations, spurring regional arms races, and generally increasing the likelihood of some form of nuclear war. Eventually, nine nations would overtly develop nuclear weapons, and still maintain stockpiles today: the United States, the Soviet Union (and later Russia would inherit these), the United Kingdom, France, China, India, Pakistan, Israel and North Korea. South Africa developed six crude weapons in the 1980s (which it later dismantled), and Israel almost certainly developed nuclear weapons though it never confirmed nor denied it. The creation of the Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty in 1968 was an attempt to curtail such proliferation, but a number of countries developed nuclear weapons since it was signed (and many did not sign it), and a number of other countries, including Libya and Iran were suspected of having clandestine nuclear weapons programs.
The post-war world
Following World War II, the majority of the industrialized world lay in ruins as a result of aerial bombings, naval bombardment, and protracted land campaigns. The United States was a notable exception to this; barring Pearl Harbor and some minor incidents, the U.S. had suffered no attacks upon its territory. The United States and the Soviet Union, which, despite the devastation of its most populated areas, rebuilt quickly, found themselves the world's two dominant superpowers.
Much of Western Europe was rebuilt after the war with assistance from the Marshall Plan. Germany, chief instigator of the war, was placed under joint military occupation by the United States, Great Britain, France, and the Soviet Union. Berlin, although in Soviet-controlled territory, was also divided among the four powers. Occupation of Berlin would continue until 1990. Japan was also placed under U.S. occupation, that would last seven years, until 1952. Oddly, these two Axis powers, despite military occupation, soon rose to become the second (Japan) and third (West Germany) most powerful economies in the world.
Following the end of the war, the Allies famously prosecuted numerous German officials for war crimes and other offenses in the Nuremberg Trials. Although Adolf Hitler had committed suicide, many of his cronies, including Hermann Göring, were convicted. Less well-known trials of other Axis officials also occurred, including the Tokyo War Crime Trial.
The failure of the League of Nations to prevent World War II essentially discredited the organization, and it was dissolved. A new attempt at world peace was begun with the founding of the United Nations on October 24, 1945, in San Francisco. Today, nearly all countries are members, but despite its many successes, the organization's success at achieving its goal of world peace is disputed. The organization was never given enough power to overcome the conflicting interests and priorities of its member nations.
The end of empires: decolonization
Almost all of the major nations that were involved in World War II began shedding their overseas colonies soon after the conflict. The tactics employed by the revolutionaries ranged from non-violent forms of protest to armed rebellions, depending on the nation involved. Immediately after the war, European powers began a decades-long process of withdrawing from their possessions in Africa and Asia.
In India, Mahatma Gandhi became a global icon for his non-violent struggle to achieve Indian independence whereas Mohamed Ali Jinnah advocated for the independence of a separate state for Muslims. This was achieved in 1947 with the end of British rule in India and the Partition of the territory into modern day India and Pakistan, which would later also further divide, leading to the creation of the People's Republic of Bangladesh in 1971. Elsewhere in Asia, The United States granted independence to the Philippines, its major Pacific possession in 1946. In French Indochina, armed insurrections forced the French out in the early 1950s, leading to the formation of Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam.
In Africa, nationalists such as Jomo Kenyatta of Kenya and Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana led their respective nations to independence from foreign rule. Mere decades before, the British Empire controlled almost half of the continent, but by 1968, the only British possession in Africa was Seychelles (which would also become independent in 1976). Between 1956 and 1962, almost 20 African countries achieved their independence from France. Through the efforts of Amílcar Cabral and others, the Portuguese colonies of Guinea-Bissau, Cape Verde, Angola, Mozambique and São Tomé and Príncipe followed suit and achieved independence during the mid-1970s, in what was to be the last important wave of African decolonization.
In 1946, there were 35 member states in the United Nations, but as the newly independent nations joined the organization, by 1970 membership increased to 127.
The emergence of newly independent countries in Africa and Asia that used the borders of the imperial partitions later led to further conflict. In many cases this meant that historically antagonistic ethnic or religious groups now needed to share the same country or that several nations held territorial claims over regions which were more or less arbitrarily divided by European powers. Some conflicts which aroused from these tensions, especially the Nigerian Civil War, the Second Congo War, the Second Sudanese Civil War and the Bangladesh Liberation War have been among the bloodiest wars of the 20th century.
The Cold War (1947–1991)
During the Yalta Conference, where the Western, capitalist powers, and the communist Soviet Union agreed on separate spheres of influence in Europe, they set up the stage for a geopolitical rivalry that would dominate international relations for the next five decades. In March 1946, Winston Churchill gave a now famous speech while visiting Westminster College in the US which is usually credited as the first use of the term iron curtain to refer to the separation of Soviet and Western areas of influence in Europe:From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic an iron curtain has descended across the Continent. Behind that line lie all the capitals of the ancient states of Central and Eastern Europe. Warsaw, Berlin, Prague, Vienna, Budapest, Belgrade, Bucharest and Sofia; all these famous cities and the populations around them lie in what I must call the Soviet sphere, and all are subject, in one form or another, not only to Soviet influence but to a very high and in some cases increasing measure of control from Moscow.Indeed, the Soviet Union have already annexed several countries as Soviet Socialist Republics during the war. Eastern Poland (incorporated into the Byelorussian SSR and the Ukrainian SSR), Latvia (which became the Latvian SSR), Estonia (which became the Estonian SSR), Lithuania ( which became the Lithuanian SSR), part of eastern Finland (which became the Karelo-Finnish SSR) and eastern Romania (part of which became the Moldavian SSR) were now wholly part of Soviet Union. Furthermore, between 1945 and 1949, Yugoslavia, Albania, Bulgaria, Poland, Romania, Czechoslovakia, Hungary and East Germany saw communist regimes coming to power and their transformation into People's Republics. While they remained independent countries and their relation with the Soviet authorities would fluctuate over the next half century, they were widely seen as Soviet satellite states. Outside of Europe, countries that would see the rise of communism and would ally themselves to the communist bloc include Mongolia, China, North Korea, Cuba and Vietnam.
The spread of the communist ideology in general and the Soviet influence in particular made Western leaders nervous and it even lead to Churchill considering a preemptive attack on the USSR even before World War II was formally ended. Fearful of a possible invasion of Western Europe by Soviet forces or, more realistically, Soviet subversion of Western governments, the US set up clandestine "stay-behind" operations of armed resistance in collaboration with Western European leaders, which later evolved into Operation Gladio.
The two rival blocks also coalesced into formal mutual defense organizations, with the formation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in 1949 and the Warsaw Pact in 1955, each determine to expand its own influence among unaligned countries and limit the influence of their rivals.
War by proxy
Two wars and a near-war in the 1950s became the focus for capitalist versus communist struggle. The first war was the Korean War, fought between People's Republic of China-backed North Korea and mainly United States-backed South Korea. The Korean Peninsula was a Japanese colony between 1910 and 1945, when Soviet and American troops invaded and divided it along the 38th parallel. A communist government controlled the territory north of the border and a capitalist one controlled the South, with both authorities considering the other one illegitimate and claiming sovereignty over the entire peninsula. North Korea's invasion of South Korea on June 25, 1950 led to United Nations intervention. General Douglas MacArthur led troops from the United States, Canada, Australia, Great Britain, and other countries in repulsing the Northern invasion. However, the war reached a stalemate after Chinese intervention pushed U.N. forces back, and an Armistice ended hostilities in July 1953, leaving the two Koreas divided and tense for the rest of the century.
The second war, the Vietnam War, was perhaps the third most visible war of the 20th century, after World War I and World War II. After the French withdrawal from its former colony, on 21 July 1954, Vietnam became partitioned into two halves, much like Korea, along the 17th parallel. Fighting between North and South eventually escalated into a regional war. The United States provided aid to South Vietnam and contributed to propaganda efforts against the North, but was not directly involved until the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, passed in reaction to a supposed North Vietnamese attack upon American destroyers, brought the U.S. into the war as a belligerent. The war was initially viewed as a fight to contain communism (see containment, Truman Doctrine, and Domino Theory), but, as more Americans were drafted and news of events such as the Tet Offensive and My Lai massacre leaked out, American sentiment turned against the war. U.S. President Richard Nixon was elected partially on a promise to end the war. This Nixon Doctrine involved a gradual pullout of American forces; South Vietnamese units were supposed to replace them, backed up by American air power. The plan went awry, with Nixon deliberately sabotaging peace talks for political gain, and the war spilled into neighboring Cambodia while South Vietnamese forces were pushed further back. Eventually, the U.S. and North Vietnam signed the Paris Peace Accords, ending U.S. involvement in the war. With the threat of U.S. retaliation gone, the North proceeded to violate the ceasefire and invaded the South with full military force. Saigon was captured on April 30, 1975, and Vietnam was unified under Communist rule a year later, effectively bringing an end to one of the most unpopular wars of all time.
The Cuban Missile Crisis illustrates just how close to the brink of nuclear war the world came during the Cold War. Cuba, under Fidel Castro's socialist government, had formed close ties with the Soviet Union. This was obviously disquieting to the United States, given Cuba's proximity. When Lockheed U-2 spy plane flights over the island revealed that Soviet missile launchers were being installed, U.S. President John F. Kennedy instituted a naval blockade and publicly confronted the Soviet Union. After a tense week, the Soviet Union backed down and ordered the launchers removed, not wanting to risk igniting a new world war.
The space race
With Cold War tensions running high, the Soviet Union and United States took their rivalry to the stars in 1957 with the Soviet launch of Sputnik. A "space race" between the two powers followed. Although the USSR reached several important milestones, such as the first craft on the Moon (Luna 2) and the first human in space (Yuri Gagarin), the U.S. pulled ahead eventually with its Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo programs, which culminated in Apollo 11 astronauts landing on the moon on 20 July 1969. Five more landings with astronauts followed (Apollo 13 was forced to abort its mission). Nevertheless, despite its successes, the U.S. space program could not match many major achievements of the Soviet space program, such as rover-based space exploration and image and video transfer from the surface of another planet, until the early 21st century.
In addition, both countries launched numerous probes into space, such as the Venera 7 and Voyager 2.
In later decades, space became a somewhat friendlier place. Regular space flights with astronauts were made possible with the American space shuttle, which was the first reusable spacecraft to be successfully used. Mir and Skylab enabled prolonged human habitation in space. In the 1990s, work on the International Space Station began, and by the end of the century, while still incomplete, it was in continual use by astronauts from the United States, Europe, Russia, Japan, and Canada.
The end of the Cold War
By the 1980s, the Soviet Union was weakening. The Sino-Soviet split had removed the USSR's most powerful ally, the People's Republic of China. Its arms race with the U.S. was draining the country of funds, and further weakened by internal pressures, ethnic and political. Mikhail Gorbachev, its last leader, attempted to reform the country with glasnost and perestroika, but the formation of Solidarity, the fall of the Berlin Wall, and the breaking-off of several Soviet republics, such as Lithuania, started a slippery slope of events that culminated in a coup to overthrow Gorbachev, organized by Communist Party hard-liners. Boris Yeltsin, president of Russia, organized mass opposition, and the coup failed. On December 26, 1991, the Soviet Union was officially disbanded into its constituent republics, thus putting a final line under the already exhausted Cold War.
Information and communications technology
The creation of the transistor revolutionized the development of the computer. The first computers, room-sized electro-mechanical devices built to break cryptographical codes during World War II, quickly became at least 20 times smaller using transistors. Computers became reprogrammable rather than fixed-purpose devices. The invention of programming languages meant computer operators could concentrate on problem solving at a high-level, without having to think in terms of the individual instructions to the computer itself. The creation of operating systems also vastly improved programming productivity. Building on this, computer pioneers could now realize what they had envisioned. The graphical user interface, piloted by a computer mouse made it simple to harness the power of the computer and made it more accessible to new users. Storage for computer programs progressed from punched cards and paper tape to magnetic tape, floppy disks and hard disks. Core memory and bubble memory fell to random access memory.
The invention of the word processor, spreadsheet and database greatly improved office productivity over the old paper, typewriter and filing cabinet methods. The economic advantage given to businesses led to economic efficiencies in computers themselves. Cost-effective CPUs led to thousands of industrial and home-brew computer designs, many of which became successful; a home-computer boom was led by the Apple II, the ZX80 and the Commodore PET.
IBM, seeking to embrace the microcomputer revolution, devised its IBM Personal Computer (PC). Crucially, IBM developed the PC from third-party components that were available on the open market. The only impediment to another company duplicating the system's architecture was the proprietary BIOS software. Other companies, starting with Compaq, reverse engineered the BIOS and released PC compatible computers that soon became the dominant architecture. Microsoft, which produced an operating system for the PC, rode this wave of popularity to become the world's leading software company.
The 1980s heralded the Information Age. The rise of computer applications and data processing made ethereal "information" as valuable as physical commodities. This brought about new concerns surrounding intellectual property issues. The U.S. Government made algorithms patentable, forming the basis of software patents. The controversy over these and proprietary software led Richard Stallman to create the Free Software Foundation and begin the GNU Project, paving the way for a free software movement.
Computers also became a usable platform for entertainment. Computer games were first developed by software programmers exercising their creativity on large systems at universities, but these efforts became commercially successful in arcade games such as Pong and Space Invaders. Once the home computer market was established, young programmers in their bedrooms became the core of a youthful video game industry. In order to take advantage of advancing technology, games consoles were created. Like arcade systems, these machines had custom hardware designed to do game-oriented operations (such as sprites and parallax scrolling) in preference to general purpose computing tasks.
Computer networks appeared in two main styles; the local area network, linking computers in an office or school to each other, and the wide area network, linking the local area networks together. Initially, computers depended on the telephone networks to link to each other, spawning the Bulletin Board sub-culture. However, a DARPA project to create bomb-proof computer networks led to the creation of the Internet, a network of networks. The core of this network was the robust TCP/IP network protocol. Thanks to efforts from Al Gore, the Internet grew beyond its military role when universities and commercial businesses were permitted to connect their networks to it. The main impetus for this was electronic mail, a far faster and convenient form of communication than a conventional letter and memo distribution, and the File Transfer Protocol (FTP). However, the Internet remained largely unknown to the general public, who were used to Bulletin Boards and services like Compuserve and America Online. This changed when Tim Berners-Lee devised a simpler form of Vannevar Bush's hypertext, which he dubbed the World Wide Web. "The Web" suddenly changed the Internet into a printing press beyond the geographic boundaries of physical countries; it was termed "cyberspace". Anyone with a computer and an Internet connection could write pages in the simple HTML format and publish their thoughts to the world.
The Web's immense success also fueled the commercial use of the Internet. Convenient home shopping had been an element of "visions of the future" since the development of the telephone, but now the race was on to provide convenient, interactive consumerism. Companies trading through websites became known as "dot coms", due to the ".com" suffix of commercial Internet addresses. The change of the century also lead to the fear and paranoia of Y2K, where it was hypothesized that the World's computers would glitch and cause havoc on banks, prisons, transit systems and more.
The world at the end of the century
By the end of the century, more technological advances and scientific discoveries been made than in all of preceding history. Communications and information technology, transportation technology, and medical advances had radically altered daily lives. Europe appeared to be at a sustainable peace for the first time in recorded history. The people of the Indian subcontinent, a sixth of the world population at the end of the century, had attained an indigenous independence for the first time in centuries. China, an ancient nation comprising a fifth of the world population, was finally open to the world in a new and powerful synthesis of west and east, creating a new state after the near-complete destruction of the old cultural order. With the end of colonialism and the Cold War, nearly a billion people in Africa were left with truly independent new nation states, some cut from whole cloth, standing up after centuries of foreign domination.
The world was undergoing its second major period of globalization; the first, which started in the 19th century, having been terminated by World War I. Since the US was in a position of almost unchallenged domination, a major part of the process was Americanization. This led to anti-Western and anti-American feelings in parts of the world, especially the Middle East. The influence of China and India was also rising, as the world's largest populations, long marginalized by the West and by their own rulers, were rapidly integrating with the world economy.
However, several problems faced the world. The gap between rich and poor nations continued to widen. Some said that this problem could not be fixed, that there was a set amount of wealth and it could only be shared by so many. Others said that the powerful nations with large economies were not doing enough to help improve the rapidly evolving economies of the Third World. However, developing countries faced many challenges, including the scale of the task to be surmounted, rapidly growing populations, and the need to protect the environment and the cost that goes along with it.
Terrorism, dictatorship, and the spread of nuclear weapons were other issues requiring attention. The world was still blighted by small-scale wars and other violent conflicts, fueled by competition over resources and by ethnic conflicts. Despots such as Kim Jong-il of North Korea continued to lead their nations toward the development of nuclear weapons.
Disease threatened to destabilize many regions of the world. New viruses such as SARS and West Nile continued to spread. In poor nations, malaria and other diseases affected the majority of the population. Millions were infected with HIV, the virus which causes AIDS. The virus was becoming an epidemic in southern Africa.
Perhaps most importantly, it was speculated that in the long term, environmental problems threatened the planet's livability. The most serious problem was global warming, which was predicted to frequently flood coastal areas, due to human-caused emission of greenhouse gases, particularly carbon dioxide produced by the burning of fossil fuels. This prompted many nations to negotiate and sign the Kyoto treaty, which set mandatory limits on carbon dioxide emissions.
The celebration of the ending of the 20th century, was what the majority say was at New Year's Eve 1999 and the beginning of the 21st century was at New Year's Day, 2000, while there were and still are a minority who says that the 20th century ended on New Year's Eve 2000 and the 21s century began on New Year's Day 2001.
See also
Timeline of the 20th century
Infectious disease in the 20th century
Death rates in the 20th century
List of battles 1901-2000
20th century inventions
20th-century art
List of 20th-century religious leaders
Modernism
Modern art
References
Sources
External links
The 20th Century Research Project
Slouching Towards Utopia: The Economic History of the Twentieth Century
TIME Archives The greatest writers of the 20th Century
Events
Events by century
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nautical%20publications
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Nautical publications
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Nautical publications is a technical term used in maritime circles describing a set of publications, either published by national governments or by commercial and professional organisations, for use in safe navigation of ships, boats, and similar vessels. Other publications might cover topics such as seamanship and cargo operations. In the UK, the United Kingdom Hydrographic Office, the Witherby Publishing Group and the Nautical Institute provide numerous navigational publications, including charts, publications on how to navigate and passage planning publications. In the US, publications are issued by the US government and US Coast Guard.
The marine environment is subject to frequent change and the latest publications should always be used, especially when passage planning.
Hydrographic officers who produce of nautical publications also provide a system to inform mariners of changes that effect the chart. In the US and the UK, corrections and notifications of new editions are provided by various governmental agencies by way of Notice to Mariners, Local Notice to Mariners, Summary of Corrections, and Broadcast Notice to Mariners. Radio broadcasts give advance notice of urgent corrections.
A convenient way to keep track of corrections is with a Chart and Publication Correction Record system, either electronic or paper-based. Using this system, the navigator does not immediately update every publication in the library when a new Notice to Mariners arrives, instead creating a 'card' for every chart and noting the correction on this 'card'. When the time comes to use the publication, the navigator pulls the publication and its card, and makes the indicated corrections to the publication. This system ensures that every publication is properly corrected prior to use.
Various and diverse methods exist for the correction of electronic nautical publications.
List of publications
List of Lights and Radio Signals
List of lights and radio signals, sometimes including Fog Signals are provided by government authorities and hydrographic offices for mariners. The lists include prominent lights, such as lighthouses and radio stations that are used in passage planning for navigation and communication while on voyage. In the US, the United States Coast Guard Light List is an American navigation publication in seven volumes made available yearly by the U.S. Coast Guard which gives information on lighted navigation aids, unlighted buoys, radiobeacons, radio direction finder calibration stations, daybeacons and racons. The List of Lights, Radio Aids, and Fog Signals is a navigation publication produced by the United States Defense Mapping Agency Hydrographic/Topographic Center. The book is usually referred to as the List of Lights, and should not be confused with the U.S. Coast Guard's Light List. The List of Lights is published in seven volumes, as Publication numbers 110 through 116. Each volume contains lights and other aids to navigation that are maintained by or under the authority of other governments.
In the UK, the UKHO List of Lights and Fog Signals, and the Admiralty List of Radio signals are split into separate volumes. The UKHO light lists include some 85,000 light structures of significance for navigation. The UKHO radio lists are split into six volumes.
The Canadian Coast Guard publishes its own List of Lights, Buoys and Fog Signals covering various coastal geographic areas in Canada.
Pilot Volumes/Sailing Directions
These provide a variety of information for the mariner, including details of harbours, ports, navigational hazards, local information and pilotage requirements.
In the UK, the Admiralty issues 76 volumes covering the world and these are used frequently by most merchant ships.
In the US, the United States Coast Pilots is a nine-volume American navigation publication distributed yearly by the National Ocean Service. Its purpose is to supplement nautical charts of US waters. Information comes from field inspections, survey vessels, and various harbour authorities. Maritime officials and pilotage associations provide additional information. Coast Pilots provides more detailed information than Sailing Directions because the latter is intended exclusively for the oceangoing mariner. Each volume of Coast Pilots must be regularly corrected using Notice to Mariners.
Sailing Directions is a 47-volume American navigation publication published by the Defense Mapping Agency Hydrographic/Topographic Center. It consists of 37 Enroute volumes and 10 Planning Guides. Planning Guides describe general features of ocean basins; Enroutes describe features of coastlines, ports, and harbors. Sailing Directions is updated when new data requires extensive revision of an existing text. These data are obtained from several sources, including pilots and Sailing Directions from other countries.
Passage Planning Guides provide a variety of navigation related information for deck officers during passage planning and cover certain geographic areas. Examples include the Witherby Passage Planning Guide for the Straits of Malacca and Singapore and the Port of London Authority Passage Planning Guide.
General Reference Publications
General reference nautical publications are available from government authorities and publishers, such as Witherbys and Adlard Coles Nautical. They cover a wide range of subjects, such as navigation, passage planning, seamanship, the use of Radar and ARPA, anchoring and mooring. Guidance publications are also available that cover a wider variety of compliance with international and local maritime regulations, including those of the International Maritime Organization.
Maritime industry bodies such as the International Chamber of Shipping, BIMCO, SIGTTO and OCIMF produce nautical publications on operational subjects published by Witherbys. OCIMF focuses on industry guidance for oil tankers and oil terminals, including the leading industry title International Safety Guide for Tankers and Terminals (the 6th edition was published in 2020). SIGTTO and Witherbys produce nautical operational titles for gas carriers including LNG carriers, for example Liquefied Gas Handling Principles on Ships and in Terminals (LGHP4) was published in 2016.
Cyber security has come under increased focus in the maritime industry since the IMO required cyber security to be addressed under the International Safety Management Code. In 2019, ICS, BIMCO and Witherbys published the Cyber Security Workbook for Onboard Ship Use. The second edition of the nautical workbook was published in 2021.
The American Practical Navigator, written by Nathaniel Bowditch, is an encyclopedia of navigation, valuable handbook on oceanography and meteorology, and contains useful tables and a maritime glossary. In 1866 the copyright and plates were bought by the Hydrographic Office of the United States Navy, and as a U.S. Government publication, it is now available for free online.
The World Port Index
The World Port Index is a US publication issued by the US National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency. It contains a tabular listing of thousands of ports throughout the world, describing their location, characteristics, known facilities, and available services. Of particular interest are the applicable volume of Sailing Directions and the number of the harbor chart. The table is arranged geographically, with an alphabetical index. It is also available from several different independent publishers.
Distances Between Ports
Distances Between Ports is a US publication produced by the US Defense Mapping Agency Hydrographic Topographic Center and issued by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and the United States Department of Commerce. It lists the distances between major ports. Reciprocal distances between two ports may differ due to different routes chosen because of currents and climatic conditions. To reduce the number of listings needed, junction points along major routes are used to consolidate routes converging from different directions. It is also available from several different independent publishers.
References
Navigation
Hydrography
Water transport
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keith%20Geddes
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Keith Geddes
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Keith Oliver Geddes (born 1947) is a professor emeritus in the David R. Cheriton School of Computer Science within the Faculty of Mathematics at the University of Waterloo in Waterloo, Ontario. He is a former director of the Symbolic Computation Group in the School of Computer Science. He received a BA in Mathematics at the University of Saskatchewan in 1968; he completed both his MSc and PhD in Computer Science at the University of Toronto.
Geddes is probably best known for co-founding the Maple computer algebra system, now in widespread academic use around the world. He is also the Scientific Director at the Ontario Research Centre for Computer Algebra, and is a member of the Association for Computing Machinery, as well as the American and Canadian Mathematical Societies.
Research
Geddes' primary research interest is to develop algorithms for the mechanization of mathematics. More specifically, he is interested in the computational aspects of algebra and analysis. Currently, he is focusing on designing hybrid symbolic-numeric algorithms to perform definite integration and solve ordinary and partial differential equations.
Much of his work currently revolves around Maple.
Teaching
Geddes retired from teaching in December 2008.
Geddes taught a mixture of both senior-level symbolic computation courses, at both the undergraduate and graduate level, as well as introductory courses on the principles of computer science.
See also
Maple computer algebra system
Waterloo Maple
Gaston Gonnet — the co-founder of Waterloo Maple
Risch algorithm
Symbolic integration
Derivatives of the incomplete gamma function
List of University of Waterloo people
External links
Keith Geddes' home page
The Symbolic Computation Group
1947 births
Living people
Canadian mathematicians
University of Toronto alumni
University of Waterloo faculty
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cable%20modem%20termination%20system
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Cable modem termination system
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A cable modem termination system (CMTS) is a piece of equipment, typically located in a cable company's headend or hubsite, which is used to provide high speed data services, such as cable Internet or Voice over Internet Protocol, to cable subscribers. A CMTS provides many of the same functions provided by the DSLAM in a DSL system.
Connections
In order to provide high speed data services, a cable company will connect its headend to the Internet via very high capacity data links to a network service provider. On the subscriber side of the headend, the CMTS enables communication with subscribers' cable modems. Different CMTSs are capable of serving different cable modem population sizes—ranging from 4,000 cable modems to 150,000 or more, depending in part on traffic. A given headend may have between 1-12 CMTSs to service the cable modem population served by that headend or HFC hub.
One way to think of a CMTS is to imagine a router with Ethernet interfaces (connections) on one side and coaxial cable RF interfaces on the other side. The RF/coax interfaces carry RF signals to and from the subscriber's cable modem.
In fact, most CMTSs have both Ethernet interfaces (or other more traditional high-speed data interfaces like SONET) as well as RF interfaces. In this way, traffic that is coming from the Internet can be routed (or bridged) through the Ethernet interface, through the CMTS and then onto the RF interfaces that are connected to the cable company's hybrid fiber coax (HFC). The traffic winds its way through the HFC to end up at the cable modem in the subscriber's home. Traffic from a subscriber's home system goes through the cable modem and out to the Internet in the opposite direction.
CMTSs typically carry only IP traffic. Traffic destined for the cable modem from the Internet, known as downstream traffic, is carried in IP packets encapsulated according to DOCSIS standard. These packets are carried on data streams that are typically modulated onto a TV channel using either 64-QAM or 256-QAM versions of quadrature amplitude modulation.
Upstream data (data from cable modems to the headend or Internet) is carried in Ethernet frames encapsulated inside DOCSIS frames modulated with QPSK, 16-QAM, 32-QAM, 64-QAM or 128-QAM using TDMA, ATDMA or S-CDMA frequency sharing mechanisms. This is done at the "subband" or "return" portion of the cable TV spectrum (also known as the "T" channels), a much lower part of the frequency spectrum than the downstream signal, usually 5–42 MHz in DOCSIS 2.0 or 5–65 MHz in EuroDOCSIS.
A typical CMTS allows a subscriber's computer to obtain an IP address by forwarding DHCP requests to the relevant servers. This DHCP server returns, for the most part, what looks like a typical response including an assigned IP address for the computer, gateway/router addresses to use, DNS servers, etc.
The CMTS may also implement some basic filtering to protect against unauthorized users and various attacks. Traffic shaping is sometimes performed to prioritize application traffic, perhaps based upon subscribed plan or download usage and also to provide guaranteed Quality of service (QoS) for the cable operator's own PacketCable-based VOIP service. However, the function of traffic shaping is more likely done by a Cable Modem or policy traffic switch. A CMTS may also act as a bridge or router.
A customer's cable modem cannot communicate directly with other modems on the line. In general, cable modem traffic is routed to other cable modems or to the Internet through a series of CMTSs and traditional routers. However, a route could conceivably pass through a single CMTS.
Architectures
A CMTS can be broken down into two different architectures, Integrated CMTS (I-CMTS) or Modular (M-CMTS). There are both pros and cons to each type of architecture.
Modular CMTS (M-CMTS)
In a M-CMTS solution the architecture is broken up into two components. The first part is the Physical Downstream component (PHY) which is known as the Edge QAM (EQAM). The second part is the IP networking and DOCSIS MAC Component which is referred to as the M-CMTS Core. There are also several new protocols and components introduced with this type of architecture. One is the DOCSIS Timing Interface, which provides a reference frequency between the EQAM and M-CMTS Core via a DTI Server. The second is the Downstream External PHY Interface (DEPI). The DEPI protocol controls the delivery of DOCSIS
frames from the M-CMTS Core to the EQAM devices Some of the challenges that entail an M-CMTS platform are increased complexity in RF combining and an increase in the number of failure points. One of the benefits of an M-CMTS architecture is that it is extremely scalable to larger numbers of downstream channels.
Manufacturers
Current
ARRIS Group
C9 Networks
Catapult Technologies
Coaxial Networks Inc.
Casa Systems
Cisco Systems
Chongqing Jinghong
Damery sa
Gainspeed (Nokia company)
WISI Communications GmbH
Kathrein
Suma Scientific
Huawei Technologies
Harmonic Inc.
Teleste
Historical
3COM (Acquired by HP)
Broadband Access Systems (Acquired by ADC Telecommunications)
ADC Telecommunications (CMTS business acquired by BigBand Networks)
BigBand Networks (Exited CMTS business, remaining business later acquired by ARRIS)
Cadant (Acquired by ARRIS)
Com21 (CMTS business acquired by ARRIS)
RiverDelta (Acquired by Motorola)
Terayon (Acquired by Motorola)
Pacific Broadband Communications (Acquired by Juniper Networks)
Juniper Networks (Exited CMTS business)
Motorola (Acquired by ARRIS)
Daphne sa (Acquired by Damery sa)
See also
DOCSIS
References
External links
Digital cable
Internet access
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephony
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Telephony
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Telephony ( ) is the field of technology involving the development, application, and deployment of telecommunication services for the purpose of electronic transmission of voice, fax, or data, between distant parties. The history of telephony is intimately linked to the invention and development of the telephone.
Telephony is commonly referred to as the construction or operation of telephones and telephonic systems and as a system of telecommunications in which telephonic equipment is employed in the transmission of speech or other sound between points, with or without the use of wires. The term is also used frequently to refer to computer hardware, software, and computer network systems, that perform functions traditionally performed by telephone equipment. In this context the technology is specifically referred to as Internet telephony, or voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP).
Overview
The first telephones were connected directly in pairs. Each user had a separate telephone wired to each locations to be reached. This quickly became inconvenient and unmanageable when users wanted to communicate with more than a few people. The invention of the telephone exchange provided the solution for establishing telephone connections with any other telephone in service in the local area. Each telephone was connected to the exchange at first with one wire, later one wire pair, the local loop. Nearby exchanges in other service areas were connected with trunk lines, and long-distance service could be established by relaying the calls through multiple exchanges.
Initially, exchange switchboards were manually operated by an attendant, commonly referred to as the "switchboard operator". When a customer cranked a handle on the telephone, it activated an indicator on the board in front of the operator, who would in response plug the operator headset into that jack and offer service. The caller had to ask for the called party by name, later by number, and the operator connected one end of a circuit into the called party jack to alert them. If the called station answered, the operator disconnected their headset and completed the station-to-station circuit. Trunk calls were made with the assistance of other operators at other exchangers in the network.
Until the 1970s, most telephones were permanently wired to the telephone line installed at customer premises. Later, conversion to installation of jacks that terminated the inside wiring permitted simple exchange of telephone sets with telephone plugs and allowed portability of the set to multiple locations in the premises where jacks were installed. The inside wiring to all jacks was connected in one place to the wire drop which connects the building to a cable. Cables usually bring a large number of drop wires from all over a district access network to one wire center or telephone exchange. When a telephone user wants to make a telephone call, equipment at the exchange examines the dialed telephone number and connects that telephone line to another in the same wire center, or to a trunk to a distant exchange. Most of the exchanges in the world are interconnected through a system of larger switching systems, forming the public switched telephone network (PSTN).
In the second half of the 20th century, fax and data became important secondary applications of the network created to carry voices, and late in the century, parts of the network were upgraded with ISDN and DSL to improve handling of such traffic.
Today, telephony uses digital technology (digital telephony) in the provisioning of telephone services and systems. Telephone calls can be provided digitally, but may be restricted to cases in which the last mile is digital, or where the conversion between digital and analog signals takes place inside the telephone. This advancement has reduced costs in communication, and improved the quality of voice services. The first implementation of this, ISDN, permitted all data transport from end-to-end speedily over telephone lines. This service was later made much less important due to the ability to provide digital services based on the IP protocol.
Since the advent of personal computer technology in the 1980s, computer telephony integration (CTI) has progressively provided more sophisticated telephony services, initiated and controlled by the computer, such as making and receiving voice, fax, and data calls with telephone directory services and caller identification. The integration of telephony software and computer systems is a major development in the evolution of office automation. The term is used in describing the computerized services of call centers, such as those that direct your phone call to the right department at a business you're calling. It's also sometimes used for the ability to use your personal computer to initiate and manage phone calls (in which case you can think of your computer as your personal call center). CTI is not a new concept and has been used in the past in large telephone networks, but only dedicated call centers could justify the costs of the required equipment installation. Primary telephone service providers are offering information services such as automatic number identification, which is a telephone service architecture that separates CTI services from call switching and will make it easier to add new services. Dialed Number Identification Service (DNIS) on a scale is wide enough for its implementation to bring real value to business or residential telephone usage. A new generation of applications (middleware) is being developed as a result of standardization and availability of low cost computer telephony links.
Digital telephony
Digital telephony is the use of digital electronics in the operation and provisioning of telephony systems and services. Since the late 20th century, a digital core network has replaced the traditional analog transmission and signaling systems, and much of the access network has also been digitized.
Starting with the development of transistor technology, originating from Bell Telephone Laboratories in 1947, to amplification and switching circuits in the 1950s, the public switched telephone network (PSTN) has gradually moved towards solid-state electronics and automation. Following the development of computer-based electronic switching systems incorporating metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) and pulse-code modulation (PCM) technologies, the PSTN gradually evolved towards the digitization of signaling and audio transmissions. Digital telephony has since dramatically improved the capacity, quality and cost of the network. Digitization allows wideband voice on the same channel, with improved quality of a wider analog voice channel.
History
The earliest end-to-end analog telephone networks to be modified and upgraded to transmission networks with Digital Signal 1 (DS1/T1) carrier systems date back to the early 1960s. They were designed to support the basic 3 kHz voice channel by sampling the bandwidth-limited analog voice signal and encoding using pulse-code modulation (PCM). Early PCM codec-filters were implemented as passive resistorcapacitorinductor filter circuits, with analog-to-digital conversion (for digitizing voices) and digital-to-analog conversion (for reconstructing voices) handled by discrete devices. Early digital telephony was impractical due to the low performance and high costs of early PCM codec-filters.
Practical digital telecommunication was enabled by the invention of the metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET), which led to the rapid development and wide adoption of PCM digital telephony. The MOSFET was invented by Mohamed M. Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Telephone Laboratories in 1959, and the metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) integrated circuit (IC) chip was proposed soon after, but MOS technology was initially overlooked by Bell because they did not find it practical for analog telephone applications, before it was commercialized by Fairchild and RCA for digital electronics such as computers. MOS technology eventually became practical for telephone applications with the MOS mixed-signal integrated circuit, which combines analog and digital signal processing on a single chip, developed by former Bell engineer David A. Hodges with Paul R. Gray at UC Berkeley in the early 1970s. In 1974, Hodges and Gray worked with R.E. Suarez to develop MOS switched capacitor (SC) circuit technology, which they used to develop a digital-to-analog converter (DAC) chip, using MOS capacitors and MOSFET switches for data conversion. MOS analog-to-digital converter (ADC) and DAC chips were commercialized by 1974.
MOS SC circuits led to the development of PCM codec-filter chips in the late 1970s. The silicon-gate CMOS (complementary MOS) PCM codec-filter chip, developed by Hodges and W.C. Black in 1980, has since been the industry standard for digital telephony. By the 1990s, telecommunication networks such as the public switched telephone network (PSTN) had been largely digitized with very-large-scale integration (VLSI) CMOS PCM codec-filters, widely used in electronic switching systems for telephone exchanges, private branch exchanges (PBX) and key telephone systems (KTS); user-end modems; data transmission applications such as digital loop carriers, pair gain multiplexers, telephone loop extenders, integrated services digital network (ISDN) terminals, digital cordless telephones and digital cell phones; and applications such as speech recognition equipment, voice data storage, voice mail and digital tapeless answering machines. The bandwidth of digital telecommunication networks has been rapidly increasing at an exponential rate, as observed by Edholm's law, largely driven by the rapid scaling and miniaturization of MOS technology.
Uncompressed PCM digital audio with 8-bit depth and 8kHz sample rate requires a bit rate of 64kbit/s, which was impractical for early digital telecommunication networks with limited network bandwidth. A solution to this issue was linear predictive coding (LPC), a speech coding data compression algorithm that was first proposed by Fumitada Itakura of Nagoya University and Shuzo Saito of Nippon Telegraph and Telephone (NTT) in 1966. LPC was capable of audio data compression down to 2.4kbit/s, leading to the first successful real-time conversations over digital networks in the 1970s. LPC has since been the most widely used speech coding method. Another audio data compression method, a discrete cosine transform (DCT) algorithm called the modified discrete cosine transform (MDCT), has been widely adopted for speech coding in voice-over-IP (VoIP) applications since the late 1990s.
The development of transmission methods such as SONET and fiber optic transmission further advanced digital transmission. Although analog carrier systems existed that multiplexed multiple analog voice channels onto a single transmission medium, digital transmission allowed lower cost and more channels multiplexed on the transmission medium. Today the end instrument often remains analog but the analog signals are typically converted to digital signals at the serving area interface (SAI), central office (CO), or other aggregation point. Digital loop carriers (DLC) and fiber to the x place the digital network ever closer to the customer premises, relegating the analog local loop to legacy status.
Milestones in digital telephony
early experiments with pulse-code modulation (PCM) in telephony
the 8-bit, 8 kHz standard is developed; Nyquist's theorem and the standard 3.5 kHz telephony bandwidth
DS0 as the basic digital telephony bitstream standard
non-linear quantization: A-law vs. μ-law, and transcoding between the two
bit error rate and intelligibility
development of metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) switched capacitor (SC) circuits and complementary MOS (CMOS) PCM codec-filter chips
development of speech coding data compression, particularly linear predictive coding (LPC) and modified discrete cosine transform (MDCT) algorithms
first practical digital telephone systems put into service
the U.S. T-carrier system and the European E-carrier system developed to carry digital telephony
introduction of space-time switching in fully digital electronic switching systems
replacement of tone signaling with digital signaling for trunks
in-band signaling vs. out-of-band signaling
the problem of bit-robbing
development of Signalling System No. 7 (SS7)
rapidly increasing network bandwidth of digital telecommunication networks (Edholm's law), largely driven by scaling and miniaturization of MOSFET (MOS transistor) technology
emergence of fiber optic networking allows greater reliability and call capacity
transition from plesiochronous transmission to synchronous systems like SONET/SDH
advances in wireless radio-frequency technology, particularly the development of MOSFET (power MOSFET and LDMOS) RF power amplifiers and RF CMOS circuits
optical self-healing ring networks further increase reliability
digital/optical systems revolutionize international long-distance networks, particularly undersea cables
digital telephone exchanges eliminate moving parts, make exchange equipment much smaller and more reliable
separation of exchange and concentrator functions
roll-out of digital systems throughout the PSTN
provision of intelligent network services
speech compression on international digital trunks
phone tapping in the digital environment
introduction of digital mobile telephony, specialized compression algorithms for high bit error rates
direct digital termination to customers via ISDN; PRI catches on, BRI mostly does not, except in Germany
the effects of digital telephony, and digital termination at the ISP, on modem performance
voice over IP as a carrier strategy
emergence of ADSL leads to voice over IP becoming a consumer product, and the slow demise of dial-up Internet access
expected convergence of VoIP, mobile telephony, etc.
flattening of telephony tariffs, increasing moves towards flat rate pricing as the marginal cost of telephony drops further and further.
IP telephony
The field of technology available for telephony has broadened with the advent of new communication technologies. Telephony now includes the technologies of Internet services and mobile communication, including video conferencing.
The new technologies based on Internet Protocol (IP) concepts are often referred to separately as voice over IP (VoIP) telephony, also commonly referred to as IP telephony or Internet telephony. Unlike traditional phone service, IP telephony service is relatively unregulated by government. In the United States, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) regulates phone-to-phone connections, but says they do not plan to regulate connections between a phone user and an IP telephony service provider.
A specialization of digital telephony, Internet Protocol (IP) telephony involves the application of digital networking technology that was the foundation to the Internet to create, transmit, and receive telecommunications sessions over computer networks. Internet telephony is commonly known as voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP), reflecting the principle, but it has been referred with many other terms. VoIP has proven to be a disruptive technology that is rapidly replacing traditional telephone infrastructure technologies. As of January 2005, up to 10% of telephone subscribers in Japan and South Korea have switched to this digital telephone service. A January 2005 Newsweek article suggested that Internet telephony may be "the next big thing". As of 2006, many VoIP companies offer service to consumers and businesses.
IP telephony uses an Internet connection and hardware IP phones, analog telephone adapters, or softphone computer applications to transmit conversations encoded as data packets. In addition to replacing plain old telephone service (POTS), IP telephony services compete with mobile phone services by offering free or lower cost connections via WiFi hotspots. VoIP is also used on private networks which may or may not have a connection to the global telephone network.
Social impact research
Direct person-to-person communication includes non-verbal cues expressed in facial and other bodily articulation, that cannot be transmitted in traditional voice telephony. Video telephony restores such interactions to varying degrees. Social Context Cues Theory is a model to measure the success of different types of communication in maintaining the non-verbal cues present in face-to-face interactions. The research examines many different cues, such as the physical context, different facial expressions, body movements, tone of voice, touch and smell.
Various communication cues are lost with the usage of the telephone. The communicating parties are not able to identify the body movements, and lack touch and smell. Although this diminished ability to identify social cues is well known, Wiesenfeld, Raghuram, and Garud point out that there is a value and efficiency to the type of communication for different tasks. They examine work places in which different types of communication, such as the telephone, are more useful than face-to-face interaction.
The expansion of communication to mobile telephone service has created a different filter of the social cues than the land-line telephone. The use of instant messaging, such as texting, on mobile telephones has created a sense of community. In The Social Construction of Mobile Telephony it is suggested that each phone call and text message is more than an attempt to converse. Instead, it is a gesture which maintains the social network between family and friends. Although there is a loss of certain social cues through telephones, mobile phones bring new forms of expression of different cues that are understood by different audiences. New language additives attempt to compensate for the inherent lack of non-physical interaction.
Another social theory supported through telephony is the Media Dependency Theory. This theory concludes that people use media or a resource to attain certain goals. This theory states that there is a link between the media, audience, and the large social system. Telephones, depending on the person, help attain certain goals like accessing information, keeping in contact with others, sending quick communication, entertainment, etc.
See also
List of telephony terminology
History of the telephone
Invention of the telephone
References
History of telecommunications
Telecommunications
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Markus%20Neteler
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Markus Neteler
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Markus Neteler is a software engineer and businessman.
Biography
He received his degree in physical geography and landscape ecology from Leibniz University Hannover, Germany, in 1999 where he worked as a researcher and teaching assistant for two years.
From 2001 to 2007, he was a researcher at Bruno Kessler Foundation (FBK) (formerly ITC-irst) in Trento, Italy. In the period 2005-2007, while still a FBK researcher, he worked for the Centro di Ecologia Alpina of Trento . From 2008 to 2016, he worked at the Edmund Mach Foundation (FEM) - San Michele all'Adige in Trento as the co-ordinator of the GIS and remote sensing unit. In 2016, he moved to Bonn, Germany, where he co-founded the Mundialis company.
His main interests are remote sensing for environmental risk assessment and free software GIS development, especially GRASS GIS (of which he has been the co-ordinator since 1999).
He is a founding member of the GRASS Anwender-Vereinigung e.V. (Germany), the Open Source Geospatial Foundation (OSGeo, USA) and GFOSS.it the Italian association for geospatial free and open source software. In September 2006, he was honored with the Sol Katz award for Geospatial Free and Open Source Software (GFOSS) for his commitment to the GRASS project coordination. In 2010, he received his PhD in natural sciences (Dr. rer. nat.) in physical seography.
Publications
He co-authored two books on the use of the free and open source software GRASS GIS and several scientific papers on GIS.
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See also
OSGeo
Sol Katz
References
External links
Recordings of Markus Neteler at FOSS4G-Conferences in the AV-Portal of German National Library of Science and Technology
Sources
Free software programmers
People in information technology
Living people
1969 births
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pavel%20Vrublevsky
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Pavel Vrublevsky
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Pavel Olegovich Vrublevsky (; born 26 December 1978) is a Russian, owner and general manager of the processing company ChronoPay. He is also the founder of investment company RNP and a Russian Forbes contributor on matters relating to blockchain, cryptocurrencies, and cybersecurity. He was also implicated in a range of criminal cases related to hacking.
Youth and education
Pavel Vrublevsky was born and raised in Moscow. As a fifteen-year-old, he studied under the American Field Service student exchange program in Norway, then studied at the Institute of Foreign Languages named after Maurice Thorez, from where he moved to the sociology department of Moscow State University and graduated in 2001. He organized his first IT company to develop billing software for telecommunications companies at the age of eighteen.
Career
ChronoPay
In 2003, at age 23, he founded the company ChronoPay B.V. In 2005, ChronoPay entered the Russian market, and in 2006 Vrublevsky received the prestigious Runet Award. Within three years, the company gained international recognition as one of the premier processing companies at the cutting edge of technology. Even though ChronoPay was headquartered in Amsterdam, the company developed into a true leader for processing credit card payments in Russia – controlling roughly 25% of the market share. The company's client roster boasted several Russian companies as well as larger multinational corporations including Sony and Microsoft. Most Russian charitable foundations and non-profit organizations also use ChronoPay, including Greenpeace and the Red Cross. Additional clients included Russia's second largest airline, Transaero, and the country's largest cellphone operator, MTS. In 2011 ChronoPay had five worldwide offices; Moscow, Amsterdam, Barcelona, Florida in the United States, and Riga, Latvia. There were two franchises in China and an active business in Brazil. In 2011, the company had more than two hundred employees.
ChronoPay's impact
ChronoPay's impact on the online card processing payment industry in Russia is undeniable. In fact, even today, most of Russia's internet-based payments marketplace entirely relies on former ChronoPay personnel, to name just a few: Largest Russian Bank - Sberbank, most popular e-money system in Russia - Yandex.Money, card associations, such as Mastercard and many more. Dozens of important state banks and other payment providers are all dependent on former ChronoPay employees, not unlike McKinsey & Company's impact on management consulting. According to Russian Forbes, today as 2016 ChronoPay serves up to 25% of the wealthiest corporations concerning capitalization web companies in Russia, including two of four Russian cell companies; MTS and Tele2.
MP3search
In 2006, Vrublevsky led the e-commerce commission of the NAUET. The Commission advocated for the preservation of the existing model for the collective management of copyright on the Internet. Vrublevsky was a vocal proponent of one of the largest rights management societies at the time - FAIR.
In 2007, together with good friend and the former producer of the T.A.T.U. group, Ivan Shapovalov, Vrublevsky purchased a mp3search.ru online store, and was actively engaged in his own mp3 business. T.A.T.U. is the only music group from Russia whose music was chosen as the official Russian soundtrack for the 2014 Olympics. Shapovalov remained a business partner of Vrublevsky's wife, Vera Vrublevskaya, a Russian producer. for a long time running a social network for musicians along with her.
Vrublevsky's Chronopay was serving the infamous online store allofmp3.com, which was persecuted by the international society for collective management of copyrights IFPI and was accused of infringing by the US during the negotiations on Russia's accession to the WTO.
Allofmp3.com worked under the license of ROMS and gave this organization about 50% of license fees.
Electronic tickets
In 2007, after the appearance of electronic air tickets in Russia, Vrublevsky engaged in processing in this area, organizing the project E-Avia. ChronoPay E-Avia, processing payments for most major airlines (the largest of the clients is Transaero), with the exception of Aeroflot.
In 2010, Vrublevsky proposed to create a national air ticket reservation system (GDS) based on E-Avia. He is ready to transfer a controlling stake in this structure to Aeroflot. The proposal did not find any response. As a result, a single Russian GDS was never created. After the entry into force of the law on the storage of personal data of Russians in the territory of the Russian Federation, the state-owned company "RosTech" was urgently called upon to create a national GDS (where Russian airline tickets will be kept).
Working group with the Ministry of Communications for combating spam
In 2009, Pavel Vrublevsky, part of the working group on combating spam under the Ministry of Communications, initiated a campaign against his former partner Igor Gusev (according to Spamhaus rating of the world's main spammer), the owner of the largest partner spam network for sale Viagra Glavmed.
Experts agree that after the commencement of the criminal prosecution of Gusev and the closure of Spamit's spam in 2010, the global level of spam fell by half.
The financial newspaper
In 2012, Vrublevsky proposed the redemption of the magazine "Hacker" from the publishing house GAMELAND. Also, according to media reports, in 2012 Vrublevsky is preparing a deal to buy the oldest business publication in the country - the Financial Newspaper (1915), published jointly with the RF Ministry of Finance.
Vrublevsky also provided the financial backing to relaunch the Finansovaya Gazette (Financial newspaper), Russia's oldest financial newspaper, initially run by the Ministry of Finance of Russia which was founded in 1914. The iconic publication published several influential voices throughout history including Vladimir Lenin. Two of Russia's most well-respected financial journalists, Nikolai Vardul and Raf Shakirov, worked with Vrublevsky and took the editorial reigns of the publication during its comeback. Previously, Vardul and Shakirov were the chief editors of Kommersant, Russia's most known business newspaper. Vrublevsky and ChronoPay's commitment to the paper's survival went as far as housing the paper for a time especially during past economic hardships when the whole newspaper resided in the ChronoPay office.
Advocacy for National Payment System and National Booking System
Vrublesky advocated for the creation of a National Payment System long before it was hastily created as a reaction to sanctions. Vrublevsky was so outspoken in his advocacy that some foreign journalists (Brian Krebs and Business Insider) falsely predicted that he would run the system in exchange for being cleared of false allegations.
The National Booking System was also something that he pushed for and was eventually created by the Russian corporation, Rostechnology.
A Change in Opinion Leads to Support for Blockchain and Bitcoin
Weeks before the Kremlin publicly embraced Blockchain and Bitcoin, Pavel strongly advocated and trumpeted the cutting-edge technology eventually becoming Russian Forbes contributor on the ground-breaking development. Initially, Vrublevsky was very unsure on public of the new industry but eventually migrated to become one of its loudest supporters.
Confrontation with the Center of Information Security of the Russian Federal Security Service and rehabilitation
In 2007, Pavel Vrublevsky first came under the pressure of the Central of Information Security of the Federal Security Service of the Russian Federation, in 2010 he accused the CIS of the FSB of Russia of treason and the promotion of the myth of the Russian cyber threat, and in 2011 was arrested several times by officers of the FSB investigating a cyberattack on Aeroflot's online payment system. He was convicted of orchestrating the cyberattack and sentenced to 2.5 years in prison in 2013, but was granted early parole after serving less than a year of incarceration. In 2016, on the basis of materials from Vrublevsky, officers of the CIS FSB were arrested because of high treason, which led to the termination of cooperation between the US and Russia on cybercrime. In 2018 the court sentenced Colonel Mikhailov of CIS FSB to 22 years in prison, his accomplice from Kaspersky Lab Ruslan Stoyanov to 14 years in prison, Mikhailov's subordinate mr. Dokuchaev to 6 years in prison and their accomplice Mr. Fomchenkov to 7 years in prison. Mr.Dokuchaev is separately wanted by FBI USA for alleged cyber attacks on Yahoo and illicit pharmaceutical trade.
Media attacks and criticism
Vrublevsky was extensively targeted by American journalist Brian Krebs - in fact not only did Krebs focus on Vrublevsky for a story, he wrote close to twenty-five stories about him.
Krebs has enjoyed tremendous support with both the Russian FSB as well as written positive stories of Kaspersky Labs - the major partner of the United States & Krebs in the scandal. The United States has since terminated any and all contracts with Kaspersky.
According to Krebs there was an internal war of corruption between Pavel and the troubled man he was attempted to mentor, Igor Gusev. While Pavel had taken him down years earlier at the request of Russian police for being the world's top spammer, he was now running one of the top spam affiliate programs in the world selling fake Viagra. Gusev became Krebs' primary source against Pavel, while Gusev, now exiled from Russia, was looking to settle a score against Pavel by setting him up. The revelations were entirely based on Gusev's statements and ChronoPay's stolen and hacked databases. Vrublevsky published his own research into the origins of the investigations into Brian Krebs as well as into that of another known cyber security researcher, Kimberly Zenz, accusing them both of working on behalf of American intelligence agencies. Vrublevsky humorously compared Krebs and Zenz with alleged Russian spies Boshirov and Petrov.
Eventually, Vrublevsky was the central villain in Krebs' New York Times best-selling book, Spam Nation. However, recent events (arrests of Mikhailov's group and subsequent charges against Dokuchaev by the FBI in the United States) debunk Kreb's narrative about Vrublevsky's role.
For instance New York Times noted that the arrests of Mikhailov's FSB group «amounted to a purge of the leadership of the cyberwing of Russia’s main intelligence agency in the midst of the electoral hacking scandal, an issue carrying immense implications for Russia’s relations with the United States.» In an interview to New York Times Vrublevsky stated «“These guys were selling fairy tales to the United States about people doing business, like me.”
In an interview to CNN Vrublevsky added «"I believe it's a good thing for both countries [Russia and US]. These people are directly responsible for the cyber hysteria eventually going as far as election meddling scandal. I am very happy it's over."
Column in Forbes, statements on Russian hackers
Since November, 2016 he has been leading a column in Forbes about electronic payments and crypto-currencies, in particular, the popularization of bitcoin. Vrublevsky's statements on Russian hackers received wide response. In the spring and summer of 2017, Vrublevsky conveyed to a number of leading world media materials testifying to the non-involvement of Russian hackers in attacks on the servers of the Democratic Party in the United States.
Other organizations
In different years he headed:
The Anti-Spam Commission under the Internet Development Working Group under the Ministry of Communications of the Russian Federation.
Committee on e-commerce under the National Association of Electronic Commerce Participants.
Member of RAEK.
In 2011, the magazine "Finance" included in the prestigious "33 Pepper" rating - the most successful men under the age of 33.
In 2011 Vrublevsky was also the major sponsor of VTB League, paying over one million USD to Russia's main basketball league. He was frequently seen along with VTB League top management including mr. Sergei Ivanov, one of Russia's most influential politicians.
In 2018 Vrublevsky heads the Payments Committee of IDACB.com, one of world's largest Bitcoin associations, founded by 65 member states ultra high- rank representatives. Russian office of IDACB was founded with the assistance of Mr. Herman Klimenko, an Advisor on the Internet to President of Russia Mr. Putin, who frequently appears alongside Vrublevsky in their Facebook pages photos
Personal life
He is married to Vera Vrublevsky, the mother of his three children.
Interviews and media materials
Interview -2012 - Pavel Vrublevsky. YouTube (2012). - Interview at the -2012. Checked 19 July 2017.
"Crime is Americans and Europeans, not our compatriots." Forbes (8 December 2010). - Interview with Pavel Vrublevsky for Forbes / "Runetology." Checked 19 July 2017.
DIGIT.RU / RIA NEWS. DIGIT.RU (29 December 2011). Checked 19 July 2017.
"We were in Lefortovo and understand the harsh realities in which the Russian businessman lives" - the owner of Chronopay Pavel Vrublevsky. Finmarket (30 March 2012). - Interview of Vrublevsky for IA Finmarket. Checked 19 July 2017.
Spiral of the history of cyberwar. The Financial Newspaper (11 February 2013). - A glance from the inside to cyberwar, unfolding in the network. Article by PO Vrublevsky. It was checked on 19 July 2017.
Aeroflot spreads its wings. The film by Andrei Karaulov. The moment of truth (1 August 2013). - Andrew Karaulov's program "The Moment of Truth" .. It was checked on 19 July 2017.
Accounts are unbuttoned. The New Newspaper (15 February 2013). - Founder and owner of ChronoPay Pavel Vrublevsky (according to some version, cybercriminals number 1 in the world) ?? about initiatives on foreign accounts and assets of officials .. It was checked on 19 July 2017.
"They stole 800 cards for two hours, but this is not hacking." Republic (28 October 2010). - General Director of ZAO Chronopay Pavel Vrublevsky. It was checked on 19 July 2017.
Interview to the program "Technopark" on the channel Russia.
Notes
External links
1978 births
21st-century Russian businesspeople
Living people
Anti-spam
Computer- and telecom-related cases in Russia
Moscow State University alumni
Businesspeople from Moscow
Russian computer criminals
Russian computer programmers
21st-century Russian inventors
21st-century inventors
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Participatory%20design
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Participatory design
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Participatory design (originally co-operative design, now often co-design) is an approach to design attempting to actively involve all stakeholders (e.g. employees, partners, customers, citizens, end users) in the design process to help ensure the result meets their needs and is usable. Participatory design is an approach which is focused on processes and procedures of design and is not a design style. The term is used in a variety of fields e.g. software design, urban design, architecture, landscape architecture, product design, sustainability, graphic design, planning, and even medicine as a way of creating environments that are more responsive and appropriate to their inhabitants' and users' cultural, emotional, spiritual and practical needs. It is one approach to placemaking.
Recent research suggests that designers create more innovative concepts and ideas when working within a co-design environment with others than they do when creating ideas on their own.
Participatory design has been used in many settings and at various scales. For some, this approach has a political dimension of user empowerment and democratization. For others, it is seen as a way of abrogating design responsibility and innovation by designers.
In several Scandinavian countries, during the 1960s and 1970s, participatory design was rooted in work with trade unions; its ancestry also includes action research and sociotechnical design.
Definition
In participatory design, participants (putative, potential or future) are invited to cooperate with designers, researchers and developers during an innovation process. Potentially, they participate during several stages of an innovation process: they participate during the initial exploration and problem definition both to help define the problem and to focus ideas for solution, and during development, they help evaluate proposed solutions. Maarten Pieters and Stefanie Jansen describe co-design as part of a complete co-creation process, which refers to the "transparent process of value creation in ongoing, productive collaboration with, and supported by all relevant parties, with end-users playing a central role" and covers all stages of a development process.
Differing terms
In "Co-designing for Society", Deborah Szebeko and Lauren Tan list various precursors of co-design, starting with the Scandinavian participatory design movement and then state "Co-design differs from some of these areas as it includes all stakeholders of an issue not just the users, throughout the entire process from research to implementation."
In contrast, Elizabeth Sanders and Pieter Stappers state that "the terminology used until the recent obsession with what is now called co-creation/co-design" was "participatory design".
History
From the 1960s onwards there was a growing demand for greater consideration of community opinions in major decision-making. In Australia many people believed that they were not being planned 'for' but planned 'at'. (Nichols 2009). A lack of consultation made the planning system seem paternalistic and without proper consideration of how changes to the built environment affected its primary users. In Britain 'the idea that the public should participate was first raised in 1965' (Taylor, 1998, p. 86). However the level of participation is an important issue. At a minimum public workshops and hearings have now been included in almost every planning endeavour. Yet this level of consultation can simply mean information about change without detailed participation. Involvement that 'recognises an active part in plan making' (Taylor, 1998, p. 86) has not always been straightforward to achieve. Participatory design has attempted to create a platform for active participation in the design process, for end users.
History in Scandinavia
Participatory design was actually born in Scandinavia and called cooperative design. However, when the methods were presented to the US community 'cooperation' was a word that didn't resonate with the strong separation between workers and managers - they weren't supposed to discuss ways of working face-to-face. Hence, 'participatory' was instead used as the initial Participatory Design sessions weren't a direct cooperation between workers and managers, sitting in the same room discussing how to improve their work environment and tools, but there were separate sessions for workers and managers. Each group was participating in the process, not directly cooperating. (in historical review of Cooperative Design, at a Scandinavian conference).
In Scandinavia, research projects on user participation in systems development date back to the 1970s. The so-called "collective resource approach" developed strategies and techniques for workers to influence the design and use of computer applications at the workplace: The Norwegian Iron and Metal Workers Union (NJMF) project took a first move from traditional research to working with people, directly changing the role of the union clubs in the project.
The Scandinavian projects developed an action research approach, emphasizing active co-operation between researchers and workers of the organization to help improve the latter's work situation. While researchers got their results, the people whom they worked with were equally entitled to get something out of the project. The approach built on people's own experiences, providing for them resources to be able to act in their current situation. The view of organizations as fundamentally harmonious—according to which conflicts in an organization are regarded as pseudo-conflicts or "problems" dissolved by good analysis and increased communication—was rejected in favor of a view of organizations recognizing fundamental "un-dissolvable" conflicts in organizations (Ehn & Sandberg, 1979).
In the Utopia project (Bødker et al., 1987, Ehn, 1988), the major achievements were the experience-based design methods, developed through the focus on hands-on experiences, emphasizing the need for technical and organizational alternatives (Bødker et al., 1987).
The parallel Florence project (Gro Bjerkness & Tone Bratteteig) started a long line of Scandinavian research projects in the health sector. In particular, it worked with nurses and developed approaches for nurses to get a voice in the development of work and IT in hospitals. The Florence project put gender on the agenda with its starting point in a highly gendered work environment.
The 1990s led to a number of projects including the AT project (Bødker et al., 1993) and the EureCoop/EuroCode projects (Grønbæk, Kyng & Mogensen, 1995).
In recent years, it has been a major challenge to participatory design to embrace the fact that much technology development no longer happens as design of isolated systems in well-defined communities of work (Beck, 2002). At the dawn of the 21st century, we use technology at work, at home, in school, and while on the move.
Co-design
Co-design is often used by trained designers who recognize the difficulty in properly understanding the cultural, societal, or usage scenarios encountered by their user. C. K. Prahalad and Venkat Ramaswamy are usually given credit for bringing co-creation/co-design to the minds of those in the business community with the 2004 publication of their book, The Future of Competition: Co-Creating Unique Value with Customers. They propose:
"The meaning of value and the process of value creation are rapidly shifting from a product and firm-centric view to personalized consumer experiences. Informed, networked, empowered and active consumers are increasingly co-creating value with the firm."
The phrase co-design is also used in reference to the simultaneous development of interrelated software and hardware systems. The term co-design has become popular in mobile phone development, where the two perspectives of hardware and software design are brought into a co-design process.
Results directly related to integrating co-design into existing frameworks is "researchers and practitioners have seen that co-creation practiced at the early front end of the design development process can have an impact with positive, long-range consequences."
Discourses
Discourses in the PD literature have been sculpted by three main concerns: (1) the politics of design, (2) the nature of participation, and (3) methods, tools and techniques for carrying out design projects. (Finn Kensing & Jeanette Blomberg, 1998, p. 168)
Valuable contributions to these areas have been published in proceedings of the Biennial Participatory Design Conference, which started in 1990.
Politics of design
The politics of design have been the concern for many design researchers and practitioners. Kensing and Blomberg illustrate the main concerns which related to the introduction of new frameworks such as system design which related to the introduction of computer-based systems and power dynamics that emerge within the workspace. The automation introduced by system design has created concerns within unions and workers as it threatened their involvement in production and their ownership over their work situation. Asaro (2000) offers a detailed analysis of the politics of design and the inclusion of "users" in the design process.
Nature of participation
Major international organizations such as Project for Public Spaces create opportunities for rigorous participation in the design and creation of place, believing that it is the essential ingredient for successful environments. Rather than simply consulting the public, PPS creates a platform for the community to participate and co-design new areas, which reflect their intimate knowledge. Providing insights, which independent design professionals such as architects or even local government planners may not have.
Using a method called Place Performance Evaluation or (Place Game), groups from the community are taken on the site of proposed development, where they use their knowledge to develop design strategies, which would benefit the community.
"Whether the participants are schoolchildren or professionals, the exercise produces dramatic results because it relies on the expertise of people who use the place every day, or who are the potential users of the place." This successfully engages with the ultimate idea of participatory design, where various stakeholders who will be the users of the end product, are involved in the design process as a collective.
Similar projects have had success in Melbourne, Australia particularly in relation to contested sites, where design solutions are often harder to establish. The Talbot Reserve in the suburb of St. Kilda faced numerous problems of use, such as becoming a regular spot for sex workers and drug users to congregate. A Design In, which incorporated a variety of key users in the community about what they wanted for the future of the reserve allowed traditionally marginalised voices to participate in the design process. Participants described it as 'a transforming experience as they saw the world through different eyes.' (Press, 2003, p. 62). This is perhaps the key attribute of participatory design, a process which, allows multiple voices to be heard and involved in the design, resulting in outcomes which suite a wider range of users. It builds empathy within the system and users where it is implemented, which makes solving larger problems more holistically. As planning affects everyone it is believed that 'those whose livelihoods, environments and lives are at stake should be involved in the decisions which affect them' (Sarkissian and Perglut, 1986, p. 3)
In the built environment
Participatory design has many applications in development and changes to the built environment. It has particular currency to planners and architects, in relation to placemaking and community regeneration projects. It potentially offers a far more democratic approach to the design process as it involves more than one stakeholder. By incorporating a variety of views there is greater opportunity for successful outcomes. Many universities and major institutions are beginning to recognise its importance. The UN, Global studio involved students from Columbia University, University of Sydney and Sapienza University of Rome to provide design solutions for Vancouver's downtown eastside, which suffered from drug- and alcohol-related problems. The process allowed cross-discipline participation from planners, architects and industrial designers, which focused on collaboration and the sharing of ideas and stories, as opposed to rigid and singular design outcomes. (Kuiper, 2007, p. 52)
Public Interest Design is a design movement, extending to architecture, with the main aim of structuring design around the needs of the community. At the core of its application is participatory design. Through allowing individuals to have a say in the process of design of their own surrounding built environment, design can become proactive and tailored towards addressing wider social issues facing that community. Public interest design is meant to reshape conventional modern architectural practice. Instead of having each construction project solely meet the needs of the individual, public interest design addresses wider social issues at their core. This shift in architectural practice is a structural and systemic one, allowing design to serve communities responsibly. Solutions to social issues can be addressed in a long-term manner through such design, serving the public, and involving it directly in the process through participatory design. The built environment can become the very reason for social and community issues to arise if not executed properly and responsibly. Conventional architectural practice often does cause such problems since only the paying client has a say in the design process. That is why many architects throughout the world are employing participatory design and practicing their profession more responsibly, encouraging a wider shift in architectural practice. Several architects have largely succeeded in disproving theories that deem public interest design and participatory design financially and organizationally not feasible. Their work is setting the stage for the expansion of this movement, providing valuable data on its effectiveness and the ways in which it can be carried out.
From community consultation to community design
Many local governments require community consultation in any major changes to the built environment. Community involvement in the planning process is almost a standard requirement in most strategic changes. Community involvement in local decision making creates a sense of empowerment. The City of Melbourne Swanston Street redevelopment project received over 5000 responses from the public allowing them to participate in the design process by commenting on seven different design options. While the City of Yarra recently held a 'Stories in the Street' consultation, to record peoples ideas about the future of Smith Street. It offered participants a variety of mediums to explore their opinions such as mapping, photo surveys and storytelling. Although local councils are taking positive steps towards participatory design as opposed to traditional top down approaches to planning, many communities are moving to take design into their own hands.
Portland, Oregon City Repair Project is a form of participatory design, which involves the community co-designing problem areas together to make positive changes to their environment. It involves collaborative decision-making and design without traditional involvement from local government or professionals but instead runs on volunteers from the community. The process has created successful projects such as intersection repair, which saw a misused intersection develop into a successful community square.
In Malawi, a UNICEF WASH programme trialled participatory design development for latrines in order to ensure that users participate in creating and selecting sanitation technologies that are appropriate and affordable for them. The process provided an opportunity for community members to share their traditional knowledge and skills in partnership with designers and researchers.
Peer-to-peer urbanism is a form of decentralized, participatory design for urban environments and individual buildings. It borrows organizational ideas from the open-source software movement, so that knowledge about construction methods and urban design schemes is freely exchanged.
In software development
In the English-speaking world, the term has a particular currency in the world of software development, especially in circles connected to Computer Professionals for Social Responsibility (CPSR), who have put on a series of Participatory Design Conferences. It overlaps with the approach Extreme Programming takes to user involvement in design, but (possibly because of its European trade union origins) the Participatory Design tradition puts more emphasis on the involvement of a broad population of users rather than a small number of user representatives.
Participatory design can be seen as a move of end-users into the world of researchers and developers, whereas empathic design can be seen as a move of researchers and developers into the world of end-users. There is a very significant differentiation between user-design and user-centered design in that there is an emancipatory theoretical foundation, and a systems theory bedrock (Ivanov, 1972, 1995), on which user-design is founded. Indeed, user-centered design is a useful and important construct, but one that suggests that users are taken as centers in the design process, consulting with users heavily, but not allowing users to make the decisions, nor empowering users with the tools that the experts use. For example, Wikipedia content is user-designed. Users are given the necessary tools to make their own entries. Wikipedia's underlying wiki software is based on user-centered design: while users are allowed to propose changes or have input on the design, a smaller and more specialized group decide about features and system design.
Participatory work in software development has historically tended toward two distinct trajectories, one in Scandinavia and northern Europe, and the other in North America. The Scandinavian and northern European tradition has remained closer to its roots in the labor movement (e.g., Beck, 2002; Bjerknes, Ehn, and Kyng, 1987). The North American and Pacific rim tradition has tended to be both broader (e.g., including managers and executives as "stakeholders" in design) and more circumscribed (e.g., design of individual features as contrasted with the Scandinavian approach to the design of entire systems and design of the work that the system is supposed to support) (e.g., Beyer and Holtzblatt, 1998; Noro and Imada, 1991). However, some more recent work has tended to combine the two approaches (Bødker et al., 2004; Muller, 2007).
See also
Computer-supported cooperative work
Design thinking
Participatory action research
Permaculture
Public participation
Service design
Systems thinking
User innovation
User participation in architecture, (N.J. Habraken, Structuralism)
Public interest design
Notes and references
Asaro, Peter M. (2000). "Transforming society by transforming technology: the science and politics of participatory design." Accounting Management and Information Technology 10: 257–290.
Banathy, B.H. (1992). Comprehensive systems design in education: building a design culture in education. Educational Technology, 22(3) 33–35.
Beck, E. (2002). P for Political - Participation is Not Enough. SJIS, Volume 14 – 2002
Belotti, V. and Bly, S., 1996. Walking away from desktop computer: distributed collaboration and mobility in a product design team. In Proceedings of CSCW "96, Cambridge, Mass., November 16–20, ACM press: 209–218.
Beyer, H., and Holtzblatt, K. (1998). Contextual design: Defining customer-centered systems. San Francisco: Morgan Kaufmann.
Button, G. and Sharrock, W. 1996. Project work: the organisation of collaborative design and development in software engineering. CSCW Journal, 5 (4), p. 369-386.
Bødker, S. and Iversen, O. S. (2002): Staging a professional participatory design practice: moving PD beyond the initial fascination of user involvement. In Proceedings of the Second Nordic Conference on Human-Computer interaction (Aarhus, Denmark, October 19–23, 2002). NordiCHI '02, vol. 31. ACM Press, New York, NY, 11-18
Bødker, K., Kensing, F., and Simonsen, J. (2004). Participatory IT design: Designing for business and workplace realities. Cambridge, MA, USA: MIT Press.
Bødker, S., Christiansen, E., Ehn, P., Markussen, R., Mogensen, P., & Trigg, R. (1993). The AT Project: Practical research in cooperative design, DAIMI No. PB-454. Department of Computer Science, Aarhus University.
Bødker, S., Ehn, P., Kammersgaard, J., Kyng, M., & Sundblad, Y. (1987). A Utopian experience: In G. Bjerknes, P. Ehn, & M. Kyng. (Eds.), Computers and democracy: A Scandinavian challenge (pp. 251–278). Aldershot, UK: Avebury.
Carr, A.A. (1997). User-design in the creation of human learning systems. Educational Technology Research and Development, 45 (3), 5-22.
Carr-Chellman, A.A., Cuyar, C., & Breman, J. (1998). User-design: A case application in health care training. Educational Technology Research and Development, 46 (4), 97-114.
Divitini, M. & Farshchian, B.A. 1999. Using Email and WWW in a Distributed Participatory Design Project. In SIGGROUP Bulletin 20(1), pp. 10–15.
Ehn, P. & Kyng, M., 1991. Cardboard Computers: Mocking-it-up or Hands-on the Future. In, Greenbaum, J. & Kyng, M. (Eds.) Design at Work, pp. 169 – 196. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Laurence Erlbaum Associates.
Ehn, P. (1988). Work-oriented design of computer artifacts. Falköping: Arbetslivscentrum/Almqvist & Wiksell International, Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates
Ehn, P. and Sandberg, Å. (1979). God utredning: In Sandberg, Å. (Ed.): Utredning och förändring i förvaltningen[Investigation and change in administration]. Stockholm: Liber.
Grudin, J. (1993). Obstacles to Participatory Design in Large Product Development Organizations: In Namioka, A. & Schuler, D. (Eds.), Participatory design. Principles and practices (pp. 99–122). Hillsdale NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Grønbæk, K., Kyng, M. & P. Mogensen (1993). CSCW challenges: Cooperative Design in Engineering Projects, Communications of the ACM, 36, 6, pp. 67–77
Ivanov, K. (1972). Quality-control of information: On the concept of accuracy of information in data banks and in management information systems. The University of Stockholm and The Royal Institute of Technology. Doctoral dissertation.
Ivanov, K. (1995). A subsystem in the design of informatics: Recalling an archetypal engineer. In B. Dahlbom (Ed.), The infological equation: Essays in honor of Börje Langefors, (pp. 287–301). Gothenburg: Gothenburg University, Dept. of Informatics (). Note #16.
Kensing, F. & Blomberg, J. 1998. Participatory Design: Issues and Concerns In Computer Supported Cooperative Work, Vol. 7, pp. 167–185.
Kensing, F. 2003. Methods and Practices in Participatory Design. ITU Press, Copenhagen, Denmark.
Kuiper, Gabrielle, June 2007, Participatory planning and design in the downtown eastside: reflections on Global Studio Vancouver, Australian Planner, v.44, no.2, pp. 52–53
Kyng, M. (1989). Designing for a dollar a day. Office, Technology and People, 4(2): 157–170.
Muller, M.J. (2007). Participatory design: The third space in HCI (revised). In J. Jacko and A. Sears (eds.), Handbook of HCI 2nd Edition. Mahway NJ USA: Erlbaum.
Naghsh, A. M., Ozcan M. B. 2004. Gabbeh - A Tool For Computer Supported Collaboration in Electronic Paper-Prototyping. In *Dearden A & Watts L. (Eds). Proceedings of HCI "04: Design for Life volume 2. British HCI Group pp77–80
Näslund, T., 1997. Computers in Context –But in Which Context? In Kyng, M. & Mathiassen, L. (Eds). Computers and Design in Context. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. pp. 171–200.
Nichols, Dave, (2009) Planning Thought and History Lecture, The University of Melbourne
Noro, K., & Imada, A. S. (Eds.). (1991) Participatory ergonomics. London: Taylor and Francis.
Perry, M. & Sanderson, D. 1998. Coordinating Joint Design Work: The Role of Communication and Artefacts. Design Studies, Vol. 19, pp. 273–28
Press, Mandy, 2003. "Communities for Everyone: redesigning contested public places in Victoria", Chapter 9 of end Weeks et al. (eds), Community Practices in Australia (French Forests NSW: Pearson Sprint Print), pp. 59–65
Pan, Y., 2018. From Field to Simulator: Visualising Ethnographic Outcomes to Support Systems Developers. University of Oslo. Doctoral dissertation.
Reigeluth, C. M. (1993). Principles of educational systems design. International Journal of Educational Research, 19 (2), 117–131.
Sarkissian, W, Perglut, D. 1986, Community Participation in Practice, The Community Participation handbook, Second edition, Murdoch University
Sanders, E. B. N., & Stappers, P. J. (2008). Co-creation and the new landscapes of design. Codesign, 4(1), 5-18.
Santa Rosa, J.G. & Moraes, A. Design Participativo: técnicas para inclusão de usuários no processo de ergodesign de interfaces. Rio de Janeiro: RioBooks, 2012.
Schuler, D. & Namioka, A. (1993). Participatory design: Principles and practices. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Trainer, Ted 1996, Towards a sustainable economy: The need for fundamental change Envirobook/ Jon Carpenter, Sydney/Oxford, pp. 135–167
Trischler, Jakob, Simon J. Pervan, Stephen J. Kelly and Don R. Scott (2018). The value of codesign: The effect of customer involvement in service design teams. Journal of Service Research, 21(1): 75-100. https://doi.org/10.1177/1094670517714060
Wojahn, P. G., Neuwirth, C. M., Bullock, B. 1998. Effects of Interfaces for Annotation on Communication in a Collaborative Task. In Proceedings of CHI "98, LA, CA, April 18–23, ACM press: 456-463
Von Bertalanffy, L. (1968). General systems theory. New York: Braziller.
Design
Innovation
Product development
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KaiOS
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KaiOS
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KaiOS is a mobile operating system, based on Linux, for keypad feature phones. It is developed by KaiOS Technologies (Hong Kong) Limited; a company based in Hong Kong, with largest shareholder being Chinese multinational electronics conglomerate TCL Corporation. KaiOS runs on feature phones made with low-power hardware and low power consumption (and therefore long battery life). KaiOS supports modern connectivity technologies like 4G LTE E, VoLTE, GPS, and Wi-Fi. KaiOS runs HTML5-based apps. KaiOS supports over-the-air updates and has a dedicated app marketplace (KaiStore). Some applications are preloaded, including Facebook and YouTube. , there are 500+ apps in KaiStore. The mobile operating system is comparatively lightweight on hardware resource usage, and is able to run on devices with just 256 megabytes (MB) of memory.
History
KaiOS is a mobile operating system, based on Linux, for keypad feature phones. It is developed by KaiOS Technologies (Hong Kong) Limited; a company based in Hong Kong, with largest shareholder being Chinese multinational electronics conglomerate TCL Corporation. KaiOS is forked from B2G OS (Boot to Gecko OS), an open source community-driven fork of Firefox OS, which was discontinued by Mozilla in 2016.
The primary features of KaiOS bring support for 4G LTE E, VoLTE, GPS, and Wi-Fi; with HTML5-based apps and longer battery life to non-touchscreen devices with optimised user interface, less memory and energy consumption. It also features over-the-air updates (OTA updates). A dedicated app marketplace (KaiStore) enables users to download mobile applications, or 'apps'. Some services are preloaded as HTML5 applications, including Facebook and YouTube. , there are 500+ apps in KaiStore. The mobile operating system is comparatively lightweight on hardware resource usage, and is able to run on devices with just 256 megabytes (MB) of memory.
The operating system was first released in 2017, and is developed by KaiOS Technologies Inc., a Hong Kong-based company headed by CEO Sebastien Codeville, with offices in other countries. In June 2018, Google invested US$22 million in the operating system. India-based telecom operator Reliance Jio also invested $7 million for a 16% stake in the company. In May 2019, KaiOS raised an additional US$50 million from Cathay Innovation, and previous investors Google and TCL Holdings.
In market share study results announced in May 2018, KaiOS beat Apple's iOS for second place in India, while Android dominates with 71%, albeit down by 9%. KaiOS growth is being largely attributed to the popularity of the competitively-priced JioPhone. In Q1 2018, 23 million KaiOS devices were produced.
In March 2020, Mozilla and KaiOS Technologies announced a partnership to update KaiOS with a modern version of the Gecko browser engine, and more closely aligned testing infrastructure. This change should give KaiOS four years worth of performance and security improvements and new features, including TLS 1.3, WebAssembly, WebGL 2.0, Progressive Web Apps, new video codecs like WebP, AV1, and modern JavaScript and Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) features.
Devices
Devices that are installed with KaiOS include:
Alcatel Go Flip (known as Cingular Flip 2 on AT&T, Alcatel MyFlip on TracFone Wireless) and 3088X
Advan Hape Online (Indonesia) in partnership with Indosat Ooredoo.
Reliance Jio's JioPhone, F10Q, F101K, F120B, F220B, F211S, F221S, F250Y, F271I, F30C, F41T, F50Y, F61F, F81E, F90M, LF-2401, LF-2402, LF-2403, LF-2403N, all branded as LYF, JioPhone 2, F300B, F310B, JioPhone Lite, F320B
HMD Global's Nokia 8110 4G, 2720 Flip, 800 Tough, 6300 4G, 8000 4G
Energizer Energy E220, E220S, E241, E241S and Hardcase H241, H242, H280S
Doro 7010, 7030, 7050, 7060
Cat B35
Maxcom MK241, MK281
WizPhone WP006, launched in Indonesia in partnership with Google and Alfamart.
MTN 3G phone (MTN Smart S 3G)
Positivo P70S (Brazil)
Multilaser ZAPP (Brazil)
Tecno T901
Jazz Digit 4G (Pakistan)
Orange Sanza 2, Sanza XL
Kitochi 4G Smart
Vodacom Smart Kitochi (Vida), Vodacom Smart Kitochi (Azumi)
QMobile 4G Plus (Pakistan)
GeoPhone T15 (Bangladesh)
GeoPhone T19 (Bangladesh)
GeoPhone T19i (Bangladesh)
Sigma mobile X-Style S3500 sKai (Ukraine)
Ghia KOX1 (Mexico)
Ghia GK3G (Mexico)
Partnerships
, KaiOS Technologies has partnered with Mozilla, Airfind, Avenir Telecom(Energizer), Facebook, Google, Bullitt, Doro, HMD Global, Micromax, NXP, Spreadtrum, Qualcomm, Jio, Sprint, AT&T, T-Mobile, and Orange S.A.
In March 2020, KaiOS Technologies partnered with Mozilla to bring the modern version of Gecko browser engine to future KaiOS builds.
Release history
Jailbreak
With the release of the Nokia 8110 4G, an active community around both KaiOS and the phone arose and released the first version of a jailbreak. This gave users the ability to use old Firefox OS apps on KaiOS devices, as well as flashing their devices with community-created ROMs, such as GerdaOS.
References
External links
www.KaiOStech.com — KaiOS Technologies official website
Firefox OS
2017 software
ARM operating systems
Embedded Linux distributions
Gecko-based software
Mobile Linux
Software that uses XUL
Open-source software converted to a proprietary license
Linux distributions
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jason%20Scott
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Jason Scott
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Jason Scott Sadofsky (born September 13, 1970), more commonly known as Jason Scott, is an American archivist, historian of technology, filmmaker, performer, and actor. Scott has been known by the online pseudonyms Sketch, SketchCow, The Slipped Disk, and textfiles. He has been called "the figurehead of the digital archiving world".
He is the creator, owner and maintainer of textfiles.com, a web site which archives files from historic bulletin board systems. He is the creator of a 2005 documentary film about BBSes,
BBS: The Documentary, and a 2010 documentary film about interactive fiction, GET LAMP.
Scott lives in Hopewell Junction, New York. He is the co-owner of Twitter celebrity cat Sockington. He works for the Internet Archive and has given numerous presentations at technology related conferences on the topics of digital history, software, and website preservation.
Early life
Jason Scott Sadofsky graduated from Horace Greeley High School in Chappaqua, New York and served on the staff of the school newspaper under the title "Humor Staff". While in high school he produced the humor magazine Esnesnon ("nonsense" backwards). He later graduated from Emerson College in 1992 with a film degree. While at Emerson, he worked for the school humor magazine, school newspaper, WERS 88.9 FM radio, and served as art director on several dramatic plays.
Career
After graduating from Emerson, Scott lived in Harvard Square in Cambridge, Massachusetts, where he was employed as a temp worker while also drawing caricatures for pay on the streets of Cambridge.
In 1990, Scott co-created TinyTIM, a popular MUSH that he ran for ten years. In 1995, Jason joined the video game company Psygnosis as a technical support worker, before being hired by a video game startup, Focus Studios, as an art director. After Focus Studios' closure, Jason moved into UNIX administration, where he remained until 2009.
He has been a speaker at DEF CON, an annual hacker conference, the first time at the 7th conference in 1999, and has spoken there almost every year since then. Scott also spoke at PhreakNIC 6 and 9, Rubi Cons 4 and 5, the 5th H.O.P.E. conference in 2004, Notacons 1, 2 (as a backup), 3 and 4, Toorcon 7, and beta premiered his documentary at the 7th annual Vintage Computer Festival. Most of his talks focus on the capturing of digital history or consist of narratives of stories relevant to his experiences online.
In 2006, Scott announced that he was starting a documentary on video arcades, titled ARCADE. Although he did not complete the project, all of the footage he shot for ARCADE has been made available on the Internet Archive.
In 2007, he co-founded Blockparty, a North American demoparty. For their inaugural year, they paired up with Notacon which takes place annually in Cleveland, Ohio. This collaborative effort allowed the fledgling party to utilize the existing support structure of an established conference.
In January 2009, he formed "Archive Team," a group dedicated to preserving the historical record of websites that close down. Responding to the announcement by AOL of the closure of AOL Hometown, the team announced plans to save Podango and GeoCities.
In October 2009, he started raising funds for a year-long sabbatical from his job as a computer systems administrator, to pursue technology history and archival projects full-time. By November 2009, he had reached his funding goals, with the support of over 300 patrons.
In early 2011, he was involved in Yahoo! Video and Google Video archive projects.
Scott announced the creation of Archive Corps, a volunteer effort to preserve physical archives, in 2015.
Scott has been hosting his own podcast called Jason Scott Talks His Way Out of It since 2017.
Scott is the software curator at the Internet Archive. In April 2019, he uploaded all of the source code for Infocom's text-based adventure games and interactive fiction, including Zork and The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy, to GitHub.
Sockington
Sockington is a domestic cat who lives in Waltham, Massachusetts. He has gained large-scale fame via the social networking site Twitter. Scott has been regularly posting from Sockington's Twitter account since late 2007. , Sockington's account has over 1.4 million followers, many of which are pet accounts themselves.
Acting
Scott is a frequent collaborator of Johannes Grenzfurthner and appeared as an actor in Soviet Unterzoegersdorf: Sector 2 (2009), Glossary of Broken Dreams (2018), and the science fiction comedy Je Suis Auto (2019).
Personal life
Previously divorced, Scott was engaged as of 2017.
Filmography
BBS: The Documentary (2005) (director)
GET LAMP (2010) (director)
Going Cardboard (2012) (editor)
DEFCON: The Documentary (2013) (director)
Traceroute (2016) (interviewee)
Glossary of Broken Dreams (2018) (actor)
Je Suis Auto (2019) (actor)
Class Action Park (2020) (interviewee)
Presentations
TEXTFILES, G-PHILES, AND LOG FILES: Remembering the 1980s Through ASCII – DEF CON 7, July 10, 1999
TEXTFILES.COM: One Year Later – DEF CON 8, July 29, 2000
So You Got Your Lame Ass Sued: A Legal Narrative – DEF CON 9, July 2001
Documenting the BBS – Rubi-Con 4, April 2002
History of Phreaking 101 – PhreakNIC 6.0, November 1, 2002
Keynote: The Future is Now – Rubi-Con 5, March 28, 2003
Apple II Pirate Lore – Rubi-Con 5, March 29, 2003
100 Years of the Computer Art Scene (with RaD Man) – Notacon 1, April 2004
Saving Digital History: A Quick and Dirty Guide – H2K4, July 11, 2004
BBS: The Documentary: A Preview – DEF CON 12, August 2004
The History of the Coleco Adam (mp3) – Notacon 2, April 2005
Why Tech Documentaries are Impossible (And why we have to do them anyway.) – DEF CON 13, July 31, 2005
Fidonet Presentation and Q&A – ToorCon 7, September 17, 2005
BBS Documentary Presentation – PhreakNIC 9.0, October 22, 2005
ConCon: A History of Hacker Conferences – Shmoocon 2, January 13, 2005
Your Moment of Audio Zen: A History of Podcasts – Notacon 3, April 7, 2006
The Great Failure of Wikipedia – Notacon 3, April 8, 2006
Retrocomputing (with Sam Nitzberg, Cheshire Catalyst, Sellam Ismail) – H.O.P.E. Number Six, July 2006
Underground Documentaries: The Art of the Interview and the Access (with Julien McArdle) – H.O.P.E. Number Six, July 2006
Wheel of Internet Knowledge – Phreaknic X, October 2006
Mythapedia – STM (Scientific, Technical & Medical Publishers) Innovations Seminar, December 1, 2006
Wikipedia, Brick by Brick – Notacon 4, April 27, 2007
The Edge of Forever – Making Computer History – DEF CON 15, August 4, 2007
Making a Text Adventure Documentary – DEF CON 16, August 10, 2008
Keynote speech – KansasFest, July 22, 2009
That Awesome Time I Was Sued for Two Billion Dollars – DEF CON 17, July 30, 2009
Atomic Porn: What is the smallest particle of erotica? – Arse Elektronika 2009, October 2, 2009
DistriWiki: A Proposal – May 11, 2010
You're Stealing It Wrong! 30 Years of Inter-Pirate Battles - DEF CON 18, July 31, 2010
Archive Team: A Distributed Preservation of Service Attack - DEF CON 19, August 6, 2011
DEF CON Documentary Trailer - DEF CON 20, July 27, 2012
Wanted: Dead or Alive – Webstock, February 15, 2013
Making Of The DEF CON Documentary - DEF CON 21, August 2, 2013
From COLO to YOLO: Confessions Of The Angriest Archivist — Bacon, May 16, 2014
Thwarting the Peasants: A Guided and Rambunctious Tour Through the 2600 DeCSS Legal Files – HOPE X, July 19, 2014
So You Want To Murder a Software Patent – Derbycon, September 26, 2014
Citations
General references
Jason Scott, The Defendant (July 2001). So You Got Your Lame Ass Sued: A Legal Narrative. DEF CON speaker. Retrieved 2004-11-19.
Jason Sadofsky, The Tribune Articles, 1987–88
Jason Scott, The Life and Times of Jason Scott
DEF CON 13 (2005) speakers, including Jason Scott's "Why Tech Documentaries Are Impossible"
External links
Jason Scott – Personal homepage (Archived)
Collector's Trove of Podcasts, an interview with Jason Scott in Wired magazine online
The Whole Lawsuit Thing – HarvardNetSucks account of the lawsuit.
https://web.archive.org/web/20170911133405/http://sadofsky.com/
leahpeah interview with Jason Scott
fsck interview with Jason Scott
Jason Scott talking about acting
1970 births
American bloggers
American documentary filmmakers
American people of Jewish descent
American people of Russian descent
Creative Commons-licensed authors
Cultural historians
Emerson College alumni
Hacker culture
Historians of technology
Horace Greeley High School alumni
Living people
MUD developers
People from Chappaqua, New York
People from Hopewell Junction, New York
Writers from Cambridge, Massachusetts
Internet Archive collectors
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12468517
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAP%20Ariba
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SAP Ariba
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SAP Ariba is an American software and information technology services company located in Palo Alto, California. It was acquired by German software maker SAP SE for $4.3 billion in 2012.
Company beginnings
Ariba (now SAP Ariba) was founded in 1996 by Bobby Lent, Boris Putanec, Paul Touw, Rob Desantis, Ed Kinsey, Paul Hegarty, and Keith Krach on the idea of using the Internet to enable companies to facilitate and improve the procurement process, which was paper-based, labor-intensive, and inefficient for large corporations. The name Ariba is a neologism, chosen by a branding company since it was easy to pronounce and spell. The pre-launch name was Procuresoft.
Ariba went public in 1999 under Krach's leadership as CEO, and was one of the first business-to-business Internet companies to do an IPO. The company's stock more than tripled from the offering price on opening day, making the three-year-old company worth $4 billion. In 2000, the stock value continued to climb, and Ariba's market capitalization was as high as $40 billion. With the bursting of the dot-com bubble, Ariba's stock price fell dramatically in July 2001 to its IPO level, where it remained for the rest of its life as an independent company.
Past acquisitions and competitors
On December 17, 1999 Ariba announced it would acquire Atlanta-based Tradex Technologies in a stock swap valued then at $1.86 billion. Tradex was the leader in the nascent Digital Marketplace Software field. The stock market liked the acquisition and the price of Ariba's shares rose from $57 at the time of the announcement to $173 at closing on March 9, 2000, which also marked the peak of the Internet Bubble. The 33.2 million shares that Ariba issued to buy Tradex were then worth $5.6 billion to Tradex shareholders.
In January 2001 Ariba announced that it would acquire Agile Software in a $2.55 billion stock swap. By April, with Ariba facing a disappointing second quarter and cutting a third of its workforce, the deal had fallen apart.
In early 2004, Ariba acquired FreeMarkets which gave the company a software package in the upstream (sourcing) of the sourcing process. In late 2007, Ariba bought the company Procuri for $93 million, which enhanced the company's client base and on-demand abilities.
In December 2008, Ariba announced that the U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of Texas had issued an injunction against Emptoris, which prohibits the company from infringing on two of Ariba's patents related to overtime and bid ceilings in reverse auctions. On 16 December 2008, the court ordered Emptoris to pay an enhanced damages award of $1.4 million for willful infringement in connection with Emptoris’ infringement of the two reverse auction-patents held by Ariba. This was in addition to the 29 October 2008 jury award of $5 million in damages to Ariba, bringing the total fine to approximately $6.4 million, a significant penalty for Emptoris which earned approximately $50 million in revenue for 2008. In an Emptoris press release, that company noted that it had released a new software "patch" that eliminates any infringement. The U.S. District Court, in February 2009, issued an order noting that the "patch" is colorably different, effectively concluding the case.
In November, 2010, Ariba announced that it would acquire Quadrem, a privately held provider of one of the world's largest supply networks and on-demand supply management solutions. The acquisition closed in January 2011.
In October, 2011 Ariba announced the acquisition of b-process, a privately held French company and European leader in electronic invoicing service provider, for approximately €35 million in cash.
In April, 2013, Ariba partnered with Medassets to "extend the latter's supply chain management and outsourced procurement functionalities".
AribaWeb
On February 19, 2009 Ariba announced AribaWeb, an open source framework for Rich Web Applications. It is designed to generate a user interface automatically from base Java or Groovy classes and includes Object-Relational Mapping features. It also encapsulates AJAX functionality and has a broad selection of UI widgets.
Ariba Product Suite
SAP Ariba now only sells the cloud version of product in the market and calls it SAP Ariba On Demand Suite of Applications. Customers using the On Premise versions will eventually have to migrate to the cloud version.
Acquisition by SAP
On May 22, 2012 the German business software maker SAP SE announced it planned to acquire Ariba for an estimated $4.3 billion. SAP said it would pay $45 a share. JPMorgan Chase and Deutsche Bank AG advised SAP SE on the sale, while Morgan Stanley provided financial counsel to Ariba. Ariba's shareholders approved the acquisition on August 29, 2012, and it was completed on October 1, 2012 for $4.4 billion.
See also
Fieldglass
SAP Concur
References
External links
Ariba SEC Filings
CRM software companies
American companies established in 1996
Software companies established in 1996
1996 establishments in California
SAP SE acquisitions
Software companies based in the San Francisco Bay Area
Companies based in Palo Alto, California
Companies formerly listed on the Nasdaq
2012 mergers and acquisitions
1999 initial public offerings
American subsidiaries of foreign companies
Software companies of the United States
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTC%20Global%20Services
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HTC Global Services
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HTC Global Services Inc., is an IT/BPO services provider based out of the US. Its major operations are in Troy, Michigan and India.
History
HTC Global Services Inc., was founded in 1990 by Indian entrepreneur M Madhava Reddy, as a Michigan, USA based privately owned information technology and business process outsourcing services company and currently has centres in Chennai, Hyderabad and Bengaluru in India. Madhava Reddy is the President and CEO of the company with nearly $99 million in assets and approximately $45 million in liabilities as of the end of 2015. Currently the company has 11,000 employees globally including from Ciber and CareTech, which it has acquired in 2017 and 2014 respectively.
In 2018,the company had invested ₹100 crore in a 4,500-seat development centre located in Vandalur, to the south of Chennai which will support the company's IT operations and business process outsourcing growth. In India it has centres in Chennai and Hyderabad with other places of operations being Michigan (US), Singapore, Australia, Middle-East and Malaysia.
The company planned achieving the target of $1 billion in revenue by the acquisition of CareTech & Ciber and hire 5,000 employees by 2020 and the combined strength of both the companies will help the company to offer its clients a comprehensive set of services and fulfil an integral part of material growth across a range of industry sectors.
Acquisitions
In 2014, the company acquired CareTech Solutions, a US based Healthcare IT services provider. CareTech now operates as a wholly owned subsidiary of HTC and provides IT services primarily to the Healthcare providers in USA. In May 2017, HTC Global Services acquired Ciber which is a global information technology consulting, services and outsourcing company for 93 million US dollars, headquartered in Greenwood Village, Colorado, US.
Services
The company deals in application services, application maintenance and support services, mobile applications, Artificial Intelligence digital transformation, data management and analytics, and ERP. HTC also deals in content digitization, eBook conversion, and back office services.
In September 2018, company had inked a pact with Automation Anywhere, a developer of robotic process automation software based in California, to further boost HTC's RPA (robotic process automation) services, by building BOT-based industry-specific solutions with cognitive abilities.
It had developed software service offers and product developments for sectors in the field of analytics, mobility, infrastructure services and emerging technologies and its global clients include JP Morgan, Canon, Reserve Bank of India, Bank of America, MRF and Electronics Corporation of Tamil Nadu.
Products
The company offers grant management software that automates the grant management process. HTC has installed Enterprise Grants Management System (EGrAMS) for various states and state agencies in USA.
HTC is a Tier 2 investment partner of Kuali Foundation to develop and deliver next-generation library management system for various universities.
See also
List of IT consulting firms
List of public listed software companies of India
Information technology in India
List of IT consulting firms
List of Indian IT companies
References
External links
Software companies established in 1990
Outsourcing companies
International information technology consulting firms
Companies based in Troy, Michigan
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard%20DeMillo
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Richard DeMillo
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Richard Allan DeMillo (born January 26, 1947) is an American computer scientist, educator and executive. He is currently Distinguished Professor of Computing and Professor of Management at the Georgia Institute of Technology.
In 2009, he stepped down as the John P. Imlay Dean of Computing at Georgia Tech after serving in that role for six years. After ten years directing Georgia Tech's Center for 21st Century Universities, a living laboratory devoted to fundamental change in higher education, he agreed November, 2020 to be the interim Chair of the new School of Cybersecurity and Privacy in the College of Computing .
He joined Georgia Tech in 2002 from The Hewlett-Packard Company, where he had served as the company's first Chief Technology Officer. He also held executive positions with Telcordia Technologies (formerly known as Bell Communications Research) and the National Science Foundation. He is a well-known researcher and author of over 100 articles, books and patents in the areas of computer security, software engineering, and mathematics.
Early life and education
A Minnesota native, Richard DeMillo was born and raised in Hibbing, Minnesota and received his Bachelor of Arts in mathematics from the University of St. Thomas in St. Paul Minnesota in 1969 and a Ph.D. in information and computer science from Georgia Tech in 1972.
Early career
His first academic appointment was at the University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee, but in 1976 he returned to Georgia Tech as an Associate Professor of Information and Computer Science, where he established a long-term collaboration with Richard Lipton. This collaboration led to a ground-breaking analysis of formal methods in computer science, the establishment of a new method for software testing, called Program Mutation among other results. In 1977, he collaborated with Lawrence Landweber to create THEORYNET, an early store-and-forward computer network that was the predecessor of NSFNet, a network that was ultimately absorbed by the Internet and managed by NSF until 1989.
From 1981 to 1987 DeMillo was the Director of the Software Test and Evaluation Project for the US Department of Defense (DoD). He is widely credited with developing the DoD's policy for test and evaluation of software-intensive systems. In 1987, he moved to Purdue University where he was named Professor of Computer Science and Director of The Software Engineering Research Center. In 1989, he became Director of the National Science Foundation Computer and Computation Research Division and presided over the growth of high performance computing and computational science programs. He also held a visiting professorship at the University of Padua in Padua, Italy where he led the formation of a successful post-graduate program in software engineering.
In 1995 he became vice president and general manager of information and computer science research at Bellcore (which later became Telcordia Technologies), leading the invention of new technologies for e-commerce, networking and communications. In 1997, he collaborated with Richard Lipton and Daniel Boneh to create the “Differential Fault Analysis” method of cryptanalysis, leading to a strengthening of existing standards for internet security.
In 2000, DeMillo joined Hewlett-Packard (HP) as vice president and Chief Technology Officer (CTO). While working at HP, he led the company's introduction of a new processor architecture, a corporate trust and security strategy, and the company's entry into open source software. He was the public spokesman for HP's technology and one of the most visible figures in IT. In 2002, RSA Security appointed DeMillo to its board of directors, a position he held until 2007 when RSA was acquired by EMC. He remained at HP through the company's 2002 merger with Compaq computer and was named Vice President for Technology Strategy. He returned to Tech that August to serve as the new dean of the College of Computing.
Georgia Tech
Arriving in 2002, DeMillo replaced Peter A. Freeman as Dean of the Georgia Tech College of Computing and led the college to a period of aggressive growth at a time when Computer Science enrollments were in decline nationally. He led the formation of 3 new schools, 7 new degree programs, 3 international programs, and 2 research centers. Under his tenure the ranking of Georgia Tech's graduate computer science programs rose from 14 to 9. He incorporated a broader focus into the College's undergraduate programs and launched a new program called "Threads", a student-centered approach to undergraduate education that has influenced computer science programs nationally and internationally.
DeMillo was honored as an ACM Fellow in 2003 for "contributions to the engineering of reliable and secure software." In 2004, he was also honored as an AAAS Fellow.
In June 2008, shortly after long-time Georgia Tech President Wayne Clough stepped down to become Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, DeMillo announced his resignation as Dean of the College of Computing. In 2010, he founded the Center for 21st Century Universities (C21U). In recognition of C21U as a "unique institution", the Lumina Foundation named him a Fellow in 2013.
In 2011, his book Abelard to Apple: The Fate of American Colleges and Universities was published by MIT press and became the basis for the formation of a center dedicated to experimentation in higher education. A sequel entitled "Revolution in Higher Education: How a Small Band of Innovators Will Make College Accessible and Affordable: was published by MIT Press in 2015.
In 2016, he was given the ANAK Society's award, which is granted annually to an outstanding Georgia Tech faculty member, and is considered the most prestigious award of its kind.
References
External links
College of Computing profile
Selected Publications of Richard DeMillo
Interview with Richard DeMillo and DeMillo's resignation letter
Richard Allan DeMillo at the Mathematics Genealogy Project
Living people
Georgia Tech faculty
University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee faculty
Georgia Tech alumni
1947 births
University of St. Thomas (Minnesota) alumni
American chief technology officers
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1727027
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical%20software
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Mathematical software
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Mathematical software is software used to model, analyze or calculate numeric, symbolic or geometric data.
Evolution of mathematical software
Numerical analysis and symbolic computation had been in most important place of the subject, but other kind of them is also growing now. A useful mathematical knowledge of such as algorism which exist before the invention of electronic computer, helped to mathematical software developing. On the other hand, by the growth of computing power (such as seeing on Moore's law), the new treatment (for example, a new kind of technique such as data assimilation which combined numerical analysis and statistics) needing conversely the progress of the mathematical science or applied mathematics.
The progress of mathematical information presentation such as TeX or MathML will demand to evolution form formula manipulation language to true mathematics manipulation language (notwithstanding the problem that whether mathematical theory is inconsistent or not). And popularization of general purpose mathematical software, special purpose mathematical software so called one purpose software which used special subject will alive with adapting for environment progress at normalization of platform. So the diversity of mathematical software will be kept.
Software calculator
A software calculator allows the user to perform simple mathematical operations, like addition, multiplication, exponentiation and trigonometry. Data input is typically manual, and the output is a text label.
Computer algebra systems
Many mathematical suites are computer algebra systems that use symbolic mathematics. They are designed to solve classical algebra equations and problems in human readable notation.
Statistics
Many tools are available for statistical analysis of data. See also Comparison of statistical packages.
Theorem provers and proof assistants
Optimization software
Geometry
Numerical analysis
TK Solver is a mathematical modeling and problem solving software system based on a declarative, rule-based language, commercialized by Universal Technical Systems, Inc..
The Netlib repository contains various collections of software routines for numerical problems, mostly in Fortran and C. Commercial products implementing many different numerical algorithms include the IMSL, NMath and NAG libraries; a free alternative is the GNU Scientific Library. A different approach is taken by the Numerical Recipes library, where emphasis is placed on clear understanding of algorithms.
Many computer algebra systems (listed above) can also be used for numerical computations.
Music mathematics software
Music mathematics software utilizes mathematics to analyze or synthesize musical symbols and patterns.
Musimat (by Gareth Loy)
Websites
A growing number of mathematical software is available in web browsers, without the need to download or install any code.
Programming libraries
Low-level mathematical libraries intended for use within other programming languages:
GMP, the GNU Multi-Precision Library for extremely fast arbitrary precision arithmetic.
Class Library for Numbers, a high-level C++ library for arbitrary precision arithmetic.
AMD Core Math Library, a software development library released by AMD
Boost.Math
References
External links
swMATH Database on mathematical software
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28783062
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pass%20the%20hash
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Pass the hash
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In cryptanalysis and computer security, pass the hash is a hacking technique that allows an attacker to authenticate to a remote server or service by using the underlying NTLM or LanMan hash of a user's password, instead of requiring the associated plaintext password as is normally the case. It replaces the need for stealing the plaintext password with merely stealing the hash and using that to authenticate with.
After an attacker obtains valid user name and user password hash values (somehow, using different methods and tools), they are then able to use that information to authenticate to a remote server or service using LM or NTLM authentication without the need to brute-force the hashes to obtain the cleartext password (as it was required before this technique was published). The attack exploits an implementation weakness in the authentication protocol, where password hashes remain static from session to session until the password is next changed.
This technique can be performed against any server or service accepting LM or NTLM authentication, whether it runs on a machine with Windows, Unix, or any other operating system.
Description
On systems or services using NTLM authentication, users' passwords are never sent in cleartext over the wire. Instead, they are provided to the requesting system, like a domain controller, as a hash in a response to a challenge–response authentication scheme.
Native Windows applications ask users for the cleartext password, then call APIs like LsaLogonUser that convert that password to one or two hash values (the LM or NT hashes) and then send that to the remote server during NTLM authentication. Analysis of this mechanism has shown that the cleartext password is not required to complete network authentication successfully, only the hashes are needed.
If an attacker has the hashes of a user's password, they do not need to brute-force the cleartext password; they can simply use the hash of an arbitrary user account that they have harvested to authenticate against a remote system and impersonate that user. In other words, from an attacker's perspective, hashes are functionally equivalent to the original passwords that they were generated from.
History
The pass the hash technique was originally published by Paul Ashton in 1997 and consisted of a modified Samba SMB client that accepted user password hashes instead of cleartext passwords. Later versions of Samba and other third-party implementations of the SMB and NTLM protocols also included the functionality.
This implementation of the technique was based on an SMB stack created by a third-party (e.g., Samba and others), and for this reason suffered from a series of limitations from a hacker's perspective, including limited or partial functionality: The SMB protocol has continued to evolve over the years, this means that third parties creating their own implementation of the SMB protocol need to implement changes and additions to the protocol after they are introduced by newer versions of Windows and SMB (historically by reverse engineering, which is very complex and time-consuming). This means that even after performing NTLM authentication successfully using the pass the hash technique, tools like Samba's SMB client might not have implemented the functionality the attacker might want to use. This meant that it was difficult to attack Windows programs that use DCOM or RPC.
Also, because attackers were restricted to using third-party clients when carrying out attacks, it was not possible to use built-in Windows applications, like Net.exe or the Active Directory Users and Computers tool amongst others, because they asked the attacker or user to enter the cleartext password to authenticate, and not the corresponding password hash value.
In 2008, Hernan Ochoa published a tool called the "Pass-the-Hash Toolkit" that allowed 'pass the hash' to be performed natively on Windows. It allowed the user name, domain name, and password hashes cached in memory by the Local Security Authority to be changed at runtime after a user was authenticated — this made it possible to 'pass the hash' using standard Windows applications, and thereby to undermine fundamental authentication mechanisms built into the operating system.
The tool also introduced a new technique which allowed dumping password hashes cached in the memory of the lsass.exe process (not in persistent storage on disk), which quickly became widely used by penetration testers (and attackers). This hash harvesting technique is more advanced than previously used techniques (e.g. dumping the local Security Accounts Manager database (SAM) using pwdump and similar tools), mainly because hash values stored in memory could include credentials of domain users (and domain administrators) that logged into the machine. For example, the hashes of authenticated domain users that are not stored persistently in the local SAM can also be dumped. This makes it possible for a penetration tester (or attacker) to compromise a whole Windows domain after compromising a single machine that was a member of that domain. Furthermore, the attack can be implemented instantaneously and without any requirement for expensive computing resources to carry out a brute force attack.
This toolkit has subsequently been superseded by "Windows Credential Editor", which extends the original tool's functionality and operating system support. Some antivirus vendors classify the toolkit as malware.
Hash harvesting
Before an attacker can carry out a pass-the-hash attack, they must obtain the password hashes of the target user accounts. To this end, penetration testers and attackers can harvest password hashes using a number of different methods:
Cached hashes or credentials of users who have previously logged onto a machine (for example at the console or via RDP) can be read from the SAM by anyone who has Administrator-level privileges. The default behavior of caching hashes or credentials for offline use can be disabled by administrators, so this technique may not always work if a machine has been sufficiently hardened.
Dumping the local user's account database (SAM). This database only contains user accounts local to the particular machine that was compromised. For example, in a domain environment, the SAM database of a machine will not contain domain users, only users local to that machine that more likely will not be very useful to authenticate to other services on the domain. However, if the same local administrative account passwords are used across multiple systems the attacker can remotely access those systems using the local user account hashes.
Sniffing LM and NTLM challenge–response dialogues between client and servers, and later brute-forcing captured encrypted hashes (since the hashes obtained in this way are encrypted, it is necessary to perform a brute-force attack to obtain the actual hashes).
Dumping authenticated users' credentials stored by Windows in the memory of the lsass.exe process. The credentials dumped in this way may include those of domain users or administrators, such as those logged in via RDP. This technique may therefore be used to obtain credentials of user accounts that are not local to the compromised computer, but rather originate from the security domain that the machine is a member of.
Mitigations
Any system using LM or NTLM authentication in combination with any communication protocol (SMB, FTP, RPC, HTTP etc.) is at risk from this attack. The exploit is very difficult to defend against, due to possible exploits in Windows and applications running on Windows that can be used by an attacker to elevate their privileges and then carry out the hash harvesting that facilitates the attack. Furthermore, it may only require one machine in a Windows domain to not be configured correctly or be missing a security patch for an attacker to find a way in. A wide range of penetration testing tools are furthermore available to automate the process of discovering a weakness on a machine.
There is no single defense against the technique, thus standard defense in depth practices apply – for example use of firewalls, intrusion prevention systems, 802.1x authentication, IPsec, antivirus software, reducing the number of people with elevated privileges, pro-active security patching etc. Preventing Windows from storing cached credentials may limit attackers to obtaining hashes from memory, which usually means that the target account must be logged into the machine when the attack is executed. Allowing domain administrators to log into systems that may be compromised or untrusted will create a scenario where the administrators' hashes become the targets of attackers; limiting domain administrator logons to trusted domain controllers can therefore limit the opportunities for an attacker. The principle of least privilege suggests that a least user access (LUA) approach should be taken, in that users should not use accounts with more privileges than necessary to complete the task at hand. Configuring systems not to use LM or NTLM can also strengthen security, but newer exploits are able to forward Kerberos tickets in a similar way. Limiting the scope of debug privileges on system may frustrate some attacks that inject code or steal hashes from the memory of sensitive processes.
Restricted Admin Mode is a new Windows operating system feature introduced in 2014 via security bulletin 2871997, which is designed to reduce the effectiveness of the attack.
See also
Reflection attack
Metasploit Project
SMBRelay
Notes
References
External links
Microsoft Pass the Hash Mitigation Guidance
Amplia Security
SMBShell
Patrick Jungles et al.: Mitigating Pass-the-Hash (PtH) Attacks and Other Credential Theft Techniques, Microsoft Corp., 2012, retrieved on Feb. 3, 2015
Uninformed Break-the-hash paper
Reducing the Effectiveness of Pass-the-Hash(NSA)
CWE-836: Use of Password Hash Instead of Password for Authentication
Hacking (computer security)
Side-channel attacks
Computer security exploits
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32601089
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ninithi
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Ninithi
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Ninithi (Sinhala: නිනිති) is free and open source modelling software that can be used to visualize and analyze carbon materials used in nanotechnology. Users of ninithi can visualize the 3D molecular geometries of graphene/nano-ribbons, carbon nanotubes (both single wall and multi-wall) and fullerenes. Ninithi also provides features to simulate the electronic band structures of graphene and carbon nanotubes.
The software was developed by Lanka Software Foundation, in Sri Lanka and released in 2010 under the GPL licence. Ninithi is written in the Java programming language and available for both Microsoft Windows and Linux platforms.
Generalized equations and algorithms used in ninithi were published in 2010.
See also
SAMSON: a software platform for integrated computational nanoscience
References
External links
Article on ninithi at ITPro magazine
Ninithi at Manthan Awards, India
Ninithi at nanoHUB.org maintained by Purdue University
Download links for Ninithi
Ninithi project page at sourceforge
3D graphics software
Free software programmed in Java (programming language)
Free physics software
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37259190
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flexiant
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Flexiant
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Flexiant is a United Kingdom-based software company founded in 2009 that provides software to cloud services providers.
History
In 1997 Flexiant's founder, Tony Lucas, formed a hosting company called XCalibre Communications. One of Xcalibre's products was Extility, a cloud orchestration software.
In 2007, XCalibre built and launched FlexiScale, using Extility. FlexiScale was Europe’s first public cloud platform, released nine months earlier than Amazon's European cloud platform. This platform consisted of pay-as-you-go virtual dedicated servers that could be set up by customers themselves.
XCalibre, the web hosting business was sold in 2009, and the remaining company was renamed Flexiant. Flexiant focused on developing software for other service providers in Europe.
In 2010, Flexiant launched the first version of Extility Cloud Orchestration, and by 2011, 95 customers were using the software.
In 2012, Flexiant secured additional funding and expanded their management team. The Extility software was renamed Flexiant Cloud Orchestrator Version 2.0. Flexiant developed partnerships with companies in Europe and the US, created a test lab in Amsterdam and opened an office in New York. In November 2012 a new version of Flexiant Cloud Orchestrator (Version 3.0) was released. In the same month, the Info-Tech Research Group awarded the Trendsetter Award to Flexiant for the previous version.
In 2013, Flexiant became the Premier Sponsor of Cloud Expo Europe. In May 2013, Flexiant released Flexiant Cloud Orchestrator V3.1, followed by V4.0 in November.
In February 2014, FlexiScale Public Cloud Platform was acquired by FlexiScale Technologies Ltd, located in Nottingham, headed up by CEO Rajinder Basi and CTO Norman Hinds.
In October 2014, Flexiant launched Flexiant Concerto, a multi cloud workload management system.
In June 2016, Flexiant was acquired by FlexiScale Technologies Ltd.
References
External links
Software companies of the United Kingdom
Companies based in Nottingham
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34120691
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ThinkServer
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ThinkServer
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The ThinkServer product line began with the TS100 from Lenovo. The server was developed under agreement with IBM, by which Lenovo would produce single-socket and dual-socket servers based on IBM's xSeries technology. An additional feature of the server design was a support package aimed at small businesses. The focus of this support package was to provide small businesses with software tools to ease the process of server management and reduce dependence on IT support. The tools developed for this support package included:
EasyStartup – meant to simplify the initial server configuration
EasyUpdate – for download and installation of hardware and firmware updates
EasyManage – to monitor the performance of multiple servers from a single console
Lenovo's ThinkServer naming conventions reflect whether the server is a tower server or a rack server. First letter "T" is used to indicate tower servers, while "R" is used for rack servers, and "S" is storage rack server. Similarly, secondary letter "S" indicates single socket, while "D" indicates dual-socket.
The ThinkServer family has been discontinued in 2019, and the new family of Intel servers is named ThinkSystem.
2017
TS460
RS160
2016
2015
2014
Tower
TD340
TD350
Rack
RS140
1U
RD340
1U
RD440
2U
RD550
1U server.
Processors: 2× Intel Xeon E5-2600 v3 series
Memory: Up to 768 GB RDIMM\LV RDIMM DDR4 (24 slots)
RD650
2U server.
Processors: 2× Intel Xeon E5-2600 v3 series
Memory: Up to 768 GB RDIMM\LV RDIMM DDR4 (24 slots)
2013
In September 2013, Lenovo announced the TS140 and the TS440 replacing the TS130 and TS430.
TS140
The TS140 added USB 3.0 ports and an on-board 6GB SATA storage controller supporting RAID 0/1/10/5. The TS140 was made significantly quieter, with Lenovo claiming as low as 26 db. Using four 3.5" HDDs, it can support up to 24TB of data storage.
Detailed specifications of the server are as follows:
Processor:
Intel Xeon E3-1200 v3 series (up to quad core 3.7 GHz)
Intel Core i3 4000 series (up to dual core 3.7 GHz)
Intel Pentium G3200/G3400 series (up to dual core 3.4 GHz)
Intel Celeron G18 (up to dual core 2.9 GHz)
Chipset: Intel C226
RAM: up to 32GB DDR3 ECC UDIMM
Graphics:
Intel HD Graphics
NVIDIA Quadro NVS 300 (512MB)
NVIDIA Quadro K600 (1 GB)
Bays:
Two 5.25" (used for optical drive and additional 3.5 inch drives)
Two 3.5"
Optical drive: DVD-ROM or DVD±RW
Operating system:
Windows Server R2 (Foundation, Standard, Enterprise)
Windows Server 2012 (Foundation, Essentials, Standard)
Windows Small Business Server (Essentials, Standard, Premium Add-on)
Manageability:
ThinkServer EasyStartup, EasyUpdate, Power Planner, and Diagnostics
Intel Advanced Management Technology 9.0 with remote KVM (Xeon models)
Intel Standard Manageability tools (Pentium, Celeron and Core i3 models)
Trusted Platform Module
Unified Extensible Firmware Interface (UEFI)
Weight: up to 28.66 lbs (13 kg)
Dimensions: 6.88” x 16.96” x 14.76”(175 mm x 431 mm x 375 mm)
Ports: Six USB 3.0, two USB 2.0, two DisplayPort, DB-15 VGA port, DB-9 serial port, RJ-45 GbE network port
TS440
2012
In November 2012, Lenovo's new Enterprise Product Group launched the TD330, featuring up to 192GB of memory and supporting up to 16 processor cores. It is built around Xeon E5-2400 processors from Intel and is available in energy-saving models compliant with Energy Star standards.
TD330
2011
Lenovo launched the ThinkServer models TS130 and TS430 in June 2011.
TS130
The TS130 was a ThinkServer model launched by Lenovo in 2011 primarily for small businesses. This server was intended to replace Lenovo's 2010 entry-level offering, the TS200v. The server was equipped with Windows Small Business Server 2011 Essentials along with Intel Active Management Technology (AMT) 7.0. The TS130 was summarized by Andrew Jeffries, worldwide product manager for ThinkServer, as ”The TS130 offers a wonderful first-server solution to anyone that has a tiny IT staff or has no IT staff but needs a true server solution”.
Detailed specifications of the server are as follows:
Processor:
Intel Xeon E3-1200 series
Intel Core i3
Intel Pentium
Intel Celeron
RAM: up to 16GB ECC
Chipset: Intel 206 series
Bays: two 3.5"
Operating system:
Windows Server 2008 R2 (Enterprise, Foundation, Standard Edition)
Windows Small Business Server 2011 (Essentials, Standard, Premium Add-On)
Management:
Intel Advanced Management Technology (AMT) 7.0 with remote KVM
Intel Standard Manageability
TS430
Techpowerup, quoting Lenovo's press release, stated, "The all-new, highly scalable ThinkServer TS430 sets a new standard in its class with options for an enormous 16 TB of hot swap storage capacity, powerful SAS RAID data protection and redundant power choices for peace of mind. It suits demanding environments requiring high capacity, high performance and 24×7 uptime." The press release also indicated that the TS430 was "rack-able" and offered features like hard disk drive access from the front of the server, as well as the ThinkServer Management Module with iKVM.
The TS430 was announced in June 2011 by Lenovo with the following specifications:
Processor:
Up to Intel Xeon E3-1280
Up to Intel Core G850
RAM: up to 32GB ECC (4 slots)
Storage: up to 16TB hot swap
Weight: 25 kg
Operating system:
Windows Server 2008 R2 (Foundation, Standard Edition)
Windows Small Business Server 2011 (Essentials, Standard, Premium Add-On)
Novell SUSE Linux Enterprise Server (SLES) 11.1
Red Hat Enterprise Linux 6.0
VMWare ESX/ESXi 4.0, 4.1
Manageability:
IMM on shared Ethernet port
KVM with the ThinkServer Management Module
IPMI 2.0 or SOL
Trusted Platform Module
2010
Lenovo released ThinkServer TD200, TD200x, TS200v, TD230, RD220, RD230, and RD240 in 2010.
Tower
TD200
The TD200 server offered the following specifications:
Processors: 2× Intel Xeon E5502 (Quad-core 1.86 GHz)
Chipset: Intel 5520
RAM: up to 96GB DDR3 SDRAM ECC (12 slots)
Bays:
Four front accessible simple swap 5.25"
Four 3.5"
TD200x
The TD200x server offered higher specifications as compared to the TD200. Detailed specifications of the server are as follows:
Processors: 2× Intel Xeon E5530 (Quad-core 2.4 GHz)
Chipset: Intel 5520
RAM: up to 128GB DDR3 SDRAM ECC (16 slots)
Bays
Eight 5.25" hot swap
Three front accessible 2.5"
Operating system:
Windows Server 2008 (Standard or Enterprise)
Windows Small Business Server 2008 (Standard or Premium)
Windows Essential Business Server 2008 (Standard or Premium)
Windows Small Business Server 2003 (Standard or Premium)
Novell SUSE Linux Enterprise Server (SLES) 10 32/64 bit
TD230
The TD230 was a tower server released by Lenovo in 2010 with the following specifications:
Processors: 2× Intel Xeon E5620 (Quad-core 2.4 GHz)
Chipset: Intel 5500
RAM: up to 32GB DDR3 SDRAM ECC (8 slots)
Bays:
Two front accessible 5.25"
Four hot swap 3.5"
Operating system:
Microsoft Windows Server 2008 (Standard or Enterprise) R2
Microsoft Windows Small Business Server 2008 (Standard or Premium) SP2
Novell SUSE Linux 11
Red Hat RHEL 5
Manageability:
iBMc
Web Remote Management
TS200v
The TS200v was described by PCMag as a good choice for small businesses. While the server offered adequate performance, the review indicated that the use of Windows Server 2008 R2 foundation required the use of a knowledgeable Windows technician to set up and configure the server.
Additional specifications for the server are given below:
Operating system: Windows Server 2008 R2
Storage: 250 GB (maximum)
RAID Level: RAID 0, RAID 1
Management tools:
Intel Active Management Technology
Intel Remote PC Assistance Technology
Rack
RD220
Also released in 2010, the RD220 was a rack-mountable server, described by COMPUTERWORLD as “The Lenovo ThinkServer RD220 is a good middle of the road server with good build quality, redundancy and solid disk performance although there are better servers in this class in terms of overall features for your dollar.”
The RD220 server offered the following specifications:
Processors: 2× Intel Xeon 5500 series
Chipset: Intel 5520
RAM: up to 48GB DDR3 (1, 2 or 4GB Advanced ECC modules) R-DIMM (16 slots)
Operating system:
Microsoft Windows Server 2008 (Standard or Enterprise)
Microsoft Windows Small Business Server 2008 (Standard or Premium)
Microsoft Windows Essential Business Server 2008 (Standard or Premium)
Microsoft Windows Small Business Server 2003 (Standard or Premium)
Novell SUSE Linux Enterprise Server (SLES) 10 32/64 bit
Manageability:
Built-in IMM (optional IMM Premium)
EasyManage
Onboard virtualization connector
RD230
The RD230 was a single unit rack-mountable server released by Lenovo in 2010 with the following specifications:
Processors: 2× Intel Xeon 5500 or 5600 series
Chipset: Intel 5500
RAM: up to 64GB DDR3 SDRAM ECC (8 slots)
Bays:
One front accessible 5.25"
Four hot swap 3.5"
Operating systems:
Microsoft Windows Server 2008 (Standard or Enterprise) R2
Microsoft Windows Small Business Server 2008 (Standard or Premium) SP2
Novell SUSe Linux 11
Red Hat Enterprise Linux 6
VMware vSphere 4.0
Manageability:
Web-enabled iBMC
iKvM Management
RD240
Like the RD230, the RD240 was also a rack-mountable server, but with a 2U case. Released by Lenovo in 2010 with the following specifications:
Processors: 2× Intel Xeon E5607 (Quad-core 2.26 GHz)
Chipset: Intel 5500
RAM: up to 64GB DDR3 SDRAM ECC (8 slots)
Bays:
One front accessible 5.25"
Eight hot swap 3.5"
Operating systems:
Microsoft Windows Server 2008 (Standard or Enterprise) R2
Microsoft Windows Small Business Server 2008 (Standard or Premium) SP2
Novell SUSE Linux 11
Red Hat Enterprise Linux 6
Manageability:
Web-enabled iBMC
iKvM Management
Remote Management
2009
The ThinkServer models released in 2009 by Lenovo were the TD100, TD100x, RS110, RD120, RD210, TS200, and TD200.
Tower
TD100
The TD100 was released by Lenovo in 2010 with the following specifications:
Processors: 2× Intel Xeon E5400 series
Chipset: Intel 5000
RAM: Up to 32GB 667 MHz DDR2 FBDIMM
Operating system:
Microsoft Windows Server 2008 (Standard or Premium)
Microsoft Windows Small Business Server 2003 R2 (Standard or Premium)
Novell SUSE Linux Enterprise Server
Manageability:
ThinkServer EasyStartup (for server startup and configuration)
ThinkServer EasyUpdate (for firmware updates)
ThinkServer EasyManage (for hardware monitoring and alerts)
PC-Doctor Diagnostics
IPMI 2.0
TD100x
The TD100x was also released in 2009 with the following specifications:
Processors: 2× Intel Xeon 5000 series
Chipset: Intel 5000P
RAM: Up to 48GB 667 MHz DDR2 FBDIMM (12 slots) with Advanced ECC
Operating system:
Microsoft Windows Server 2008 (Standard or Premium)
Microsoft Windows Server 2003 (Standard or Premium)
Microsoft Windows Small Business Server 2003 R2 (Standard or Premium)
Novell SUSE Linux Enterprise Server
Manageability:
ThinkServer EasyStartup (for server startup and configuration)
ThinkServer EasyUpdate (for firmware updates)
ThinkServer EasyManage (for hardware monitoring and alerts)
PC-Doctor Diagnostics
IPMI 2.0
TS200
The TS200 was announced by Lenovo in September 2009, along with the RS210. It was a tower server with the following specifications:
Processor: Intel Xeon X3450 (Quad-core 2.66 GHz)
Chipset: Intel 3420
RAM: up to 32GB DDR3 SDRAM ECC (6 slots)
Optical drive: DVD reader/writer
Bays: four 3.5" hot swap hard drives
Operating system:
Microsoft Windows Server 2008 (Standard or Enterprise) R2 edition
Microsoft Windows Server 2008 SBS Standard
Microsoft Windows Foundations R2
Novell SUSE Linux Enterprise Server (SLES) 11 with Xen hypervisor
Red Hat Enterprise Linux 5.3
VMware ESX Server 4.0 & 4.0i
Manageability:
IMM with IPMI 2.0
Hardware key for remote presence
Trusted Platform Module 1.2
Rack
RS110
The RS110 server was summed up by PCPro as being “a low-cost general purpose rack server with a good spec and a support package that will appeal to small business.” The server was reported to resemble IBM's servers and incorporating the same level of build quality.
The server's front panel offered two 3.5" drive bays. The hard disks were mounted in removable carriers, despite the fact that the server only supported cold swap. A single socket server, the processor on offer was the 2.4 GHz Intel Core 2 Duo processor. An intense cooling system was incorporated, with a large heatsink and an array of pipes, with three small fans addressing cooling needs. Despite the presence of three fans, the server's noise levels were low. Power utilization was also low, with the server drawing 65W when idle and 94W at peak performance.
RD120
The RD120 server was described by PCPro as “a good-value 2U rack server with a decent spec, plenty of room to upgrade, and a support package.” This model was described as being “essentially an IBM System x3650” with “classy build quality”.
The server supported up to six 3.5" SATA or SAS hot swap HDD. Upgrades to the server included conversion options to eight 2.5 inch or four 3.5" HDD with an internal tape drive with external storage arrays. Power consumption was recorded as being 45W on standby, 203W with the OS on idle, and 289W with the processor's capabilities tested intensively.
RD210
The RD210 server was released by Lenovo in 2009. It was summarized by a reviewer of ZDNet as “Lenovo's RD210 makes perfect sense if you're a small business that just needs a grunty all-purpose 1RU server.”
Detailed specifications of the server are as follows:
Processors: 2× Intel Xeon 5500 Series
Chipset: Intel 5520
RAM: up to 48GB DDR3 (1, 2 or 4GB Advanced ECC modules) R-DIMM (16 slots)
Operating system:
Windows Server 2008 (Standard or Enterprise)
Windows Small Business Server 2008 (Standard or Premium)
Windows Essential Business Server 2008 (Standard or Premium)
Windows Small Business Server 2003 (Standard or Premium)
Novell SUSE Linux Enterprise Server (SLES) 10 32/64 bit
Manageability:
Built-in IMM (optional IMM Premium)
EasyManage
Onboard virtualization connector
RS210
The RS210 was announced by Lenovo in September 2009, along with the TS200. It was a rack server with specifications similar to those of the TS200. The processor, chipset, and RAM were the same. However, the four available hot swap bays were designed for 2.5 inch HDD.
2008
The ThinkServer model released in 2008 by Lenovo was the TS100.
TS100
The TS100 was described by PCPro as having rock-solid build quality. It was described as being very similar to IBM's X3200 M2 pedestal server. The front of the server offered room for two 5.25" bays, beneath which was a hot swap bay with the capacity to support four HDD. The server's side panel could be locked, while the bay cover could not be secured. The hard disk bay was equipped with its own fan assembly, in spite of the 12 cm fan at the chassis’ rear. Despite the presence of multiple fans, the TS100 was described as being very quiet after startup.
References
Lenovo Tower Servers
External links
Lenovo ThinkServer Rack Server
Lenovo servers
Server hardware
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OwnCloud
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OwnCloud
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ownCloud is a suite of client–server software for creating and using file hosting services. ownCloud functionally has similarities to the widely used Dropbox. The primary functional difference between ownCloud and Dropbox is that ownCloud is primarily server software. (The company's ownCloud.online is a hosted service.) The Server Edition of ownCloud is free and open-source, thereby allowing anyone to install and operate it without charge on their own private server.
ownCloud supports extensions that allow it to work like Google Drive, with online office suite document editing, calendar and contact synchronization, and more. Its openness avoids enforced quotas on storage space or the number of connected clients, instead of having hard limits (for example on storage space or number of users) limits are determined by the physical capabilities of the server.
History
The development of ownCloud was announced in January 2010, in order to provide a free software replacement to proprietary storage service providers.
The company was founded in 2011 and forked the code away from KDE to GitHub.
ownCloud Inc., the company founded by Markus Rex, Holger Dyroff and Frank Karlitschek, has attracted funding from investors, including an injection of 6.3 million US$ in 2014.
In April 2016, Karlitschek left ownCloud Inc. and founded a new company and project called Nextcloud in June 2016, resulting in the closure of ownCloud's U.S. operations. Some former ownCloud Inc. developers left ownCloud to form the fork with Karlitschek.
In July 2016, ownCloud GmbH, based in Nuremberg Germany, secured additional financing, and expanded its management team.
In 2018, ownCloud launched its own SaaS offer for small businesses and NGOs. The service aimed to provide a secure and GDPR-compatible solution for organizations without their own IT department.
In March 2019, ownCloud launched the BayernBox in cooperation with the Bavarian State Office for Survey and Geoinformation, an ownCloud-based collaboration solution for the Bavarian municipalities. The deployment involves one ownCloud instance for each of the over 2000 municipalities.
Server releases
Overview
Design
Desktop clients for ownCloud are available for Windows, macOS, FreeBSD and Linux, mobile clients for iOS and Android devices. Files and other data (such as calendars, contacts or bookmarks) can also be accessed, managed, and uploaded using a web browser. Updates are pushed to all computers and mobile devices connected to a account.
Encryption of files may be enforced by the server administrator.
The ownCloud server is written in PHP and JavaScript scripting languages. In September 2020, ownCloud announced to switch to Go. The Go-based "ownCloud Infinite Scale" became first available to the public in early 2021, and in late 2021, the beta was announced for the first quarter of 2022. ownCloud is designed to work with several database management systems, including SQLite, MariaDB, MySQL, Oracle Database, and PostgreSQL.
Features
owncloud is a software only product and does not offer off-premise storage. This is in contrast to Dropbox, for example, which offers off-premise storage. The storage capacity for owncloud has to be provided on user-owned devices.
ownCloud files are stored in conventional directory structures and can be accessed via WebDAV if necessary. User files are encrypted both at rest and during transit. ownCloud can synchronise with local clients running Windows, macOS and various Linux distributions. ownCloud users can manage calendars (CalDAV), contacts (CardDAV) scheduled tasks and streaming media (Ampache) from within the platform.
ownCloud permits user and group administration (via OpenID or LDAP). Content can be shared by granular read/write permissions between users or groups. Alternatively, ownCloud users can create public URLs for sharing files. Furthermore, users can interact with the browser-based ODF-format word processor, bookmarking service, URL shortening suite, gallery, RSS feed reader and document viewer tools from within ownCloud. ownCloud can be augmented with "one-click" applications and connection to Dropbox, Google Drive and Amazon S3.
Enterprise features
Enterprise customers have access to apps with additional functionality. They are mainly useful for large organizations with more than 500 users. An Enterprise subscription includes support services.
Commercial features include end-to-end encryption, ransomware and antivirus protection, branding, document classification, and single sign-on via Shibboleth/SAML.
Distribution
ownCloud server and clients may be downloaded from the website, from mobile app stores, such as Google Play and Apple iTunes,, and repositories of Linux distributions. There exist projects to use ownCloud on a Raspberry Pi to create a small-scale cloud storage system.
ownCloud.online is an SaaS that offers a secure and GDPR-compatible solution for small businesses, NGOs and others without their own IT department.
See also
Comparison of file hosting services
Comparison of file synchronization software
Comparison of online backup services
References
External links
Forum for open source community and project
Cloud storage
Free software for cloud computing
Free software programmed in JavaScript
Free software programmed in PHP
Software using the GNU AGPL license
Internet software for Linux
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entity%E2%80%93attribute%E2%80%93value%20model
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Entity–attribute–value model
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Entity–attribute–value model (EAV) is a data model to encode, in a space-efficient manner, entities where the number of attributes (properties, parameters) that can be used to describe them is potentially vast, but the number that will actually apply to a given entity is relatively modest. Such entities correspond to the mathematical notion of a sparse matrix.
EAV is also known as object–attribute–value model, vertical database model, and open schema.
Data structure
This data representation is analogous to space-efficient methods of storing a sparse matrix, where only non-empty values are stored. In an EAV data model, each attribute-value pair is a fact describing an entity, and a row in an EAV table stores a single fact. EAV tables are often described as "long and skinny": "long" refers to the number of rows, "skinny" to the few columns.
Data is recorded as three columns:
The entity: the item being described.
The attribute or parameter: typically implemented as a foreign key into a table of attribute definitions. The attribute definitions table might contain the following columns: an attribute ID, attribute name, description, data type, and columns assisting input validation, e.g., maximum string length and regular expression, set of permissible values, etc.
The value of the attribute.
Example
Consider how one would try to represent a general-purpose clinical record in a relational database. Clearly creating a table (or a set of tables) with thousands of columns is not feasible, because the vast majority of columns would be null. To complicate things, in a longitudinal medical record that follows the patient over time, there may be multiple values of the same parameter: the height and weight of a child, for example, change as the child grows. Finally, the universe of clinical findings keeps growing: for example, diseases emerge and new lab tests are devised; this would require constant addition of columns, and constant revision of the user interface. (The situation where the list of attributes changes frequently is termed "attribute volatility" in database parlance.)
The following shows a snapshot of an EAV table for clinical findings from a visit to a doctor for a fever on the morning of 1/5/98. The entries shown within angle brackets are references to entries in other tables, shown here as text rather than as encoded foreign key values for ease of understanding. In this example, the values are all literal values, but they could also be pre-defined value lists. The latter are particularly useful when the possible values are known to be limited (i.e., enumerable).
The entity. For clinical findings, the entity is the patient event: a foreign key into a table that contains at a minimum a patient ID and one or more time-stamps (e.g., the start and end of the examination date/time) that record when the event being described happened.
The attribute or parameter: a foreign key into a table of attribute definitions (in this example, definitions of clinical findings). At the very least, the attribute definitions table would contain the following columns: an attribute ID, attribute name, description, data type, units of measurement, and columns assisting input validation, e.g., maximum string length and regular expression, maximum and minimum permissible values, set of permissible values, etc.
The value of the attribute. This would depend on the data type, and we discuss how values are stored shortly.
The example below illustrates symptoms findings that might be seen in a patient with pneumonia.
(<patient XYZ, 1/5/98 9:30 AM>, <Temperature in degrees Fahrenheit>, "102" )
(<patient XYZ, 1/5/98 9:30 AM>, <Presence of Cough>, "True" )
(<patient XYZ, 1/5/98 9:30 AM>, <Type of Cough>, "With phlegm, yellowish, streaks of blood" )
(<patient XYZ, 1/5/98 9:30 AM>, <Heart Rate in beats per minute>, "98" )
...The EAV data described above is comparable to the contents of a supermarket sales receipt (which would be reflected in a Sales Line Items table in a database). The receipt lists only details of the items actually purchased, instead of listing every product in the shop that the customer might have purchased but didn't. Like the clinical findings for a given patient, the sales receipt is sparse.
The "entity" is the sale/transaction id — a foreign key into a sales transactions table. This is used to tag each line item internally, though on the receipt the information about the Sale appears at the top (shop location, sale date/time) and at the bottom (total value of sale).
The "attribute" is a foreign key into a products table, from where one looks up description, unit price, discounts and promotions, etc. (Products are just as volatile as clinical findings, possibly even more so: new products are introduced every month, while others are taken off the market if consumer acceptance is poor. No competent database designer would hard-code individual products such as Doritos or Diet Coke as columns in a table.)
The "values" are the quantity purchased and total line item price.
Row modeling, where facts about something (in this case, a sales transaction) are recorded as multiple rows rather than multiple columns, is a standard data modeling technique. The differences between row modeling and EAV (which may be considered a generalization of row-modeling) are:
A row-modeled table is homogeneous in the facts that it describes: a Line Items table describes only products sold. By contrast, an EAV table contains almost any type of fact.
The data type of the value column/s in a row-modeled table is pre-determined by the nature of the facts it records. By contrast, in an EAV table, the conceptual data type of a value in a particular row depends on the attribute in that row. It follows that in production systems, allowing direct data entry into an EAV table would be a recipe for disaster, because the database engine itself would not be able to perform robust input validation. We shall see later how it is possible to build generic frameworks that perform most of the tasks of input validation, without endless coding on an attribute-by-attribute basis.
In a clinical data repository, row modeling also finds numerous uses; the laboratory test subschema is typically modeled this way, because lab test results are typically numeric, or can be encoded numerically.
The circumstances where you would need to go beyond standard row-modeling to EAV are listed below:
The data type of individual attributes varies (as seen with clinical findings).
The categories of data are numerous, growing or fluctuating, but the number of instances (records/rows) within each category is very small. Here, with conventional modeling, the database’s entity–relationship diagram might have hundreds of tables: the tables that contain thousands/ millions of rows/instances are emphasized visually to the same extent as those with very few rows. The latter are candidates for conversion to an EAV representation.
This situation arises in ontology-modeling environments, where categories ("classes") must often be created on the fly, and some classes are often eliminated in subsequent cycles of prototyping.
Certain ("hybrid") classes have some attributes that are non-sparse (present in all or most instances), while other attributes are highly variable and sparse. The latter are suitable for EAV modeling. For example, descriptions of products made by a conglomerate corporation depend on the product category, e.g., the attributes necessary to describe a brand of light bulb are quite different from those required to describe a medical imaging device, but both have common attributes such as packaging unit and per-item cost.
Description of concepts
The entity
In clinical data, the entity is typically a clinical event, as described above. In more general-purpose settings, the entity is a foreign key into an "objects" table that records common information about every "object" (thing) in the database – at the minimum, a preferred name and brief description, as well as the category/class of entity to which it belongs. Every record (object) in this table is assigned a machine-generated object ID.
The "objects table" approach was pioneered by Tom Slezak and colleagues at Lawrence Livermore Laboratories for the Chromosome 19 database, and is now standard in most large bioinformatics databases. The use of an objects table does not mandate the concurrent use of an EAV design: conventional tables can be used to store the category-specific details of each object.
The major benefit to a central objects table is that, by having a supporting table of object synonyms and keywords, one can provide a standard Google-like search mechanism across the entire system where the user can find information about any object of interest without having to first specify the category that it belongs to. (This is important in bioscience systems where a keyword like "acetylcholine" could refer either to the molecule itself, which is a neurotransmitter, or the biological receptor to which it binds.)
The attribute
In the EAV table itself, this is just an attribute ID, a foreign key into an Attribute Definitions table, as stated above. However, there are usually multiple metadata tables that contain attribute-related information, and these are discussed shortly.
The value
Coercing all values into strings, as in the EAV data example above, results in a simple, but non-scalable, structure: constant data type inter-conversions are required if one wants to do anything with the values, and an index on the value column of an EAV table is essentially useless. Also, it is not convenient to store large binary data, such as images, in Base64 encoded form in the same table as small integers or strings. Therefore, larger systems use separate EAV tables for each data type (including binary large objects, "BLOBS"), with the metadata for a given attribute identifying the EAV table in which its data will be stored. This approach is actually quite efficient because the modest amount of attribute metadata for a given class or form that a user chooses to work with can be cached readily in memory. However, it requires moving of data from one table to another if an attribute’s data type is changed.
History
EAV, as a general-purpose means of knowledge representation, originated with the concept of "association lists" (attribute-value pairs). Commonly used today, these were first introduced in the language LISP.
Attribute-value pairs are widely used for diverse applications, such as configuration files (using a simple syntax like attribute = value). An example of non-database use of EAV is in UIMA (Unstructured Information Management Architecture), a standard now managed by the Apache Foundation and employed in areas such as natural language processing. Software that analyzes text typically marks up ("annotates") a segment: the example provided in the UIMA tutorial is a program that performs named-entity recognition (NER) on a document, annotating the text segment "President Bush" with the annotation-attribute-value triple (Person, Full_Name, "George W. Bush"). Such annotations may be stored in a database table.
While EAV does not have a direct connection to AV-pairs, Stead and Hammond appear to be the first to have conceived of their use for persistent storage of arbitrarily complex data.
The first medical record systems to employ EAV were the Regenstrief electronic medical record (the effort led by Clement MacDonald), William Stead and Ed Hammond's TMR (The Medical Record) system and the HELP Clinical Data Repository (CDR) created by Homer Warner's group at LDS Hospital, Salt Lake City, Utah. (The Regenstrief system actually used a Patient-Attribute-Timestamp-Value design: the use of the timestamp supported retrieval of values for a given patient/attribute in chronological order.) All these systems, developed in the 1970s, were released before commercial systems based on E.F. Codd's relational database model were available, though HELP was much later ported to a relational architecture and commercialized by the 3M corporation. (Note that while Codd's landmark paper was published in 1970, its heavily mathematical tone had the unfortunate effect of diminishing its accessibility among non-computer-science types and consequently delaying the model's acceptance in IT and software-vendor circles. The value of the subsequent contribution of Christopher J. Date, Codd's colleague at IBM, in translating these ideas into accessible language, accompanied by simple examples that illustrated their power, cannot be overestimated.)
A group at the Columbia-Presbyterian Medical Center were the first to use a relational database engine as the foundation of an EAV system.
The open-source TrialDB clinical study data management system of Nadkarni et al. was the first to use multiple EAV tables, one for each DBMS data type.
The EAV/CR framework, designed primarily by Luis Marenco and Prakash Nadkarni, overlaid the principles of object orientation onto EAV; it built on Tom Slezak's object table approach (described earlier in the "Entity" section). SenseLab, a publicly accessible neuroscience database, is built with the EAV/CR framework.
Use in databases
The term "EAV database" refers to a database design where a significant proportion of the data is modeled as EAV. However, even in a database described as "EAV-based", some tables in the system are traditional relational tables.
As noted above, EAV modeling makes sense for categories of data, such as clinical findings, where attributes are numerous and sparse. Where these conditions do not hold, standard relational modeling (i.e., one column per attribute) is preferable; using EAV does not mean abandoning common sense or principles of good relational design. In clinical record systems, the subschemas dealing with patient demographics and billing are typically modeled conventionally. (While most vendor database schemas are proprietary, VistA, the system used throughout the United States Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) medical system, known as the Veterans Health Administration (VHA), is open-source and its schema is readily inspectable, though it uses a MUMPS database engine rather than a relational database.)
As discussed shortly, an EAV database is essentially unmaintainable without numerous supporting tables that contain supporting metadata. The metadata tables, which typically outnumber the EAV tables by a factor of at least three or more, are typically standard relational tables. An example of a metadata table is the Attribute Definitions table mentioned above.
EAV/CR: representing substructure with classes and relationships
In a simple EAV design, the values of an attribute are simple or primitive data types as far as the database engine is concerned. However, in EAV systems used for representation of highly diverse data, it is possible that a given object (class instance) may have substructure: that is, some of its attributes may represent other kinds of objects, which in turn may have substructure, to an arbitrary level of complexity. A car, for example, has an engine, a transmission, etc., and the engine has components such as cylinders. (The permissible substructure for a given class is defined within the system's attribute metadata, as discussed later. Thus, for example, the attribute "random-access-memory" could apply to the class "computer" but not to the class "engine".)
To represent substructure, one incorporates a special EAV table where the value column contains references to other entities in the system (i.e., foreign key values into the objects table). To get all the information on a given object requires a recursive traversal of the metadata, followed by a recursive traversal of the data that stops when every attribute retrieved is simple (atomic). Recursive traversal is necessary whether details of an individual class are represented in conventional or EAV form; such traversal is performed in standard object–relational systems, for example. In practice, the number of levels of recursion tends to be relatively modest for most classes, so the performance penalties due to recursion are modest, especially with indexing of object IDs.
EAV/CR (EAV with Classes and Relationships) refers to a framework that supports complex substructure. Its name is somewhat of a misnomer: while it was an outshoot of work on EAV systems, in practice, many or even most of the classes in such a system may be represented in standard relational form, based on whether the attributes are sparse or dense. EAV/CR is really characterized by its very detailed metadata, which is rich enough to support the automatic generation of browsing interfaces to individual classes without having to write class-by-class user-interface code. The basis of such browser interfaces is that it is possible to generate a batch of dynamic SQL queries that is independent of the class of the object, by first consulting its metadata and using metadata information to generate a sequence of queries against the data tables, and some of these queries may be arbitrarily recursive. This approach works well for object-at-a-time queries, as in Web-based browsing interfaces where clicking on the name of an object brings up all details of the object in a separate page: the metadata associated with that object's class also facilitates presentation of the object's details, because it includes captions of individual attributes, the order in which they are to be presented as well as how they are to be grouped.
One approach to EAV/CR is to allow columns to hold JSON structures, which thus provide the needed class structure. For example, PostgreSQL, as of version 9.4, offers JSON binary column (JSONB) support, allowing JSON attributes to be queried, indexed and joined.
Metadata
In the words of Prof. Dr. Daniel Masys (formerly Chair of Vanderbilt University's Medical Informatics Department), the challenges of working with EAV stem from the fact that in an EAV database, the "physical schema" (the way data are stored) is radically different from the "logical schema" – the way users, and many software applications such as statistics packages, regard it, i.e., as conventional rows and columns for individual classes. (Because an EAV table conceptually mixes apples, oranges, grapefruit and chop suey, if you want to do any analysis of the data using standard off-the-shelf software, in most cases you have to convert subsets of it into columnar form. The process of doing this, called pivoting, is important enough to be discussed separately.)
Metadata helps perform the sleight of hand that lets users interact with the system in terms of the logical schema rather than the physical: the software continually consults the metadata for various operations such as data presentation, interactive validation, bulk data extraction and ad hoc query. The metadata can actually be used to customize the behavior of the system.
EAV systems trade off simplicity in the physical and logical structure of the data for complexity in their metadata, which, among other things, plays the role that database constraints and referential integrity do in standard database designs. Such a tradeoff is generally worthwhile, because in the typical mixed schema of production systems, the data in conventional relational tables can also benefit from functionality such as automatic interface generation. The structure of the metadata is complex enough that it comprises its own subschema within the database: various foreign keys in the data tables refer to tables within this subschema. This subschema is standard-relational, with features such as constraints and referential integrity being used to the hilt.
The correctness of the metadata contents, in terms of the intended system behavior, is critical and the task of ensuring correctness means that, when creating an EAV system, considerable design efforts must go into building user interfaces for metadata editing that can be used by people on the team who know the problem domain (e.g., clinical medicine) but are not necessarily programmers. (Historically, one of the main reasons why the pre-relational TMR system failed to be adopted at sites other than its home institution was that all metadata was stored in a single file with a non-intuitive structure. Customizing system behavior by altering the contents of this file, without causing the system to break, was such a delicate task that the system's authors only trusted themselves to do it.)
Where an EAV system is implemented through RDF, the RDF Schema language may conveniently be used to express such metadata. This Schema information may then be used by the EAV database engine to dynamically re-organize its internal table structure for best efficiency.
Some final caveats regarding metadata:
Because the business logic is in the metadata rather than explicit in the database schema (i.e., one level removed, compared with traditionally designed systems), it is less apparent to one who is unfamiliar with the system. Metadata-browsing and metadata-reporting tools are therefore important in ensuring the maintainability of an EAV system. In the common scenario where metadata is implemented as a relational sub-schema, these tools are nothing more than applications built using off-the-shelf reporting or querying tools that operate on the metadata tables.
It is easy for an insufficiently knowledgeable user to corrupt (i.e., introduce inconsistencies and errors in) metadata. Therefore, access to metadata must be restricted, and an audit trail of accesses and changes put into place to deal with situations where multiple individuals have metadata access. Using an RDBMS for metadata will simplify the process of maintaining consistency during metadata creation and editing, by leveraging RDBMS features such as support for transactions. Also, if the metadata is part of the same database as the data itself, this ensures that it will be backed up at least as frequently as the data itself, so that it can be recovered to a point in time.
The quality of the annotation and documentation within the metadata (i.e., the narrative/explanatory text in the descriptive columns of the metadata sub-schema) must be much higher, in order to facilitate understanding by various members of the development team. Ensuring metadata quality (and keeping it current as the system evolves) takes very high priority in the long-term management and maintenance of any design that uses an EAV component. Poorly-documented or out-of-date metadata can compromise the system's long-term viability.
Information captured in metadata
Attribute metadata
Validation metadata include data type, range of permissible values or membership in a set of values, regular expression match, default value, and whether the value is permitted to be null. In EAV systems representing classes with substructure, the validation metadata will also record what class, if any, a given attribute belongs to.
Presentation metadata: how the attribute is to be displayed to the user (e.g., as a text box or image of specified dimensions, a pull-down list or a set of radio buttons). When a compound object is composed of multiple attributes, as in the EAV/CR design, there is additional metadata on the order in which the attributes should be presented, and how these attributes should optionally be grouped (under descriptive headings).
For attributes which happen to be laboratory parameters, ranges of normal values, which may vary by age, sex, physiological state and assay method, are recorded.
Grouping metadata: Attributes are typically presented as part of a higher-order group, e.g., a specialty-specific form. Grouping metadata includes information such as the order in which attributes are presented. Certain presentation metadata, such as fonts/colors and the number of attributes displayed per row, apply to the group as a whole.
Advanced validation metadata
Dependency metadata: in many user interfaces, entry of specific values into certain fields/attributes is required to either disable/hide certain other fields or enable/show other fields. (For example, if a user chooses the response "No" to a Boolean question "Does the patient have diabetes?", then subsequent questions about the duration of diabetes, medications for diabetes, etc. must be disabled.) To effect this in a generic framework involves storing of dependencies between the controlling attributes and the controlled attributes.
Computations and complex validation: As in a spreadsheet, the value of certain attributes can be computed, and displayed, based on values entered into fields that are presented earlier in sequence. (For example, body surface area is a function of height and width). Similarly, there may be "constraints" that must be true for the data to be valid: for example, in a differential white cell count, the sum of the counts of the individual white cell types must always equal 100, because the individual counts represent percentages. Computed formulas and complex validation are generally effected by storing expressions in the metadata that are macro-substituted with the values that the user enters and can be evaluated. In Web browsers, both JavaScript and VBScript have an Eval() function that can be leveraged for this purpose.
Validation, presentation and grouping metadata make possible the creation of code frameworks that support automatic user interface generation for both data browsing as well as interactive editing. In a production system that is delivered over the Web, the task of validation of EAV data is essentially moved from the back-end/database tier (which is powerless with respect to this task) to the middle /Web server tier. While back-end validation is always ideal, because it is impossible to subvert by attempting direct data entry into a table, middle tier validation through a generic framework is quite workable, though a significant amount of software design effort must go into building the framework first. The availability of open-source frameworks that can be studied and modified for individual needs can go a long way in avoiding wheel reinvention.
Usage scenarios
(The first part of this section is a précis of the Dinu/Nadkarni reference article in Central, to which the reader is directed for more details.)
EAV modeling, under the alternative terms "generic data modeling" or "open schema", has long been a standard tool for advanced data modelers. Like any advanced technique, it can be double-edged, and should be used judiciously.
Also, the employment of EAV does not preclude the employment of traditional relational database modeling approaches within the same database schema. In EMRs that rely on an RDBMS, such as Cerner, which use an EAV approach for their clinical-data subschema, the vast majority of tables in the schema are in fact traditionally modeled, with attributes represented as individual columns rather than as rows.
The modeling of the metadata subschema of an EAV system, in fact, is a very good fit for traditional modeling, because of the inter-relationships between the various components of the metadata. In the TrialDB system, for example, the number of metadata tables in the schema outnumber the data tables by about ten to one. Because the correctness and consistency of metadata is critical to the correct operation of an EAV system, the system designer wants to take full advantages of all of the features that RDBMSs provide, such as referential integrity and programmable constraints, rather than having to reinvent the RDBMS-engine wheel. Consequently, the numerous metadata tables that support EAV designs are typically in third-normal relational form.
Commercial electronic health record Systems (EHRs) use row-modeling for classes of data such as diagnoses, surgical procedures performed on and laboratory test results, which are segregated into separate tables. In each table, the "entity" is a composite of the patient ID and the date/time the diagnosis was made (or the surgery or lab test performed); the attribute is a foreign key into a specially designated lookup table that contains a controlled vocabulary - e.g., ICD-10 for diagnoses, Current Procedural Terminology for surgical procedures, with a set of value attributes. (E.g., for laboratory-test results, one may record the value measured, whether it is in the normal, low or high range, the ID of the person responsible for performing the test, the date/time the test was performed, and so on.) As stated earlier, this is not a full-fledged EAV approach because the domain of attributes for a given table is restricted, just as the domain of product IDs in a supermarket's Sales table would be restricted to the domain of Products in a Products table.
However, to capture data on parameters that are not always defined in standard vocabularies, EHRs also provide a "pure" EAV mechanism, where specially designated power-users can define new attributes, their data type, maximum and minimal permissible values (or permissible set of values/codes), and then allow others to capture data based on these attributes. In the Epic (TM) EHR, this mechanism is termed "Flowsheets", and is commonly used to capture inpatient nursing observation data.
Modeling sparse attributes
The typical case for using the EAV model is for highly sparse, heterogeneous attributes, such as clinical parameters in the electronic medical record (EMRs), as stated above. Even here, however, it is accurate to state that the EAV modeling principle is applied to a sub-schema of the database rather than for all of its contents. (Patient demographics, for example, are most naturally modeled in one-column-per-attribute, traditional relational structure.)
Consequently, the arguments about EAV vs. "relational" design reflect incomplete understanding of the problem: An EAV design should be employed only for that sub-schema of a database where sparse attributes need to be modeled: even here, they need to be supported by third normal form metadata tables. There are relatively few database-design problems where sparse attributes are encountered: this is why the circumstances where EAV design is applicable are relatively rare. Even where they are encountered, a set of EAV tables is not the only way to address sparse data: an XML-based solution (discussed below) is applicable when the maximum number of attributes per entity is relatively modest, and the total volume of sparse data is also similarly modest. An example of this situation is the problems of capturing variable attributes for different product types.
Sparse attributes may also occur in E-commerce situations where an organization is purchasing or selling a vast and highly diverse set of commodities, with the details of individual categories of commodities being highly variable. The Magento E-commerce software employs an EAV approach to address this issue.
Modeling numerous classes with very few instances per class: highly dynamic schemas
Another application of EAV is in modeling classes and attributes that, while not sparse, are dynamic, but where the number of data rows per class will be relatively modest – a couple of hundred rows at most, but typically a few dozen – and the system developer is also required to provide a Web-based end-user interface within a very short turnaround time. "Dynamic" means that new classes and attributes need to be continually defined and altered to represent an evolving data model. This scenario can occur in rapidly evolving scientific fields as well as in ontology development, especially during the prototyping and iterative refinement phases.
While creation of new tables and columns to represent a new category of data is not especially labor-intensive, the programming of Web-based interfaces that support browsing or basic editing with type- and range-based validation is. In such a case, a more maintainable long-term solution is to create a framework where the class and attribute definitions are stored in metadata, and the software generates a basic user interface from this metadata dynamically.
The EAV/CR framework, mentioned earlier, was created to address this very situation. Note that an EAV data model is not essential here, but the system designer may consider it an acceptable alternative to creating, say, sixty or more tables containing a total of not more than two thousand rows. Here, because the number of rows per class is so few, efficiency considerations are less important; with the standard indexing by class ID/attribute ID, DBMS optimizers can easily cache the data for a small class in memory when running a query involving that class or attribute.
In the dynamic-attribute scenario, it is worth noting that Resource Description Framework (RDF) is being employed as the underpinning of Semantic-Web-related ontology work. RDF, intended to be a general method of representing information, is a form of EAV: an RDF triple comprises an object, a property, and a value.
At the end of Jon Bentley's book "Writing Efficient Programs", the author warns that making code more efficient generally also makes it harder to understand and maintain, and so one does not rush in and tweak code unless one has first determined that there is a performance problem, and measures such as code profiling have pinpointed the exact location of the bottleneck. Once you have done so, you modify only the specific code that needs to run faster. Similar considerations apply to EAV modeling: you apply it only to the sub-system where traditional relational modeling is known a priori to be unwieldy (as in the clinical data domain), or is discovered, during system evolution, to pose significant maintenance challenges. Database Guru (and currently a vice-president of Core Technologies at Oracle Corporation) Tom Kyte, for example, correctly points out drawbacks of employing EAV in traditional business scenarios, and makes the point that mere "flexibility" is not a sufficient criterion for employing EAV. (However, he makes the sweeping claim that EAV should be avoided in all circumstances, even though Oracle's Health Sciences division itself employs EAV to model clinical-data attributes in its commercial systems ClinTrial and Oracle Clinical.)
Working with EAV data
The Achilles heel of EAV is the difficulty of working with large volumes of EAV data. It is often necessary to transiently or permanently inter-convert between columnar and row-or EAV-modeled representations of the same data; this can be both error-prone if done manually as well as CPU-intensive. Generic frameworks that utilize attribute and attribute-grouping metadata address the former but not the latter limitation; their use is more or less mandated in the case of mixed schemas that contain a mixture of conventional-relational and EAV data, where the error quotient can be very significant.
The conversion operation is called pivoting. Pivoting is not required only for EAV data but also for any form or row-modeled data. (For example, implementations of the Apriori algorithm for Association Analysis, widely used to process supermarket sales data to identify other products that purchasers of a given product are also likely to buy, pivot row-modeled data as a first step.) Many database engines have proprietary SQL extensions to facilitate pivoting, and packages such as Microsoft Excel also support it. The circumstances where pivoting is necessary are considered below.
Browsing of modest amounts of data for an individual entity, optionally followed by data editing based on inter-attribute dependencies. This operation is facilitated by caching the modest amounts of the requisite supporting metadata. Some programs, such as TrialDB, access the metadata to generate semi-static Web pages that contain embedded programming code as well as data structures holding metadata.
Bulk extraction transforms large (but predictable) amounts of data (e.g., a clinical study’s complete data) into a set of relational tables. While CPU-intensive, this task is infrequent and does not need to be done in real-time; i.e., the user can wait for a batched process to complete. The importance of bulk extraction cannot be overestimated, especially when the data is to be processed or analyzed with standard third-party tools that are completely unaware of EAV structure. Here, it is not advisable to try to reinvent entire sets of wheels through a generic framework, and it is best just to bulk-extract EAV data into relational tables and then work with it using standard tools.
Ad hoc query interfaces to row- or EAV-modeled data, when queried from the perspective of individual attributes, (e.g., "retrieve all patients with the presence of liver disease, with signs of liver failure and no history of alcohol abuse") must typically show the results of the query with individual attributes as separate columns. For most EAV database scenarios ad hoc query performance must be tolerable, but sub-second responses are not necessary, since the queries tend to be exploratory in nature.
Relational division
However, the structure of EAV data model is a perfect candidate for Relational Division, see relational algebra. With a good indexing strategy it's possible to get a response time in less than a few hundred milliseconds on a billion row EAV table. Microsoft SQL Server MVP Peter Larsson has proved this on a laptop and made the solution general available.
Optimizing pivoting performance
One possible optimization is the use of a separate "warehouse" or queryable schema whose contents are refreshed in batch mode from the production (transaction) schema. See data warehousing. The tables in the warehouse are heavily indexed and optimized using denormalization, which combines multiple tables into one to minimize performance penalty due to table joins.
Certain EAV data in a warehouse may be converted into standard tables using "materialized views" (see data warehouse), but this is generally a last resort that must be used carefully, because the number of views of this kind tends to grow non-linearly with the number of attributes in a system.
In-memory data structures: One can use hash tables and two-dimensional arrays in memory in conjunction with attribute-grouping metadata to pivot data, one group at a time. This data is written to disk as a flat delimited file, with the internal names for each attribute in the first row: this format can be readily bulk-imported into a relational table. This "in-memory" technique significantly outperforms alternative approaches by keeping the queries on EAV tables as simple as possible and minimizing the number of I/O operations. Each statement retrieves a large amount of data, and the hash tables help carry out the pivoting operation, which involves placing a value for a given attribute instance into the appropriate row and column. Random Access Memory (RAM) is sufficiently abundant and affordable in modern hardware that the complete data set for a single attribute group in even large data sets will usually fit completely into memory, though the algorithm can be made smarter by working on slices of the data if this turns out not to be the case.
Obviously, no matter what approaches you take, querying EAV will not be as fast as querying standard column-modeled relational data for certain types of query, in much the same way that access of elements in sparse matrices are not as fast as those on non-sparse matrices if the latter fit entirely into main memory. (Sparse matrices, represented using structures such as linked lists, require list traversal to access an element at a given X-Y position, while access to elements in matrices represented as 2-D arrays can be performed using fast CPU register operations.) If, however, you chose the EAV approach correctly for the problem that you were trying to solve, this is the price that you pay; in this respect, EAV modeling is an example of a space (and schema maintenance) versus CPU-time tradeoff.
Alternatives
EAV vs. the Universal Data Model
Originally postulated by Maier, Ullman and Vardi, the "Universal Data Model" (UDM) seeks to simplify the query of a complex relational schema by naive users, by creating the illusion that everything is stored in a single giant "universal table". It does this by utilizing inter-table relationships, so that the user does not need to be concerned about what table contains what attribute. C.J. Date, however, pointed out that in circumstances where a table is multiply related to another (as in genealogy databases, where an individual's father and mother are also individuals, or in some business databases where all addresses are stored centrally, and an organization can have different office addresses and shipping addresses), there is insufficient metadata within the database schema to specify unambiguous joins. When UDM has been commercialized, as in SAP BusinessObjects, this limitation is worked around through the creation of "Universes", which are relational views with predefined joins between sets of tables: the "Universe" developer disambiguates ambiguous joins by including the multiply-related table in a view multiple times using different aliases.
Apart from the way in which data is explicitly modeled (UDM simply uses relational views to intercede between the user and the database schema), EAV differs from Universal Data Models in that it also applies to transactional systems, not only query oriented (read-only) systems as in UDM. Also, when used as the basis for clinical-data query systems, EAV implementations do not necessarily shield the user from having to specify the class of an object of interest. In the EAV-based i2b2 clinical data mart, for example, when the user searches for a term, she has the option of specifying the category of data that the user is interested in. For example, the phrase "lithium" can refer either to the medication (which is used to treat bipolar disorder), or a laboratory assay for lithium level in the patient's blood. (The blood level of lithium must be monitored carefully: too much of the drug causes severe side effects, while too little is ineffective.)
XML and JSON
An Open Schema implementation can use an XML column in a table to capture the variable/sparse information. Similar ideas can be applied to databases that support JSON-valued columns: sparse, hierarchical data can be represented as JSON. If the database has JSON support, such as PostgreSQL and (partially) SQL Server 2016 and later, then attributes can be queried, indexed and joined. This can offer performance improvements of over 1000x over naive EAV implementations., but does not necessarily make the overall database application more robust.
Note that there are two ways in which XML or JSON data can be stored: one way is to store it as a plain string, opaque to the database server; the other way is to use a database server that can "see into" the structure. There are obviously some severe drawbacks to storing opaque strings: these cannot be queried directly, one cannot form an index based on their contents, and it is impossible to perform joins based on the content.
Building an application that has to manage data gets extremely complicated when using EAV models, because of the extent of infrastructure that has to be developed in terms of metadata tables and application-framework code. Using XML solves the problem of server-based data validation (which must be done by middle-tier and browser-based code in EAV-based frameworks), but has the following drawbacks:
It is programmer-intensive. XML schemas are notoriously tricky to write by hand, a recommended approach is to create them by defining relational tables, generating XML-schema code, and then dropping these tables. This is problematic in many production operations involving dynamic schemas, where new attributes are required to be defined by power-users who understand a specific application domain (e.g. inventory management or biomedicine) but are not necessarily programmers. By contrast, in production systems that use EAV, such users define new attributes (and the data-type and validation checks associated with each) through a GUI application. Because the validation-associated metadata is required to be stored in multiple relational tables in a normalized design, a GUI application that ties these tables together and enforces the appropriate metadata-consistency checks is the only practical way to allow entry of attribute information, even for advanced developers - even if the end-result uses XML or JSON instead of separate relational tables.
The server-based diagnostics that result with an XML/JSON solution if incorrect data is attempted to be inserted (e.g., range check or regular-expression pattern violations) are cryptic to the end-user: to convey the error accurately, one would, at the least, need to associate a detailed and user-friendly error diagnostic with each attribute.
The solution does not address the user-interface-generation problem.
All of the above drawbacks are remediable by creating a layer of metadata and application code, but in creating this, the original "advantage" of not having to create a framework has vanished. The fact is that modeling sparse data attributes robustly is a hard database-application-design problem no matter which storage approach is used. Sarka's work, however, proves the viability of using an XML field instead of type-specific relational EAV tables for the data-storage layer, and in situations where the number of attributes per entity is modest (e.g., variable product attributes for different product types) the XML-based solution is more compact than an EAV-table-based one. (XML itself may be regarded as a means of attribute-value data representation, though it is based on structured text rather than on relational tables.)
Tree structures and relational databases
There exist several other approaches for the representation of tree-structured data, be it XML, JSON or other formats, such as the nested set model, in a relational database. On the other hand, database vendors have begun to include JSON and XML support into their data structures and query features, like in IBM DB2, where XML data is stored as XML separate from the tables, using XPath queries as part of SQL statements, or in PostgreSQL, with a JSON data type that can be indexed and queried. These developments accomplish, improve or substitute the EAV model approach.
The uses of JSON and XML are not necessarily the same as the use of an EAV model, though they can overlap. XML is preferable to EAV for arbitrarily hierarchical data that is relatively modest in volume for a single entity: it is not intended to scale up to the multi-gigabyte level with respect to data-manipulation performance. XML is not concerned per-se with the sparse-attribute problem, and when the data model underlying the information to be represented can be decomposed straightforwardly into a relational structure, XML is better suited as a means of data interchange than as a primary storage mechanism. EAV, as stated earlier, is specifically (and only) applicable to the sparse-attribute scenario. When such a scenario holds, the use of datatype-specific attribute-value tables than can be indexed by entity, by attribute, and by value and manipulated through simple SQL statements is vastly more scalable than the use of an XML tree structure. The Google App Engine, mentioned above, uses strongly-typed-value tables for a good reason.
Graph databases
An alternative approach to managing the various problems encountered with EAV-structured data is to employ a graph database. These represent entities as the nodes of a graph or hypergraph, and attributes as links or edges of that graph. The issue of table joins are addressed by providing graph-specific query languages, such as Apache TinkerPop, or the OpenCog atomspace pattern matcher.
Another alternative is to use SPARQL store.
Considerations for server software
PostgreSQL: JSONB columns
PostgreSQL version 9.4 includes support for JSON binary columns (JSONB), which can be queried, indexed and joined. This allows performance improvements by factors of a thousand or more over traditional EAV table designs.
A db schema based on JSONB always has fewer tables: one may nest attribute-value pairs in JSONB type fields of the Entity table. That makes the db schema easy to comprehend and SQL queries concise.
The programming code to manipulate the database objects on the abstraction layer turns out much shorter.
SQL Server 2008 and later: Sparse columns
Microsoft SQL Server 2008 offers a (proprietary) alternative to EAV. Columns with an atomic data type (e.g., numeric, varchar or datetime columns) can be designated as sparse simply by including the word SPARSE in the column definition of the CREATE TABLE statement. Sparse columns optimize the storage of NULL values (which now take up no space at all) and are useful when the majority records in a table will have NULL values for that column. Indexes on sparse columns are also optimized: only those rows with values are indexed. In addition, the contents of all sparse columns in a particular row of a table can be collectively aggregated into a single XML column (a column set), whose contents are of the form [<column-name>column contents </column-name>]*.... In fact, if a column set is defined for a table as part of a CREATE TABLE statement, all sparse columns subsequently defined are typically added to it. This has the interesting consequence that the SQL statement SELECT * from <tablename> will not return the individual sparse columns, but concatenate all of them into a single XML column whose name is that of the column set (which therefore acts as a virtual, computed column). Sparse columns are convenient for business applications such as product information, where the applicable attributes can be highly variable depending on the product type, but where the total number of variable attributes per product type are relatively modest.
Limitations of Sparse Attributes
However, this approach to modeling sparse attributes has several limitations: rival DBMSs have, notably, chosen not to borrow this idea for their own engines. Limitations include:
The maximum number of sparse columns in a table is 10,000, which may fall short for some implementations, such as for storing clinical data, where the possible number of attributes is one order of magnitude larger. Therefore, this is not a solution for modeling *all* possible clinical attributes for a patient.
Addition of new attributes – one of the primary reasons an EAV model might be sought – still requires a DBA. Further, the problem of building a user interface to sparse attribute data is not addressed: only the storage mechanism is streamlined. * Applications can be written to dynamically add and remove sparse columns from a table at run-time: in contrast, an attempt to perform such an action in a multi-user scenario where other users/processes are still using the table would be prevented for tables without sparse columns. However, while this capability offers power and flexibility, it invites abuse, and should be used judiciously and infrequently.
It can result in significant performance penalties, in part because any compiled query plans that use this table are automatically invalidated.
Dynamic column addition or removal is an operation that should be audited, because column removal can cause data loss: allowing an application to modify a table without maintaining some kind of a trail, including a justification for the action, is not good software practice.
SQL constraints (e.g., range checks, regular expression checks) cannot be applied to sparse columns. The only check that is applied is for correct data type. Constraints would have to be implemented in metadata tables and middle-tier code, as is done in production EAV systems. (This consideration also applies to business applications as well.)
SQL Server has limitations on row size if attempting to change the storage format of a column: the total contents of all atomic-datatype columns, sparse and non-sparse, in a row that contain data cannot exceed 8016 bytes if that table contains a sparse column for the data to be automatically copied over.
Sparse columns that happen to contain data have a storage overhead of 4 bytes per column in addition to storage for the data type itself (e.g., 4 bytes for datetime columns). This impacts the amount of sparse-column data that you can associate with a given row. This size restriction is relaxed for the varchar data type, which means that, if one hits row-size limits in a production system, one has to work around it by designating sparse columns as varchar even though they may have a different intrinsic data type. Unfortunately, this approach now subverts server-side data-type checking.
Cloud computing offerings
Many cloud computing vendors offer data stores based on the EAV model, where an arbitrary number of attributes can be associated with a given entity. Roger Jennings provides an in-depth comparison of these. In Amazon's offering, SimpleDB, the data type is limited to strings, and data that is intrinsically non-string must be coerced to string (e.g., numbers must be padded with leading zeros) if you wish to perform operations such as sorting. Microsoft's offering, Windows Azure Table Storage, offers a limited set of data types: byte[], bool, DateTime, double, Guid, int, long and string . The Google App Engine offers the greatest variety of data types: in addition to dividing numeric data into int, long, or float, it also defines custom data types such as phone number, E-mail address, geocode and hyperlink. Google, but not Amazon or Microsoft, lets you define metadata that would prevent invalid attributes from being associated with a particular class of entity, by letting you create a metadata model.
Google lets you operate on the data using a subset of SQL; Microsoft offer a URL-based querying syntax that is abstracted via a LINQ provider; Amazon offer a more limited syntax. Of concern, built-in support for combining different entities through joins is currently (April '10) non-existent with all three engines. Such operations have to be performed by application code. This may not be a concern if the application servers are co-located with the data servers at the vendor's data center, but a lot of network traffic would be generated if the two were geographically separated.
An EAV approach is justified only when the attributes that are being modeled are numerous and sparse: if the data being captured does not meet this requirement, the cloud vendors' default EAV approach is often a mismatch for applications that require a true back-end database (as opposed to merely a means of persistent data storage). Retrofitting the vast majority of existing database applications, which use a traditional data-modeling approach, to an EAV-type cloud architecture, would require major surgery. Microsoft discovered, for example, that its database-application-developer base was largely reluctant to invest such effort. More recently, therefore, Microsoft has provided a premium offering – a cloud-accessible full-fledged relational engine, SQL Server Azure, which allows porting of existing database applications with modest changes.
One limitation of SQL Azure is that physical databases are limited to 500 GB in size . Microsoft recommends that data sets larger than this be split into multiple physical databases and accessed with parallel queries.
See also
Attribute-value system
Linked Data
Resource Description Framework (RDF)
Semantic Web
Triplestore
Slowly changing dimension - Horizontal
Datomic
References
Database models
Database theory
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software%20testing%20certification%20board
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Software testing certification board
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A software testing certification board is an organization that provides professional certification for software testing and software quality assurance.
Notable boards
British Computer Society
The British Computer Society (BCS) is a British learned society that offers software testing certification. Since 2012, its professional software testing certification has been the successor to Systems Analysis Examination Board (SAEB) and the Information Systems Examination Board (ISEB).
International Software Certification Board
The International Software Certification Board (ISCB) is an international software testing board, affiliated with the Quality Assurance Institute (QAI). The ISCB was founded in 1980. Since 1985, it has offered the Certified Software Quality Analyst (CSQA) certification, originally called Certified Quality Analyst (CQA).
International Software Testing Qualifications Board
The International Software Testing Qualifications Board (ISTQB) is an international software testing board, founded in 2002.
The ISTQB has 66 member boards, including the American Software Testing Qualifications Board (ASTQB), the Australia and New Zealand Testing Board (ANZTB), the Czech and Slovak Testing Board (CaSTB), and the Sri Lanka Software Testing Board (SLSTB).
References
External links
ISCB official site
ISTQB official site
Software testing
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10739499
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opengear
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Opengear
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Opengear is a global computer network technology company headquartered in Edison, New Jersey, U.S., with R&D operations in Brisbane, Qld, Australia and production in Sandy, UT.
The company develops and manufactures "smart out-of-band infrastructure management" products aimed at allowing customers to securely access, control and automatically troubleshoot and repair their IT infrastructure remotely, including network and data-center management, for resilient operation.
Opengear solutions provide always-available wired and wireless secure remote access, with failover capabilities to automatically restore site connectivity. This enables technical staff to provision, maintain and repair infrastructure from anywhere at any time, as if they were physically present, thereby enabling both the operational costs and the risk of downtime to be reduced.
In December 2019, Opengear was acquired by Digi International.
Products
Opengear's management products include IM7200 advanced console servers that streamline management of network, server, and power infrastructure in data centers and colocation facilities; and ACM7000 remote management gateways that deliver secure remote monitoring, access and control of distributed networks and remote sites. The Lighthouse Centralized Management platform then provides a single point of scalable, secure management for these Opengear appliances and connected devices. The Opengear NetOps Console Server combine out-of-band management and NetOps tools in a single appliance, minimizing human intervention and simplifying repetitive tasks.
All Opengear products provide a secure alternate out-of-band path to the managed infrastructure, enabling accessibility even during system or network outage. They monitor, access, and control all critical infrastructure at all local and remote sites, from applications, computers and networking equipment, to security cameras, power supplies and door sensors - to proactively detect faults and remediate before they become failures.
Opengear's products are built on a Linux software base, and the company is an active supporter of the open-source community.
History
2004 Opengear founded by the founders of SnapGear
2005 Started okvm open source project, developing open source console and KVM management software and released CM4000 and SD4000 product lines (built on okvm technology)
2007 Embedded Nagios open source monitoring software.
2008 Embedded Network UPS Tools and PowerMan for UPS and PDU management and monitoring, EMD5000 Environmental Monitoring Products.
2009 Extended SNMP support for all mainstream UPS and PDU vendors for true vendor agnostic data center management.
2010 Develops VCMS virtual central management - built on Nagios
2010 Reports sales growth of 50% in 2010.
2011 Embeds ARMS in management gateways to give smart remote hands
2012 Releases extended ACM5000 with cellular and PoE and Lighthouse Central Management
2012 Reports revenue growth of 50% in North America and 78% in Europe.
2013 Releases IM7200 product line, with integrated fiber and 4GLTE
2014 Introduced the arrival of the IM4200-2-DAC-X2-GS to its IM4200 remote infrastructure management line of products, certified by Sprint.
2014 Releases CM7100 Console Server
2014 Opengear releases a new version of Lighthouse with a Console Gateway
2014 Integrated Failover To Cellular functionality to all cellular-enabled ACM remote-site management and IM infrastructure management devices
2015 Releases Resilience Gateway (ACM7004) product line, with Smart Out-Of-Band management and Failover to Cellular integration.
2017 Lighthouse 5 Centralized Management software platform released
2018 Operations Manager OM2200 appliance for NetOps management released
2018 NetOps Automation Platform launched, to streamline NetOps workflows
2019 NetOps Console Server launched, combining NetOps tools and Out-of-Band in a single appliance
2019 Opengear purchased by Digi International
References
External links
Official website
2004 establishments in New Jersey
Software companies based in New Jersey
Multinational companies headquartered in the United States
Networking hardware
Networking hardware companies
Out-of-band management
Network management
Piscataway, New Jersey
Software companies of the United States
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370090
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staog
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Staog
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Staog was the first computer virus written for the Linux operating system. It was discovered in the autumn of 1996, and the vulnerabilities that it exploited were fixed soon after. It has not been detected in the wild since its initial outbreak.
Staog was able to infect Linux despite its security-oriented design which requires users and programs to log in as root before any drastic operations can be taken. It worked by exploiting some kernel vulnerabilities to stay resident. Then, it would infect executed binaries.
Since it relied on fundamental bugs, software upgrades made systems immune to Staog. This, combined with its shot in the dark method of transmitting itself, ensured that it died off rather quickly.
Staog was written in assembly language by the hacker group VLAD.
See also
Linux malware
References
External links
Staog information on F-Secures Website
Staog Virus: Linux-Kernel Archive
Linux viruses
Assembly language software
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electoral%20fraud
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Electoral fraud
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Electoral fraud, sometimes referred to as election manipulation, voter fraud or vote rigging, involves illegal interference with the process of an election, either by increasing the vote share of a favored candidate, depressing the vote share of rival candidates, or both. It differs from but often goes hand-in-hand with voter suppression. What exactly constitutes electoral fraud varies from country to country.
Electoral legislation outlaws many kinds of election fraud, but other practices violate general laws, such as those banning assault, harassment or libel. Although technically the term "electoral fraud" covers only those acts which are illegal, the term is sometimes used to describe acts which are legal, but considered morally unacceptable, outside the spirit of an election or in violation of the principles of democracy. Show elections, featuring only one candidate, are sometimes classified as electoral fraud, although they may comply with the law and are presented more as referendums/plebiscites.
In national elections, successful electoral fraud on a sufficient scale can have the effect of a coup d'état, protest or corruption of democracy. In a narrow election, a small amount of fraud may suffice to change the result. Even if the outcome is not affected, the revelation of fraud can reduce voters' confidence in democracy.
Electorate manipulation
Electoral fraud can occur in advance of voting if the composition of the electorate is altered. The legality of this type of manipulation varies across jurisdictions. Deliberate manipulation of election outcomes is widely considered a violation of the principles of democracy.
Artificial migration or party membership
In many cases, it is possible for authorities to artificially control the composition of an electorate in order to produce a foregone result. One way of doing this is to move a large number of voters into the electorate prior to an election, for example by temporarily assigning them land or lodging them in flophouses. Many countries prevent this with rules stipulating that a voter must have lived in an electoral district for a minimum period (for example, six months) in order to be eligible to vote there. However, such laws can also be used for demographic manipulation as they tend to disenfranchise those with no fixed address, such as the homeless, travelers, Roma, students (studying full-time away from home), and some casual workers.
Another strategy is to permanently move people into an electoral district, usually through public housing. If people eligible for public housing are likely to vote for a particular party, then they can either be concentrated into one area, thus making their votes count for less, or moved into marginal seats, where they may tip the balance towards their preferred party. One example of this was the 1986–1990 Homes for votes scandal in the City of Westminster in England under Shirley Porter.
Immigration law may also be used to manipulate electoral demography. For instance, Malaysia gave citizenship to immigrants from the neighboring Philippines and Indonesia, together with suffrage, in order for a political party to "dominate" the state of Sabah; this controversial process was known as Project IC.
A method of manipulating primary contests and other elections of party leaders are related to this. People who support one party may temporarily join another party (or vote in a crossover way, when permitted) in order to elect a weak candidate for that party's leadership. The goal ultimately is to defeat the weak candidate in the general election by the leader of the party that the voter truly supports. There were claims that this method was being utilised in the UK Labour Party leadership election in 2015, where Conservative-leaning Toby Young encouraged Conservatives to join Labour and vote for Jeremy Corbyn in order to "consign Labour to electoral oblivion". Shortly after, #ToriesForCorbyn trended on Twitter.
Disenfranchisement
The composition of an electorate may also be altered by disenfranchising some classes of people, rendering them unable to vote. In some cases, states have passed provisions that raised general barriers to voter registration, such as poll taxes, literacy and comprehension tests, and record-keeping requirements, which in practice were applied against minority populations to discriminatory effect. From the turn of the century into the late 1960s, most African Americans in the southern states of the former Confederacy were disenfranchised by such measures. Corrupt election officials may misuse voting regulations such as a literacy test or requirement for proof of identity or address in such a way as to make it difficult or impossible for their targets to cast a vote. If such practices discriminate against a religious or ethnic group, they may so distort the political process that the political order becomes grossly unrepresentative, as in the post-Reconstruction or Jim Crow era until the Voting Rights Act of 1965. Felons have been disenfranchised in many states as a strategy to prevent African Americans from voting.
Groups may also be disenfranchised by rules which make it impractical or impossible for them to cast a vote. For example, requiring people to vote within their electorate may disenfranchise serving military personnel, prison inmates, students, hospital patients or anyone else who cannot return to their homes. Polling can be set for inconvenient days, such as midweek or on holy days of religious groups: for example on the Sabbath or other holy days of a religious group whose teachings determine that voting is prohibited on such a day. Communities may also be effectively disenfranchised if polling places are situated in areas perceived by voters as unsafe, or are not provided within reasonable proximity (rural communities are especially vulnerable to this).
In some cases, voters may be invalidly disenfranchised, which is true electoral fraud. For example, a legitimate voter may be "accidentally" removed from the electoral roll, making it difficult or impossible for the person to vote.
In the Canadian federal election of 1917, during the Great War, the Union government passed the Military Voters Act and the Wartime Elections Act. The Military Voters Act permitted any active military personnel to vote by party only and allowed that party to decide in which electoral district to place that vote. It also enfranchised those women who were directly related or married to an active soldier. These groups were believed to be disproportionately in favor of the Union government, as that party was campaigning in favor of conscription. The Wartime Elections Act, conversely, disenfranchised particular ethnic groups assumed to be disproportionately in favour of the opposition Liberal Party.
Division of opposition support
Stanford University professor Beatriz Magaloni described a model governing the behaviour of autocratic regimes. She proposed that ruling parties can maintain political control under a democratic system without actively manipulating votes or coercing the electorate. Under the right conditions, the democratic system is maneuvered into an equilibrium in which divided opposition parties act as unwitting accomplices to single-party rule. This permits the ruling regime to abstain from illegal electoral fraud.
Preferential voting systems such as score voting, instant-runoff voting, and single transferable vote are designed to prevent systemic electoral manipulation and political duopoly.
Intimidation
Voter intimidation involves putting undue pressure on a voter or group of voters so that they will vote a particular way, or not at all. Absentee and other remote voting can be more open to some forms of intimidation as the voter does not have the protection and privacy of the polling location. Intimidation can take a range of forms including verbal, physical, or coercion. This was so common that in 1887, a Kansas Supreme Court in New Perspectives on Election Fraud in The Gilded Age said "[...] physical retaliation constituted only a slight disturbance and would not vitiate an election."
Violence or the threat of violence: In its simplest form, voters from a particular demographic or known to support a particular party or candidate are directly threatened by supporters of another party or candidate or by those hired by them. In other cases, supporters of a particular party make it known that if a particular village or neighborhood is found to have voted the 'wrong' way, reprisals will be made against that community. Another method is to make a general threat of violence, for example, a bomb threat which has the effect of closing a particular polling place, thus making it difficult for people in that area to vote. One notable example of outright violence was the 1984 Rajneeshee bioterror attack, where followers of Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh deliberately contaminated salad bars in The Dalles, Oregon, in an attempt to weaken political opposition during county elections. Historically, this tactic included Lynching in the United States to terrorize potential African American voters in some areas.
Attacks on polling places: Polling places in an area known to support a particular party or candidate may be targeted for vandalism, destruction or threats, thus making it difficult or impossible for people in that area to vote.
Legal threats: In this case, voters will be made to believe, accurately or otherwise, that they are not legally entitled to vote, or that they are legally obliged to vote a particular way. Voters who are not confident about their entitlement to vote may also be intimidated by real or implied authority figures who suggest that those who vote when they are not entitled to will be imprisoned, deported or otherwise punished.
For example, in 2004, in Wisconsin and elsewhere voters allegedly received flyers that said, "If you already voted in any election this year, you can't vote in the Presidential Election", implying that those who had voted in earlier primary elections were ineligible to vote. Also, "If anybody in your family has ever been found guilty of anything you can't vote in the Presidential Election." Finally, "If you violate any of these laws, you can get 10 years in prison and your children will be taken away from you."
Another method, allegedly used in Cook County, Illinois in 2004, is to falsely tell particular people that they are not eligible to vote.
In 1981 in New Jersey, the Republican National Committee created the Ballot Security Task Force to discourage voting among Latino and African-American citizens of New Jersey. The task force identified voters from an old registration list and challenged their credentials. It also paid off-duty police officers to patrol polling sites in Newark and Trenton, and posted signs saying that falsifying a ballot is a crime.
Coercion: The demographic that controlled the voting ballot would try to persuade others to follow them. By singling out those who were against the majority, people would attempt to switch the voters' decision. Their argument could be that since the majority sides with a certain candidate, they should admit defeat and join the winning side. If this did not work, this led to the threatening of violence seen countless times during elections. Coercion, electoral intimidation was seen in the Navy. In 1885 William C. Whitney started an investigation that involved the men in the Navy. As said by Whitney "the vote of the yard was practically coerced and controlled by the foremen. This instance shows how even in the Navy there were still instances of people going to great lengths for the desired elective to win.
Disinformation
People may distribute false or misleading information in order to affect the outcome of an election. For example, in the Chilean presidential election of 1970, the U.S. government's Central Intelligence Agency used "black propaganda"—materials purporting to be from various political parties—to sow discord between members of a coalition between socialists and communists.
Another use of disinformation is to give voters incorrect information about the time or place of polling, thus causing them to miss their chance to vote. As part of the 2011 Canadian federal election voter suppression scandal, Elections Canada traced fraudulent phone calls, telling voters that their polling stations had been moved, to a telecommunications company that worked with the Conservative Party.
Vote buying
Vote buying occurs when a political party or candidate seeks to buy the vote of a voter in an upcoming election. Vote buying can take various forms such as a monetary exchange, as well as an exchange for necessary goods or services. This practice is often used to incentivise or persuade voters to turn out to elections and vote in a particular way. Although this practice is illegal in many countries such as the United States, Argentina, Mexico, Kenya, Brazil and Nigeria, its prevalence remains worldwide.
In some parts of the United States in the mid- and late 19th century, members of competing parties would vie, sometimes openly and other times with much greater secrecy, to buy and sell votes. Voters would be compensated with cash or the covering of one's house/tax payment. To keep the practice of vote buying secret, parties would open fully staffed vote-buying shops. Parties would also hire runners, who would go out into the public and find floating voters and bargain with them to vote for their side.
In England, documentation and stories of vote buying and vote selling are also well known. The most famous episodes of vote buying came in 18th century England when two or more rich aristocrats spent whatever money it took to win. The "Spendthrift election" came in Northamptonshire in 1768, when three earls each spent over £100,000 on their favoured candidates.
Voters may be given money or other rewards for voting in a particular way, or not voting. In some jurisdictions, the offer or giving of other rewards is referred to as "electoral treating".
Electoral treating remains legal in some jurisdictions, such as in the Seneca Nation of Indians.
Vote buying can take the form of "turnout buying", where a broker brings many people to the polls, with a background sure to vote one way, and the results are seen in the precinct results.
Whom to target
One of the main concerns with vote buying lies in the question of which population or group of voters are most likely to be susceptible to accepting compensation in exchange for their vote. Scholars such as Stokes argue that weakly opposed voters are the best ones to target for vote buying. This means that in a situation in which there are two parties running for office, for example, the voters who are not inclined to vote one way or the other are the best to target.
Other scholars argue that it is people of lower income status who are the best group to target, as they are the most likely to be receptive to monetary or other forms of compensation. This has proven to be the case in both Argentina and Nigeria. Since the wealthy are presumably not in need of money, goods or services, it would require a much larger compensation in order to sway their vote. However, as seen in the case of Argentina for example, citizens who reside within poor communities are in great need of income, or medical services, for example, to feed their families and keep them in good health. With that being said, a much smaller sum of cash or a medical prescription would be of much greater value and thus their political support can be much easier to purchase.
How to monitor
When postal ballots are mailed to voters, the buyer can fill them out or see how they are filled out. Monitoring is harder when ballots are cast secretly at a polling place. In some cases, there have been instances of voter tickets, or monitoring by individuals. Voters seeking to be compensated for their votes would use specially-provided voter ballots, or would fold their ballot in a particular way in order to indicate that they voted for the candidate they were paid to vote for.
If a buyer is able to obtain a blank ballot (by theft, counterfeit, or a legitimate absentee ballot) the buyer can then mark the ballot for their chosen candidates and pay a voter to take the pre-marked ballot to a polling station, exchange it for the blank ballot issued and return the blank ballot to the attacker. This is known as chain voting.
It can be controlled in polling places by issuing each ballot with a unique number, which is checked and torn off as the ballot is placed in the ballot box.
Another strategy has been to invoke personalized social norms to make voters honor their contracts at the voting booth. Such social norms could include personal obligation such as moral debts, social obligations to the buyers, or a threat of withholding or ceasing to produce necessary resources. This is made more effective when the rewards are delivered personally by the candidate or someone close to them, in order to create a sense of gratitude on behalf of the voters towards the candidate.
Consequences
There are several negative consequences that arise from the practice of vote buying. The presence of vote buying in democratic states poses a threat to democracy itself, as it interferes with the ability to rely on a popular vote as a measure of people's support for potential governments' policies.
Another noted consequence is that the autonomy of voters is undermined. Since getting paid or receiving rewards for their votes generates a form of income that they may need to support themselves or their families, they have no autonomy to cast the vote that they truly want. This is extremely problematic because if it is the most corrupt politicians who are engaging in vote buying, then it is their interests that remain the ones that dictate how the country is going to be run. This, in turn, perpetuates corruption in the system even further creating a cycle.
Thirdly, vote buying can create a dependency of voters on the income or goods that they are receiving for their votes, and can further perpetuate a type of poverty trap. If they are receiving medicine from their communities' broker for example, if this tie is cut off then they may no longer have access to this necessity. It can be true that the broker in that community has no interest or incentive to actually increase the standards of living of the community members, as it is very possible that they are only interested in getting whatever share of the profit they are entitled to for working for the party. Additionally, if the goods or money are coming directly from a candidate, this candidate's only wish is to maintain their power. That being said, they may provide services but their real interest may lie in keeping the voters dependent on the rewards they are providing in order to stay in power.
Latin America
The 2010 and 2012 surveys for the Americas Barometer showed that 15% of surveyed voters in Latin America had been offered something of value in exchange for voting a particular way.
Argentina
Vote buying and the overall practice of clientelism is widespread in Argentina. According to Simeon Nichter, one of the main perpetrators of these illegal activities were the Peronist party. The relationship between voters and Peronist candidates allegedly are such that voters are offered particular goods, services, favours or monetary compensation in exchange for their political support for the party. These rewards could include a job, medicine, a roof, clothing, foods, and other goods or services. The case of Argentina in particular in that it relies heavily on face-to-face and day-to-day interactions between "brokers" who act as middlemen and voters. Since many of the communities in Argentina are ridden with poverty and are in need of these particular resources, it is these communities that have statistically shown to be in a certain demographic that were targeted for voted buying. Additionally, vote buying in this region focuses on citizens who are not strongly in favour or opposed to the political machine, and whose political loyalty does not necessarily lie with one party or another. In this way, vote buying acts as a mechanism to sway the decisions of weakly opposed voters. In a study done by Susan C. Stokes, she finds that the brokers in these communities are known to all the citizens and have access to the necessary resources from the municipality. They maintain relationships with the voters and grant them rewards and favours continuously in order to keep the party they work for in the office. This is one main explanation for why many lower-income voters are seen voting for populist leaders, as well as authoritarian ones. Many citizens view these brokers as positive pillars in their lives and have the utmost respect for the help they distribute. However, others view them as hands of corruption. Stokes further explains that the capacity of these brokers is constrained due to the fact that they can only maintain this type of transactional relationship with a limited number of voters. Furthermore, the brokers have the additional responsibility of maintaining trusting and solid relationships with their resource suppliers. Without these strong ties, they would have no means through which to carry out vote-buying practices.
Mexico
Similarly to Argentina, it has been found that vote-buying in Mexico is most likely in rural and poor regions of the country. There are many instances of vote buying that have occurred in the history of Mexican elections, however, there are two main instances of fund in the literature that occurred in the last two decades. The first was the 2006 Mexican election, where it was found that 8.8% of the population that was not a beneficiary of a specific social program was offered compensation for their vote. Similarly, a corruption inquiry arrested Andrés Granier Melo for embezzlement of funds in the state of Tabasco during his governorship: among other things, some of these funds were used for vote-buying (although Melo has denied all accusations).
Venezuela
During the 2018 Venezuelan presidential election, reports of vote buying were prevalent during the presidential campaigning. Venezuelans suffering from hunger were pressured to vote for Maduro, with the government bribing potential supporters with food. Maduro promised rewards for citizens who scanned their Carnet de la Patria at the voting booth, which would allow the government to monitor the political party of their citizens and whether or not they had voted. These prizes were reportedly never delivered. In a visit to Delta Amacuro, president and reelection candidate Nicolás Maduro gave away eight motor boats, nine ambulances, and reopened the "Antonio Díaz" Tucupita Airport, among other announcements, violating Article 223 of the Organic Law of Electoral Processes which forbids the use of state resources during election campaigns, as well as one of the prerogatives in the Agreement of Electoral Guarantees signed by the presidential candidates to the CNE. On 8 May Maduro again violated the electoral law during an electoral act in the Amazonas state by promising to give fuel to the entity in exchange for votes.
Africa
The fifth Afrobarometer survey showed that 48% of voters in 33 African countries feared violence during elections, and 16% of voters were offered money or other goods in exchange for voting a particular way in the most recent election.
Nigeria
On a self-reported survey that was conducted, 1 in 5 Nigerian has experienced an offer for their vote. The rewards offered by Nigerian politicians include money, commodities such as food and clothing, or a job. Although the practice of vote buying is widespread, 58% of Nigerians surveyed at the time of the 2007 election viewed vote buying as immoral. Despite this, when asked if they thought it was wrong to accept rewards or monetary compensation for your vote, 78% said no. One factor that needs to be iterated when it comes to studies that are based on surveys is that since vote buying is illegal in most countries, a researcher's ability to collect accurate data is hindered. This is because many citizens may not feel comfortable revealing their experience or involvement with corrupt activities, or fear that they will suffer repercussions from their governments for coming forward with such information.
Kenya
Since the 1990s, Kenya has had regular multiparty elections in which vote buying has played a central role. In his article, scholar Eric Kramon states that: "According to the data gathered by the Coalition for Accountable Political Finance in Kenya, cash handouts to voters represents around 40% of the average parliamentary candidates' campaign budget, making up the largest budget item." These handouts are made in various ways including stops on the campaign trail, and at-large campaign rallies. "In the 2002 election, 40% of surveyed adult Kenyans reported having accepted a bribe in exchange for their vote, and 22% for the 2007 elections."
It is noted by Kramen that access to information is a huge factor in determining the success of vote buying in Kenya. If the voters have little access to political information or lack political knowledge then they are more likely to be swayed by clientelistic reasoning. Moreover, if the voter does have access to information about an incumbent, then the price to sway their vote is more likely to go up. Additionally, Kramon notes that citizens of Kenya tend to value candidates who provide rewards because their ability to do so points to how great their abilities will be once they are in office.
Asia
Indonesia
In Indonesian, vote buying is often known as (lit. 'money politics'). According to a survey of 440 respondents by Institut Riset Indonesia in January–March 2020 in areas that will have local elections in 2020, 60 percent of respondents said that they will allow their vote to be bought. Reasons for accepting vote buying include considering it as a gift that can not be rejected (35–46 percent), compensation for not working on the election day (25–30 percent), and supporting daily needs (9–16 percent). One of the common tactics of vote buying is (lit. 'dawn attack'), which is giving money a day or two before the election day. The amount ranges from Rp30,000 to Rp50,000. According to Burhanuddin Muhtadi in his book Kuasa Uang; Politik Uang dalam Pemilu Pasca-Orde Baru, vote buying in Indonesia is done by individual candidates instead of political parties because of intense intraparty competition, forcing candidates to rely on their own networks instead of relying on the party machine.
Philippines
Despite the Commission on Elections's (COMELEC) tight campaign against vote buying in the Philippines, it was rampant across the country, especially near the election period. According to the Philippine National Police, vote buying commenced in the dark, where people gathered to receive a sample ballot with the money, usually at least attached to it. However, the authorities have since apprehended those who were involved.
Voting process and results
A list of threats to voting systems, or electoral fraud methods considered as sabotage are kept by the National Institute of Standards and Technology.
Misleading or confusing ballot papers
Ballot papers may be used to discourage votes for a particular party or candidate, using the design or other features which confuse voters into voting for a different candidate. For example, in the 2000 U.S. presidential election, Florida's butterfly ballot paper was criticized as poorly designed, leading some voters to vote for the wrong candidate. While the ballot itself was designed by a Democrat, it was the Democratic candidate, Al Gore, who was most harmed by voter errors because of this design. Poor or misleading design is usually not illegal and therefore not technically election fraud, but it can nevertheless subvert the principles of democracy.
Sweden has a system with separate ballots used for each party, to reduce confusion among candidates. However, ballots from small parties such as Piratpartiet, Junilistan and Feministiskt initiativ have been omitted or placed on a separate table in the election to the EU parliament in 2009. Ballots from Sweden Democrats have been mixed with ballots from the larger Swedish Social Democratic Party, which used a very similar font for the party name written on the top of the ballot.
Another method of confusing people into voting for a different candidate than intended is to run candidates or create political parties with similar names or symbols as an existing candidate or party. The goal is to mislead voters into voting for the false candidate or party to influence the results. Such tactics may be particularly effective when a large proportion of voters have limited literacy in the language used on the ballot. Again, such tactics are usually not illegal but often work against the principles of democracy.
Another type of possible electoral confusion is multiple variations of voting by different electoral systems. This may cause ballots to be counted as invalid if the wrong system is used. For instance, if a voter puts a first-past-the-post cross in a numbered single transferable vote ballot paper, it is invalidated. For example, in Scotland and other parts of the United Kingdom, up to three different voting systems and types of ballots may be used, based on the jurisdictional level of elections for candidates. Local elections are determined by single transferable votes; Scottish parliamentary elections by the additional member system; national elections and for the UK Parliament by first-past-the-post.
Ballot stuffing
Ballot stuffing, or "ballot-box stuffing", is the illegal practice of one person submitting multiple ballots during a vote in which only one ballot per person is permitted.
In the 1883 election for the district of Cook, in Queensland, Australia, arrests were made in connection with accusations of ballot stuffing, and the election committee subsequently changed the result of the election.
A 2006 version of the Sequoia touchscreen voting machine had a yellow service "back" button on the back that could allow repeated voting under specific circumstances.
During the 2014 Afghan presidential election, Afghanistan's National Directorate of Security (NDS) recorded Ziaul Haq Amarkhel, the secretary of Afghanistan's Independent Election Commission, telling local officials to "take sheep to the mountains, stuff them, and bring them back," in an apparent reference to ballot stuffing.
During the 2018 Russian Presidential Election, there were multiple instances, some caught on camera, throughout Russia of voters and polling staff alike stuffing multiple votes for incumbent President Vladimir Putin in the ballot box.
In Major League Baseball's All Star Game
Major League Baseball's All-Star Game has had problems with ballot stuffing on occasion.
In 1957, Cincinnati Reds fans aided by a local newspaper arranged for seven of the eight elected starting fielders to be Reds players.
In 1999, the online ballot was stuffed by computer programmer Chris Nandor in favor of Boston Red Sox shortstop Nomar Garciaparra. Nandor created a program that enabled him to vote multiple times for Garciaparra and his teammates before his ballots—which were submitted through a dial-up connection—were traced back to him.
In 2015, MLB annulled 65 million (out of a total of 620 million) online ballots after it was reported that eight out of the starting nine positions for the American League would have been Kansas City Royals players.
Misrecording of votes
Votes may be misrecorded at source, on a ballot paper or voting machine, or later in misrecording totals. The 2019 Malawian general election was nullified by the Constitutional Court in 2020 because many results were changed by use of correction fluid, as well as duplicate, unverified and unsigned results forms. California allows correction fluid and tape, so changes can be made after the ballot leaves the voter.
Where votes are recorded through electronic or mechanical means, the voting machinery may be altered so that a vote intended for one candidate is recorded for another, or electronic results are duplicated or lost, and there is rarely evidence whether the cause was fraud or error.
Many elections feature multiple opportunities for unscrupulous officials or 'helpers' to record an elector's vote differently from their intentions. Voters who require assistance to cast their votes are particularly vulnerable to having their votes stolen in this way. For example, a blind or illiterate person may be told that they have voted for one party when in fact they have been led to vote for another.
Misuse of proxy votes
Proxy voting is particularly vulnerable to election fraud, due to the amount of trust placed in the person who casts the vote. In several countries, there have been allegations of retirement home residents being asked to fill out 'absentee voter' forms. When the forms are signed and gathered, they are secretly rewritten as applications for proxy votes, naming party activists or their friends and relatives as the proxies. These people, unknown to the voter, cast the vote for the party of their choice. In the United Kingdom, this is known as 'granny farming.'
Destruction or invalidation of ballots
One of the simplest methods of electoral fraud is to destroy ballots for an opposing candidate or party. While mass destruction of ballots can be difficult to execute without drawing attention, in a very close election, it may be possible to destroy a very small number of ballot papers without detection, thereby changing the overall result. Blatant destruction of ballot papers can render an election invalid and force it to be re-run. If a party can improve its vote on the re-run election, it can benefit from such destruction as long as it is not linked to it.
Another method is to make it appear that the voter has spoiled his or her ballot, thus rendering it invalid. Typically this would be done by adding another mark to the paper, making it appear that the voter has voted for more candidates than entitled, for instance. It would be difficult to do this to a large number of paper ballots without detection in some locales, but altogether too simple in others, especially jurisdictions where legitimate ballot spoiling by voter would serve a clear and reasonable aim. Examples may include emulating protest votes in jurisdictions that have recently had and since abolished a "none of the above" or "against all" voting option, civil disobedience where voting is mandatory, and attempts at discrediting or invalidating an election. An unusually large share of invalidated ballots may be attributed to loyal supporters of candidates that lost in primaries or previous rounds, did not run or did not qualify to do so, or some manner of protest movement or organized boycott.
In 2016, during the EU membership referendum, Leave-supporting voters in the UK alleged without evidence that the pencils supplied by voting stations would allow the referendum to be rigged in favour of Remain by MI5 erasing their votes from the ballot. This has been described as the "use pens" conspiracy theory.
Tampering with electronic voting systems
General tampering
All voting systems face threats of some form of electoral fraud. The types of threats that affect voting machines vary. Research at Argonne National Laboratories revealed that a single individual with physical access to a machine, such as a Diebold Accuvote TS, can install inexpensive, readily-available electronic components to manipulate its functions.
Other approaches include:
Tampering with the software of a voting machine to add malicious code that alters vote totals or favors a candidate in any way.
Multiple groups have demonstrated this possibility.
Private companies manufacture these machines. Many companies will not allow public access or review of the machines' source code, claiming fear of exposing trade secrets.
Tampering with the hardware of the voting machine to alter vote totals or favor any candidate.
Some of these machines require a smart card to activate the machine and vote. However, a fraudulent smart card could attempt to gain access to voting multiple times or be pre-loaded with negative votes to favor one candidate over another, as has been demonstrated.
Abusing the administrative access to the machine by election officials might also allow individuals to vote multiple times.
Election results that are sent directly over the internet from the polling place centre to the vote-counting authority can be vulnerable to a man-in-the-middle attack, where they are diverted to an intermediate website where the man in the middle flips the votes in favour of a certain candidate and then immediately forwards them on to the vote-counting authority. All votes sent over the internet violate the chain of custody and hence should be avoided by driving or flying memory cards in locked metal containers to the vote-counters. For purposes of getting quick preliminary total results on election night, encrypted votes can be sent over the internet, but final official results should be tabulated the next day only after the actual memory cards arrive in secure metal containers and are counted.
United States
During the 2020 presidential election, incumbent President Donald Trump made numerous false allegations of electoral fraud by Democratic candidate Joe Biden. The Trump campaign filed numerous legal challenges to the results, making unsubstantiated allegations accusing Democrats of manipulating the votes in favor of Biden. The campaign lost 64 of 65 lawsuits. Election security experts, officials, analysts, and Trump's own Attorney General William Barr have found no evidence of widespread voter fraud.
Ukraine
In 2014, Ukraine's central election system was hacked. Officials found and removed a virus and said the totals were correct.
South Africa
In 1994, the election which brought majority rule and put Nelson Mandela in office, South Africa's election compilation system was hacked, so they re-tabulated by hand.
Voter impersonation
United States
Some commentators, such as former Federal Election Commission member Hans von Spakovsky, have claimed that voter impersonation fraud, in which one person votes by impersonating another, eligible voter, is widespread, but documentation has been scarce and prosecutions rare. Numerous others, such as Professor Larry Sabato, and a variety of studies have shown this to be "relatively rare" in the USA. Since 2013, when the US Supreme Court ruled that a provision of the Voting Rights Act was no longer enforceable, several states have passed voter ID laws, ostensibly to counter the alleged fraud. But many experts counter that voter ID laws are not very effective against some forms of impersonation. These ID laws have been challenged by minority groups that claimed to be disadvantaged by the changes. By August 2016, four federal court rulings overturned laws or parts of such laws because they placed undue burdens on minority populations, including African Americans and Native Americans. In each case: Texas, North Carolina, Wisconsin, and North Dakota, and may adversely affect minority voters. The states were required to accept alternatives for the November 2016 elections. These cases are expected to reach the US Supreme Court for hearings. In April 2020, a 20-year voter fraud study by MIT University found the level of fraud "exceedingly rare" since it occurs only in "0.00006 percent" of instances nationally, and, in one state, "0.000004 percent—about five times less likely than getting hit by lightning in the United States.
Allegations of widespread voter fraud in the 2016 United States presidential election by busing out-of-state voters to New Hampshire were found to be false. Suspicions of hacking of electronic voting machines in Wisconsin, Michigan, and Pennsylvania were determined to be unfounded.
The North Carolina Board of Elections reported in 2017 on questions of voter fraud and the state's proposed voter ID law. The report showed that out of 4,769,640 votes cast in the November 2016 election in North Carolina, only one illegal vote would potentially have been blocked by the voter ID law. The investigation found fewer than 500 incidences of invalid ballots cast, the vast majority of which were cast by individuals on probation for felony who were likely not aware that this status disqualified them from voting, and the total number of invalid votes was far too small to have affected the outcome of any race in North Carolina in the 2016 election.
United Kingdom
Concerns about voter impersonation have led the UK government to propose the Electoral Integrity Bill. Academic research shows very little evidence of impersonation, however.
Artificial results
In particularly corrupt regimes, the voting process may be nothing more than a sham, to the point that officials simply announce whatever results they want, sometimes without even bothering to count the votes. While such practices tend to draw international condemnation, voters typically have little if any recourse, as there would seldom be any ways to remove the fraudulent winner from power, short of a revolution.
In Turkmenistan, incumbent President Gurbanguly Berdymukhamedov received 97.69% of votes in the 2017 election, with his sole opponent, who was seen as pro-government, in fact being appointed by Berdymukhamedov. In Georgia, Mikheil Saakashvili received 96.2% of votes in the election following the Rose Revolution while his ally Nino Burjanadze was an interim head of state.
Postal ballot fraud
Fraud with absentee or postal ballots has been found occasionally in the United Kingdom, and the United States
and has been alleged in Malaysia. In both the United Kingdom and the United States, experts estimate there is more fraud with postal ballots than in-person voting, and that even so it has affected only a few local elections.
Types of fraud have included pressure on voters from family or others, since the ballot is not cast in secret;
collection of ballots by dishonest collectors who mark votes or fail to deliver ballots; and insiders changing or destroying ballots after they arrive.
A significant measure to prevent some types of fraud has been to require the voter's signature on the outer envelope, which is compared to one or more signatures on file before taking the ballot out of the envelope and counting it. Not all places have standards for signature review,
and there have been calls to update signatures more often to improve this review. While any level of strictness involves rejecting some valid votes and accepting some invalid votes, there have been concerns that signatures are improperly rejected from young and minority voters at higher rates than others, with no or limited ability of voters to appeal the rejection.
Some problems have inherently limited scope, such as family pressure, while others can affect several percent of the vote, such as dishonest collectors and signature verification.
In legislature
Vote fraud can also take place in legislatures. Some of the forms used in national elections can also be used in parliaments, particularly intimidation and vote-buying. Because of the much smaller number of voters, however, election fraud in legislatures is qualitatively different in many ways. Fewer people are needed to 'swing' the election, and therefore specific people can be targeted in ways impractical on a larger scale. For example, Adolf Hitler achieved his dictatorial powers due to the Enabling Act of 1933. He attempted to achieve the necessary two-thirds majority to pass the Act by arresting members of the opposition, though this turned out to be unnecessary to attain the needed majority. Later, the Reichstag was packed with Nazi party members who voted for the Act's renewal.
In many legislatures, voting is public, in contrast to the secret ballot used in most modern public elections. This may make their elections more vulnerable to some forms of fraud since a politician can be pressured by others who will know how he or she has voted. However, it may also protect against bribery and blackmail, since the public and media will be aware if a politician votes in an unexpected way. Since voters and parties are entitled to pressure politicians to vote a particular way, the line between legitimate and fraudulent pressure is not always clear.
As in public elections, proxy votes are particularly prone to fraud. In some systems, parties may vote on behalf of any member who is not present in parliament. This protects those members from missing out on voting if prevented from attending parliament, but it also allows their party to prevent them from voting against its wishes. In some legislatures, proxy voting is not allowed, but politicians may rig voting buttons or otherwise illegally cast "ghost votes" while absent.
Detection and prevention
The three main strategies for the prevention of electoral fraud in society are:
Auditing the election process
Deterrence through consistent and effective prosecution
Cultivation of mores that discourage corruption.
Some of the main fraud prevention tactics can be summarised as secrecy and openness. The secret ballot prevents many kinds of intimidation and vote selling, while transparency at all other levels of the electoral process prevents and allows detection of most interference.
Election audits
Election auditing refers to any review conducted after polls close for the purpose of determining whether the votes were counted accurately (a results audit) or whether proper procedures were followed (a process audit), or both.
Audits vary and can include checking that the number of voters signed in at the polls matches the number of ballots, seals on ballot boxes and storage rooms are intact, computer counts (if used) match hand counts, and counts are accurately totaled.
Election recounts are a specific type of audit, with elements of both results and process audits.
Prosecution
In the United States the goal of prosecutions is not to stop fraud or keep fraudulent winners out of office; it is to deter and punish years later. The Justice Department has published Federal Prosecution of Election Offenses in eight editions from 1976 to 2017, under Presidents Ford, Carter, Reagan, Clinton, Bush and Trump. It says, "Department does not have authority to directly intercede in the election process itself. ... overt criminal investigative measures should not ordinarily be taken ... until the election in question has been concluded, its results certified, and all recounts and election contests concluded." Sentencing guidelines provide a range of 0–21 months in prison for a first offender; offense levels range from 8 to 14. Investigation, prosecution and appeals can take over 10 years.
In the Philippines, former President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo was arrested in 2011 following the filing of criminal charges against her for electoral sabotage, in connection with the 2007 Philippine general election. She was accused of conspiring with election officials to ensure the victory of her party's senatorial slate in the province of Maguindanao, through the tampering of election returns.
Mores
The patterns of conventional behaviour in a society, or mores, are an effective means for preventing electoral fraud and corruption in general. A good example is Sweden, where the culture has a strong tendency toward positive values, resulting in a low incidence of political corruption. Until recently Canada had a similar reputation. The In and Out scandal of 2008 and the Robocall scandal of 2011 has tarnished Canada's electoral integrity.
An advantage of cultivating positive mores as a prevention strategy is that it is effective across all electoral systems and devices. A disadvantage is that it makes other prevention and detection efforts more difficult to implement because members of society generally have more trust and less of a sense for fraudulent methods.
Secret ballot
The secret ballot, in which only the voter knows how they have voted, is believed by many to be a crucial part of ensuring free and fair elections through preventing voter intimidation or retribution. Others argue that the secret ballot enables election fraud (because it makes it harder to verify that votes have been counted correctly) and that it discourages voter participation. Although the secret ballot was sometimes practiced in ancient Greece and was a part of the Constitution of the Year III of 1795, it only became common in the nineteenth century. Secret balloting appears to have been first implemented in the former British colony—now an Australian state—of Tasmania on 7 February 1856. By the turn of the century, the practice had spread to most Western democracies.
In the United States, the popularity of the Australian ballot grew as reformers in the late 19th century sought to reduce the problems of election fraud. Groups such as the Greenbackers, Nationalist, and more fought for those who yearned to vote, but were exiled for their safety. George Walthew, Greenback, helped initiate one of the first secret ballots in America in Michigan in 1885. Even George Walthew had a predecessor in John Seitz, Greenback, who campaigned a bill to " preserve the purity of elections" in 1879 after the discovery of Ohio's electoral fraud in congressional elections.
The efforts of many helped accomplish this and led to the spread of other secret ballots all across the country. As mentioned on February 18, 1890, in the Galveston News "The Australian ballot has come to stay. It protects the independence of the voter and largely puts a stop to vote to buy." Before this, it was common for candidates to intimidate or bribe voters, as they would always know who had voted which way.
Transparency
Most methods of preventing electoral fraud involve making the election process completely transparent to all voters, from nomination of candidates through casting of the votes and tabulation. A key feature in ensuring the integrity of any part of the electoral process is a strict chain of custody.
To prevent fraud in central tabulation, there has to be a public list of the results from every single polling place. This is the only way for voters to prove that the results they witnessed in their election office are correctly incorporated into the totals.
End-to-end auditable voting systems provide voters with a receipt to allow them to verify their vote was cast correctly, and an audit mechanism to verify that the results were tabulated correctly and all votes were cast by valid voters. However, the ballot receipt does not permit voters to prove to others how they voted, since this would open the door towards forced voting and blackmail. End-to-end systems include Punchscan and Scantegrity, the latter being an add-on to optical scan systems instead of a replacement.
In many cases, election observers are used to help prevent fraud and assure voters that the election is fair. International observers (bilateral and multilateral) may be invited to observe the elections (examples include election observation by the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE), European Union election observation missions, observation missions of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), as well as international observation organised by NGOs, such as CIS-EMO, European Network of Election Monitoring Organizations (ENEMO), etc.). Some countries also invite foreign observers (i.e. bi-lateral observation, as opposed to multi-lateral observation by international observers).
In addition, national legislatures of countries often permit domestic observation. Domestic election observers can be either partisan (i.e. representing interests of one or a group of election contestants) or non-partisan (usually done by civil society groups). Legislations of different countries permit various forms and extents of international and domestic election observation.
Election observation is also prescribed by various international legal instruments. For example, paragraph 8 of the 1990 Copenhagen Document states that "The [OSCE] participating States consider that the presence of observers, both foreign and domestic, can enhance the electoral process for States in which elections are taking place. They, therefore, invite observers from any other CSCE participating States and any appropriate private institutions and organisations who may wish to do so to observe the course of their national election proceedings, to the extent permitted by law. They will also endeavour to facilitate similar access for election proceedings held below the national level. Such observers will undertake not to interfere in the electoral proceedings".
Critics note that observers cannot spot certain types of election fraud like targeted voter suppression or manipulated software of voting machines.
Statistical indicators and election forensics
Various forms of statistics can be indicators of election fraud – e.g., exit polls which diverge from the final results. Well-conducted exit polls serve as a deterrent to electoral fraud. However, exit polls are still notoriously imprecise. For instance, in the Czech Republic, some voters are afraid or ashamed to admit that they voted for the Communist Party (exit polls in 2002 gave the Communist party 2–3 percentage points less than the actual result). Variations in willingness to participate in an exit poll may result in an unrepresentative sample compared to the overall voting population.
When elections are marred by ballot-box stuffing (e.g., the Armenian presidential elections of 1996 and 1998), the affected polling stations will show abnormally high voter turnouts with results favouring a single candidate. By graphing the number of votes against turnout percentage (i.e., aggregating polling stations results within a given turnout range), the divergence from bell-curve distribution gives an indication of the extent of the fraud. Stuffing votes in favour of a single candidate affects votes vs. turnout distributions for that candidate and other candidates differently; this difference could be used to quantitatively assess the number of votes stuffed. Also, these distributions sometimes exhibit spikes at round-number turnout percentage values. High numbers of invalid ballots, overvoting or undervoting are other potential indicators. Risk-limiting audits are methods to assess the validity of an election result statistically without the effort of a full election recount.
Though election forensics can determine if election results are anomalous, the statistical results still need to be interpreted. Alan Hicken and Walter R. Mebane describe the results of election forensic analyses as not providing "definitive proof" of fraud. Election forensics can be combined with other fraud detection and prevention strategies, such as in-person monitoring.
Voting machine integrity
One method for verifying voting machine accuracy is Parallel Testing, the process of using an independent set of results compared to the original machine results. Parallel testing can be done prior to or during an election. During an election, one form of parallel testing is the VVPAT. Voter-verified paper audit trail (VVPAT) or verified paper record (VPR) is a method of providing feedback to voters using a ballotless voting system. A VVPAT is intended as an independent verification system for voting machines designed to allow voters to verify that their vote was cast correctly, to detect possible election fraud or malfunction, and to provide a means to audit the stored electronic results. This method is only effective if statistically significant numbers of voters verify that their intended vote matches both the electronic and paper votes.
On election day, a statistically significant number of voting machines can be randomly selected from polling locations and used for testing. This can be used to detect potential fraud or malfunction unless manipulated software would only start to cheat after a certain event like a voter pressing a special key combination (Or a machine might cheat only if someone does not perform the combination, which requires more insider access but fewer voters).
Another form of testing is Logic & Accuracy Testing (L&A), pre-election testing of voting machines using test votes to determine if they are functioning correctly.
Another method to ensure the integrity of electronic voting machines is independent software verification and certification. Once a software is certified, code signing can ensure the software certified is identical to that which is used on election day. Some argue certification would be more effective if voting machine software was publicly available or open source.
Certification and testing processes conducted publicly and with oversight from interested parties can promote transparency in the election process. The integrity of those conducting testing can be questioned.
Testing and certification can prevent voting machines from being a black box where voters cannot be sure that counting inside is done as intended.
One method that people have argued would help prevent these machines from being tampered with would be for the companies that produce the machines to share the source code, which displays and captures the ballots, with computer scientists. This would allow external sources to make sure that the machines are working correctly.
Notable United States legislation
Help America Vote Act
The Help America Vote Act (), or HAVA, is a United States federal law enacted on October 29, 2002. It was drafted (at least in part) in reaction to the controversy surrounding the 2000 U.S. presidential election. The goals of HAVA are: to replace punchcard and lever-based voting systems; create the Election Assistance Commission to assist in the administration of Federal elections; and establish minimum election administration standards.
Voting Rights Act of 1965
This was the most important federal legislation of the 20th century to protect voting rights, especially of ethnic and language minorities who had been disenfranchised for decades by states' constitutions and practices. Initially, it was particularly important for enforcing the constitutional right of African Americans in the South to vote, where millions of people had been mostly disenfranchised since the turn of the 20th century and excluded from politics. The law has also protected other ethnicities, such as Hispanics, Asians, Native Americans, and language minorities in other states, who have been discriminated against at various times, especially in the process of voter registration and electoral practices.
Civil Rights Act of 1964
The Civil Rights Act of 1964 () was a landmark piece of legislation in the United States that outlawed major forms of discrimination against African Americans and other minorities.
See also
Further reading
General
Lehoucq, Fabrice. "Electoral fraud: Causes, types, and consequences." Annual review of political science (2003) 6#1 pp. 233–56.
Schaffer, Frederic Charles. The hidden costs of clean election reform (Cornell University Press, 2008)
Australia
McGrath, Amy. The Forging of Votes, Tower House Publications, Kensington, NSW (1994)
McGrath, Amy. Frauding of Elections, Tower House Publications and H.S. Chapman Society, Brighton-le Sands, NSW (2003)
McGrath, Amy. (The Frauding of Votes, Tower House Publications, Kensington, NSW 1996)
Perry, Peter John. Political Corruption in Australia: A Very Wicked Place? (Ashgate Pub Limited, 2001)
Canada
Atkinson, Michael M., and Gerald Bierling. "Politicians, the public and political ethics: Worlds apart." Canadian Journal of Political Science (2005) 38#4: 1003.
France
Ebhardt, Christian. "In Search of a Political Office: Railway Directors and Electoral Corruption in Britain and France, 1820-1870." Journal of Modern European History (2013) 11#1 pp. 72–87.
Germany
Anderson, Margaret Lavinia. Practicing Democracy: Elections and Political Culture in Imperial Germany (2000)
Ziblatt, Daniel. "Shaping Democratic Practice and the Causes of Electoral Fraud: The Case of Nineteenth-Century Germany." American Political Science Review (2009) 103#1 pp. 1–21.
United Kingdom
Gash, Norman. Politics in the Age of Peel: A Study in the Technique of Parliamentary Representation 1830–1850 (1953)
O'Gorman, Frank. Voters, Patrons and Parties: The Unreformed Electoral System of Hanoverian England, 1734–1832 (Oxford, 1989).
Harling, Philip. "Rethinking "Old Corruption," Past & Present (1995) No. 147 pp. 127–58
Namier, Lewis Bernstein. The structure of politics at the accession of George III (London: Macmillan, 1957)
O'Leary, Cornelius. The elimination of corrupt practices in British elections, 1868–1911 (Clarendon Press, 1962)
Latin America
Hartlyn, Jonathan, and Arturo Valenzuela, "Democracy in Latin America since 1930," in Leslie Bethell, ed. Latin America: Politics and Society since 1930 (1998), 3–66.
Molina, Iván and Fabrice Lehoucq. "Political Competition and Electoral Fraud: A Latin American Case Study," Journal of Interdisciplinary History (1999) 30#2 pp. 199–234
Posada-Carbó, Eduardo. "Electoral Juggling: A Comparative History of the Corruption of Suffrage in Latin America, 1830–1930." Journal of Latin American Studies (2000). pp. 611–44.
Ricci, Paolo. "'Beheading', Rule Manipulation and Fraud: The Approval of Election Results in Brazil, 1894–1930." Journal of Latin American Studies (2012) 44#3 pp. 495–521.
Silva, Marcos Fernandes da. "The political economy of corruption in Brazil." Revista de Administração de Empresas (1999) 39#3 pp. 26–41.
Russia
Reuter, O., & Szakonyi, D. (2021). "Electoral Manipulation and Regime Support: Survey Evidence from Russia." World Politics.
Turkey
Meyersson, Erik. "Is Something Rotten In Ankara's Mayoral Election? A Very Preliminary Statistical Analysis" (2014)
Meyersson, Erik. "Trouble in Turkey's Elections" (2014)
Meyersson, Erik. "Capital Fraud in Turkey? Evidence from Citizen Initiatives" (2014)
United States
References
External links
Voter Fraud – an article from the ACE Project
Independent Verification: Essential Action to Assure Integrity in the Voting Process, Roy G. Saltman, August 22, 2006
Legal provisions to prevent Electoral Fraud – an article from the ACE Project
Was the 2004 Election Stolen? by Robert F. Kennedy Jr., June 1, 2006.
Article referencing "four-legged voting"
Organized crime activity
Fraud
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Address%20Resolution%20Protocol
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Address Resolution Protocol
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The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is a communication protocol used for discovering the link layer address, such as a MAC address, associated with a given internet layer address, typically an IPv4 address. This mapping is a critical function in the Internet protocol suite. ARP was defined in 1982 by , which is Internet Standard STD 37.
ARP has been implemented with many combinations of network and data link layer technologies, such as IPv4, Chaosnet, DECnet and Xerox PARC Universal Packet (PUP) using IEEE 802 standards, FDDI, X.25, Frame Relay and Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM).
In Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6) networks, the functionality of ARP is provided by the Neighbor Discovery Protocol (NDP).
Operating scope
The Address Resolution Protocol is a request-response protocol whose messages are encapsulated by a link layer protocol. It is communicated within the boundaries of a single network, never routed across internetworking nodes. This property places ARP in the link layer of the Internet protocol suite.
Packet structure
The Address Resolution Protocol uses a simple message format containing one address resolution request or response. The size of the ARP message depends on the link layer and network layer address sizes. The message header specifies the types of network in use at each layer as well as the size of addresses of each. The message header is completed with the operation code for request (1) and reply (2). The payload of the packet consists of four addresses, the hardware and protocol address of the sender and receiver hosts.
The principal packet structure of ARP packets is shown in the following table which illustrates the case of IPv4 networks running on Ethernet. In this scenario, the packet has 48-bit fields for the sender hardware address (SHA) and target hardware address (THA), and 32-bit fields for the corresponding sender and target protocol addresses (SPA and TPA). The ARP packet size in this case is 28 bytes.
Hardware type (HTYPE) This field specifies the network link protocol type. Example: Ethernet is 1.
Protocol type (PTYPE) This field specifies the internetwork protocol for which the ARP request is intended. For IPv4, this has the value . The permitted PTYPE values share a numbering space with those for EtherType.
Hardware length (HLEN) Length (in octets) of a hardware address. Ethernet address length is 6.
Protocol length (PLEN) Length (in octets) of internetwork addresses. The internetwork protocol is specified in PTYPE. Example: IPv4 address length is 4.
Operation Specifies the operation that the sender is performing: 1 for request, 2 for reply.
Sender hardware address (SHA) Media address of the sender. In an ARP request this field is used to indicate the address of the host sending the request. In an ARP reply this field is used to indicate the address of the host that the request was looking for.
Sender protocol address (SPA) Internetwork address of the sender.
Target hardware address (THA) Media address of the intended receiver. In an ARP request this field is ignored. In an ARP reply this field is used to indicate the address of the host that originated the ARP request.
Target protocol address (TPA) Internetwork address of the intended receiver.
ARP protocol parameter values have been standardized and are maintained by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA).
The EtherType for ARP is . This appears in the Ethernet frame header when the payload is an ARP packet and is not to be confused with PTYPE, which appears within this encapsulated ARP packet.
Example
Two computers in an office (Computer 1 and Computer 2) are connected to each other in a local area network by Ethernet cables and network switches, with no intervening gateways or routers. Computer 1 has a packet to send to Computer 2. Through DNS, it determines that Computer 2 has the IP address .
To send the message, it also requires Computer 2s MAC address. First, Computer 1 uses a cached ARP table to look up for any existing records of Computer 2s MAC address (). If the MAC address is found, it sends an Ethernet frame containing the IP packet onto the link with the destination address . If the cache did not produce a result for , Computer 1 has to send a broadcast ARP request message (destination MAC address), which is accepted by all computers on the local network, requesting an answer for .
Computer 2 responds with an ARP response message containing its MAC and IP addresses. As part of fielding the request, Computer 2 may insert an entry for Computer 1 into its ARP table for future use.
Computer 1 receives and caches the response information in its ARP table and can now send the packet.
ARP probe
An ARP probe is an ARP request constructed with an all-zero SPA. Before beginning to use an IPv4 address (whether received from manual configuration, DHCP, or some other means), a host implementing this specification must test to see if the address is already in use, by broadcasting ARP probe packets.
ARP announcements
ARP may also be used as a simple announcement protocol. This is useful for updating other hosts' mappings of a hardware address when the sender's IP address or MAC address changes. Such an announcement, also called a gratuitous ARP (GARP) message, is usually broadcast as an ARP request containing the SPA in the target field (TPA=SPA), with THA set to zero. An alternative way is to broadcast an ARP reply with the sender's SHA and SPA duplicated in the target fields (TPA=SPA, THA=SHA).
The ARP request and ARP reply announcements are both standards-based methods, but the ARP request method is preferred. Some devices may be configured for the use of either of these two types of announcements.
An ARP announcement is not intended to solicit a reply; instead, it updates any cached entries in the ARP tables of other hosts that receive the packet. The operation code in the announcement may be either request or reply; the ARP standard specifies that the opcode is only processed after the ARP table has been updated from the address fields.
Many operating systems issue an ARP announcement during startup. This helps to resolve problems which would otherwise occur if, for example, a network card was recently changed (changing the IP-address-to-MAC-address mapping) and other hosts still have the old mapping in their ARP caches.
ARP announcements are also used by some network interfaces to provide load balancing for incoming traffic. In a team of network cards, it is used to announce a different MAC address within the team that should receive incoming packets.
ARP announcements can be used in the Zeroconf protocol to allow automatic assignment of a link-local address to an interface where no other IP address configuration is available. The announcements are used to ensure an address chosen by a host is not in use by other hosts on the network link.
This function can be dangerous from a cybersecurity viewpoint since an attacker can obtain information about the other hosts of its subnet to save in their ARP cache (ARP spoofing) an entry where the attacker MAC is associated, for instance, to the IP of the default gateway, thus allowing him to intercept all the traffic to external networks.
ARP mediationARP mediation refers to the process of resolving Layer-2 addresses through a virtual private wire service (VPWS) when different resolution protocols are used on the connected circuits, e.g., Ethernet on one end and Frame Relay on the other. In IPv4, each provider edge (PE) device discovers the IP address of the locally attached customer edge (CE) device and distributes that IP address to the corresponding remote PE device. Then each PE device responds to local ARP requests using the IP address of the remote CE device and the hardware address of the local PE device. In IPv6, each PE device discovers the IP address of both local and remote CE devices and then intercepts local Neighbor Discovery (ND) and Inverse Neighbor Discovery (IND) packets and forwards them to the remote PE device.
Inverse ARP and Reverse ARPInverse Address Resolution Protocol (Inverse ARP or InARP''') is used to obtain network layer addresses (for example, IP addresses) of other nodes from data link layer (Layer 2) addresses. Since ARP translates layer-3 addresses to layer-2 addresses, InARP may be described as its inverse. In addition, InARP is implemented as a protocol extension to ARP: it uses the same packet format as ARP, but different operation codes.
InARP is primarily used in Frame Relay (DLCI) and ATM networks, in which layer-2 addresses of virtual circuits are sometimes obtained from layer-2 signaling, and the corresponding layer-3 addresses must be available before those virtual circuits can be used.
The Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (Reverse ARP or RARP), like InARP, translates layer-2 addresses to layer-3 addresses. However, in InARP the requesting station queries the layer-3 address of another node, whereas RARP is used to obtain the layer-3 address of the requesting station itself for address configuration purposes. RARP is obsolete; it was replaced by BOOTP, which was later superseded by the Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP).
ARP spoofing and proxy ARP
Because ARP does not provide methods for authenticating ARP replies on a network, ARP replies can come from systems other than the one with the required Layer 2 address. An ARP proxy is a system that answers the ARP request on behalf of another system for which it will forward traffic, normally as a part of the network's design, such as for a dialup internet service. By contrast, in ARP spoofing the answering system, or spoofer, replies to a request for another system's address with the aim of intercepting data bound for that system. A malicious user may use ARP spoofing to perform a man-in-the-middle or denial-of-service attack on other users on the network. Various software exists to both detect and perform ARP spoofing attacks, though ARP itself does not provide any methods of protection from such attacks.
Alternatives
IPv6 uses the Neighbor Discovery Protocol and its extensions such as Secure Neighbor Discovery, rather than ARP.
Computers can maintain lists of known addresses, rather than using an active protocol. In this model, each computer maintains a database of the mapping of Layer 3 addresses (e.g., IP addresses) to Layer 2 addresses (e.g., Ethernet MAC addresses). This data maintained primarily by interpreting ARP packets from the local network link. Thus, it is often called the ARP cache. Since at least the 1980s, networked computers have a utility called arp for interrogating or manipulating this database.
Historically, other methods were used to maintain the mapping between addresses, such as static configuration files, or centrally maintained lists.
ARP stuffing
Embedded systems such as networked cameras and networked power distribution devices, which lack a user interface, can use so-called ARP stuffing to make an initial network connection, although this is a misnomer, as ARP is not involved.
ARP stuffing is accomplished as follows:
The user's computer has an IP address stuffed manually into its address table (normally with the arp'' command with the MAC address taken from a label on the device)
The computer sends special packets to the device, typically a ping packet with a non-default size.
The device then adopts this IP address
The user then communicates with it by telnet or web protocols to complete the configuration.
Such devices typically have a method to disable this process once the device is operating normally, as the capability can make it vulnerable to attack.
Standards documents
- Ethernet Address Resolution Protocol, Internet Standard STD 37.
- Reverse Address Resolution Protocol, Internet Standard STD 38.
- Inverse Address Resolution Protocol, draft standard
- IPv4 Address Conflict Detection, proposed standard
See also
Arping
Arptables
Arpwatch
Bonjour Sleep Proxy
Cisco HDLC
References
External links
Gratuitous ARP
Information and sample capture from Wireshark
ARP-SK ARP traffic generation tools
Internet Standards
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10688139
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remote%20desktop%20software
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Remote desktop software
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In computing, the term remote desktop refers to a software- or operating system feature that allows a personal computer's desktop environment to be run remotely on one system (usually a PC, but the concept applies equally to a server), while being displayed on a separate client device. Remote desktop applications have varying features. Some allow attaching to an existing user's session and "remote controlling", either displaying the remote control session or blanking the screen. Taking over a desktop remotely is a form of remote administration.
Overview
Remote access can also be explained as the remote control of a computer by using another device connected via the internet or another network. This is widely used by many computer manufacturers and large businesses help desks for technical troubleshooting of their customer's problems.
Remote desktop software captures the mouse and keyboard inputs from the local computer (client) and sends them to the remote computer (server).
The remote computer in turn sends the display commands to the local computer. When applications with many graphics including video or 3D models need to be controlled remotely, a remote workstation software that sends the pixels rather than the display commands must be used to provide a smooth, like-local experience.
Remote desktop sharing is accomplished through a common client/server model. The client, or VNC viewer, is installed on a local computer and then connects via a network to a server component, which is installed on the remote computer. In a typical VNC session, all keystrokes and mouse clicks are registered as if the client were actually performing tasks on the end-user machine.
Remote desktops also have a major advantage for security development, companies are able to permit software engineers who may be dispersed geographically to operate and develop from a computer which can be held within the companies office or cloud environment.
The target computer in a remote desktop scenario is still able to access all of its core functions. Many of these core functions, including the main clipboard, can be shared between the target computer and remote desktop client.
Uses
A main use of remote desktop software is remote administration and remote implementation. This need arises when software buyers are far away from their software vendor. Most remote access software can be used for "headless computers": instead of each computer having its own monitor, keyboard, and mouse, or using a KVM switch, one computer can have a monitor, keyboard, mouse, and remote control software, and control many headless computers. The duplicate desktop mode is useful for user support and education. Remote control software combined with telephone communication can be nearly as helpful for novice computer-users as if the support staff were actually there.
Remote desktop software can be used to access a remote computer: a physical personal computer to which a user does not have physical access, but that can be accessed or interacted with. Unlike servers, remote computers are mainly used for peer to peer connections, where one device is unattended. A remote computer connection is generally only possible if both devices have a network connection.
Since the advent of cloud computing remote desktop software can be housed on USB hardware devices, allowing users to connect the device to any PC connected to their network or the Internet and recreate their desktop via a connection to the cloud. This model avoids one problem with remote desktop software, which requires the local computer to be switched on at the time when the user wishes to access it remotely. (It is possible with a router with C2S VPN support, and Wake on LAN equipment, to establish a virtual private network (VPN) connection with the router over the Internet if not connected to the LAN, switch on a computer connected to the router, then connect to it.)
Remote desktop products are available in three models: hosted service, software, and appliance.
Tech support scammers use Remote Desktop software to connect to their victim's computer and will often Syskey the computer if the victim does not cooperate.
Protocols
Remote desktop protocols include the following:
Apple Remote Desktop Protocol (ARD) Original protocol for Apple Remote Desktop on macOS machines.
Appliance Link Protocol (ALP) a Sun Microsystems-specific protocol featuring audio (play and record), remote printing, remote USB, accelerated video
HP Remote Graphics Software (RGS) a proprietary protocol designed by Hewlett-Packard specifically for high end workstation remoting and collaboration.
Independent Computing Architecture (ICA) a proprietary protocol designed by Citrix Systems
NX technology (NX) a proprietary protocol designed by NoMachine with open-source derivatives available from other forked projects.
PC-over-IP (PCoIP) a proprietary protocol used by VMware (licensed from Teradici)
Remote Desktop Protocol (RDP) a Windows-specific protocol featuring audio and remote printing
Remote Frame Buffer Protocol (RFB) A framebuffer level cross-platform protocol that VNC is based on.
SPICE (Simple Protocol for Independent Computing Environments) – remote-display system built for virtual environments by Qumranet, now Red Hat
Splashtop a high performance remote desktop protocol developed by Splashtop, fully optimized for hardware (H.264) including Intel / AMD chipsets, NVIDIA / ATI GPU & APU, Qualcomm Snapdragon, and NVIDIA Tegra. By optimizing for different profiles of media codecs, Splashtop can deliver high frame rates with low latency, and also low power consumption.
Xpra a protocol originally developed for forwarding X11 application seamlessly with audio, video, remote printing, etc. - extended to support Windows and macOS servers
X Window System (X11) a well-established cross-platform protocol mainly used for displaying local applications; X11 is network-transparent
Wake-on-LAN a standard protocol for remotely waking up computers that are in low-power mode (turned off, but still have access to a power source).
Malicious variants
A (, sometimes called ) is a type of malware that controls a system through a remote network connection. While desktop sharing and remote administration have many legal uses, "RAT" connotes criminal or malicious activity. A RAT is typically installed without the victim's knowledge, often as payload of a Trojan horse, and will try to hide its operation from the victim and from computer security software and other anti-virus software.
Notable examples
PoisonIvy
Sub Seven
Beast Trojan
Bifrost
Blackshades
DarkComet
Back Orifice
Back Orifice 2000
See also
Comparison of Java Remote Desktop projects
Comparison of remote desktop software
Technical support scam
Chrome Remote Desktop
Desktop virtualization
Extranet
Remote administration
Remote desktop protocol
Virtual Desktop Extender
Virtual machine
VDI
References
Remote administration software
Remote desktop
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3266003
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stern%20Electronics%2C%20Inc.%20v.%20Kaufman
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Stern Electronics, Inc. v. Kaufman
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Stern Electronics Inc. v. Kaufman, 669 F.2d 852 (2d Cir. 1982), was a case decided by the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit that ruled that a video game manufacturer, Stern Electronics, could copyright the images and sounds in a game, not just the underlying source code that produced them. The decision was one of the first to rule on the copyrightability of video games as an artistic work and one of a series of lawsuits in the early 1980s brought forth by video game manufacturers like Stern aimed at combatting the increasing number of knock-off video games on the market.
Background
In 1981, Stern Electronics, an arcade video game manufacturer, obtained an exclusive license from Konami Industry Co., a Japanese game developer, to distribute Konami's game "Scramble" in North and South America. The game is a side-scrolling shooter in which the player controls a "Jet" aircraft and fires weapons at enemies, attempting to destroy as many as possible before running out of fuel or crashing into an obstacle. Stern began selling the game in the U.S. on March 17, 1981 and it quickly gained popularity, selling 10,000 units in its first two months on the U.S. market.
In April 1981, the defendant Omni Video Games, Inc. began selling a knock-off game called "Scramble 2" that bore substantial similarities to Konami's "Scramble" game.
Procedural history
The case was initially brought to trial in the United States District Court for the Eastern District of New York (Stern Electronics, Inc. V. Kaufman 523 F.Supp. 635 (1981). The plaintiff, Stern, succeeded in showing probable success on the merits of its claim of copyright infringement and the court ruled they were entitled to injunctive relief. Both parties claimed common law trademark rights to the "Scramble" mark and moved to enjoin the other from using it. Omni had ordered and sold a small number of headboards (to be placed above the arcade game unit) bearing the mark in the months prior to Stern's release of the game and, based upon that fact, made a first use in commerce claim.
The court found that the defendants' first use of the mark was not in good faith and solely in anticipation of later imitating the audiovisual display of Stern's game, once Omni had developed their own "Scramble 2". Further, continued use of the mark by both parties could result in consumer confusion and economic harm to both parties to the lawsuit. Based on Stern's considerable investment in the development and marketing of the game and the large number of units already sold, the balance of hardships was determined to tip in Stern's favor and Omni was preliminarily enjoined from use of the mark.
Legal issues
Copyright issue
Anticipating that a unique, non-infringing code could be easily reverse-engineered to create a "knock-off" game that imitated the sounds and images of their game, Konami did not register a copyright of the underlying code of the game, but instead registered the game as an audiovisual work by submitting a video of the game in both "play mode" and "attract mode" to the U.S. Copyright Office.
In its appeal, Omni argued that Stern was entitled only to copyright protection of the underlying computer code of the game as a literary work and that the certificate of registration granted to Scramble as an audiovisual work by the U.S Copyright office was invalid. Valid copyright protection exists only in "original works of authorship fixed in any tangible medium of expression." Omni argued that the audiovisual aspects of the game were neither original nor fixed. They argued that the sequence of images displayed were created by the underlying computer program and were not the original work of the game developer. Further, because the sequence of images varies based on the actions of the player, they contended that each play of the game produced a new, original audiovisual work, not a fixed copy of the registered work. The court rejected these arguments, stating that sufficient elements of the look and feel of the game remain fixed regardless of the individual player's actions. The court also found that a moment of originality did occur in the creation of the specific images (spaceships, fuel tanks, and the look of the background terrain) and sounds (missiles firing, explosions upon destroying enemy ships) present in the game and that the originality of these images was not completely dependent upon the underlying program, as many different underlying programs could have been written to generate the images and sounds the game creator had imagined.
Trademark issue
Omni appealed the trademark ruling by arguing that they did indeed have superior common law rights to the mark due to their first use of the mark. Neither party held a registered trademark. Omni's prior use claim was based upon the fact they had ordered a very limited number of headboards bearing the mark in December 1980. Only five of those headboards found their way to the market prior to Stern's release of "Scramble" in March 1981, affixed to game units featuring other Omni video games. The appellate court agreed with the lower court's ruling that it was likely "the defendants contrived this usage of the mark solely for trademark maintenance purposes in anticipation of plaintiff's introduction of the 'Scramble' video game into the market" and "with the expectation that they would later imitate the audiovisual display [of 'Scramble']" and therefore the defendants' first use of the trademark was not in good faith. The preliminary injunction was affirmed.
Impact
Stern Electronics, Inc v. Kaufman was one in a series of lawsuits that resulted from the increase in "knock-off" video games in the early 1980s. It is noted as one of the earliest and leading cases where the court found copyright infringement in a video game. It determined that video games may qualify for multiple types of copyright protection at the same time – as audiovisual, graphical, and/or literary works – and would follow parallel developments in computer software with Apple Computer, Inc. v. Franklin Computer Corp. By 1988, the trend of copyright jurisprudence expanded from "protect[ing] entertainment software involving fanciful creatures and characters to allowing this protection to extend to the user interface of productivity ... software containing little or no artistic or creative originality."
In the 1982 essay The Adaptation of Copyright Law to Video Games, Thomas Hemnes noted that it is common "for defendants in video game cases to include in their pleadings the argument that 'the original work of authorship is the computer program' ... and not the game itself. This argument has been uniformly unsuccessful." Hemnes summarizes the court's opinion, that the audiovisual display is plainly original enough to be copyrightable, even though the underlying code exists independently and is itself eligible for copyright. Hemnes also summarized the efforts of defendants to say that video games lack the fixation to qualify for copyright, saying "this defense is also unavailing." The 1997 book Ownership of Rights in Audiovisual Productions explains how this case establishes that video games are audiovisual works, because they are fixed in the "memory devices" that can be displayed with the benefits of other technological components. The principle that video games are fixed, audiovisual works would be affirmed in Atari v. Amusement World, as well as Williams Electronics v. Arctic. The principle would continue through the decision Midway Manufacturing Co. v. Artic International, Inc., after which the U.S. Copyright Office asked copyright registrants to decide whether to register the display as an audiovisual work and the computer program as a literary work, not both.
References
External links
669 F2d 852 Stern Electronics Inc v. Kaufman at OpenJurist
United States copyright case law
United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit cases
1982 in United States case law
Video game copyright law
United States lawsuits
1982 in video gaming
fr:Stern Electronics#Stern Electronics, Inc. v. Kaufman
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2003%20Orange%20Bowl
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2003 Orange Bowl
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The 2003 FedEx Orange Bowl was the 69th edition of the college football bowl game, played at Pro Player Stadium in Miami Gardens, Florida, on Thursday, January 1. It matched the third-ranked Iowa Hawkeyes of the Big Ten Conference and the USC Trojans of the Pacific-10 Conference. Tied at halftime, favored USC pulled away in the second half to win, 38–17.
Televised in the United States on ABC, the game was part of the 2002–03 Bowl Championship Series (BCS) of the 2002 NCAA Division I-A football season and represented the concluding game of the season for both teams.
Teams
Prior to the BCS, the New Year's Day pairings never would have occurred. The Rose Bowl normally features the champions of the Big Ten (in 2002, the Ohio State Buckeyes) and the Pac-10. However, because the Buckeyes had finished No. 2 in the BCS, they were set to play in the Fiesta Bowl for the national championship against the Miami Hurricanes.
The Orange Bowl had the next pick after the Fiesta, and No. 3 (#5 BCS) Iowa was chosen. The Rose Bowl had the next BCS selection. The next, best available team to choose was No. 8 (#7 BCS) Oklahoma, who won the Big 12 Championship Game, to play Pac-10 winner Washington State in the Rose Bowl. When it came time for the Orange Bowl and Sugar Bowl to make a second pick, both wanted USC. However, a BCS rule stated that if two bowls want the same team, the bowl with the higher payoff has the option. The Orange Bowl immediately extended an at-large bid to the #5 Trojans and paired them with at-large #3 Iowa in a Big Ten/Pac-10 "Rose Bowl" matchup in the Orange Bowl. Rose Bowl committee executive director Mitch Dorger was not pleased with the results. This left the Sugar Bowl with #14 BCS Florida State, the winner of the Atlantic Coast Conference. Notre Dame at 10–2 and No. 9 in the BCS standings was invited to the Gator Bowl. Kansas State at No. 8 also was left out.
Iowa Hawkeyes
The Hawkeyes tied for the Big Ten conference championship with Ohio State, and they did not meet this season. Iowa's only setback was a five-point loss to in-state rival Iowa State in mid-September.
USC Trojans
On October 5, in the 300th game for USC on live television, the Trojans lost 30–27 in overtime at Washington State. The Cougars scored with 1:50 left to play to force overtime. The two tied for first place in the Pac-10, but the Cougars won the tie-breaker by virtue of the head-to-head victory. The final game of the conference season was moved to December 2, with WSU at UCLA. Originally it was thought that the Bruins would be the team playing for the Rose Bowl. A 52–21 loss to USC put the Bruins out of contention and the Trojans and Cougars in. The Cougars defeated UCLA 48–27 in Pasadena to advance to the Rose Bowl on New Year's Day; it was the final game for UCLA head coach Bob Toledo, who was soon fired.
This was only the second time a Pac-10 team appeared in the Orange Bowl; eighteen years earlier, Washington won in January 1985.
Game summary
Scoring
First quarter
Iowa – C. J. Jones 100-yard kickoff return (Nate Kaeding kick)
USC – Justin Fargas 4-yard run (Ryan Killeen kick)
Iowa – Kaeding 35-yard field goal
Second quarter
USC – Killeen 35-yard field goal
Third quarter
USC – Williams 18-yard pass from Carson Palmer (Killeen kick)
USC – Fargas 50-yard run (Killeen kick)
Fourth quarter
USC – Sultan McCullough 5-yard run (Killeen kick)
USC – Sunny Byrd 6-yard run (Killeen kick)
Iowa – Maurice Brown 18-yard pass from Brad Banks (Kaeding kick)
Statistics
References
Orange Bowl
Orange Bowl
Iowa Hawkeyes football bowl games
USC Trojans football bowl games
January 2003 sports events in the United States
2003 in sports in Florida
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer%20performance%20by%20orders%20of%20magnitude
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Computer performance by orders of magnitude
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This list compares various amounts of computing power in instructions per second organized by order of magnitude in FLOPS.
Scientific E notation index: 2 | 3 | 6 | 9 | 12 | 15 | 18 | 21 | 24 | >24
Deciscale computing (10−1)
5×10−1 Speed of the average human mental calculation for multiplication using pen and paper
Scale computing (100)
1 OP/S the speed of the average human addition calculation using pen and paper
1 OP/S the speed of Zuse Z1
5 OP/S world record for addition set
Decascale computing (101)
5×101 Upper end of serialized human perception computation (light bulbs do not flicker to the human observer)
Hectoscale computing (102)
2.2×102 Upper end of serialized human throughput. This is roughly expressed by the lower limit of accurate event placement on small scales of time (The swing of a conductor's arm, the reaction time to lights on a drag strip, etc.)
2×102 IBM 602 1946 computer.
Kiloscale computing (103)
92×103 Intel 4004 First commercially available full function CPU on a chip, released in 1971
500×103 Colossus computer vacuum tube supercomputer 1943
Megascale computing (106)
1×106 Motorola 68000 commercial computing 1979
1.2×106 IBM 7030 "Stretch" transistorized supercomputer 1961
Gigascale computing (109)
1×109 ILLIAC IV 1972 supercomputer does first computational fluid dynamics problems
1.354×109 Intel Pentium III commercial computing 1999
147.6×109 Intel Core i7-980X Extreme Edition commercial computing 2010
Terascale computing (1012)
1.34×1012 Intel ASCI Red 1997 Supercomputer
1.344×1012 GeForce GTX 480 in 2010 from Nvidia at its peak performance
4.64×1012 Radeon HD 5970 in 2009 from AMD (under ATI branding) at its peak performance
5.152×1012 S2050/S2070 1U GPU Computing System from Nvidia
11.3×1012 GeForce GTX 1080 Ti in 2017
13.7×1012 Radeon RX Vega 64 in 2017
15.0×1012 Nvidia Titan V in 2017
80×1012 IBM Watson
170×1012 Nvidia DGX-1 The initial Pascal based DGX-1 delivered 170 teraflops of half precision processing.
478.2×1012 IBM BlueGene/L 2007 Supercomputer
960×1012 Nvidia DGX-1 The Volta-based upgrade increased calculation power of Nvidia DGX-1 to 960 teraflops.
Petascale computing (1015)
1.026×1015 IBM Roadrunner 2009 Supercomputer
2×1015 Nvidia DGX-2 a 2 Petaflop Machine Learning system (the newer DGX A100 has 5 Petaflop performance)
11.5×1015 Google TPU pod containing 64 second-generation TPUs, May 2017
17.17×1015 IBM Sequoia's LINPACK performance, June 2013
20×1015 Roughly the hardware-equivalent of the human brain according to Kurzweil. Published in his 1999 book: The Age of Spiritual Machines: When Computers Exceed Human Intelligence
33.86×1015 Tianhe-2's LINPACK performance, June 2013
36.8×1015 Estimated computational power required to simulate a human brain in real time.
93.01×1015 Sunway TaihuLight's LINPACK performance, June 2016
143.5×1015 Summit's LINPACK performance, November 2018
Exascale computing (1018)
1×1018 The U.S. Department of Energy and NSA estimated in 2008 that they would need exascale computing around 2018
1×1018 Fugaku 2020 supercomputer in single precision mode
1.88×1018 U.S. Summit achieves a peak throughput of this many operations per second, whilst analysing genomic data using a mixture of numerical precisions.
2.43×1018 Folding@home distributed computing system during COVID-19 pandemic response
Zettascale computing (1021)
1×1021 Accurate global weather estimation on the scale of approximately 2 weeks. Assuming Moore's law remains constant, such systems may be feasible around 2035.
A zettascale computer system could generate more single floating point data in one second than was stored by any digital means on Earth in the first quarter of 2011.
Beyond zettascale computing (>1021)
1.12×1036 Estimated computational power of a Matrioshka brain, assuming 1.87×1026 Watt power produced by solar panels and 6 GFLOPS/Watt efficiency.
4×1048 Estimated computational power of a Matrioshka brain, where the power source is the Sun, the outermost layer operates at 10 kelvins, and the constituent parts operate at or near the Landauer limit and draws power at the efficiency of a Carnot engine. Approximate maximum computational power for a Kardashev 2 civilization.
5×1058 Estimated power of a galaxy equivalent in luminosity to the Milky Way converted into Matrioshka brains. Approximate maximum computational power for a Type III civilization on the Kardashev scale.
See also
Futures studies – study of possible, probable, and preferable futures, including making projections of future technological advances
History of computing hardware (1960s–present)
List of emerging technologies – new fields of technology, typically on the cutting edge. Examples include genetics, robotics, and nanotechnology (GNR).
Artificial intelligence – computer mental abilities, especially those that previously belonged only to humans, such as speech recognition, natural language generation, etc.
History of artificial intelligence (AI)
Strong AI – hypothetical AI as smart as a human. Such an entity would likely be recursive, that is, capable of improving its own design, which could lead to the rapid development of a superintelligence.
Quantum computing
Timeline of quantum computing
Moore's law – observation (not actually a law) that, over the history of computing hardware, the number of transistors on integrated circuits doubles approximately every two years. The law is named after Intel co-founder Gordon E. Moore, who described the trend in his 1965 paper.
Supercomputer
History of supercomputing
Superintelligence
Timeline of computing
Technological singularity – hypothetical point in the future when computer capacity rivals that of a human brain, enabling the development of strong AI — artificial intelligence at least as smart as a human.
The Singularity is Near – book by Raymond Kurzweil dealing with the progression and projections of development of computer capabilities, including beyond human levels of performance.
TOP500 – list of the 500 most powerful (non-distributed) computer systems in the world
References
External links
Historical and projected growth in supercomputer capacity
Computing
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19419976
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edouard%20Bugnion
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Edouard Bugnion
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Edouard "Ed" Bugnion (born 1970) is a Swiss software architect and businessman.
Bugnion was raised in Neuchâtel, Switzerland.
Bugnion graduated with a bachelor's degree in engineering from ETH Zurich in 1994 and a master's degree from Stanford University in 1996. He was one of the five founders of VMware in 1998 (with his advisor Mendel Rosenblum) and was the chief architect until 2004. He had been a Ph.D. candidate in computer science at Stanford University prior to co-founding VMware. While he was chief architect, VMware developed the secure desktop initiative also known as NetTop for the US National Security Agency.
His primary research interests are in operating systems and computer architectures, and he was a key member of the SimOS and Disco virtual machine research teams.
After VMware, Bugnion was a founder of Nuova Systems which was funded by Cisco Systems, and acquired by them in April 2008. Bugnion joined Cisco as vice president and chief technology officer of Cisco's Server Access and Virtualization Business Unit. He promoted Cisco's Data Center 3.0 vision, and appeared in advertisements. He resigned from Cisco in 2011 and resumed his PhD program of study at Stanford University, which he graduated from in 2012. In 2014, he became Adjunct Professor at the School of Computer Science at EPFL, Switzerland, where he is now the Vice President for Information Systems.
Bugnion co-authored papers on operating systems and platform virtualization such as “Disco: Running Commodity Operating Systems on Scalable Multiprocessors,” in 1997.
Bugnion is also an angel investor in startup companies such as Cumulus Networks.
He was elected as an ACM Fellow in 2017.
In 2020, Bugnion took a key role in fighting Covid19 through Exposure Notification, as a principal member of the team behind the concept and the implementation in Switzerland. He was also a member of the Swiss National COVID-19 Science Task Force.
References
Living people
1970 births
People from Neuchâtel
Chief technology officers
Fellows of the Association for Computing Machinery
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53865269
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trojan.Win32.FireHooker
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Trojan.Win32.FireHooker
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Trojan.Win32.FireHooker or Trojan:Win32/FireHooker is the definition (from Kaspersky Labs) of a Trojan downloader, Trojan dropper, or Trojan spy created for the Windows platform. Its first known detection goes back to September, 2015, according to the AVV Trend Micro.
Additional Info
This Malware requires its main component to successfully perform its intended routine as a .dll-file, by the name xul.dll. The file-size is about 5120 bytes. The file is being dropped by s DNS blocking installer or additional installers bundled with DNSblockers.
xul.dll, which is a known Mozilla Firefox DLL, loads in order to come to action the following APIs from the dll-file:
CERT_GetCommonName
NSS_CMSSignerInfo_GetSigningCertificate
NSS_CMSSignerInfo_Verify
PORT_Set_Error
VFY_VerifyDigestDirect
Other aliases
TR/FireHooker.1825 (Avira)
Trojan.GenericKD.2889803 (Bitdefender)
Win32/FireHooker.A (ESET)
Trojan.Win32.FireHooker.a (Kaspersky Labs)
External links
Analysis of a file @ VirusTotal
References
Windows trojans
2015 in computing
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17976112
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India%E2%80%93Vietnam%20relations
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India–Vietnam relations
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India–Vietnam relations (; ), also knows as Indian-Vietnamese relations , refers to bilateral relations of India and Vietnam.
Cultural and economic links between India and Vietnam date back to 2nd century. The Indic Chăm Pa kingdom had some influence on Vietnamese music. In contemporary era, relations between India and Vietnam have been governed by several areas of shared political interests. India strongly condemned U.S. action during the Vietnam War and was also one of the few non-communist countries to assist Vietnam during the Cambodian–Vietnamese War.
In 1992, India and Vietnam established extensive economic ties, including oil exploration, agriculture and manufacturing. The relations between the two countries, especially defence ties, benefited extensively from India's Look East policy. Bilateral military cooperation includes sale of military equipment, sharing of intelligence, joint naval exercises and training in counterinsurgency and jungle warfare. India also regularly deploys its warships for goodwill visits to Vietnamese seas.
Bilateral relations were upgraded to a "Strategic Partnership" during Vietnamese Prime Minister Nguyen Tan Dung's visit to India in July 2007, and upgraded to a "Comprehensive Strategic Partnership" during Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi's visit to Vietnam in September 2016.
Background
India was the Chairman of the International Commission for Supervision and Control (ICSC) which was formed to implement the 1954 Geneva Accords and facilitate the peace process in Vietnam. India supported Vietnam's independence from France, viewing it as being similar to India's own struggle against British colonialism. France had also colonized portions of India, and the Government of India assumed de facto control of French India on 1 November 1954.
Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru embarked on a tour of China and Indochina in 1954 during which he visited both North Vietnam and South Vietnam. He was one of the first visitors to North Vietnam after its victory against the French at Dien Bien Phu. Nehru sent a detailed report describing his tour to Burmese Prime Minister U Nu on 16 November 1954. Nehru wrote, "The person who impressed me most was Dr. Ho Chi Minh of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, who came to see me at Hanoi. Hanoi had passed into his hands just five days previous to my arrival. This was a peaceful and very disciplined transfer from the French to the Viet Minh. Dr. Ho Chi Minh impressed me as an unusually frank, straight-forward and likable person. Although he has been engaged in a war for seven years against the French, he was the very reverse of a war-like person. He struck me as a man of peace and goodwill. He did not say a word against the French to me. Indeed, he expressed his desire for cooperation with the French and even to be associated with the French Union, provided his country had complete independence. He mentioned the relationship of India with the Commonwealth and asked me for further particulars about it. It was evident that Viet Minh was well-organized and disciplined."
Nehru also visited Saigon and held discussions with then-South Vietnamese Prime Minister Ngô Đình Diệm, French General Paul Ély and others at Independence Palace. In contrast to North Vietnam, Nehru was unimpressed by South Vietnamese leadership writing, "South Vietnam produced a completely opposite effect on me. The whole place seemed to be at sixes and sevens with hardly any dominant authority. The Prime Minister and his Generals were opposed to each other. There were three private armies of some kind of semi-religious sects. Foreign Representatives apparently also pulled in different directions. It was generally estimated that if there was a vote now, 90 percent or more of the population would vote for Viet Minh. What would happen a year or two later, one could not say."
Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai had asked Nehru during his visit to China whether India would recognize North and South Vietnam. Nehru noted, "I told him that for all practical purposes we were dealing with them, either through the International Commission or otherwise, as if we had recognized them. We intended sending Consuls-General to them. For the present, we did not intend going any further because of our delicate position as Chairman of the three International Commissions." Ngo Dinh Nhu, the brother and chief political advisor of South Vietnamese President Ngô Đình Diệm, visited New Delhi in March 1957 and met with Prime Minister Nehru and then-minister without portfolio V. K. Krishna Menon. President Diệm visited India in November 1957 and met with Nehru and Indian President Rajendra Prasad. North Vietnamese President Ho Chi Minh visited India in February 1958 and also met with Prime Minister Nehru and President Prasad.
India opposed American involvement in the Vietnam War. Nehru made his last state visit to the United States in November 1961. During a private luncheon at Hammersmith Farm, US President John F. Kennedy and US Ambassador to India John Kenneth Galbraith questioned Nehru on how they could avoid American militarization of Vietnam. Nehru remained ambiguous on Vietnam but emphasized that "the United States must stay out". According to his nephew and then-Indian Ambassador to the US Braj Kumar Nehru, the Prime Minister later told Foreign Secretary M. J. Desai, "Tell them, tell them not to go into Vietnam. They will be bogged down and they will never be able to get out."
President Rajendra Prasad visited North Vietnam in 1959. Prasad met with Ho Chi Minh and gifted him a bodhi tree (ficus religiosa) which they planted at the Tran Quoc Pagoda, the oldest Buddhist temple in Hanoi. It is the first bodhi tree in Vietnam, and has since become a symbol of friendship between the two countries. On 22 December 2019, the Buddhist Sangha of Vietnam and the Embassy of India in Hanoi held a ceremony to mark the 60th anniversary of the tree's planting. During Indian President Pranab Mukherjee's visit to Vietnam in September 2014 he gifted a second bodhi tree to President Truong Tan Sang which they planted at the Presidential Palace in Hanoi.
India established diplomatic relations with North Vietnam on 7 January 1972, a year before the US withdrawal from Vietnam and three years before the Fall of Saigon. India supported the reunification of Vietnam and the two countries have maintained friendly relations, especially in wake of Vietnam's disputes with China, with whom India also has disputes.
High level visits
There have been several high level visits between leaders of the two countries.
Secretary General of the Communist Party of Vietnam Nong Duc Manh visited India in 2005. Prime Minister Nguyen Tan Dung visited in 2007, and Vice-president Nguyen Thi Doan visited in 2009. Chairman of the National Assembly of Vietnam Nguyen Phu Trong visited in 2010 and President Truong Tan Sang in October 2011. Prime Minister Nguyen Tan Dung visited in December 2012 to participate in the India-ASEAN Commemorative Summit. General Secretary of the Communist Party of Vietnam Nguyen Phu Trong made a state visit on 19–22 November 2013 and Prime Minister Nguyen Tan Dung on 27–28 October 2014. Prime Minister Nguyen Xuan Phuc visited India on 24–26 January 2018 and was the chief guest and the Republic Day parade. He also attended the ASEAN-India Commemorative Summit 2018. President Tran Dai Quang made a state visit to India on 2–4 March 2018.
Indian Prime Minister Atal Behari Vajpayee made an official visit to Vietnam in 2001. Lok Sabha Speaker Somnath Chatterjee visited in March 2007, and President Pratibha Patil in November 2008. Prime Minister Manmohan Singh visited Vietnam in October 2010 to attend the 8th ASEAN-India Summit and the 5th East Asia Summit. Lok Sabha Speaker Meira Kumar visited the country in May 2011. Vice President M. Hamid Ansari visited Vietnam on 14–17 January 2013 to attend the closing ceremony of the "India-Vietnam Friendship Year 2012".
2012. President Pranab Mukherjee made a state visit to Vietnam on 14–17 September 2014. Foreign Minister Sushma Swaraj visited Vietnam on 26–28 August 2018 to attend the 16th India-Vietnam Joint Commission Meeting and the 3rd Indian Ocean Conference. Prime Minister Narendra Modi made an official visit to Vietnam on 2–3 September 2016. Vice President M. Venkaiah Naidu visited the country on 9–12 May 2019 to attend Vesak festivities. President Ram Nath Kovind made a state visit to Vietnam on 18–20 November 2018.
Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, several high level meetings were held virtually by the two countries in 2020. The 17th Virtual Joint Commission Meeting between Indian Foreign Minister S. Jaishankar, and Deputy Prime Minister and Vietnam Foreign Minister Pham Binh Minh was held on 25 August 2020. A virtual bilateral defence meeting was held between Defence Ministers Rajnath Singh and General Ngo Xuan Lich on 27 November 2020. The first-ever India-Vietnam Virtual Summit was co-chaired by Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi and Vietnam Prime Minister Nguyen Xuan Phuc on 21 December 2020.
Economic relations
India granted "Most Favoured Nation" status to Vietnam in 1975 and both nations signed a bilateral trade agreement in 1978 and the Bilateral Investment Promotion and Protection Agreement (BIPPA) on 8 March 1997. The Indo-Vietnam Joint Business Council has worked to promote trade and investment since 1993. In 2003, both nations promulgated a Joint Declaration on Comprehensive Cooperation when the General Secretary of the Communist Party of Vietnam Nông Đức Mạnh visited India and both nations are negotiating a free trade agreement. In 2007, a fresh joint declaration was issued during the state visit of the Prime Minister of Vietnam Nguyễn Tấn Dũng. The ASEAN–India Free Trade Agreement came into effect on 1 January 2010.
India and Vietnam have also expanded cooperation in information technology, education and collaboration of the respective national space programmes. Direct air links and simplified visa regulations have been established to bolster tourism.
Trade
India is Vietnam's 10th largest trading partner, while Vietnam is India's 15th largest trading partner and 4th largest in ASEAN after Singapore, Indonesia and Malaysia. Bilateral trade between India and Vietnam measured $11.12 billion in 2020–21, declining by 22.47% from the previous fiscal largely due to disruptions caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. India exported $4.99 billion worth of goods to Vietnam, and imported $6.12 billion from Vietnam. India's trade deficit with Vietnam declined from $2.22 billion in 2019–20 to $1.12 billion in 2020–21.
Bilateral trade has increased rapidly since the liberalisation of the economies of both Vietnam and India. Trade between the two countries totaled US$200 million in 2000, and quickly grew over the next two decades to reach a peak of US$12.3 billion in 2019–20. India had become the 13th largest exporter to Vietnam by the early 2000s, with exports growing steadily from $11.5 million in 1985–86 to $395.68 million in January–November 2003. Vietnam's exports to India amounted to around $53 million in 2002. Between 2001 and 2006, the volume of bilateral trade expanded at 20-30% per annum to reach US$1 billion by 2006. The ASEAN-India Free Trade Agreement came into effect in 2010, and bilateral trade exploded to US$3.917 billion by November 2012, with Vietnam exporting $1.7 billion to India in 2012, an increase of 56.5% from 2011.
Investment
According to Vietnam's Foreign Investment Agency, India had 299 active projects in Vietnam with a total invested capital of $909.5 million making India the 26th largest foreign direct investor in Vietnam as of April 2021. When including investments made by Indian citizens and corporations located outside of India and routed through third countries, India had an estimated total investment of $1.9 billion in Vietnam as of June 2021. The main industries India has investments in include energy, mineral exploration, agro-processing, sugar, tea, coffee manufacturing, agro-chemicals, information technology and auto components. Vietnam had 6 active projects in India with a total estimated investment of $28.55 million as of 2020. Vietam's investments in India have primarily been in pharmaceuticals, information technology, chemicals and building materials.
Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited was awarded a $50 million contract to construct the Nam Chien Hydro Power project in the Muong La district in the Son La province in 2008. BHEL commissioned the project on 30 January 2013. In November 2013, Tata Power was awarded a $1.8 billion contract to build the 1,200 MW Long Phu 2 supercritical coal-fired thermal power project in the Sóc Trăng Province. In November 2017, the company was awarded a $54 million contract to build a 49 MW plant in Loc Tan commune, Loc Ninh district. Adani Green Energy and Suzlon Energy are also exploring investment opportunities in Vietnam.
In July 2021, the Vietnamese Embassy organized a trade and investment promotion session in Hyderabad for the Indian pharmaceutical industry with the goal a building a $500 million pharmaceutical park in Vietnam.
Oil exploration
ONGC Videsh, the international subsidiary of Indian government-owned Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC), began operating in Vietnam in 1988 when it was awarded an exploration licence for Block 6.1. Block 6.1 is spread over a 955 km2 area in the Nam Con Son Basin of the South China Sea and has two producing fields - Lan Tay and Lan Rosneft. ONGC Videsh owns a 45% in Block 6.1 and its share of condensate and oil equivalent gas production from the block was 1.33 million tonnes in 2020–21. Russia's Rosneft holds a 35% stake and the remaining 20% is held by Petrovietnam. ONGC Videsh was awarded exploration licences for Block-127 and Block-128 in May 2006, which became effective on 16 June 2006. ONGC relinquished its rights to Block-127 a few years later due to poor prospects but continued drilling in Block-128. Block-128 is a deepwater exploratory block spread over an area of 7,058 square kilometers in the Phu Khanh basin of the South China Sea. In March 2008, Essar Exploration & Production, Mauritius, a subsidiary of Essar Oil, was awarded a 50% stake in Block 114 spread over an area of 5,925 km2 in Song Hong basin. China did not raise any objections at the time the blocks were awarded.
In September 2011, China warned India not to cooperate with Vietnam in oil exploration, referring to such exploration as "illegal and invalid" and a violation of China's sovereignty. Chinese Foreign Ministry spokesperson Jiang Yu stated, "Our consistent position is that we are opposed to any country engaging in oil and gas exploration and development activities in waters under China's jurisdiction". She also stressed that China enjoyed "indisputable sovereignty" over the South China Sea and its islands. China's official state-run press agency Xinhua published an article accusing India of "aggressive moves", and claiming that "efforts by Vietnam to draw in India, and the Philippines to draw in Japan, would have little impact since all of these states together can hardly match China in the regional strength and influence, let alone counterbalance and contain China as they expected." The Indo-Vietnamese deal was also denounced by the Chinese state-run newspaper Global Times. On 15 September 2011, Indian Foreign Ministry spokesperson Vishnu Prakash dismissed China's objections and stated that India's cooperation with Vietnam was "per international laws, norms, and conventions". Prakash reiterated that "India supports freedom of navigation in the South China Sea and hopes that all parties to the dispute would abide by the 2002 declaration of conduct in the South China Sea."
Despite Chinese threats, on 12 October 2011, ONGC Videsh announced that it had signed a three-year deal with Petrovietnam for developing long-term cooperation in the oil sector which includes new investments and strengthening presence from drilling-to-dispensing in Vietnam, India, and other countries. An Indian Foreign Ministry spokesperson supported Vietnam's claim to sovereignty stating, "The Chinese had concerns but we are going by what the Vietnamese authorities have told us and have conveyed this to the Chinese." Essar, and its partner Eni, announced in July 2019 that it had discovered natural gas and condensate in Block 114 in the Song Hong basin. Reaffirming Vietnam's continued interest in cooperation with India, Vietnam's Ambassador Pham Sanh Chau stated in December 2020, "Essar has expressed interest in scaling up their investment project in Vietnam to $11 billion. If that happenens, the project will be the single biggest investment by an Indian company in Vietnam. We are looking forward to their decision and are very optimistic about it."
ONGC Videsh has not yet found oil in Block-128, but continues to hold the exploration licence. The company has repeatedly sought and been granted extensions of its exploration licence. ONGC applied for its seventh extension in September 2021. ONGC continues to maintain its licence in Block 128 because India wants to maintain its strategic interest in the South China Sea, while Vietnam continues to grant extensions because it wants an Indian presence to counter-balance Chinese claims in the disputed region.
Strategic cooperation
Due to COVID-19, the 17th Joint Commission Meeting was held virtually on 25 August 2020. The India-Vietnam Joint Working Group on Educational Exchange was established in 2012, and the India-Vietnam Joint Sub-Commission on Trade (Commerce Secretary-level) was set up in November 2013. The two countries also hold an annual Security Dialogue at the Defence Secretary Level and a Joint Committee on Science and Technology that meets periodically.
India and Vietnam are both members of the Mekong–Ganga Cooperation, created to develop and enhance close ties between India and nations of Southeast Asia. Vietnam has supported India's bid to become a permanent member of the U.N. Security Council and join the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC). In the 2003 joint declaration, India and Vietnam envisaged creating an "Arc of Advantage and Prosperity" in Southeast Asia; to this end, Vietnam has backed increasing the significance of the relationship between India and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and its negotiation of an Indo-ASEAN free trade agreement. India and Vietnam have also built strategic partnerships, including extensive cooperation on developing nuclear power, enhancing regional security and fighting terrorism, transnational crime and drug trafficking.
Defence cooperation
In January 2000, the Indian Defence Minister, George Fernandes, called for a renewed political relationship with Vietnam, describing Vietnam as India's most trusted friend and ally. He proposed that India should develop a naval presence in the South China Sea through access to the Cam Ranh Bay naval and air base and that India should provide training and advanced weapons to Vietnam. Vietnam has welcomed Indian Navy ships in their region which would enhance India and Vietnam military relations. Vietnam has also welcomed Indian support for a peaceful resolution of the territorial disputes in the South China Sea. Indian Foreign Minister Salman Khurshid has called Vietnam one of the pillars of India's "Look East" policy. In 2018, India and Vietnam are scheduled to conduct their first bilateral naval exercise together, in Vietnamese waters.
The Indian Navy provided training to over 550 Vietnamese Navy submariners to operate Kilo-class submarines at its INS Satavahana submarine training base. Vietnam acquired its first Kilo-class submarine from Russia in January 2014, and India had experience operating the class since the mid-1980s. In December 2016, India agreed train to Vietnamese pilots to fly Sukhoi aircraft. India provided a $100 million line of credit to Vietnam on 15 September 2014, that allows Vietnam to buy defence equipment from India. The deal will equip the Vietnam Border Guard with 12 offshore patrol vessels from Larsen & Toubro (L&T). Five ships will be built at L&T's shipyard in Chennai, while the other 7 will be built at Hai Phong under L&T's supervision. During his visit to Vietnam, on 2 September 2016, India's Prime Minister Narendra Modi offered a new US$500 million line of credit for procurement of defence equipment. Vietnam and India signed an agreement on cooperation in United Nations peacekeeping operations in 2016. The Indian Army sent a mobile training team to Vietnam in December 2017 to conduct the first training sessions.
In January 2016, India said it would establish a satellite tracking and imaging centre near Ho Chi Minh City for intelligence gathering to keep an eye on China. The centre was funded and built by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) at an estimated cost of $23 million. The facility enables ISRO to track and receive data from satellites launched from India, and gives Vietnam access to images from Indian earth observation satellites that cover China and the South China Sea. Vietnam had long sought access to advanced intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance technologies in the disputed region. The facility was activated in 2018, and is linked up with ISRO's other Southeast Asian stations in Biak, Indonesia and Brunei.
Vietnam's Ambassador to India Pham Sanh Chau met Indian Foreign Secretary Harsh Vardhan Shringla on 22 August 2020 to brief him on the escalating situation in the South China Sea. The topic of the deployment of missiles was also reportedly discussed in virtual meeting between Indian Foreign Minister S. Jaishankar, and Deputy Prime Minister and Vietnam Foreign Minister Pham Binh Minh on 25 August 2020. Huynh Tam Sang of the Vietnam National University-Ho Chi Minh City noted, "India and Vietnam now find themselves at a geostrategic convergence. Both sides oppose China treating the South China Sea as its backyard and have interests in preserving peace and stability in the contested waters."
In August 2021, the Indian Navy's Eastern Fleet dispatched a task force of four warships on a two-month long operational deployment to Southeast Asia, the South China Sea and the Western Pacific Ocean. Two ships, guided-missile destroyer INS Ranvijay (D55) and anti-submarine corvette INS Kora (P61), arrived at Cam Ranh on 15 August. They conducted surface warfare exercises, weapon firing drills and helicopter operations with Vietnamese Navy frigate Ly Thai To (HQ-012). The task force also conducted bilateral exercises with the navies of the Philippines, Singapore (SIMBEX), Indonesia and Australia, before proceeding to Guam for Malabar 2021 with the Quad nations.
Development assistance
Since 1976, India has provided development assistance to Vietnam through lines of credit (LoC) on concessional terms and conditions. Between 1976 and 2016, India provided Vietnam with 18 lines of credit worth a combined total of $364.5 million.
The 16th LoC worth $45 million was provided for the construction of the Nam Chien hydropower project, which was completed by BHEL in January 2013. The contract for the 17th LOC of $19.5 million for the construction of the Nam Trai-IV Hydropower project and the Binh Bo pumping station was signed on 11 July 2013. The Binh Bo project was completed by Kirloskar. However, there were no bidders for the Nam Trai-IV project. The 18th LOC worth $100 million was provided on 15 September 2014 for defence procurement. The deal will equip the Vietnam Border Guard with 12 offshore patrol vessels from Larsen & Toubro (L&T).
Humanitarian aid and other assistance
India also provides assistance to Vietnam through the ASEAN framework and the Mekong Ganga Cooperation (MGC) framework. Under the MGC framework, India announced a Revolving Fund to which it would contribute $1 million annually and will be used to fund Quick Impact Projects (QIPs) in Vietnam. QIPs are projects with a short-gestation period, valued at an average of $50,000 each, that aim to quickly develop community infrastructure and provide direct benefits to Vietnamese communities. India has completed 18 QIPs across 17 provinces of Vietnam since 2017. A further 8 projects were under implementation across 5 provinces in the 2020-21 fiscal year.
India established the Vietnam-India Centre for English Language & IT Training at the Technical University in Nha Trang. The Vietnam-India Entrepreneurship Development Centre was set up in Hanoi in May 2006 and the Vietnam-India Center for English Language Training was established at Danang in July 2007. India spent $2 million to establish the Advanced Resource Centre in Information and Communications Technology (ARC-ICT) at cost of $2 million in Hanoi. It was inaugurated by Indian Foreign Minister in September 2011. The centre is run by the Centre for Development of Advanced Computing (CDAC) and trains students and Vietnamese Government officials in various technical skills such as web designing, network systems, Java, GIS applications and e-governance. India gifted Vietnam a PARAM supercomputer which was installed at the Hanoi University of Science and Technology (HUST) on 12 November 2013. In November 2013, India agreed to fund the establishment of a Hi-Tech Crime Laboratory in Hanoi.
IBSA (India, Brazil, South Africa) contributed $529,000 to fund a rice seed improvement project in Danang which was completed in October 2014. A second IBSA funded project to provide medical training and e-learning at Haiphong Medical University was inaugurated in January 2015. The Government of India, through the Initiative for ASEAN Integration, funded the construction of several primary/kindergarten schools and hostels for children in remote areas of Vietnam in 2016–17. The Embassy of India in Hanoi set up artificial limb (Jaipur foot) fitment camps in 4 provinces where 1,000 Vietnamese people received artificial limbs in 2018–19. Indian Navy corvette INS Kiltan arrived at the Nha Rong port of Ho Chi Minh City in December 2020 carrying 15 tonnes of humanitarian relief supplies for people affected by floods in central Vietnam.
In May 2021, Vietnam donated $1.5 million worth of relief supplies to help India fight the COVID-19 pandemic. The first shipment of 109 ventilators and 50 oxygen generators which was delivered to Indira Gandhi International Airport. The second shipment of 100 ventilators, 275 oxygen generators, 1,300 oxygen cylinders and 50,000 protective masks was transported by the Indian Navy from Ho Chi Minh City to Chennai, Tamil Nadu. The Buddhist Sangha of Vietnam was also active in fundraising efforts, and the organization donated medical supplies worth VND 15.8 billion (US$695,335) to the Embassy of India in Hanoi and the Consulate General in Ho Chi Minh City. Landing ship tank INS Airavat arrived in Ho Chi Minh City, the epicentre of Vietnam's fourth COVID-19 pandemic wave, on 30 August 2021 carrying 100 metric tons of liquid medical oxygen in ISO containers and 300 oxygen concentrators of 10 liters per minute capacity, as requested by the Vietnamese government, to help the country fight COVID-19.
Diplomatic missions
Of Vietnam
New Delhi (Embassy)
Mumbai (Consulate)
Bengaluru (Consulate)
Of India
Hanoi (Embassy)
Ho Chi Minh City (Consulate General)
Cultural relations
India and Vietnam signed a cultural agreement in 1976.
The Swami Vivekananda Indian Cultural Centre was established in Hanoi in September 2016. It was formally inaugurated on 20 April 2017 by Indian Minister of State for External Affair V.K. Singh and the Vietnamese Deputy Minister of Culture, Sports and Tourism.
The Institute of Indian and South-West Asian Studies under the aegis of the Vietnam Academy of Social Sciences was inaugurated in Hanoi on 7 January 2012. The Centre for Indian Studies was established at the Ho Chi Minh National Academy of Politics in September 2014. It was inaugurated by Indian President Pranab Mukherjee and Vietnamese President. The Department of South East Asian Studies of the University of Social Sciences and Humanities of Vietnam, has a section on Indian Studies. An MoU for cooperation in youth affairs and establishing a youth exchange program was signed the Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports and the Ho Chi Minh Communist Youth Union of Vietnam in September 2014. The first Vietnamese youth delegation under the program visited India from 27 March to 5 April 2017, and the Indian youth delegation visited Vietnam on 21–28 July 2017. Since 2017, there has been a regular exchange of visits by youth delegations.
A "Festival of India" was held in the cities of Hanoi, Danang and Ho Chi Minh City on 5–15 March 2014. It featured classical dance recital by the Sangeet Natak Academy, a Buddhist festival by the Central Institute of Himalayan Cultural Studies, a food festival, folk dance by Kalbelia Group, mehendi, and yoga. A 12-member dance troupe from Bollywood dance group Dance Era, sponsored by the ICCR, visited Vietnam on 25–29 June 2014 and performed in Hanoi, Phu Tho and Yen Bai. The first International Day of Yoga was observed in Vietnam on 21 June 2015, and was attended by over 5,000 people including some government officials. It has since been observed annually. An India-Vietnam Friendship painting competition was held by the Ho Chi Minh City Union of Friendship Organisation in August 2015. A fashion show by designer Le Sy Hoang on the Áo dài-Saree (Vietnamese and Indian dress) was held on 16 October 2015 at the War Remnant Museum. The University of Social Sciences and Humanities and Ho Chi Minh Union of Friendship Organisation organized a Hindi Day celebration.
The first ever Indian film festival in Vietnam was held in the cities of Danang, Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City on 12–23 December 2015. Eight Hindi films were screened with Vietnamese subtitles, and the festival was attended by Vietnamese film industry personalities and 11 Indian film producers and directors. India was one of the partner countries at the 2016 Hanoi International Film Festival. The Directorate of Film Festival, New Delhi provided four Indian films to be screened at the Festival. Several other Indian films were also screened at the festival. A roundtable discussion on Indian cinema was held in Hanoi on 3 November. Among the panelists were Indo-Vietnamese Peter Hein, Malayalam film director Adoor Gopalakrishnan, Indian film critic Aruna Vasudev, and the Indian Ambassador to Vietnam. Under the Action Plan for 2017–20 to operationalise the Comprehensive Strategic Partnership between the two countries, the Indian government will collaborate with select Indian educational institutes to organize Vietnamese language courses and to promote Vietnamese culture in India.
Former Indian Defence Minister George Fernandes, who visited Vietnam in March 2000, was a self-described admirer of Vietnam and its people. Addressing the annual conference of Karnataka Planters' Association in 2004, Fernandes remarked, "If there is a rebirth, I would like to be born as a Vietnamese. They are ready to die for their commitment." He noted that 3 million Vietnamese had been killed in conflicts with France, the United States and China, but had managed to recover from the devastation of war.
Tourism
Around 169,000 Indians visited Vietnam and over 31,000 Vietnamese visited India in 2019, recording a growth of 28% and 32% over 2018 respectively. India is a favored spiritual destination for many Vietnamese because it is home to many famous Buddhist temples, including the Mahabodhi Temple in Bodh Gaya where the Buddha is said to have attained enlightenment.
India introduced the e-visa facility for Vietnamese citizens in November 2014. Vietnam extended e-visas to Indian citizens in December 2017. The first scheduled non-stop direct flights between India and Vietnam began on 3 October 2019, when Indian low-cost airline IndiGo commenced daily services between Kolkata and Hanoi, followed by services between Kolkata and Ho Chi Minh City later that month. Vietnamese airline Vietjet Air commenced scheduled non-stop direct flights from Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City to New Delhi in December 2019. Vietnam's Ambassador to India, Pham Sanh Chau, said that long flight times, inconvenient routes and high costs had been the major hindrances preventing Indian tourists from traveling to Vietnam. Chau added, "The launch of direct flights is a great opportunity to promote bilateral tourism in the context of Vietnam looking for ways to reduce heavy dependence on Chinese tourists."
The ASEAN-India Year of Tourism took place in 2019. Minister of State (Independent Charge) for Tourism K. J. Alphonse visited Vietnam on 17–18 January 2019 to attend the 7th meeting of the ASEAN-India Tourism Ministers and ASEAN Tourism Forum 2019 in Ha Long City. Two India-Vietnam Tourism Roadshows were held in January and August 2019 in Hanoi by Embassy of India, and another roadshow was held by the Consulate General of India in Ho Chi Minh City in November 2019 to promote tourism exchanges.
Anniversaries
The year 2012 marked the 40th anniversary of diplomatic relations between India and Vietnam, and the 20th anniversary of India's partnership with ASEAN. The two countries marked the occasion by celebrating 2012 as the "Year of Friendship between India and Vietnam". Commemorative
seminars, business events, performances by cultural troupes, film festivals, a culinary week and art exhibitions were held in both countries to mark the occasion. The Embassy of India in Hanoi and the ICCR sponsored an international conference on "Cham Civilisational Linkages between India and Vietnam" in Danang in June 2012. INS Sudarshini made a goodwill visit to Danang from 31 December 2012 to 3 January 2013 and held cultural programmes in the city.
An exhibition on "India & Vietnam for Peace and Development" uneveiled on 28 August 2016 at the War Remnant Museum, Ho Chi Minh City and exhibited for two months to commemorate the 125th birth anniversary of Ho Chi Minh, the 40th anniversary of the reunification of Vietnam, the 70th
anniversary of Vietnam Declaration of Independence and 43rd anniversary of establishment of full diplomatic relations between India and Vietnam.
The Buddhist Sangha of Vietnam, the Vietnam-India Friendship Association (VIFA), and the Embassy of India organized a four-day "Buddhist Festival - Days of India" celebration in Tay Thien, Tam Dao District, Vinh Phuc Province to mark the 45th anniversary of the establishment of diplomatic relations between India and Vietnam and the 10th anniversary of relations being upgraded to a Strategic Partnership. The festival was inaugurated on 16 March 2017 by Vietnamese Minister of Information and Communication Ha Ngoc Chien. Chien is also the Chairman of VIFA, and the Chairman of the Parliamentary Friendship Group for India at the National Assembly. A delegation of 200 monks and nuns from Ladhak and Darjeeling, under the leadership of Gyalwang Drukpa Jigme Pema Wangchen from the Hemis Jangchubling Monastery in Leh participated in the celebrations. The Tay Thien Pagoda, which presided over the opening ceremony, and its devotees are adherents of Gyalwang Drukpa.
India and Vietnam agreed to celebrate the year 2017 as a "Year of Friendship" to commemorate the 45th anniversary of the establishment of diplomatic relations and 10th anniversary of the establishment of the Strategic Partnership. Several cultural events, food festivals, exhibitions and academic seminars and conferences were held throughout the year.
Indians in Vietnam
There were an estimated 5,500 Indians residing in Vietnam as of June 2021. Most of the community lives in Ho Chi Minh City. Some Indians hold senior positions in multinational companies and international organisations based in Vietnam. The Indian Business Chamber (INCHAM) is an organization recognized by the Government of Vietnam that represents the Indian community and promotes Indian business interests in Vietnam.
See also
Foreign relations of India
Foreign relations of Vietnam
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R. C. Majumdar, Kambuja Desa Or An Ancient Hindu Colony In Cambodia, Madras, 1944
R. C. Majumdar, Hindu Colonies in the Far East, Calcutta, 1944,
R. C. Majumdar, India and South-East Asia, I.S.P.Q.S. History and Archaeology Series Vol. 6, 1979, .
R. C. Majumdar, Ancient Indian colonisation in South-East Asia; History of the Hindu Colonization and Hindu Culture in South-East Asia
Sharma, Geetesh. India-Vietnam Relations : First to Twenty-First Century. Kolkata, Dialogue Society, 2004
References
Vietnam
Bilateral relations of Vietnam
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8779232
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilobaud%20Microcomputing
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Kilobaud Microcomputing
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Kilobaud Microcomputing was a magazine dedicated to the computer homebrew hobbyists from 1977 to 1983.
How kilobaud started
Wayne Green, the editor and publisher of kilobaud, had been the publisher of BYTE magazine, (another influential microcomputer magazine of the time) where he published the first four issues in his own office. But one day in November 1975 Wayne came to work, and found that his ex-wife and the rest of the Byte magazine staff had moved out of his office and had taken the January issue with them. Consequently, the January 1976 issue had Virginia Green listed as publisher instead of Wayne Green. Wayne was not happy with this development, so he left Byte to start a new magazine to compete with the fledgling Byte. He wanted to call it "KiloByte" to trump Byte. But the people of Byte quickly trademarked KILOBYTE as a cartoon series in Byte magazine. So he named the new magazine "kilobaud" instead. The magazine was first published in 1977.
Many name changes
The full title for the first magazines was kilobaud. The Computer Hobbyist Magazine (Jan 1977). These issues are unique for having a full index of the contents on the front cover but no illustrations (photographs). Later issues did have illustrations but also still had a full index on the cover, (a feature that remained for many years). The title was now shortened to only read "Kilobaud Microcomputing".
From the beginning of 1979 to the end of 1980 the subtitle "for business...education...FUN" was added. Later, after 1981, the "kilobaud" denominated was dropped altogether and the magazine was now simply called "Microcomputing" with the subtitle, "a wayne green publication". In 1984, the magazine folded.
After the success of kilobaud, Wayne Green diversified with magazines targeted to specific brands of home computers, such as 80-Microcomputing (also known as 80-Micro) a Magazine for TRS-80 users, InCider a magazine for Apple II users, Hot CoCo a magazine for TRS-80 Color Computers, RUN a magazine for Commodore 64 users and many others.
Intended readers
Even more than Byte magazine, kilobaud contained articles written for people who were building their own 8-bit microcomputers at home, or were writing homebrew software for these systems. kilobaud, (much more than Byte) contained articles written for electronic engineers (or hobbyists interested in electronics), rather than for people who were technically interested in computers but not in building their own computer from scratch. Articles like "Two Hobbies: Model Railroading and Computing" and the article (written by Don Lancaster) "Building a cheap video display for your Heathkit H-8" (a computer you could build yourself from a kit) are good examples.
In the May 1982 issue an article about building the Sinclair ZX-81 kit, the first, (and probably last) "mainstream" "do-it-yourself" computer kit was published.
After that the magazine more and more lost its hobby background and it looked like any other computer magazine.
See also
ABC 80 performance test
References
External links
1977 establishments in New Hampshire
1983 disestablishments in New Hampshire
Monthly magazines published in the United States
Defunct computer magazines published in the United States
Home computer magazines
Magazines established in 1977
Magazines disestablished in 1983
Magazines published in New Hampshire
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40061391
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PlayStation%202%20technical%20specifications
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PlayStation 2 technical specifications
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The PlayStation 2 technical specifications describe the various components of the PlayStation 2 (PS2) video game console.
Overview
The sixth-generation hardware of the PlayStation 2 video game console consists of various components. At the heart of the console's configuration is its central processing unit (CPU), a custom RISC processor known as the Emotion Engine which operates at 294 MHz (299 MHz in later consoles). The CPU heavily relies on its integration with two vector processing units, known as VPU0 and VPU1, the Graphics Synthesizer, and a floating-point unit (FPU) in order to render 3D graphics. Other components, such as the system's DVD-ROM optical drive and DualShock 2 controller, provide the software and user control input.
PlayStation 2 software is distributed on CD-ROM and DVD-ROM. In addition, the console can play audio CDs and DVD movies, and is backwards compatible with original PlayStation games. This is accomplished through the inclusion of the original PlayStation's CPU which also serves as the PS2's I/O processor. The PS2 also supports limited functionality with the original PlayStation memory cards and controllers. The PS2's DualShock 2 controller is an upgraded version of the PlayStation's DualShock with analog face, shoulder and D-pad buttons replacing the digital buttons of the original. Like its predecessor, the DualShock 2 controller features force feedback technology.
The standard PlayStation 2 memory card has an 8 MB capacity and uses Sony's MagicGate encryption. This requirement prevented the production of memory cards by third parties who did not purchase a MagicGate license. Memory cards without encryption can be used to store PlayStation game saves, but PlayStation games would be unable to read from or write to the card such a card could only be used as a backup. There are a variety of non-Sony manufactured memory cards available for the PlayStation 2, allowing for a larger memory capacity than the standard 8 MB. However their use is unsupported and compatibility is not guaranteed. These memory cards can have up to 128 MB storage space.
The console also features USB and IEEE 1394 expansion ports. Compatibility with USB and IEEE 1394 devices is dependent on the software supporting the device. For example, the PS2 BIOS will not boot an ISO image from a USB flash drive or operate a USB printer, as the machine's operating system does not include this functionality. By contrast, Gran Turismo 4 and Tourist Trophy are programmed to save screenshots to a USB mass storage device and print images on certain USB printers. A PlayStation 2 HDD can be installed via the expansion bay in the back of the console, and was required to play certain games, notably the popular Final Fantasy XI.
Central processing unit
CPU: MIPS III R5900-based "Emotion Engine", clocked at 294.912 MHz (299 MHz on newer versions), with 128-bit SIMD capabilities
250-nm CMOS manufacturing (ending with 65-nm CMOS), 13.5 million transistors, 225 mm² die size, 15 W dissipation (combined EE+GS in SCPH-7500x and later SCPH-7000x): 86 mm², 53.5 million transistors) (combined EE+GS+RDRAM+DRAM in SCPH-7900x ended with 65 nm CMOS design)
CPU core: MIPS R5900 (COP0), 64-bit, little endian (mipsel). CPU is a superscalar, in-order execution 2-issue design with 6-stage long integer pipelines, 32 32-bit GPR registers, 32 128-bit SIMD linear scalar registers, two 64-bit integer ALUs, 128-bit load-store unit (LSU) and a branch execution unit (BXU).
Instruction set: MIPS III, MIPS IV subset with Sony's proprietary 107 vector SIMD multimedia instructions (MMI). The custom instruction set was implemented by grouping the two 64-bit integer ALUs.
32-bit FPU coprocessor (COP1) with 6-stage long pipeline (floating point multiply accumulator × 1, floating point divider × 1). FPU is not IEEE compliant.
Two 32-bit VLIW-SIMD vector units at 294.912 MHz: VPU0 and VPU1 (floating point multiply accumulator × 9, floating point divider × 1) each VPU contains a vector unit (VU), instruction cache, data cache and interface unit. Each vector unit also has upper execution unit containing 4 × FMAC and lower execution unit containing FDIV, integer ALU, load-store unit, branch logic, 16 16-bit integer registers and 32 128-bit floating point registers. VPU1 has an additional EFU unit.
VPU0 (COP2; FMAC × 4, FDIV × 1) is tightly coupled with the main CPU and is typically used for polygon and geometry transformations (under parallel or serial connection), physics and other gameplay related tasks
VPU1 (Elementary Functional Unit, EFU; FMAC × 5, FDIV × 2) operates independently controlled by microcode, parallel to the CPU core, is typically used for polygon and geometry transformations, clipping, culling, lighting and other visual based calculations (texture matrix able for 2 coordinates (UV/ST))
Parallel: results of VU0/FPU sent as another display list via MFIFO (for e.g. complex characters/vehicles/etc.)
Serial: results of VU0/FPU sent to VU1 (via 3 methods) and can act as an optional geometry pre-processor that does all base work to update the scene every frame (for e.g. camera, perspective, boning and laws of movement such as animations or physics)
Image Processing Unit (IPU): MPEG-2 compressed image macroblock layer decoder allowing playback of DVDs and game FMV. It also allowed vector quantization for 2D graphics data.
Memory management unit (MMU), RDRAM controller and DMA controller: handle memory access within the system
Cache memory: 16 KB instruction cache, 8 KB + 16 KB scratchpad (ScrP) data cache
Scratchpad (SPR) is extended area of memory visible to the EE CPU. This extended memory provides 16 kilobytes of fast RAM available to be used by the application. Scratchpad memory can be used to store temporary data that is waiting to be sent via DMA or for any other temporary storage that the programmer can define.
Interfaces
I/O processor interconnection: remote procedure call over a serial link, DMA controller for bulk transfer
Main RDRAM memory bus. Bandwidth: 3.2 GB/s
Graphics interface (GIF), DMA channel that connects the EE CPU to the GS co-processor. To draw something to the screen, one must send render commands to the GS via the GIF channel: 64-bit, 150 MHz bus, maximum theoretical bandwidth of 1.2 GB/s.
Display lists generated by CPU/VPU0 and VPU1 are sent to the GIF, which prioritizes them before dispatching them to the Graphics Synthesizer for rendering.
Vector Unit Interface (VIF), consists of two DMA channels VIF0 for VPU0 and VIF1 for VPU1. Vector units and the main CPU communicate via VIF DMA channels.
SIF – Serial Interface or Subsystem Interface which consists of 3 DMA channels:
Subsystem Interface 0 (SIF0) and Subsystem Interface 1 (SIF1), used for communication between the EE main CPU and IOP co-processor. These are serial DMA channels where both CPUs can send commands and establish communication through an RPC protocol.
Subsystem Interface 2 (SIF2), used for backwards compatibility with PS1 games and debugging.
Performance
Floating point performance: 6.2 GFLOPS (single precision 32-bit floating point)
FPU 0.64 GFLOPS
VU0 2.44 GFLOPS
VU1 3.08 GFLOPS (Including internal 0.64 GFLOPS EFU)
Tri-strip geometric transformation (VU0+VU1): 150 million vertices per second
3D CG geometric transformation with raw 3D perspective operations (VU0+VU1): 66–80+ million vertices per second
3D CG geometric transformations at peak bones/movements/effects (textures)/lights (VU0+VU1, parallel or series): 15–20 million vertices per second
Lighting: 38 million polygons/second
Fog: 36 million polygons/second
Curved surface generation (Bezier): 16 million polygons/second
Image processing performance: 150 million pixels/second
Actual real-world polygons (per frame): 500–650k at 30FPS, 250–325k at 60FPS
Instructions per second: 6,000 MIPS (million instructions per second)
System memory
Main memory: 32 MB PC800 32-bit dual-channel (2x 16-bit) RDRAM (Direct Rambus DRAM) @ 400 MHz, 3.2 GB/s peak bandwidth
Graphics processing unit
Parallel rendering processor with embedded DRAM "Graphics Synthesizer" (GS) clocked at 147.456 MHz
279 mm² die (combined EE+GS in SCPH-7500x: 86 mm², 53.5 million transistors)
Programmable CRT controller (PCRTC) for output
Pixel pipelines: 16 without any texture mapping units (TMU), however half of pixel pipelines can perform texturing, so fillrate is either 16 pixels per clock with untextured 2400 Mpixels; or 8 pixels per clock with 1200 megapixels with bilinear texturing, and 1200 megatexels (bilinear).
Video output resolution: Variable from 256×224 to 1920×1080
4 MB of embedded DRAM as video memory (an additional 32 MB of main memory can be used as video memory for off-screen textures); 48 gigabytes per second peak bandwidth
Texture buffer bandwidth: 9.6 GB/s
Frame buffer bandwidth: 38.4 GB/s
eDRAM bus width: 2560-bit (composed of three independent buses: 1024-bit write, 1024-bit read, 512-bit read/write)
Pixel configuration: RGB:alpha, 24:8, 15:1; 16-, 24-, or 32-bit Z-buffer
Display color depth: 32-bit (RGBA: 8 bits each)
Dedicated connection to main CPU and VU1
Overall pixel fillrate: 16 × 147Mpix/s = 2.352 gigapixel/s
1.2 gigapixel/s (with Z-buffer, alpha, and texture)
With no texture, flat shaded: 2.4Gpix/s (75,000,000 32-pixel raster triangles)
With 1 full texture (diffuse map), Gouraud shaded: 1.2Gpix/s (37,750,000 32-bit pixel raster triangles)
With 2 full textures (diffuse map and specular, alpha, or other), Gouraud shaded: 0.6Gpix/s (18,750,000 32-bit pixel raster triangles)
Texture fillrate: 1.2 Gtexel/s
Sprite drawing rate: 18.75 million/s (8×8 pixels)
Particle drawing rate: 150 million/s
Polygon drawing rate: 75 million/s (small polygon)
50 million/s (48-pixel quad with Z and A)
30 million/s (50-pixel triangle with Z and A)
25 million/s (48-pixel quad with Z, A and T)
16 million/s (75-pixel triangle with Z, A, T and fog)
VESA (maximum 1280×1024 pixels)
3 rendering paths (path 1, 2 and 3) GS effects include: Dot3 bump mapping (normal mapping),, mipmapping, spherical harmonic lighting, alpha blending, alpha test, destination alpha test, depth test, scissor test, transparency effects, framebuffer effects, post-processing effects, perspective-correct texture mapping, edge-AAx2 (poly sorting required), bilinear, trilinear texture filtering, multi-pass, palletizing (6:1 ratio 4-bit; 3:1 ratio 8-bit), offscreen drawing, framebuffer mask, flat shading, Gouraud shading, cel shading, dithering, texture swizzling.
Multi-pass rendering ability
Four passes: 300 Mpixel/s (300 Mpixels/s divided by 32 pixels = 9,375,000 triangles/s lost every four passes)
Audio
Audio: "SPU1+SPU2" (SPU1 is actually the CPU clocked at 8 MHz and SPU2 is PS1 SPU)
Sound Memory: 2 MB
Number of voices: 48 hardware channels of ADPCM on SPU2 plus software-mixed definable, programmable channels
Sampling Frequency: 44.1 kHz or 48 kHz (selectable)
PCM audio source
Digital effects include:
Pitch Modulation
Envelope
Looping
Digital Reverb
Load up to 512K of sampled waveforms
Supports MIDI Instruments
Output: Dolby Digital 5.1 Surround sound, DTS (Full motion video only), later games achieved matrix encoded 5.1 surround during gameplay through Dolby Pro Logic II
I/O processor (IOP)
Input Output Processor (IOP)
I/O Memory: 2 MB EDO DRAM
CPU Core: Original PlayStation CPU (MIPS R3000A clocked at 33.8688 MHz or 37.5 MHz+PS1 GTE and MDEC for backwards compatibility with PS1 games)
Automatically underclocked to 33.8688 MHz to achieve hardware backwards compatibility with original PlayStation format games.
Sub Bus: 32-bit
Connection to: SPU and CD/DVD controller.
Replaced with PowerPC-based "Deckard" IOP with 4 MB SDRAM starting with SCPH-7500x.
Connectivity
2 proprietary PlayStation controller ports (250 kHz clock for PS1 and 500 kHz for PS2 controllers)
2 proprietary Memory Card slots using MagicGate encryption (250 kHz for PS1 cards. Up to 2 MHz for PS2 cards with an average sequential read/write speed of 130 kbit/s)
2 USB 1.1 ports with an OHCI-compatible controller
AV Multi Out (Composite video, S-Video, RGBS (SCART), RGsB (SCART or VGA connector), YPBPR (component), and D-Terminal)
RFU DC Out
S/PDIF Digital Out
Expansion Bay for 3.5-inch HDD and Network Adaptor (required for HDD, SCPH-300xx to 500xx only)
PC Card slot for Network Adaptor (PC Card type) and External Hard Disk Drive (SCPH-10000, SCPH-15000, SCPH-18000 models)
Emotion Engine (EE) includes an on-chip Serial I/O port(SIO) used internally by the EE's kernel to output debugging and messages and to start the kernel debugger.
Ethernet port (Slim only)
i.LINK (also known as FireWire) (SCPH-10000 to 3900x only)
Infrared remote control port (SCPH-500xx and newer)
Standard RGB mode only allows interlaced modes up to 480i(NTSC) and 576i(PAL) and progressive up to 240p. A display or adapter capable of Sync-on-green (RGsB) is necessary for higher modes. Furthermore, the PS2's Macrovision copy protection isn't compatible with either RGB mode, thus DVDs cannot be played with RGB. Motherboard modifications have been known to bypass both issues.
VGA connector is only available for progressive-scan supporting games, homebrew-enabled systems, and Linux for PlayStation 2, and requires a monitor that supports RGsB, or "sync on green," signals.
Contrary to popular belief, the PS2's YPBPR/component output fully supports 240p and games from the original PlayStation. However, 240p output isn't part of the YPBPR standard, thus not all HDTVs support it. Upscaling can be used as a workaround.
Optical disc drive
Disc Drive type: proprietary interface through a custom micro-controller + DSP chip. 24x speed CD-ROM [3.6 MB/s], 4x speed DVD-ROM [5.28 MB/s] — region-locked with copy protection.
Supported Disc Media: PlayStation 2 format CD-ROM, PlayStation format CD-ROM, CD-DA, PlayStation 2 format DVD-ROM, DVD Video. DVD5 (Single-layer, 4.7 GB) and DVD9 (Dual-layer, 8.5 GB) supported. Later models starting with SCPH-500xx are DVD+RW and DVD-RW compatible.
See also
PlayStation technical specifications
PlayStation 3 technical specifications
PlayStation 4 technical specifications
References
Hardware
Video game hardware
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2878029
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological%20literacy
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Technological literacy
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Technological literacy (Technology Literacy) is the ability to use, manage, understand, and assess technology. Technological literacy is related to digital literacy in that when an individual is proficient in using computers and other digital devices to access the Internet, digital literacy gives them the ability to use the Internet to discover, review, evaluate, create, and use information via various digital platforms, such as web browsers, databases, online journals, magazines, newspapers, blogs, and social media sites.
UNESCO and Technology Literacy
UNESCO (United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization) strives to bring technology literacy to students throughout the world by ensuring educators are using technology in every aspect of their teaching. The more students are familiar not only with learning about technology but learning with technology, the more they will be prepared to use technology to improve their lives.
An entire module in their 2011 publication ICT Competency Framework for Teachers focuses on Technology Literacy in the classroom. This publication was updated in 2018 to reflect evolving ICT competencies (Information and Communications Technology). The framework has been used worldwide to develop ICT in education policy, teacher standards, assessment criteria, curriculum design and course-ware development. A highlight in the updated publication shows how the Technology Literacy module was put into action in an ICT in Education curriculum for a bachelor's degree by a university in the Latin America and the Caribbean Region, and an associate degree offered by local teacher training colleges. Technology Literacy is the focus of the associate degree and first two years of the bachelor's degree in Education. Some of the skills and knowledge taught in the program are how to operate computer hardware, learn the terminology and function of hardware components and peripherals (e.g. laptops, printers, storage), and how to troubleshoot if a computer is not working. These all lead to overcoming apprehension or fear of using technology. Another focus topic is word processing, which includes how a word processor operates, how it differs from a typewriter, how to use word processor software on computers, how to format documents, and how to check grammar and spelling.
In 2016, UNESCO detailed how teachers can show Technology Literacy in their classrooms when providing ICT education. Teachers will:
describe and demonstrate the basic tasks and uses of word processors, such as text entry, editing text, formatting text and printing, describe and demonstrate the purpose and basic features of presentation software and other digital resources.
describe the purpose and basic function of graphic software and use a graphic software package to create a simple graphic display.
describe the Internet and the World Wide Web, elaborate on their uses, and describe how a browser works and use URL to access a website, use a search engine.
create an email account and use it for a sustained series of email correspondence, use common communication and collaboration technologies, such as (email), text messaging, video conferencing, and web-based collaboration and social environments.
use networked record keeping software to take attendance, submit grades, and maintain student records.
locate off-the-shelf packages, tutorial, drill and practice software and Web resources for their accuracy and alignment with Curriculum Standards and match them to the needs of specific students.
On May 9, 2019, the UNESCO Cairo Office began a technology literacy project to teach basic literacy skills, life skills, and legal empowerment to 150-200 illiterate women between the ages of 15 and 35 living in the Giza Governate.
Sources
References
Computer literacy
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3362916
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System%20Management%20Mode
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System Management Mode
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System Management Mode (SMM, sometimes called ring −2 in reference to protection rings) is an operating mode of x86 central processor units (CPUs) in which all normal execution, including the operating system, is suspended. An alternate software system which usually resides in the computer's firmware, or a hardware-assisted debugger, is then executed with high privileges.
It was first released with the Intel 386SL. While initially special SL versions were required for SMM, Intel incorporated SMM in its mainline 486 and Pentium processors in 1993. AMD implemented Intel's SMM with the Am386 processors in 1991. It is available in all later microprocessors in the x86 architecture.
Some ARM processors also include the Management Mode, for the system firmware (such as UEFI).
Operation
SMM is a special-purpose operating mode provided for handling system-wide functions like power management, system hardware control, or proprietary OEM designed code. It is intended for use only by system firmware (BIOS or UEFI), not by applications software or general-purpose systems software. The main benefit of SMM is that it offers a distinct and easily isolated processor environment that operates transparently to the operating system or executive and software applications.
In order to achieve transparency, SMM imposes certain rules. The SMM can only be entered through SMI (System Management Interrupt). The processor executes the SMM code in a separate address space (SMRAM) that has to be made inaccessible to other operating modes of the CPU by the firmware.
System Management Mode can address up to 4 GB memory as huge real mode. In x86-64 processors, SMM can address >4 GB memory as real address mode.
Usage
Initially, System Management Mode was used for implementing power management and hardware control features like Advanced Power Management (APM). However, BIOS manufacturers and OEMs have relied on SMM for newer functionality like Advanced Configuration and Power Interface (ACPI).
Some uses of the System Management Mode are:
Handle system events like memory or chipset errors
Manage system safety functions, such as shutdown on high CPU temperature
System Management BIOS (SMBIOS)
Advanced Configuration and Power Interface
Control power management operations, such as managing the voltage regulator module and LPCIO (super I/O or embedded controller)
Emulate USB mouse/keyboard as PS/2 mouse/keyboard (often referred to as USB legacy support)
Centralize system configuration, such as on Toshiba and IBM/Lenovo notebook computers
Managing the Trusted Platform Module (TPM)
BIOS-specific hardware control programs, including USB hotswap and Thunderbolt hotswap in operating system runtime
System Management Mode can also be abused to run high-privileged rootkits, as demonstrated at Black Hat 2008 and 2015.
Entering SMM
SMM is entered via the SMI (system management interrupt), which is invoked by:
Motherboard hardware or chipset signaling via a designated pin SMI# of the processor chip. This signal can be an independent event.
Software SMI triggered by the system software via an I/O access to a location considered special by the motherboard logic (port is common).
An I/O write to a location which the firmware has requested that the processor chip act on.
By entering SMM, the processor looks for the first instruction at the address SMBASE (SMBASE register content) + 8000h (by default 38000h), using registers CS = 3000h and EIP = 8000h. The CS register value (3000h) is due to the use of real-mode memory addresses by the processor when in SMM. In this case, the CS is internally appended with 0h on its rightmost end.
Problems
By design, the operating system cannot override or disable the SMI. Due to this fact, it is a target for malicious rootkits to reside in, including NSA's "implants", which have individual code names for specific hardware, like SOUFFLETROUGH for Juniper Networks firewalls, SCHOOLMONTANA for J-series routers of the same company, DEITYBOUNCE for DELL, or IRONCHEF for HP Proliant servers.
Improperly designed and insufficiently tested SMM BIOS code can make the wrong assumptions and not work properly when interrupting some other x86 operating modes like PAE or 64-bit long mode. According to the documentation of the Linux kernel, around 2004, such buggy implementations of the USB legacy support feature were a common cause of crashes, for example, on motherboards based on the Intel E7505 chipset.
Since the SMM code (SMI handler) is installed by the system firmware (BIOS), the OS and the SMM code may have expectations about hardware settings that are incompatible, such as different ideas of how the Advanced Programmable Interrupt Controller (APIC) should be set up.
Operations in SMM take CPU time away from the applications, operating-system kernel and hypervisor, with the effects magnified for multicore processors, since each SMI causes all cores to switch modes. There is also some overhead involved with switching in and out of SMM, since the CPU state must be stored to memory (SMRAM) and any write-back caches must be flushed. This can destroy real-time behavior and cause clock ticks to get lost. The Windows and Linux kernels define an "SMI Timeout" setting a period within which SMM handlers must return control to the operating system, or it will "hang" or "crash".
The SMM may disrupt the behavior of real-time applications with constrained timing requirements.
A logic analyzer may be required to determine whether the CPU has entered SMM (checking state of SMIACT# pin of CPU). Recovering the SMI handler code to analyze it for bugs, vulnerabilities and secrets requires a logic analyzer or disassembly of the system firmware.
See also
Coreboot includes an open-source SMM/SMI handler implementation for some chipsets
Intel 80486SL
LOADALL
MediaGX a processor which emulates nonexistent hardware via SMM
Ring −3
Unified Extensible Firmware Interface (UEFI)
Basic Input/Output System (BIOS)
References
Further reading
AMD Hammer BIOS and Kernel Developer's guide, Chapter 6 (archived from the original on 7 December 2008)
Intel 64 and IA-32 Architectures Developer's Manual, Volume 3C, Chapter 34
Rootkits
X86 operating modes
BIOS
ARM architecture
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49188376
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WALTR
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WALTR
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WALTR direct converter is proprietary software developed by Softorino for converting and transferring music, video, ringtone, and PDF files directly onto Apple iOS devices (iPhone, iPad and iPod touch) with limited support of non-iOS devices (iPod Classic, Nano, Mini and Shuffle).
History
The software was initially released in 2014 as WALTR, providing users to transfer video and audio files from the Mac or Windows computers into iPhone, iPad or iPod Touch with iOS 5 or higher installed. Version 2.0 was released to the public on October 28, 2016.
General Information
With WALTR, media files can be transferred into iPhone or iPad without using Apple’s iTunes software. It takes away the need to use any complex workflows in iTunes or any third party apps in iOS. All files transferred with WALTR are placed into the stock media players preinstalled by Apple on all iOS devices. Using native video and music players utilizes the battery optimization developed by Apple engineers.
Full list of formats supported in WALTR 2:
Audio: m4a, m4b (Audiobooks), mp3, aac, flac, cue, wav, aiff, ape, tta, tak, wv, wma, ogg, oga, dff, dsf
Video: mp4, mkv, avi, m4v, mov, 3gp, flv, mts, ts, mpg, m2v, dv, wmv, webm, rm, rmvb, vob, m2ts
Books: PDF & EPUB
Ringtones: M4R
Subtitles: srt, ass, ssa
The app works on macOS and Windows PC.
Press
WALTR has received press reviews from more than 100 editions, including Forbes USA,
Wired.it,
Gizmodo and FOX6Now.
Similar software
HandBrake
iExplorer
iMazing
Interesting facts
Program was named after Walter White – the character in the American crime-drama TV series Breaking Bad
The application allows you to watch 4K video files on iPhone 6, though developers state that the highest resolution supported by iPhone`s screen is 1080p (iPhone 6 Plus, iPhone 6S Plus). While testing WALTR 1.0.2 for Mac, devs tried to put 4K video from Samsung Smart TV demos into an iPhone. To everyone's surprise, iPhone played it back easily and without any difficulties. Since Apple TV uses chips from the iPhone, it was likely that the next generation of Apple TV is going to support 4K resolution.
See also
Data compression
Ripping
Video codec
Audio codec
References
Further reading
External links
Pinterest Video Downloader
2014 software
Cross-platform software
Proprietary software
IOS software
MacOS multimedia software
Windows multimedia software
Video conversion software
Audio codecs
https://klingeltonekostenlos.de/
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34782738
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric%20Vollmecke
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Eric Vollmecke
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Major General Eric W. Vollmecke is a retired Air Force general. He was the Air National Guard Mobilization Assistant to the Commander, United States Air Forces in Europe/Air Forces Africa. He was formerly the Assistant Adjutant General - Air, West Virginia National Guard, Charleston, West Virginia.
Military career
The West Virginia Air National Guard has over 2,200 members and consists of two flying units, the 130th Airlift Wing in Charleston, West Virginia and the 167th Airlift Wing in Martinsburg, West Virginia. Additionally, he supervises the State Command Staff and advises the Adjutant General on matters relating to the West Virginia Air National Guard. Effective 1 August 2009, General Vollmecke was selected for the dual-hat additional duty as (A5), Assistant to the Director, Air National Guard.
General Vollmecke entered the Air Force as a communications officer where he later served at Headquarters, United States Air Force Staff leading system development initiatives on the Worldwide Military Command and Control System. He has maintained his communications background through his civilian occupation and recently completed the Chief Information Officer Executive Education Program at Oxford University, United Kingdom.
In 1987, he joined the West Virginia Air National Guard and was selected to attend pilot training. Since then, he has risen from C-130 mission pilot through flight commander, squadron commander, director of operations and wing commander to his present position, while also balancing a corporate career. During his tenure as wing commander, he oversaw an enormous program to transform the base and transition its personnel from the tactical to the strategic airlift mission. Highlights of his career include a reserve officer exchange tour, during which he flew operational missions with the Royal Air Force in Africa. General Vollmecke has flown combat missions in Panama, Desert Shield/Storm, Bosnia, Kosovo, Operation Enduring Freedom and Operation Iraqi Freedom. After 11 September 2001, he led the 167th Airlift Wing on two deployments supporting combat operations for Operation Enduring Freedom. During initial stages of Operation Iraqi Freedom, he served as Chief of Staff for the Director of Mobility Forces for United States Central Command in the Combined Air Operations Center. In 2005, he was selected to command the 451st Air Expeditionary Group at Kandahar Airbase, Afghanistan.
In September 2017, he retired from the Air Force.
Civilian occupation and professional affiliations
General Vollmecke serves as the Managing Director for North American Operations for a medical device manufacturer. He is responsible for building the company's partnerships and alliances for new joint ventures throughout the world. Additionally, he leads the company's global research and product development strategy working closely with the company's major manufacturing facilities in Germany and China.
Professional affiliations include membership in the National Guard Association of West Virginia, the National Guard Association of the United States and the Association of Information Technology Professionals.
Personal life
General Vollmecke's younger brother, Kirk Vollmecke, is a Major General in the US Army.
Education
1982 The Citadel, Bachelor of Arts, Mathematics, Charleston, South Carolina
1988 George Washington University, Master of Business Administration, Washington, D.C.
2000 Air War College, by correspondence
2010 George C. Marshall European Center for Security Studies, Senior Executive Seminar, Garmisch, Germany
2011 CAPSTONE General and Flag Officer Course, National Defense University, Fort Lesley J. McNair, Washington, D.C.
Assignments
Nov 1982 – Apr 1983, Student, Computer Systems Development Training, Keesler Air Force Base, Mississippi
Apr 1983 – Apr 1984, Computer Systems Planning Officer, Air Force Data Services Center, The Pentagon, Washington, D.C.
Apr 1984 – Oct 1984, Computer Systems Planning Officer, 1st Information Systems Group, The Pentagon, Washington, D.C.
Oct 1984 – Apr 1985, Command and Control Programming Resources Officer, The Pentagon, Washington, D.C.
Apr 1985 – Aug 1987, Programs and Resources Officer, Headquarters, United States Air Force, The Pentagon, Washington, D.C.
Aug 1987 – Nov 1988, Student, Undergraduate Pilot Training, Reese Air Force Base, Texas
Nov 1988 – Nov 1992, Co-Pilot, C-130, 167th Tactical Airlift Squadron, Martinsburg, West Virginia
Nov 1992 – Nov 1993, Assistant Flight Commander, C-130, 167th Airlift Squadron, Martinsburg, West Virginia
Nov 1994 – Nov 1998, Pilot, C-130, 167th Airlift Squadron, Martinsburg, West Virginia
Nov 1998 – Oct 2002, Commander, 167th Airlift Squadron, Martinsburg, West Virginia
Oct 2002 – Jan 2004, Air Operations Staff Director, Headquarters, West Virginia Air National Guard, Charleston, West Virginia
Jan 2004 – Jan 2005, Commander, 167th Airlift Wing, Martinsburg, West Virginia
Oct 2007 – Oct 2011, Chief of Staff, Headquarters, West Virginia Air National Guard, Charleston, West Virginia
Aug 2009 – Jul 2012, (A5), Assistant to the Director, Air National Guard, Arlington, Virginia
Oct 2011 – Aug 2012, Assistant Adjutant General-Air, West Virginia National Guard, Charleston, West Virginia
Sep 2012 – Present, Air National Guard Assistant to the Commander, United States Air Forces in Europe/Air Forces Africa, Ramstein Air Force Base, Germany
Flight information
Awards and decorations
Effective dates of promotion
References
Brigadier General Eric W. Vollmecke, Official Biography
Living people
The Citadel, The Military College of South Carolina alumni
George Washington University School of Business alumni
Recipients of the Legion of Merit
Recipients of the Air Medal
West Virginia National Guard personnel
United States Air Force generals
National Guard of the United States generals
Year of birth missing (living people)
Recipients of the Meritorious Service Medal (United States)
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34012278
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exact%20%28company%29
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Exact (company)
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Exact is a Dutch software company that offers accounting, ERP, and other software for small and medium enterprises. Exact develops cloud-based and on-premises software for industries such as accountancy, wholesale distribution, professional services and manufacturing, serving more than 500,000 companies.
Exact, founded in 1984, has its headquarters in Delft. It has subsidiaries and offices in Europe, North America and Asia. The company was listed on Euronext until March 2015, when it was bought up by a group of investors led by Apax and in 2019 by investor KKR.
History
Exact was founded in 1984 by Eduard Hagens, Rinus Dekker, Arco van Nieuwland, Paul van Keep, Paul Frijling and Leo Schonk. The six had worked as freelancers for Grote Beer ("Ursa Major"), one of the first Dutch companies to produce standardized accounting software. When Grote Beer fired all of its freelancers, Hagens et al. started their own business. Their Exact Software would later, in 1994, acquire Grote Beer, which at that time had an annual revenue of ƒ100 million,
expanding Exact's customer portfolio to some 60,000 companies.
The former company's name was used as a trade mark until 2000.
Business
Internationally, Exact grew by acquiring Belgian firms Cobul and Cubic (17,000 customers) in 1989. The opening of offices in the United Kingdom and Russia meant that, as of 1995, 20% of Exact's revenue came from abroad.
Expansion into the German market soon followed with the acquisition of Pcas, Bavaria Soft, Szymaniak (1997) and finally Soft Research (1999), German market leader in salary software.
In the 2000s, Exact acquired US manufacturing ERP software providers Macola, JobBOSS and MAX. In 2007, Exact purchased Longview Solutions for US$51.5 million. Longview Solutions got sold off to Marlin Equity Partners in July 2014 for an undisclosed amount of money.
The mid-2000s saw Exact embroiled in internal power struggles. In 2004, founder Eduard Hagens returned from ten months of sailing round the world, to find his company reorganized in a decentralized way that did not suit his vision of how Exact should be led. Hagens clashed with CEO Lucas Brentjens and CFO Bert Groenewegen, leading to the resignation in September and October of that year of Brentjens, Groenewegen, and subsequently the company's entire board of directors. Hagens's "coup" (as de Volkskrant put it) caused a staff drain within the company. The following April, after the resignation of the company's new CFO, Hagens announced his own departure. He was succeeded by Rajesh Patel.
In October 2014, Exact announced a buy-out by Apax Partners. That acquisition was completed in April, 2015 for a sum of €730 million. The acquisition meant that Exact was de-listed from the Euronext stock exchange, on which it had been listed since 1999.
Exact was the personal sponsor of Dutch Formula 1 driver Max Verstappen from 2015 until late 2019.
In 2017, Exact acquired the French software vendor Dièse Finance and later the administration software company Reeleezee in the Netherlands. Later that year, Exact sold their American division including Macola, JobBOSS and MAX to ECi Software Solutions. By then, Phill Robinson was announced as Exact's CEO.
In 2018, Exact acquired four Dutch companies: Parentix, ProQuro, SRXP and Brixxs.
Exact expanded its presence to the construction sector in the spring of 2019 with the takeover of bouw7; a leading Dutch supplier of cloud software for SMEs in the construction sector.
In 2019, Exact also added the Belgian WinBooks to the organization. WinBooks is a software company specialized in accounting and business management solutions. With the acquisition of WinBooks, The Dutch software company increased its presence in Wallonia and Brussels.
In the autumn of 2020, Exact announced both the acquisition of the Belgian HR software supplier Officient and the acquisition of Unit4 Bedrijfssoftware, the business unit of Unit4 that serves the accountancy, SME and large business markets in the Netherlands and Belgium.
Leadership
In 2019, Robinson announces he suffers from chronic neurological Parkinson's disease. He then continued to work as CEO, but given the further progression of the symptoms associated with the disorder, Robinson took the decision at the end of 2020 to step back and join the supervisory board as non-executive director.
Robinson's successor is Paul Ramakers. Until now, the new CEO, was COO at Exact. Ramakers has been with the company for 25 years and has held various positions over the years.
Products
Exact's rise to market leadership was mostly based on its MS-DOS-based accounting package, also called Exact. The company also launched a Windows version of this package, but this was heavily criticized because it never attained the full functionality of the DOS version, leading many companies to stay with the DOS software into the late 1990s.
The Exact package was replaced March 30, 2000 with a new product, Globe 2000. This Windows NT-based product was designed around a modular architecture dubbed "One-X" that underpinned all of Exact's offerings. Criticism of this software focused on the fact that the One-X architecture was incompatible with the older Exact software, and that it was tied to Microsoft SQL Server, which was considered too heavy of a database management system for the small computers typically used at Exact's small and medium enterprise customers.
In 2005 Exact Online was launched, the company's effort to bring Exact software to the cloud. With this product, Exact initially targeted only the Benelux countries, until in May 2010 it announced a joint venture with Turkish software developer Triodor to market its product in Turkey as an experiment. The trial ended later that year, with Exact citing a lack of results and announcing a sole focus on its Dutch and Belgian markets.
In 2011 a more extensive version of Exact Online was launched; the focus broadened from accountancy software only to an industry ERP solution. In 2018, Exact Online was expanded with the collaboration tool Exact My[Firm].
Other products of Exact are:
Exact Synergy, for CRM, HRM, DMS and workflow
Exact Financials, financial software for non-profits and enterprises with a large transaction volume.
See also
Baan Corporation
References
External links
Software companies of the Netherlands
Companies based in South Holland
Dutch brands
ERP software companies
Software companies established in 1984
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64272344
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palika%20Kendra
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Palika Kendra
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The Palika Kendra is a 21-story building on Sansad Marg, New Delhi, India. Designed by Kuldip Singh and Mahendra Raj, it is among the few structures in Delhi that feature Brutalist architecture. After its inauguration in 1984 with a height of , it remained one of the tallest buildings in Delhi for years. It serves as the headquarters of the New Delhi Municipal Council and hosts the main server and the command and control centre of the civic body.
The Palika Kendra is among 62 buildings and structures that the Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage is trying to get designated as modern heritages of the post-independent India. On the 150th birth anniversary of Mahatma Gandhi on 31 January 2019, the Vice President of India, Venkaiah Naidu, inaugurated a grand wall mural of Gandhi made up of terracotta kulhars on a wall of the building.
Construction
The plot where the Palika Kendra stands used to host a tin shed that contained a small makeshift cinema hall for the entertainment of construction workers, who had been employed for developing and building the new capital of the British Raj. In the early 1930s, a building was inaugurated at this site for hosting the town hall of the New Delhi Municipal Committee. The town hall was demolished in the 1970s to make room for the new headquarters of the civic body. The Palika Kendra was designed by two renowned architects of India, Kuldip Singh and Mahendra Raj.
Inaugurated in 1984, the Palika Kendra remains one of the few structures in India that features the Brutalist architecture style. There are 23 buildings from India that are included in the Atlas of Brutalist Architecture—a "comprehensive volume" documenting this architectural style from across the world. With a height of , it remained one of the tallest buildings in Delhi for many years after its construction.
NDMC Headquarters
The Palika Kendra is situated at Sansad Marg, New Delhi, and houses the headquarters of the New Delhi Municipal Council (NDMC). It is the tallest building owned by the NDMC. The main server and the command and control centre of the civic body are also located in the building. Public places under the jurisdiction of the NDMC, where video surveillance cameras are installed, are monitored from the command and control centre by computer professionals and Delhi Police personnel.
During the COVID-19 pandemic in India, in May 2020, the headquarters was sealed for two days to be sanitised and disinfected after nine NDMC employees were found to be infected with the coronavirus.
Modern heritage
The Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage (INTACH) approached the Heritage Conservation Committee (HCC) of the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs in 2013 to designate 62 buildings and structures in Delhi—including the Palika Kendra—as "modern heritage", which would bring them under the protection of the Delhi Building Bylaws, 1983. These buildings had been constructed in Delhi after 1947 and are considered contemporary architectural heritages by different organisations, including the INTACH. Though the committee agreed with the proposal, it did not take any action on it for years. This attracted criticism from the High Court of Delhi in 2016, when the court heard a petition filed by the Delhi chapter of the INTACH related to the responsibilities of the HCC and the Delhi Urban Art Commission in providing protection to post-independence modern architectural heritages.
Mural of Mahatma Gandhi
A grand mural depicting Mahatma Gandhi made up of terracotta kulhars on a wall of the building was unveiled by the Vice President of India, Venkaiah Naidu, in the presence of Union Minister Giriraj Singh and the Member of Parliament from New Delhi, Meenakshi Lekhi, during the celebration of the Gandhi Jayanti on 31 January 2019. The mural was designed to pay tribute to Gandhi on his 150th birth anniversary. A total of 3,870 kulhars, made by 150 potters from a mixture of soil collected from different parts of the country, were used in constructing this mural.
References
Government buildings in Delhi
Office buildings in India
Local government in Delhi
Municipal buildings in India
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